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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herostratus%20%28film%29
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Herostratus (film)
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Herostratus is a 1967 drama film directed and produced by Don Levy, with the assistance of James Quinn. The film follows a young poet named Max (Michael Gothard), who out of ennui and a desire for fame arranges with the marketer Farson (Peter Stephens) to commit suicide in public. Farson agrees to turn his suicide into a high-profile media spectacle, and introduces him to Clio (Gabriella Licudi), an attractive woman who aids him in his goals. The film also stars Antony Paul and Mona Hammond (credited as Mona Chin), as well as Helen Mirren in her first credited film role.
The film's initial release was limited to film festivals and art house cinemas in Europe, and it did not have a wider cinematic release. In 2009 the film was re-released by the British Film Institute as part of the BFI Flipside series. Both initial reception of the film and the reception at the time of its re-release were heavily mixed, and while many critics had more favourable responses to the film, the public response was generally more negative.
The film critiques consumerism and the advertising industry of the time, whilst also featuring themes of death, urbanization, and the growing countercultural movement of the time. Levy used a number of unorthodox directing techniques in the creation of the film with the aim of heightening the film's emotional impact, some of which greatly distressed other members of the film crew.
Synopsis
Herostratus is told in an experimental style, with significant cuts between the loosely followed plot and other sequences. These scenes are often used to provide a context or insight into the character's emotions, or insight into Levy's more direct thematic messages. The film extensively features poetry readings by Allen Ginsberg, footage of cattle being slaughtered and processed, and a recurrent striptease scene intercut with the interactions between Max, Farson, and Clio. It additionally contains footage from a number of historical events, most representing the impacts of World War II or the post-war urban decay in London. Levy's wife, Ines Levy, also plays an imposing figure in black leather who appears in a number of these scenes.
The film opens with scenes of Max dressed in all white and sprinting through the streets of London. He returns home to a run-down, one-room apartment and begins playing classical music over a speaker, at a volume that causes the landlady to bang on his door and demand him to stop disrupting the other people living in the apartments. Eventually Max stops the music and picks up an axe, using it to destroy the furnishing and the decorations in the room in a manic rage. After destroying his room, Max storms out of the building and into the streets.
Still brandishing the axe and threatening a number of passers-by as he walks through the streets to reach offices for "Farson Advertising". Here he meets Clio, who is acting as a receptionist for Farson, and declares to her that he has the greatest advertising opportunity in the world. Clio does not agree to let Max in and so he continues to harass her, eventually grabbing a phone from her desk and calling Farson directly.
Upon meeting Farson, Max declares his intent to commit suicide and offers to give him complete directive control of the event in any way that he likes, provided as many people as possible witness Max's death. Farson initially rejects this idea, however he eventually accepts the proposition as Max continues to harass both Farson and Clio. Upon coming to an agreement Farson organises a room for Max to stay in until the day where he will commit suicide, and orders a cab to take Max there.
A number of scenes are then presented, not necessarily in chronological order and all happening at unspecified points in time after Max meets with Farson, but before the date at which Max will kill himself.
An unnamed woman (Helen Mirren) performs a burlesque dance that is revealed as it progresses to be an advertisement for a brand of rubber washing gloves. The advertisement is then disrupted by Max running on-stage, where he picks up the unnamed woman and runs off-stage with her to the protests of both her and the film crew.
Farson introduces Max to Pointer (Antony Paul), who Farson indicates will be controlling Max's public image in the lead up to his suicide. Farson and Pointer then discuss the image that they want to convey with Max, and highlight that they want Max's suicide to have some sort of purpose or grand message. Max is greatly upset by this discussion, and argues that he does not want to take part in constructing any special image or conveying and particular message with his suicide. He also expresses disgust for the level of control that Farson and Pointer are trying to have over his life. Farson reminds Max that he is contractually obliged to go through with his suicide, and that up until that point he had promised them that he would do whatever they want.
Max is shown watching a news report on the television discussing him and his suicide attempts. The news reporter says that they don't think it is very likely anyone will be interested in Max's suicide, or that anyone will turn up to see it. Upon hearing this Max destroys the television in a fit of rage, using the same axe from the beginning of the film.
Max is filming an advertisement for TV where he declares his intent to commit suicide and then stops, refusing to read any more of the script that Pointer has prepared for him. With Max's refusal, Pointer takes the script and reads it instead to the camera. The script announces that Max's suicide is not intended to get people to change their way of living, and that instead it is a warning to be careful for people who are trying to change the common way of life. Max is greatly upset by this speech and its nationalist themes and storms out of the film studio.
The night before Max is set to kill himself, Clio arrives in his room late at night. They discuss Max's upcoming suicide, and Clio expressed her empathy for Max. Max admits to her that he mainly wants to commit suicide because he does not feel that anyone has ever noticed him or cared about him, and that by committing suicide he will be able to command the attention and care of the general public who will want him to stop. Clio again expresses her empathy and care for Max, and the two have sex. Afterwards Max expresses his desire to look after Clio and protect her and tells her that he is feeling much happier with his place in life. They fall asleep together, however Clio wakes up during the night crying and leaves the room. As she leaves she comes across Farson who has been watching the two of them, and he asks her how the evening had gone.
Max is awoken in the morning by Farson, and demonstrates a renewed enthusiasm for life. He tells Farson that he does not want to kill himself, and that he is very happy with his situation. Farson berates him for this decision, stating that Max had never achieved anything meaningful with his life and that going through with his suicide would be his only chance to achieve something. Farson then reveals that he paid Clio to visit Max the night before to comfort him and sleep with him. Upon hearing this, Max is overcome with anguish and flees the building.
Max runs to the rooftop of the building where Farson and Pointer decided that he would commit suicide. On the rooftop Max begins shouting into the megaphone to the ground below, and although there are no people on the ground at the time he does draw the attention of a worker who was also on top of the building. As Max prepares to jump from the roof the worker pulls him away from the edge, and attempts to wrestle him to the ground. The two fight and in the scuffle Max knocks the worker off the edge of the building. After knocking the worker off the building Max runs to the ground floor where he sees the worker's dead body and sees only one other person who has noticed the death of the worker. Realising that no one would have cared if he had committed suicide instead he flees the scene, distraught. As Max runs it is revealed that the scene of him running at the beginning of the film was the same scene as this one at the end of the film, bringing a cyclical end to his story.
At the same time Clio runs from Farson, distraught since she believes that her actions have led to Max killing himself. As Farson catches up to her she berates him for what he has done, and after Farson admits that he has been motivated by his love for Clio she commands him to apologise to her on his knees. Farson does, however this does not help Clio feel any better and she breaks down into tears. Clio is then shown distraught and alone. She cries out that she wants to get out from her situation and an unknown voice from off-screen replies that she can get out, and she is choosing not to.
Cast
Michael Gothard as Max
Gabriella Licudi as Clio
Antony Paul as Pointer
Peter Stephens as Farson
Mona Hammond as Sandy
Some of the film's unnamed characters are played by Hilda Marvin, Brigitte St. John, Malcolm Muggeridge, Vivienne Myles and (a then-unknown) Helen Mirren in her first credited film role.
Production
Don Levy was inspired by the Greek legend of Herostratus, and developed the idea for the film in 1962 from this legend and a story written by Alan Daiches whilst a post-graduate student at the Slade School of Fine Art under the supervision of Thorold Dickinson. He presented his initial draft to the British Film Institute's Experimental Film Fund in attempt to gain funding for the film and was rejected, with the chairman of the fund, Michael Balcon, writing in a letter to its secretary that the film was "a project for a somewhat adventurous commercial company" and expressing "bewilderment" at the film's script. As well as this, in his initial proposal Levy requested £3,235 to produce a 60-80-minute film. The committee in charge of funding did not believe that Levy would be able to produce a film of that size on such a small budget, and also stated that such a sum would take up a significant portion of the fund's available resources. However, in a series of letters to both Balcon and the fund's secretary Stevenson, film director and critic Basil Wright provided significant support for the film and its script which led to the Experimental Film Fund providing £1500 for the film's production.
Levy received further funding from the then Controller of Television Programmes for the BBC, Huw Wheldon, who provided an additional contribution of £1500, and £1500 more from James Quinn who overshot Levy's budget forecast to ensure that the film could be made in colour. This whole process took two years, and by 1964 the cost of production had risen to the extent that Levy had to rely on gifted and loaned equipment from the production crew as well as others in the film industry to keep the film within budget.
Pre-production
In casting for the film Levy spent a considerable amount of time running potential actors through improvisational auditions, and eventually selected Michael Gothard, Gabriella Licudi and Peter Stephens for the lead roles. These improvisational auditions were an attempt by Levy to heighten the emotional reality presented by the film, and through the film he attempts to use this improvisational acting to distinctly induce specific feelings and emotions in the audience. Although he had developed a script for the film, the actors were never given a copy or any other specific directions.
Production/Filming
Throughout the filming Levy directed the characterisation and dialogue through what he described as "a very complicated process of improvisation and recall", with the goal of "enveloping the characters of the play". He used these techniques in an attempt to bring forwards the subconscious feelings of the actors and create a heightened emotional state in them that extended to the audience, in a process he described as a form of "experimental psychology". Alongside the actors he chose and the directorial decisions he made, Levy chose to shoot the majority of the film on location in London, utilising the urban environment with the belief that it would further enhance the emotional impact of the film. Filming started on 20 August in 1964, and took only eight months ending in April 1965.
Post-production
The film contains a number of montages and disjointed cuts as well two recurrent intercut sequences, one of a striptease and another of a cow being slaughtered, that are repeated five and eight times respectively through the film. These scenes provide the most prominent examples of Levy's editing style, which he utilised to convey thematic meaning and provide distinct emotional contexts to the audience. The film is also edited in a non-linear fashion with flash-forward sequences and sequences with no distinct timeline interwoven in the narrative of the film. Levy and cinematographer Keith Allans also worked heavily on the colour of the film, with almost all the film's scenes containing some form of colour correction or change in exposure. In an interview before the release of the film Levy stated that "The colour is very closely controlled and tied to the film’s emotional forces". The film was first screened publicly on 3 May 1968 having taken a total of six years to develop from the initial scripting.
Themes
Emotion
Levy was particularly interested with the audience's experience of films emotionally rather than the experience of a coherent narrative, and also wanted to break the barrier between the film and its audience with the intent to produce an "alienation effect". While at Slade he wrote that he wished to "investigate the problems of perception, memory, time-sense and emotion associated with the techniques of the film medium", and throughout Herostratus the composition of many scenes rests on their emotional impact rather than any pervasive symbolic meaning. In his essay "You CAN get out: Herostratus Now" critic Amnon Buchbinder discusses the recurrent slaughterhouse and striptease scenes as one example of the film's emotional purpose, and asserts that these scenes do not convey distinct symbolic meaning. To Buchbinder the combination of these sequences is intended to convey the experiences of desire and disgust to the audience, through the juxtaposition of visceral scenes of both "The rending of flesh and the revealing of flesh".
Key to reinforcing the emotional impact of the film was Levy's directing of the actors, specifically what he referred to in his notes for the film as a "special form of improvisation... exploiting the subconscious". Although the specifics of this technique are not known, Levy discussed aspects of his directorial techniques in an interview before the release of the film. Levy highlighted that none of the actors were provided scripts for the scenes, and that the directorial techniques that were being used led to some of the actors being in a seemingly hypnotic state during filming. Critic Stuart Heaney states that this style of directing is an attempt to heighten the emotional reality of the film by removing the boundaries between the director and the actors, and also impacting the boundaries between the actors and the audience. Buchbinder presents a similar view of the film, stating that "Levy's actors are surrogates for the audience" and further proposing that "the film's method is to traumatise its audience, and then cauterise the wound with beauty".
Other aspects of the film's editing are also designed specifically to develop an emotional impact. The film features a number of extended single shot scenes, and long black spacing between some cuts, which were included by Levy and the film's cinematographer Keith Allans in a further attempt to control the emotional impact of the film. These extended shots and black spacing were inspired by the concept of "rhythm" in the editing of films, and Levy's interest in how the rhythm of shots and the space between them can directly influence an audience's emotional response to a film. As well as this other aspects such as the colours of individual scenes, and the film's non-linear storyline have been identified as working to highlight the emotional impact of the film.
Advertising and Consumerism
One of the central themes of the film is a criticism of consumerism and the advertising industry of the time. Max is overtly manipulated by Farson's advertising agency throughout the film, and his attempts to subvert this control are all thwarted due to the immense power that the agency holds over him. May describes this plot structure as "a weighty token of retaliation against 1960's materialism". In her essay "Colour and the Critique of Advertising," Sarah Street discusses how Herostratus employs many techniques that were commonly used in advertising at the time, especially manipulation of colour and gloss, to highlight the constructed falsehoods of advertisements. Street writes that Herostratus uses colour "to expose and exploit [advertising] conventions: how saturation, light and texture indicate superficiality not depth in advertising contexts." while also highlighting the immense power that these kinds of techniques can have "in terms of their unambiguous, persuasive messaging".
Street highlights the scene where Max stumbles onto the set of a rubber glove advertisement as one example of the overt criticism of advertising present in the film. Throughout the scene the sexualisation of the mundane consumer goods overtly mirrors advertisements from the 1960s, and Street argues that this sexualisation only becomes noticeable since the audience is viewing the scene through Max's "outsider" perspective in the advertising agency. The overtly manipulated colour scheme of this scene, a motif used recurrently throughout the film, also contributes to highlighting the artificial nature of advertisements and simultaneously impacts the audience's emotional reception of the scene. Throughout the film, similar scenes and repeated motifs like the manipulation of colour continue to symbolise and represent the constructed nature of advertising to the audience, and highlight what Street described as Levy's "profound distrust" of the advertising industry.
Release
The film was initially released at a screening at the Institute of Contemporary Arts, London, in 1968, and was then screened at a number of festivals across Europe through the rest of the year. Apart from showings in minor independent cinemas throughout Europe the film had no widespread release until 2009, when it was released on DVD by the British Film Institute's Flipside strand alongside a number of Levy's other smaller films.
The initial screening of the film was well received by the limited audience at the Institute of Contemporary Arts, however due to the limited release reviews from the original screenings are mostly limited to those of film critics. In a review for The Monthly Film Bulletin, Jan Dawson describes Herostratus as a "passionate, exhausting, and disturbing film", and specifically criticises the film's emotional impact as being "more often the result of physical assault than artistic subtlety" although she does praise the film's cinematography. Other reviews of the film from its original release are more favourable. A review in The Boston Globe describes it as "a joy to see", and "beautifully crafted in terms of precision and skill", and while one from the Los Angeles Times does criticise the film's "long 145-minute" runtime as "a taxing workout" it also praises Levy's "utterly inspired, exhaustive use of the camera's resources to allow us to experience the emotions of his tortured hero". A review in 1968 for The Sydney Morning Herald titled "Dr. Levy Shakes Up the Critics" describes many critics having strongly divided opinions on the film, and ultimately concludes that ""Herostratus" is strictly a festival film".
Upon the film's re-release a number of critics favourably reflected upon the film and its place as an influence and inspiration for many other, more widely known, films. Critic Amnon Buchbinder describes the film as being "pillaged for ideas by several films shot after it but released before it – not to mention many others made subsequently", while other reviews from the film's release also suggest that scenes from prominent films such as A Clockwork Orange were inspired by Herostratus.
Modern critics have also criticised the film's treatment and portrayal of women, and highlighted misogynistic undercurrents to the film's narrative. J. J. May, in his analysis of the film, highlights that nearly all the female characters in the film are portrayed as sex-workers of some kind and criticises the "free-floating misogyny" in the film's treatment of these characters. He particularly discusses Clio, and argues that unlike Farson whose actions are forgiven as a product of his social structure, Clio is "held up as responsible for not only Max's undoing, but her own too". In her review of the film Amy Taubin similarly criticises the film's "unexamined, rampant misogyny", and in particular the way in which the film's female characters are often characterised as "one demonically seductive presence".
References
External links
"In the beginning was the image: The films of Don Levy and Peter Whitehead". Norwich Cinema City (Norwich), September 2004.
Herostratus British Film Institute
Herostratus at the National Film and Sound Archive
1967 films
1967 drama films
Australian drama films
British drama films
1960s English-language films
1960s British films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary-screw%20compressor
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Rotary-screw compressor
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A rotary-screw compressor is a type of gas compressor, such as an air compressor, that uses a rotary-type positive-displacement mechanism. These compressors are common in industrial applications and replace more traditional piston compressors where larger volumes of compressed gas are needed, e.g. for large refrigeration cycles such as chillers, or for compressed air systems to operate air-driven tools such as jackhammers and impact wrenches. For smaller rotor sizes the inherent leakage in the rotors becomes much more significant, leading to this type of mechanism being less suitable for smaller compressors than piston compressors.
The screw compressor is identical to the screw pump except that the pockets of trapped material get progressively smaller along the screw, thus compressing the material held within the pockets. Thus the screw of a screw compressor is asymmetrical along its length, while a screw pump is symmetrical all the way.
The gas compression process of a rotary screw is a continuous sweeping motion, so there is very little pulsation or surging of flow, as occurs with piston compressors. This also allows screw compressors to be significantly quieter and produce much less vibration than piston compressors, even at large sizes, and produces some benefits in efficiency.
Working
Rotary-screw compressors use two very closely meshing spiral rotors to compress the gas. In a dry-running rotary-screw compressor, timing gears ensure that the male and female rotors maintain precise alignment without contact which would produce rapid wear. In an oil-flooded rotary-screw compressor, lubricating oil bridges the space between the rotors, both providing a hydraulic seal and transferring mechanical energy between the rotors, allowing one rotor to be entirely driven by the other.
Gas enters at the suction side and moves through the threads as the screws rotate. The meshing rotors force the gas through the compressor, and the gas exits at the end of the screws. The working area is the inter-lobe volume between the male and female rotors. It is larger at the intake end, and decreases along the length of the rotors until the exhaust port. This change in volume is the compression.
The intake charge is drawn in at the end of the rotors in the large clearance between the male and female lobes. At the intake end the male lobe is much smaller than its female counterpart, but the relative sizes reverse proportions along the lengths of both rotors (the male becomes larger and the female smaller) until (tangential to the discharge port) the clearance space between each pair of lobes is much smaller. This reduction in volume causes compression of the charge before being presented to the output manifold.
The effectiveness of this mechanism is dependent on precisely fitting clearances between the spiral rotors and between the rotors and the chamber for sealing of the compression cavities. However, some leakage is inevitable, and high rotational speeds must be used to minimize the ratio of leakage flow rate over effective flow rate.
In contrast to Roots blowers, modern screw compressors are made with different profiles on the two rotors: the male rotor has convex lobes which mesh with the concave cavities of the female rotor. Usually the male rotor has fewer lobes than the female rotor, so that it rotates faster. Originally, screw compressors were made with symmetrical rotor cavity profiles, but modern versions use asymmetrical rotors, with the exact rotor designs being the subject of patents.
Size
The capacities of rotary-screw compressors are typically rated in horsepower (HP), Standard Cubic Feet per Minute (SCFM)* and pounds per square inch gauge (PSIG.) For units in the 5 through 30 HP range the physical size of these units are comparable to a typical two-stage compressor. As horsepower increases, there is a substantial economy of scale in favor of the rotary-screw compressors. As an example, a 250 HP compound compressor is a large piece of equipment that generally requires a special foundation, building accommodations and highly trained riggers to place the equipment. On the other hand, a 250 HP rotary-screw compressor can be placed on an ordinary shop floor using a standard forklift. Within industry, a 250 HP rotary-screw compressor is generally considered to be a compact piece of equipment.
Rotary-screw compressors are commonly available in the 5 through 500 HP range and can produce air flows in excess of 2500 SCFM. While the pressure produced by a single-stage screw compressor is limited to 250 PSIG, a two-stage screw compressor can deliver pressures of up to 600 PSIG.
Rotary-screw compressors tend to be smooth running with limited vibration, thus not requiring a specialized foundation or mounting system. Normally, rotary-screw compressors are mounted using standard rubber isolation mounts designed to absorb high-frequency vibrations. This is especially true in rotary-screw compressors that operate at high rotational speeds.
*To a lesser extent, some compressors are rated in Actual Cubic Feet per Minute (ACFM). Still others are rated in Cubic Feet per Minute (CFM). Using CFM to rate a compressor is incorrect because it represents a flow rate that is independent of a pressure reference. i.e. 20 CFM at 60 PSI.
History
The screw compressor was first patented in 1878 by Heinrich Krigar in Germany, however the patent expired without a working machine being built.
The modern helical lobe screw compressor was developed in Sweden by Alf Lysholm who was the chief engineer at Ljungstroms Angturbin. Lysholm developed the screw compressor while looking for a way to overcome compressor surge in gas turbines. Lysholm first considered a roots type blower but found this was unable to generate a high enough pressure ratio. In 1935, Ljungstroms patented a helical lobe screw compressor which was then widely licensed to other manufacturers. Ljungstroms Angturbin AB was renamed Svenska Rotor Maskiner (SRM) in 1951.
In 1952, the first Holroyd cutting machine was used, by the Scottish engineering company Howden, to produce helical lobe compressor rotors greatly reducing both cost and manufacturing time.
In 1954, Howden and SRM jointly developed the first oil flooded screw compressor. Flooding provided both cooling, which allowed higher pressure ratios, and the elimination of timing gears. The first commercially available flooded screw air compressor was introduced in 1957 by Atlas Copco.
Slot valves were developed by SRM in the 1950s, allowing for improvements in capacity control which had been a limiting factor for screw compressor application.
Asymmetric rotors were first patented by SRM and subsequently introduced commercially by Sullair in 1969. The introduction of asymmetric rotors improved sealing, further increasing the types efficiency.
Applications
Rotary-screw compressors are generally used to supply compressed air for larger industrial applications. They are best applied in applications that have a continuous air demand such as food packaging plants and automated manufacturing systems although a large enough number of intermittent demands, along with some storage, will also present a suitably continuous load. In addition to fixed units, rotary-screw compressors are commonly mounted on tow-behind trailers and powered with small diesel engines. These portable compression systems are typically referred to as construction compressors. Construction compressors are used to provide compressed air to jack hammers, riveting tools, pneumatic pumps, sand blasting operations and industrial paint systems. They are commonly seen at construction sites and on duty with road repair crews throughout the world.
Screw air compressors are also commonly used on Rotary, DTH and RC drill rigs used in mining production and exploration drilling applications and in oil and gas pipeline services such as pneumatic testing or air pigging.
Oil-free
In an oil-free compressor, the air is compressed entirely through the action of the screws, without the assistance of an oil seal. They usually have lower maximal discharge pressure capability as a result. However, multi-stage oil-free compressors, where the air is compressed by several sets of screws, can achieve pressures of over and output volume of over .
Oil-free compressors are used in applications where entrained oil carry-over is not acceptable, such as medical research and semiconductor manufacturing. However, this does not preclude the need for filtration, as hydrocarbons and other contaminants ingested from the ambient air must also be removed prior to the point of use. Consequently, air treatment identical to that used for an oil-flooded screw compressor is frequently required to ensure quality compressed air.
In small piston compressors carpenters homeowners sometimes use "oil free" compressors in which oil free is a reference to not using oil but Teflon type of coatings permanently adhered to wear surfaces.
Oil-injected
In an oil-injected rotary-screw compressor, oil is injected into the compression cavities to aid sealing and provide cooling for the gas charge. The oil is separated from the discharge stream, cooled, filtered and recycled. The oil captures non-polar particulates from the incoming air, effectively reducing the particle loading of compressed-air particulate filtration. It is usual for some entrained compressor oil to carry into the compressed-gas stream downstream of the compressor. In many applications, this is rectified by coalescer/filter vessels. Refrigerated compressed air dryers with internal cold coalescing filters are rated to remove more oil and water than coalescing filters that are downstream of air dryers, because after the air is cooled and the moisture is removed, the cold air is used to pre-cool the hot entering air, which warms the exiting air. In other applications, this is rectified by the use of receiver tanks that reduce the local velocity of compressed air, allowing oil to condense, drop out of the air stream, and to be removed from the compressed-air system by condensate-management equipment.
Oil flooded screw compressors are used in a wide variety of applications including air compression, gas refrigeration, hydrocarbon processing and power utilization from low-grade heat sources. Sizes range from small workshop air compressors to heavy industrial compressors with output pressures as high as . New oil flooded screw air compressors release <5 mg/m3 of oil carryover.
Lubricants, polyalkylene glycol (PAG), polyalphaolefin (PAO), mineral oils
PAG oil is polyalkylene glycol which is also called polyglycol. PAG oil burns off cleanly, leaving no residue, and have been used as a carrier oil for solid lubricants for high-temperature chain lubrication. Some versions are food grade and biodegradable. PAG lubricants are used by the two largest U.S. air compressor OEMs in rotary screw air compressors. PAG oil-injected compressors are not used to spray paint, because PAG oil dissolve paints. Reaction-hardening two-component epoxy resin paints are resistant to PAG oil.
Polyglycols are not compatible with mineral oil based greases. A mixture of polyglycols with mineral oils results is a gelatinous, gooey mess. Silicon grease does tolerate Polyglycols. One pneumatic controls manufacturer puts silicon grease on the seals and gaskets.
Mineral oil (but not polyalkylene glycol oil) lubricated compressors are recommended for mineral oil greases coated seals, such as pneumatic high speed 4-way valves and air cylinders that operate without mineral oiler lubricators. One manufacturer has rated its pneumatic high speed 4-way valves with a life of 50 million cycles, if not exposed to polyglycol oils.
Polyalphaolefin PAO oil is compatible with mineral oil greases.
Conical screw compressor
The relatively recently developed conical screw compressor is in effect a conical spiral extension of a gerotor. It does not have the inherent "blow-hole" leakage path which, in well designed screw compressors, is responsible for significant leakage through the assembly. This allows much smaller rotors to have practical efficiency since at smaller sizes the leakage area does not become as large a portion of the pumping area as in straight screw compressors. In conjunction with the decreasing diameter of the cone shaped rotor this also allows much higher compression ratios in a single stage with lower output pulsation.
Control schemes
Among rotary-screw compressors, there are multiple control schemes, each with differing advantages and disadvantages.
Start/stop
In a start/stop control scheme, compressor controls actuate relays to apply and remove power to the motor according to compressed air needs. Significant storage is required in most usage cases if the load is intermittent or is poorly matched to the compressor, the storage required will often be larger than the compressor itself.
Load/unload
In a load/unload control scheme, the compressor remains continuously powered. However, when the demand for compressed air is satisfied or reduced, instead of disconnecting power to the compressor, a device known as a slide valve is activated. This device uncovers part of the rotor and proportionately reduces capacity of the machine down to typically 25% of the compressor's capability, thereby unloading the compressor. This reduces the number of start/stop cycles for electric motors over a start/stop control scheme in electrically-driven compressors, improving equipment service life with a minimal change in operating cost. When a load/unload control scheme is combined with a timer to stop the compressor after a predetermined period of continuously unloaded operation, it is known as a dual-control or auto-dual scheme. This control scheme still requires storage since there are only two production rates available to match consumption, although significantly less than a start/stop scheme.
Modulation
Instead of starting and stopping the compressor, a slide valve as described above continuously modulates capacity to the demand rather than being controlled in steps. While this yields a consistent discharge pressure over a wide range of demand, overall power consumption may be higher than with a load/unload scheme, resulting in approximately 70% of full-load power consumption when the compressor is at a zero-load condition.
Due to the limited adjustment in compressor power consumption relative to compressed-air output capacity, modulation is a generally inefficient method of control when compared to variable-speed drives. However, for applications where it is not readily possible to frequently cease and resume operation of the compressor (such as when a compressor is driven by an internal-combustion engine and operated without the presence of a compressed-air receiver), modulation is suitable. The continuously variable production rate also eliminates the need for significant storage if the load never exceeds the compressor capacity.
Variable displacement
Utilized by compressor companies Quincy Compressor, Kobelco, Gardner Denver, Kaishan USA, and Sullair, variable displacement alters the percentage of the screw compressor rotors working to compress air by allowing air flow to bypass portions of the screws. While this does reduce power consumption when compared to a modulation control scheme, a load/unload system can be more effective with large amounts of storage (10 gallons per CFM). If a large amount of storage is not practical, a variable-displacement system can be very effective, especially at greater than 70% of full load.
One way that variable displacement may be accomplished is by using multiple lifting valves on the suction side of the compressor, each plumbed to a corresponding location on the discharge. In automotive superchargers, this is analogous to the operation of a bypass valve.
Variable speed
While an air compressor powered by a variable-speed drive can offer the lowest operating-energy cost without any appreciable reduction in service life over a properly maintained load/unload compressor, the variable-frequency power inverter of a variable-speed drive typically adds significant cost to the design of such a compressor, reducing its economic benefits over a properly sized load/unload compressor if air demand is constant. However, a variable-speed drive provides for a nearly linear relationship between compressor power consumption and free air delivery allowing the most efficient operation over a very wide range of air demand. The compressor will still have to enter start/stop mode for very low demand as efficiency still drops off rapidly at low production rates due to rotor leakage. In harsh environments (hot, humid or dusty) the electronics of variable-speed drives may have to be protected to retain expected service life.
Superchargers
The twin-screw type supercharger is a positive displacement type device that operates by pushing air through a pair of meshing close-tolerance screws similar to a set of worm gears. Twin-screw superchargers are also known as Lysholm superchargers (or compressors) after their inventor, Alf Lysholm.
Each rotor is radially symmetrical, but laterally asymmetric. By comparison, conventional "Roots" type blowers have either identical rotors (with straight rotors) or mirror-image rotors (with helixed rotors).
The Whipple-manufactured male rotor has three lobes, the female five lobes. The Kenne-Bell male rotor has four lobes, the female six lobes. Females in some earlier designs had four. By comparison, Roots blowers always have the same number of lobes on both rotors, typically 2, 3 or 4.
Comparative advantages
The rotary screw compressor has low leakage levels and low parasitic losses vs. Roots type. The supercharger is typically driven directly from the engine's crankshaft via a belt or gear drive. Unlike the Roots type supercharger, the twin-screw exhibits internal compression which is the ability of the device to compress air within the housing as it is moved through the device instead of relying upon resistance to flow downstream of the discharge to establish an increase of pressure.
The requirement of high-precision computer-controlled manufacturing techniques makes the screw type supercharger a more expensive alternative to other forms of available forced induction. With later technology, manufacturing cost has been lowered while performance increased.
All supercharger types benefit from the use of an intercooler to reduce heat produced during pumping and compression.
A clear example of the technology applied by the twin-screw in companies like Ford, Mazda, Mercedes and Mercury Marine can also demonstrate the effectiveness of the twin screw. While some centrifugal superchargers are consistent and reliable, they typically do not produce full boost until near peak engine rpm, while positive displacement superchargers such as Roots type superchargers and twin-screw types offer more immediate boost. In addition to this, twin-screw superchargers can keep the reasonable boost to higher rpm better than other positive displacement supercharges.
Related terms
The term "blower" is commonly used to define a device placed on engines with a functional need for additional airflow, such as a 2-stroke Diesel engine, where positive intake pressure is needed to "scavenge", or clear spent exhaust gasses from the cylinder and force a fresh intake charge into the cylinder before the compression stroke. The term "blower" is applied to rotary screw, roots-type, and centrifugal compressors when utilized as part of an automotive forced induction system. The term 'cabin blower' is also used for the pressurisation of aircraft for high altitude flight, which used Roots type compressors particularly in the 1950s (see Marshall supercharger).
See also
Gas compressor
Guided-rotor compressor
Reciprocating compressor
Vapor-compression refrigeration
Variable-speed air compressor
References
Gas compressors
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4670581
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agkistrodon%20taylori
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Agkistrodon taylori
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Agkistrodon taylori is a species of venomous snake, a pitviper (Crotalinae) found only in northeastern Mexico. The standardized names are Taylor's cantil (English) and Metapil (Spanish), although it is sometimes called the ornate cantil as well as several other colloquial names. It was named in honor of American herpetologist Edward Harrison Taylor.
It is a stout, medium sized snake, averaging 64-90 cm. in length. Taylor's cantils have prominent light and dark stripes on the head, with a pattern of black and gray-brown bands on the body, accented with white, yellow, and orange. They are sexually dimorphic, with males being significantly darker than females. Some older individuals, particularly males, may grow darker, nearly black with age. It is a viviparous species, with typical litters of 3 to 10 live young. Taylor's cantils are uncommon to rare snakes in the wild and listed as a threatened species in Mexico. It occurs in a variety of habitats on the Gulf Coastal Plain and lower foothills of the Sierra Madre Oriental, including thorn scrub, tropical deciduous forest, and grasslands, sometimes said to prefer ecotones between scrubland and forest in the vicinity of rocky limestone outcroppings. Although not overtly aggressive, it is known to be very defensive with a volatile temper and may be quick to strike when approached, threatened, or restrained. No case reports of human envenomations have been published. Its venom is believed to be similar to its close relative, the cantil Agkistrodon bilineatus, and potentially fatal.
Etymology
The original description states that the specific, or trivial name, was "Named for Dr. Edward H. Taylor in recognition of his many contributions to our knowledge of the Mexican herpetofauna." Indeed, Taylor's extensive publications on Mexico's amphibians and reptiles, culminating with the "Herpetology of Mexico", published in collaboration with his student Hobart M. Smith, is the foundation of modern Mexican herpetology. Taylor's work on Mexico alone would have secured him a prominent reputation in the field of herpetology. However, Taylor made equally important contribution to Philippine land mammals, the herpetofauna of the Philippines, herpetofauna of the south-central United States, Eumeces (skinks of the world at that time), the herpetofauna of Costa Rica, the herpetofauna of Thailand, and caecilians of the world.
The common name cantil is believed to have its origins in the language of an indigenous people of Chiapas, Mexico, the Tzeltal. The Tzeltal word "kantiil" was given to the snake meaning yellow lips (kan = yellow, tiil = lips). The name is thought to have first entered herpetological literature in the publication of Albert Günther's Reptilia and Batrachia in Biologia Centrali-Americana, and later popularized in the writings of Raymond L. Ditmars. However, later authors questioned that attribution, as the Tzeltal are highland people and unlikely to have had significant contact with the species. Alternatively, "can" or "canti" meaning "viper", and "nil" meaning snake, are used in a more widespread Mayan language that might be the origin of the name cantil.
Taxonomy and Phylogenetics
Recent molecular studies have produced strong evidence indicating that pitvipers made a single invasion into the New World, presumably via the Bering Land Bridge in the early Tertiary or late Cretaceous, with a subsequent divergence resulting in a northern temperate group (including Agkistrodon, Crotalus, and Sistrurus) and a Neotropical group. Of the Old World pitvipers, Gloydius appears to be phylogenetically close to the New World pitvipers, but the exact relationship between Old World and New World pit vipers is not fully resolved at this time. The molecular evidence indicates the genus Agkistrodon is a monophyletic group, meaning they all share a common ancestor, and suggest that copperheads, (Agkistrodon contortrix) are the most basal (ancestral) living lineage of the genus, with the cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus) basal to Taylor's cantil (A. taylori), and A. taylori basal to the remaining cantils of Latin America.
The taxonomic history of Taylor's cantil (Agkistrodon taylori) is relatively simple and straight forward compared to many species.
Agkistrodon bilineatus, In part: Edward H. Taylor collected what was to become the holotype of A. taylori, on June 9, 1938, "crawling on the highway pavement about dark" very near the Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon state line. Using the name Agkistrodon bilineatus, he published a detailed description of the specimen including color, pattern and scale data, noting some differences compared with the head of a specimen from Michoacán.
Agkistrodon bilineatus taylori, Nomen nudum: Taylor and Hobart Smith published the name in a checklist of type localities of Mexican herpetofauna. However, the list was published before the subspecies formal description, thus making the name a nomen nudum, a technical term for a scientific name that is invalid because it is not associated with any published description, definition, or holotype of a taxon. Taylor and Smith knew of the impending description, published about 19 months after their checklist. The authors acknowledged "Our attention was first called to this interesting situation by Dr. Edward H. Taylor.....to whom we are indebted for permission to study it", and Hobart Smith for his "advice and assistance".Agkistrodon bilineatus taylori: Formally described as subspecies in 1951, the holotype is in the collection of the University of Illinois Museum of Natural History (UIMNH 10002). It has been transferred between collections a number of times and identified as: EHT-HMS 5514 (Edward H. Taylor and Hobart M. Smith collection); EHT 5514 (Edward H. Taylor collection); and INHS 5514 (Illinois Natural History Survey). It is a young male, 383 mm. snout-vent length, and 82 mm. tail length (465 mm. total length). A paratype was also designated, Chicago Natural History Museum 28794, an adult male from "no more than a few mile from the type locality". For the remainder of the 20th century the taxonomic status remained unchanged. Agkistrodon taylori'': Taylor's cantil was elevated to species status in research published in 2000, based on a combination of mitochondrial DNA sequences, its geographic isolation (allopatry), unique aspects of head and body colour pattern, and sexual dichromatism (sexual dimorphism) in adults. Subsequent taxonomic reviews and species accounts supported the recognition of A. taylori as a specie.
Description
Size: Taylor's cantils, and Agkistrodon in general, are relatively stout, heavy bodied snakes. Adults average with no significant difference between males and females in total length. The tails of adult A. taylori are proportionately shorter than other species of cantils, 16-19% of the total length in males, and 13-18% in females. The largest confirmed size was a male, in total length. One herpetologist found a specimen dead on a highway in 1974 that he estimated to be ca. 4.5 feet (1.37 m.) long, however this record is not verifiable. Scutellation: Nine large crown plates (2 internasals, 2 prefrontals, 1 frontal, 2 supraoculars, 2 parietals) are characteristic of all members of the genus Agkistrodon, although on A. taylori some slight aberrations and fragmentations of these plates are typical, particularly the posterior end of the parietals which tend to be divided into small scales. A loreal scale is present. Supralabial are normally 8 (occasionally 7 or 9). Infralabials are normally 10 or 11 (occasionally 9 or 12. The dorsal scales are keeled with paired apical pits, although the lowest two lateral rows may be smooth. Dorsal scale rows are 25 or 23 on the anterior part of the body, 23 at midbody (rarely 21), and 19-21 near the tail. Ventral scales on the body range from 127 to 138. Subcaudals in males range from 45-56 (27-46 undivided), and in females 40-47 (19-35 undivided). The anal plate is undivided and the tip of the tail terminates in a small, downturned, spine-like scale.
Taylor's cantil can be distinguish from other members of the genus Agkistrodon by the presence of a loreal scale (loreal scale absent in A. piscivorus and A. conanti), two bold and distinctive white or yellowish stripes on each side of the face (absent in A. contortrix and A. laticinctus), and a lower number of subcaudals 45-56 in males, 40-47 in females (55-71 in male, 46-67 in female A. bilineatus, A. howardgloydi, and A. russeolus). Additionally, A. taylori is the only species of cantil in which the lower white or yellow stripes on the face fills the supralabial scales to the lower margin of the scale, to the mouth line (lower margin of supralabial scales have a narrow dark stripe or dark pigment in A. bilineatus, A. howardgloydi, and A. russeolus). Agkistrodon taylori is also the only species in the genus to exhibit an obvious sexual dimorphism.
Distribution
Agkistrodon taylori is endemic to Mexico. It occurs primarily in southern Tamaulipas, with one record near the coast as far north as Carboneras. Elevations typically range from near sea level to about 500 m., with a maximum elevation of 919 m. in San Luis Potosi. The type locality is "21 km north of Villagrán, Tamaulipas, Mexico". It has been speculated that A. taylori occurs in the Sierra de San Carlos, based on the local inhabitants identifying photographs, however no confirmed records from the mountain range are available.
There are also a few of scattered records from lower elevations on the eastern slopes and canyons of the Sierra Madre Oriental. These include a number of records from Nuevo Leon as far north as Monterrey, south to the vicinity of El Naranjo, San Luis Potosi, Atlapexco and Huejutla de Reyes, Hidalgo, and near Tantoyuca, Verecruz. A number of photographic records been reported on the social network iNaturalist, filling gaps in the distribution of previously published records, particularly in Nuevo Leon, San Luis Potosi, and Veracruz.
A southernmost record represents a single specimen from near Palma Sola, Veracruz, which was first described as a subspecies, Agkistrodon bilineatus lemosespinali, however more recent accounts considered the defining characters of A. b. lemosespinali fell within the normal range of A. taylor. And yet another more detailed study concluded Agkistrodon bilineatus lemosespinali appeared to be more closely related to, if not the same as, Agkistrodon bilineatus.
Ecology and natural history
The fact that A. taylori was not described until 1951 and known only from two specimens at that time is some indication of its rarity. Paul S. Martin's work in Tamaulipas from 1948 to1953 encompassed 12 collectors and 14 months of fieldwork yielding only three specimens, and he noted interviews with two lifelong resident farmers that indicated they had seen "only one other snake of this type". Likewise, a six year field survey in the 1970s noted "A few woodcutters we queried had encountered A. b. taylori and they concurred that it is rare in the area." Several studies have commented on the scarcity of museum specimens available for research, including a landmark 1990 monographic review of the genus Agkistrodon which identified only 19 specimens, a 2007 study on Hidalgo, San Luis Potosi, and Veracruz populations identifying only one from each state, and a 2013 study reported only 27 specimens from Tamaulipas.
As a rare and threatened species, Patrick Burchfield of the Gladys Porter Zoo in Brownsville, Texas, focused special attention on Taylor's cantil for conservation efforts and conducted field surveys 1974-1979 that provided much of what is known about the natural history of the species. Taylor's cantil was found to be most active in the months of October to March, which is the cool and rainy season in the region. It is predominantly corpuscular and nocturnal, but is occasionally known to be active on rainy or overcast days.
Several authors have commented on the temperamental nature of A. taylori. If blocked from a clear retreat, cornered, harassed, restrained, or handled it may be quick to strike. "When provoked, specimens of taylori lash their tails from front to back and side to side in typical cantil fashion, meanwhile striking out repeatedly. Sometimes one will move so violently that it actually will leave the ground."
Zoos have reported on the longevity of captive specimens including a male that lived 15 years, 7 months, and 19 days. Another individual that arrived at a zoo as an adult lived 17 years and 5 months and was estimated to be ca. 19 years 11 months at the time it died.
HabitatAgkistrodon taylori is found in a variety of habitats, including mesquite-grassland, thorn forest, and tropical deciduous forest. The Tropic of Cancer transects the distribution of A. taylori, where the temperate Tamaulipan mezquital eco region in the north meets the tropical Veracruz moist forests in the south. Gulf coastal grasslands and scrublands near sea level occur in the east and the foot hills and canyons of the Sierra Madre Oriental occur in the west of its range.
The type locality was described as a "semi-arid area covered with desert shrub vegetation". In western areas of the range Paul S. Martin reported on three specimens removed from a "den" in palm forest north of Chamal (Adolfo López Mateos), Tamaulipas. and it has been found in the riparian zones at the bottom of canyons of the eastern sloops Sierra Madre Oriental (393 meters elevation). In one occurrence, Agkistrodon taylori was found in hardwood forest on lower mountain sloops, at ca. 3000 feet (914 m. maximum confirmed elevation) west of El Naranjo, San Luis Potosi, in a vegetation zone described by Paul S. Martin as tropical semi-evergreen forest It has been reported from disturbed, secondary growth, in areas of tropical deciduous forest.
Field surveys conducted in the 1970s noted that collecting in riparian zones failed to yield specimens, indicating that Taylor's cantil is not closely associated with wetlands. The favored habitat was found to be open canopied woodlands with limestone outcrops and rock-strewn hillsides. The preferred habitat was in areas of an ecotone between arid tropical thorn scrub and tropical semi-deciduous forest, which included trees such as Texas ebony (Pithecellobium flexicaule [= Ebenopsis ebano]) and strangler fig (Ficus sp.). Large terrestrial bromeliads, "wild pineapples" (Bromelia sp.), armed with sharp spines, grow in the understory, in some areas forming dense, impenetrable thickets providing shelter for the snakes. Recent decades have seen a significant increase in agriculture and development in these areas of Tamaulipas, significantly reducing wildlife habitat.
Diet
Information on the diet of wild Taylor's cantils is minimal. The information that is available suggest A. taylori is a diet generalist, similar to other species in the genus. One study found fecal analysis of recently collected snakes contained grasshopper remains and hair from unidentified mammals. Two individuals manually palpated to regurgitate yielded a Mexican pocket mouse (Liomys irroratus = Heteromys irroratus) and a white-footed mouse (Peromyscus leucopus).
Juveniles have been observed using the yellowish tips of their tails as a lure to attract prey, a behavior known as caudal luring and recorded in several species of snakes. "The tail was elevated in a vertical position, approximately four cm (1.5 in) above the snake's body, and the tail tip was being wriggled."
In captivity adults have accepted lab mice, house mice, hamsters, and brown rats, neonates have been fed fish, small frogs, and baby pink mice, and one case of cannibalism has been reported when an adult female consumed an adult male cage mate.
Reproduction
Like all members of the genus, Agkistrodon taylori is viviparous. Most of what is known about the reproduction of A. taylori comes from captive specimens in zoos. Like many species of snakes, males have been observed to engage in a ritualized "combat dance" in captivity on several occasions. This behavior could be compared to arm wrestling. Typically two males, in the vicinity of a female, will intertwine their bodies and attempt to raise their heads higher than their opponent's, while trying push down or pin the other snake's head to the ground. Normally the loser retreats unharmed and the winner mates with the female. However in at least one case in captivity, a male Taylor's cantil was unable to escape its opponent in confinement, and after 12 days was ultimately killed by its cage mate. "Post-mortem revealed a bite puncture wound in the heart area with severe hemorrhaging in the tissue"
Courtship and copulation have been observed in captivity mostly from November to February (rarely as early as mid September). If these months reflect activities in the wild, mating occurs in the October to March cool and wet season. Copulation is known to last an hour and a half to three hours. Births have been reported from early May to July,May to September,and June to October. Litters have ranged from three to eleven young (average 8), 17.2 - 27 cm. (average 23.7 cm.) in total length, and average 12.1 grams (16 g. maximum) in weight.
Neonates are patterned like adults, including characters of sexual dimorphism, but much lighter in color (comparable to Agkistrodon piscivorus). The colors of the young have been described as less intense than adults with various shades of darker and lighter grays and creamy yellow,and bright cream, yellow, or salmon colored.
The Bronx Zoo reported an unusual incidence of twinning in Taylor's cantil, when two snakes were observed in one egg sac membrane at birth. Although the twins were proportionate in size to the rest of the clutch with no apparent deformities, of eight young, the twins were significantly smaller than their siblings and one did not survive long after birth. It is unknown if they were identical or fraternal.
Conservation status
Enigmatically, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species ranked Agkistrodon taylori as a species of least concern. In reality, it has been listed as a threatened species for decades by the Mexican Federal Government and is protected by Mexican law. No comprehensive studies have been made of A. taylori populations in the wild however, assessments of its conservation status elicit statements such as "this species faces a bleak future due to habitat destruction for agriculture" and "Urgent measures may be required to ensure continued existence of the biogeographically important and spectacularly coloured Taylor's cantil." A 2013 taxonomic reevaluation and conservation assessment of cantils was subtitled ":a race against time". On recent conservation evaluations using the Environmental Vulnerability Score (EVS) [low, 3–9; medium, 10–13; high, 14–20], Agkistrodon taylori was rated 17, a species of high vulnerability.
Colloquialisms and folklore
Paul S. Martin wrote that the name "cantil" was unknown in the Gómez Farías region of southwest Tamaulipas and that "metapil" was occasionally used by residents, and might refer to A. taylori. In contrast, Pat Burchfield of the Gladys Porter Zoo wrote that he had never heard that name used in the eastern and coastal regions of Tamaulipas and the farmers and ranchers there referred to a freshwater fish as metapil, however the name "navaja" was sometimes used for both Boa imperator and A. taylori. Locals described a short, heavy, very aggressive snake that could jump and bite, and sting with its tail which they called "hueson" (big bone) and "cola hueso" (bone tail).
Captivity
Keeping venomous animals as pets is generally discouraged. Additionally, many national, state, and municipal governments regulate the possession and transportation of venomous reptiles, and if not entirely prohibited, the possession and transportation of venomous reptiles and other exotic wildlife often require permits and are subject to restrictions. The illegal collecting of this threatened species for the pet trade has been implicated as one of several conservation threats.
Because of its attractive coloration and relatively small size, A. taylori are occasionally seen in the exotic pet trade, with captive bred individuals sometimes available. The care and requirements are similar to A. contortrix. This species is not for the inexperienced keeper. The venom of A. taylori is significantly stronger than that of A. contortrix and can cause severe tissue damage and potentially death if untreated.
Gallery
References
Further reading
W. Leslie Burger and William B. Robertson (1951). "A New Subspecies of the Mexican Moccasin, Agkistrodon bilineatus ". University of Kansas Science Bulletin 34 (1): 213-218. (Agkistrodon bilineatus taylori, new subspecies).
Parkinson CL, Zamudio KR, Greene HW (2000). "Phylogeography of the pitviper clade Agkistrodon: historical ecology, species status, and conservation of the cantils". Molecular Ecology'' 9: 411-420.
External links
taylori
Endemic reptiles of Mexico
Reptiles described in 1951
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4670679
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiichiro%20Toyoda
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Kiichiro Toyoda
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was a Japanese businessman and the son of Toyoda Loom Works founder Sakichi Toyoda. His decision to change Toyoda's focus from automatic loom manufacture into automobile manufacturing created what would become Toyota Motor Corporation.
Toyoda Loom Works and Toyota Motor Corporation
Kiichiro Toyoda persuaded his father, who was responsible as head of the family business, to invest in the expansion of Toyoda Loom Works into a concept automobiles division, which was considered a risk to the family business at the time. Shortly before Sakichi Toyoda died, he encouraged his son to follow his dream and pursue automobile manufacturing — Kiichiro would solidify the mechanical prowess the family had experienced inventing steam, oil, and electric looms, and would develop and institute what eventually became the global powerhouse of modern fame today, Toyota Motor Corporation. He would also institute the spelling of the automobile company away from the family name to famously garner good luck.
Toyoda would never know the success that would come to him as he resigned from the company he developed in 1950 in reaction to flagging sales and profitability. He died two years later; his contemporaries would call him "Japan's Thomas Edison". In 1957, his cousin and confidant Eiji Toyoda, would follow him as head of Toyota Motor Corporation, and build the late Toyoda's successful expansion into a world-class conglomeration of engineering and the launch of Japan's most prominent luxury brand, Lexus.
Early life
Childhood
Toyoda was born on June 11, 1894, in Yamaguchi in the village of Yoshitsu in Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan (currently Yamaguchi, Kosai, Shizuoka), the eldest son of Sakichi Toyoda and Tami Sahara.
Before Kiichiro was born, Sakichi stayed in Toyohashi. At the time, Sakichi came to Yoshitsumachi to give a name to Kiichiro. However, after Sakichi named Kiichiro, he soon returned to Toyohashi. Also, less than two months after his mother, Tami, gave birth to him, she left him and her husband. She did so because she was sick of her husband, who, in her eyes, was too preoccupied with industrial inventions to pay any attention to their family life. Therefore, Kiichiro was raised in Yoshitsu village by his grandparents. At the age of three, Kiichiro moved to what is now Higashi-ku, Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture, where Sakichi lived. In terms of education, Kiichiro entered Kyodo Kanji Ordinary Elementary School and then changed to Takadake Ordinary Elementary School (currently Nagoya Municipal Higashisakura Elementary School). After that, he entered Aichi Normal School Elementary School (currently Aichi University of Education Nagoya Elementary School), Meirin Junior High School (currently Aichi Prefectural Meiwa High School), and Second High School. In 1920, he graduated from the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, at Tokyo Imperial University. After graduation, he remained in Tokyo Imperial University at the Faculty of Law for about seven months until March 1921. Kiichiro excelled at his studies.
After graduating university
After graduating, Toyoda returned to his hometown, Nagoya, and joined Toyota Boshoku, which was founded by his father, Sakichi, in 1918 (Sakichi served as company president since then). From July 1921 to February 1922, Kiichirō visited San Francisco, London, Oldham (a large town in Greater Manchester, England), etc. to learn about the spinning and weaving industry and then returned from Marseille via Shanghai. After he returned to Japan, in December 1922, he married Hatako Iida, the daughter of the Takashimaya department store chain co-founder, Shinshichi Iida. In 1926, Kiichiro established Toyota Industries Corporation and became its managing director. Also, he became interested in automatic looms, so he set up a pilot plant in Kariya, Aichi to start development for them even though his father, Sakichi, disagreed. He traveled to Europe and America from September 1929 to April 1930, and thought that the automobile industry, which was in its infancy at that time, would greatly develop in the future. Therefore, in 1933, an automobile manufacturing department (later the automobile department) was newly established in Toyota Industries Corporation. In 1936, it was designated as a licensed company under the Automotive Manufacturing Act. In 1937, it became independent as Toyota Motor Corporation. Kiichirō became the vice president the same year (the president was Rizaburo Toyoda). In 1941, Kiichiro took office as president. At the height of the Pacific theater of World War II, the Toyoda family would be affected on both family business and home fronts. His children's education would be delayed by civil ramifications, and his business would be compelled to manufacture trucks for the Imperial Japanese Army. The family firms would be spared destruction in the days before the Japanese government's surrender.
Expanding to automotive industry
He is a key figure in paving the way for the Japanese automobile industry, and without him, today's Japanese automobile industry might have been less developed. The automobile industry plays a very important role in supporting the Japanese economy. The number of automobiles produced in Japan dramatically increased from 70,000 to 11.4 million between 1955 and 1980, and in 1980 exceeded the number of automobiles produced by the United States. In addition, the ratio of overseas exports of Japanese automobiles was 55% in 1985.
Kiichiro is said to have opened the path for the Japanese automobile industry, and he is credited for creating from scratch domestic cars that were superior to foreign cars. The differences between Japan and the United States in the automobile industry during World War II were quite large. In the early 1930s, Kiichiro proceeded with the development toward the domestic production of automobiles. In 1933, Toyota Industries Corporation set up an automobile department and began full-scale development of automobiles. However, the development of the car did not proceed smoothly. For instance, no one had experience in automobile manufacturing, so he gathered those who had experience in automobile manufacturing from across Japan. Also, it took six months to manufacture the engine. Then, in May 1935, the first A1 passenger car was finally completed. After that, it produced AA passenger cars that improved the A1 type and GA trucks that improved the G1 type. Moreover, Toyota Industries Corporation was designated with the Nissan Motor Company in September as a licensed company under the Automotive Manufacturing Act. However, Kiichiro was worried that being selected as the licensed company would lead to the loss of the competitiveness of the automobile industry and it would cause the destruction of the Japanese automobile industry. In 1937, Toyota Motor Corporation was established and Kiichiro was elected as vice president. Kiichiro's management was very good for mainly two reasons. First, He controlled and made the operation simpler to produce more cars on a shoestring. Specifically, to clarify the internal organization, the company was divided into seven divisions, and the purpose and jurisdiction of each division were clearly decided. Second, he reduced the risk of mass-produced cars by being involved not only in mass-produced cars but also in the manufacture of specialty cars. In November 1938, the Koromo Factory was established, and it worked hard to manufacture automobiles. However, the problems of automobile quality and cost arose, and the management was put into a critical situation. To overcome this situation, Kiichiro solved those problems by taking prompt action and in-house manufacturing of automobile parts. In 1941, Kiichiro became president of Toyota Motor Industry.
Toyota Motor Corporation and war
Wartime
During Sino-Japanese War
Toyota Motor Corporation had restricted its activities due to the war. In 1937, the second Sino-Japanese War broke out and it caused great challenges to the Japanese automobile industry including Toyota Motor Corporation. Following the end of the war, the Japanese government restricted automobile production in favor of products for the military, making the production and purchase of passenger cars difficult. In 1938, the National General Mobilization Law was enacted to maximize the use of human and physical resources. This law required Toyota Motor Corporation to provide trucks to the military and munitions industries with priority. In addition, the production of passenger cars was restricted and small passenger car production ceased to increase the production of military trucks.
Starting in 1939, automobile industries had to obtain permission from the Minister of Commerce and Industry to sell passenger cars. Even after that, control was further strengthened. In 1940, Toyota Motor Corporation and Nissan were reinforced control for selling large trucks and buses by the Japanese government, so the control made customers buy these trucks and buses personally. Those who wished to purchase were approved by a long procedure. To be specific, they applied for purchase at a dealer with permission of local police officers, next, obtained a survey from the dealer, and then, applying for a vehicle dispatch to the manufacturer was required. However, the possibility of accepting general orders has become extremely low.
During World War II
This situation became worse after the entry into World War II. Toyota Motor Corporation was designated as a munitions company in 1944, and strict control continued. Kiichiro must have had very unsatisfactory days during this period about not being permitted to make passenger cars. However, even during this time, Kiichiro concentrated on thinking about technical problems. He believed that the automobile business would definitely serve post-war Japan and continued to explore the technical issues despite such difficult times.
Postwar
Under occupation and Kiichiro's actions
Japan accepted the Potsdam Declaration on August 14, 1945, which brought the war to an end on the following day, 15th in Japan. Postwar Japan was occupied by GHQ (General Headquarters). In terms of the automobile industry, GHQ did not allow a Japanese automobile company to make passenger cars except for trucks. Like this, Kiichiro still faced difficult problems. However, he did not lose in this hard situation. He took a leading place and took many actions for the restoration of the Japanese automotive industry. First, in November 1945, he established an umbrella organization for the automotive industry (自動車統括団体) initiatively and he became the chairman of the organization. In the following year, he negotiated with GHQ by himself, and made GHQ admit that the new organization was different from the one of the wartime. Kiichiro also invited representatives of distribution companies nationwide to Koromo. He gave speeches about policy changes at Toyota Motor Corporation and proceeded with talks for the recovery of the automobile industry. His forceful speeches impressed the representatives. These actions show how much he was passionate about the car and the automobile industry and justified him acting on the behalf of the automobile industry. In addition, after the war, many dealers of each company were released from control and became independent. Some of these dealers' companies restarted as Toyota dealerships and were able to back to the prewar company. This shows how much he was trusted as the president of Toyota Motor Corporation by the owners of the dealerships. In fact, Kiichiro valued relationship with dealerships, so he usually communicated with people directly and dealt with problems as soon as possible if they suggested.
Hard situation
However, producing and selling cars was still difficult. Raw materials and parts were not immediately available in the poor period after the war, and it was harder to obtain cheap and high-quality genuine parts than before. The production of trucks did not reach the monthly production goal of 500 cars. In 1945, the annual production volume was 3275 units, and in the following year, 5821 units. Although the production of passenger cars was prohibited, research for passenger cars was allowed by the GHQ. Also, as a part of the occupation policy, the automobile company was contracted to repair United States military vehicles in Japan, which was a good opportunity for Toyota employees, including Kiichiro, to learn more about the structure of American cars. They analized and absorbed the advanced parts of American cars, and then used them as a reference for the development of their own passenger car. Kiichiro kept working hard to develop the Japanese automobile industry, even under the adverse circumstances of the postwar period.
Passenger car production resumes
Kiichiro continued to put a great deal of effort into passenger cars in terms of research, manufacturing and selling. In June 1947, GHQ approved the production of up to 300 passenger cars under 1500 cc per year, so he started to work on passenger car production from this day officially. In October 1947, the first Japanese passenger car after the war, the SA model with an S engine, was released and was nicknamed "Toyopet." However, there were mainly two problems during this period. First, these passenger cars did not sell at all. This car was highly evaluated in the automobile industry at the time, but during that time, there were not many customs for the common people to buy a car for a drive. Therefore, the passenger car was sold only 197 units during the five years since it released, even though 12,796 trucks were sold over the same period. Second problem was that the production facilities were not good. There were many machines that had been used for many years and were not well maintained, so Kiichiro was worried about whether the cars of Toyota Motor Corporation could beat foreign cars. Moreover, if Toyota Motor Company couldn't complete a car that would be better and cheaper than a foreign car in a few years and that Japanese people would be willing to buy, Kiichiro was thinking about working with a foreign car manufacturer. From the description, it is clear that Kiichiro aimed to make passenger cars for Japanese with cheap and high quality, and make Japanese happy.
Dodge Line recession
Causes and influences
The automobile industry was hit hard by the recession caused by the 1949 Dodge Line. Toyota Motor Corporation slowed the collection of sales proceeds due to the effects of inflation control and the setting of a single exchange rate. The reason why the inflation broke out in Japan was that the Japanese government spent a great deal of money to support soldiers returning to Japan and withdrawals from overseas and then, increased currency. From the background, GHQ decided to set a single exchange rate of 360 yen per dollar to stabilize the Japanese economy. Due to the influence of recession, demand for automobiles declined furthermore. In addition, the price of materials for cars was risen, and cash management was deteriorated considerably. This was how the management of the company was deteriorated significantly. In response to this, Kiichiro went out to sell together with the executives and went to collect accounts receivable. Furthermore, he made his best effort to save money for materials, but there was a limit, and in the end, there was a deficit of 22 million yen every month. Due to Dodge Line recession, over 8000 companies went bankrupt during the year of 1949.
Avoiding dismissal of employees
In August 1949, the company finally proposed to cut 10% of wages and cut retirement pay in half. As a result, the company promised not to dismiss employees, instead of accepting a 10% wage reduction. Under this circumstance, the other car companies laid down their workforce. For example, at Nihon Denso (currently Denso), which was established in December 1949, a labor dispute arose over personnel rearrangement. On March 31, 1950, four months after its establishment, Nihon Denso announced a company restructuring plan that included personnel reduction of 473 people. Under such situation, the reason why Kiichiro did not perform personnel reduction was that he experienced the employment problem at Toyota Industries Corporation during the Showa Depression in 1930, so decided that such a situation would never occur again. Moreover, the advance into the automobile business was also a measure to prevent the recurrence of employment problems due to business diversification. Therefore, He absolutely tried to avoid personnel reduction. Kiichiro visited the banks in the city every day to get finance account. After all, no financial institution provided the funds for company. However, Shotaro Kamiya, who was a managing director of sales, persistently requested the financing provision from Sogo Takanashi who was a branch manager of the Bank of Japan, Nagoya Branch. After that, finally, the syndicate consisting of 24 banks was established through the placement of the Bank of Japan. Toyota Motor Company could get 188.2 million yen in loans, subject to Toyota's reconstruction plan formulation. In this way, Kiichiro overcame the bankruptcy crisis of 1949.
Labor dispute
Despite the strong promotion of management rationalization measures, the company's business performance never recovered. The reason is, on October 25, 1949, GHQ issued a "Memorandum on the total removal of restrictions on the production and sale of automobiles". As a result, the production and sale of automobiles became free in principle, but about the supply of production materials, the allocation and distribution system by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry remained, and the prices of materials and automobiles remained regulated. Moreover, while the controlled prices of materials were gradually raised thereafter, while the controlled prices of automobiles remained unchanged until April 1950, the profitability of the automobile business remained extremely difficult. Not only Toyota Motor Corporation but also Nissan Motor Corporation and Isuzu Motors Corporation deteriorated in business performance. For the four and a half months from November 16, 1949, to March 31, 1950, the loss was 76.52 million yen, so Toyota Labor Union judged that the personnel cut was inevitable, and a quasi-fighting system was established in March of the same year. Since then, labor-management negotiations have intensified into long-standing disputes. Under such tension, Kiichiro, who was originally hypertensive, became ill, so negotiations with the labor union were handled by the management army instead of Kiichiro. However, On April 22, 1950, the company announced that it would carry out 1,600 voluntary retirements to the labor union. On the other hand, since the company had promised not to lay off its personnel, the union naturally became furious and continued with extreme strikes. The strikes continued daily for about two months after the declaration, which caused production in April and May to drop 70% from its previous average. Since the company would be destroyed as it is, on June 5, 1950, Kiichiro announced that he would resign as the president to take on this series of responsibilities. By his retirement, the strike ended finally. Everyone was shocked by Kiichiro's resignation, and the union also had a respect for Kiichiro.
Retirement and death
After retiring from the role of president, he created a laboratory at his home in Okamoto, Setagaya, Tokyo, and worked every day to design a small helicopter. On March 27, 1952, Toyoda died after suffering a fall resulting from a cerebral hemorrhage caused by chronic disease. He was 57 years old.
Family tree
References
External links
1894 births
1952 deaths
Japanese automotive pioneers
Kiichiro
Toyota people
University of Tokyo alumni
People from Aichi Prefecture
Japanese Buddhists
Japanese founders of automobile manufacturers
20th-century Japanese businesspeople
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005%E2%80%932006%20Thai%20political%20crisis
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2005–2006 Thai political crisis
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In 2005 and 2006, a series of events occurred in Thailand as a result of public anger with Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra that was supported by Sondhi Limthongkul and his coalitions. It led a military coup that concluded in the overthrow of the Thai Rak Thai government in September 2006, the flight of Thaksin after the court verdict, and the establishment of the junta government led by Surayud Chulanont, a favourite of privy councillor and senior statesman Prem Tinsulanonda.
The crisis and resulting coup and post-coup military government called into question issues of media freedom, the role of the constitution in breaking a political deadlock, and the existence of political stability in Thailand. It also reflected long-term and significant disparity between urban and rural political orientation and abuses of power and conflict of interest of a democratically elected leader that have long plagued the Thai political landscape. These issues contributed to the crisis and culminated in the coup d'état of September 2006.
Sondhi Limthongkul, a media mogul who had previously been a staunch supporter of Thaksin, played a major, leading role in the crisis through the establishment of the anti-Thaksin People's Alliance for Democracy. The PAD aligned itself with several state-enterprise unions (who were against Thaksin's privatisation plans for state enterprises), human right and civil politics activists who charged Thaksin rule as "undemocratic", monopoly of power, human right abuse, suppressing the freedom of press and extrajudicial killings of drug traffickers, a main concern among several human right groups.
The crucial anti-Thaksin coalitions were also supporters of the controversial monk Luang Ta Maha Bua (who opposed the Thaksin government's appointment of Somdet Phra Buddhacharya as acting Supreme Patriarch in place of the critically ill Somdet Phra Yanasangworn), allegedly the political intervention of the monastic affairs.
Significant supporters of PAD were also prominent socialists, scholars and "royalists" (who claimed that Thaksin frequently insulted King Bhumibol Adulyadej), various factions in the Thai military (who claimed that Thaksin promoted only those who were loyal to him), and various civil groups (who criticised Thaksin for not paying taxes during the sale of Shin Corporation to Temasek Holdings, although the capital gains from the transaction were legally exempt from taxation. The movement then was seen highly controversial and complicated.
In February 2006, Thaksin dissolved Parliament and called a general legislative election for the House of Representatives in April 2006. Most major opposition parties boycotted the election, led by Democrat Party. After the elections, King Bhumibol requested that the courts resolve the crisis. Soon afterwards, the Constitutional Court invalidated the elections based on the positioning of voting booths, and the Criminal Court later jailed members of the Election Commission that did not obey the Court's request to resign. New elections were scheduled for 15 October 2006. This time, the opposition announced it was contesting the election, and numerous newly founded parties actively campaigned. The election was cancelled after a military coup on 19 September 2006, while Thaksin was in New York to attend a United Nations summit. Thaksin has since been in exile. The PAD dissolved itself 2 days after the coup after announcing that their goal had been accomplished, but since then (February 2008) has vowed to resume protests should pro-Thaksin practices and policies of the Samak government become evident.
Apparently, critics on Thaksin Shinawatra took place even before the Sondhi's movement. Severe critics occurred around the Thaksin case of hidden assets, filed to the Constitutional Court. According to the verdict, Thaksin could escape the proof of guilty with 8-7 votes of the judges.
Human right abuses were also the cause of criticism. Thaksin's war on drugs became controversial when thousands of killings and murder cases explained by the authority as "extrajudicial" and "revenge" on drug traffickers.
Besides the removal and a threat on Sondhi's program, freedom of press became the focus. Sutthichai Yoon, another major critic, was filed a case against. In early 2006, the supporters of Thaksin Shinawatra, claimed supported by the premier himself and his close figures, blockaded the entry of the Nation Group building, threatening to "burn" the building. Possibly the movement rallied by Sondhi, then became the focus of several anti-Thaksin groups.
Origins of the crisis
Context
Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra was embroiled in several controversies after assuming power following the 2001 election. These controversies included alleged conflicts of interest due to his family's holdings in Shin Corporation and a violent crackdown on drug dealers. However, none of these controversies caused significant damage to his popularity, and he became the first elected prime minister to serve a full term, subsequently winning re-election in January 2005.
Viroj Nualkhair controversy
The origins of the crisis may be traced to the controversy surrounding Viroj Nualkhair, CEO of state-owned Krung Thai Bank (KTB). Viroj faced pressure to leave his position after KTB reported higher than expected levels of non-performing loans in 2004. Viroj was vigorously defended by Sondhi Limthongkul, a media tycoon who had previously been a staunch Thaksin supporter. As KTB CEO, Viroj had forgiven Sondhi's personal debts by 1.6 billion baht and arranged for further rounds of debt forgiveness. When Viroj was forced out of his position, Sondhi's public criticism of Thaksin started to increase.
The conflict escalates
The Sondhi-Thaksin conflict escalated when Sondhi's Channel 11/1 was temporarily ordered to stop broadcasting due to a contract dispute between cable operator UBC and the government regulator.
In September 2005, Sondhi reportedly made repeated disrespectful on-air references to King Bhumibol Adulyadej. Among these references was a claim that the government's 2004 appointment of Somdet Phra Buddhacharya as acting Supreme Patriarch in place of the critically ill Somdet Phra Yanasangworn contravened the prerogative of the King. According to Thai ecclesiastic law, the Supreme Patriarch is nominated by the Sangha Supreme Council and formally appointed by the King. Somdet Phra Phuthacharn's appointment was vehemently opposed by Luang Ta Maha Bua, an influential monk with close affiliations to Sondhi (see Luang Ta Maha Bua's opposition to Thaksin Shinawatra). After discussions with King's principal private secretary, Arsa Sarasin, MCOT executive, removed the program.
The Judiciary under the 1997 Constitution
The Administrative and Constitutional Courts (the first in Thai history) were set up to be based on the French and Italian judicial system, where the judge has direct authority and supervises the investigation into the facts of the case. This is in contrast to the civil and criminal justice systems in Thailand (and most countries) based on the role of a judge as the one who examines the case based solely on the arguments of the prosection and defence attorneys. The administrative court was set up to resolve complaints against the misconduct, neglect or outright abuse by bureaucratic and government agencies. The constitution court was set up to resolve conflicts about unconstitutional legislation.
Apparently the drafters of the 1997 Constitution, one of the most "democratic" constitutions, were quite far sighted by putting in a mechanism to resolve abuses and misconduct by people in authority. But then the Constitutional Court was initially not seen as important, and few anticipated the nature of potential conflicts in legislation could be critical. So the more experienced judges did not see any prestige in taking up position within that judiciary.
Their oversight became glaring when Thaksin's 1st Asset Concealment case was brought to the Constitutional Court. His TRT party had just won the popular vote by a historic majority, but he had not completely disclosed his assets as required by the law. A false asset disclosure would normally disqualify someone from taking up any political post for five years. But he pleaded with tears in his eyes that it was just a clerical error. The judges voted narrowly by a 7–8 margin, allowing Thaksin to take up the office of Prime Minister. Thaksin himself claimed that people had overwhelmingly voted for his party and his wealth was distributed in many assets that the clerical error could probably be an "honest mistake".
Luang Ta Maha Bua incident
On 27 September 2005, Manager Daily published a sermon by Luang Ta Maha Bua, a popular but controversial monk. The sermon, previously the supporter of Thaksin, became extremely critical of his "former disciple". The issue became further controversial because it came from a monk who is one of Thailand's most revered temple abbots (who are above criticism in Buddhist Thailand) and who has organised several huge donations of solid gold to the Thai Treasury after the previous financial crisis. Especially controversial were the following quotes:
"They complained to me about PM Thaksin and Mr. Visanu and two other people that I don’t remember. This is the big ogre [Thai: ตัวยักษ์ใหญ่], big power. Atrocious power will swallow our country, bite liver and lungs and aim for the presidency....He will put a torch to the country. He will never listen....This savagery and atrocity appear in every aspect of him.... All he has are things to be used for burning."
"He is clearly aiming for the presidency now. The monarch trampled, the religion trampled, the country trampled, by this savage and atrocious power in a few people in the government circle. That is the circle of ogres, of ghosts, of trolls, of demons [Thai:ยักษ์วงผีวงเปรตวงมาร], all in there....So even Devadatta saw the harm he caused, and he was rewarded for his good deed. He would attain Buddhahood [Thai:พระปัจเจกพุทธเจ้า]. For those who have made mistakes, if we see the harm we cause, we can still get by. But what is it with Thailand? What kind of governance?"
"They even dare to accuse Luangta Maha Bua of playing politics. Politics, dog shit [Thai:การบ้านการเมืองขี้หมาอะไร]. There’s only shit all over the country. I brought Buddha’s dharma to cleanse in order for them to repent and recognise good and evil. Because they’re the government. The world flatters them as smart people, but don’t be smart down the toilet [Thai:แต่อย่าฉลาดลงส้วมลงถาน]. Don’t be smart about putting a torch to the head of everyone in the country, from Nation, Religion, and Monarchy on down. These guys will get burned unless they recognise the truth. I’m saddened by all this. How does this come about?"
On 11 October 2005, Thaksin sued Manager newspaper for THB 500 million. As monks have traditionally been above criticism, Thaksin did not sue Luang Ta Maha Bua. "This is an exercise of an individual's right to protect his reputation and privacy. The newspaper did not criticise the prime minister fairly as a public official, but rather it took him to task personally, using harsh words, which was damaging to him," Thana Benjathikul, Thaksin's lawyer said.
Thaksin was immediately attacked by critics and accused of gagging the press. Manager owner Sondhi Limthongkul's lawyer, Suwat Apaipakdi, quoting claimed that "every newspaper reproduced his [Luang Ta Maha Bua] comments. Why did Thaksin not sue him [Luang Ta Maha Bua]? He chose to sue only the Manager Media Group because it's linked to Khun Sondhi". Thaksin's legal team noted that other newspapers only published selected passages of the sermon, and furthermore, that a slanderous headline was used. Respected civil rights lawyer Thongbai Thongpao has noted that Thaksin's lawsuit did have merit. He added that the lawsuits "do not constitute an attack on freedom of the press".
As recently as 14 March 2006, Luang Ta Maha Bua has asked Thaksin to resign. In a sermon that the monk called "most vehement since the temple was set up," the monk said it was time for Thaksin to abandon the "rotten system he is presiding over". He described the government as "wicked, corrupt, power-hungry and greedy".
Temple of the Emerald Buddha incident
On 10 April 2005, Thaksin Shinawatra presided over a "secret" and "private" merit-making ceremony at the Temple of the Emerald Buddha, the holiest site in Thai Buddhism.
Starting October 2005, the website of Phoochatkarn newspaper ran an article alleging that the Prime Minister had usurped the Royal powers of the King by presiding over the ceremony. This blast, referring to a photo printed in The Nation Multimedia newspaper, led Sondhi Limthongkul, the owner of Phoochatkarn, to start using "We Love the King", "We Will Fight for the King", and "Return Power to the King" as his key anti-Thaksin rallying slogans. This allegation has been repeated in Sondhi's "Thailand Weekly" live tapings. It also became a staple of the Thailand-insider.com website of Ekkayuth Anchanbutr, a notable critic of Thaksin. A widely circulated spam email showed a picture of Thaksin sitting on a chair normally used by the King and asking "People are familiar with images only of the King and members of the Royal Family, all dressed in royal uniforms and decorated with full regalia, presiding over grand ceremonies in the temple’s main chapel. Yet this picture makes me think: What has happened to our country?".
On 9 November 2005, Cabinet secretary-general Bovornsak Uwanno claimed that King Bhumibol Adulyadej granted permission to Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra to preside over a grand merit-making ceremony. This was corroborated by Chaktham Thammasak, who was director-general of the Bureau of National Buddhism during the time of the incident. Chaktham claims that the Royal Household Bureau designed every aspect of the ceremony, including the positioning of the chairs.
On 17 November 2005, the Civil Court issued a gag order on Sondhi to prevent him from making further allegations. This immediately prompted academics and intellectuals to attack Thaksin and accuse him of restricting press freedom. In November 2005, General Kittisak Ratprasert, former chief aide-de-camp to King Bhumibol Adulyadej, filed a complaint at Phra Ratchawang police station alleging that Thaksin and his deputy Visanu Krue-ngarm committed lèse majesté at the Temple.
These charges have apparently been quietly dropped after King Bhumibol Adulyadej's birthday speech where he claimed he didn't take lèse majesté charges seriously. However, to this day, Sondhi still uses "We Will Fight for the King" and "Return Power to the King" as rallying cries in his anti-Thaksin protests.
Phra Phrom Erawan Shrine incident
In the early hours of 21 March 2006, Thanakorn Pakdeepol, 27, broke into the Phra Phrom Erawan Shrine in central Bangkok and attacked the statue of the god Brahma with a hammer. After destroying the statue, he was attacked and beaten to death by several people in the vicinity. Thanakorn Pakdeepol had a history of mental illness and depression. Thai police are still investigating the case but it became complicated as the wrongdoer was beaten to death.
At an anti-Thaksin rally on 22 March, protest-leader Sondhi Limthongkul claimed that Thaksin Shinawatra masterminded the destruction of the idol to replace Brahma with a "dark force" aligned to Thaksin. Sondhi claimed that Thaksin hired Thanakorn through a Khmer black magic shaman. Sondhi also questioned "why was the man stomped to death after he smashed the statue? I have in-depth information about someone who is deeply obsessed with superstition[referring to Thaksin]. He wants to destroy Thao Maha Phrom so that he can rebuild it by himself and then bury "his stuff" in the statue. This is a way to avert ill omens."
The vandal's father, Sayant Pakdeepol called Sondhi "the biggest liar I have ever seen". Thaksin called Sondhi's accusations "insane". To date, Sondhi has refused to make public any details about his "in-depth information" regarding his accusations.
Personal attacks
Protesters made many personal attacks against Thaksin Shinawatra. It is debatable whether such attacks had any significant role in his downfall. Among them:
Senator Karoon Sai-ngam of Buriram Province told women to pass photos of Thaksin between their legs and curse Thaksin three times to leave Thailand and flee to Singapore.
Controversial social critic and winner of the Right Livelihood Award Sulak Sivaraksa claimed that Thaksin Shinawatra had committed adultery: "As for breaking the Third Precept, I don’t have hard evidence. But there are lots of rumors that Thaksin and his cabinet ministers have engaged in many illicit sexual reveries—that Thaksin has been unfaithful to his wife. There is even a toddler who looks astonishingly like Thaksin. All these still cannot be proven. So we may have to give him the benefit of the doubt. But truths about Thaksin’s notorious sexual life will surely surface after his fall from power—like those of the dictator Sarit Thanarat."
$1.88 billion Shin Corporation transaction
On Monday, 23 January 2006, three days after new Thai Telecommunication Act (2006) passed on Friday, 20 January, his family sold all stake in Shin Corporation, a leading communication company in Thailand, to Temasek Holdings with tax liability exemption. The families of Thaksin and his wife netted about 73 billion baht (about US$1.88 billion) tax-free from the buyout, using a regulation that individuals (as opposed to corporations) who sell shares on the stock exchange pay no capital gains tax.
The Thailand Securities and Exchange Commission investigated the transaction. "The investigation concluded that Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra and his daughter Pinthongta are clear from all wrongdoing," said SEC secretary-general Thirachai Phuvanatnaranubala on 23 February 2006. However, the SEC did find that Thaksin's son, Panthongtae, violated rules with regard to information disclosure and public tender offers in transactions between 2000 and 2002. He was fined 6 million THB (about US$150,000). "The case is not severe because Panthongtae did inform the SEC but his report was not totally correct" said the SEC's deputy chief Prasong Vinaiphat.
Allegations of insider trading by the Shinawatras, executives, and major shareholders were also investigated. No irregularities were found. The military junta later reopened the investigations.
The transactions have made the Prime Minister the target of accusations that he was selling an asset of national importance to a foreign entity, and hence selling out his nation. The Democrat party spokesman called Thaksin worse than Saddam Hussein for not protecting the Thai economy from foreigners: "Dictator Saddam, though a brutal tyrant, still fought the superpower for the Iraqi motherland". Supporters, however, counter that Thailand's mobile phone industry is highly competitive, and that little criticism was raised when the Norwegian firm Telenor acquired Total Access Communication, the country's second largest operator. Democrat Party leader Abhisit Vejjajiva had criticised Thaksin earlier for not sufficiently opening up the Thai telecom sector to foreigners.
Supporters further counter that the complete sale of Shin Corporation by the Shinawatra family has been a long-standing demand of some public groups, as it would allow Thaksin to undertake his duties as Prime Minister without accusation of conflicts of interest.
Anti-Thaksin and pro-Thaksin demonstrations
Genesis of the demonstrations
The prime minister faced growing pressure to resign following the sale of his family's controlling stake in Shin Corporation to Temasek Holdings, the Singapore government's investment agency. Although the SEC's investigation of the transaction cleared Thaksin of all wrongdoing, critics have still accused him of insider trading, use of tax law loopholes, selling out the nation, and other offences.
Anti-Thaksin protesters are largely composed of urban upper/middle class royalist Bangkokians, dubbed the "Blue Blood Jet Set" by the Bangkok Post. They have been joined by supporters of the controversial Santi Asoke Buddhist sect, followers of the controversial monk Luang Ta Maha Bua, and state enterprises employees who oppose privatisation. Some academics and intellectuals have also joined the protests.
However, the protests have been divisive. Many urban upper/middle class Bangkokians have expressed frustration at the protesters. Early in 2005, a majority of the employees at state-owned Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand supported privatisation. The popular but controversial Dharmakaya Buddhist sect has come out in support of Thaksin. Several members of King Bhumibol Adulyadej's Privy Council have asked protesters to seek a peaceful resolution to the situation. Supreme Commander General Ruengroj Mahasaranond said "I should like to direct my message at a certain person who resorts to self-promotion by invoking the name of His Majesty...Rivals should not involve the monarch in their quarrels". Many academics have urged the protesters to adhere to the constitution and not pressure the King to appoint a replacement prime minister. Many also note that the majority of Thailand's population, particular the rural poor, are strong supporters of Thaksin.
On 14 January 2006, hundreds of protestors headed by Sondhi Limthongkul, former senator Pratin Santiprapop, Klanarong Chantik, and Democrat MP Kalaya Sophonpanich stormed into Government House at half past midnight, overwhelming security forces. They occupied the building for twenty minutes before regrouping outside and continuing their protest.
An anti-Thaksin rally on 4 February 2006 at the Royal Plaza drew a very large crowd.
Police and foreign media estimated the turnout to be 40,000 – 50,000. Some local newspapers estimated that up to 100,000 attended. Afterwards, protests waned, with rewer protesters showed up at the Royal Plaza the next weekend. Most Thai newspapers estimated the turnout at 30,000 – 50,000 people. Phoochatkarn Raiwan (owned by Sondhi Limthongkul, the leader of the protest) estimated 100,000 attended. The BBC, Reuters, and AFP estimated 5,000 – 15,000 attended.
The PAD's protests took on an increasingly critical tone in February. In a single protest on 26 February 2006, Buddhist leader Sulak Sivaraksa called Thaksin a pitiful dog and chairman of the northeastern teachers' group Auychai Watha called for Thaksin's children to "become whores infected with venereal disease." The behaviour of the protesters was condemned by the Chairperson of Amnesty International Thailand. Protestors often harassed journalists and newscrews.
Pro-Thaksin demonstrations
On 3 March 2006, a pro-Thaksin rally at Sanam Luang arranged by the TRT party was attended by a massive crowd. Local media reported that up to 200,000 people attended. Some foreign media reported up to 150,000 attended. In this rally, Thaksin promised that "If my party receive less votes than the number of people abstaining combined with votes for smaller parties, I will not accept the premiership...I beg the three opposition parties, Democrat, Chat Thai and Mahachon, to join the contest. If they really insist on a boycott, they can campaign for voters to mark "abstention" to reject me". He also promised to amend Article 313 of the Constitution to allow representatives of the people to draft a new charter as occurred in 1974 after the 1973 bloodshed. Some additional laws later would be amended, he said. The whole political reform would take about one year before a referendum to endorse the new charter and another parliament dissolution before a new election. Anti-Thaksin protesters have claimed that most of the attendants were uneducated people who were paid to attend.
Demonstrations before the April election
On 5 March 2006, while Thaksin was campaigning for the April 2006 elections in the rural areas, tens of thousands of protesters in Bangkok, shouting "Thaksin Get Out" and "Restore Power to the King", demanded the resignation of the Prime Minister. The anti-Thaksin rally included the burning of an effigy of him in a mock funeral to cries of "Thaksin out! Thaksin out!" It was described as "the biggest anti-government demonstration in Thailand since 1992" in some news reports.
The protest also included a satirical Chinese opera and performances of anti-Thaksin Lam tad singing.
Starting 13 March 2006, anti-Thaksin protests moved to permanent tents and stands outside Government House at the Miskawan Intersection, leading to massive traffic jams in that area. By 5.30 pm, 18 March 2006, approximately 3,000 were protesting at Government House (source: Thai Rath, 19 March 2005).
On 18 March 2006, Nuansri Rodkhrut, a representative of the Thai Red Cross, met protest-leader Chamlong Srimuang to inform him that protest tents were in space reserved for the 2006 Red Cross Fair. She was roundly booed by protesters. The Red Cross Fair is held annually at the Royal Plaza, Amphorn Gardens, Sri Ayuthaya Road, and the Miskawan Intersection from the end of March to early April. The fair is hosted by the Thai Red Cross Society and was to be attended by Princess Sirindhorn. Chamlong responded "The protest area does not belong to any individual. Our move from Sanam Luang to Government House to kick out PM Thaksin is our job. I have been to the Red Cross Fair since I was a kid, and I don't want to disrupt it. In fact, it is good that the protesters can visit the fair and raise its attendance. Few Fair attendees will visit the area used by the protesters." He suggested to Nuansri that the entrance booth of the Fair be moved 10 meters behind the main stage of the protests. Nuansri responded that she would seek further guidance from her superiors. On the same day, Traffic Police Commander Phanu Kerdlabphon warned that any disruption of Princess Sirindhorn's visit to the Fair would "surely lead to trouble". Chamlong was quoted as saying "If the officers consider it is against the law, then, come and arrest all 100,000 of us here".
Starting 15 March 2006, Thaksin supporters have moved en-masse to Bangkok from the North and North-east in a caravan of Ee Taen (slow-moving diesel-engine powered farming vehicles), Thai: อีแต๋น). The "Mob Ee Taen" (so called by the Thai press), as of 18 March 2006, numbered thousands of demonstrators in several hundred Ee Taen and had chosen Chatuchak Park, in the north of Bangkok, as its demonstration site.
The farmers were joined by 400 motorcycle taxi drivers, who claim that a Thaksin-initiated crackdown has eliminated the need to make payments to corrupt police and underworld elements.
On 19 March 2006, a group of Thaksin supporters burned a coffin of Apirak Kosayothin, Democrat governor of Bangkok, claiming that the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration was trying to force the protesters out of Chatuchak Park, that the BMA would not provide any water, and provided only two mobile toilet buses. Anti-Thaksin protesters have claimed that the Thaksin supporters are uneducated and had been paid to come support Thaksin. They have also claimed that it is illegal to drive Ee Taen on city streets.
On the week before the 2006 election, the anti-Thaksin rally moved to Bangkok's shopping districts, with rallies at Bumrungrad International Hospital, The Emporium, and Siam Square. Siam Centre, Siam Discovery, Siam Paragon, and many other businesses and office buildings in the protest area were closed, causing up to 1.2 billion baht in losses. On 29 March, the BTS skytrain had to shut down service at the Siam intersection station, though the service also reported record ridership as a result of the protest rallies. The protests also caused major traffic jams throughout Bangkok, especially Sukhumvit Road and Silom Road, both major Bangkok arteries. The local press estimated 50,000 protesters, although foreign press and independent observers noted only 5,000 – 30,000.
The anti-Thaksin protesters were harshly criticised, with 50,000 complaints being made to the FM91 traffic radio station. A poll showed that 71% of Bangkokians disagreed with the protests being moved into the city centre. An opinion poll showed that 26% of Bangkok people supported the resignation of Thaksin, compared to 48% three weeks previously. Protest leader Chamlong Srimuang defended the protesters, saying "Two days of traffic jams is a minor matter, but the nation remaining jammed up was a big problem."
Planning for the coup
Planning for the coup started in approximately February 2006 and continued in secret during the subsequent crisis. Rumours about unrest in the armed forces and possible coup plots unfurled for months leading to the coup. In May 2006, General Sonthi Boonyaratglin issued assurances that the military would not seize power. On 20 July 2006, around a hundred middle-ranking army officers said to be supporters of Thaksin were reassigned by the army high command, fuelling rumours that the army was divided between supporters and opponents of the prime minister. In July 2006, 3rd Army Area Commander Saprang Kalayanamitr gave an interview where he stated that Thai politics was below standard and that the Kingdom's leadership was weak. He also claimed that Thailand had a false democracy. In August 2006, there were reports of tank movements near Bangkok, but the military attributed these to a scheduled exercise. In early September, Thai police arrested five army officers, all members of Thailand's counter-insurgency command, after intercepting one of the officers with a bomb in a car allegedly targeting the prime minister's residence. Three of the suspects were released after the coup.
In December 2006, former National Security Council head Prasong Soonsiri claimed that he and five other senior military figures had been planning a coup as early as July. He claimed that Sonthi was one of those figures, but that Surayud and Prem were not involved at the time.
Impeachment attempts
In February 2006, 28 senators submitted a petition to the Constitutional Court calling for the Prime Minister's impeachment for conflicts of interest and improprieties in the sell-off of Shin Corporation under Articles 96, 216 and 209 of the Thai constitution. The senators said the Prime Minister violated the Constitution and was no longer qualified for office under Article 209. However, the Court rejected the petition on 16 February, with the majority judges saying the petition failed to present sufficient grounds to support the prime minister's alleged misconduct.
Another impeachment attempt was made by the Thai university students network, led by Thammasat University students. A petition was launched to impeach Thaksin via the Senate. As of 27 February 2006, over 50,000 people signed the petition. This exceeded the minimum number required by the Constitution to launch the bid.
House dissolution and the April 2006 Legislative Election
House dissolution
Thaksin announced a House dissolution on 24 February 2006, in a bid to defuse the political crisis triggered by his family's sale of Shin Corporation. General elections were scheduled for 2 April. In his weekly radio address following the announcement of his decision, Thaksin promised a series of new populist measures, including pay rises for government workers, an increase in the minimum wage and debt relief for farmers. The opposition Democrat, Chart Thai and Mahachon parties announced a boycott of the election on 27 February.
The Nation criticised Thaksin for calling for parliamentary elections. In an editorial, it noted that the election "fails to take into consideration a major fallacy of the concept, particularly in a less-developed democracy like ours, in which the impoverished, poorly informed masses are easily manipulated by people of his ilk. And Thaksin's manipulation has been well documented. It includes an ingenious use of populist policies that pander to the unprincipled wants and needs of the people."
Demand for royal intervention
On 24 March 2006, in front of a rally of 50,000 at Sanam Luang, Democrat party leader Abhisit Vejjajiva demanded that King Bhumibol Adulyadej appoint a new Prime Minister and Cabinet to resolve the political crisis. The People's Alliance for Democracy's (PAD), The Law Society of Thailand, and the Press Council of Thailand also called for royal intervention. Pongsak Payakavichien, of the Press Council, also called on the civil service to detach itself from the government and demand royal intervention.
However, demands for royal intervention have met with much criticism. The King himself in speeches on 26 April to newly appointed judges dismissed the notion, saying Article 7 of the Constitution invoked by the anti-Thaksin protestors did not give him that power. "Asking for a Royally appointed prime minister is undemocratic. It is, pardon me, a mess. It is irrational." Worachet Pakeerut, a law lecturer at Thammasat University, noted "We're trying to involve the monarch in politics, but it's still not time. If we appeal for a new prime minister, aren't we asking the monarch to take sides?" Passakorn Atthasit and 20 relatives of people killed in the October 1973 democracy uprising tied a black cloth around the Democracy Monument and said "We don't care if Mr. Thaksin remains in the post. All we care is that the prime minister is elected. Asking for a royally-bestowed prime minister is akin to ripping the charter apart."
April 2006 House election results
Unofficial results as of 3 April 2006 gave Thaksin's TRT Party victory, with 462 seats in Parliament and 66% of the popular vote. However, 38 TRT candidates, all in the Democrat-dominated south, failed to win up to 20% of votes from eligible voters in their constituency, thus forcing the Election Commission to hold by-elections on 23 April. Election Commission commissioner Prinya Nakchudtree said that election laws would allow new applications in 23 April by-elections, allowing the Democrat Party (which had boycotted 3 April elections) to run in the by-elections. However, the Democrat Party has vowed to boycott the by-elections and has petitioned the Central Administrative Court to cancel the by-elections. Many expect that this will prevent Parliament from reconvening and a Government from forming within the 3 May time-limit set by the Constitution.
Thaksin unofficially claimed that TRT won 16 million votes nationwide, with 10 million abstentions and invalid ballots, giving him greater than half of the popular vote. Thaksin had earlier promised to not accept the premiership if he received less than half the total vote.
In Bangkok, despite a large number of abstentions, TRT won in every district with ืnot much more than 20% of votes. Out of 2,329,294 Bangkok votes counted as of 22.31 hrs on 3 April 2006, TRT won 1,035,254 votes, the remainder being abstentions and invalid ballots.
After unofficial voting tallies became public, the People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD) petitioned the Administrative Court to suspend the results of the election. Chamlong Srimuang declared that the PAD would ignore the results of the election and that the "PAD will go on rallying until Thaksin resigns and Thailand gets a royally-appointed prime minister."
After the 2006 election
Thaksin proposes reconciliatory panel
On 3 April 2006, Thaksin Shinawatra appeared on television to declare victory in the controversial 2006 election, called for unity in the kingdom, reiterated his proposal for a government of national unity, and proposed the creation of an independent reconciliatory commission to end the political stalemate. He offered to resign if the new panel recommended it. The commission could consist of three former parliament presidents, three Supreme Court presidents, three former prime ministers and rectors of state universities. He also suggested that four potential candidates from the TRT could replace him if he stepped down, including former House Speaker Bhokin Bhalakula and caretaker Commerce Minister Somkid Jatusripitak.
The Democrat Party and the PAD immediately rejected the reconciliation panel. "It's too late for national reconciliation," said Chamlong Srimuang. The PAD claimed that once again Thaksin was using votes to justify himself, and called for a nationwide protest on Friday 7 April to force the Prime Minister to resign.
Thaksin steps down
After an audience with King Bhumibol, Thaksin announced on 4 April 2006 that he would not accept the post of Prime Minister after the Parliament reconvenes. However, he would continue to be Caretaker Prime Minister until his successor is elected by the Parliament.
"My main reason for not accepting the post of prime minister is because this year is an auspicious year for the king, whose 60th anniversary on the throne is just 60 days away… I want all Thais to reunite," said Thaksin in a nationally televised speech. He then delegated his functions to Caretaker Deputy Prime Minister Chidchai Wannasathit, moved out of Government House, and scheduled a vacation with his family.
The Democrat Party welcomed the decision and promised to co-operate to resolve the current political crisis. However, they continued their boycott of by-elections. Many expected that the boycott would prevent Parliament from reconvening and a Government from forming within the 3 May time-limit set by the Constitution – thus causing a constitutional crisis. In a celebration at Sanam Luang on 7 April, PAD leaders announced that their new goal was the eradication of the Thaksin "regime" amid continued concerns that a constitutional crisis, a lack of a government, and continued protests could spoil King Bhumibol Adulyadej's Diamond Jubilee Celebrations on 9 June.
Removal of the Election Commission
In a rare, televised speech to senior judges, King Bhumibol requested that the judiciary take action to resolve the political crisis. On 8 May 2006, the Constitution Court invalidated the results of the April elections and ordered a new round of elections, later set for October elections. Several judges also called for three members of the Election Commission to resign. The Commissioners refused to do so, citing their constitutional independence. Several legal experts including Worachet Pakeerut and Banjerd Singkanet of Thammasat University noted the unprecedented nature of the judiciary's demands. "I'm concerned that if the courts get too involved in political affairs, politics may hit back. Moreover, it's difficult to examine the courts, and who is to examine the courts' use of power in politics," said Worachet. When the Commissioners still refused to resign, the Criminal Court jailed the Election Commissioners, removing them from their posts.
Thaksin returned to work on 19 May 2006, in the wake of the Constitutional Court's nullification of the April elections and catastrophic flooding in the North. However, political tension remained high. On 22 May, Pairoj Vongvipanon, former dean of the Faculty of Economics, Chulalongkorn University, warned Thaksin of assassination: "Thaksin must be careful or else he might be killed. Don't think that assassinations can not occur in Thailand. "
The "Finland Plan" and the "charismatic individual"
On the eve of King Bhumibol Adulyadej's 60th anniversary celebrations, the Manager newspaper and website published several articles on the "Finland Plan", an alleged conspiracy designed by Thaksin and other Thai Rak Thai co-founders aimed at overthrowing the King and seizing control of the country. Democrat Party deputy secretary-general Thaworn Senniam (Thai: ถาวร เสนเนียม) commented that the Finland Plan was "obviously true". In retaliation, Thaksin and TRT sued the owner of the Manager daily Sondhi Limthongkul, its editor, a columnist and two executives for libel.
On 29 June 2006, Thaksin noted that the political crisis was aggravated "because charismatic people and some organisations outside those sanctioned by the Constitution are trying to overthrow the government, rules and laws, Constitution and democracy." This provoked speculation by many, including several members of the royal family, that Thaksin was referring to either King Bhumibol or Privy Council President Prem Tinsulanonda. Sondhi Limthongkul called for the public to take a stand and choose between the King and Thaksin.
On 14 July 2006, Privy Council President Prem Tinsulanonda addressed graduating cadets of the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy, telling them that the Thai military must obey the orders of the King – not the Government.
August 2006 attempted car bombing
On 24 August 2006, a car containing 67 kilograms of explosives was stopped near Thaksin's residence in Thonburi. Metropolitan Police Bureau Commissioner Lt-General Wiroj Jantharangsee noted that the explosives in the car were completely assembled, equipped with a remote unit sensor and ready to be detonated, and would have a blast radius of around one kilometre. Pol Major Kamthorn Ooycharoen, head of the police bomb-disposal squad at the scene, also noted that the bomb was live and ready for detonation. The bomb was composed of sticks TNT, M-8 military fuses, TNT, C-4 plastic explosives, a remote control unit, and nine plastic containers containing ammonium nitrate fuel oil (ANFO). The car was driven by Lieutenant Thawatchai Klinchana, former personal chauffeur of Pallop Pinmanee, Deputy Director of Internal Security Operations Command (ISOC). Police found that the car had left ISOC headquarters earlier that morning. Thawatchai was immediately arrested and Pallop was released from his position.
Pallop denied all involvement, noting that "If had wanted to do it, I would have done it more subtly...In my career, I have led death squads. If I had wanted to kill him, the Prime Minister would not have escaped." He also claimed that "the explosives were being transported, they were not assembled to be detonated." Government critics claimed that the car bomb was a government conspiracy. Five army officers were later arrested for their role in the plot. Lt-General Pirach Swamivat, a schoolmate of Pallop's at the Chulachomklao Royal Military Academy, said he believed that Pallop had been framed. He said it might have something to do with Pallop having sent his men to guard Maj-General Chamlong Srimuang, another Culachomklao schoolmate, who has become critical of Thaksin and is a leader of the anti-government People's Alliance for Democracy.Three officers, including Thawatchai, were released after the military overthrew the Thaksin government.
September 2006 coup d'état
The ongoing political crisis escalated drastically on 19 September 2006 when Thai Army units loyal to the army chief of staff, Gen Sonthi Boonyaratglin, staged a coup attempt in Bangkok to unseat Thaksin while he was attending a meeting of the United Nations in New York City.
In a statement, the military Democratic Reform Council cited the government's alleged lèse majesté, interference with state agencies, and creation of social divisions as reasons for the coup. The allegations, however, failed to be pursued seriously, except for charges of corruption in which Thaksin, family and associates were identified by name and criminal offence in court documents. The lèse majesté charge, in fact, was somewhat confused by 2008 accusations by Thai courts that Sondhi Limthongkul, media barron and former associate-turned foe of Thaksin had induced Thai people to believe that there were pro and con-monarchy groups in Thailand. Some believe the accusation was an attempt to reduce the negative image of Thaksin among royalists.
See also
List of prime ministers of Thailand
Thaksin Shinawatra
Thai Constitution
Censorship in Thailand
1973 Thai popular uprising
1976 Thammasat University massacre
2006 Thai coup d'état
Public opinion of the 2006 Thai coup d'état
2008 Thai political crisis
April 2009 Thai political unrest
2013 Thai protests
2013 Egyptian coup d'état, a popular and polarising coup
Literature
Notes
Political crisis
Political crisis
crisis
Political Protests
Political Protests
Protests in Thailand
Rebellions in Thailand
Thai
Network monarchy
Political history of Thailand
Political career of Thaksin Shinawatra
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultan%20of%20Selangor
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Sultan of Selangor
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Sultan of Selangor (سلطان سلاڠور) is the title of the constitutional ruler of Selangor, Malaysia who is the head of state and head of the Islamic religion in Selangor. The current monarch, Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah ascended the throne on the death of his father, on 22 November 2001.
History
1743–1766: Pre-formation
The Sultans of Selangor are descended from a Bugis dynasty that claim descent from the rulers of Luwu in the southern part of Celebes (today known as Sulawesi). Nobles from this bloodline were involved in the dispute over the Johor-Riau Sultanate in the early 18th century, eventually placing their full support in the cause of Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah of Johor of the Bendahara dynasty against the claimant to the Malaccan lineage, Raja Kechil. For this reason, the Bendahara rulers of Johor-Riau established close relations with the Bugis nobles, providing them with titles and control over many areas within the empire, including Selangor.
Daeng Chelak, one of the five Bugis warriors, married Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah's sister, Tengku Mandak. He was made the second Yang di-Pertuan Muda of Riau from 1728 until 1745. He appointed his son, Raja Lumu to become Yamtuan Selangor on 1743. In the same year, Raja Lumu was recognised by the 14th Sultan of Perak, Sultan Muhammad Shah ibni Sultan Mansur Shah III as the Raja Selangor, after helping the Sultan ascended Perak's throne. He continued to hold the title until 1766.
1766–1875: Beginnings of the Selangor Sultanate
Raja Lumu did not succeed his father after the latter's death in 1745. Instead, his first cousin, Daeng Kemboja was appointed as the third Yang di-Pertuan Muda of Riau. In February 1756, Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah of Johor, who assumed Selangor is still a part of his territory, offered the Dutch to mine tin ore in Selangor after helping his nephew, Raja Mahmud winning a civil war against his step-brother, Raja Alam. His action was opposed by Daeng Kemboja, Raja Tua of Klang and Raja Lumu. Raja Lumu then sought to strengthen his influence and removed Selangor from Johor empire by seeking recognition from the 16th Sultan of Perak, Sultan Mahmud Shah ibni Sultan Muhammad Shah. He was installed by Sultan Mahmud Shah as the first Sultan of Selangor in November 1766, taking the regnal name, Sultan Salehuddin Shah.
After the death of Sultan Salehuddin Shah on 1778, he was succeeded by his son, Raja Ibrahim Marhum Saleh, who then used the title Sultan Ibrahim Shah. In 1784, he was defeated in the attack on Kuala Selangor by the Dutch, forcing him to leave Kota Malawati. He subsequently managed to occupy it back in less than a year with the help of Pahang Sultanate. Sultan Ibrahim Shah allied himself with Perak Sultanate afterwards but the alliance fall apart in a debt dispute.
Following his death on 18 October 1826, he was succeeded by his son, Raja Muhammad who took on the title Sultan Muhammad Shah. He was unable to control his chiefs during his reign which resulted in the separation of Selangor into five individual territories; Bernam, Kuala Selangor, Kelang, Langat and Lukut. His reign also saw the opening of tin mines in Ampang District, which brought business to the people and the state.
After 31 years of reign, Sultan Muhammad died in late 1857 without appointing an heir. As a result, there was a huge dispute regarding who will succeed him as the Sultan of Selangor. His nephew, Raja Abdul Samad Raja Abdullah was finally chosen to be the next Sultan and he took on the title Sultan Abdul Samad. He gave the power of authority of Klang to Raja Abdullah and Langat to Tunku Kudin of Kedah, both of whom were his sons-in-law, in 1866 and 1868 respectively.
1875–1957: Colonial Era
During Sultan Abdul Samad's reign, the Klang War broke out between Raja Abdullah and the previous ruler of Klang, Raja Mahdi. The involvement of British Empire in the war marks as their first involvement in Selangor's politics. The first British resident in Selangor, James Guthrie Davidson was also appointed during his reign. Sultan Abdul Samad died at the age of 93 in February 1898 and was buried at Makam Sultan Abdul Samad in Jugra.
Raja Muda Sulaiman ibni Almarhum Raja Muda Musa, the grandson of Sultan Abdul Samad rose to the throne, taking the title Sultan Alaeddin Sulaiman Shah on 1898 as the fifth Sultan of Selangor. His reign saw the increase in construction of houses, shops, roads, and railways especially in Kuala Lumpur and Klang.
He oversaw the construction of Mahkota Puri Palace in 1905 and proceeded to live there for 35 years until his death.
His first son, Tengku Musa Eddin was named the heir apparent in 1920 but he was dismissed in 1934 following the allegation from the then British resident, Theodore Samuel Adams as a gambler. Sultan Sulaiman pleaded the case to Secretary of State for the British Colonies but to no avail. Tengku Alam Shah, his third son was subsequently named the heir apparent in 1936.
Sultan Sulaiman was succeeded by Tengku Alam Shah in 1938, using the title Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah. In January 1942, following the Japanese occupation of Malaya, he was told to surrender his throne to his elder half-brother, Tengku Musa Eddin, whom the Japanese proclaimed as the new Sultan of Selangor, taking the title Sultan Musa Ghiatuddin Riayat Shah. Sultan Hisamuddin refused Japanese orders for him to work with them and stopped receiving the allowance awarded to him. Sultan Musa Ghiatuddin Riayat Shah was installed as the seventh Sultan of Selangor by the then Governor of Selangor, Lieutenant-General Shotaro Katayama in November 1943. He only ruled for three years, during the Japanese occupation. When the British returned after the war, he was dethroned and exiled to the Cocos Keeling Islands.
Sultan Hisamuddin resumed his reign in September 1945. In the same year, he signed the Malayan Union treaty, albeit under protest, along with the rest of the rulers of Malaya at the time. He later rejected the establishment of Malayan Union and openly supported the Malay nationalists who opposed the plan. In 1950, he demolished Mahkota Puri Palace and built Istana Alam Shah, which is still used as the official residence of the Sultan of Selangor to this day.
1957–present: After Independence
Sultan Hisamuddin continued to rule Selangor following the independence of Federation of Malaya. He was appointed as the Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong on 3 August 1957. He became the second Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaya after the death of Tuanku Abdul Rahman in 1960.
Tengku Abdul Aziz, the eldest son of Sultan Hisamuddin took the throne following his father's death. He used the title Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah. In 1974, he signed the 1974 Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur Agreement which then established the Federal Territory in Malaysia. Later, he commissioned the building of Kota Darul Ehsan arch to commemorate this event and as a border mark between Kuala Lumpur and Selangor. After Kuala Lumpur was made Federal Territory, he proclaimed Shah Alam as the new capital of Selangor. The placed is named after his father, Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah. His most notable legacy is the Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Mosque, the largest mosque in Malaysia.
Sultan Salahuddin was installed as the eleventh Yang di-Pertuan Agong in 1999 for two years until his death in 2001.
His son, Tengku Idris Shah, ascended the throne in 2001, taking the title of Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah.
Constitutional role
In the Laws of the Constitution of Selangor 1959, the Sultan (otherwise referred to as His Highness) is the Head of state and Head of Islam Religion of the state of Selangor. Oath of allegiance are made to the Sultan. Duli Yang Maha Mulia is the state anthem, and the Sultan appears on postage stamps. He has the power of executive authority of the state. His Highness has the responsibility to safeguard the special position of the Malays and the legitimate interest of other communities.
Whenever necessary, the Sultan is responsible for appointing the State Executive Council, of which he has to appoint a Menteri Besar, whom acts as the head of government, and 4 to 10 members of the Legislative Assembly. The Menteri Besar takes office by citing an oath in front of the Sultan in a ceremony. The Sultan also holds a weekly audience with the Menteri Besar before State Council meetings for him to inform the agenda that will be discussed in the meetings.
Royal prerogative
Some of the government's executive authority is theoretically and nominally vested in the Sovereign and is known as the royal prerogative. His Highness shall act in accordance with the advice of state executive council but he may act in his discretion in the performance of the following: appointment of Menteri Besar, the withholding of consent to request the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly, making a request for a meeting of the Conference of Rulers (concern solely about the privileges, position, honours and dignities of Their Highnesses or religious acts, observance or ceremonies), any function as the head of the Islam religion or relating to the custom of the Malays, appointment of an heir (or heirs), consort, regent or the Council of Regency, the appointment of persons to Malay customary ranks, titles, honours, dignities, and the designations of the functions appertaining thereto, and the regulation of royal courts and palaces. The Sultan also can grant a pardon to any offense committed in the state.
Only the Sultan has the power to confer titles and dignities, and institute the Orders and Badges of Honour and Dignity to whom he sees fit after consulting the Selangor Council of Royal Court. He also has the power to degrade any person of any title and order that has been conferred by him or his precedence.
Conference of Rulers
The Sultan of Selangor has a permanent seat in the conference of rulers as he is one of the nine Malay sultans. During the meeting, none of the Malay Rulers takes precedence over the others and all are considered equal. The member of the conference has the power to elect one of the Malay Rulers as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (the head of state of Malaysia) and Deputy of Yang di-Pertuan Agong every five years. Sultan of Selangor is eligible to stand as a candidate for such occasions. Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah and Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah were Malaysia's second and eleventh Yang di-Pertuan Agong respectively.
Succession
The succession order of Selangor sultanate is determined by agnatic primogeniture. No female may become ruler, and female line descendants are generally excluded from succession. According to Laws of the Constitution of Selangor 1959 (in Malay language: Undang-undang Tubuh Negeri Selangor 1959), the Sultan of Selangor must be Malay, royal in blood, descendant of the Selangor sultanate, male and a Muslim. The crown prince is also subjected to the same rule. The constitution states that the Sultan must come from the line of Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah, only if there are no longer eligible descendant of him, then the Sultan should be chosen from the descendant of Sultan Alauddin Sulaiman Shah and so on.
The order of the descendants, in descending order of degree of kinship : Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah, Sultan Alauddin Sulaiman Shah, Sultan Abdul Samad, Sultan Ibrahim Shah, Sultan Salehuddin.
Current order of succession
The current order of succession is as follow:
Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah (1926–2001)
Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah (born 1945)
(1) Tengku Amir Shah, Raja Muda, the Crown Prince (born 1990)
(2) Tengku Sulaiman Abdul Aziz Shah, Tengku Laksamana (born 1950)
(3) Tengku Shakirinal Sulaiman Shah (born 1980)
(4) Tengku Mahmood Shakirinal Shah (born 2010)
(5) Tengku Sulaiman Shakirinal Shah (born 2013)
(6) Tengku Abdulaziz Shakirinal Shah (born 2017)
(7) Tengku Salehuddin Sulaiman Shah, Tengku Indera Bijaya Diraja (born 1982)
(8) Tengku Ibrahim Salehuddin Shah (born 2014)
(9) Tengku Shahrain Sulaiman Shah (born 1985)
(10) Tengku Shariffuddin Sulaiman Shah (born 1987)
(11) Tengku Abdul Samad Shah, Tengku Panglima Besar (born 1953)
(12) Tengku Musahiddin Shah, Tengku Seri Perkasa Diraja (born 1984)
(13) Tengku Ahmad Shah, Tengku Indira Setia (born 1955)
(14) Tengku Alam Shah Ammiruddin (born 1982)
- previous Sultan
- current Sultan
List of sultans
The following is the list of the Sultans of Selangor:
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|Salehuddin of Selangor17431778(35 years)
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|Raja Lumu bin Daeng ChelakSon of Daeng Chelak bin Daeng RilagaandTomita
| Engku Puan binti Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah of Riau3 children Unknown wifeDecember 17702 children
|1778Age around 73 years old
|Installed by Mahmud Shah of Perak in 1766Treaty with Sulaiman Badrul Alam Shah of Johor on 8 January 1758
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|Ibrahim Shah of Selangor17781826(48 years)
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|Raja Ibrahim Marhum Salleh bin Raja LumuSon of Sallehuddin of SelangorandEngku Puan binti Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah of Riau
| Tunku Chik of Kedah at least 1 child Raja Andak binti Daeng Kemboja of Riau div.1776 at least 4 children Unknown wife from Kedah Che' Puan Besar Long Jalijah binti Dato' Husainat least 1 child Encik Salama at least 1 child Encik Shaima at least 1 child
Tun Salama binti Tun Abdul Majid of Johor and Pahang 1784 Unknown wife 1784 Tengku Ampuan Tengah binti Raja Haji of Riau 1796at least 1 child
|27 October 1826Age around 90 years old
|Eldest son of Sallehuddin of Selangor
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|Muhammad Shah of Selangor27 October 18266 January 1857()
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|Raja Muhammad bin Raja Ibrahim Marhum Salleh1772Son of Ibrahim Shah of Selangorand Che' Puan Besar Long Halijah
| Tengku Ampuan Basikat least 2 children Raja Asiah binti Sultan Ali Alauddin Shah of Riau after April 1827at least 4 children Unknown wife
|6 January 1857 Age around 85 years old
|Eldest surviving son of Ibrahim Shah of Selangor
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|Abdul Samad of SelangorSultan Sir Abdul Samad Shah6 January 18576 February 1898()
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|Raja Abdul Samad bin Raja Abdullah1804 Son of Raja Abdullah bin Ibrahim of Selangorand Che' Lipah
| Tengku Ampuan Atfah1844 div.1873 7 children Unknown wife 5 children Che Fatimah binti Abdul Ghani 1887
|6 February 1898
|Nephew and son-in-law of Muhammad of Selangor Grandson of Ibrahim of Selangor
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|Sulaiman of SelangorSultan Alauddin Sulaiman Shah17 February 189831 March 1938 ()
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|Raja Sulaiman bin Raja Musa11 September 1863Son of Raja Muda Musa bin Abdul Samad of Selangor and Raja Buntal Raimah binti Raja Barkat
| Tengku Ampuan Paduka Seri Negara Tunku Maharum binti Tengku Dziauddin @ Kudin of Kedah 1891 d.1908 5 children Cik Hasnah @ Aminah binti Pilong 4 children Hajah Sofia binti Haji Abdul Ghani 1899 Cik Rogayah binti Muhammad Amin d.1909 1 child Cik Chik binti Abdullah 7 children Tengku Ampuan Zubaidah binti Sultan Abdul Jalil of PerakMay 1910 d.17 October 19186 children Cik Anjung Negara Maimunah binti Abdullah 5 children Cik Puri Negara Bidayah binti Ahmad 5 children Tengku Ampuan Paduka Seri Negara Raja Fatimah binti Sultan Idris of Perak September 1921 5 children Raja Bulat @ Mariam binti Raja Ahmad 4 children Cik Johari binti Abdullah 2 children
|31 March 1938
|Grandson of Abdul Samad of Selangor
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|Hisamuddin of SelangorSultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah4 April 193915 January 1942() 14 September 19451 September 1960 ()
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|Tengku Alam Shah ibni Sultan Alaeddin Sulaiman Shah13 May 1898Son of Sulaiman of Selangor andCik Hasnah binti Pilong
| Tengku Ampuan Jemaah1919 1 child Che' Puan Kalsum binti Mahmud19276 children Raja Halijah binti Sultan Idris of Perak
|1 September 1960
|Third son of Sulaiman of Selangor
|-
|Musa Ghiatuddin Riayat Shah of Selangor15 January 194214 September 1945()
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|Tengku Musaeddin bin Tengku Sulaiman Shah9 February 1893Son of Sulaiman of SelangorandTengku Ampuan Maharum
| Tengku Permaisuri Sharifah Mastura binti Syed Ahmad Shahabuddin 1912 Tengku Jeriah binti Tengku Arifin Che Puan Anjang binti Abdullah
|8 November 1955
|Eldest son of Sulaiman of SelangorHalf-brother of Hisamuddin of SelangorInstalled as Sultan during the Japanese occupation of Malaya, after Sultan Hisamuddin was forced to abdicate by the Japanese
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|Salahuddin of SelangorSultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah3 September 196021 November 2001()
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|Tengku Abdul Aziz Shah bin Tengku Alam Shah8 March 1926Son of Hisamuddin of SelangorandTengku Ampuan Jemaah
| Raja Nur Saidatul Ihsan binti Tengku Badar Shah 1943 div.9 children Cik Mahiran binti Muhammad Rais 1954 div.1 child Tengku Ampuan Rahimah11 March 1956 d. 27 June 19932 children Sharifah Salmah binti Syed Ahmad al-Kaf 16 November 1961 div. 5 February 1962 Permaisuri Siti Aishah3 May 1990
|21 November 2001
|Eldest son of Hisamuddin of Selangor
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|Sharafuddin of SelangorSultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah22 November 2001present()
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|Tengku Idris Shah bin Tengku Abdul Aziz Shah24 December 1945Son of Salahuddin of SelangorandRaja Nur Saidatul Ehsan binti Tengku Badar Shah
| Raja Zarina binti Raja Zainal1968 div. 1987 2 children Nur Lisa Idris binti Abdullah1988 div. 1997 1 child Tengku Permaisuri Norashikin2016 present
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|Eldest son of Salahuddin of Selangor
|}
Timeline
Official residences
The sovereign's official residence in Klang is Istana Alam Shah. It is the palace where the Sultan carried out his official duties and the site that held formal events involving him such as the coronation ceremony. Another official residence is Istana Darul Ehsan, located in Putrajaya. It was built as a sign of appreciation to Sultan of Selangor from the Federal government for ceding Putrajaya to become a federal territory and become the federal administrative centre of Malaysia. The sovereign's official residence in Shah Alam is Istana Bukit Kayangan. Istana Mestika is the official residence of the Raja Muda of Selangor.
Historically, Kota Melawati in Kuala Selangor had been the residence of the three earliest Sultan since Selangor Sultanate started there. Today, the fort had become a tourist attraction besides housing one of the royal mausoleums and the location of the new moon sighting. Sultan Abdul Samad lived at Istana Jugra in Jugra, Kuala Langat since his administration center was located there. It was built in 1876 and was where Sultan Alauddin Sulaiman Shah's coronation took place. Mahkota Puri Palace (now the site of Istana Alam Shah) was built by the British in 1889 for Sultan Alauddin Sulaiman Shah so his administration center is closed to the British colonial administration center in Kuala Lumpur, thus become his official residence.
Styles and titles
The title used by the ruling prince is Duli Yang Maha Mulia Sultan dan Yang di-Pertuan Selangor Darul Ehsan Serta Segala Daerah Takluknya or Sultan and Ruler of the State of Selangor Darul Ehsan and all its dependencies, with the style of His Royal Highness.
For example, the present sovereign full style and title is "Duli Yang Maha Mulia Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah Alhaj ibni Almarhum Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah Alhaj, Sultan dan Yang di-Pertuan Selangor Darul Ehsan Serta Segala Daerah Takluknya" or in English; "His Royal Highness Sultan Sharafuddin Idris Shah Al-Haj ibni Almarhum Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah Al-Haj, The Sultan and Sovereign Ruler of Selangor Abode of Sincerity and its Sovereign Dependencies".
The heir apparent will use the title Duli Yang Teramat Mulia Raja Muda Selangor Darul Ehsan with the styled of His Royal Highness.
See also
Selangor royal family
Selangor Council of the Royal Court
Family tree of Selangor monarchs
Family tree of Malaysian monarchs
List of monarchies
References
1745 establishments in the British Empire
Malaysian people of Bugis descent
1745 establishments in Asia
Selangor
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4671451
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quentin%20Collins
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Quentin Collins
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Quentin Collins is the name of several characters featured in the 1966–1971 ABC cult TV Gothic horror-soap opera Dark Shadows. Variations of the character have been played by actor David Selby.
Quentin I
The first Quentin Collins is actually the third one shown in the TV series. This version of Quentin was first introduced in episode #1109 in a storyline commonly referred to as the "1840 flashback".
In the 1840 storyline, Quentin Collins was one of two brothers living at the Gothic mansion known as Collinwood Mansion in the fictional town of Collinsport, Maine. Born in 1808, as the favorite son of his mentally troubled father Daniel Collins, Quentin was the head of the Collins Family, and stood to inherit the entire family fortune. This position brought him into frequent conflict with his scheming brother, Gabriel (Christopher Pennock). Quentin was married to a woman named Samantha Drew (Virginia Vestoff), with whom he had a son named Tad (David Henesy).
Around 1839, Quentin had an affair with Joanna Mills. After he broke off with her, he took Tad on an ocean voyage, on which Quentin became close friends with a fellow passenger, Gerard Stiles (James Storm). His wife Samantha eventually discovered the affair and secretly murdered Joanna, making it look as if she had killed herself.
Quentin was interested in the study of witchcraft. He was not part of a coven, but was eventually framed by Gerard (who was possessed by the spirit of the 17th-century warlock Judah Zachery) and sentenced to execution. Quentin also fancied himself an amateur inventor and used his knowledge of the occult and supernatural powers to develop a device that he called his "Stairway Through Time". He persistently labored to build his staircase in a cellar room at Collinwood. It was Quentin's belief that ascending the staircase could open a dimensional portal through which individuals could view and even interact with the future. What Quentin never realized, however, was that his staircase also created a divergent parallel reality (This functioned as the genesis for several storylines which took place in parallel universes). Quentin's devotion towards his work gave Gerard the means by which to manipulate and ultimately betray him.
In early 1840, Quentin, Tad, and Gerard Stiles had been off at sea for several months. Gerard comes back to Collinwood with the news for Quentin's wife, that her husband and son Tad had been lost at sea.
When Samantha thought that her husband and son were dead, she began spending more and more time with Gerard. Over time, they fell in love, and he asked her to marry. On the day they got married, Quentin returned. He was shocked to discover that his wife had thought him dead, and had married his best friend.
While his wife decided whom she wanted, either him or Gerard; Quentin began having an affair with his son's governess, Daphne Harridge (Kate Jackson), the sister of Quentin's former lover, Joanna Mills.
Gerard meanwhile had fallen prey to the spirit of a disembodied warlock named Judah Zachary. Judah wanted revenge against the entire Collins family for sentencing him to death for witchcraft in the late 17th century. Judah's spirit took possession of Gerard Stiles and used him as a secret weapon against the Collins family. Working alongside a disreputable mortician named Lamar Trask (Jerry Lacy), who was the son of the 1790s witch hunter Reverend Trask (also played by Lacy), Gerard convinced the local authorities that Quentin was a Satanist and that he had used his knowledge of the dark arts to murder a young woman named Lorna Bell, as well as his own brother-in-law, Randall Drew. Quentin was arrested on charges of Witchcraft and murder, and taken to jail. When his ailing father heard the news concerning Quentin's arrest, he changed his will, leaving the entire Collins family fortune to Gerard Stiles.
Quentin was convicted of witchcraft and sentenced to death by beheading. However, with the aid of Valerie Collins (Lara Parker), and his cousins Desmond (John Karlen) and Barnabas (Jonathan Frid), Quentin escaped being beheaded. At the last minute, Gerard was shot. At the same moment, the head of Judah Zachary burned up in front of the judge in the case. With its destruction, Gerard was free from the possession and confessed that Quentin was innocent, admitting that Judah was responsible for all the deaths. After asking for forgiveness, Gerard died in Quentin's arms. Quentin having been cleared of all charges, eloped with Daphne Harridge. The two left Collinsport forever to make a new life for themselves.
Quentin II
Quentin Collins was born in 1870, in Collinsport, Maine, and had three siblings; two brothers, the eldest Edward (Louis Edmonds), the youngest Carl (John Karlen), and older sister Judith Collins (Joan Bennett). He was the grandson of the matriarch of Collinwood, Edith Collins (Isabella Hoopes). He had loved two children like his own, his niece and nephew, Jamison (Henesy) and Nora (Denise Nickerson). This version of Quentin was the great-nephew of the first Quentin Collins and whose lineage includes several supporting characters peppered throughout the series, including his great-grandchildren Amy (Nickerson), Chris, and Tom Jennings (Don Briscoe).
This Quentin Collins originally appeared in December 1968 as an angry, silent, malevolent spirit haunting a closed off set of rooms in the west wing of Collinwood (along with the ghost of his lover Beth Chavez). Quentin and Beth's spirits befriended the children David Collins (Henesy) and his friend and distant cousin, Amy Jennings. David strongly resembled Jamison Collins. Eventually, they took possession of both children and used them to serve their own interests.
In an effort to save his family, the former vampire known as Barnabas Collins, used the cosmological principles of the I Ching to send his spirit backwards through time to the year 1897 (Unfortunately for Barnabas, this meant becoming a vampire once again as such was his physical state during that time period). This series of episodes is commonly referred to as the "1897 flashback".
Like the first Quentin, the second also was secretly involved in the occult and practiced witchcraft. He was a member of a witches coven headed by his best friend, the Collins family lawyer Evan Hanley (Humbert Allen Astredo).
In 1897, Quentin had earned himself a reputation of being the black sheep of the family – due largely in part to his marriage and subsequent abuse of a girl named Jenny (Marie Wallace). Quentin's affair with his brother Edward's wife Laura (Diana Millay), and his running off to Egypt with Laura resulted in Jenny Collins going insane. While Quentin was away, Jenny had two babies, a boy and a girl. Along with Beth Chavez, Edward and Judith Collins conspired to keep Jenny hidden from the rest of the family by imprisoning her inside of the tower room at Collinwood. Edward and Judith wanted to keep any knowledge of the babies from their father and the rest of the world. To that end they gave Jenny's children to Ms. Filmore in Collinsport, who would raise the children as her own. Amy, Chris, and Tom Jennings are descendant from the female child (Lenore Filmore).
When Quentin returned from Egypt in the spring of 1897, his wife was nowhere to be found. He turned his attention to his grandmother Edith Collins (Isabella Hoopes), who was ill and near death. Quentin hoped that she would leave the Collins wealth and control of Collinwood to him. When she died, in an attempt to make that hope a reality, Quentin had Jamison Collins steal the will from the lining of Edith Collins' coffin. The will left everything to Edith's favorite, Edward. Quentin was only guaranteed a room at Collinwood for the rest of his life, but given no money. So Quentin went so far as to have Evan Hanley get Sandor Racosi (Thayer David) to make a fake will.
Quentin was being haunted by the ghost of Edith, and thought that Barnabas Collins was plotting against him. Being suspicious of his mysterious cousin from England, and believing he would try to interfere in his plans, Quentin and Hanley did a black magic ritual asking for help to defeat their enemies. Using the innocence of his young nephew Jamison as a focal point, they manage to summon a powerful spirit. The ritual resurrected from Hell the powerful witch Angelique (Lara Parker). But due to her own interests in Barnabas, Angelique wouldn't help.
Barnabas Collins stole the fake will, and had Sandor now under his vampiric control to change it, leaving everything to Judith Collins. Angelique warned Barnabas about Quentin being out to destroy him. Quentin had Jamison steal Barnabas's cane which he then uses in a ritual to cause Barnabas great pain. Had Barnabas been mortal instead of a vampire, the ritual would have killed him.
Soon after, Quentin's insane wife Jenny escaped from the tower room and stabbed Quentin to death. Quentin possesses the body of Jamison. Barnabas, not wanting to fail at his mission to save the future Collins family from Quentin's ghost, asked Angelique to restore Quentin to life. However, Angelique was jealous of Barnabas latest love interest Rachel Drummond. So she turned Quentin into a zombie, and had him try to take Rachel back to the grave with him.
Due to Jamison's strange behavior of acting like Quentin, Edward Collins decides to send Jamison and Nora to the Worthington Hall Boarding School operated by Reverend Gregory Trask. Barnabas tried to resurrect Quentin, but the ritual failed because Quentin wouldn't leave Jamison's body. Yet, Barnabas was able to save Rachel. Reverend Trask's prayer was apparently answered when Quentin was restored to life, and Jamison was no longer possessed by Quentin, although Angelique was apparently the one that actually used her powers to do it for her own reasons.
After returning from the dead, Quentin had increased paranoia about Jenny trying to kill him again. It was at this time that Magda (Grayson Hall) and Sandor Racosi (Thayer David) discovered that Jenny was still alive. It turns out that she was Magda's sister, a gypsy that had run away from home and married Quentin. None of the Collins family had known that she was a gypsy, so it was a shock to Judith, Edward, and the rest of the family.
Magda threatened to curse Quentin if he did anything more to hurt her sister. Quentin, however, was more worried about Jenny hurting him or his beloved Beth Chavez. When Jenny catches Quentin and Beth kissing, she attacks him with a knife. In self-defense he kills Jenny. With the help of his brother Edward, in order to protect the Collins name, Jenny's death is covered up as an accidental fall down the stairs. Magda finds a button from Quentin's suit in Jenny's hand, and can easily tell that Jenny didn't die from a fall, but was strangled. So she makes plans to curse Quentin.
Quentin, believing that he was already cursed, and thinking he was haunted by the ghost of Jenny, went to Magda and tried to persuade her to lift the curse. His sister Judith gave him $10,000, in return for Quentin signing away his right to live at Collinwood. Magda and Sandor took the money, and said the curse was lifted, having a drink to the agreement. Then Magda threw the money back at him and informed Quentin that the drink he had just consumed contained the curse.
Quentin soon discovered that he had inherited a curse that transformed him into a werewolf whenever the moon was full. He had no memory of what he did as a werewolf. The transformation itself was painful and unbearable for Quentin. He was tormented by the blood of innocent victims he found on himself the morning after. Barnabas, sympathetic to Quentin's plight, tried to help him overcome the curse, but to no avail. He did, however, succeed in altering Quentin's destiny, preventing the creation of the future timeline where Quentin's spirit plagued Collinwood. (In scenes when Quentin became a werewolf, the character was played by Alex Stevens.)
Quentin felt hopeless and contemplated suicide as the only way out. But Magda, having discovered that she had not only cursed Quentin, but also her sister Jenny's children for all eternity, decided to try to help find a cure for Quentin. Magda had heard of a magical hand possessed by a gypsy tribe controlled by King Johnny Romano. Magda went away to find the magical hand of Count Petofi and stole it. She returned to Collinwood, with the hand, in hopes of lifting the werewolf curse from Quentin and his first-born male descendants. However, the hand's powers were uncontrollable, and it did as it pleased.
Then the powerful warlock Count Petofi, and his servant Aristede arrived in Collinsport, looking for his all-powerful hand. After causing much trouble for the Collins family by possessing Jamison Collins with his own spirit, Petofi pressured Barnabas and Quentin to yield the magical hand. Barnabas and Quentin felt compelled to do so or risk Jamison dying, and with him the entire future of the Collins family. So they gave Petofi back his hand.
Reverend Gregory Trask had become suspicious of Quentin and his strange behavior. He discovered Quentin with chains in his room, and Quentin confessed that he was the werewolf, and wanted to be killed. Trask, wanting to make sure Quentin was the werewolf, took him to a cell in the basement, and waited for the moon. Yet, Quentin didn't change that night. Upon arriving back at his room, he met Count Petofi, who showed Quentin his portrait, and that it had changed into the werewolf instead of him. Petofi said he would expect the debt of curing Quentin to be paid at some point in the future.
Not only did the portrait cure Quentin of lycanthropy, but he was also rendered immortal due to the efforts of the artist Charles Delaware Tate (Roger Davis), whose powers were a gift of Count Petofi. In a pastiche of Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray, at the request of Count Petofi, Tate painted a portrait of Quentin Collins. So long as the portrait remained intact, Quentin would remain forever young, and the portrait would change into the werewolf instead of Quentin himself.
Quentin soon discovered that the price Count Petofi expected to be paid was his now immortal body. Count Petofi wanted to escape the gypsies, who wanted his powerful hand for themselves. Petofi used his powers to swap bodies with Quentin. Using Barnabas Collins' method of time travel, the I Ching wands, Petofi travelled 70 years into the future. In Quentin's body he would be forever young, and free from any threat from his gypsy enemies. However, something went wrong with Petofi's spell. The powers returned to the hand in his old body. Quentin used the powers of the hand to reverse the body swap. Before Petofi could swap bodies again, Quentin left Collinsport. Petofi apparently died in a fire at Tate's studio before he could possess Barnabas Collins' body, who he realized also existed in the future.
Quentin was still alive and wandering the streets of Collinsport by the year 1969. An amnesiac calling himself Grant Douglas (whose initials, G.D., were reversed from those of Dorian Gray), he reunited with Barnabas Collins and soon regained his true memories. He worked closely alongside Barnabas and his trusted companion Dr. Julia Hoffman (Grayson Hall), and aided them against the likes of Angelique and the Cult of the Leviathans.
During this time, Quentin discovered that his lycanthropy had passed along his family line, affecting his descendant Chris Jennings (Chris' twin brother, Tom, ironically enough became a vampire).
Night of Dark Shadows
In 1971, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer released Night of Dark Shadows, a sequel to the 1970 film House of Dark Shadows. Although both films presumably share continuity with one another, they exist independently of the television series. Once again, David Selby resumed the role of Quentin Collins as well as that of his character's ancestor, Charles Collins. In Night of Dark Shadows, Quentin Collins is an artist who inherits Collinwood after the passing of the last remaining family member, Elizabeth Collins Stoddard.
Along with his wife Tracy (Kate Jackson), Quentin becomes the victim of Angelique – a witch who died over a century ago. Angelique's spirit operates in tandem with that of her 19th century lover, Charles Collins and slowly subverts Quentin's will. Before long, Quentin's soul is consumed by the evil of Charles Collins and he begins stalking his wife and friends.
Dark Shadows audio drama
Based on a stage play performed at a Dark Shadows convention, Return to Collinwood is an audio drama written by David Selby's son, Jamison Selby and Jim Pierson centered around Quentin Collins return to Collinwood. It starred most of the original cast, including David Selby (Quentin Collins), Kathryn Leigh Scott (Maggie Evans), John Karlen (Willie Loomis), Nancy Barrett (Carolyn), Lara Parker (Angelique), and many more.
In 2006, Big Finish Productions continued the Dark Shadows saga with an original series of audio dramas, starring most of the original cast, with the addition of David Selby's son Jamison, and other talented voice actors. Like Return to Collinwood, Quentin Collins is the central character, and the first season dealt with Quentin's return to Collinwood, and his attempts to re-establish the Collins family.
The first season comprises four discs, featuring David Selby (Quentin Collins), Lara Parker (Angelique), Kathryn Leigh Scott (Maggie Evans), and John Karlen (Willie Loomis). More information and online ordering can be found at https://www.bigfinish.com/hubs/v/dark-shadows.
Big Finish Productions
More recently, the character has appeared in a series of audio plays produced by Big Finish Productions.
Season 1
The House of Despair
The Book of Temptation
The Christmas Presence
The Rage Beneath
Season 2
Kingdom of the Dead
Dramatic readings
The Skin Walkers
The Path of Fate
Blood Dance
London's Burning
The Creeping Fog
Powers and abilities
Knowledge of witchcraft and sorcery, adept at summoning and cursing.
As a ghost, had vast paranormal powers including, teleportation, mind control, possession of children, and the usual haunting abilities associated with a poltergeist.
Werewolf physiology gave the potential to transform into a berserk, wolf creature with enhanced strength, speed, and sense of smell, and gave him accelerated healing from any injury or wound, except for wounds caused by silver weapons or bullets. A magical portrait changed into the werewolf on the three nights of the full moon instead of Quentin.
Eternal youth, due to magical portrait of him, painted in 1897.
Cursed portrait also made him virtually unkillable. Any illness, injury, or fatal wound was healed without scarring by the portrait. However, it didn't protect him from magical attacks such as love spells. Nor did it prevent memory loss due to head trauma.
See also
List of Dark Shadows characters
References
Further reading
Clute, John and Grant, John. The Encyclopedia of Fantasy. St. Martin's Press, 1999. p. 250.
Day, William Patrick. Vampire Legends in Contemporary American Culture: What Becomes a Legend Most. University Press of Kentucky, 2002. p. 177.
Fonseca, Anthony J. and Pulliam, June Michele. Hooked on Horror: A Guide to Reading Interests in Horror Fiction. Libraries Unlimited, 2003. p. 389.
Hamrick, Craig. Barnabas & Company: The Cast of the TV Classic Dark Shadows. iUniverse, 2003. p. 100.
Jamison, R.J. Grayson Hall: A Hard Act To Follow. p. 148. iUniverse, 2006.
Krensky, Stephen. Werewolves. Lerner Publications, 2007. p. 40.
Mansour, David. From Abba to Zoom: A Pop Culture Encyclopedia Of The Late 20th Century. Andrews McMeel Publishing, 2005. p. 109.
McKechnie, Donna and Lawrence, Greg. Time Steps: My Musical Comedy Life. Simon and Schuster, 2006. p 76.
Parker, Lara. Dark Shadows: The Salem Branch. Tor/Forge, 2006.
Riccardo, Martin V. Vampires Unearthed: The Complete Multi-media Vampire and Dracula Bibliography. Garland Publishing, Incorporated, 1983. p. 59.
Senn, Bryan and Johnson, John. Fantastic Cinema Subject Guide: A Topical Index to 2500 Horror, Science Fiction, and Fantasy Films. McFarland & Co, 1992. p. 272.
Terrance, Vincent. The Complete Encyclopedia of Television Programs, 1947-1979. A. S. Barnes & Company, 1979. p. 225.
External links
Quentin Collins image gallery at Hollywood.net
David Selby's official web site
DarkShadows.com - David Selby
Articles about multiple fictional characters
Dark Shadows characters
Fictional characters from Maine
Fictional characters with accelerated healing
Fictional ghosts
Fictional werewolves
Fictional wizards
Television characters introduced in 1968
Male characters in television
Fictional characters from the 19th century
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4671959
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chittor%20Fort
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Chittor Fort
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The Chittorgarh (literally Chittor Fort), also known as Chittod Fort, is one of the largest forts in India. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The fort was the capital of Mewar and is located in the present-day city of Chittorgarh. It sprawls over a hill in height spread over an area of above the plains of the valley drained by the Berach River. The fort covers 65 historic structures, which include four palaces, 19 large temples, 20 large water bodies, 4 memorials and a few victory towers.
In 2013, at the 37th session of the World Heritage Committee held in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, Chittorgarh Fort, along with five other forts of Rajasthan, was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site, as a group called the Hill Forts of Rajasthan.
Geography
Chittorgarh, located in the southern part of the state of Rajasthan, from Ajmer, midway between Delhi and Mumbai on the National Highway 8 (India) in the road network of Golden Quadrilateral. Chittorgarh is situated where National Highways No. 76 & 79 intersect.
The fort rises abruptly above the surrounding plains and is spread over an area of . The fort stands on a hill high. It is situated on the left bank of the Berach river (a tributary of the Banas River) and is linked to the new town of Chittorgarh (known as the 'Lower Town') developed in the plains after 1568 AD when the fort was deserted in light of introduction of artillery in the 16th century, and therefore the capital was shifted to the more secure Udaipur, located on the eastern flank of the Aravalli hill range. Mughal Emperor Akbar attacked and sacked this fort which was but one of the 84 forts of Mewar, but the capital was shifted to Aravalli hills where heavy artillery & cavalry were not effective. A winding hill road of more than length from the new town leads to the west end main gate, called Ram Pol, of the fort. Within the fort, a circular road provides access to all the gates and monuments located within the fort walls.
The fort that once boasted of 84 water bodies has only 22 of them now. These water bodies are fed by natural catchment and rainfall, and have a combined storage of 4 billion litres that could meet the water needs of an army of 50,000. The supply could last for four years. These water bodies are in the form of ponds, wells and step wells.
History
Chittorgarh (garh means fort) was originally called Chitrakut. It is said to have been built by a local Mori Rajput ruler Chitrangada Mori. According to one legend, the name of the fort is derived from its builder. Several small Buddhist stupas dated to 9th century based on the script were found at the edge of Jaimal Patta lake.
The Guhila ruler Bappa Rawal is said to have captured the fort in either 728 CE or 734 CE. One account states that he received the fort in dowry. According to other versions of the legend, Bappa Rawal captured the fort either from the mlechchhas or the Moris. Historian R. C. Majumdar theorizes that the Moris were ruling at Chittor when the Arabs (mlechchhas) invaded north-western India around 725 CE. The Arabs defeated the Moris, and in turn, were defeated by a confederacy that included Bappa Rawal. R. V. Somani theorized that Bappa Rawal was a part of the army of Nagabhata I. Some historians doubt the historicity of this legend, arguing that the Guhilas did not control Chittor before the reign of the later ruler Allata. The earliest Guhila inscription discovered at Chittor is from the reign of Tejasimha (mid-13th century); it mentions "Chitrakuta-maha-durga" (the great fort of Chittor).
Siege of 1303
In 1303, the Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji led an army to conquer Chittorgarh, which was ruled by the Guhila king Ratnasimha. Alauddin captured Chittor after an eight-month-long siege. According to his courtier Amir Khusrow, he ordered a massacre of 30,000 local Hindus after this conquest. Some later legends state that Alauddin invaded Chittor to capture Ratnasimha's beautiful queen Padmini, but most modern historians have rejected the authenticity of these legends. The legends also state that Padmini and other women committed suicide by jauhar (mass self-immolation). Historian Kishori Saran Lal believes that a jauhar did happen at Chittorgarh following Alauddin's conquest, although he dismisses the legend of Padmini as unhistorical. On the other hand, historian Banarsi Prasad Saksena considers this jauhar narrative as a fabrication by the later writers, because Khusrow does not mention any jauhar at Chittorgarh, although he has referred to the jauhar during the earlier conquest of Ranthambore.
Alauddin assigned Chittorgarh to his young son Khizr Khan (or Khidr Khan), and the Chittorgarh fort was renamed "Khizrabad" after the prince. As Khizr Khan was only a child, the actual administration was handed over to a slave named Malik Shahin.
Rana Hammir and successors
Khizr Khan's rule at the fort lasted till 1311 AD and due to the pressure of Rajputs he was forced to entrust power to the Sonigra chief Maldeva who held the fort for 7 years. Hammir Singh, usurped control of the fort from Maldeva and Chittor once again regained its past glory. Hammir, before his death in 1378 AD, had converted Mewar into a fairly large and prosperous kingdom. The dynasty (and clan) fathered by him came to be known by the name Sisodia after the village where he was born. His son Ketra Singh succeeded him and ruled with honour and power. Ketra Singh's son Lakha who ascended the throne in 1382 AD also won several wars. His famous grandson Rana Kumbha came to the throne in 1433 AD and by that time the Muslim rulers of Malwa and Gujarat had acquired considerable clout and were keen to usurp the powerful Mewar state.
Rana Kumbha and clan
There was resurgence during the reign of Rana Kumbha in the 15th century. Rana Kumbha, also known as Maharana Kumbhakarna, son of Rana Mokal, ruled Mewar between 1433 AD and 1468 AD. He is credited with building up the Mewar kingdom assiduously as a force to reckon with. He built 32 forts (84 fortresses formed the defense of Mewar) including one in his own name, called Kumbalgarh. His brother Rana Raimal assumed the reins of power in 1473. After his death in May 1509, Sangram Singh (also known as Rana Sanga), his youngest son, became the ruler of Mewar, which brought in a new phase in the history of Mewar.
Chittorgarh Under Rana Sanga
Rana Sanga ascended the throne in 1509 after a long struggle with his brothers. He was an ambitious king under whom Mewar reached its zenith in power and prosperity. Rajput strength under Rana Sanga reached its zenith and threatens to revive their powers again in Northern India. He established a strong kingdom from Satluj in Punjab in North till Narmada River in South in Malwa. After conquering Malwa and the Thar desert to the west and until Bayana in the east. In his military career he defeated Ibrahim Lodhi at the Battle of Khatoli and manage to free most of Rajasthan along with that he mark his control over parts of Uttar Pradesh including Chandwar, he gave the part of U.P to his allies Rao Manik Chand Chauhan who later supported him in Battle of khanwa. After that Rana Sanga fought another battle with Ibrahim Lodhi known as Battle of Dholpur where again Rajput confederacy were victorious. This time following his victory Sanga conquered much of the Malwa along with Chanderi and bestowed it to one of his vassal Medini Rai. Rai ruled over Malwa with Chanderi as his capital. Sanga also invaded Gujarat with 50,000 Rajput confederacy joined by his three allies. He plundered Gujarat sultanate and chased the Muslim Army as far as capital Ahmedabad. He successfully annexed Northern Gujarat and appoint one of his vassals to rule there. Following the series of victories over Sultans he successfully establish his sovereignty over Rajasthan, Malwa and large parts of Gujarat. After these victories he united several Rajput states from Northern India to expel Babur from India and re-establish Hindu power in Delhi.
He advanced with a grand army of 100,000 Rajputs supported by a few Afghans to expel Babur and to expand his territory by annexing Delhi and Agra. The battle was fought for supremacy of Northern India between Rajputs and Mughals.
However Rajput Confederation suffered a disastrous defeat at Khanwa due to Babur's superior generalship and modern tactics. The battle was more historic than First Battle of Panipat as it firmly establish Mughal rule in India while crushing re-emerging Rajput powers. The battle was also earliest to use cannons, matchlocks, swivel guns and mortars to great use.
Rana Sanga was taken away from the battlefield in an unconscious state by his vassals Prithviraj Singh I of Jaipur and Maldeo Rathore of Marwar. After regaining consciousness he took an oath to never return to Chittorgarh until he defeated Babur and conquer Delhi. He also stop wearing turban and used to wrap a cloth over his head. While he was preparing to wage another war against Babur he was poisoned by his own nobles who did not want another battle with Babur. He died in Kalpi in January 1528.
After his defeat his vassal Medini Rai was defeated by Babur at Battle of Chanderi and Babur captured the capital of Rai kingdom Chanderi. Medini was offered Shamsabad instead of Chanderi as it was historically important in conquering Malwa but Rai refused the offer and chose to die fighting. The Rajput women and children committed self-immolation to save their honour from Muslim army. After the victory, Babur captured Chanderi along with Malwa which was ruled by Rai.
Post Rana Sanga
Siege of 1535
Bahadur Shah who came to the throne in 1526 AD as the Sultan of Gujarat besieged the Chittorgarh fort in 1535. The fort was sacked and, once again the medieval dictates of chivalry determined the outcome. Following the escape of the Rana, his brother Udai Singh and the faithful maid Panna Dhai to Bundi, it is said 13,000 Rajput women committed jauhar (self-immolation on the funeral pyre) and 3,200 Rajput warriors rushed out of the fort to fight and died in the ensuing battle.
Siege of 1567
The final Siege of Chittorgarh came 33 years later, in 1567, when the Mughal Emperor Akbar attacked the fort. Akbar wanted to conquer Mewar, which was being ruled by Rana Uday Singh II to gain easy access to the Gujarati ports and establish a trade route.
Shakti Singh, son of the Rana who had quarreled with his father, had run away and approached Akbar when the later had camped at Dholpur preparing to attack Malwa. During one of these meetings, in August 1567, Shakti Singh deduced from a remark made in jest by emperor Akbar that he intended to wage war against Chittorgarh. Akbar had told Shakti Singh in jest that since his father had not submitted himself before him like other princes and chieftains of the region he would attack him. Startled by this revelation, Shakti Singh quietly rushed back to Chittorgarh and informed his father of the impending invasion by Akbar. Akbar was furious with the departure of Shakti Singh and decided to attack Mewar to humble the arrogance of the Ranas.
In September 1567, the emperor left for Chittorgarh, and on 20 October 1567, camped in the vast plains outside the fort. In the meantime, Rana Udai Singh, on the advice of his council of advisors, decided to go away from Chittor to the hills of Gogunda with his family. Jaimal and Patta were left behind to defend the fort along with 8,000 Rajput soldiers under their command. Akbar laid siege to the fortress, which lasted for 4 months.
On 22 February 1568, Jaimal was killed by a musket shot fired by Akbar himself. Jauhar was committed in the houses of Patta, Aissar Das, and Sahib Khan. The next day the gates of the fort were opened and Rajput soldiers rushed out to fight the enemies. In the ensuing battle, the army of Chittorgarh were killed alongside 20,000–25,000 civilians and Chittorgarh was conquered.
Mughal–Rajput peace treaty of 1616
In 1616, after a treaty between Jahangir and Amar Singh, Chittorgarh was given back to Amar Singh by Jahangir.
The fort was refurbished in 1905 during British Raj.
Precincts
The fort, which is roughly in the shape of a fish, has a circumference of with a maximum length of and it covers an area of 700 acres. The fort is approached through a difficult zig-zag ascent of more than from the plains, after crossing over a limestone bridge. The bridge spans the Gambhiri River and is supported by ten arches (one has a curved shape while the balance have pointed arches). Apart from the two tall towers, which dominate the majestic fortifications, the sprawling fort has a plethora of palaces and temples (many of them in ruins) within its precincts.
The 305 hectare component site, with a buffer zone of 427 hectares, encompasses the fortified stronghold of Chittorgarh, a spacious fort located on an isolated rocky plateau of approximately 2 km length and 155 m width.
It is surrounded by a perimeter wall long, beyond which a 45° hill slope makes it almost inaccessible to enemies. The ascent to the fort passes through seven gateways built by the Mewar ruler Rana Kumbha (1433–1468) of the Sisodia clan. These gates are called, from the base to the hilltop, the Paidal Pol, Bhairon Pol, Hanuman Pol, Ganesh Pol, Jorla Pol, Laxman Pol, and Ram Pol, the final and main gate.
The fort complex comprises 65 historic built structures, among them 4 palace complexes, 19 main temples, 4 memorials, and 20 functional water bodies. These can be divided into two major construction phases. The first hill fort with one main entrance was established in the 5th century and successively fortified until the 12th century. Its remains are mostly visible on the western edges of the plateau. The second, more significant defence structure was constructed in the 15th century during the reign of the Sisodia Rajputs, when the royal entrance was relocated and fortified with seven gates, and the medieval fortification wall was built on an earlier wall construction from the 13th century.
Besides the palace complex, located on the highest and most secure terrain in the west of the fort, many of the other significant structures, such as the Kumbha Shyam Temple, the Mira Bai Temple, the Adi Varah Temple, the Shringar Chauri Temple, and the Vijay Stambh memorial were constructed in this second phase. Compared to the later additions of Sisodian rulers during the 19th and 20th centuries, the predominant construction phase illustrates a comparatively pure Rajput style combined with minimal eclecticism, such as the vaulted substructures which were borrowed from Sultanate architecture. The 4.5 km walls with integrated circular enforcements are constructed from dressed stone masonry in lime mortar and rise 500 m above the plain. With the help of the seven massive stone gates, partly flanked by hexagonal or octagonal towers, the access to the fort is restricted to a narrow pathway which climbs up the steep hill through successive, ever narrower defence passages. The seventh and final gate leads directly into the palace area, which integrates a variety of residential and official structures. Rana Kumbha Mahal, the palace of Rana Kumbha, is a large Rajput domestic structure and now incorporates the Kanwar Pade Ka Mahal (the palace of the heir) and the later palace of the poet Mira Bai (1498–1546). The palace area was further expanded in later centuries, when additional structures, such as the Ratan Singh Palace (1528–1531) or the Fateh Prakash, also named Badal Mahal (1885–1930), were added.
Although the majority of temple structures represent the Hindu faith, most prominently the Kalikamata Temple (8th century), the Kshemankari Temple (825–850) the Kumbha Shyam Temple (1448) or the Adbuthnath Temple (15th–16th century), the hill fort also contains Jain temples, such as Sattaees Devari, Shringar Chauri (1448) and Sat Bis Devri (mid-15th century) Also the two tower memorials, Kirti Stambh (12th century) and Vijay Stambha (1433–1468), are Jain monuments. They stand out with their respective heights of 24 m and 37 m, which ensure their visibility from most locations of the fort complex. Finally, the fort compound is home to a contemporary municipal ward of approximately 3,000 inhabitants, which is located near Ratan Singh Tank at the northern end of the property.
Gates
The fort has total seven gates (in local language, gate is called Pol) in the west, namely the Padan Pol, Bhairon Pol, Hanuman Pol, Ganesh Pol, Jodla Pol, Laxman Pol, and the main gate named the Ram Pol (Lord Rama's Gate). All the gateways to the fort have been built as massive stone structures with secure fortifications for military defense. The doors of the gates with pointed arches are reinforced to fend off elephants and cannon shots. The top of the gates has notched parapets for archers to shoot at the enemy army. A circular road within the fort links all the gates and provides access to the numerous monuments (ruined palaces and 130 temples) in the fort.
On the right of Suraj Pol is the Darikhana or Sabha (council chamber) behind which lie a Ganesha temple and the zenana (living quarters for women). A massive water reservoir is located towards the left of Suraj Pol. There is also a peculiar gate, called the Jorla Pol (Joined Gate), which consists of two gates joined. The upper arch of Jorla Pol is connected to the base of Lakshman Pol. It is said that this feature has not been noticed anywhere else in India. The Lokota Bari is the gate at the fort's northern tip, while a small opening that was used to hurl criminals into the abyss is seen at the southern end.
Vijaya Stambha
The Vijaya Stambha (Tower of Victory) or Jaya Stambha, called the symbol of Chittorgarh and a particularly bold expression of triumph, was erected by Rana Kumbha between 1458 and 1468 to commemorate his victory over Mahmud Shah I Khalji, the Sultan of Malwa, in 1440 AD. Built over a period of ten years, it rises over a base in nine stories accessed through a narrow circular staircase of 157 steps (the interior is also carved) up to the 8th floor, from where there is good view of the plains and the new town of Chittorgarh. The dome, which was a later addition, was damaged by lightning and repaired during the 19th century. The Stambha is now illuminated during the evenings and gives a beautiful view of Chittorgarh from the top.
Kirti Stambha
Kirti Stambha (Tower of Fame) is a tower built on a base with at the top; it is adorned with Jain sculptures on the outside and is older (probably 12th century) and smaller than the Victory Tower. Built by the Bagherwal Jain merchant Jijaji Rathod, it is dedicated to Adinath, the first Jain tirthankar (revered Jain teacher). In the lowest floor of the tower, figures of the various tirthankars of the Jain pantheon are seen in special niches formed to house them. These are digambara monuments. A narrow stairway with 54 steps leads through the six storeys to the top. The top pavilion that was added in the 15th century has 12 columns.
Rana Kumbha Palace
Rana Kumbha's palace (in ruins) is located at the entrance gate near the Vijaya Stamba. The palace included elephant and horse stables and a temple to Lord Shiva. Maharana Udai Singh, the founder of Udaipur, was born here; the popular folk lore linked to his birth is that his maid Panna Dai. Panna Dhai saved him by substituting her son in his place as a decoy, which resulted in her son getting killed by Banbir. The prince was spirited away in a fruit basket. The palace is built with plastered stone. The remarkable feature of the palace is its splendid series of canopied balconies. Entry to the palace is through Suraj Pol that leads into a courtyard. Rani Meera, the famous poet-saint, also lived in this palace. This is also the palace where Rani Padmini is said to have consigned herself to the funeral pyre in one of the underground cellars, as an act of jauhar along with many other women. The Nau Lakha Bandar (literal meaning: nine lakh treasury) building, the royal treasury of Chittorgarh was also located close by. Now, across from the palace is a museum and archeological office. The Singa Chowri temple is also nearby.
Fateh Prakash Palace
Located near Rana Khumba palace, built by Rana Fateh Singh, the precincts have modern houses and a small museum. A school for local children (about 5,000 villagers live within the fort) is also nearby.
Gaumukh Reservoir
A spring feeds the tank from a carved cow's mouth in the cliff. This pool was the main source of water at the fort during the numerous sieges.
Padmini's Palace
Padmini's Palace or Rani Padmini's Palace is a white building and a three storied structure (a 19th-century reconstruction of the original). It is located in the southern part of the fort. Chhatris (pavilions) crown the palace roofs and a water moat surround the palace. This style of the palace became the forerunner of other palaces built in the state with the concept of Jal Mahal (palace surrounded by water). Maharana Ratan Singh was killed and Rani Padmini committed Jauhar. Rani Padmini's beauty has been compared to that of Cleopatra and her life story is an eternal legend in the history of Chittorgarh. This Palace find its reference in some of the historical texts of Mewar. Amar Kavyam mentions the confinement of Mahmud Khilji- II, Sultan of Malwa here by Rana Sanga. Maharana Udai Singh married his daughter JasmaDe to Rai Singh of Bikaner. A song was composed about the charity done by Rai Singh, in which it is mentions that he donated an elephant for each step of the stairs of Padmini's Palace. It was repaired by Maharana Sajjan Singh.
Other sights
Close to Vijay Sthamba is the Meera Temple, or the Meerabai Temple. Rana Khumba built it in an ornate Indo-Aryan architectural style. It is associated with the mystic saint-poet Mirabai who was an ardent devotee of Lord Krishna and dedicated her entire life to His worship. She composed and sang lyrical bhajans called Meera Bhajans. The popular legend associated with her is that with blessings of Krishna, she survived after consuming poison sent to her by her evil brother-in-law. The larger temple in the same compound is the Kumbha Shyam Temple (Varaha Temple). The pinnacle of the temple is in pyramid shape. A picture of Meerabai praying before Krishna has now been installed in the temple.
Across from Padmini's Palace is the Kalika Mata Temple. Originally, a Sun Temple dated to the 8th century dedicated to Surya (the Sun God) was destroyed in the 14th century. It was rebuilt as a Kali temple.
Another temple on the west side of the fort is the old Goddess Tulja Bhavani Temple built by Banvir and dedicated to Goddess Tulja Bhavani. The Tope Khana (cannon foundry) is located next to this temple in a courtyard, where a few old cannons are still seen.
Culture
The fort and the city of Chittorgarh host the biggest Rajput festival called the "Jauhar Mela". It takes place annually on the anniversary of one of the jauhars, but no specific name has been given to it. It is generally believed that it commemorates Padmavati's jauhar, which is most famous. This festival is held primarily to commemorate the bravery of Rajput ancestors and all three jauhars which happened at Chittorgarh Fort. A huge number of Rajputs, which include the descendants of most of the princely families, hold a procession to celebrate the Jauhar. It has also become a forum to air one's views on the current political situation in the country.
Six forts of Rajasthan, namely, Amber Fort, Chittorgarh Fort, Gagron Fort, Jaisalmer Fort, Kumbhalgarh and Ranthambore Fort were included in the UNESCO World Heritage Site list during the 37th meeting of the World Heritage Committee in Phnom Penh in June 2013. They were recognized as a serial cultural property and examples of Rajput military hill architecture.
The ruined city of the Cold Lairs from The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling, where the protagonist Mowgli is taken to after being kidnapped by the Bandar-log, is noted by the Kipling Society to have possibly been based on Chittorgarh Fort, which Kipling personally visited in 1887, and would have been relatively close to the Aravalli Range also located in Rajasthan, the original setting of the Jungle Books before Kipling changed it to the hills of Seoni in Madhya Pradesh.
Gallery
References
Bibliography
External links
Forts in Rajasthan
Rajput architecture
1567 in India
1535 in India
7th-century establishments in India
Tourist attractions in Chittorgarh district
World Heritage Sites in India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit%20grammar
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Sanskrit grammar
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The grammar of the Sanskrit language has a complex verbal system, rich nominal declension, and extensive use of compound nouns. It was studied and codified by Sanskrit grammarians from the later Vedic period (roughly 8th century BCE), culminating in the Pāṇinian grammar of the 4th century BCE.
Grammatical tradition
Origins
Sanskrit grammatical tradition (vyākaraṇa, one of the six Vedanga disciplines) began in late Vedic India and culminated in the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini.
The oldest attested form of the Proto-Indo-Aryan language as it had evolved in the Indian subcontinent after its introduction with the arrival of the Indo-Aryans is called Vedic. By 1000 BCE, the end of the early Vedic period, a large body of Vedic hymns had been consolidated into the Ṛg·Veda, which formed the canonical basis of the Vedic religion, and was transmitted from generation to generation entirely orally.
In the course of the following centuries, as the popular speech evolved, there was rising concern among the guardians of the Vedic religion that the hymns be passed on without 'corruption', which for them was vital to ensure the religious efficacy of the hymns. This led to the rise of a vigorous, sophisticated grammatical tradition involving the study of linguistic analysis, in particular phonetics alongside grammar, the high point of which was Pāṇini's stated work, which eclipsed all others before him.
Pāṇini
Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī, a prescriptive and generative grammar with algebraic rules governing every single aspect of the language, in an era when oral composition and transmission was the norm, is staunchly embedded in that oral tradition. In order to ensure wide dissemination, Pāṇini is said to have preferred brevity over clarity – it can be recited end-to-end in two hours. This has led to the emergence of a great number of commentaries of his work over the centuries, which for the most part adhere to the foundations laid by Pāṇini's work.
After Pāṇini
About a century after Pāṇini, Kātyāyana composed vārtikas (explanations) on the Pāṇinian sũtras. Patañjali, who lived three centuries after Pāṇini, wrote the Mahābhāṣya, the "Great Commentary" on the Aṣṭādhyāyī and Vārtikas. Because of these three ancient Sanskrit grammarians this grammar is called Trimuni Vyākarana.
Jayaditya and Vāmana wrote a commentary named Kāśikā in 600 CE. 's (12th century AD) commentary on Patañjali's also exerted much influence on the development of grammar, but more influential was the Rupāvatāra of Buddhist scholar Dharmakīrti which popularised simplified versions of Sanskrit grammar.
The most influential work of the Early Modern period was Siddhānta Kaumudī by (17th century). Bhaṭṭoji's disciple Varadarāja wrote three abridged versions of the original text, named Madhya Siddhānta Kaumudī, Sāra Siddhānta Kaumudī and Laghu Siddhānta Kaumudī, of which the latter is the most popular. Vāsudeva Dīkṣita wrote a commentary named Bālamanoramā on Siddhānta-Kaumudī.
European grammatical scholarship began in the 18th century with Jean François Pons and others, and culminated in the exhaustive expositions by 19th century scholars such as Otto von Böhtlingk, William Dwight Whitney, Jacob Wackernagel and others.
Timeline
The following is a timeline of notable post-Pāṇinian grammatical figures and approximate dates:
Kātyāyana – 300 BCE
Patañjali – 150 BCE
Bhartṛhari – V CE
Kāśikā – VII
Śākaṭāyana – IX
Kaiyaṭa – XI
Hemacandra – XII
Śaraṇadeva – XII
Vopadeva – XIII
Bhattoji-dīkṣita – XVII
Phonology
The sound system
The Sanskrit sound system can be represented in a 2-dimensional matrix arranged on the basis of the articulatory criteria:
Pronunciation examples
The table below shows the traditional listing of the Sanskrit consonants with the nearest equivalents in English (as pronounced in General American and Received Pronunciation or wherever relevant in Indian English), French, Spanish, Russian or Polish, along with approximate IPA values.
(Further information: IPA chart (vowels and consonants) – 2015. and IPA pulmonic consonant chart with audio )
It should be understood that, while the script commonly associated with Sanskrit is Devanagari, this has no particular importance. It just happens currently to be the most popular script for Sanskrit. The form of the symbols used to write Sanskrit has varied widely geographically and over time, and notably includes modern Indian scripts. What is important is that the adherence to the phonological classification of the symbols elucidated here has remained constant in Sanskrit since classical times. It should be further noted that the phonology of modern Indian languages has evolved, and the values given to Devanagari symbols in modern Indo-Aryan languages, e.g., Hindi, differ somewhat from those of Sanskrit.
Sound classes
Vowels
The long syllabic l (ḹ) is not attested, and is only discussed by grammarians for systematic reasons. Its short counterpart ḷ occurs in a single root only, kḷp . Long syllabic r (ṝ) is also quite marginal, occurring (optionally) in the genitive plural of ṛ-stems (e.g. mātṛ, pitṛ ⇒ mātṝṇām, pitṝṇām).
i, u, ṛ, ḷ are vocalic allophones of consonantal y, v, r, l. There are thus only 5 invariably vocalic phonemes: a, ā, ī, ū, ṝ.
Visarga and anusvāra
Visarga ḥ is an allophone of r and s, and anusvara ṃ, Devanagari of any nasal, both in pausa (i.e., the nasalised vowel).
Sibilants
The exact pronunciation of the three sibilants may vary, but they are distinct phonemes. Voiced sibilants, such as z , ẓ , and ź as well as its aspirated counterpart źh , were inherited by Proto-Indo-Aryan from Proto-Indo-Iranian but lost around or after the time of the Rigveda, as evidenced due to ḷh (an aspirated retroflex lateral consonant) being metrically a cluster (that was most likely of the form ẓḍh; aspirated fricatives are exceedingly rare in any language).
Retroflex consonants
The retroflex consonants are somewhat marginal phonemes, often being conditioned by their phonetic environment; they do not continue a PIE series and are often ascribed by some linguists to the substratal influence of Dravidian or other substrate languages.
Nasals
The nasal is a conditioned allophone of , while and are distinct phonemes (aṇu 'minute', 'atomic' [nom. sg. neutr. of an adjective] is distinctive from anu 'after', 'along'). Phonologically independent /ŋ/ occurs only marginally, e.g. in prāṅ 'directed forwards/towards' [nom. sg. masc. of an adjective].
Sandhi
The phonological rules which are applied when combining morphemes to a word, and when combining words to a sentence, are collectively called sandhi "composition". Texts are written phonetically, with sandhi applied (except for the so-called padapāṭha).
Phonological processes
A number of phonological processes have been described in detail. One of them is (lit. 'adjacent imposition'), (also known as , 'stoppage', or ). It is the incomplete articulation, or ""repressing or obscuring", of a plosive or, according to some texts, a semi-vowel (except r), which occurs before another plosive or a pause. It was described in the various Prātiśākhyas as well as the . These texts are not unanimous on the environments that trigger abhinidhana, nor on the precise classes of consonants affected.
One ancient grammarian, (in 6.12), states that only occurred when a consonant was doubled, whereas according to the text of the it was obligatory in this context but optional for plosives before another plosive of a different place of articulation. The and the agree on the observation that abhinidhana occurs only if there is a slight pause between the two consonants and not if they are pronounced jointly. Word-finally, plosives undergo abhinidhāna according to the and the . The latter text adds that final semivowels (excluding r) are also incompletely articulated. The 2.38 lists an exception: a plosive at the end of the word will not undergo and will be fully released if it is followed by a consonant whose place of articulation is further back in the mouth. The states that the consonants affected by abhinidhāna are the voiceless unaspirated plosives, the nasal consonants and the semivowels and .
Morphophonology
Vowel gradation
Sanskrit inherits from Proto-Indo-European the feature of regular in-word, vowel variations known in the context of the parent language as ablaut or more generally apophony.
This feature, which can be seen in the English forms sing, sang, sung, and song, themselves a direct continuation of the PIE ablaut, is fundamental in Sanskrit both for inflexion and derivation.
Vowels within stems may change to other related vowels on the basis of the morphological operation being performed on it. There are three such grades, named the zero grade, first grade, and second grade. The first and second grades are also termed guṇa and vṛddhi respectively. The full pattern of gradation, followed by example usage:
As per the internal and historical structure of the system, the guṇa grade can be seen as the normal grade, whence proceeds either a strengthening to form the second grade, or a weakening to form the zero-grade. The ancient grammarians however took the zero-grade as the natural form on which to apply guṇa or vṛddhi.
Whilst with the 1-grade-based system it is possible to derive the 0-grades thus:
ghóṣ·a·ti ⇒ ghuṣ·ṭá-
sráv·a·ti ⇒ sru·tá-
sváp·a·ti ⇒ sup·tá-
the approach used by the ancient grammarians does not always work:
sup·tá- ≠ *sóp·a·ti
To overcome this, the ancient grammarians, while formulating most roots in zero-grade form, make an exception for some, and prescribe a treatment called samprasāraṇa on these:
ghóṣ·a·ti, ghuṣ·ṭá- ⇒ ghuṣ-
sráv·a·ti, sru·tá- ⇒ sru-
sváp·a·ti, sup·tá- ⇒ svap-
Thus, unlike most others, the root 'svap-' does not hold a 0-grade vowel, and is subject to samprasāraṇa before the past participle 'sup·tá-' can be formed.
Besides *r̥, *l̥, Proto-Indo-European also had *m̥, *n̥, all of which, in capacity of zero-grade vowels, participated in the gradation system. Whilst the latter two did not survive in Sanskrit (they ended up as a instead), their effects can be seen in verb-formation steps such as just seen above.
Therefore, it is possible to analogically expand the above vowel-gradation table thus:
The proto-forms of ga·tá- and ha·tá- would thus have *m̥ and *n̥ respectively: *gʷm̥·tó- and *gʷʰn̥·tó-
Accent
Sanskrit inherited a pitch accent (see: Vedic accent) from Proto-Indo-European, as well as vowel gradation, both of which, in Sanskrit, just as in the parent language, go hand in hand.
As a general rule, a root bearing the accent takes the first (guṇa) or second (vṛddhi) grade, and when unaccented, reduces to zero grade.
i- ⇒ éti (0 ⇒ 1st grade)
i·tá ⇒ áy·anam (0 ⇒ 2nd grade)
The gradation examples given in the previous sections demonstrate several more instances of this phenomenon with verbs.
With nouns, the pattern does not always hold, as even from the earliest stage of the language, there has been a tendency to fix a single form, thus while kṣam has kṣā́mas (2-g) and kṣmás (0-g), vāc has 2nd-grade forms throughout.
Nouns whose stem vary between strong, middle and weak forms may correspondingly reflect 2nd, 1st and zero-grade vowels respectively. This may not always be matched by the accent:
rā́jan, rā́jānam, rā́jnā (1, 2, 0 grades)
The above system of accent disappeared completely at some point during the classical stage. It was still alive in Pāṇini's time and even after Patañjali. The author of the Kāśikā commentary () declares its use optional, and it might have disappeared from popular speech in the early centuries of the Common Era.
Verbs
Background
Sanskrit has inherited from its parent the Proto-Indo-European language an elaborate system of verbal morphology, more of which has been preserved in Sanskrit as a whole than in other kindred languages such as Ancient Greek or Latin.
Some of the features of the verbal system, however, have been lost in the classical language, compared to the older Vedic Sanskrit, and in other cases, distinctions that have existed between different tenses have been blurred in the later language. Classical Sanskrit thus does not have the subjunctive or the injunctive mood, has dropped a variety of infinitive forms, and the distinctions in meaning between the imperfect, perfect and aorist forms are barely maintained and ultimately lost.
Conjugation
Verb conjugation in Sanskrit involves the interplay of five 'dimensions', number, person, voice, mood and tense, with the following variables:
Further, participles are considered part of the verbal systems although they are not verbs themselves. Classical Sanskrit has only one infinitive, of accusative case-form.
Formation
The starting point for the morphological analysis of the Sanskrit verb is the root. Before the final endings to denote number, person etc can be applied, additional elements may be added to the root. Whether such elements are affixed or not, the resulting component here is the stem, to which these final endings can then be added.
Based on the treatment they undergo to form the stem, the roots of the Sanskrit language are arranged by the ancient grammarians in ten classes , based on how they form the present stem, and named after a verb typical to each class.
No discoverable grammatical principle has been found for the ordering of these classes. This can be rearranged for greater clarity into non-thematic and thematic groups as summarized below:
Scope
As in kindred Indo-European languages, conjugation is effected across the tenses, moods, voices, persons and numbers stated, yielding, in Sanskrit, a huge number of combinations.
Furthermore, Sanskrit has so-called Secondary conjugations:
Passive
Intensive
Desiderative
Causative
Denominative
The non-finite forms are:
Participles
Infinitive
Gerund
Nominals
Declension
Declension of a noun in Sanskrit involves the interplay of two 'dimensions': 3 numbers and 8 cases. Further, nouns themselves in Sanskrit, like its parent Proto-Indo-European, can be in one of three genders.
In addition, adjectives behave much the same way morphologically as nouns do, and can conveniently be considered together. While the same noun cannot be seen to be of more than one gender, adjectives change gender on the basis of the noun they are being applied to, along with case and number, thus giving the following variables:
The oldest system of declension was in Proto-Indo-European, inherited by Sanskrit, to affix the endings directly to the nominal root. In later stages, a new system developed wherein an intermediary called the thematic vowel is inserted to the root before the final endings are appended: *-o- which in Sanskrit becomes -a-, producing the thematic stem.
Stem classification
Substantives may be divided into different classes on the basis of the stem vowel before they are declined on the above basis. The general classification is:
a-stems
i- and u-stems
ā-, ī- and ū-stems
ṛ-stems
Consonant stems
When the nominal endings are being affixed to a noun of each class, they may undergo, in some cases, some changes, including being entirely replaced by other forms.
Numerals
Personal pronouns and determiners
Sanskrit pronouns and determiners behave in their declension largely like other declinable classes such as nouns, adjectives and numerals, so that they can all be classed together under nominals. However, pronouns and determiners display certain peculiarities of their own compared to the other nominal classes.
Furthermore, personal pronouns have an additional dimension not present in the other nominals, but shared by verbs: person.
Pronouns are declined for case, number, and gender. The pronominal declension applies to a few adjectives as well. Many pronouns have alternative enclitic forms.
Derivation
Derivation or word-formation in Sanskrit can be divided into the following types:
Primary derivation – suffixes directly appended to roots
Secondary derivation – suffixes appended to derivative stems
Word-compounding – combining one more word stems
Compounds
Sanskrit inherits from its parent Proto-Indo-European the capability of forming compound nouns, also widely seen in kindred languages such as especially German, Greek and also English.
However, Sanskrit, especially in the later stages of the language, significantly expands on this both in terms of the number of elements making up a single compound and the volume of compound-usage in the literature, a development which has no parallels elsewhere.
Indeclinables
Words that change no form across cases, numbers, genders are classified as indeclinables. Indeclinables may be divided into either simple and compound. The latter is treated under Sanskrit compounds and the term indeclinable usually implies only the former type.
Indeclinables can be classified as follows:
Prepositions
Adverbs
Particles
Conjunctions
Interjections
Miscellaneous
Prepositions
In Sanskrit, a preposition is an indeclinable with an independent meaning that is prefixed to verbs and their derivatives with the result of modifying, intensifying, or in some cases, totally altering the sense of the roots.
Adverbs
In Sanskrit, adverbs are either inherited as set forms from the parent language or may be derived from nouns, pronouns or numeral.
The typical way of forming an adverb is to simply use the accusative singular neutral form of nouns and adjectives.
Particles
Particles are used either as expletives or intensives.
The most common ones are:
a-, an- – generally the same meaning as English 'un-' and 'a-', but with some extended senses
sma – when used with the present form of a verb, it conveys the past tense
kā-, ku- – prefixed to give a negative, inadequate or pejorative connotation.
Conjunctions
The following is an enumeration of the main types of Sanskrit conjunctions:
atha – marks the beginning of a work
Copulative – atha, atho, uta, ca, etc
Disjunctive – vā, vā... vā, etc
Adversative – athavā, tu, kintu, etc
Conditional – cet, yadi, yadāpi, net, etc
Causal – hi, tat, tena, etc
Interrogative – āho, uta, utāho, kim, etc
Affirmative and negative – atha kim, ām, addhā, etc
Conjunctions of time – yāvat-tāvat, yadā-tadā, etc
iti – marks the end of a work
Interjections
The main ones in Sanskrit expressing the various emotions are:
Wonder, grief, regret, etc: ā, aho, ha, etc
Contempt: kim, dhik, etc
Sorrow, dejection, grief: hā, hāhā, hanta, etc
Joy: hanta etc
Respectfully calling attention: aho, bhoḥ, he, ho, etc
Disrespectfully calling attention: are, rere, etc
Miscellaneous
A few nouns have only one inflection and thus behave like indeclinables. The most common ones are:
Syntax
Because of Sanskrit's complex declension system, the word order is free. In usage, there is a strong tendency toward subject–object–verb (SOV), which was the original system in place in Vedic prose. However, there are exceptions when word pairs cannot be transposed.
Notably, Pāṇini did not fix syntax in the Aṣtādhyāyī, as to do so explicitly would be difficult in any language, given several ways of expressing the same idea and various other ways of expressing similar ideas. Thus within the bounds of phonological and morphological definition wrought by Pāṇini, the syntax of Sanskrit has continued to evolve in the course of its productive literary history.
Peculiar characteristics
In the introduction to his celebrated translation of Vidyakara's Subhāṣitaratnakośa, Daniel H.H. Ingalls describes some peculiar characteristics of the Sanskrit language.
He refers to the enormous vocabulary of Sanskrit, and also of the presence of a larger choice of synonyms in Sanskrit than any other language he knew of. Further, just as there exist a vast number of synonyms for almost any word in Sanskrit, there also exist synonymous constructions. In his elementary Sanskrit examinations he would ask his students to write in Sanskrit the sentence 'You must fetch the horse' in ten different ways. Actually, it is possible to write the sentence in Sanskrit in around fifteen different ways 'by using active or passive constructions, imperative or optative, an auxiliary verb, or any of the three gerundive forms, each of which, by the way, gives a different metrical pattern'.
He emphasizes that while these constructions differ formally, emotionally they are identical and completely interchangeable, that in any natural language this would be impossible. This and other arguments are used to show that Sanskrit is not a natural language, but an 'artificial' language. By 'artificial' is meant that it was learned after some other Indian language had been learned the natural way.
Ingalls writes: 'Every Indian, one may suppose, grew up learning naturally the language of his mother and his playmates. Only after this, and if he belonged to the priesthood or the nobility or to such a professional caste as that of the clerks, the physicians, or the astrologers, would he learn Sanskrit. As a general rule, Sanskrit was not the language of the family. It furnished no subconscious symbols for the impressions which we receive in childhood nor for the emotions which form our character in early adolescence.'
See also
Sanskrit nominals
Sanskrit verbs
Sanskrit compound
Pāṇini
Aṣṭādhyāyī
Vedic Sanskrit grammar
Proto-Indo-Aryan
Proto-Indo-Iranian
Proto-Indo-European
Notes
Glossary
Traditional glossary and notes
References
Bibliography
Böhtlingk, Otto, Pâṇini's Grammatik, Leipzig (1887)
B. Delbrück, Altindische Tempuslehre (1876) Topics in Sanskrit morphology and syntax
Staal, Frits, Word order in Sanskrit and Universal Grammar, Foundations of Language, supplementary series 5, Springer (1967), .
Wackernagel, Debrunner, Altindische Grammatik, Göttingen.
vol. I. phonology Jacob Wackernagel (1896)
vol. II.1. introduction to morphology, nominal composition, Wackernagel (1905)
vol. II.2. nominal suffixes, J. Wackernagel and Albert Debrunner (1954)
vol. III. nominal inflection, numerals, pronouns, Wackernagel and Debrunner (1930)
Further reading
Pooth, Roland A. "On converse lability and its decline from Vedic to Epic Sanskrit: The verb juṣ-‘to enjoy’and ‘to please’." Yearbook of the Poznań Linguistic Meeting. Vol. 7. No. 1. Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu, 2021.
External links
Vedic Society Sandhi Calculator
Little Red Book PDF
Sanskrit grammar Laghu-Siddanta-Kaumudi (English & Tamil Lectures)
Sanskrit grammar Video AdiLaghu (English & Tamil)
Charles Wikner "A Practical Sanskrit Introductory"
Julia Papke "Order and Meaning in Sanskrit Preverbs"
V. Swaminathan "Panini’s Understanding of Vedic Grammar"
— sources results from Monier Williams etc.
— dynamic online declension and conjugation tool
Indo-Aryan grammars
Indo-Iranian grammars
Indo-European grammars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITV%20Sport
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ITV Sport
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ITV Sport is a sport producer for ITV. It was formed following the merger between Granada Sport and Central Sport.
The majority of ITV Sport programmes are broadcast on ITV4 although live football, major horse racing events and the Rugby World Cup are shown on the ITV Network (ITV1, STV and UTV).
The director of ITV Sport is Niall Sloane, who reports to ITV's director of television Kevin Lygo.
History
ITV Sport was created as an umbrella brand for sport programmes on the ITV network; no programmes were actually produced by ITV Sport during this time, but rather the 15 ITV companies each produced sports shows for the umbrella brand, such as World of Sport by LWT and Midweek Sports Special by Thames Television.
In 2004, Granada and Carlton merged, creating a single company for all ITV franchises in England and Wales. The current ITV sport department was formed from the amalgamation of Granada Sport, Carlton's (previously Central's) sports department and LSN, the sport division of London News Network.
Former Sport channel
ITV used to have a dedicated sports channel on the ITV Digital network. Originally broadcasting UEFA Champions League football and ATP Masters Series tennis under the brand ONsport, it was renamed as the ITV Sport Channel. Lasting for just one football season, the ITV Sport Channel launched on Saturday 11 August 2001 and closed on Saturday 12 May 2002.
Pay-per-view
ITV Sport Select
During the 2001–02 football season ITV showed the on-demand Premier League football matches from Sky Sports on a channel called ITV Sport Select.
ITV Box Office
ITV launched its pay-per-view channel, ITV Box Office, on 4 February 2017 when it showed coverage of Chris Eubank Jr.'s world title boxing fight against Renold Quinlan. On 24 January 2020 the channel announced its closure via a message posted on the ITV Box Office web page: "The ITV Box Office service has ceased as of 24th January 2020. There are no further plans to show any future events on this channel."
Current ITV Sport coverage
Football
ITV holds joint rights for the FIFA World Cup with the BBC and has shown every World Cup live since 1966, on a shared basis with the BBC. The same arrangement has been in place for many years for coverage of the UEFA European Championship and both broadcasters shared coverage in 2016.
ITV shared the rights for the FA Cup with the BBC from 1955 to 1988 and will again from 2021 to 2022 with both broadcasters covering the final live. This was generally the only UK match shown live on television every season. Both broadcasters started coverage from early morning trying to gain the upper hand on their rival. ITV regained the live rights to broadcast the FA Cup exclusively on terrestrial television in 1997, showing each final with Sky from 1998 to 2001 while the BBC screened highlights on Match of the Day. The FA Cup then reverted to the BBC until 2008 when ITV regained the FA Cup and England rights. However, their coverage of the competition was criticised after a string of errors including poor camera angles, very short highlight shows and, most notably, the incident during the Fourth Round derby between Everton and Liverpool in the 2008–09 competition. After a goalless 90 minutes, the game went to extra-time. And when young midfielder Dan Gosling scored the winner in the second half of extra-time, ITV accidentally cut to adverts, causing viewers to miss the goal. Eventually, ITV lost these rights from the end of the 2013–14 season to BBC Sport. On 23 May 2019, ITV regained the rights from BT Sport from 2021 to 2022 making the FA Cup fully free to air for the first time since 1988.
ITV football presenters
Since 2015, ITV's main football host is Mark Pougatch. Previous presenters of ITV's football coverage include Jim Rosenthal (1983–88), Elton Welsby (1988–92), Matthew Lorenzo (1993–94), Bob Wilson (1994–99), Des Lynam (1999–2004), Gabby Logan (2004–06), Steve Rider (2006–10) and Adrian Chiles (2010–14).
Motorsport
The British Touring Car Championship is another series ITV won away from the BBC, doing so in 2002 and in 2004, ITV introduced live coverage of the British Touring Car Championship for the first time on network television. Previously the BBC had shown occasional races live, but not to this extent. All meetings have been broadcast live by ITV Sport since. The races are now shown live on ITV4 and highlights are shown on ITV on Tuesday early morning on the corresponding weekend. Vicki Butler-Henderson and Ben Edwards were the presenters from 2002 to 2005, with Ted Kravitz and Louise Goodman taking over in 2006. Steve Rider replaced Kravitz in 2009.
In 2006, ITV replaced Channel 4 as the terrestrial broadcaster of the British Superbike Championship.
From 2014 to 2016 ITV4 showed highlights of MotoGP which aired on the Monday night after the race, the BT Sport team contributed to the commentary and was in essence a BT Sport production for ITV. These rights were lost to Channel 5 for the 2017 season, then the rights went to Quest for the 2019 season.
In 2021, ITV4 regained the rights to MotoGP highlights, and showed the French GP live, with the British GP due to be shown on ITV.
Rugby Union
The network has broadcast every Rugby World Cup live since 1991, being host broadcaster in 1991, 1999 and 2015. The only tournament that ITV has not shown has been the inaugural tournament held in 1987.
When, in 1996, Sky Sports controversially won the rights to show highlights of England home internationals, including the Five Nations, ITV sub-licensed highlights rights to those games.
At the same time ITV started coverage of the international Rugby Sevens series. This took the form of highlights of most tournaments, with live coverage of those held in England and Wales. ITV lost those rights to Sky Sports in 2006, but between 2015 has been showing highlights once again.
ITV acquired shared rights to the Heineken Cup for a single season in 2001, when Premium TV failed to launch its channel on time. These games were shown on the ITV Sport Channel.
Between the 2008–09 and 2016–17 seasons ITV Sport showed a weekly highlights programme of all Premiership Rugby and Anglo-Welsh Cup matches. These rights went to Channel 5, who also broadcast five live matches between 2017 and 2021. In 2022, coverage of the Premiership returned with ITV showing seven live matches a season including the final. This continues for the 2023–24 season.
From 2016, in reaction to satellite pay-TV bids from Sky and BT for coverage of the Six Nations Championship from 2017, the BBC agreed to lose exclusive rights to the tournament two years early in order for the BBC and ITV to jointly bid for the rights of the tournament to keep the Six Nations on free-to-air television. On 9 July 2015, the bid was accepted, and ITV and BBC became joint broadcasters of the Six Nations in the UK from 2016 to 2021. ITV would broadcast all England, Ireland and Italy home matches live, while BBC would broadcast all France, Scotland and Wales home matches live. Mark Pougatch and Jill Douglas present ITV's coverage of the Six Nations. Prior to the 2022 tournament, ITV extended their contract up and including 2025. The new deal would see them continue to broadcast home matches from England, Ireland and Italy and additionally broadcast those from France. The new deal also means they would broadcast matches in peak time for the first time.
On 4 February 2017, it was announced that ITV had extended its contract for the Rugby World Cup until the 2023 tournament. The deal also includes live coverage of the Women's Rugby World Cup for the first time and the Under 20 World Cup. ITV previously showed highlights of the WRWC in 2001.
Horse Racing
Until the mid-1980s, horse racing was shown regularly on ITV. Racing was a mainstay of World of Sport throughout the programme's run with the ITV Seven featuring almost every week. ITV also showed racing during the week. ITV showed many of racing's showpiece events, including all the flat racing classics, although the channel never showed The Grand National as this event was covered by the BBC. In the mid-1980s coverage was switched to Channel 4. In March 1984, ITV's midweek action was moved with Saturday's racing coverage making the switch in October 1985 a week after the final edition of World of Sport was broadcast. ITV continued to broadcast coverage of The Derby, simulcasting Channel 4's coverage, but stopped doing so after the 1988 event and this was the last time that horse racing was broadcast on ITV until 2017.
On 1 January 2016 it was announced ITV Sport had won rights to be the exclusive free to air home of British Horse Racing from 1 January 2017 taking over from Channel 4 which had taken ITV rights previously in the 1980s. ITV deal encompassed Horse Racing every Saturday Afternoon on ITV or ITV4 as well as covering the major festivals on ITV. This deal meant ITV were able to cover festivals such as The Grand National, Cheltenham and Royal Ascot which they previously were not allowed to cover when they covered Horse Racing on World of Sport and also meant The Derby returning to the channel in 2017 for the first time since 1988.
ITV's Racing coverage encompasses coverage of approximately 100 days of racing each year with 41 days on ITV and 60 days on ITV4. ITV main Racing Presenter is Ed Chamberlin who signed for coverage from Sky Sports and Francesca Cumani who hosts during the Flat season. Oli Bell also joined ITV as a presenter of the Opening Show and which is broadcast live every Saturday Morning on ITV4. Oli also covers main presenter duties for Chamberlain when he is off.
Cycling
ITV obtained the rights to the Tour de France in 2002, replacing Channel 4 as the UK terrestrial broadcaster. The coverage is shown on ITV4, having aired in previous years on ITV2 and ITV3. Initially, live coverage was only broadcast at the weekend but since the 2010 Tour de France, ITV4 has broadcast daily live coverage of every stage except the final which is shown on ITV, ITV4 have the nightly highlights show.
Following the ratings success of the Tour de France, ITV invested in more cycling coverage and now shows the Women's Tour Tour of Britain and Tour de Yorkshire live. It shows highlights of La Vuelta, having previously showed that race live before it regularly clashed with the Tour of Britain. ITV has previously shown the Tour of Ireland.
ITV also has highlights to the Tour Series cycling, and several of the classic French races, such as Paris-Roubaix
Darts
ITV was the first broadcaster of darts in the United Kingdom back in 1972. They covered many tournaments on World of Sport, including the News of the World Championship and the Winmau World Masters. When World of Sport ended ITV scaled back its darts coverage and dropped darts altogether in 1988 and with the exception of a single one-off event, the 1999 Match of the Century between PDC World Champion Phil Taylor and BDO World Champion Raymond van Barneveld. It would be almost 20 years before ITV resumed coverage of the sport when in 2007, ITV Sport announced they would be covering a new darts tournament, the Grand Slam of Darts, comprising champions of both the BDO and PDC tournaments. ITV covered the event between 2007 and 2010 – coverage then moved to Sky Sports.
In 2011 ITV signed a new contract with the PDC to show the European Darts Championship in July and the Second Players Championship Finals of 2011.
On 14 June 2013 the PDC and ITV announced they had signed a new deal to cover four tournaments a year from 2013 to 2015. The tournaments are The Players Championship which they had covered from 2009 to 2010 and from December 2011 – present, The European Championship which they covered previously in 2008 and 2011, a new tournament called the Masters where the top 16 face in other in a three-day tournament, and the UK Open, otherwise known as the FA Cup of Darts, which had previously been shown on Sky.
In late 2014 it was announced ITV signed a deal to cover five darts tournaments in 2015 covering a new tournament entitled the World Series of Darts Finals. This means that in 2015 ITV will cover the Masters in January, the UK Open in March, the European Championship in October, the World Series of Darts Finals and Players Championship Finals in November.
Snooker
In the 1980s and early 1990s, ITV broadcast up to four Major Snooker Tournaments per season including The Jameson International, The World Doubles Championship, The World Matchplay (which replaced the World Doubles in 1988), The Lada/Mercantile Credit Classic and The British Open. Daytime action was sometimes shown on Channel 4 until 1988. However, ITV decided to axe all of its snooker after the 1993 British Open and apart from a brief return to the green baize in 2000 and 2001, the sport was absent from ITV screens for more than 20 years.
ITV started to broadcast snooker again in February 2013. ITV4 broadcast the World Open. It was announced in June 2013 that ITV4 will cover the new tournament entitled the Champion of Champions from November 2013. In summer 2014 ITV and Barry Hearn announced they had signed a 5-year deal to cover 2 Snooker Tournaments per year, keeping coverage of the Champion of Champions and a new tournament called the World Grand Prix. In August 2015, World Snooker announced that ITV4 would televise the Snooker Shoot Out in a three-year deal through to 2018. As of 2021 ITV4 shows the Champion of Champions, World Grand Prix, Players Championship, Tour Championship and the new British Open.
Sports Life Stories
ITV Sport's award-winning documentary strand has featured the stories of many sporting greats. Sports Life Stories series one was first shown on ITV4 in 2012 and included episodes on Ronnie O'Sullivan, Dame Kelly Holmes, Fabrice Muamba, Barry McGuigan, Gareth Thomas, Brian Lara, Amir Khan and Lawrence Dallaglio. Series two first shown on ITV4 in 2013 included episodes on James Cracknell, David Weir, Nicola Adams, Jermain Defoe, Eric Bristow, Chris Eubank, Didier Drogba and Jimmy White. Series 3 returns in February 2015. Reporters on the series have included Gabriel Clarke, Ned Boulting, Adam Darke and Leon Mann.
List of current ITV Sport rights
Football
Football
FIFA World Cup Finals: All matches live on BBC Sport & ITV Sport (2018–2022)
UEFA European Championship Finals: All matches live on BBC Sport & ITV Sport (Until 2028)
FA Community Shield: (2021–present)
EFL Championship, League One, League Two, EFL Cup & EFL Trophy Highlights (2022–present: EFL League highlights on ITV4 and repeated on ITV)
FA Youth Cup: Semi-finals and final are shown live on ITV4
England National Women's Team: 2021–present
Arnold Clark Cup: 2022–present
La Liga - 10 live matches per season
Rugby Union
Rugby World Cup (men's): All matches Live on ITV & ITV4 (to 2023)
Rugby World Cup (women's): Live on ITV and ITV4 until 2021
Under 20 Rugby World Cup: Live on ITV4 until 2023
Six Nations Championship: ITV has rights to England, France, Ireland and Italy home games (2022–2025)
Premiership Rugby: 5 live matches in 2021–22 to include the final plus a weekly highlights show. Coverage increasing to seven live matches in 2022–23 and 2023–24.
European Rugby Champions Cup - 8 live matches per season including final & highlights (to 2023/24)
Motorsport
British Touring Cars Championship: Live on ITV4 (to 2026)
MotoGP: 2 Races Live on ITV & ITV4 with highlights of all races on ITV4
World Superbike Championship: Highlights on ITV4
British Superbike Championship: Highlights on ITV4
Isle of Man TT: Highlights on ITV4
Goodwood Festival of Speed, Goodwood Revival and Goodwood Members Meeting: Live on ITV
British F3 Championship highlights
World Rally Championship: Highlights on ITV4
Extreme E: Live on ITV
Boxing
Premier Boxing Champions: Live on ITV4
Snooker
World Mixed Doubles: Live on ITV and ITV4
British Open: Live on ITV4
Champion of Champions: Live on ITV4
World Grand Prix: Live on ITV4
Players Championship: Live on ITV4
Tour Championship: Live on ITV4
Darts
UK Open: Live on ITV4
European Championship: Live on ITV4
The Masters: Live on ITV4
World Series of Darts Finals: Live on ITV4
Players Championship Finals: Live on ITV4
World Series of Darts: Delayed and live coverage of 6 events on ITV4 (Delayed coverage of events outside UK & Europe)
Cycling
Tour de France: Live Coverage & Highlights on ITV4
La Course by Le Tour de France: Live on ITV4
Tour of Britain: Live coverage & Highlights on ITV4
Women's Tour of Britain: Highlights on ITV4
Tour de Yorkshire: Live on ITV4
Vuelta a Espana: Highlights on ITV4
British Road Race Championships: Highlights on ITV4
Tour Series: Highlights on ITV4
Horse Racing
Exclusive terrestrial rights to a minimum of 95 days of racing, live on ITV, ITV3 and ITV4 including Cheltenham Festival, Grand National, Derby & Royal Ascot
American Football
Two London Games and Superbowl live plus weekly highlights until 2024/25
Wrestling
All Elite Wrestling (2019–present, AEW Dynamite & Rampage reruns on ITV4 and highlights on ITV)
List of current ITV Sport personnel
Football
Presenters:
Mark Pougatch
Seema Jaswal (Also works for BBC Sport and Premier League Productions)
Laura Woods (also works for Amazon Prime Video & TNT Sports)
Pundits:
Eni Aluko (Also works for Amazon Prime Video)
Ashley Cole
Lee Dixon (Also works for Amazon Prime Video and NBC Sports)
Roy Keane (Also works for Sky Sports)
Ally McCoist (Also works for Amazon Prime Video, Viaplay Sports, TNT Sports, Sky Sports and talkSPORT)
Ian Wright (Also works for BBC Sport)
Karen Carney (Also works for Sky Sports and Amazon Prime Video)
Emma Hayes
Commentators:
Sam Matterface (Also works for talkSPORT and Premier League Productions)
Clive Tyldesley (Also works for Amazon Prime Video, CBS Sports, talkSPORT and Premier League Productions)
Seb Hutchinson (Also works for BBC Radio 5 Live, Sky Sports and Premier League Productions)
Joe Speight (Also works for TNT Sports, Premier League Productions and NBC Sports)
Tom Gayle (Also works for BBC Sport and Premier League Productions)
Reporters:
Gabriel Clarke (Also works for Amazon Prime Video)
Katie Shanahan (Also works for Sky Sports)
Cycling
Presenter:
Gary Imlach
Pundits:
Chris Boardman (Also works for BBC Sport)
Peter Kennaugh
Commentators:
Ned Boulting
David Millar
Darts
Presenter:
Jacqui Oatley
Pundits:
Chris Mason (Also works for Online Live League Darts & talkSPORT)
Alan Warriner-Little
Mark Webster (Also works for Sky Sports)
Commentators:
Stuart Pyke (Also works for Sky Sports)
John Rawling (Also works for talkSPORT and Eurosport/Quest)
Reporter:
Ned Boulting
Dan Dawson
Horse Racing
Presenters:
Ed Chamberlin
Francesca Cumani
Oli Bell
Pundits:
Jason Weaver
Mick Fitzgerald
Jane Mangan
Leona Mayor
AP McCoy
Ruby Walsh
Megan Nicholls
Johnny Murtagh
Brough Scott
Andrew Thornton
Hayley Turner
Commentators:
Richard Hoiles
Mark Johnson
Ian Bartlett
Reporters:
Matt Chapman (Also works for Sky Sports Racing)
Mick Fitzgerald
Brian Gleeson
Sally-Ann Grassick
Luke Harvey
Rishi Persad
Alice Plunkett
Adele Mullrennan
Natalie Green
Charlotte Hawkins
Mark Heyes
Chris Hughes
Lucy Verasamy
Motorsport
David Addison
Louise Goodman
Tim Harvey
Barry Nutley (Also works for Eurosport)
Niall Mackenzie (Also works for Eurosport)
Steve Rider
Paul O'Neill
Richard John-Neil
Phil Glew
Rugby Union
Presenters:
Martin Bayfield (also works for TNT Sports)
Craig Doyle (also works for TNT Sports)
Jill Douglas (also works for BBC Sport)
Mark Pougatch
David Flatman (also a commentator and also working for Amazon Prime & TNT Sports)
Topsy Ojo (also works for TNT Sports)
Hugh Woozencroft (also works for talkSPORT)
Pundits:
Maggie Alphonsi (also works for BBC Sport & Sky Sports)
Marco Bortolami
Lawrence Dallaglio (also works for TNT Sports)
Gordon D'Arcy (also works for RTE Sport & BBC Radio 5 Live)
Sean Fitzpatrick (also works for Sky Sports)
George Gregan
Bryan Habana
Jim Hamilton (also works for BBC Sport)
Scott Hastings (also works for Sky Sports)
Ben Kay (also works for TNT Sports)
Michael Lynagh (also works for Sky Sports)
Sir Ian McGeechan
Brian O'Driscoll (also works for TNT Sports)
Mike Phillips
Jamie Roberts (also works for Amazon & S4C)
Jason Robinson
Gareth Thomas
Sam Warburton (also works for BBC Sport & Amazon Prime)
Danielle Waterman
Shane Williams (also works for BBC Radio 5 Live)
Jonny Wilkinson
Sir Clive Woodward
Commentators:
Nick Mullins (also works for TNT Sports)
Miles Harrison (also works for Amazon Prime & Channel 4)
Martin Gillingham
Simon Ward
Reporters:
Gabriel Clarke
Jill Douglas
David Flatman
Snooker
Presenters:
Jill Douglas
Rishi Persad (also works for BBC Sport)
Oli Bell
Pundits:
Neal Foulds (also works for Eurosport/Quest)
Alan McManus (also works for Eurosport)
Stephen Hendry (also works for BBC Sport)
Ken Doherty (also works for BBC Sport)
Joe Perry (also works for BBC Sport)
Commentators:
David Hendon (also works for Eurosport/Quest)
Phil Yates (also works for Eurosport/Quest)
Reporters:
Rob Walker (also works for BBC Sport)
Laura Winter
Previous ITV Sport coverage
Athletics
In 1985, ITV won the rights to show British Athletics from the BBC. As well as broadcasting UK athletics, the channel also showed many of the major European evening meetings whereby ITV showed the first hour with the second hour broadcast on Channel 4. ITV also broadcast the 1983 and 1987 World Championships and the European Athletics Championships during the 1980s and in 1990. Again, some of the coverage was broadcast on Channel 4. Jim Rosenthal presented the coverage with commentary from Alan Parry, Peter Matthews and Steve Ovett. ITV scaled back its coverage of the sport in the early 1990s and decided to axe all remaining athletics coverage in 1997 and the sport has subsequently never been seen on the channel. Channel 4 briefly took the baton from ITV, showing UK meetings in 1997 and 1998, before coverage reverted to the BBC in 1999.
The Boat Race
In 2004, ITV won the rights to the annual Varsity Boat Race from the BBC. The contract ran to 2009. Hosts of the coverage were initially Gabby Logan and Mark Durden Smith. Craig Doyle took over as presenter, while Peter Drury commentated. James Cracknell acted as a co presenter and pundit. ITV Sport did not renew its contract for The Boat Race after its contract ended due to wanting to concentrate on football and the rights reverted to the BBC.
Boxing
ITV Sport has broadcast many boxing matches over the years under the Big Fight Live banner and the sport was a regular fixture on ITV screens until the mid-1990s when ITV lost its two premier contracts – in mid-1994 Barry Hearn took Chris Eubank and his stable of fighters to Sky Sports and at the start of 1995, Sky Sports won the rights to show Sports Network fights. This left ITV with only occasional boxing for the following ten years. Their only networked boxing during this period were a few fights involving Shea Neary, thanks to a contract with Merseyside promoter John Hyland. Other bouts were shown on ITV2 and the ill-fated ITV Sport Channel and some boxing was shown on a regional basis, but this was rare.
In May 2005, ITV returned to the ring with live coverage of Amir Khan's last fight before becoming professional against Mario Kindelan. It achieved a peak audience of 6.3 million viewers, encouraging ITV to reach a long-term agreement to broadcast the main share of Frank Warren's Sports Network fights and as a result broadcast fights involving Amir Khan, Joe Calzaghe, Danny Williams, Audley Harrison, Derek Chisora and others. Other highlights included Joe Calzaghe's emphatic victory over Jeff Lacy for the WBO and IBF super-middleweight world title at the Manchester MEN Arena in March 2006. During this period the main event was usually shown on the ITV Network while undercard matches were often televised on ITV4.
On 6 September 2008, Amir Khan switched to Sky from ITV, signalling the end of ITV's contract with Frank Warren's Sports Network promotion. Later that month, ITV announced a 2-year, 26-fight deal with Hennessy Sports. The majority of fights were screened on ITV4 and was once again hosted by Jim Rosenthal, who made an unexpected return to ITV having previously been axed in early 2008. Amir Khan moved back to ITV in 2010, when his fight against Paulie Malignaggi was broadcast live in the early hours of Sunday 15 May 2010. ITV also broadcast delayed coverage of at least one Carl Froch fight in America the night after it took place. ITV then decided to stop covering the sport as ITV thought that boxing was no longer commercially viable.
ITV made a return to boxing in 2015, covering Belfast world champion Carl Frampton live. In 2017 ITV showed Chris Eubank Jr.'s world title boxing fight against Renold Quinlan. The event launched ITV's new pay-per-view channel ITV Box Office. In 2017/18, ITV broadcast the inaugural World Boxing Super Series tournament. ITV didn't renew the contract for the 2018–19 event and the rights moved to Sky Sports.
The main host of ITV Boxing was Jim Rosenthal and until 1996 the main commentators were Reg Gutteridge and Jim Watt, both of whom moved to Sky while continuing to commentate for the few boxing shows ITV televised in the late 1990s, which were presented by Russ Williams. Graham Beecroft commentated on boxing on a regional basis during the late 1990s. When boxing returned to ITV on a regular basis in 2005 Jim Rosenthal resumed presenting duties and Barry McGuigan left Sky Sports to continue his role as a pundit on ITV. John Rawling and Duke McKenzie were the commentators and Gabriel Clarke provided reports and conducted interviews with the boxers.
Commonwealth Games
The only ITV coverage of the Commonwealth Games has been of the 1958 Games in Cardiff, which was shared with the BBC. Otherwise this event has been shown exclusively on the BBC.
Cricket
Cricket has only been shown very occasionally on ITV with the Gillette Cup between 1963–1969 and England home test matches with alternative rotation of coverage with the BBC between 1966 and 1968. The BBC had been the major broadcaster of cricket during the 20th century until it lost all of its cricket coverage to Channel 4 in 1999. However, during the BBC's dominance of coverage of the sport ITV occasionally broadcast cricket on a regional basis, such as the Roses matches between Yorkshire and Lancashire which were shown in the north of England. ITV also showed highlights of England's overseas tour of New Zealand in 1988.
There was to be no further cricket on ITV until in 2010 the broadcaster signed a deal to show the 2010 Indian Premier League and encouraged by the success of having aired the Indian Premier League (IPL) in 2010, on a one-year contract, UK broadcaster ITV has signed a new four-year deal with Sony Entertainment for the UK broadcast rights to the IPL. In February 2014 ITV lost coverage of the IPL from the 2015 season to Sky Sports.
ITV also broadcast highlights of the 2010/11 Ashes series and the 2015 Cricket World Cup.
Football
Previously, ITV held the rights to English top flight football highlights (both in its current iteration as the Premier League and as the old Football League First Division). It acquired the Premiership highlights in 2000 for the 2001–02, 2002–03 and 2003–04 seasons, surprising the BBC, the previous holders, and ending Match of the Day as a weekly programme. The ITV programme was titled The Premiership and was presented by Des Lynam (himself formerly a presenter for Match of the Day), Matt Smith or Gabby Logan. The show originally went out at 7pm, but this ended up being unpopular with viewers and advertisers. As such, the show was moved to 10.30pm only a few months later. During this period, The Goal Rush was aired on Saturday during the football matches taking place on that day to provide live scores and match reports. It used a similar format to Gillette Soccer Saturday on Sky Sports but never achieved good ratings. The programme ended in 2003. ITV held the Premiership rights for one three-year contract – the rights returned to the BBC for the start of the 2004–05 season.
ITV had a long-standing association with European club football, which dates back to the earliest days of ITV in the 1950s. broadcasting the UEFA Champions League every year from 1992 through to 2015, exclusively from 1992 to 2003, before shared it with Sky Sports since 2003. From 1997, ITV began the habit of broadcasting additional matches from the competition, at first showing one extra match per week on either the Granada Plus or Carlton Select cable channels before, following the launch of On Digital, it showed every key match through special bespoke channels Champions on 28 and Champions on 99, later ONsport 1 and ONsport 2, as well as on ITV2. This practice continued until 2009, when ITV reduced its output to just one live match per set in the competition. Live coverage ended in 2015 when BT Sport took over as exclusive broadcaster of the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League, although ITV's involvement with the competition remained through showing highlights of both competitions every matchweek. However ITV lost these rights in 2017 meaning that their coverage of the UEFA Champions League, UEFA Europa League and UEFA Super Cup ceased after the 2017/18 season as BT Sport won exclusive rights for live matches, highlights and online clip rights.
From 2008 until 2022 ITV covered all of England's international home friendlies and qualifiers for the European Championship and World Cup, the deal was extended to include away friendlies in 2009 and qualifiers from 2010 until it lost the rights to Channel 4 in 2022. Latterly, the deal also included highlights of the new UEFA Nations League tournament were also obtained. ITV also cover one other European qualifier per round not involving a home nation on ITV4 as well, as showing highlights of the rest of the games including those of Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.
ITV also showed coverage of the African Cup of Nations on ITV4 from 2010 to 2015 with both live coverage and highlights, these rights were lost after 2015 to British Eurosport who show the tournament exclusively. ITV also showed highlights of the UEFA Champions League & Europa League from 2015 to 2018 after they lost their live rights but it was transferred to BT Sport after the 2018 final.
In February 2019, ITV acquired the rights to show LaLiga Santander, the top flight of Spanish football alongside Eleven Sports and Premier Sports. The deal means ITV will show 1 weekly live fixture, and a mid-week highlights program until the end of the 2018/19 season. From the start of the 2019–20 La Liga season, Premier Sports became the exclusive UK broadcaster.
Formula 1
ITV covered Formula One during the 1976 and 1977 seasons and from to , after the BBC lost the rights. The deal, worth £60 million, offered extended pre and post race analysis and complete live coverage of qualifying, thanks to a deal negotiated with FOM's Bernie Ecclestone. ITV chose to bid for the rights due to constantly being beaten at weekends while the Grand Prix coverage was on.
ITV drew criticism for airing advertisement breaks during the races – they were obliged to take five three-minute commercial breaks during each race. In the network angered fans by running adverts during the tense conclusion to the San Marino Grand Prix. ITV repeated the last three laps after the race but were inundated with complaints from angry viewers. As a result of these complaints, the server on their website crashed and they were fined by regulator Ofcom. An on-air apology was made before the start of the next race in Spain two weeks later.
In March 2008, ITV announced that they had enacted a clause within their contract enabling them to leave F1 coverage after the 2008 season. It is believed this was done for commercial reasons and to allow more money to be spent on securing coverage of the UEFA Champions League. The BBC took over the contract, providing coverage from 2009 until 2015.
In December 2015, ITV was rumoured to be making a potential return to Formula One from the 2016 season. However, the contract instead went to Channel 4, who would cover half of the races live like the BBC did from 2012 to 2015.
Golf
In the mid-1970s, ITV held the rights to golf's Ryder Cup and broadcast the event on three occasions - 1973, 1975, and 1977 cups. ITV had the 1979 rights but the 1979 cup was not televised in the UK due to the 1979 ITV strike. The rights to the event reverted to the BBC in 1981.
ITV also broadcast the 1972 and 1973 Scottish Open.
Motorsport
For the 2014–2015 and 2015–2016 seasons ITV and ITV4 showed live coverage of Formula E, the races were presented by Jennie Gow from London and commentary was provided by the world feed of Jack Nicholls and Dario Franchitti. Again, these rights were lost to Channel 5 for the 2016–2017 season, then for the 2018–19 season the rights went to the BBC, Quest, and BT Sport.
ITV4 also showed coverage of the World Rally Championship in the mid-2000s under their speed Sunday banner and again from 2012 to 2015 again losing the rights to Channel 5.
Olympic Games
ITV covered the summer Olympic Games 1968, 1972, 1980 and 1988. Costs associated with staff working overseas prevented coverage of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics but the Games returned to ITV screens for one last time in 1988, sharing the coverage with Channel 4 – Channel 4 showing the overnight and breakfast coverage with ITV covering the daytime action as well as broadcasting early evening highlights programmes.
ITV has never fully broadcast the Winter Olympics.
Power Snooker
In 2010 and 2011 ITV introduced a new cue sport called Power Snooker. These were the only two occasions on which the sport was played. Power Snooker was a hybrid between snooker and pool.
Rugby Union
On the back of its successful broadcasting of the 1991 World Cup, ITV showed a variety of rugby, including the 1993 British Lions tour to New Zealand, Autumn Internationals and even some club rugby, though this was restricted to certain regions. This ended in 1996 when Sky Sports increased its rugby union coverage, which included Sky taking over as broadcaster of the British Lions.
Tennis
In 2011, ITV Sport won the rights from the BBC to show the French Open and started televising the event in 2012. The bulk of the daily coverage was broadcast on ITV4 although both singles finals plus other weekend matches were shown on ITV. In 2018, ITV renewed its deal to show the tournament for another 3 years. From 2022, Eurosport won exclusive rights to the French Open, ending a 10-year spell of the French Open being on ITV. For the final year ITV broadcast the French Open, John Inverdale hosted the coverage with commentators including Nick Mullins and Jonathan Overend. Analysts and Co-commentators included Marion Bartoli, Jim Courier, Anne Keothavong, Mark Petchey, Fabrice Santoro and Sam Smith.
Wimbledon
During the 1960s ITV covered the Wimbledon tennis tournament alongside the BBC.
Wrestling
Wrestling was shown as part of ITV's flagship sports programme World of Sport until the programme was cancelled in 1985. Its many stars included Big Daddy and Giant Haystacks, and it received viewing figures of 8 million every week.
After that, wrestling was shown as a programme in its own right, moving to a lunchtime slot. This continued until 1988. World of Sport Wrestling returned on New Year's Day 2017 with a new generation of British Wrestlers and commentary from legendary WWE commentator Jim 'JR' Ross and former British Wrestler Alex Shane.
References
External links
ITV Sport on ITVX
ITV (TV network)
Sports television in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Lee%20%28army%20captain%29
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Thomas Lee (army captain)
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Thomas Lee (1551/2 – 14 February 1601) was an English army captain, who served under Queen Elizabeth I and spent most of his career in Ireland during the Tudor conquest of that country. Although of middle rank, he played a turbulent role in the factional politics of the time and was highly active during the Nine Years' War (1595–1603). He was put to death at Tyburn for his involvement in the treason of the 2nd Earl of Essex.
Early life
Thomas Lee was the grandson of Robert Lee (d.1539) by his second wife, Lettice Peniston, widow of Sir Robert Knollys, and daughter of Thomas Peniston of Hawridge, Buckinghamshire. His parents were Benedict Lee (d. February 1559) and Margaret Pakington, the daughter of Robert Pakington.
By his first wife, Robert Lee was the father of Sir Anthony Lee, and Thomas Lee was thus a cousin of the half blood of Sir Anthony Lee's eldest son and heir, the courtier Sir Henry Lee, Queen Elizabeth's champion.
Career
Lee eventually became attached to Walter Devereux, 1st Earl of Essex. He probably arrived in Ireland in 1574 to take part in the colonisation scheme of Essex in eastern Ulster, and in 1576 was serving as constable of Carrickfergus.
By his marriage in 1578 to the Irish Catholic widow, Elizabeth Peppard, widow of John Eustace, he came into considerable property, including Castlemartin in County Kildare. He later bought Castle Reban, seeking its fee farm in April 1583, and much other property.
In 1580 he was charged with highway robbery in Oxfordshire, but upon his release on bail he returned to Ireland.
Rebellion in the Pale
In 1581, Lee and his wife were cited in a petition to Lord Deputy Grey for wrongs done to Robert Pipho, who again complained against him in the following year for cattle theft. However, Grey was relying on him to counter the Eustace rebellion in the Pale and suppressed the charges. Lee managed to capture the rebel brother of Viscount Baltinglass, Thomas Eustace, and incurred the displeasure of the Earl of Ormond, who objected to his invasions of Tipperary, describing him as, "this railing fellow". The following year in Waterford he had to clear himself of "clamorous complaints".
In February 1583, after the suppression of the rebellion, Lee's company of 24 horsemen was disbanded. He was commended by the archbishop of Dublin, Adam Loftus, and Geoffrey Fenton, the latter commenting that he was "not without his portion of that common and secret envy which biteth most of us that serve here". At the same time Grey wrote to the queen's secretary, Walsingham, that Lee should have 200 Irish soldiers to conduct into Flanders, noting that "Lee is settled to reform his mis-spent life by hazard in service".
Lee had taken into his custody various properties of Baltinglas, for which he made petition, and managed to settle in Kildare, where he proposed to defend the country with 25 horsemen and 50 foot. This proposal was favoured by Loftus, who noted that Lee, "hath so weeded out those parts of that lewd sort of people as the inhabitants of their own report find great quiet and better security of their lives, goods and cattle than of many years they have had". The privy council wrote to Lee in July 1583 granting the horse and men.
Service under Perrot
In 1584-5 Lee complained of his loss of horse under Bagenal and Stanley in the north on campaign against Sorley Boy MacDonnell. He then visited England, and was employed in the autumn of 1585 by the new lord deputy, John Perrot, against the rebel Cahir Oge Kavanagh in Kilkenny. There he ran into the sheriff who "grew to words and so to blows" with him; Lee was outnumbered 300 to 60 but still captured the sheriff and killed several of his men. This event cemented the enmity of the Earl of Ormond, but Lee was able to rely upon the backing of Walsingham and Perrot, who allowed that he had acted according to duty.
Lee plotted to take the leader of the rebellious bastard Leinster Geraldines, Walter Reagh, but the plot was betrayed by Lee's wife, who had been an interpreter in negotiations with the rebels. Lee separated from his wife in October 1587, but it seems he maintained some relations with her. By this time he had fallen out with Perrot - in part because of non-payment for his services - and was imprisoned for eight weeks in Dublin Castle and deprived of his company. Lee sent his wife to court to plead his case, and in 1588 she was still there requesting that a band of 50 men taken from another captain be assigned to her husband.
In 1591 Lee suffered "a great casual fire by the means of lewd servants" at Castlemartin, which cost him £1,000 and left him and his wife with nothing but their clothes and some horses. He laid the blame for this incident on Nicholas White, a senior judge and adherent of Ormond's.
Ulster
In 1593 Lee took part in the expedition against Hugh Maguire under the new lord deputy, William FitzWilliam. Following the battle of Belleek he was commended for bravery by Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone and by Bagenal, having been the first to enter the ford on the river Erne.
Lee became intimate with O'Neill, and was useful to the government during negotiations with the earl in March 1594, prior to the outbreak of the Nine Years' War. On one occasion, the earl requested the company of "Tom Lee": along with another intermediary, Lee accompanied the earl and, on his return, reported that some of the earl's party had pointed weapons at his breast and beaten him and his companion with their staves, whereupon the earl had advised him to depart.
Lee went to England as intermediary, and about this time he wrote his Brief Declaration, which was presented to the queen in November and duly ignored. He also had his portrait done by Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger. In his writings he cast himself in the model of the Roman hero Scaevola, who had entered the Etruscan camp to assassinate the king and, upon his discovery and trial, had thrust his right hand in the flame, whereupon a treaty had been concluded. The parallel was with Lee's relations with O'Neill, and his argument seems to have been that the rebels were in arms because the crown had waged its campaign beyond Fermanagh and Monaghan into the heart of O'Neill's territory in Ulster. However, Lord Deputy FitzWilliam - at whose door Lee had laid the principal blame for the war - described him to Lord Burghley as "indigent and desperate", and recommended he be barred from the queen's presence.
Lee returned to Ireland in September 1595 and killed Kedagh MacPhelim Reagh. Harrington deemed it a cruel murder, and Lee was again imprisoned in Dublin Castle. In March 1596 Lee served under Lord Deputy Russell and took Cloghan Castle. The garrison refused to yield to him or evacuate the women, so he breached the walls and set fire to the thatched roof: forty-six died, either in the flames or by being thrown over the walls by Lee's soldiers.
In April 1596 Lee wrote to the queen's principal secretary, Lord Burghley, again urging a conciliatory policy towards O'Neill - now a proclaimed rebel - who would go to England on a safe conduct from the queen. Lee complained that the rebellion could have been avoided had his original advice been taken. At this stage he was being sued for arrears of Crown rents. By the summer he had grown sceptical of O'Neill, who was "too far gone with pride of his own strength and confidence of foreign assistance, that he is past all hope of being reclaimed otherwise than by force".
Pursuit of O'Byrne
Lee began to protest that he would die the poorest man in Her Majesty's service: he claimed that the clan leader and ally of O'Neill, Fiach McHugh O'Byrne, was hindering his proceedings with the rebel earl, and that the Earl of Ormond's family, the Butlers, had seized 500 cows from his land and burnt to the ground six of his newly built towns.
In December 1596 Lord Deputy Russell reported that Lee had sent in seventeen rebel heads, a service which was highly paid. In the following April Lee complained to the Queen's secretary, Robert Cecil, of slanderous reports against himself and sought authority to take, banish or kill O'Byrne. At this time he seems to have been fed up with his miserable service in Ireland, but Russell had further use for him.
Lee was promoted to provost-marshal of Connacht; the following month he commanded the party which killed the ailing O'Byrne and was commended by Loftus. In a meeting with the rebels, he later denied on the book that he had been privy to the killing and denounced it as he had gained nothing by it; his soldiers then joined with the rebels in raiding twenty-six towns in O'Byrne's country. By November Lee was covertly seeking O'Neill's forgiveness for O'Byrne's death, but he did receive O'Byrne lands from the government and was also granted a commission for martial law throughout south Leinster.
Lee preferred articles of treason against the sheriff of Kilkenny for secretly maintaining Rice O'Toole. She was imprisoned in the castle, and Lee had her execution stayed in return for her promise to assist in the apprehension and killing of O'Byrne's sons, two of whom were married to her own sisters. Lee was accused of pulling out the eyes of Art O'Toole while the latter was under protection, and of driving the victim's brother, Rowny, into rebellion while under the same protection.
War
When O'Neill had defeated Bagenal at the Battle of the Yellow Ford in 1598, Lee was confined to prison at Dublin for twenty weeks on charges of treason brought against him by Ormond and the sheriff of Kilkenny following his efforts to have the rebel leader installed as president of Ulster. Rice O'Toole's sisters offered evidence against Lee in return for protection. The attorney general thought a jury conviction touch and go, observing that "he hath good merits and evil infirmities". Evidence was heard, Lee showed his letters of commission - empowering him to parley with rebels - and said that his letter from O'Neill was made privy to the Lords Justice. Having apologised on his knees before the council, he was liberated and went on to revictual Maryborough fort.
In October 1598 Lee took a company of 100 foot with Ormond into Munster to suppress the rebellion in that province. A month later he was in prison having asserted that Ormond was stirring rebellion and had secret agreements with O'Neill and the Earl of Kildare. He claimed to have dissuaded Kildare from rebellion and to have been behind a scheme to overthrow Ormond, whereby the earl's daughter was to marry Kildare with a dowry of £2,000-3,000.
Essex
In April 1599 Lee's patron, William FitzGerald, 13th Earl of Kildare, died in a shipwreck while travelling to join Essex in Ireland at the start of the latter's costly and unsuccessful campaign against O'Neill.
Upon his release, Lee went secretly to O'Neill in the summer of 1599 for a few days. It was put about that a plot to kill Ormond had been drawn up during that visit, but Essex forgave him his unauthorised communications. In August he again visited the rebel earl with the cognisance of Sir Christopher Blount; finding O'Neill "quite changed from his former disposition and possessed with insolency and arrogancy", Lee cursed him and left.
Lee went to England after September 1599 and sought to speak with his cousin, Ditchley, because the latter was in bonds on his behalf. At the time he was under house arrest with Essex, who said that he had given Lee leave to go to his cousin, but had commanded him not to resort to London or the court. However Lee did go to court, where he was slandered by the archbishop of Cashel, Miler Magrath, with the "most indecent and contumelious words" and accused of treason; Lee wrote to Cecil seeking an opportunity to meet the charges.
In April 1600 Lee petitioned for a return to Ireland. At about this time he submitted his Discovery - written while under house arrest - in which he proposed the recovery of the province of Leinster, and sought the seneschalship of O'Byrne's country and the lieutenancy of Leix as well as the distribution amongst his followers of the rebels' lands. He later proposed to ally with chiefs in Connacht, notably McWilliam who had undertaken to seize Hugh Roe O'Donnell in return for the Earldom and lieutenancy of Mayo plus £1000 with Lee to act as chief commander of Connacht. The Queen agreed to all, except the appointment of Lee, and stipulated that the payment would be made after the fact. By December he had fallen ill and there was a delay in the response to his proposals.
On 12 February 1601, four days after Essex was apprehended on charges of treason, Lee sought the assistance of Sir Henry Nevill and Sir Robert Crosse (a naval captain who was knighted by Essex in the expedition to Cadiz in 1596) - with four other gentlemen - to surprise the queen in her privy chamber at supper time. His plan was to lock her in and pin her up until she signed a warrant for the delivery of Essex. However, Crosse informed the authorities of their plan, and Lee was apprehended as he watched the door of the chamber in preparation for an attempt on the following evening.
Lee was tried on 13 February. Crosse testified against him. Lee denied the construction put upon his words by the attorney-general and spoke boldly in defence of Essex, who had written in commendation of him to Lord Mountjoy. He admitted that, "it was ever my fault to be loose and lavish of my tongue", adding that, "he had lived in misery and cared not to live, his enemies were so many and so great". In reference to the Queen, he simply said he meant, "to vex her for half an hour, that she might live all the merrier all her life after". Upon conviction and sentencing he pleaded for his son's inheritance. He was put to death at Tyburn on 14 February, dying "very christianly". Essex was put to death eleven days later.
Marriages and issue
Lee married firstly, in 1578, Elizabeth Peppard, a recusant and widow of John Eustace, and daughter of Cuthbert Peppard, by whom he had a son and a daughter:
Henry Lee (c.1585 - 9 October 1657), who was heir at law to his father's cousin of the half blood, Sir Henry Lee, but did not receive the bulk of the estates as Sir Henry Lee contrived to leave them to another distant kinsman. He was knighted 19 May 1618, and died unmarried at the age of seventy-two. He was buried at Tortworth, Gloucestershire.
Margaret Lee, who married Sir Charles Manners, son of Sir Thomas Manners and Theodosia Newton, daughter of Sir Thomas Newton.
He married secondly, in 1595, Kinborough Valentine, an Irish recusant. Kinborough had three children in Co. Kildare, Ireland. William 1593, Martha 1591 & Mary 1592. They were not baptised as infants. Their baptisms were in 1609, 1610 and 1611 when 18 year old adults. Church records at St. Mary's Hardwick name their father.
Writings
A brief declaration of the government of Ireland - c. 1594
The discovery and recovery of Ireland with the author's apology - c. 1599
Portrait
Lee's portrait was painted in 1594, when he was 43 years old, by the Flemish artist Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger. It was probably commissioned by his half-cousin, Sir Henry Lee. The subject is shown in the regalia of a captain of the royal kerne, posing with legs and feet bare, and armed with shield, sword, helmet, pike and petronel (horse pistol). The legs and feet were bare for fighting in Irish bogs.
Notes
References
Lee's "A brief Declaration of the Government of Ireland"
Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors 3 vols. (London, 1885–1890).
John O'Donovan (ed.) Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters 7 vols. (1851).
H.L. Stephen, State Trials, Political and Social, Second Series, Vol. III (London, 1902)
Steven G. Ellis Tudor Ireland (London, 1985). .
Erzsébet Stróbl, "The Device of the Savage Irish: The Portrait of Captain Thomas Lee.” Orpheus Noster 9.4 (2017): 7-19.
Hiram Morgan Tyrone's Rebellion: The Outbreak of the Nine Years War in Ireland (Woodbridge, 1993).
Cyril Falls Elizabeth's Irish Wars (1950; reprint London, 1996). .
Dictionary of National Biography 22 vols. (London, 1921–1922).
Dictionary of National Biography (London, 2005).
English army officers
People of Elizabethan Ireland
1550s births
1601 deaths
16th-century English soldiers
17th-century English military personnel
People executed under the Tudors for treason against England
People executed under Elizabeth I
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenny%20Humphrey
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Jenny Humphrey
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Jennifer Tallulah Humphrey is one of the characters in both the Gossip Girl and The It Girl series of novels by Cecily von Ziegesar. She is portrayed by Taylor Momsen in the Gossip Girl television adaptation on The CW.
Novel series
Gossip Girl
Jennifer Humphrey is the daughter of Rufus Humphrey, an editor of Beat poets who has never been published himself, and Jeanette Humphrey, who ran off with a European aristocrat. She has an older brother, Dan Humphrey, an aspiring writer. Jenny is a student at the Constance Billard School for Girls, a small, elite, all-girls school on the Upper East Side that Serena van der Woodsen and Blair Waldorf also attend. In the book series, Jenny is described as a short, well-endowed brunette, but the television show depicts her as tall, skinny and blonde.
In the Gossip Girl prequel It Had to Be You, Jenny is noted for having a rather flat chest until she begins taking breast enlargement supplements, which are the cause of her DD cup size.
The It Girl
Jenny is the protagonist of the book series The It Girl, which shows her new life after she gets expelled from Constance Billard and starts at Waverly Academy in upstate New York. In The It Girl, Jenny tries to reinvent herself as a "popular and sophisticated city girl" and leave behind the person she was at Constance. When Jenny arrives at Waverly, she finds the students even more attractive, athletic, and intimidating than she had imagined. Jenny then meets her two new exceptionally beautiful and popular roommates: lithe and blonde Southern girl Callie Vernon, and red-headed, green-eyed, sophisticated New Jerseyan Brett Messerschmidt. She quickly learns that she has replaced their old best friend, the extremely attractive and notorious Tinsley Carmichael. Jenny can't help but feel that sleeping in such a lucky bed must rub off.
TV series
Season 1
Jenny Humphrey is introduced in Season 1. A pretty, blonde freshman at Constance Billard, she tries desperately to fit in with Blair's clique, but Blair makes it difficult for her, subjecting Jenny to the rules of high school hierarchy. A possible friendship ends when Blair discovers Nate's lingering feelings for Serena and Jenny's interest in Nate, entailing further cruelty to Jenny. When Blair's affair with Chuck Bass is exposed, Nate approaches Jenny and Blair's affair is made public. Blair's friends shun her for her hypocrisy and establish Jenny as the new Queen Bee of Constance Billard. Despite being one of the school It Girls, she is driven to prove herself. Lacking self-confidence because she is not as rich as the other girls, she sells her sewing machine and barters an expensive dress she stole from one of her friends. When Blair throws her a surprise birthday party, the other girls discover that Jenny stole the dress, bringing Blair's scheme to fruition. Jenny retaliates by bringing Nate with her to Blair's victory party and winning the girls to her side. Jenny and Blair then struggle for the position of Queen Bee. Jenny thinks she's found true love with Asher Hornsby, but their romance is short-lived when she discovers that he is gay. He convinces her to say that she lost her virginity to him in order to dispel the rumors that he is gay, promising that as long as she pretends it's true, he'll give her privileges that the Upper East Side can offer. But Blair and Eric out Asher at his own party, and Jenny confesses that she lied about having sex with him. Blair's clique abandons her once again, and she later finds Blair to tell her that she's won as it's "not worth it". In the season finale, Jenny receives an internship at Blair's mother Eleanor's company.
Season 2
At the beginning of season 2, Jenny spends her summer working hard as a new intern for Eleanor Waldorf Designs. She apologizes to Eric for her behavior the previous season. He forgives her and invites her to the White Party in the Hamptons, where he introduces her to Tinsley Mortimer and she proves her worth to one of Eleanor's supervisors.
Eleanor fires Jenny after a critical remark about one of her dresses, but during a citywide blackout, Eleanor realizes her talent and hires Jenny. After constant harassment by Blair's minions, Jenny decides to skip school to pursue a future in fashion.
Blair and Serena have another fight about Serena's growing popularity, and Jenny is dragged into it during Eleanor's fashion show. When she changes the seating arrangement Blair had planned, Blair retaliates by telling Rufus that Jenny has been skipping school, and he confronts her. Blair attempts to sabotage Jenny's work in the show but Jenny improvises, proposing that Serena and the socialites walk the runway. In an effort to ruin Serena, Blair switches the final dress with one that Jenny made, drawing Eleanor's ire. The dress is a huge hit with the audience and the fashion show is a big success. Jenny realizes Blair's frustrations with her friendship with Serena, commenting that they have worked hard for what they’ve wanted and Serena just glides through. Eleanor later praises Jenny for her work.
Rufus eventually agrees to Jenny being home-schooled after seeing how committed and good at her job she is. At work, Jenny befriends Agnes Andrews (Willa Holland), a model who convinces her to start her own fashion line. Realizing that working for Eleanor won't help her develop as a designer and that Eleanor has begun to take advantage of her talents, Jenny leaves. Jenny also begins a short relationship with Nate when they share a passionate kiss after he rescues her from being taken advantage of by an older photographer. Jenny and Rufus argue over her quitting Eleanor's and Jenny moves out of the Humphreys' apartment and moves in with Agnes, who suggests that they plan a guerrilla fashion show at the charity gala honoring Lily and Bart. The show is a big success but Vanessa witnesses her kissing Nate, thereby straining their friendship. Rufus tries to get her arrested but is stopped by Lily. Agnes's fiery temper and their growing disagreements over the clothing line make it hard for them to close a business deal. Jenny steals Agnes's contact list, attempting to make a deal by herself. Upon learning of Jenny's betrayal, Agnes burns all her dresses and kicks her out of her apartment, leaving her with nothing.
Upon learning that she is too young to start her own business, she attempts to file for emancipation, but Rufus refuses. On Thanksgiving, Lily finds the papers after discovering that Jenny has been hiding in their apartment with Eric, and warns Rufus. Rufus and Jenny reconcile after a little persuasion from Eleanor and she returns home. During the Snowflake Ball, Jenny learns that Vanessa and Nate are back together even though Vanessa was aware of Nate's feelings for her. Nate breaks up with her after she helps to humiliate Vanessa at the ball. Jenny returns to Constance and is forced to contend with Blair's minions.
During the season finale and Serena's hunt for Gossip Girl, Jenny decides to compete to be the next Queen Bee after Blair leaves. She almost drops out, but Blair gives her a touching speech about keeping her eye on the prize. In the end Blair chooses Jenny and crowns her queen of Constance.
Season 3
After Jenny fails to bring about egalitarianism at Constance, she resolves to rule as Queen Bee with her own group of minions. With her new position and wealth, Jenny's social-climbing persona resurfaces and she begins to erase her former Brooklyn self, throwing away her homemade clothes and sewing machine. Worried that Jenny is turning into a typical Queen Bee, Eric and Jonathan attempt an intervention, but are humiliated by Jenny and her clique. Eric teams up with Blair to take down Jenny at the Cotillion Ball by sabotaging her escort. The plan backfires, and Jenny instead secures Nate to escort her, winning her the respect of the Queens at every prep school on the Upper East Side. As a consequence of Eric's scheming, Jonathan breaks up with him and a rift emerges in Jenny and Eric's relationship.
Chuck introduces her to Damien Dalgaard, son of the Belgian ambassador, who deals drugs. Liking his wild lifestyle, Jenny strikes up a relationship with him and helps him supply drugs to his customers while sharing in some of the profit, even stealing some of Lily's “headache pills”. Lily and Rufus find out about the drugs, which Damien covers up with a story about his father. Against Rufus's will, Jenny continues her relationship with Damien, who seems interested in taking it further. Jenny, who is a virgin, backs out at the last minute, causing Damien to break up with her, leaving her to face her family.
At Rufus's suggestion, Eleanor reemploys Jenny to help out with her upcoming fashion show. Jenny is happy to be back, but is shocked to learn that one of the models she’ll be working with is Agnes, who, after the show finishes, takes revenge on Jenny by drugging her and leaving her in a bar to be taken advantage of. Nate rescues Jenny before anything happens to her. Because of this, Jenny's feelings for Nate reawaken and she aspires to win him over. She tries to kiss him but he resists her advances because he sees her only as a friend and because he is dating Serena. Jenny attempts to sabotage Serena and Nate's relationship by lying to Serena and implying to Nate that she is having an affair with Carter Baizen. Jenny's attempts fail, and her relationship with both is left tenuous after Nate kicks her out of his apartment.
At a gala event where Serena's recently returned father William Van Der Woodsen is making a speech, a former client of Damien's approaches Jenny, angrily telling her the drugs she sold her (Lily's cancer medication) gave her a yeast infection. Rufus overhears this and grounds Jenny to the Humphrey apartment in Brooklyn. During her punishment, Jenny researches Lily's medicine and tells Chuck there is something very wrong with the medication Serena's father is prescribing her. It is discovered that William has lied to Lily about her condition and been giving her drugs that make her sick in a plot to win her back from Rufus. Seeing an opportunity to break up Rufus and Lily and return her family to the way it was before, Jenny attempts to sabotage Blair, Chuck, and Nate's plan to unveil William's deception. When William is about to be held accountable, she quickly runs to William and warns him, telling him the police are coming to get him, and urges him to escape. Back at the van der Woodsen penthouse she reveals that she warned William and says she wishes her family could go back to normal: "When I lived in Brooklyn, I may have had to ride the subway to school, and make my own clothes, but at least our family was happy". Rufus says the only thing that needs to return to normal is Jenny. Eric is hurt by Jenny's attempt to leave the family, and says that if she wants out, no one is forcing her to stay.
Jenny hits rock bottom after sending Gossip Girl a picture of Dan and Serena in bed together, jeopardizing Dan and Nate's friendship, Dan and Vanessa's relationship, and breaking up Nate and Serena's relationship. Blair confronts Jenny, telling her, “Nate loves Serena, Dan loves Vanessa — God knows why — and Chuck loves me. But you, Jenny? No one loves you except your daddy. And after what you pulled yesterday, who knows if that's even true anymore?” Emotionally distressed, Jenny goes to Nate's apartment but instead finds Chuck devastated over his break-up with Blair and in her state of vulnerability, Jenny loses her virginity to Chuck. Afterward, Blair arrives willing to take Chuck back and Jenny sneaks out. She breaks down in tears to Eric, telling him that everyone hates her and that she slept with Chuck. Eric tells Dan, who confronts Chuck just as he is about to propose to Blair. Jenny, in tears, leaves with Rufus and Lily. A week later, she says her goodbyes to her family and leaves to finish high school with her mother in Hudson.
Season 4
Jenny has been living in Hudson with her mother since May. Blair finds Jenny preparing for an interview with Tim Gunn, and grants her a special day pass. When Chuck steals Jenny's portfolio, she is forced to visit The Empire Hotel, where Blair had forbidden her to go. This results in Blair and Jenny scheming against each other, and Jenny eventually telling Gossip Girl that she lost her virginity to Chuck, not Damien Dalgaard. While Jenny is left feeling victorious, a defeated Blair blames Chuck. Jenny ultimately realises the damage of her return and decides to leave for good, telling Blair and Chuck that their vindictive games against each other will soon destroy them both.
Juliet and Vanessa Skype Jenny, asking for help to take down Serena. Jenny doesn't want to go back to her old tricks but also feels Serena is to blame for everything that happened last year and can never take blame for anything, so she agrees to help with the scheme. But when Serena ends up in the hospital after being drugged by Juliet, Jenny tells Juliet that she is going to come clean with everyone about their scheme. Juliet warns her that she will be going down alone. When Jenny appears at the hospital, Vanessa has already pinned the entire scheme on her; unable to defend herself, she leaves, showing up at Blair's later that night, telling her that Juliet was behind everything and that she and Vanessa were merely accomplices. To prove her story, she hands Blair Juliet's masquerade mask and earns Blair's forgiveness. After confessing to Blair, she says she would love to help her take down Juliet, but she should return to Hudson rather than become involved in another scheme.
Season 5
In the premiere episode of season 5, "Yes, Then Zero", Rufus reveals that Jenny moved to London to attend Central Saint Martins.
Season 6
In the final episode of the series, it is revealed that Jenny knew that her brother, Dan Humphrey, was the mysterious blogger behind Gossip Girl. She returns to the Upper East Side, appearing in the five-year time jump for her brother's wedding to Serena van der Woodsen. Jenny works as a designer for Blair's fashion empire, implying that they have gotten over their past animosity. Together they create their own clothing line, "J for Waldorf".
Reception
Rumors had circulated during Gossip Girl's first few seasons that Jenny would be given her own spin-off, in line with the character leaving for boarding school just like the novels. News later confirmed that producers did not pick up the spin-off.
Jenny's character further gained prominence during the show's third season. Enid Portugez of the Los Angeles Times praised Jenny's fashionable skills, stating that "Jenny capped off the drama by showing us she's becoming extremely adept at becoming a drug dealer. Her brilliant idea to sew pills into jacket paillettes could have easily won her a Project Runway challenge! Despite the illegality of it all, it was nice to see Jenny put her wit and wiles to use..." Following the dramatic events during the third season finale, Michael Ausiello praised both Leighton Meester and Taylor Momsen's performance. L.J. Gibbs, from TV Fanatic, gave the episode a 3.5 rating star out of 5, and said that he felt that Chuck being shot at the end of the episode was a very "cheap move by the writers", and that the storyline involving Chuck and Jenny having sex was very "unlikely". Mark O. Estes, from TV Overmind, had also praised Taylor Momsen's performance in the episode and said that he "wish that Jenny had of gotten her own spin-off", and questions that if her send-off in this episode means that the show's writers have a "Katherine Heigl" situation on their hands". However, Jenny was included on TV Guide list of "The Most Loathed TV Characters".
When asked during a Vanity Fair interview if "real" girls could afford the looks from the show, costume designers Eric Daman and Meredith Markworth-Pollack commented on Jenny's style and stated "Of course! Have fun with it like Jenny Humphrey does, and listen to your fashion sense. Go to a vintage or thrift store and have it tailored so it looks like Marc Jacobs [...] but it’s all about individuality."
References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acharei%20Mot
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Acharei Mot
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Acharei Mot (also Aharei Mot, Aharei Moth, or Acharei Mos, , "after (the) death") is the 29th weekly Torah portion in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading. It is the sixth weekly portion (, parashah) in the Book of Leviticus, containing Leviticus 16:1–18:30. It is named after the fifth and sixth Hebrew words of the parashah, its first distinctive words.
The parashah sets forth the law of the Yom Kippur ritual, centralized offerings, blood, and sexual practices. The parashah is made up of 4,294 Hebrew letters, 1,170 Hebrew words, 80 verses, and 154 lines in a Torah Scroll (, Sefer Torah).
Jews generally read it in April or early May. The lunisolar Hebrew calendar contains up to 55 weeks, the exact number varying between 50 in common years and 54 or 55 in leap years. In leap years (for example, 2024, and 2027), parashah Acharei Mot is read separately on the 29th Sabbath after Simchat Torah. In common years (for example, 2023, 2025, 2026, and 2028), parashah Acharei Mot is combined with the next parashah, Kedoshim, to help achieve the needed number of weekly readings.
Traditional Jews also read parts of the parashah as Torah readings for Yom Kippur. Leviticus 16, which addresses the Yom Kippur ritual, is the traditional Torah reading for the Yom Kippur morning (Shacharit) service, and Leviticus 18 is the traditional Torah reading for the Yom Kippur afternoon (Minchah) service. Some Conservative congregations substitute readings from Leviticus 19 for the traditional Leviticus 18 in the Yom Kippur afternoon Minchah service. And in the standard Reform High Holidays prayerbook (machzor), Deuteronomy 29:9–14 and 30:11–20 are the Torah readings for the morning Yom Kippur service, in lieu of the traditional Leviticus 16.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Leviticus 16:1–17
The first reading begins the ritual of Yom Kippur. After the death of Aaron's sons, God told Moses to tell Aaron not to come at will into the Most Holy Place (, Kodesh Ha-Kodashim), lest he die, for God appeared in the cloud there. Aaron was to enter only after bathing in water, dressing in his sacral linen tunic, breeches, sash, and turban, and bringing a bull for a sin offering, two rams for burnt offerings, and two he-goats for sin offerings. Aaron was to take the two goats to the entrance of the Tabernacle and place lots upon them, one marked for the Lord and the other for Azazel. Aaron was to offer the goat designated for the Lord as a sin offering, and to send off to the wilderness the goat designated for Azazel. Aaron was then to offer the bull of sin offering. Aaron was then to take a pan of glowing coals from the altar and two handfuls of incense and put the incense on the fire before the Most Holy Place, so that the cloud from the incense would screen the Ark of the Covenant. He was to sprinkle some of the bull's blood and then some of the goat's blood over and in front of the Ark, to purge the Shrine of the uncleanness and transgression of the Israelites.
Second reading—Leviticus 16:18–24
In the second reading (, aliyah), Aaron was then to apply some of the bull's blood and goat's blood to the altar, to cleanse and consecrate it. Aaron was then to lay his hands on the head of the live goat, confess over it the Israelites' sins, putting them on the head of the goat, and then through a designated man send it off to the wilderness to carry their sins to an inaccessible region. Then Aaron was to go into the Tabernacle, take off his linen vestments, bathe in water, put on his vestments, and then offer the burnt offerings.
Third reading—Leviticus 16:25–34
In the third reading (, aliyah), Aaron was to offer the fat of the sin-offering. The person who set the Azazel-goat (sometimes referred to in English as a scapegoat) free was to wash his clothes and bathe in water. The bull and goat of sin offering were to be taken outside the camp and burned, and he who burned them was to wash his clothes and bathe in water. The text then commands this law for all time: On the tenth day of the seventh month, Jews and aliens who reside with them were to practice self-denial and do no work. On that day, the High Priest was to put on the linen vestments, purge the Tabernacle, and make atonement for the Israelites once a year.
Fourth reading—Leviticus 17:1–7
The fourth reading (, aliyah) begins what scholars call the Holiness Code. God prohibited Israelites from slaughtering oxen, sheep, or goats meant for sacrifice without bringing them to the Tabernacle as an offering.
Fifth reading—Leviticus 17:8–18:5
In the fifth reading (, aliyah), God threatened excision (, karet) for Israelites who slaughtered oxen, sheep, or goats meant for sacrifice without bringing them to the Tabernacle as an offering. God prohibited consuming blood. One who hunted an animal for food was to pour out its blood and cover it with earth. Anyone who ate what had died or had been torn by beasts was to wash his clothes, bathe in water, and remain unclean until evening. God told the Israelites not to follow the practices of the Egyptians or the Canaanites, but to follow God's laws.
Sixth reading—Leviticus 18:6–21
In the sixth reading (, aliyah), God prohibited any Israelite from uncovering the nakedness of his father, mother, father's wife, sister, grandchild, half-sister, aunt, daughter-in-law, or sister-in-law. A man could not marry a woman and her daughter, a woman and her granddaughter, or a woman and her sister during the other's lifetime. A man could not cohabit with a woman during her period or with his neighbor's wife. Israelites were not to allow their children to be offered up to Molech.
Seventh reading—Leviticus 18:22–30
In the seventh reading (, aliyah), God prohibited a man from lying with another man as with a woman. God prohibited bestiality. God explained that the Canaanites defiled themselves by adopting these practices, and any who did any of these things would be cut off from their people.
In ancient parallels
The parashah has parallels in these ancient sources:
Leviticus chapter 16
Two of the Ebla tablets written between about 2500 and 2250 BCE in what is now Syria describe rituals to prepare a woman to marry the king of Ebla, one of which parallels those of the scapegoat in Leviticus 16:7–22. The tablets describe that to prepare for her wedding to the king, the woman hung the necklace of her old life around the neck of a goat and drove it into the hills of Alini, "Where it may stay forever."
In inner-biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Leviticus chapter 16
Yom Kippur
Leviticus 16:1–34 refers to the Festival of Yom Kippur. In the Hebrew Bible, Yom Kippur is called:
the Day of Atonement (, Yom HaKippurim) or a Day of Atonement (, Yom Kippurim);
a Sabbath of solemn rest (, Shabbat Shabbaton); and
a holy convocation (, mikrah kodesh).
Much as Yom Kippur, on the 10th of the month of Tishrei, precedes the Festival of Sukkot, on the 15th of the month of Tishrei, Exodus 12:3–6 speaks of a period starting on the 10th of the month of Nisan preparatory to the Festival of Passover, on the 15th of the month of Nisan.
Leviticus 16:29–34 and 23:26–32 and Numbers 29:7–11 present similar injunctions to observe Yom Kippur. Leviticus 16:29 and 23:27 and Numbers 29:7 set the Holy Day on the tenth day of the seventh month (Tishrei). Leviticus 16:29 and 23:27 and Numbers 29:7 instruct that "you shall afflict your souls." Leviticus 23:32 makes clear that a full day is intended: "you shall afflict your souls; in the ninth day of the month at evening, from evening to evening." And Leviticus 23:29 threatens that whoever "shall not be afflicted in that same day, he shall be cut off from his people." Leviticus 16:29 and Leviticus 23:28 and Numbers 29:7 command that you "shall do no manner of work." Similarly, Leviticus 16:31 and 23:32 call it a "Sabbath of solemn rest." And in 23:30, God threatens that whoever "does any manner of work in that same day, that soul will I destroy from among his people." Leviticus 16:30, 16:32–34, and 23:27–28, and Numbers 29:11 describe the purpose of the day to make atonement for the people. Similarly, Leviticus 16:30 speaks of the purpose "to cleanse you from all your sins," and Leviticus 16:33 speaks of making atonement for the most holy place, the tent of meeting, the altar; and the priests. Leviticus 16:29 instructs that the commandment applies both to "the home-born" and to "the stranger who sojourns among you." Leviticus 16:3–25 and 23:27 and Numbers 29:8–11 command offerings to God. And Leviticus 16:31 and 23:31 institute the observance as "a statute forever."
Leviticus 16:3–28 sets out detailed procedures for the priest's atonement ritual during the time of the Temple.
To make atonement (, kapar) is a major theme of Leviticus 16, appearing 15 times in the chapter. Leviticus 16:6, 16, and 30–34 each summarize this purpose of Yom Kippur. Similarly, Exodus 30:10 foreshadows this purpose in the description of the altar, and Leviticus 23:27–28 echoes that purpose in its listing of the Festivals.
In Leviticus 16:8–10, chance determined which goat was to be offered and which goat was to be sent into the wilderness. Proverbs 16:33 teaches that when lots are cast, God determines the result.
Leviticus 25:8–10 instructs that after seven Sabbatical years, on the Jubilee year, on the day of atonement, the Israelites were to proclaim liberty throughout the land with the blast of the horn and return every man to his possession and to his family.
In Isaiah 57:14–58:14, the Haftarah for Yom Kippur morning, God describes "the fast that I have chosen [on] the day for a man to afflict his soul." Isaiah 58:3–5 make clear that "to afflict the soul" was understood as fasting. But Isaiah 58:6–10 goes on to impress that "to afflict the soul," God also seeks acts of social justice: "to loose the fetters of wickedness, to undo the bands of the yoke," "to let the oppressed go free," "to give your bread to the hungry, and . . . bring the poor that are cast out to your house," and "when you see the naked, that you cover him."
Leviticus chapter 17
Deuteronomy 12:1–28, like Leviticus 17:1–10, addresses the centralization of sacrifices and the permissibility of eating meat. While Leviticus 17:3–4 prohibited killing an ox, lamb, or goat (each a sacrificial animal) without bringing it to the door of the Tabernacle as an offering to God, Deuteronomy 12:15 allows killing and eating meat in any place.
While Leviticus 17:10 announced that God would set God’s Face against those who consume blood, in Amos 9:4, the 8th century BCE prophet Amos announced a similar judgment that God would set God’s Eyes for evil upon those who take advantage of the poor.
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Leviticus chapter 16
The book of Jubilees taught that it was ordained that the children of Israel should afflict themselves on the tenth day of the seventh month because that was the day that the news came to Jacob that made him weep for the loss of his son Joseph. His descendants thus made atonement for themselves with a young goat, for Joseph's brothers had slaughtered a kid and dipped the coat of Joseph in the blood, and sent it to Jacob on that day.
Philo taught that Moses proclaimed the fast of Yom Kippur a feast and named it the greatest of feasts, "a Sabbath of Sabbaths," for many reasons. First is temperance, for when people have learned how to be indifferent to food and drink, they can easily disregard superfluous things. Second is that everyone thereby devotes their entire time to nothing else but prayers and supplications. And third is that the fast occurs at the conclusion of harvest time, to teach people not to rely solely on the food that they have accumulated as the cause of health or life, but on God, Who rules in the world and Who nourished our ancestors in the desert for 40 years.
Leviticus chapter 17
Isaiah Gafni noted that in the Book of Tobit, the protagonist Tobit observed the dietary laws.
Leviticus chapter 18
The Damascus Document of the Qumran sectarians prohited a man’s marrying his niece, deducing this from the prohibition in Leviticus 18:13 of a woman’s marrying her nephew. Lawrence Schiffman noted that this was a point of contention between the Pharisees and other Jewish groups in Second Temple times.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Leviticus chapter 16
Rabbi Levi taught that God gave Leviticus 16:1–34 on the day that the Israelites set up the Tabernacle. Rabbi Johanan said in the name of Rabbi Bana'ah that the Torah was transmitted in separate scrolls, as Psalm 40:8 says, "Then said I, 'Lo I am come, in the roll of the book it is written of me.'" Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish (Resh Lakish), however, said that the Torah was transmitted in its entirety, as Deuteronomy 31:26, "Take this book of the law." The Gemara reported that Rabbi Johanan interpreted Deuteronomy 31:26, "Take this book of the law," to refer to the time after the Torah had been joined together from its several parts. And the Gemara suggested that Resh Lakish interpreted Psalm 40:8, "in a roll of the book written of me," to indicate that the whole Torah is called a "roll," as Zechariah 5:2 says, "And he said to me, 'What do you see?' And I answered, 'I see a flying roll.'" Or perhaps, the Gemara suggested, it is called "roll" for the reason given by Rabbi Levi, who said that God gave eight sections of the Torah, which Moses then wrote on separate rolls, on the day on which the Tabernacle was set up. They were: the section of the priests in Leviticus 21, the section of the Levites in Numbers 8:5–26 (as the Levites were required for the service of song on that day), the section of the unclean (who would be required to keep the Passover in the second month) in Numbers 9:1–14, the section of the sending of the unclean out of the camp (which also had to take place before the Tabernacle was set up) in Numbers 5:1–4, the section of Leviticus 16:1–34 (dealing with Yom Kippur, which Leviticus 16:1 states was transmitted immediately after the death of Aaron's two sons), the section dealing with the drinking of wine by priests in Leviticus 10:8–11, the section of the lights of the menorah in Numbers 8:1–4, and the section of the red heifer in Numbers 19 (which came into force as soon as the Tabernacle was set up).
Rabbi Yannai taught that from the very beginning of the world’s creation, God foresaw the deeds of the righteous and the wicked and provided Yom Kippur in response. Rabbi Yannai taught that Genesis 1:2, “And the earth was desolate,” alludes to the deeds of the wicked; Genesis 1:3, “And God said: ‘Let there be light,’” to those of the righteous; Genesis 1:4, “And God saw the light, that it was good,” to the deeds of the righteous; Genesis 1:4, “And God made a division between the light and the darkness”: between the deeds of the righteous and those of the wicked; Genesis 1:5, “And God called the light day,” alludes to the deeds of the righteous; Genesis 1:5, “And the darkness called He night,” to those of the wicked; Genesis 1:5, “and there was evening,” to the deeds of the wicked; Genesis 1:5, “and there was morning,” to those of the righteous. And Genesis 1:5, “one day,” teaches that God gave the righteous one day—Yom Kippur.
Similarly, Rabbi Judah bar Simon interpreted Genesis 1:5, “And God called the light day,” to symbolize Jacob/Israel; “and the darkness he called night,” to symbolize Esau; “and there was evening,” to symbolize Esau; “and there was morning,” to symbolize Jacob. And “one day” teaches that God gave Israel one unique day over which darkness has no influence—the Day of Atonement.
Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba taught that Aaron's sons died on the first of Nisan, but Leviticus 16:1 mentions their death in connection with the Day of Atonement. Rabbi Hiyya explained that this teaches that as the Day of Atonement effects atonement, so the death of the righteous effects atonement. We know that the Day of Atonement effects atonement from Leviticus 16:30, which says, "For on this day shall atonement be made for you, to cleanse you." And we learn that the death of the righteous effects atonement from 2 Samuel 21:14, which says, "And they buried the bones of Saul and Jonathan his son," and then says, "After that God was entreated for the land."
A Midrash noted that Scripture records the death of Nadab and Abihu in numerous places (Leviticus 10:2 and 16:1; Numbers 3:4 and 26:61; and 1 Chronicles 24:2). This teaches that God grieved for Nadab and Abihu, for they were dear to God. And thus Leviticus 10:3 quotes God to say: "Through them who are near to Me I will be sanctified."
Reading the words of Leviticus 16:1, "the death of the two sons of Aaron, when they drew near before the Lord, and died," Rabbi Jose deduced that Aaron's sons died because they drew near to enter the Holy of Holies.
The Rabbis told in a Baraita an account in relation to Leviticus 16:2. Once a Sadducee High Priest arranged the incense outside and then brought it inside the Holy of Holies. As he left the Holy, he was very glad. His father met him and told him that although they were Sadducees, they were afraid of the Pharisees. He replied that all his life he was aggrieved because of the words of Leviticus 16:2, "For I appear in the cloud upon the Ark-cover." (The Sadducees interpreted Leviticus 16:2 as if it said: "Let him not come into the holy place except with the cloud of incense, for only thus, with the cloud, am I to be seen on the Ark-cover.") The Sadducee wondered when the opportunity would come for him to fulfill the verse. He asked how, when such an opportunity came to his hand, he could not have fulfilled it. The Baraita reported that only a few days later he died and was thrown on the dung heap and worms came forth from his nose. Some say he was smitten as he came out of the Holy of Holies. For Rabbi Hiyya taught that a noise was heard in the Temple Court, for an angel struck him down on his face. The priests found a mark like a calf's hoof on his shoulder, evincing, as Ezekiel 1:7 reports of angels, "And their feet were straight feet, and the sole of their feet was like the sole of a calf's foot."
Tractate Yoma in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of Yom Kippur in Leviticus 16 and 23:26–32 and Numbers 29:7–11.
Tractate Beitzah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws common to all of the Festivals in Exodus 12:3–27, 43–49; 13:6–10; 23:16; 34:18–23; Leviticus 16; 23:4–43; Numbers 9:1–14; 28:16–30:1; and Deuteronomy 16:1–17; 31:10–13.
The Mishnah taught that during the days of the Temple, seven days before Yom Kippur, they would move the High Priest from his house to the cell of the counselors and prepare another priest to take his place in case anything impure happened to him to make him unfit to perform the service. Rabbi Judah said that they prepared another wife for him, in case his wife should die, as Leviticus 16:6 says that "he shall make atonement for himself and for his house" and "his house" means "his wife." But they told Rabbi Judah that if they would do so, then there would be no end to the matter, as they would have to prepare a third wife in case the second died, and so on. The rest of the year, the High Priest would offer sacrifices only if he wanted to, but during the seven days before Yom Kippur, he would sprinkle the blood of the sacrifices, burn the incense, trim the lamps, and offer the head and the hind leg of the sacrifices. They brought sages from the court to the High Priest, and throughout the seven days they read to him about the order of the service. They asked the High Priest to read it aloud, in case he had forgotten or never learned.
The Mishnah taught that on the morning of the day before Yom Kippur, they placed the High Priest at the Eastern Gate and brought before him oxen, rams, and sheep, so that he could become familiar with the service. The rest of the seven days, they did not withhold food or drink from him, but near nightfall on the eve of Yom Kippur, they would not let him eat much, as food might make him sleep. The sages of the court took him up to the house of Avtinas and handed him over to the elders of the priesthood. As the sages of the court took their leave, they cautioned him that he was the messenger of the court, and adjured him in God's Name that he not change anything in the service from what they had told him. He and they turned aside and wept that they should have to suspect him of doing so.
The Mishnah taught that on the night before Yom Kippur, if the High Priest was a sage, he would expound the relevant Scriptures, and if he was not a sage, the disciples of the sages would expound before him. If he was used to reading the Scriptures, he would read, and if he was not, they would read before him. They would read from Job, Ezra, and Chronicles, and Zechariah ben Kubetal said from Daniel. If he tried to sleep, young priests would snap their middle finger before him and say, "Mr. High Priest, arise and drive the sleep away!" They would keep him busy until near the time for the morning offering.
On any other day, a priest would remove the ashes from the altar at about the time of the cock's crow (in accordance with Leviticus 6:3). But for Yom Kippur, the ashes were removed beginning at midnight of the night before. Before the cock's crow approached, Israelites filled the Temple Court. The officer told the priests to see whether the time for the morning sacrifice had arrived. If it had, then the priest who saw it would call out, "It's daylight!"
They led the High Priest down to the place of immersion (the mikveh). During the day of Yom Kippur, the High Priest would immerse himself five times and wash his hands and feet ten times. Except for this first immersion, he would do each on holy ground in the Parwah cell. They spread a linen sheet between him and the people. If the High Priest was either old or delicate, they warmed the water for him. He undressed, immersed himself, came up, and dried off. They brought him the golden garments; he put them on and washed his hands and feet.
They brought him the continual offering; he cut its throat, and another priest finished slaughtering it. The High Priest received the blood and sprinkled it on the altar. He entered the Sanctuary, burned the morning incense, and trimmed the lamps. Then he offered up the head, limbs, cakes, and wine-offering.
They brought him to the Parwah cell, spread a sheet of linen between him and the people, he washed his hands and feet, and undressed. (Rabbi Meir said that he undressed first and then washed his hands and feet.) Then he went down and immersed himself for the second time, came up and dried himself. They brought him white garments (as required by Leviticus 16:4). He put them on and washed his hands and feet. Rabbi Meir taught that in the morning, he wore Pelusium linen worth 12 minas, and in the afternoon he wore Indian linen worth 800 zuz. But the sages said that in the morning, he wore garments worth 18 minas, and in the afternoon he wore garments worth 12 minas. The community paid for these sums, and the High Priest could spend more from his own funds if he wanted to.
Rav Ḥisda asked why Leviticus 16:4 instructed the High Priest to enter the inner precincts (the Kodesh Hakodashim) to perform the Yom Kippur service in linen vestments instead of gold. Rav Ḥisda taught that it was because the accuser may not act as defender. Gold played the accuser because it was used in the Golden Calf, and thus gold was inappropriate for the High Priest when he sought atonement and thus played the defender.
A Midrash taught that everything God created in heaven has a replica on earth. (And thus, since all that is above is also below, God dwells on earth just as God dwells in heaven.) Referring to a heavenly man, Ezekiel 9:11 says, "And, behold, the man clothed in linen." And of the High Priest on earth, Leviticus 16:4 says, "He shall put on the holy linen tunic." And the Midrash taught that God holds the things below dearer than those above, for God left the things in heaven to descend to dwell among those below, as Exodus 25:8 reports, "And let them make Me a sanctuary, that I may dwell among them."
A Midrash taught that Leviticus 16:4 alludes to the merit of the Matriarchs by mentioning linen four times.
The Mishnah taught that the High Priest came to his bull (as required in Leviticus 16:3 and 6), which was standing between the hall and the altar with its head to the south and its face to the west. The High Priest stood on the east with his face to the west. And he pressed both his hands on the bull and made confession, saying: "O Lord! I have done wrong, I have transgressed, I have sinned before You, I and my house. O Lord! Forgive the wrongdoings, the transgressions, and the sins that I have committed, transgressed, and sinned before You, I and my house, as it is written in the Torah of Moses Your servant (in Leviticus 16:30): "For on this day shall atonement be made for you to cleanse you; from all your sins shall you be clean before the Lord." And the people answered: "Blessed is the Name of God's glorious Kingdom, forever and ever!"
Rabbi Isaac contrasted the red cow in Numbers 19:3–4 and the bull that the High Priest brought for himself on Yom Kippur in Leviticus 16:3–6. Rabbi Isaac taught that a lay Israelite could slaughter one of the two, but not the other, but Rabbi Isaac did not know which was which. The Gemara reported that Rav and Samuel disagreed about the answer. Rav held it invalid for a lay Israelite to slaughter the red cow and valid for a lay Israelite to slaughter the High Priest's bull, while Samuel held it invalid for a lay Israelite to slaughter the High Priest's bull and valid for a lay Israelite to slaughter the red cow. The Gemara reported that Rav Zeira (or some say Rav Zeira in the name of Rav) said that the slaughtering of the red cow by a lay Israelite was invalid, and Rav deduced from this statement the importance that Numbers 19:3 specifies "Eleazar" and Numbers 19:2 specifies that the law of the red cow is a "statute" (and thus required precise execution). But the Gemara challenged Rav's conclusion that the use of the terms "Eleazar" and "statute" in Numbers 19:2–3 in connection with the red cow decided the matter, for in connection with the High Priest's bull, Leviticus 16:3 specifies "Aaron," and Leviticus 16:34 calls the law of Leviticus 16 a "statute," as well. The Gemara supposed that the characterization of Leviticus 16:34 of the law as a "statute" might apply to only the Temple services described in Leviticus 16, and the slaughtering of the High Priest's bull might be regarded as not a Temple service. But the Gemara asked whether the same logic might apply to the red cow, as well, as it was not a Temple service, either. The Gemara posited that one might consider the red cow to have been in the nature of an offering for Temple upkeep. Rav Shisha son of Rav Idi taught that the red cow was like the inspection of skin diseases in Leviticus 13–14, which was not a Temple service, yet required a priest's participation. The Gemara then turned to Samuel's position, that a lay Israelite could kill the red cow. Samuel interpreted the words "and he shall slay it before him" in Numbers 19:3 to mean that a lay Israelite could slaughter the cow as Eleazar watched. The Gemara taught that Rav, on the other hand, explained the words "and he shall slay it before him" in Numbers 19:3 to enjoin Eleazar not to divert his attention from the slaughter of the red cow. The Gemara reasoned that Samuel deduced that Eleazer must not divert his attention from the words "and the heifer shall be burnt in his sight" in Numbers 19:5 (which one could similarly read to imply an injunction for Eleazar to pay close attention). And Rav explained the words "in his sight" in one place to refer to the slaughtering, and in the other to the burning, and the law enjoined his attention to both. In contrast, the Gemara posited that Eleazar might not have needed to pay close attention to the casting in of cedarwood, hyssop, and scarlet, because they were not part of the red cow itself.
A Midrash taught that God showed Abraham the bullock that Leviticus 16:3–19 would require the Israelites to sacrifice on the Yom Kippur. Reading Genesis 15:9, “And He said to him: ‘Take me a heifer of three years old (, meshuleshet), a she-goat of three years old (, meshuleshet), and a ram of three years old (, meshulash),’” the Midrash read , meshuleshet, to mean “three-fold” or “three kinds,” indicating sacrifices for three different purposes. The Midrash deduced that God thus showed Abraham three kinds of bullocks, three kinds of goats, and three kinds of rams that Abraham’s descendants would need to sacrifice. The three kinds of bullocks were: (1) the bullock that Leviticus 16:3–19 would require the Israelites to sacrifice on Yom Kippur, (2) the bullock that Leviticus 4:13–21 would require the Israelites to bring on account of unwitting transgression of the law, and (3) the heifer whose neck Deuteronomy 21:1–9 would require the Israelites to break. The three kinds of goats were: (1) the goats that Numbers 28:16–29:39 would require the Israelites to sacrifice on festivals, (2) the goats that Numbers 28:11–15 would require the Israelites to sacrifice on the New Moon (, Rosh Chodesh), and (3) the goat that Leviticus 4:27–31 would require an individual to bring. The three kinds of rams were: (1) the guilt-offering of certain obligation that Leviticus 5:25, for example, would require one who committed a trespass to bring, (2) the guilt-offering of doubt to which one would be liable when in doubt whether one had committed a transgression, and (3) the lamb to be brought by an individual. Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai said that God showed Abraham all the atoning sacrifices except for the tenth of an ephah of fine meal in Leviticus 5:11. The Rabbis said that God showed Abraham the tenth of an ephah as well, for Genesis 15:10 says “all these (, eleh),” just as Leviticus 2:8 says, “And you shall bring the meal-offering that is made of these things (, me-eleh),” and the use of “these” in both verses hints that both verses refer to the same thing. And reading Genesis 15:10, “But the bird divided he not,” the Midrash deduced that God intimated to Abraham that the bird burnt-offering would be divided, but the bird sin-offering (which the dove and young pigeon symbolized) would not be divided.
The Mishnah taught that High Priest then went back to the east of the Temple Court, north of the altar. The two goats required by Leviticus 16:7 were there, as was an urn containing two lots. The urn was originally made of boxwood, but Ben Gamala remade them in gold, earning him praise. Rabbi Judah explained that Leviticus 16:7 mentioned the two goats equally because they should be alike in color, height, and value. The Mishnah taught that the High Priest shook the urn and brought up the two lots. On one lot was inscribed "for the Lord," and on the other "for Azazel." The Deputy High Priest stood at the High Priest's right hand and the head of the ministering family at his left. If the lot inscribed "for the Lord" came up in his right hand, the Deputy High Priest would say "Mr. High Priest, raise your right hand!" And if the lot inscribed "for the Lord" came up in his left hand, the head of the family would say "Mr. High Priest, raise your left hand!" Then he placed them on the goats and said: "A sin-offering ‘to the Lord!'" (Rabbi Ishmael taught that he did not need to say "a sin-offering" but just "to the Lord.") And then the people answered "Blessed is the Name of God's glorious Kingdom, forever and ever!"
Then the High Priest bound a thread of crimson wool on the head of the Azazel goat, and placed it at the gate from which it was to be sent away. And he placed the goat that was to be slaughtered at the slaughtering place. He came to his bull a second time, pressed his two hands on it and made confession, saying: "O Lord, I have dealt wrongfully, I have transgressed, I have sinned before You, I and my house, and the children of Aaron, Your holy people, o Lord, pray forgive the wrongdoings, the transgression, and the sins that I have committed, transgressed, and sinned before You, I and my house, and the children of Aaron, Your holy people. As it is written in the Torah of Moses, Your servant (in Leviticus 16:30): ‘For on this day atonement be made for you, to cleanse you; from all the sins shall you be clean before the Lord.'" And then the people answered: "Blessed is the Name of God's glorious Kingdom, forever and ever!" Then he killed the bull.
Rabbi Isaac noted two red threads, one in connection with the red cow in Numbers 19:6, and the other in connection with the scapegoat in the Yom Kippur service of Leviticus 16:7–10 (which Mishnah Yoma 4:2 indicates was marked with a red thread). Rabbi Isaac had heard that one required a definite size, while the other did not, but he did not know which was which. Rav Joseph reasoned that because (as Mishnah Yoma 6:6 explains) the red thread of the scapegoat was divided, that thread required a definite size, whereas that of the red cow, which did not need to be divided, did not require a definite size. Rami bar Hama objected that the thread of the red cow required a certain weight (to be cast into the flames, as described in Numbers 19:6). Raba said that the matter of this weight is disputed by Tannaim.
When Rav Dimi came from the Land of Israel, he said in the name of Rabbi Johanan that there were three red threads: one in connection with the red cow, the second in connection with the scapegoat, and the third in connection with the person with skin disease (the m'tzora) in Leviticus 14:4. Rav Dimi reported that one weighed ten zuz, another weighed two selas, and the third weighed a shekel, but he could not say which was which. When Rabin came, he said in the name of Rabbi Jonathan that the thread in connection with the red cow weighed ten zuz, that of the scapegoat weighed two selas, and that of the person with skin disease weighed a shekel. Rabbi Johanan said that Rabbi Simeon ben Halafta and the Sages disagreed about the thread of the red cow, one saying that it weighed ten shekels, the other that it weighed one shekel. Rabbi Jeremiah of Difti said to Ravina that they disagreed not about the thread of the red cow, but about that of the scapegoat.
Reading Leviticus 18:4, "My ordinances (, mishpatai) shall you do, and My statutes (, chukotai) shall you keep," the Sifra distinguished "ordinances" (, mishpatim) from "statutes" (, chukim). The term "ordinances" (, mishpatim), taught the Sifra, refers to rules that even had they not been written in the Torah, it would have been entirely logical to write them, like laws pertaining to theft, sexual immorality, idolatry, blasphemy and murder. The term "statutes" (, chukim), taught the Sifra, refers to those rules that the impulse to do evil (, yetzer hara) and the nations of the world try to undermine, like eating pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8), wearing wool-linen mixtures (, shatnez, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11), release from levirate marriage (, chalitzah, mandated by Deuteronomy 25:5–10), purification of a person affected by skin disease (, metzora, regulated in Leviticus 13–14), and the goat sent off into the wilderness (the scapegoat regulated in Leviticus 16:7–22). In regard to these, taught the Sifra, the Torah says simply that God legislated them and we have no right to raise doubts about them.
Similarly, Rabbi Joshua of Siknin taught in the name of Rabbi Levi that the Evil Inclination (, yetzer hara) criticizes four laws as without logical basis, and Scripture uses the expression "statute" (chuk) in connection with each: the laws of (1) a brother's wife (in Deuteronomy 25:5–10), (2) mingled kinds (in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11), (3) the scapegoat (in Leviticus 16:7–22), and (4) the red cow (in Numbers 19).
The Mishnah taught that the High Priest said a short prayer in the outer area. The Jerusalem Talmud taught that this was the prayer of the High Priest on the Day of Atonement, when he left the Holy Place whole and in one piece: “May it be pleasing before you, Lord, our God of our fathers, that a decree of exile not be issued against us, not this day or this year, but if a decree of exile should be issued against us, then let it be exile to a place of Torah. May it be pleasing before you, Lord, our God and God of our fathers, that a decree of want not be issued against us, not this day or this year, but if a decree of want should be issued against us, then let it be a want because of the performance of religious duties. May it be pleasing before you, Lord, our God and God of our fathers, that this year be a year of cheap food, full bellies, good business; a year in which the earth forms clods, then is parched so as to form scabs, and then moistened with dew, so that your people, Israel, will not be in need of the help of one another. And do not heed the prayer of travelers that it not rain.” The Rabbis of Caesarea added, “And concerning your people, Israel, that they not exercise dominion over one another.” And for the people who live in the Sharon plain he would say this prayer, “May it be pleasing before you, Lord, our God and God of our fathers, that our houses not turn into our graves.”
The Mishnah taught that one would bring the High Priest the goat to be slaughtered, he would kill it, receive its blood in a basin, enter again the Sanctuary, and would sprinkle once upwards and seven times downwards. He would count: "one," "one and one," "one and two," and so on. Then he would go out and place the vessel on the second golden stand in the sanctuary.
Then the High Priest came to the scapegoat and laid his two hands on it, and he made confession, saying: "I beseech You, o Lord, Your people the house of Israel have failed, committed iniquity and transgressed before you. I beseech you, o Lord, atone the failures, the iniquities and the transgressions that Your people, the house of Israel, have failed, committed, and transgressed before you, as it is written in the Torah of Moses, Your servant (in Leviticus 16:30): ‘For on this day shall atonement be made for you, to cleanse you; from all your sins shall you be clean before the Lord.'" And when the Priests and the people standing in the Temple Court heard the fully pronounced Name of God come from the mouth of the High Priest, they bent their knees, bowed down, fell on their faces, and called out: "Blessed is the Name of God's glorious Kingdom, forever and ever!"
The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer taught that Sammael (identified with Satan) complained to God that God had given him power over all the nations of the world except for Israel. God told Sammael that he had power over Israel on the Day of Atonement if and only if they had any sin. Therefore, Israel gave Sammael a present on the Day of Atonement, as Leviticus 16:8 says, "One lot for the Lord, and the other lot for Azazel" (identified with Satan or Sammael). The lot for God was the offering of a burnt offering, and the lot for Azazel was the goat as a sin offering, for all the iniquities of Israel were upon it, as Leviticus 16:22 says, "And the goat shall bear upon him all their iniquities." Sammael found no sin among them on the Day of Atonement and complained to God that they were like the ministering angels in heaven. Just as the ministering angels have bare feet, so have the Israelites bare feet on the Day of Atonement. Just as the ministering angels have neither food nor drink, so the Israelites have neither food nor drink on the Day of Atonement. Just as the ministering angels have no joints, likewise the Israelites stand on their feet. Just as the ministering angels are at peace with each other, so the Israelites are at peace with each other on the Day of Atonement. Just as the ministering angels are innocent of all sin on the Day of Atonement, so are the Israelites innocent of all sin on the Day of Atonement. On that day, God hears their prayers rather than the charges of their accuser, and God makes atonement for all the people, as Leviticus 16:16 says, "And he shall make atonement for the holy place."
Reading the injunction of Leviticus 16:11, "And he shall make atonement for himself, and for his house," a Midrash taught that a man without a wife dwells without good, without help, without joy, without blessing, and without atonement. Without good, as Genesis 2:18 says that "it is not good that the man should be alone." Without help, as in Genesis 2:18, God says, "I will make him a help meet for him." Without joy, as Deuteronomy 14:26 says, "And you shall rejoice, you and your household" (implying that one can rejoice only when there is a "household" with whom to rejoice). Without a blessing, as Ezekiel 44:30 can be read, "To cause a blessing to rest on you for the sake of your house" (that is, for the sake of your wife). Without atonement, as Leviticus 16:11 says, "And he shall make atonement for himself, and for his house" (implying that one can make complete atonement only with a household). Rabbi Simeon said in the name of Rabbi Joshua ben Levi, without peace too, as 1 Samuel 25:6 says, "And peace be to your house." Rabbi Joshua of Siknin said in the name of Rabbi Levi, without life too, as Ecclesiastes 9:9 says, "Enjoy life with the wife whom you love." Rabbi Hiyya ben Gomdi said, also incomplete, as Genesis 5:2 says, "male and female created He them, and blessed them, and called their name Adam," that is, "man" (and thus only together are they "man"). Some say a man without a wife even impairs the Divine likeness, as Genesis 9:6 says, "For in the image of God made He man," and immediately thereafter Genesis 9:7 says, "And you, be fruitful, and multiply (implying that the former is impaired if one does not fulfill the latter).
The Mishnah taught that they handed the scapegoat over to him who was to lead it away. All were permitted to lead it away, but the Priests made it a rule not to permit an ordinary Israelite to lead it away. Rabbi Jose said that Arsela of Sepphoris once led it away, although he was not a priest. The people went with him from booth to booth, except the last one. The escorts would not go with him up to the precipice, but watched from a distance. The one leading the scapegoat divided the thread of crimson wool, and tied one half to the rock, the other half between the scapegoat horns, and pushed the scapegoat from behind. And it went rolling down and before it had reached half its way down the hill, it was dashed to pieces. He came back and sat down under the last booth until it grew dark. His garments unclean become unclean from the moment that he has gone outside the wall of Jerusalem, although Rabbi Simeon taught that they became unclean from the moment that he pushed it over the precipice.
The Sages taught that if one pushed the goat down the precipice and it did not die, then one had to go down after the goat and kill it.
The Mishnah interpreted Leviticus 16:21 to teach that the goat sent to Azazel could atone for all sins, even sins punishable by death.
They would set up guards at stations, and from these would waive towels to signal that the goat had reached the wilderness. When the signal was relayed to Jerusalem, they told the High Priest: "The goat has reached the wilderness." Rabbi Ishmael taught that they had another sign too: They tied a thread of crimson to the door of the Temple, and when the goat reached the wilderness, the thread would turn white, as it is written in Isaiah 1:18: "Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white as snow."
The Mishnah compared the person who burned the red cow in Numbers 19:8, the person who burned the bulls burned pursuant to Leviticus 4:3–21 or 16:27, and the person who led away the scapegoat pursuant to Leviticus 16:7–10 and 26. These persons rendered unclean the clothes worn while doing these acts. But the red cow, the bull, and the scapegoat did not themselves render unclean clothes with which they came in contact. The Mishnah imagined the clothing saying to the person: "Those that render you unclean do not render me unclean, but you render me unclean."
Rabbi Hanina noted that for all the vessels that Moses made, the Torah gave the measurements of their length, breadth, and height (in Exodus 25:23 for the altar, Exodus 27:1 for the table, and Exodus 30:2 for the incense altar). But for the Ark-cover, Exodus 25:17 gave its length and breadth, but not its height. Rabbi Hanina taught that one can deduce the Ark-cover's height from the smallest of the vessel features, the border of the table, concerning which Exodus 25:25 says, "And you shall make for it a border of a handbreadth round about." Just as the height of the table's border was a handbreadth, so was it also for the Ark-cover. Rav Huna taught that the height of the Ark-cover may be deduced from Leviticus 16:14, which refers to "the face of the Ark-cover," and a "face" cannot be smaller than a handbreadth. Rav Aha bar Jacob taught a tradition that the face of the cherubim was not less than a handbreadth, and Rav Huna also made his deduction about the Ark-cover's height from the parallel.
Rabbi Eliezer noted that both Leviticus 16:27 (regarding burning the Yom Kippur sin offerings) and Numbers 19:3 (regarding slaughtering the red cow) say "outside the camp." Rabbi Eliezer concluded that both actions had to be conducted outside the three camps of the Israelites, and in the time of the Temple in Jerusalem, both actions had to be conducted to the east of Jerusalem.
Chapter 8 of tractate Yoma in the Mishnah and Babylonian Talmud and chapter 4 of tractate Kippurim (Yoma) in the Tosefta interpreted the laws of self-denial in Leviticus 16:29–34 and 23:26–32. The Mishnah taught that on Yom Kippur, one must not eat, drink, wash, anoint oneself, put on sandals, or have sexual intercourse. Rabbi Eliezer (whom the halachah follows) taught that a king or bride may wash the face, and a woman after childbirth may put on sandals. But the sages forbad doing so. The Tosefta taught that one must not put on even felt shoes. But the Tosefta taught that minors can do all these things except put on sandals, for appearance's sake. The Mishnah held a person culpable to punishment for eating an amount of food equal to a large date (with its pit included), or for drinking a mouthful of liquid. For the purpose of calculating the amount consumed, one combines all amounts of food together, and all amounts liquids together, but not amounts of foods together with amounts of liquids. The Mishnah obliged one who unknowingly or forgetfully ate and drank to bring only one sin-offering. But one who unknowingly or forgetfully ate and performed labor had to bring two sin-offerings. The Mishnah did not hold one culpable who ate foods unfit to eat, or drank liquids unfit to drink (like fish-brine). The Mishnah taught that one should not afflict children at all on Yom Kippur. In the two years before they become Bar or Bat Mitzvah, one should train children to become used to religious observances (for example by fasting for several hours). The Mishnah taught that one should give food to a pregnant woman who smelled food and requested it. One should feed to a sick person at the direction of experts, and if no experts are present, one feeds a sick person who requests food. The Mishnah taught that one may even give unclean food to one seized by a ravenous hunger, until the person's eyes are opened. Rabbi Matthia ben Heresh said that one who has a sore throat may drink medicine even on the Sabbath, because it presented the possibility of danger to human life, and every danger to human life suspends the laws of the Sabbath.
Rav Ḥisda taught that the five afflictions of Yom Kippur that the Mishnah taught (eating and in drinking, bathing, smearing the body with oil, wearing shoes, and conjugal relations) are based on the five times that the Torah mentions the afflictions of Yom Kippur: (1) “And on the tenth of this seventh month you shall have a holy convocation, and you shall afflict your souls” (Numbers 29:7); (2) “But on the tenth of this seventh month is the day of atonement, it shall be a holy convocation for you and you shall afflict your souls” (Leviticus 23:27); (3) “It shall be for you a Shabbat of solemn rest, and you shall afflict your souls (Leviticus 23:32); (4) “It is a Shabbat of solemn rest for you, and you shall afflict your souls” (Leviticus 16:31); (5) “And it shall be a statute for you forever, in the seventh month on the tenth of the month, you shall afflict your souls” (Leviticus 16:29).
Rabbi Akiva (or some say Rabban Johanan ben Zakai) never said in the house of study that it was time to stop studying, except on the eve of Passover and the eve of the Yom Kippur. On the eve of Passover, it was because of the children, so that they might not fall asleep, and on the eve of the Day of Atonement, it was so that they should feed their children before the fast.
The Gemara taught that in conducting the self-denial required in Leviticus 16:29–34 and 23:26–32, one adds a little time from the surrounding ordinary weekdays to the holy day. Rabbi Ishmael derived this rule from what had been taught in a Baraita: One might read Leviticus 23:32, "And you shall afflict your souls on the ninth day," literally to mean that one begins fasting the entire day on the ninth day of the month; Leviticus 23:32 therefore says, "in the evening." One might read "in the evening" to mean "after dark" (which the Hebrew calendar would reckon as part of the tenth day); Leviticus 23:32 therefore says, "in the ninth day." The Gemara thus concluded that one begins fasting while it is still day on the ninth day, adding some time from the profane day (the ninth) to the holy day (the tenth). The Gemara read the words, "from evening to evening," in Leviticus 23:32 to teach that one adds some time to Yom Kippur from both the evening before and the evening after. Because Leviticus 23:32 says, "You shall rest," the Gemara applied the rule to Sabbaths as well. Because Leviticus 23:32 says "your Sabbath" (your day of rest), the Gemara applied the rule to other Festivals (in addition to Yom Kippur); wherever the law creates an obligation to rest, we add time to that obligation from the surrounding profane days to the holy day. Rabbi Akiva, however, read Leviticus 23:32, "And you shall afflict your souls on the ninth day," to teach the lesson learned by Rav Hiyya bar Rav from Difti (that is, Dibtha, below the Tigris, southeast of Babylon). Rav Hiyya bar Rav from Difti taught in a Baraita that Leviticus 23:32 says "the ninth day" to indicate that if people eat and drink on the ninth day, then Scripture credits it to them as if they fasted on both the ninth and the tenth days (because Leviticus 23:32 calls the eating and drinking on the ninth day "fasting").
The Gemara read the definite article in the term "the homeborn" in Leviticus 16:29 to include women in the extension of the period of affliction to Yom Kippur eve.
The Jerusalem Talmud taught that the evil impulse (, yetzer hara) craves only what is forbidden. The Jerusalem Talmud illustrated this by relating that on the Day of Atonement, Rabbi Mana went to visit Rabbi Haggai, who was feeling weak. Rabbi Haggai told Rabbi Mana that he was thirsty. Rabbi Mana told Rabbi Haggai to go drink something. Rabbi Mana left and after a while came back. Rabbi Mana asked Rabbi Haggai what happened to his thirst. Rabbi Haggai replied that when Rabbi Mana told him that he could drink, his thirst went away.
The Mishnah taught that death and observance of Yom Kippur with penitence atone for sin. Penitence atones for lighter sins, while for severer sins, penitence suspends God's punishment, until Yom Kippur comes to atone. The Mishnah taught that no opportunity for penance will be given to one who says: "I shall sin and repent, sin and repent." And Yom Kippur does not atone for one who says: "I shall sin and Yom Kippur will atone for me." Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah derived from the words "From all your sins before the Lord shall you be clean" in Leviticus 16:30 that Yom Kippur atones for sins against God, but Yom Kippur does not atone for transgressions between one person and another, until the one person has pacified the other. Rabbi Akiva said that Israel is fortunate, for just as waters cleanse the unclean, so does God cleanse Israel.
Rabbi Eleazar interpreted the words of Leviticus 16:30, "from all your sins shall you be clean before the Lord," to teach that the Day of Atonement expiates sins that are known only to God.
Rabbi Eleazer son of Rabbi Simeon taught that the Day of Atonement effects atonement even if no goat is offered. But the goat effected atonement only with the Day of Atonement.
Mar Zutra taught that the merit of a fast day lies in the charity dispensed.
The Gemara told that a poor man lived in Mar Ukba's neighborhood to whom he regularly sent 400 zuz on the eve of every Yom Kippur. Once Mar Ukba sent his son to deliver the 400 zuz. His son came back and reported that the poor man did not need Mar Ukba's help. When Mar Ukba asked his son what he had seen, his son replied that they were sprinkling aged wine before the poor man to improve the aroma in the room. Mar Ukba said that if the poor man was that delicate, then Mar Ukba would double the amount of his gift and send it back to the poor man.
Rabbi Eleazar taught that when the Temple stood, a person used to bring a shekel and so make atonement. Now that the Temple no longer stands, if people give to charity, all will be well, and if they do not, heathens will come and take from them forcibly (what they should have given away). And even so, God will reckon to them as if they had given charity, as Isaiah 60:17 says, "I will make your exactors righteousness [, tzedakah]."
Rav Bibi bar Abaye taught that on the eve of the Day of Atonement, a person should confess saying: "I confess all the evil I have done before You; I stood in the way of evil; and as for all the evil I have done, I shall no more do the like; may it be Your will, O Lord my God, that You should pardon me for all my iniquities, and forgive me for all my transgressions, and grant me atonement for all my sins." This is indicated by Isaiah 55:7, which says, "Let the wicked forsake his way, and the man of iniquity his thoughts." Rabbi Isaac compared it to a person fitting together two boards, joining them one to another. And Rabbi Jose ben Hanina compared it to a person fitting together two bed-legs, joining them one to another. (This harmoniously does a person become joined to God when the person genuinely repents.)
The Rabbis taught that the obligation to confess sins comes on the eve of the Day of Atonement, as it grows dark. But the Sages said that one should confess before one has eaten and drunk, lest one become inebriated in the course of the meal. And even if one has confessed before eating and drinking, one should confess again after having eaten and drunk, because perhaps some wrong happened during the meal. And even if one has confessed during the evening prayer, one should confess again during the morning prayer. And even if one has confessed during the morning prayer, one should do so again during the Musaf additional prayer. And even if one has confessed during the Musaf, one should do so again during the afternoon prayer. And even if one has done so in the afternoon prayer, one should confess again in the Ne'ilah concluding prayer. The Gemara taught that the individual should say the confession after the (silent recitation of the) Amidah prayer, and the public reader says it in the middle of the Amidah. Rav taught that the confession begins: "You know the secrets of eternity . . . ." Samuel, however, taught that the confession begins: "From the depths of the heart . . . ." Levi said: "And in Your Torah it is said, [‘For on this day He shall make atonement for you.']" (Leviticus 16:30.) Rabbi Johanan taught that the confession begins: "Lord of the Universe, . . . ." Rav Judah said: "Our iniquities are too many to count, and our sins too numerous to be counted." Rav Hamnuna said: "My God, before I was formed, I was of no worth, and now that I have been formed, it is as if I had not been formed. I am dust in my life, how much more in my death. Behold, I am before You like a vessel full of shame and reproach. May it be Your will that I sin no more, and what I have sinned wipe away in Your mercy, but not through suffering." That was the confession of sins used by Rav all the year round, and by Rav Hamnuna the younger, on the Day of Atonement. Mar Zutra taught that one should say such prayers only if one has not already said, "Truly, we have sinned," but if one has said, "Truly, we have sinned," no more is necessary. For Bar Hamdudi taught that once he stood before Samuel, who was sitting, and when the public reader said, "Truly, we have sinned," Samuel rose, and so Bar Hamdudi inferred that this was the main confession.
Resh Lakish taught that great is repentance, for because of it, Heaven accounts premeditated sins as errors, as Hosea 14:2 says, "Return, O Israel, to the Lord, your God, for you have stumbled in your iniquity." "Iniquity" refers to premeditated sins, and yet Hosea calls them "stumbling," implying that Heaven considers those who repent of intentional sins as if they acted accidentally. But the Gemara said that that is not all, for Resh Lakish also said that repentance is so great that with it, Heaven accounts premeditated sins as though they were merits, as Ezekiel 33:19 says, "And when the wicked turns from his wickedness, and does that which is lawful and right, he shall live thereby." The Gemara reconciled the two positions, clarifying that in the sight of Heaven, repentance derived from love transforms intentional sins to merits, while repentance out of fear transforms intentional sins to unwitting transgressions.
Reading Song of Songs 6:11, Rabbi Joshua ben Levi compared Israel to a nut-tree. Rabbi Azariah taught that just as when a nut falls into the dirt, you can wash it, restore it to its former condition, and make it fit for eating, so however much Israel may be defiled with iniquities all the rest of the year, when the Day of Atonement comes, it makes atonement for them, as Leviticus 16:30 says, "For on this day shall atonement be made for you, to cleanse you."
The Mishnah taught that Divine judgment is passed on the world at four seasons (based on the world's actions in the preceding year)—at Passover for produce; at Shavuot for fruit; at Rosh Hashanah all creatures pass before God like children of maron (one by one), as Psalm 33:15 says, "He Who fashions the heart of them all, Who considers all their doings." And on Sukkot, judgment is passed in regard to rain. Rabbi Meir taught that all are judged on Rosh Hashanah and the decree is sealed on Yom Kippur. Rabbi Judah, however, taught that all are judged on Rosh Hashanah and the decree of every one of them is sealed in its own time—at Passover for grain, at Shavuot for fruits of the orchard, at Sukkot for water. And the decree of humankind is sealed on Yom Kippur. Rabbi Jose taught that humankind is judged every single day, as Job 7:17–18 says, "What is man, that You should magnify him, and that You should set Your heart upon him, and that You should remember him every morning, and try him every moment?"
Rav Kruspedai said in the name of Rabbi Johanan that on Rosh Hashanah, three books are opened in Heaven—one for the thoroughly wicked, one for the thoroughly righteous, and one for those in between. The thoroughly righteous are immediately inscribed definitively in the book of life. The thoroughly wicked are immediately inscribed definitively in the book of death. And the fate of those in between is suspended from Rosh Hashanah to Yom Kippur. If they deserve well, then they are inscribed in the book of life; if they do not deserve well, then they are inscribed in the book of death. Rabbi Abin said that Psalm 69:29 tells us this when it says, "Let them be blotted out of the book of the living, and not be written with the righteous." "Let them be blotted out from the book" refers to the book of the wicked. "Of the living" refers to the book of the righteous. "And not be written with the righteous" refers to the book of those in between. Rav Nahman bar Isaac derived this from Exodus 32:32, where Moses told God, "if not, blot me, I pray, out of Your book that You have written." "Blot me, I pray" refers to the book of the wicked. "Out of Your book" refers to the book of the righteous. "That you have written" refers to the book of those in between. It was taught in a Baraita that the House of Shammai said that there will be three groups at the Day of Judgment—one of thoroughly righteous, one of thoroughly wicked, and one of those in between. The thoroughly righteous will immediately be inscribed definitively as entitled to everlasting life; the thoroughly wicked will immediately be inscribed definitively as doomed to Gehinnom, as Daniel 12:2 says, "And many of them who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life and some to reproaches and everlasting abhorrence." Those in between will go down to Gehinnom and scream and rise again, as Zechariah 13:9 says, "And I will bring the third part through the fire, and will refine them as silver is refined, and will try them as gold is tried. They shall call on My name and I will answer them." Of them, Hannah said in 1 Samuel 2:6, "The Lord kills and makes alive, He brings down to the grave and brings up." The House of Hillel, however, taught that God inclines the scales towards grace (so that those in between do not have to descend to Gehinnom), and of them David said in Psalm 116:1–3, "I love that the Lord should hear my voice and my supplication . . . The cords of death compassed me, and the straits of the netherworld got hold upon me," and on their behalf David composed the conclusion of Psalm 116:6, "I was brought low and He saved me."
Rav Mana of Sha'ab (in Galilee) and Rav Joshua of Siknin in the name of Rav Levi compared repentance at the High Holidays to the case of a province that owed arrears on its taxes to the king, and the king came to collect the debt. When the king was within ten miles, the nobility of the province came out and praised him, so he freed the province of a third of its debt. When he was within five miles, the middle-class people of the province came out and praised him, so he freed the province of another third of its debt. When he entered the province, all the people of the province—men, women, and children—came out and praised him, so he freed them of all of their debt. The king told them to let bygones be bygones; from then on they would start a new account. In a similar manner, on the eve of Rosh Hashanah, the leaders of the generation fast, and God absolves them of a third of their iniquities. From Rosh Hashanah to Yom Kippur, private individuals fast, and God absolves them of a third of their iniquities. On Yom Kippur, everyone fasts—men, women and children—and God tells Israel to let bygones be bygones; from then onwards we begin a new account. From Yom Kippur to Sukkot, all Israel are busy with the performance of religious duties. One is busy with a sukkah, one with a lulav. On the first day of Sukkot, all Israel stand in the presence of God with their palm-branches and etrogs in honor of God's name, and God tells them to let bygones be bygones; from now we begin a new account. Thus in Leviticus 23:40, Moses exhorts Israel: "You shall take on the first day [of Sukkot] the fruit of goodly trees, branches of palm trees and the boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook; and you shall rejoice before the Lord your God." Rabbi Aha explained that the words, "For with You there is forgiveness," in Psalm 130:4 signify that forgiveness waits with God from Rosh Hashanah onward. And forgiveness waits that long so (in the words of Psalm 130:4) "that You may be feared" and God may impose God's awe upon God's creatures (through the suspense and uncertainty).
Rabban Simeon ben Gamaliel said that there never were greater days of joy in Israel than the 15th of Av and Yom Kippur. On those days, the daughters of Jerusalem would come out in borrowed white garments, dance in the vineyards, and exclaim to the young men to lift up their eyes and choose for themselves.
A Baraita noted a difference in wording between Exodus 29:30, regarding the investiture of the High Priest, and Leviticus 16:32, regarding the qualifications for performing the Yom Kippur service. Exodus 29:29–30 says, "The holy garments of Aaron shall be for his sons after him, to be anointed in them, and to be consecrated in them. Seven days shall the son that is priest in his stead put them on." This text demonstrated that a priest who had put on the required larger number of garments and who had been anointed on each of the seven days was permitted to serve as High Priest. Leviticus 16:32, however, says, "And the priest who shall be anointed and who shall be consecrated to be priest in his father's stead shall make the atonement." The Baraita interpreted the words, "Who shall be anointed and who shall be consecrated," to mean one who had been anointed and consecrated in whatever way (as long as he had been consecrated, even if some detail of the ceremony had been omitted). The Baraita thus concluded that if the priest had put on the larger number of garments for only one day and had been anointed on each of the seven days, or if he had been anointed for only one day and had put on the larger number of garments for seven days, he would also be permitted to perform the Yom Kippur service.
Reading the words, “He shall make atonement,” in Leviticus 16:33, a Baraita taught that this extended atonement to Canaanite slaves who worked for Jews (as these slaves were obligated in certain commandments and are therefore also warranted atonement).
The Jerusalem Talmud reported that Rav Idi in the name of Rabbi Isaac taught that Leviticus 16:34 includes the words, “As the Lord commanded him,” to teach that the High Priest was required to read Leviticus 16 as part of the Yom Kippur service.
The Jerusalem Talmud reported that Jews wear white on the High Holy Days. Rabbi Hama the son of Rabbi Hanina and Rabbi Hoshaiah disagreed about how to interpret Deuteronomy 4:8, “And what great nation is there, that has statutes and ordinances so righteous as all this law.” One said: “And what great nation is there?” Ordinarily those who know they are on trial wear black, wrap themselves in black, and let their beards grow, since they do not know how their trial will turn out. But that is not how it is with Israel. Rather, on the day of their trial, they wear white, wrap themselves in white, and shave their beards and eat, drink, and rejoice, for they know that God does miracles for them.
Leviticus chapter 17
Rabbi Berekiah said in the name of Rabbi Isaac that in the Time to Come, God will make a banquet for God's righteous servants, and whoever had not eaten meat from an animal that died other than through ritual slaughtering (, neveilah, prohibited by Leviticus 17:1–4) in this world will have the privilege of enjoying it in the World to Come. This is indicated by Leviticus 7:24, which says, "And the fat of that which dies of itself (, neveilah) and the fat of that which is torn by beasts (, tereifah), may be used for any other service, but you shall not eat it," so that one might eat it in the Time to Come. (By one's present self-restraint one might merit to partake of the banquet in the Hereafter.) For this reason Moses admonished the Israelites in Leviticus 11:2, "This is the animal that you shall eat."
A Midrash interpreted Psalm 146:7, "The Lord lets loose the prisoners," to read, "The Lord permits the forbidden," and thus to teach that what God forbade in one case, God permitted in another. God forbade the abdominal fat of cattle (in Leviticus 3:3) but permitted it in the case of beasts. God forbade consuming the sciatic nerve in animals (in Genesis 32:33) but permitted it in fowl. God forbade eating meat without ritual slaughter (in Leviticus 17:1–4) but permitted it for fish. Similarly, Rabbi Abba and Rabbi Jonathan in the name of Rabbi Levi taught that God permitted more things than God forbade. For example, God counterbalanced the prohibition of pork (in Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8) by permitting mullet (which some say tastes like pork).
A Tanna taught that the prohibition of the high places stated in Leviticus 17:3–4 took place on the first of Nisan. The Tanna taught that the first of Nisan took ten crowns of distinction by virtue of the ten momentous events that occurred on that day. The first of Nisan was: (1) the first day of the Creation (as reported in Genesis 1:1–5), (2) the first day of the princes' offerings (as reported in Numbers 7:10–17), (3) the first day for the priesthood to make the sacrificial offerings (as reported in Leviticus 9:1–21), (4) the first day for public sacrifice, (5) the first day for the descent of fire from Heaven (as reported in Leviticus 9:24), (6) the first for the priests' eating of sacred food in the sacred area, (7) the first for the dwelling of the Shechinah in Israel (as implied by Exodus 25:8), (8) the first for the Priestly Blessing of Israel (as reported in Leviticus 9:22, employing the blessing prescribed by Numbers 6:22–27), (9) the first for the prohibition of the high places (as stated in Leviticus 17:3–4), and (10) the first of the months of the year (as instructed in Exodus 12:2). Rav Assi of Hozna'ah deduced from the words, "And it came to pass in the first month of the second year, on the first day of the month," in Exodus 40:17 that the Tabernacle was erected on the first of Nisan.
The Gemara interpreted the prohibition on consuming blood in Leviticus 17:10 to apply to the blood of any type of animal or fowl, but not to the blood of eggs, grasshoppers, and fish.
Leviticus chapter 18
Rabbi Ḥiyya taught that the words “I am the Lord your God” appear twice, in Leviticus 18:2 and 4, to teach that God was the God who inflicted punishment upon the Generation of the Flood, Sodom, and Egypt, and God is the same God who will inflict punishment on anyone who will act as they did.
Applying the prohibition against following the ways of the Canaanites in Leviticus 18:3, the Sages of the Mishnah prohibited going out with talismans like a locust's egg, a fox's tooth, or a nail from a gallows, but Rabbi Meir allowed it, and the Gemara reported that Abaye and Rava agreed, excepting from the prohibition of Leviticus 18:3 any practice of evident therapeutic value.
Leviticus 18:4 calls on the Israelites to obey God's "statutes" (chukim) and "ordinances" (mishpatim). The Rabbis in a Baraita taught that the "ordinances" (mishpatim) were commandments that logic would have dictated that we follow even had Scripture not commanded them, like the laws concerning idolatry, adultery, bloodshed, robbery, and blasphemy. And "statutes" (chukim) were commandments that the Adversary challenges us to violate as beyond reason, like those relating to shaatnez (in Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11), halizah (in Deuteronomy 25:5–10), purification of the person with tzaraat (in Leviticus 14), and the scapegoat (in Leviticus 16:7–10). So that people do not think these "ordinances" (mishpatim) to be empty acts, in Leviticus 18:4, God says, "I am the Lord," indicating that the Lord made these statutes, and we have no right to question them.
Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah taught that people should not say that they do not want to wear a wool-linen mixture (, shatnez, prohibited by Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11), eat pork (prohibited by Leviticus 11:7 and Deuteronomy 14:7–8), or be intimate with forbidden partners (prohibited by Leviticus 18 and 20), but rather should say that they would love to, but God has decreed that they not do so. For in Leviticus 20:26, God says, "I have separated you from the nations to be mine." So one should separate from transgression and accept the rule of Heaven.
The Gemara cited Leviticus 18:5 for the proposition that, except for a very few circumstances, a person need not obey God's commandments if doing so would cause the person to die. Interpreting what constitutes profanation of God's Name within the meaning of Leviticus 22:32, Rabbi Johanan said in the name of Rabbi Simeon ben Jehozadak that by a majority vote, it was resolved in the attic of the house of Nitzah in Lydda that if a person is directed to transgress a commandment in order to avoid being killed, the person may transgress any commandment of the Torah to stay alive except idolatry, prohibited sexual relations, and murder. Regarding idolatry, the Gemara asked whether one could commit it to save one's life, as it was taught in a Baraita that Rabbi Ishmael said that if a person is directed to engage in idolatry in order to avoid being killed, the person should do so, and stay alive. Rabbi Ishmael taught that we learn this from Leviticus 18:5, "You shall therefore keep my statutes and my judgments, which if a man do, he shall live in them," which means that a person should not die by them. From this, one might think that a person could openly engage in idolatry in order to avoid being killed, but this is not so, as Leviticus 22:32 teaches, "Neither shall you profane My holy Name; but I will be hallowed." When Rav Dimi came from the Land of Israel to Babylonia, he taught that the rule that one may violate any commandment except idolatry, prohibited sexual relations, and murder to stay alive applied only when there is no royal decree forbidding the practice of Judaism. But Rav Dimi taught that if there is such a decree, one must incur martyrdom rather than transgress even a minor precept. When Ravin came, he said in Rabbi Johanan's name that even absent such a decree, one was allowed to violate a commandment to stay alive only in private; but in public one needed to be martyred rather than violate even a minor precept. Rava bar Rav Isaac said in Rav's name that in this context one should choose martyrdom rather than violate a commandment even to change a shoe strap. Rabbi Jacob said in Rabbi Johanan's name that the minimum number of people for an act to be considered public is ten. And the Gemara taught that ten Jews are required for the event to be public, for Leviticus 22:32 says, "I will be hallowed among the children of Israel."
Rabbi Levi taught that the punishment for false weights or measures (discussed at Deuteronomy 25:13–16) was more severe than that for having intimate relations with forbidden relatives (discussed at Leviticus 18:6–20). For in discussing the case of forbidden relatives, Leviticus 18:27 uses the Hebrew word , eil, for the word "these," whereas in the case of false weights or measures, Deuteronomy 25:16 uses the Hebrew word , eileh, for the word "these" (and the additional , eh at the end of the word implies additional punishment.) The Gemara taught that one can derive that , eil, implies rigorous punishment from Ezekiel 17:13, which says, "And the mighty (, eilei) of the land he took away." The Gemara explained that the punishments for giving false measures are greater than those for having relations with forbidden relatives because for forbidden relatives, repentance is possible (as long as there have not been children), but with false measure, repentance is impossible (as one cannot remedy the sin of robbery by mere repentance; the return of the things robbed must precede it, and in the case of false measures, it is practically impossible to find out all the members of the public who have been defrauded).
The Gemara interpreted Leviticus 18:7 to prohibit a man from lying with his father's wife, whether or not she was his mother, and whether or not the father was still alive.
The Mishnah taught that Leviticus 18:17, in prohibiting "a woman and her daughter," prohibited a man’s daughter, his daughter's daughter, his son's daughter, his wife's daughter, her daughter's daughter, his mother-in-law, the mother of his mother-in-law, and the mother of his father-in-law.
Rav Awira taught (sometimes in the name of Rabbi Ammi, sometimes in the name of Rabbi Assi) that the words "And the child grew, and was weaned (, va-yigamal), and Abraham made a great feast on the day that Isaac was weaned" in Genesis 21:8 teach that God will make a great feast for the righteous on the day that God manifests (yigmol) God's love to Isaac's descendants. After they have eaten and drunk, they will ask Abraham to recite the Grace after meals (Birkat Hamazon), but Abraham will answer that he cannot say Grace, because he fathered Ishmael. Then they will ask Isaac to say Grace, but Isaac will answer that he cannot say Grace, because he fathered Esau. Then they will ask Jacob, but Jacob will answer that he cannot, because he married two sisters during both their lifetimes, which Leviticus 18:18 was destined to forbid. Then they will ask Moses, but Moses will answer that he cannot, because God did not allow him to enter the Land of Israel either in life or in death. Then they will ask Joshua, but Joshua will answer that he cannot, because he was not privileged to have a son, for 1 Chronicles 7:27 reports, "Nun was his son, Joshua was his son," without listing further descendants. Then they will ask David, and he will say Grace, and find it fitting for him to do so, because Psalm 116:13 records David saying, "I will lift up the cup of salvation, and call upon the name of the Lord."
A Baraita was taught in the Academy of Eliyahu: A certain scholar diligently studied Bible and Mishnah, and greatly served scholars, but nonetheless died young. His wife carried his tefillin to the synagogues and schoolhouses and asked if Deuteronomy 30:20 says, "for that is your life, and the length of your days," why her husband nonetheless died young. No one could answer her. On one occasion, Eliyahu asked her how he was to her during her days of white garments—the seven days after her menstrual period—and she reported that they ate, drank, and slept together without clothing. Eliyahu explained that God must have slain him because he did not sufficiently respect the separation that Leviticus 18:19 requires.
Mishnah Sanhedrin and Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin interpreted the laws prohibiting passing one's child through the fire to Molech in Leviticus 18:21 and 20:1–5, and Deuteronomy 18:10.
Rabbi Judah ben Pazzi deduced from the juxtaposition of the sexual prohibitions of Leviticus 18 and the exhortation to holiness in Leviticus 19:2 that those who fence themselves against sexual immorality are called holy, and Rabbi Joshua ben Levi taught that wherever one finds a fence against sexual immorality, one will also find sanctity.
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Leviticus chapter 16
Maimonides noted that the scapegoat that was sent into the wilderness in Leviticus 16:20–22 served as an atonement for all serious transgressions more than any other sin-offering of the congregation. Maimonides explained that as it thus seemed to carry off all sins, the scapegoat was not accepted as an ordinary sacrifice to be slaughtered, burned, or even brought near the Sanctuary. Rather, it was removed as far as possible from the community. Maimonides wrote that there is no doubt that sins cannot actually be carried like a burden, and taken off the shoulder of one being to be laid on that of another being. But the ceremonies of the scapegoat were symbolic, and serve to impress upon people the need to repent, as if to say, we have freed ourselves of our previous deeds, have cast them behind us, and removed them as far as possible.
Maimonides taught that the object of the Fast of Atonement is the sense of repentance that it creates. Maimonides noted that it was on Yom Kippur that Moses came down from Mount Sinai with the second tablets and announced to the Israelites God’s pardon of their sin with the Golden Calf. God therefore appointed Yom Kippur forever as a day devoted to repentance and the true worship of God. For this reason, the law interdicts all material enjoyment, trouble and care for the body, and work, so that people might spend the day confessing their sins and abandoning them.
Leviticus chapter 17
Reading the prohibition of eating blood in Leviticus 17:12, Maimonides reported that the Sabians consumed blood, because they thought it was the food of spirits. Maimonides reported that the Sabians and other non-Jews hoped that by eating blood, they would gain the company and goodwill of the spirits, who might then tell them about the future. Maimonides explained that Leviticus 17:12 sought to cure humanity of such afflictions. And Maimonides similarly explained that Leviticus 17:13 required that whenever Israelites killed a beast or bird that could be eaten, its blood had to be covered with earth, so that people would not assemble around the blood for the purpose of eating in the presence of spirits.
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Leviticus chapter 16
Jacob Milgrom taught that the evidence of the ethical impulse in the sacrificial system attained its zenith in Yom Kippur. Milgrom wrote that what originally was only a rite to purge the sanctuary was expanded to include a rite to purge the people. To begin with, Milgrom taught, the pagan notion of demonic impurity was eviscerated by insisting that the accumulated pollution of the sanctuary was caused by human sin. Then, Milgrom taught, "a more radical alteration" was introduced with the scapegoat, which initially eliminated the sanctuary's impurities, but then became the vehicle for purging their source—the human heart—provided that the people purged themselves through rites of penitence. Thus Milgrom taught that what was originally a purgation rite of the Temple was broadened and transformed into an annual day for the collective catharsis of Israel whereby God would continue to reside with Israel because God's Temple and people had once again been purified.
James Kugel reported that according to one theory, the Priestly source (often abbreviated P) invented Nadab and Abihu, giving them the names of the discredited King Jeroboam’s sons, so that they could die in the newly-inaugurated sanctuary (as noted in Leviticus 16:1) and thereby defile it through corpse contamination, so that God could then instruct Aaron in Leviticus 16:3 about how to purify the sanctuary through Yom Kippur. This theory posited that the Israelites had originally used Yom Kippur’s purification procedure any time it was needed during the year, and thus it made sense to the narrative to have the sanctuary contaminated (in Leviticus 10) and then immediately purged (in Leviticus 16), but eventually, when the Israelites made sanctuary purgation an annual rite, the Priestly source inserted Leviticus 11–15 to list other potential sources of impurity that might require the sanctuary to be purged.
Milgrom noted that Leviticus 16:2–28 sets forth some of the few laws (along with Leviticus 6:1–7:21 and 10:8–15) reserved for the Priests alone, while most of Leviticus is addressed to all the Israelite people.
Leviticus chapter 17
In 1877, August Klostermann observed the singularity of Leviticus 17–26 as a collection of laws and designated it the "Holiness Code."
Noting that Deuteronomy 12:15, 21 permits nonsacrificial slaughter, Milgrom argued that Deuteronomy thus overturned the Priestly law of Leviticus 17:3–7 that all meat for human consumption had to have been offered on the altar. Milgrom cited this as support for why Leviticus must be older than Deuteronomy.
Kugel reported that the Israeli archaeologist Israel Finkelstein found no pig bones in hilltop sites starting in the Iron I period (roughly 1200–1000 BCE) and continuing through Iron II, while before that, in Bronze Age sites, pig bones abounded. Kugel deduced from Finkelstein’s data that the new hilltop residents were fundamentally different from both their predecessors in the highlands and the city Canaanites—either because they were a different ethnic group, or because they had adopted a different way of life, for ideological or other reasons. Kugel inferred from Finkelstein’s findings that these highlanders shared some ideology (if only a food taboo), like modern-day Jews and Muslims.
Leviticus chapter 18
Shaye Cohen noted that the only element in common between the “ritual” or physical impurities of Leviticus 11–15 and the “dangerous” or sinful impurities of Leviticus 18 is intercourse with a menstruant.
Leading modern authorities in different Jewish religious movements differ in their interpretation of the law on homosexuality in Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13. From Orthodox Judaism, in 2010, four leaders of the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary of Yeshiva University posted a statement saying that the Torah absolutely prohibits homosexual behavior, and with respect to homosexuality, the study of Torah will place observant Jews at odds with political correctness and the temper of the times, but they must be honest with themselves and with God, regardless of the consequences. In 2006, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of Conservative Judaism approved by a 13-to-12 vote a responsum that held that while the explicit biblical ban on anal sex between men remains in effect, for homosexuals who are incapable of maintaining a heterosexual relationship, the rabbinic prohibitions that have been associated with other gay and lesbian intimate acts are superseded based upon the Talmudic principle of the obligation to preserve the human dignity of all people, in effect normalizing the status of gay and lesbian Jews in the Jewish community, while explicitly not ruling on the question of gay marriage. In 1977, the Central Conference of American Rabbis of Reform Judaism adopted a resolution encouraging legislation to decriminalize homosexual acts between consenting adults and prohibit discrimination against them. And in 2013, the Central Conference of American Rabbis Responsa Committee adopted a responsum holding that Reform rabbis officiate with the full support of the CCAR at the marriage ceremonies of Jews of the same sex and Reform rabbis may consider these same-sex marriages to be kiddushin, utilizing in the marriage ceremony the Jewish forms and rites that are most appropriate to the partners involved.
Commandments
According to Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 2 positive and 26 negative commandments in the parashah:
A Kohen must not enter the Temple in Jerusalem indiscriminately.
To follow the procedure of Yom Kippur
Not to slaughter sacrifices outside the courtyard
To cover the blood of a slaughtered beast or fowl with earth
Not to make pleasurable sexual contact with any forbidden woman
Not to have homosexual sexual relations with one's father
Not to have sexual relations with one's mother
Not to have sexual relations with one's father's wife
Not to have sexual relations with one's sister
Not to have sexual relations with one's son's daughter
Not to have sexual relations with one's daughter's daughter
Not to have sexual relations with one's daughter
Not to have sexual relations with one's father's wife's daughter
Not to have sexual relations with one's father's sister
Not to have sexual relations with one's mother's sister
Not to have homosexual sexual relations with one's father's brother
Not to have sexual relations with one's father's brother's wife
Not to have sexual relations with one's son's wife
Not to have sexual relations with one's brother's wife
Not to have sexual relations with a woman and her daughter
Not to have sexual relations with a woman and her son's daughter
Not to have sexual relations with a woman and her daughter's daughter
Not to have sexual relations with one's wife's sister while both are alive
Not to have sexual relations with a menstrually impure woman
Not to pass one's children through the fire to Molech
Not to have male homosexual sexual relations
A man must not have sexual relations with a beast.
A woman must not have sexual relations with a beast.
Maqam
For parashat Acharei, Sephardi Jews apply the melody Maqam Hijaz, the maqam that expresses mourning and sadness, because the parashah alludes to the deaths of Nadab and Abihu, the first two sons of Aaron.
Haftarah
The haftarah for the parashah is:
for Ashkenazi Jews: Ezekiel 22:1–19
for Sephardi Jews: Ezekiel 22:1–16
Connection to the parashah
Both the parashah and the haftarah address prohibited sexual practices.
On Shabbat Machar Chodesh
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat Machar Chodesh (when Shabbat falls the day before Rosh Chodesh—as it does in 2022), the haftarah is 1 Samuel 20:18–42.
On Shabbat HaGadol
When the parashah coincides with Shabbat HaGadol (the special Sabbath immediately before Passover—as it did in 2014), the haftarah is Malachi 3:4–24.
Connection to the special Sabbath
Shabbat HaGadol means "the Great Sabbath," and the haftarah for the special Sabbath refers to a great day that God is preparing.
Parashah Acharei Mot-Kedoshim
When parashah Acharei Mot is combined with parashah Kedoshim (as it is in 2023, 2025, 2026, and 2028), the haftarah is the haftarah for parashah Kedoshim:
for Ashkenazi Jews: Amos 9:7–15
for Sephardi Jews: Ezekiel 20:2–20
See also
Azazel in rabbinic literature
Conservative Judaism and sexual orientation
Homosexuality and Judaism
Leviticus 18
Same-sex marriage and Judaism
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Ancient
"Temple Program for the New Year's Festival at Babylon." Babylonia. In Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Edited by James B. Pritchard, pages 331–34. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1969.
Biblical
Leviticus 14:4–7, 49–53 (riddance ritual); 20:2 (Molech); 23:26–32 (Yom Kippur).
Deuteronomy 18:10 (passing children through the fire).
1 Kings 11:4–8, 33 (Molech).
2 Kings 16:3 (son pass through fire); 17:17 (children pass through fire); 21:6 (son pass through fire); 23:10–14 (Molech).
Isaiah 57:9 (Molech or king).
Jeremiah 7:31 (child sacrifice); 32:35 (Molech); 49:1–3 (Molech or Malcam).
Ezekiel 16:20–21 (sacrificing children); 18:5–6 (the just man avoids contact with the menstruating woman); 23:37 (sacrifice of sons).
Amos 5:25–27 (Molech or king).
Zephaniah 1:4–6 (Molech).
Psalm 32:2 (God's imputing iniquity to a person); 51:3–4 (cleansing from sin); 93:5 (holiness in God's house); 103:1–18 (God's forgiveness); 106:37 (sacrifice to demons).
2 Chronicles 33:6 (children pass through fire).
Early nonrabbinic
Philo. Allegorical Interpretation 2:14:52, 15:56; That the Worse Is Wont To Attack the Better 22:80; On the Posterity of Cain and His Exile 20:70; On the Giants 8:32; Who Is the Heir of Divine Things? 16:84; On Mating with the Preliminary Studies 16:85–87; On Flight and Finding 28:159; 34:193; On Dreams, That They Are God-Sent 2:28:189, 34:231; The Special Laws 4:23:122. Alexandria, Egypt, early 1st Century CE. In, e.g., The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge, pages 43, 121, 138, 154, 283, 311, 335, 338, 401, 404, 628. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993.
Hebrews 9:7. Circa 63–100. (Yom Kippur).
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 3:10:3, 11:2, 12:1. Circa 93–94. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, page 95. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Acts 7:42–43 (Molech).
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Bikkurim 2:9; Shabbat 6:10; Shekalim 4:2; Yoma 1:1–8:9; Beitzah 1:1–5:7; Rosh Hashanah 1:2; Taanit 4:8; Megillah 3:5; 4:9; Chagigah 2:1; Yevamot 2:3; Sotah 7:7; Sanhedrin 7:4, 7; 9:1; Makkot 3:15; Shevuot 1:4–7; Zevachim 12:5; 14:1–2, 9; Menachot 9:7; Keritot 1:1; 2:4; 5:1; Parah 1:4; 8:3. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 171, 256, 265–79, 291–300, 321, 323, 330, 339, 459, 597, 602, 619, 621–22, 726, 729, 731, 752, 836, 839, 845–46, 1014, 1025. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1988.
Sifra 174:1–194:3. Land of Israel, 4th Century. In, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 3, pages 1–84. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
Jerusalem Talmud: Kilayim 76a; Maaser Sheni 12a; Shabbat 5b, 10b, 55b–56a, 69b, 94a; Pesachim 32a, 58a; Shekalim 24b; Yoma 1a–57a; Sukkah 3b, 27a; Beitzah 1a–49b; Taanit 27a, 28b; Megillah 17b, 39b; Yevamot 1b–2a, 10b–11a, 20a, 50a, 61a–62a; Ketubot 19b, 38b; Nedarim 9b; Nazir 27a; Sotah 23b; Kiddushin 1b, 11a; Sanhedrin 20b, 22b, 39a, 40a–b, 42a–b, 43b–44b, 46a, 47a, 48a, 49a, 55b–57a, 61b; Makkot 11a; Shevuot 5a–b, 6b, 8a, 9a, 10a, 16b, 17b, 21a, 23b; Avodah Zarah 10a, 21a; Horayot 6a, 7b, 8b, 15a, 16b. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 5, 10, 13–15, 18–23, 25–26, 29–31, 33, 35–36, 40, 44–49. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2008–2020. And in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
Genesis Rabbah 2:3; 3:8; 17:2; 31:6; 65:14–15; 98:1. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 16–17, 24, 132–33, 241; volume 2, pages 590–91, 945. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Mekhilta of Rabbi Simeon 9:5; 37:2; 47:1; 48:2; 54:1; 60:4; 69:3; 74:5. Land of Israel, 5th Century. In, e.g., Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai. Translated by W. David Nelson, pages 29, 163, 205, 215, 243, 275, 317, 348. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2006.
Leviticus Rabbah 3:3; 5:6; 13:3; 17:3; 20:1–23:13; 24:6; 27:9; 30:7. Land of Israel, 5th Century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 37, 71, 166–68, 216, 250–303, 308, 354, 389–90. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 6b Shabbat 13a–b, 22a, 67a, 86a; Eruvin 63a; Pesachim 22a, 26a, 47b, 65a, 75b, 77a, 79a, 85b; Yoma 2a–88a; Sukkah 5a, 24a, 28a, 33a; Beitzah 2a–40b; Rosh Hashanah 26a; Megillah 7b, 20b, 24a, 25a, 30b–31a; Moed Katan 9a, 15b, 28a; Chagigah 9a, 10a, 11b, 16a, 23b; Yevamot 2a, 3a–b, 5b–8b, 11a, 13a, 17b, 19a, 21a–23a, 28b, 33b, 49a, 50a, 54b–55b, 56b, 83b, 97a, 102b, 114a; Ketubot 29a, 30a, 32b–33a, 36a, 47b, 56a, 67b, 72a, 82b; Nedarim 51a, 78a; Sotah 4b, 16a, 17a, 26b, 40b–41a; Gittin 54b, 60a; Kiddushin 13b–14a, 22b, 43a, 44b, 50b–51a, 57b, 67b–68a; Bava Kamma 32a, 38a, 40b–41a, 76a, 91b, 96b; Bava Batra 25a, 88b, 109b, 120a–21a; Sanhedrin 12b, 18a, 19b, 28b, 33b, 34b, 42b, 43b, 49b, 51a, 52b, 53b–55a, 57b, 58b–59a, 60b–61a, 74a, 75b–76a, 81a, 82a; Makkot 5b, 13a–14b, 18a, 23a–24a; Shevuot 2a–b, 7b–8b, 12a–14a, 17b–18b; Avodah Zarah 3a, 11a, 17a–b, 27b, 47a, 51a–b, 54a, 74a; Horayot 6a, 8b, 13a; Zevachim 6a, 19b, 26a–b, 35a, 40a, 46a, 52a, 57a, 69a–70a, 78a, 81a, 83a, 84b, 98a, 104a, 105a–09b, 112a–b, 113b, 116b, 118a, 119b; Menachot 8b, 12b, 16a, 22a, 26a, 27a–b, 83a, 91b–92a, 93b; Chullin 10b–11a, 16b–17a, 20b, 22a, 24a, 27b, 29b, 31a, 41b, 72a, 78a, 79b, 83b–84a, 85a, 86b–87a, 88a, 98b, 117a, 120a, 131b, 138a–39a; Bekhorot 39b, 56b; Temurah 2b, 5b, 6b, 12a, 13a, 14a, 29b; Keritot 2a–3b, 4b, 5a, 6a–b, 9a, 10b, 14a–15a, 20b–21a, 22a, 25b, 28a; Meilah 11a–b, 13b; Niddah 35a, 55a–b. Sasanian Empire, 6th Century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006.
Medieval
Rashi. Commentary. Leviticus 16–18. Troyes, France, late 11th Century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 3, pages 191–223. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 87–96. Providence, Rhode Island: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001.
Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 3:53. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, page 181. New York: Schocken Books, 1964.
Numbers Rabbah 2:23; 5:4, 7; 7:8; 9:10, 15; 10:8; 13:15–16; 14:1, 12; 15:24; 16:23; 17:5; 18:21; 19:5. 12th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Numbers. Translated by Judah J. Slotki, volume 5, pages 59, 147, 151, 196, 256, 269, 375–76; volume 6, pages 536, 564, 622, 671, 691, 705, 739, 755–56. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Leviticus (Va-yikra). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 3, pages 121–52. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2004.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah, Introduction 25; Structure; Hilchot Teshuvah (The Laws of Repentance), chapter 1, halachot 2–3. Cairo, Egypt, 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Teshuvah: The Laws of Repentance. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 4, pages 8–15. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1990.
Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed, part 3, chapters 37, 41, 46, 47, 48, 49. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer, pages 334, 346, 362–64, 366, 369, 371, 376–77. New York: Dover Publications, 1956.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 745–61. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Nachmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 210–80. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974.
Zohar. Part 3, pages 56a–80a. Spain, late 13th Century.
Bahya ben Asher. Commentary on the Torah. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1674–728. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited, elucidated, and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 3, pages 1163–89. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000.
Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 877–9. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 591–611. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492–1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 3: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 136–63. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015. And excerpted in, e.g., The Abarbanel on the Yom Kippur Service in the Beis Hamikdash. Translated by Elimelech Lepon. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press, 1990.
Modern
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 562–77. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 679–98. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Menasseh ben Israel. El Conciliador (The Conciliator). Amsterdam, 1632. In The Conciliator of R. Manasseh Ben Israel: A Reconcilement of the Apparent Contradictions in Holy Scripture: To Which Are Added Explanatory Notes, and Biographical Notices of the Quoted Authorities. Translated by Elias Hiam Lindo, pages 226–29. London, 1842. Reprinted by, e.g., Nabu Press, 2010.
Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:40, 41. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, pages 503–04, 513–14. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 227–29. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004.
Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Vayikro: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 298–350. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2012.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1127–90. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
Yitzchak Magriso. Me'am Lo'ez. Constantinople, 1753. In Yitzchak Magriso. The Torah Anthology: MeAm Lo'ez. Translated by Aryeh Kaplan, volume 11, pages 329–419. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
Nachman of Breslov. Teachings. Bratslav, Ukraine, before 1811. In Rebbe Nachman's Torah: Breslov Insights into the Weekly Torah Reading: Exodus-Leviticus. Compiled by Chaim Kramer, edited by Y. Hall, pages 346–63. Jerusalem: Breslov Research Institute, 2011.
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 949–62. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 179–83, 351–56. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Hermann Cohen. Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss, pages 127, 222, 416. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. Originally published as Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums. Leipzig: Gustav Fock, 1919.
Sigmund Freud. “The Savage’s Dread of Incest.” In Totem and Taboo: Resemblances Between the Psychic Lives of Savages and Neurotics. Translated by A.A. Brill. New York: Moffat, Yard and Company, 1919. Originally published as Totem und Tabu: Einige Übereinstimmungen im Seelenleben der Wilden und der Neurotiker. Leipzig, 1913.
Fritz Lang. Metropolis. Babelsberg: Universum Film A.G., 1927. (early science fiction film with Molech plot element).
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 90–93. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Thomas Mann. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated by John E. Woods, pages 79, 82–83, 147–48, 152–53, 189, 201–02, 226–27, 336, 351, 384–86, 927. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brüder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.
James A. Michener. The Source, pages 106–20. New York: Random House, 1965.
Electric Prunes. "Kol Nidre." In Release of an Oath. Reprise Records, 1968. (track based on the Yom Kippur Kol Nidre prayer).
Seymour E. Freedman. The Book of Kashruth: A Treasury of Kosher Facts and Frauds. Bloch Publishing Company, 1970. .
Central Conference of American Rabbis. "Rights of Homosexuals." (1977).
Gordon J. Wenham. The Book of Leviticus, pages 225–61. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979.
Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 133–36. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
David P. Wright. The Disposal of Impurity, pages 15–74. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987.
Yehuda Amichai. Yom Kippur. In The Fist, Too, Was Once the Palm of an Open Hand, and Fingers. Israel, 1989. In, e.g., The Selected Poetry of Yehuda Amichai. Translated by Chana Bloch and Stephen Mitchell, pages 177–78. Oakland, California: University of California Press, 2013.
Harvey J. Fields. A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus, pages 127–37. New York: UAHC Press, 1991.
Leah Rosenthal. “Inui Nefesh (Self-Affliction) on Yom Kippur: A Literary and Conceptual Analysis of a Talmudic Discussion.” In Torah of the Mothers: Contemporary Jewish Women Read Classical Jewish Texts. Edited by Ora Wiskind Elper and Susan Handelman, pages 338–54. New York and Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2000.
"Consensus Statement on Homosexuality." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1992. EH 24.1992a. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, page 612. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.
Joel Roth. "Homosexuality." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1992. EH 24.1992b. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 613–75. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.
Howard Handler. "In the Image of God: A Dissent in Favor of the Full Equality of Gay and Lesbian Jews into the Community of Conservative Judaism." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1992. EH 24.1992h. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 718–21. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.
Aaron Wildavsky. Assimilation versus Separation: Joseph the Administrator and the Politics of Religion in Biblical Israel, pages 3–4. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1993.
Jacob Milgrom. "Does the Bible Prohibit Homosexuality? The biblical prohibition is addressed only to Israel. It is incorrect to apply it on a universal scale." Bible Review, volume 9 (number 6) (December 1993).
Victor Avigdor Hurowitz. "Review Essay: Ancient Israelite Cult in History, Tradition, and Interpretation." AJS Review, volume 19 (number 2) (1994): pages 213–36.
Walter C. Kaiser Jr., " The Book of Leviticus," in The New Interpreter's Bible, volume 1, pages 1107–28. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994.
Jacob Milgrom. "How Not to Read the Bible: I am not for homosexuality, but I am for homosexuals. When the Bible is distorted to make God their enemy I must speak out to set the record straight." Bible Review, volume 10 (number 2) (April 1994).
Judith S. Antonelli. "Sexuality." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 288–302. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah, pages 172–78. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 285–91. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
Calum M. Carmichael. Law, Legend, and Incest in the Bible: Leviticus 18–20, pages 1–61, 189–98. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997.
Robert Goodman. “Yom Kippur.” In Teaching Jewish Holidays: History, Values, and Activities, pages 39–61. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 194–200. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Jacob Milgrom. "The Blood Taboo: Blood should not be ingested because it contains life. Whoever does so is guilty of murder." Bible Review, volume 13 (number 4) (August 1997).
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus 1–16, volume 3, pages 1009–84. New York: Anchor Bible, 1998.
Mary Douglas. Leviticus as Literature, pages 10, 33, 37, 62, 72, 76, 79, 90–92, 123, 131, 137, 140, 151, 187, 191–94, 225–26, 228, 231–40, 247–51. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Frank H. Gorman Jr. "Leviticus." In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 158–60. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus 17–22, volume 3A, pages 1447–593. New York: Anchor Bible, 2000.
Susan Ackerman. "When the Bible Enters the Fray: As Vermont legalizes civil unions for same-sex couples, both sides of the debate turn to the Bible for support. They might do better to turn to Bible scholars, too." Bible Review. Volume 16 (number 5) (October 2000): pages 6, 50.
Dayle A. Friedman. "After a Death . . . Then What?" In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 218–24. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 444–50. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 178–92. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Gershon Hepner. “Abraham's Incestuous Marriage with Sarah a Violation of the Holiness Code.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 53 (number 2) (April 2003): pages 143–55.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 611–24. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
William K. Gilders. Blood Ritual in the Hebrew Bible: Meaning and Power. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004. (close reading of Leviticus 17:11).
Ilana Berenbaum Grinblat. "Haftarah for Yom Kippur Morning: Isaiah 57:14–59:4." In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 308–11. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004.
Nina H. Mandel. "Haftarat Acharei Mot: Ezekiel 22:1–19." In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 134–37.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics: A Continental Commentary, pages 162–211. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004.
Baruch J. Schwartz. "Leviticus." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 243–52. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Antony Cothey. “Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30 (number 2) (December 2005): pages 131–51.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 184–203. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
Bernard J. Bamberger. "Leviticus." In The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Edited by W. Gunther Plaut; revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 769–96. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
Calum Carmichael. Illuminating Leviticus: A Study of Its Laws and Institutions in the Light of Biblical Narratives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
Joel Roth. "Homosexuality Revisited." EH 24.2006a New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
Elliot N. Dorff, Daniel S. Nevins, and Avram I. Reisner. "Homosexuality, Human Dignity & Halakhah: A Combined Responsum for the Committee on Jewish Law And Standards." EH 24.2006b New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
Leonard Levy. "Same-Sex Attraction and Halakhah." EH 24.2006c New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
Baruch Frydman-Kohl. "You Have Wrestled with God and Human and Prevailed: Homosexuality and Halakhah." EH 24.2006d New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
Loel M. Weiss. "Same-Sex Attraction and Halakhah: A Concurring Opinion." EH 24.2006e New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
Myron Geller, Robert Fine and David Fine. "A New Context: The Halakhah of Same-Sex Relations." EH 24.2006f New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
Gordon Tucker. "Halakhic and Metahalakhic Arguments Concerning Judaism and Homosexuality." EH 24.2006g New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2006.
Suzanne A. Brody. "Blood Is Life." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, page 90. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
David C. Kraemer. Jewish Eating and Identity Through the Ages. New York: Routledge, 2007.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 131, 275, 291, 302–03, 321, 326–28, 609–10, 647. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Jennifer K. Berenson MacLean. "Barabbas, the Scapegoat Ritual, and the Development of the Passion Narrative." Harvard Theological Review. Volume 100 (number 3) (July 2007): pages 309–34.
Christophe Nihan. From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus. Coronet Books, 2007.
Kenton L. Sparks. “‘Enūma Elish’ and Priestly Mimesis: Elite Emulation in Nascent Judaism.” Journal of Biblical Literature, volume 126 (2007): 632–35. (“Priestly Mimesis in the Day of Atonement Rite (Leviticus 16)”).
Preston Sprinkle. “Law and Life: Leviticus 18.5 in the Literary Framework of Ezekiel.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 31 (number 3) (March 1, 2007): pages 275–93.
James W. Watts. Ritual and Rhetoric in Leviticus: From Sacrifice to Scripture. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Howard Cooper. "Some Thoughts on 'Scapegoating' and Its Origins in Leviticus 16." European Judaism: A Journal for the New Europe, volume 41 (number 2) (Autumn 2008): pages 112–19.
The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 679–700. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
Nathan MacDonald. What Did the Ancient Israelites Eat? Diet in Biblical Times. Cambridge: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008.
Roland Boer. “The Forgetfulness of Julia Kristeva: Psychoanalysis, Marxism and the Taboo of the Mother.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 33 (number 3) (March 2009): pages 259–76.
Elliot N. Dorff. “How Flexible Can Jewish Law Be? Parashat Acharei Mot (Leviticus 16:1–18:30).” In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 151–56. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Roy E. Gane. "Leviticus." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 304–11. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Jeff Friedman. Yom Kippur. In The American Poetry Review, volume 38 (number 3) (May/June 2009), page 32.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 169–71. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Meir Malul. "אִישׁ עִתִּי (Leviticus 16:21): A Marginal Person." Journal of Biblical Literature, volume 128 (number 3) (Fall 2009): pages 437–42.
Union for Reform Judaism. “Eating Jewishly.” New York, 2009. (resolution adopted by the URJ).
Noach Dzmura. Balancing on the Mechitza: Transgender in Jewish Community. Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books, 2010.
Mark Leuchter. “The Politics of Ritual Rhetoric: A Proposed Sociopolitical Context for the Redaction of Leviticus 1–16.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 60 (number 3) (2010): pages 345–65.
Yitzhaq Feder. “On kuppuru, kippēr and Etymological Sins that Cannot be Wiped Away.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 60 (number 4) (2010): pages 535–45.
Stuart Lasine. “Everything Belongs to Me: Holiness, Danger, and Divine Kingship in the Post-Genesis World.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 35 (number 1) (September 2010): pages 31–62.
Andrew Ramer, Camille Shira Angel, Dev Noily, and Jay Michaelson. Queering the Text: Biblical, Medieval, and Modern Jewish Stories. Maple Shade, New Jersey: White Crane Books, 2010.
Hershel Schachter, Mordechai Willig, Michael Rosensweig, and Mayer Twersky. "Torah View on Homosexuality" (2010).
"Reporters' Roundtable: Sex and Sexuality Edition." The Forward. (July 31, 2010). (podcast on Orthodox Judaism's attempts to address homosexuality).
Gal Beckerman. "Debate Over Homosexuality Now Roiling Orthodox Jews: Some Rabbis Reach Out to Gays, While Others Attempt a ‘Cure.'" The Forward. (August 6, 2010).
Lawrence Rifkin. "The Times They Are A-Changin': Jewish Religious Attitudes Toward Homosexuality Are Slowly Shifting." The Jerusalem Report. Volume 21 (number 11) (September 13, 2010): pages 10–13.
Jeffrey Stackert. "Leviticus." In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 166–70. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010.
Mark Washofsky. "Orthodox Minyan in a Reform Synagogue." In Reform Responsa for the Twenty-First Century, volume 1, pages 3, 6 note 7, 11–12 note 7. New York: Central Conference of American Rabbis, 2010. (application of a difference between the House of Hillel and the House of Shammai regarding forbidden sexual unions in the law of Levirite marriage to an Orthodox Jew's request to conduct a minyan without women in a Reform synagogue).
All These Vows: Kol Nidre. Edited by Lawrence A. Hoffman. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2011.
Brad Embry. “The ‘Naked Narrative’ from Noah to Leviticus: Reassessing Voyeurism in the Account of Noah’s Nakedness in Genesis 9.22–24.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 35 (number 4) (June 2011): pages 417–33. (Leviticus 18).
Jonathan Haidt. The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion, pages 13, 103, 325 note 22, 337 note 16. New York: Pantheon, 2012. (kashrut).
Shmuel Herzfeld. "The Cycles of Yom Kippur." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 164–68. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
CCAR Responsa Committee. "Same-Sex Marriage as Kiddushin." 5774.4. (2013).
Tracy M. Lemos. “Where There Is Dirt, Is There System? Revisiting Biblical Purity Constructions.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 37 (number 3) (March 2013): pages 265–94.
Amiel Ungar. "Gay Marriage and the Jewish Question: A conscious decision not to produce Jewish descendants is lamentable and means that liberal Judaism will have fewer stakeholders in the future." The Jerusalem Report, volume 24 (number 5) (June 17, 2013): page 22.
Adam Nagourney. "Gay Marriage Stirs Rebellion at Synagogue." The New York Times. (July 6, 2013): page A1.
Shmuel Klitsner. "The Cloud, the Mist, the Thicket: Moments of doubt and unanswered questions foster spiritual search." The Jerusalem Report. Volume 24 (number 12) (September 23, 2013): page 44.
Eve Levavi Feinstein. “Leviticus 18 and Sexual Pollution of Men.” In Sexual Pollution in the Hebrew Bible, pages 100–31. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Sam Schulman. "Same-Sex Marriage and the Jews." Mosaic Magazine. (February 2014).
Shmuel Herzfeld. Food for the Spirit: Inspirational Lessons from the Yom Kippur Service. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2014.
Jonathan Sacks. Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Leviticus: The Book of Holiness, pages 239–79. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 153–56. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
David Booth, Ashira Konigsburg, and Baruch Frydman-Kohl. “Modesty Inside and Out: A Contemporary Guide to Tzniut,” page 7. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2016. (Leviticus 18–20 and modesty in dress).
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 183–87. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 52–60. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 93–96. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Leonard A. Sharzer. “Transgender Jews and Halakhah.” New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2017.
Idan Dershowitz. “The Secret History of Leviticus.” The New York Times, July 21, 2018. (Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13).
Maxine Grossman. “Queerly Sectarian: Jewish Difference, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and Marital Disciplines.” Journal of Jewish Identities, volume 11 (number 1) (2018): page 93.
Laura Reiley. “Doctrine and Diet: Shalt Thou Eat an Impossible Burger?” The Washington Post. September 12, 2019, pages A1, A18.
Julia Rhyder. "Sabbath and Sanctuary Cult in the Holiness Legislation: A Reassessment." Journal of Biblical Literature, volume 138, number 4 (2019): pages 721–40.
External links
Texts
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Hear the parashah read in Hebrew
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, California
Academy for Jewish Religion, New York
Aish.com
American Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies
Bar-Ilan University
Chabad.org
Hadar
Jewish Theological Seminary
MyJewishLearning.com
Orthodox Union
Pardes from Jerusalem
Reconstructing Judaism
Sephardic Institute
Union for Reform Judaism
United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
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Weekly Torah readings in Nisan
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreation%20Ground%2C%20Bath
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Recreation Ground, Bath
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The Recreation Ground (commonly the Rec) is a large open space in the centre of Bath, England, next to the River Avon, which is available to be used by permission from the Recreation Ground Trust for recreational purposes by the public at large but particularly the people of Bath and surrounding areas.
About a quarter of the Rec is leased to Bath Rugby during the rugby union season as a sports ground capable of holding 14,500 people. During the summer the rugby ground's temporary East Stand is removed to make way for cricket on a larger pitch. This cricket pitch is used for local contests and was used by Somerset County Cricket Club until 2011. Parts of the eastern area of the Rec are used by Bath Hockey Club, Bath Croquet Club, Bath Drama Club, Bath Quidditch Club and for some tennis courts. Pitches are available for amateur sports such as Football, Volleyball and Lacrosse. There is a cricket pavilion at the William Street entrance to the ground. The council-run Sports and Leisure Centre is located on the southern edge of the Rec, accessed via North Parade.
In former years the Rec was subject to periodic flooding from the River Avon, but a flood alleviation scheme in the 1960s improved the flow of the river. However, the Rec remains part of the floodplain at risk of occasional flooding. The ground can still get very boggy after heavy rains.
History
In the early part of the 1890s, the land on which the Recreation Ground now lies as well as the North Parade land were part of the Bathwick Estate, which was owned by the Forester family. In 1894, a lease was granted to the Directors of The Bath and County Recreation Ground Company Limited by Captain G W Forester. This lease allowed work to be carried out on the land which would make it suitable for cricket matches, lawn tennis and archery tournaments, football matches and all other outdoor sports. As part of this work, a cricket pavilion was started on the north side of the ground. The first Bath rugby matches were also played on the ground in 1894. Three years later, the ground hosted its maiden first-class cricket match, with Somerset County Cricket Club hosting the Gentlemen of Philadelphia as part of the Bath Cricket Festival. The company's lease was extended for a further 21 years in 1908, at a rent of £100 per year. Fourteen years later, the land was conveyed to The Bath and County Recreation Ground Company Limited for £6,050. The company then conveyed the North Parade Land, including a building which was used as an ice skating rink, to Bath Artcraft Limited for £2,500.
A new lease was granted to Bath F.C. in 1927, allowing them the use of the land on the west side of ground, along with a Grand Stand, a New (North) Stand and a Pavilion, for a term of 25 years. Six years later the lease was surrendered, and a new 50-year lease was granted. In the same year, the Grand Stand was replaced with a new West Stand. This was significantly bomb-damaged during the Second World War. Rebuilding of the stand, at a cost in excess of £12,000, was met by the War Damage Commission in 1953–54. The 'Club Room' building was erected in 1954, to the west of the North Stand, and during the same year a lease was granted to allow a tennis club to use the north east corner of the ground. In 1956, the ground was conveyed to the Mayor Aldermen and the Citizens of the City of Bath (the corporation) for £11,155.
The Bath Festival of Blues was held at the rec, on 28 June 1969, with bands including Fleetwood Mac and Led Zeppelin performing.
Bath F.C. surrendered their 1933 lease, and were granted a new 75-year lease in 1973. In 1974, both the Recreation Ground and the North Parade Land were transferred to Bath City Council, who erected a Sports and Leisure Centre on the south side in 1975. In 1995, Bath F.C. were granted a further 75-year lease. Doubts over the legal effect of the 1956 Conveyance were settled in 2002, when the High Court declared the land a charitable trust, with the council as the sole Trustee. Following this decision, the Charity Commission raised issues over the use of the land, questioning the leisure centre's compliance with the use of the land for "open air recreation", and the dominant use of the ground by Bath Rugby to the perceived detriment of wider uses.
On 16 July 2006, Irish vocal pop band Westlife held a concert for their Face to Face Tour supporting their album Face to Face.
Charitable trust status
The Rec was operated by Bath and North East Somerset Council but since 2015 has been owned and operated by The Recreation Ground Trust. The exact legal status was unclear until July 2002, when the High Court determined that the Rec was held on charitable trusts and the council, as sole Trustee, was charged with maintaining the Rec as an "open space" and "as a recreational facility available for the benefit of the public at large." The terms of the trust specify the Rec should be used for "games and sports of all kinds, tournaments, fetes, shows, exhibitions, displays, amusements, entertainments, or other activities of a like character" and there be no "undue preference to or in favour of any particular game or sport". The trust registered as a charity in November 2002.
As a result of the court's determination, Bath Rugby's use of the Rec for professional rugby appeared to be inconsistent with the trusts of the Charity. Since then the Charity Commission has made annual orders authorising the charity to continue the lease to the rugby club of additional land required for premiership rugby while a permanent solution is sought. Bath Rugby hold a long running lease to the ground of the old "Flowerpot Stand", but this is not sufficient for professional rugby.
In 1975 Bath City Council, the predecessor council, had built a Sports and Leisure Centre and car park on the south side of the Rec after taking legal advice that this was consistent with the trust obligations. However following the 2002 High Court determination, the Charity Commission decided this was a breach of trust by the council as Trustee. In 2005 the council renewed Bath Rugby's temporary lease without the necessary prior consent from the Charity Commission. Consequently, in February 2007 the Charity Commission made a protective order vesting the Rec in entirety to the Official Custodian for Charities while the council conducts a delayed strategic review, and new plans are agreed and implemented.
The Rec was conveyed for a sum of £11,155 to the City of Bath Corporation in 1956 by the Bath and County Recreation Ground Company, when the company recognised that it could no longer profitably run the Rec. The Rec was transferred under various conditions that created the Charitable Trust status. Additionally earlier conditions from the 1922 transfer from Francis William Forester to the company, preventing any building on the Rec for trade or business that could disturb the neighbourhood, were passed onto the Trust. The company had been formed in 1894, but only obtained full ownership of the Rec in 1922.
The Trust formed in 2002 is now called the Bath Recreation Limited and is limited by guarantee and registered at Companies House in April 2017.
The battle to keep Bath Rugby at the Recreation Ground
In 2006 the Rugby Football Union (RFU) stated that by 2010 all Premiership rugby clubs would need a spectator capacity of at least 15,000, at a time when the Rec's capacity was 10,300. However, the Professional Game Board reduced the minimum capacity required to 10,000 and this is still the criterion used.
In March 2007 the council trustee of the Rec received a strategic review showing support for the development of the ground by 64% of respondents to a poll (44% supporting development on the current site of the ground). The council trustee wished to proceed with a development proposal that would allow Bath Rugby Club to lease additional land, to permit the provision of a larger rugby ground. The Charity Commission responded that for any such development to proceed they would need to be fully satisfied that any detriment arising to the Rec's charitable objectives from the proposal would be significantly outweighed by benefits.
Various detailed development proposals were made, but these could not satisfy the Charity Commission's legal need to protect the Rec's charitable objectives.
In June 2009 the Charity Commission again granted permission for the club to continue to use temporary spectator seating on charity land for the 2009/2010 season which together with changes to other seating allowed capacity to increase to 11,700.
In November 2009 the new chief executive of Bath Rugby, Nick Blofeld, stated the club was seeking a mostly seated stadium for 20,000, with potential for future expansion, containing "restaurants and cafés, hospitality suites, conference facilities and good food and beverage outlets and other potential retail outlets." The club no longer ruled out other sites within Bath, and was considering the option of moving to the Western Riverside Development. However, by November 2010 the club had virtually ruled out alternative sites in Bath after detailed investigations, preferring to stay at the Rec, with Somerdale, Keynsham as a distant second choice.
In July 2010 the Charity Commission again granted permission for the club to continue to use temporary spectator seating on charity land for the 2010/2011 season which together with changes to other seating allowed capacity to increase to 12,300.
In December 2010 the Trustees of the Recreation Ground announced that the Charity Commission "have stated that they believe that the Trust is at a point where it is ready to apply for a new scheme which must be done by 31st March 2011". They also made clear that consultations should take place with the beneficiaries. In January 2011 the trust delayed the consultation because of "unexpected details that need to be resolved". Negotiations about a possible land swap with Bath Rugby's training facilities at Lambridge are taking place.
The Recreation Ground Trustees held a meeting on 13 April 2011 and agreed to launch the consultation document proposing to put forward a Scheme to the Charity Commission. The scheme consulted on was to swap the Bath Rugby Lambridge training ground for the Rugby Ground at the Rec and to allow the Leisure Centre to remain on open space land.
On 7 July 2011 the Trustees announced the results of the consultation in that 4,000 + responses had been received and 86% were in favour of the land swap to correct the abuse of the usage of the Rugby Club and to change the objects of the Trust to allow the Leisure Centre to remain on open space.
It was announced in the Western Daily Press on 17 August 2012 that "The Charity Commission has agreed in principle to the plans for a land-swap deal, which would allow the club to expand its presence on the city centre site in exchange for its training ground at Lambridge effectively becoming publicly owned."
On 30 November 2012 the Charity Commission published a draft Scheme to correct the two errors in the use of the charitable land. The Leisure Centre use is corrected by the change in the objects of the Charity to allow indoor activities. The use by the rugby ground is to be corrected by a land swap with land nearly double the size of the Rec rugby ground. The Charity Commission invited representations to their draft scheme within 28 days.
In February 2013 the Charity Commission stated that they had received 1,868 representations of which 244 objected to the Scheme allowing the land swap. The Charity Commission stated that they needed to study all the representations before a final decision was expected in April 2013. In opposition to the scheme, local resident Jack Sparrow lodged an application to have the Recreation Ground declared a Town Green. The council received 7 objections and 18 representations for the proposal. On Friday 15 November 2013, Bath and North East Somerset Council's Regulatory (Access) Committee resolved to refuse the Application to register Bath Recreation Ground as a Town or Village Green pursuant to section 15 of the Commons Act 2006.
On 12 June 2013 it was announced by David Dixon, the Chairman of the Recreation Ground Trust, that the Charity Commission had agreed the "land swap" by a scheme allowing the Rugby Club to develop the rugby ground on the Rec and that the Trust will have use of land previously used for training by the Rugby Club at Lambridge for charitable use. The Scheme made by the Charity Commission and the decision document from the Reviewing Officer of the Charity Commission.
On 27 March 2014 three appeal judges of The First-Tier Tribunal (Charity) allowed the Scheme with amendments. As regards the Rugby Club they were limited to the actual footprint they currently use. This is smaller than they wanted but still could be enough for a 16k arena development. The club has stated that they will press on with their plans. The Judgement in full. The new Trustee Board of the Recreation Ground Trust (RGT) agreed at their meeting on 7 April 2014 to appeal the judgement. The plans to temporarily increase the capacity of the Rec by nearly 2,000 seats and upgrade the facilities ahead of Bath Rugby's 150th anniversary, were approved on 30 July 2014.
On 30 July 2015 the Trustee Board was successful in their appeal to the Upper Tribunal in a case held at the Royal Courts of Justice on 18 May 2015. In essence this judgement allows the Trustees to manage the Recreation Ground for the public at large in a manner that will further its charitable objects. The full judgement can be read here
The Lower Tribunal were tasked to revise the scheme which was agreed on 14 December 2016. In essence the new scheme is as follows:
The Trust must provide for the Rec to be used for "outdoor recreational facilities for the benefit of the public"
The Trust should ensure it is principally used for "games and sports of all kinds" but not show undue preference in favour of any particular game, sport, person, club, body or organisation
The Trust shall not use the Rec otherwise than as an open space, but it does not have to be kept in its present form
As "absolute owner", the Trust can sell, lease, license or otherwise dispose of all or any part of the Rec
The Trust can exchange or swap all or any part of the Rec for replacement land in or near Bath
When the leisure centre is no longer fit for purpose it must be demolished
Changes to some aspects of the scheme can be made by the Trust, but only if at least 75 per cent of trustees who are then in office and eligible to vote, vote in favour.
In October 2020 a High Court Judge in the Chancery Division declared that the 1922 restrictive covenant on the land known as the Recreation Ground was enforceable by the owners of properties in the neighbourhood whose homes were owned by Captain Forester in 1922. This means basically, that nothing can be built on the Recreation Ground that can cause a nuisance to the neighbours. Bath Rugby and Bath Recreation Limited have been granted the right to appeal against the covenant and this is due to be heard in autumn 2021.
On 21 December 2021 the Appeal Court judgement was published. The above judgement in October 2020 came to the conclusion that any 1 of the 8 defendants could enforce the restrictive covenant. The court of appeal disagreed, deciding instead that there must be a ‘sufficient indication’ of the land intended under the covenant. They stated that the words ‘adjoining land or the neighbourhood’ were neither sufficient, nor could they be construed in the artificial way that the Judge above had done. The full judgement This is a significant step and the Rugby Club can now pursue the development subject to planning permission but knowing that no legal challenge other than planning can be made.
Commenting on the ruling Bath Rugby CEO, Tarquin MacDonald stated:
"We are delighted with the ruling and can now focus on bringing forward revised proposals for a new stadium. This is important for the club and the city. Redevelopment will create new jobs, boost visitor spends, enhance the river frontage and help to provide education and support opportunities for young people who need it most."
On 18 October 2022 An application for leave to appeal the above ruling was refused by the Supreme Court which brings to an end the legal battle over the Rugby Club redeveloping on the Recreation Ground. The Club can now work on its plans and submit an application to Planning.
Real Friends of the Rec
A local interest group called the Real Friends of the Rec was formed in December 2008 to lobby for the building of an all purpose sports and cultural arena at the Rec. They hope to encourage Somerset County Cricket Club and other spectator sports to utilise a new stadium throughout the year, which would increase income and year-round usage.
The land swap concept had been supported by the Real Friends of the Rec since the idea was raised at the inaugural meeting of the group in January 2009.
Friends of Bath Recreation Ground
The Friends of Bath Recreation Ground is a separate group of residents local to the Recreation Ground, that holds the view that the Rec should not be used for professional sport, and that the council's actions in this matter have been dubious for many years. They threaten to take legal action should the Trust, Bath Rugby and the Charity Commission reach an agreement to allow development on the Rec.
References
External links
The Recreation Ground Trust website
History of The Recreation Ground
The Real Friends Of The Rec
The Friends of Bath Rec
Parks and open spaces in Bath, Somerset
Sports venues in Bath, Somerset
Bath Rugby
Cricket grounds in Somerset
Rugby union stadiums in England
Grade II listed buildings in Bath, Somerset
Sports venues completed in 1894
1894 establishments in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic%20groups%20in%20Cambodia
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Ethnic groups in Cambodia
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The largest of the ethnic groups in Cambodia are the Khmer, who comprise approximately 90% of the total population and primarily inhabit the lowland Mekong subregion and the central plains. The Khmer historically have lived near the lower Mekong River in a contiguous arc that runs from the southern Khorat Plateau where modern-day Thailand, Laos and Cambodia meet in the northeast, stretching southwest through the lands surrounding Tonle Sap lake to the Cardamom Mountains, then continues back southeast to the mouth of the Mekong River in southeastern Vietnam.
Ethnic groups in Cambodia other than the politically and socially dominant Khmer are classified as either "indigenous ethnic minorities" or "non-indigenous ethnic minorities". The indigenous ethnic minorities, more commonly collectively referred to as the Khmer Loeu ("upland Khmer"), constitute the majority in the remote mountainous provinces of Ratanakiri, Mondulkiri and Stung Treng and are present in substantial numbers in Kratie Province.
Approximately 17-21 separate ethnic groups, most of whom speak Austroasiatic languages related to Khmer, are included in the Khmer Loeu designation, including the Kuy and Tampuan people. These peoples are considered to be the aboriginal inhabitants of the land by the Cambodian authorities. Two of these highland groups, the Rade and the Jarai, are Chamic peoples who speak Austronesian languages descended from ancient Cham. These indigenous ethnic minorities haven't integrated into Khmer culture and follow their traditional animist beliefs.
The non-indigenous ethnic minorities include immigrants and their descendants who live among the Khmer and have adopted, at least nominally, Khmer culture and language. The three groups most often included are the Chinese Cambodians, Vietnamese and Cham peoples. The Chinese have immigrated to Cambodia from different regions of China throughout Cambodia's history, integrating into Cambodian society and today Chinese Cambodians or Cambodians of mixed Sino-Khmer ancestry dominate the business community, politics and the media. The Cham are descendants of refugees from the various wars of the historical kingdom of Champa. The Cham live amongst the Khmer in the central plains but in contrast to the Khmer who are Theravada Buddhists, the vast majority of Cham follow Islam.
There are also small numbers of other minority groups. Tai peoples in Cambodia include the Lao along the Mekong at the northeast border, Thai (urban and rural), and the culturally Burmese Kola, who have visibly influenced the culture of Pailin Province. Even smaller numbers of recent Hmong immigrants reside along the Lao border and various Burmese peoples have immigrated to the capital, Phnom Penh.
Ethnic Khmer
The Khmers are one of the oldest ethnic groups in the area, having filtered into Southeast Asia around the same time as the Mon. Most archaeologists and linguists, and other specialists like Sinologists and crop experts, believe they arrived no later than 2000 BCE (over four thousand years ago) bringing with them the practice of agriculture and in particular the cultivation of rice. They were the builders of the later Khmer Empire which dominated Southeast Asia for six centuries beginning in 802 CE, and now form the mainstream of political, cultural, and economic Cambodia.
The Khmers developed the first alphabet still in use in Southeast Asia which in turn gave birth to the later Thai and Lao scripts. The Khmers are considered by most archaeologists and ethnologists to be indigenous to the contiguous regions of Isan, southernmost Laos, Cambodia and Southern Vietnam. That is to say the Khmer have historically been a lowland people who lived close to one of the tributaries of the Mekong.
The Khmers see themselves as being one ethnicity connected through language, history and culture, but divided into three main subgroups based on national origin. The Khmer of Cambodia speak a dialect of the Khmer language. The Northern Khmer (Khmer Surin) are ethnic indigenous Khmers whose lands once belonged to the Khmer Empire but have since become part of Thailand. The Northern Khmer also speak the Isan language fluently.
Maintaining close relations with the Khmer of Cambodia, some now reside in Cambodia as a result of marriage. Similarly, the Khmer Krom are indigenous Khmers living in the regions of the former Khmer Empire that are now part of Vietnam. Fluent in both their particular dialect of Khmer and in Vietnamese, many have fled to Cambodia as a result of persecution and forced assimilation by Vietnam.
All three varieties of Khmer are mutually intelligible. While the Khmer language of Cambodia proper is non-tonal, surrounding languages such as Thai, Vietnamese and Lao are all highly tonal and have thus affected the dialects of Northern Khmer and Khmer Krom.
Vietnamese
Prior to the Cambodian Civil War, the Vietnamese were the most populous ethnic minority in Cambodia, with an estimated 450,000 living in provinces concentrated in the southeast of the country adjacent to the Mekong Delta. Vietnamese Cambodians also lived further upstream along the shores of the Tonlé Sap. During the war, the Vietnamese community in Cambodia was "entirely eradicated". As of the 2013 Cambodian Inter-Censal Population Survey, speakers of Vietnamese accounted for 0.42%, or 61,000, of Cambodia's 14.7 million people.
Most of these came to the country as a result of the post-civil war Vietnamese invasion and occupation of Cambodia, during which time the Vietnamese-installed government of Cambodia (the People's Republic of Kampuchea) relied heavily on Vietnam for the rebuilding of its economy. Following the 1993 withdrawal of Vietnamese troops, the government of modern Cambodia maintained close ties with Vietnam and Vietnamese-backed ventures came to the country looking to capitalize on the new market. In addition to these mostly urban immigrants, some villagers cross the border illegally, fleeing impoverished rural conditions in Vietnam's socialist one-party state hoping for better opportunities in Cambodia.
Although the Vietic languages are also within the Austroasiatic language family like Khmer, there are very few cultural connections between the Vietnamese peoples because the early Khmers were part of Greater India while the Vietnamese are part of the East Asian cultural sphere and adopted Chinese literary culture.
Ethnic tensions between the two can be traced to the Post-Angkor Period (from the 16th to 19th centuries), during which time a nascent Vietnam and Thailand each attempted to vassalize a weakened post-Angkor Cambodia, and effectively dominate all of Indochina. Control over Cambodia during this, its weakest point, fluctuated between Thailand and Vietnam. Vietnam unlike Thailand, wanted Cambodia to adopt Vietnamese governmental practices, dress, and language. The Khmers resented and resisted until they were incorporated into the colonial French Indochina.
During the colonial period, the French brought over Vietnamese middlemen to administer the local Cambodian government, causing further resentment and anti-Vietnamese sentiment that endures to the present.
Due to the long history of the two countries, there is a significant amount of Cambodians of mixed Vietnamese and Khmer ancestry. Most of these Vietnamese-Cambodians no longer speak Vietnamese and have assimilated into Khmer society and identify as Khmer. They have engaged primarily in aquaculture in the Mekong Delta of the southeast.
Chinese
Chinese Cambodians are approximately 1% of the population. Most Chinese are descended from 19th–20th century settlers who came in search of trade and commerce opportunities during the time of the French protectorate. Waves of Chinese migration have been recorded as early as the twelfth century during the time of the Khmer Empire. Most are urban dwellers, engaged primarily in commerce.
The Chinese in Cambodia belong to five major linguistic groups, the largest of which is the Teochiu accounting for about 60%, followed by the Cantonese (20%), the Hokkien (7%), and the Hakka and the Hainanese (4% each).
Intermarriage between the Chinese and Khmers has been common, in which case they would often assimilate into mainstream Khmer society, retaining few Chinese customs. Much of the Chinese population dwindled under Pol Pot during the Cambodian Civil War. The Chinese were not specifically targets for extermination, but suffered the same brutal treatment faced by the ethnic Khmers during the period.
Tai
Tai peoples present in Cambodia include the Thai, Lao, Tai Phuan, Nyaw, Shan, and the Kula (, , also known by the Thai designation, "Kula", and, historically, by the Burmese name, "Tongsoo"). Thai speakers in Cambodia amount to less than .01% of the population. The ethnic Thai population numbered in the tens of thousands before the Cambodian Civil War but in 1975 over five thousand fled across the border into Thailand while another 35 thousand were systematically evacuated from Koh Kong Province and many were killed as spies.
In modern times, Thai people are mainly to be found in the capital, Phnom Penh, primarily as families of either the diplomatic mission or representatives of Thai companies doing business in Cambodia. The northwestern provinces were administratively a part of Thailand for most of the period from the 1431 fall of Angkor until the 20th century French Protectorate. Descendants of the Thais and many people of Khmer-Thai ancestry reside in these provinces, but have mostly assimilated to Khmer culture and language and are indistinguishable from their fellow Khmer villagers.
Lao
Lao people reside in the far northeast of the country, inhabiting villages scattered among the hill tribes and along the Mekong and its tributaries in the mountainous regions near the Lao border. Historically part of Funan and later the heartland of the pre-Angkorian Khmer Chenla Kingdom, the region now encompassed by Stung Treng, Ratanakiri and parts of Preah Vihear, Kratie and Mondulkiri Provinces were all but abandoned by the Khmer during the Middle Period as the Khmer Empire waned and the population moved south to more strategic and defensible positions.
The area fell under the rule of the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang in the 14th century and remained part of successive Lao kingdoms until, in 1904 during the French Indochina period, the region was returned to Cambodian administration. Consequently, notwithstanding the relatively recent immigration of Khmers back to the area, as of 2010, ethnic Lao constituted more than half the population of Stung Treng, a substantial number (up to 10%) in Ratanakiri and smaller communities in Preah Vihear and Mondulkiri.
Lao speakers make up .17% of Cambodia's population, but many Cambodians of Lao ancestry are becoming increasingly Khmerized. Lao born in Cambodia are considered Khmer according to government policy. The Cambodian Lao have little to no political organization or representation, leaving many hesitant to identify as Lao due to fears related to historical persecution.
Kola
Little is known about the precise origins of the Kola people who, prior to the Civil War, constituted a significant minority in Pailin Province, where they have visibly influenced the local culture. They kept very few written records of their own, but they appear to have originated as an amalgamation of Shan and Dai (specifically, Tai Lue and Tai Nua) traders who began migrating south from the eastern Burma-China border in the 1800s.
As they journeyed through Burma and Northern Thailand during this turbulent period, they were joined by individuals from the Mon, Pa'O and various other Burmese groups, primarily from Moulmein. The Kola sojourned in Isan (Northeast Thailand) seeking more favorable trading conditions until the 1856 Bowring Treaty guaranteed their rights as British subjects (having originated in what became British Burma) in Thailand. By the late 1800s, the Kola were settling in the mountains of Chanthaburi Province and neighboring Pailin, which was then still governed by Thailand, working as miners.
The success of the Kola in Pailin encouraged further immigration of Shan directly from Burma who then joined the Kola community. The Kola language, which is a Creole based on Shan and Dai and includes words from Lanna, Burmese and Karen, has influenced the local Khmer dialect in Pailin in both tone and pronunciation. Their Burmese influence can also be seen in the local style of dress, including the umbrellas women carry, as well as the local cuisine and Burmese style pagodas.
The Kola in Pailin were historically active in the lucrative gem trading business and were the most prosperous ethnic group in the region before the war. As the Khmer Rouge, whose official policy was to persecute all non-Khmer ethnic groups, took control of Pailin, the Kola fled across the border into Thailand. Since the breakup and surrender of the Khmer Rouge in the 1990s, many Kola have returned to Pailin, although preferring to keep a lower profile, most no longer outwardly identify as Kola.
Phuan
In the northwest of the country, approximately 5000 Tai Phuan live in their own villages in Mongkol Borey District of Banteay Meanchey Province. The Phuan in Cambodia are the descendants of captives sent to Battambang as laborers by Siam during the reign of Rama III (1824-1851) when Siam ruled most of Laos and Cambodia. As of 2012 they resided in ten villages and still spoke the Phuan language, a language closely related to Lao and Thai. The dialect of the Phuan people in Cambodia most closely resembles the Phuan spoken in Thailand.
Nyo
Approximately 10,000 Lao Nyo, also known as Yor, also live in Banteay Meanchey Province. Although they refer to themselves as "Nyo" (pronounced /ɲɑː/), they speak a dialect of the Lao language and are distinct from the Nyaw people of Northern Isan and Laos. Their villages are concentrated in Ou Chrov District near the border with Thailand. They are so numerous in the province that many ethnic Khmer are able to speak some Nyo. The presence of the Nyo and the peculiarities of their language in western Cambodia is considered anomalous and has not yet been explained by scholars.
Cham
The Cham are descendants of a sea-faring Austronesian people from the islands of Southeast Asia who, 2000 years ago, began settling along the central coast of present-day Vietnam and, by 200 AD, had begun building the various polities that would become the kingdom of Champa, which at its zenith from the eighth to tenth centuries controlled most of what is today the south of Vietnam and exerted influence as far north as present-day Laos.
Primarily a coastal, maritime kingdom, Champa was a contemporary and rival of the Khmer Empire of Angkor. During the ninth through 15th centuries, the relationship between Champa and the Khmer ranged from that of allies to enemies. During friendly periods there was close contact and trade between the two Indianized kingdoms and intermarriage between the respective royal families. During wartime, many Chams were brought into Khmer lands as captives and slaves. Champa was conquered by Dai Viet (Vietnam) in the late 15th century and much of its territory was annexed while thousands of Cham were enslaved or executed.
This resulted in mass migrations of Chams. The Cham king fled to Cambodia with thousands of his people while others escaped by boat to Hainan (Utsuls) and Aceh (Acehnese people). These migrations continued for the next 400 years as the Vietnamese slowly chipped away at the remains of Champa until the last vestige of the kingdom was annexed by Vietnam in the late 19th century.
The Cham in Cambodia number approximately a quarter of a million and often maintain separate villages although in many areas they live alongside ethnic Khmers. Cham have historically been concentrated in the southeast of the country where they've lent their name to Kampong Cham Province which, prior to a provincial restructuring in 2013, extended to the Vietnamese border and was the second most populated province in Cambodia.
Primarily fishermen or farmers, the Cham are believed by many Khmer to be especially adept at certain spiritual practices and will sometimes be sought out for healing or tattooing. Cham people in Cambodia maintain a distinctive dress and speak the Western Cham language which, due to centuries of divergence, is no longer mutually intelligible with the Eastern Cham language spoken by Cham in neighboring Vietnam. Cambodian Cham was historically written in the Indic-based Cham alphabet, but it is no longer in use, having been replaced by an Arabic-based script.
While the Cham in Vietnam still follow traditional Shivaite Hinduism, most (an estimated 90%) Cham in Cambodia are ostensibly followers of Sunni Islam. Interaction between those who are Muslim and those who are Hindu is often taboo. Intermarriage between Khmers and Chams has taken place for hundreds of years. Some have assimilated into mainstream Khmer society and practice Buddhism. The Cham were one of the ethnic groups marked as targets of persecution under the Khmer Rouge rule of Cambodia. Their very existence was declared to be illegal. Cham villages were destroyed and the people were either forced to assimilate or summarily executed. Estimates of Chams killed from 1975 to 1979 range as high as 90,000, including 92 of the country's 113 imams.
Since the end of the war and the ouster of the Khmer Rouge, Hun Sen's government has made overtures to the Cham people and now many Cham serve in government or other official positions. However, in spite of the moderate Malay form of Islam traditionally practiced by the Cham, the Cham community has recently turned to the Middle East for funding to build mosques and religious schools, which has brought imams from Saudi Arabia and Kuwait teaching fundamentalist interpretations including Da'Wah Tabligh and Wahhabism. These newly introduced forms of Islam have also influenced Cham dress; Many Cham are forgoing their traditional formal attire in favor of more Middle Eastern or South Asian dress.
Khmer Loeu
The indigenous ethnic groups of the mountains are known collectively as Montagnards or Khmer Loeu, a term meaning "Highland Khmer".
They are descended from neolithic migrations of Mon–Khmer speakers via southern China and Austronesian speakers from insular Southeast Asia. Being isolated in the highlands, the various Khmer Loeu groups were not Indianized like their Khmer cousins and consequently are culturally distant from modern Khmers and often from each other, observing many pre-Indian-contact customs and beliefs. Most are matrileneal, tracing ancestry through maternal rather than paternal bloodlines. They grow rice and live in tribal villages.
Historically, as the Khmer Empire advanced, they were obliged to seek safety and independence in the highlands or become slaves and laborers for the empire. Zhou Daguan remarked that the Khmers had captured hill tribes and made them laborers referring to them as the Tchouang or slave caste. Tchouang, from the Pear word juang, means people. Presently, they form the majority in the sparsely populated provinces of Ratanakiri, Stung Treng, and Mondulkiri.
Their languages belong to two groups, Mon–Khmer and Austronesian. The Mon–Khmers are Pear, Phnong, Stieng, Kuy, Kreung, and Tampuan. The Austronesians are Rhade and Jarai. Once thought to be a mixed group, the Austronesians have been heavily influenced by the Mon–Khmer tribes.
French Colons and Post-Conflict Arrivals
Prior to the Cambodian Civil War which lasted from between 1970 until the Khmer Rouge victory on April 17, 1975, there were an estimated 30,000 colons, or French citizens living in the country. After the civil war began most left to go back to France or to live in the United States. Cambodia was ruled by the French for nearly a century until independence in 1953 and French language and culture still retains a prestigious position amongst the Khmer elite.
After the Khmer Rouge were defeated by the Vietnamese in 1979, they retreated back towards the Thai border in the west of the country by expelling Vietnamese forces, Vietnam then occupied Cambodia for the next ten years. During this time Cambodia was isolated from the Western world, however visitors from states with ties to the Soviet bloc trickled into the country in (albeit) small numbers.
In post-conflict Cambodia today, many other ethnic groups can be found, particularly in Phnom Penh, in statistically significant numbers. After the United Nations helped restore the monarchy in the early 1990s, the number of Western individuals (termed barang by the Khmer) living in the country swelled into the tens of thousands. And due to the further economic boom of the 21st century (Cambodia's economic growth has averaged over 7% in the decade after 2001), these numbers have only risen.
Expatriate workers from across the globe probably number around 150,000 in the capital of Phnom Penh alone. These diplomats, investors, archaeologists, lawyers, artists, entrepreneurs, and NGO employees include sizeable numbers of Europeans, Americans and Australians, as well as those from neighbouring Southeast Asian states, Koreans, Japanese, Chinese and Russians, along with smaller numbers of Africans.
Ethnic groups
Cham – Descendants of Cham refugees who fled to Cambodia after the fall of Champa. 222,808 (2012 est.)
Chinese – Descendants of Chinese settlers in Cambodia. 695,852 (2012 est.)
Cambodian Hokkien
Khmer
Khmer Kandal – "Central Khmers" Ethnic Khmers indigenous to Cambodia proper.
Khmer Krom – "Lowland Khmers" Ethnic Khmers indigenous to Southeastern Cambodia and the adjoining Mekong Delta region of Southern Vietnam. The provinces of South Vietnam all bear ancient Khmer names as they were once part of the Khmer Empire, until the 19th century when the French made Cambodia a protectorate.
Khmer Surin – "Surin Khmers" Ethnic Khmer indigenous to Northwestern Cambodia and adjacent areas in Surin, Buriram and Sisaket provinces in Northeast Thailand, in the region known as Isan. These provinces were formerly part of the Khmer Empire but were annexed by Thailand in the 18th century.
Khmer Loeu – "Highland Khmers" Umbrella term used to designate all hill tribes in Cambodia, irrespective of their language family.
Mon–Khmer speakers
Kachok
Krung – There are three distinct dialects of Krung. All are mutually intelligible.
Krung
Brao
Kavet
Kraol - 2,000 (est.)
Mel- 3,100 (est.)
Kuy – A small group of people mostly located in the highlands of Cambodia.
Phnong or Mnong, ethnic group located on the eastern province of Mondulkiri.
Tampuan – Ethnic group located in the Northeastern province of Ratanakiri.
Stieng – Often confused with ethnic Degar (Montagnard)
Ra'ong
Samre
Chong
Sa'och
Somray
Suoy
Austronesian speakers
Jarai – Mostly located in Vietnam, the Jarai extend into Cambodia's Ratanakiri Province.
Rhade – The majority of Rhade, or Ê Đê, are located in Vietnam. They share close cultural ties with the Jarai and other tribes.
Tai
Thai - 43,000 (est.)
Lao - Living mainly in the Ratanakiri Province.
Shan
Kula
Vietnamese – Live mostly in Phnom Penh where they form a considerable minority and parts of southeastern Cambodia next to the Vietnamese border.
Hmong–Mien - The Miao and Hmong are hill tribes that live in urban and rural areas.
Miao
Hmong
Yao
Tibeto-Burman
Burmese - 4,700 (est.)
Japanese - mainly first generation entrepreneurs and investors in Phnom Penh
Koreans - mainly first generation entrepreneurs and investors in Phnom Penh
See also
Demographics of Cambodia
References
Further reading
Center for Advanced Study (ed): Ethnic Groups in Cambodia. Phnom Penh: Center for Advanced Study, 2009. .
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borodino-class%20battlecruiser
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Borodino-class battlecruiser
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The Borodino-class battlecruisers () were a group of four battlecruisers ordered by the Imperial Russian Navy before World War I. Also referred to as the Izmail class, they were laid down in late 1912 at Saint Petersburg for service with the Baltic Fleet. Construction of the ships was delayed by a lack of capacity among domestic factories and the need to order some components from abroad. The start of World War I slowed their construction still further, as the imported components were often not delivered and domestic production was diverted into areas more immediately useful for the war effort.
Three of the four ships were launched in 1915 and the fourth in 1916. Work on the gun turrets lagged, and it became evident that Russian industry would not be able to complete the ships during the war. The Russian Revolution of 1917 halted all work on the ships, which was never resumed. Although some consideration was given to finishing the hulls that were nearest to completion, the three furthest from completion were sold for scrap by the Soviet Union during the early 1920s. The Soviet Navy proposed to convert Izmail, the ship closest to completion, to an aircraft carrier in 1925, but the plan was cancelled after political manoeuvring by the Red Army cut funding and she was eventually scrapped in 1931.
Design and development
After the end of the Russo-Japanese War of 1905, the Russian Naval General Staff decided that it needed a squadron of fast armoured cruisers that could use their speed to engage the leader of an enemy's battle line, as Admiral Tōgō had done against the Russian fleet during the Battle of Tsushima. The Naval General Staff initially called for a ship with high speed (), guns, and limited protection (a waterline belt of ). The Tsar, head of the Russian government, approved construction of four such ships on 5 May 1911, but the State Duma session ended before the proposal could be voted on. Preliminary bids for the ships were solicited from private builders, but the bids proved to be very high, leading to a reconsideration of the requirements. The Naval General Staff issued a new specification on 1 July 1911 for a ship with a speed of only and with armour increased to . The armament was increased to nine guns in three non-superfiring triple-gun turrets, based on a false rumour that the Germans were increasing the calibre of the guns in their battleships. The Imperial Russian Navy believed that widely separating the main gun turrets and their magazines reduced the chance of a catastrophic ammunition explosion, reduced the silhouette of the ship and improved stability without superfiring turrets and their tall barbettes.
The Naval Ministry solicited new bids on 8 September from 23 shipbuilders, domestic and foreign, but only 7 responded, even after the deadline was extended by a month. Several designs were rejected for not meeting the revised criteria. In the meantime, the Artillery Section of the Main Administration of Shipbuilding had decided that it preferred a four-turret design, and new bids were solicited in May 1912 from the leading contenders from the first round of bidding. The eventual winner was a design by the Admiralty Shipyard in Saint Petersburg which had the extra turret added to a new hull section inserted into the original three-turret design.
The Duma approved construction in May 1912, before the design was finalised, and allocated 45.5 million roubles for each ship. The additional gun turret and consequent increase in the size of the ships led to the ships being overbudget by about 7 million roubles each, and some money was diverted from the budget for the to cover the discrepancy. Orders were placed on 18 September 1912 for a pair of ships each from the Admiralty Shipyard and the Baltic Works, also of Saint Petersburg. The first pair was to be ready for trials on 14 July 1916, and the second pair on 14 September 1916.
Full-scale armour trials in 1913 revealed serious weaknesses in the Borodinos' proposed protection scheme. The obsolete ironclad had been modified with armour protection identical to that used by the s, then under construction. The deck and turret-roof armour proved to be too thin, and the structure supporting the side armour was not strong enough to withstand the shock of impact from heavy shells. The design of the Borodinos' armour was similar in construction to that of the Ganguts and therefore needed to be modified, which slowed construction. The Borodinos' deck armour was reinforced with extra plates and the thickness of the turret roofs was increased. To offset this additional weight, a planned rear conning tower was removed entirely and the thickness of the main belt was slightly reduced. Mortise and tenon joints were introduced between the armour plates along their vertical edges to better distribute the shock of a shell impact and to lessen the stress on the supporting hull structure. The launching of the first pair of ships was postponed by six months because of these changes, plus delays imposed by the many ship orders already in hand.
General characteristics
The Borodino-class ships were long overall. They had a beam of and a draught of at full load. The ships displaced normally and at full load. High-tensile steel was used throughout the hull with mild steel used only in areas that did not contribute to structural strength. The hull was subdivided by 25 transverse watertight bulkheads and the engine room was divided by a longitudinal bulkhead. The double bottom had a height of , and the vitals of the ship were protected by a triple bottom that added an extra of depth. The design called for a freeboard of forward, amidships and aft. The ships were fitted with three Frahm anti-rolling tanks on each side.
Propulsion
The Borodinos were powered by four sets of steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft using steam provided by 25 triangular Yarrow boilers with a working pressure of . The turbines developed a total of and were designed to be overloaded to . The forward boilers were grouped into three compartments with three oil-fired boilers in each compartment. The rear boilers were in four compartments with each containing four coal-fired boilers fitted with oil sprayers to increase the burn rate. Maximum speed was estimated at 26.5 knots, although forcing the machinery would increase it to . The ships were designed to carry of coal and of fuel oil, which gave an estimated range of at full speed.
Two sets of steam turbines were ordered on 22 April 1913 from the Franco-Russian Works in Saint Petersburg for the Admiralty Shipyard-built ships, and the Baltic Works built the turbines for its ships, although some components were ordered from abroad. However, Western sources have long stated incorrectly that the turbines for Navarin had been ordered from AG Vulcan, and that they were taken over at start of the war for use in the light cruisers. As well as being contradicted by original Russian and German records, this is technically impossible, as the turbines actually specified for Navarin were of the Parsons type, while those actually employed in the German cruisers were of the Curtis pattern. In fact, the Brummer class engines had been ordered for the lead ship of the Svetlana-class cruisers.
The Borodino class had six turbo generators and two diesel generators, each rated at . These were in four compartments below the main deck, two each fore and aft of the boiler and engine rooms. The generators powered a complex electrical system that combined alternating current for most equipment with direct current for heavy-load machinery such as the turret motors.
Armament
The ships' primary armament consisted of a dozen 52-calibre Model 1913 guns mounted in four electrically powered turrets. The turrets were designed to elevate and traverse at a rate of 3° per second. The guns had an elevation range from −5° to +25°. They could be loaded at any angle between −5° and +15°; the expected rate of fire was three rounds per minute. Space was provided for a maximum of 80 rounds per gun. The guns fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of , with a maximum range of .
The secondary armament consisted of twenty-four 55-calibre Pattern 1913 guns mounted in casemates in the hull, twelve per side. The guns had a maximum elevation of +20° which gave them a range of . They fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of .
The anti-aircraft armament was intended to be four 38-calibre anti-aircraft guns fitted on the upper deck with 220 rounds carried for each gun. They fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of . Four guns were to be mounted in pairs on the main turret roofs for sub-calibre training with the main guns. Six underwater torpedo tubes were fitted, three on each broadside; they were provided with a total of eighteen torpedoes.
Fire control
The fore and aft main gun turrets were given a rangefinder, and there was another unit on top of the conning tower. These would provide data for the Geisler central artillery post analogue computer, which would then transmit commands to the gun crew. The mechanical fire-control computer would have been either a Pollen Argo range clock, which had been bought in 1913, or a domestically designed Erikson system.
Protection
The trials with Chesma greatly affected the armour protection design of the Borodino-class ships. The Krupp cemented-armour plates were resized to match the frames and provide support for their joints; they were also locked together with mortise-and-tenon joints to better distribute the shock of a shell's impact. The waterline belt covered the middle of the ship. It had a total height of , of which was above the design waterline and below. The remaining portion of the waterline was protected by plates. The upper belt was thick and had a height of . It thinned to 75 millimetres forward of the casemates and extended all the way to the bow. The rear portion of the forecastle deck was protected by an upward extension of the upper belt in the area of the forward barbettes and the upper casemates. Those casemates were protected by 100-millimetre transverse bulkheads. Behind the side armour was an inboard longitudinal splinter bulkhead that was thick between the middle and lower decks and decreased to between the middle and upper decks. The bulkhead sloped away from the edge of the lower deck to the lower edge of the armour belt with a total thickness of 75 millimetres divided between a 50-millimetre plate of Krupp non-cemented armour (KNC) layered above a 25-millimetre nickel-steel plate. The forward end of the armoured citadel was protected separately and the transverse bulkhead was therefore only 75 millimetres thick. The rear bulkhead had no other protection and was thick between the middle and lower decks, decreasing to 75 millimetres at the level of the armour belt.
The main gun turrets were designed with 300-millimetre sides and 150-millimetre roofs. The gun ports would have been protected by 50-millimetre plates with 25-millimetre bulkheads separating each gun inside the turrets. The barbettes were thick and decreased to when behind other armour. They were shaped like truncated cones which matched the trajectories of descending shells and thus lessened their protective value. The conning tower was thick and reduced to 300 millimetres below the upper deck. The funnel uptakes were protected by 50 millimetres of armour. The upper deck was thick and the middle deck consisted of plates of KNC on 25 millimetres of nickel-steel over the armoured citadel. The sides of the conning tower were fitted with armour plates thick and its roof was thick. Underwater protection was minimal: there was only a watertight bulkhead behind the upward extension of the double bottom, and this became thinner as the hull narrowed towards the end turrets.
Construction
All four ships were officially laid down on 19 December 1912, and work began in March–April 1913. After a progress review on 4 June 1914, launching of the first pair of ships was delayed until October. When World War I began in August, the hull of Izmail was judged as being 43per cent complete, the others lagging considerably behind. The war caused further delays as some components had been ordered from foreign manufacturers. For example, the gun turrets were intended to rest on roller bearings made in Germany, but attempts to order replacements from the United Kingdom and Sweden proved futile, as no company was willing and able to make the bearings. The war caused other delays, including competition for scarce resources needed by other production deemed necessary for the war. Three of the four ships were launched in 1915, but it was clear that Russian industry would not be able to complete them during the war, mostly because the turrets were seriously delayed by non-delivery of foreign-built components and a shortage of steel. They were reclassified as second rank projects by the Main Administration of Shipbuilding in 1916 and construction virtually stopped.
Various plans were made by the Naval General Staff and the Main Administration of Shipbuilding for the post-war completion of the ships, including modifying the turrets to load at a fixed angle of +4° to reduce the weight and complexity of the loading equipment. Another intended change was to lengthen the funnels by to minimise smoke interference with the bridge, which had been a problem on the Gangut-class dreadnoughts. There were suggestions to improve the machinery with geared turbines, turbo-electric drive, or Föttinger's hydraulic transmission, but these were more theoretical than practical.
After the February Revolution, the condition of the ships was assessed on 28 April 1917. The ship that was furthest along was still Izmail: her hull, engines, and boilers were around 65per cent complete, and her armour was 36per cent complete. Her turrets were not expected to be completed until 1919. The Congress of Shipyard Workers decided to continue work on the Izmail in mid-1917, but only to provide jobs. The Provisional Government halted all work on Borodino, Kinburn, and Navarin on 24 October 1917, and the Bolsheviks ordered work on Izmail halted on 14 December 1917.
After the end of the Russian Civil War was in sight by October 1921, the victorious Bolsheviks considered finishing Izmail, and possibly Borodino, to their original design. It would have taken at least two years to build all of Izmails turrets, even if enough guns had been available. Ten had been delivered by Vickers before the Revolution and one gun had been completed domestically in 1912, but the prospects for more guns were not promising, given the poor state of Soviet heavy industry in the wake of the civil war. Another problem was their complicated electrical system; it could not be completed under current conditions, and at least twenty months would be required to replace it with a simpler system.
The Soviets also considered finishing Kinburn and Navarin to a modified design that featured guns; a two-gun turret weighed slightly less than a triple gun turret. The proposal was rejected because the prospects of actually acquiring such guns were minimal. Domestic industry was incapable of building such large guns and the Soviets were not able to purchase the guns from any foreign company. Other ideas were examined for the three less complete ships. These included converting the hulls to cargo ships, passenger liners, or oil barges, but the hulls were thought to be too large and unwieldy for the proposed uses. None of the proposals was accepted, and all three of the less complete ships were sold to a German company for scrap on 21 August 1923 to raise much-needed cash for the government.
In May 1925, the Operational Administration of the Soviet Navy contemplated converting Izmail into an aircraft carrier with a top speed of and a capacity of 50 aircraft. She would have been armed with eight guns and her armour reduced to a maximum of . This proposal was approved by Alexey Rykov, Chairman of the Council of the People's Commissars on 6 July 1925, but the Red Army was strongly opposed to spending more money on naval projects. They managed to block the project by gaining control of a commission appointed to review the needs of the Navy in December, which cancelled the project on 16 March 1926. After most of her boilers were used during the reconstructions of the battleships and , Izmail was scrapped beginning in 1931 in Leningrad.
Ships
The ships were named after battles fought by the Russian Empire:
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Battleships-cruisers site
Russian navy site
Battlecruiser classes
Proposed ships
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seymouria
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Seymouria
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Seymouria is an extinct genus of seymouriamorph from the Early Permian of North America and Europe. Although they were amphibians (in a biological sense), Seymouria were well-adapted to life on land, with many reptilian features—so many, in fact, that Seymouria was first thought to be a primitive reptile. It is primarily known from two species, Seymouria baylorensis and Seymouria sanjuanensis. The type species, S. baylorensis, is more robust and specialized, though its fossils have only been found in Texas. On the other hand, Seymouria sanjuanensis is more abundant and widespread. This smaller species is known from multiple well-preserved fossils, including a block of six skeletons found in the Cutler Formation of New Mexico, and a pair of fully grown skeletons from the Tambach Formation of Germany, which were fossilized lying next to each other.
For the first half of the 20th century, Seymouria was considered one of the oldest and most "primitive" known reptiles. Paleontologists noted how the general body shape resembled that of early reptiles such as captorhinids, and that certain adaptations of the limbs, hip, and skull were also similar to that of early reptiles, rather than any species of modern or extinct amphibians known at the time. The strongly-built limbs and backbone also supported the idea that Seymouria was primarily terrestrial, spending very little time in the water. However, in the 1950s, fossilized tadpoles were discovered in Discosauriscus, which was a close relative of Seymouria in the group Seymouriamorpha. This shows that seymouriamorphs (including Seymouria) had a larval stage which lived in the water, therefore making Seymouria not a true reptile, but rather an amphibian which was closely related to reptiles. Though no longer considered the most primitive reptile, Seymouria is still an important transitional fossil documenting the acquisition of reptile-like skeletal features prior to the evolution of the amniotic egg, which characterizes amniotes (reptiles, mammals, and birds).
History
Early history as a putative reptile
Fossils of Seymouria were first found near the town of Seymour, in Baylor County, Texas (hence the name of the type species, Seymouria baylorensis, referring to both the town and county). The earliest fossils of the species to be collected were a cluster of individuals acquired by C.H. Sternberg in 1882. However, these fossils would not be properly prepared and identified as Seymouria until 1930.
Various paleontologists from around the world recovered their own Seymouria baylorensis fossils in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Seymouria was formally named and described in 1904 based on a pair of incomplete skulls, one of which was associated with a few pectoral and vertebral elements. These fossils were described by German paleontologist Ferdinand Broili, and are now stored in Munich. American paleontologist S.W. Williston later described a nearly complete skeleton in 1911, and noted that "Desmospondylus anomalus", a taxon he had recently named from fragmentary limbs and vertebrae, likely represented juvenile or even embryonic individuals of Seymouria.
Likewise, English paleontologist D.M.S. Watson noted in 1918 that Conodectes, a dubious genera named by Edward Drinker Cope back in 1896, was likely synonymous with Seymouria. Robert Broom (1922) argued that the genus should be referred to as Conodectes since that name was published first, but Alfred Romer (1928) objected, noting that the name Seymouria was too popular within the scientific community to be replaced. During this time, Seymouria was generally seen as a very early reptile, part of an evolutionary grade known as "cotylosaurs", which also included many other stout-bodied Permian reptiles or reptile-like tetrapods.
Proposed amphibian affinities
Many paleontologists were uncertain about Seymouria's allegiance with the reptiles, noting many similarities with the embolomeres, which were unquestionably "labyrinthodont" amphibians. This combination of features from reptiles (i.e. other "cotylosaurs") and amphibians (i.e. embolomeres) was evidence that Seymouria was central to the evolutionary transition between the two groups. Regardless, not enough was known about its biology to conclude which group it was truly part of. Broom (1922) and Russian paleontologist Peter Sushkin (1925) supported a placement among the Amphibia, but most studies around this time tentatively considered it an extremely "primitive" reptile; these included a comprehensive redescription of material referred to the species, published by Theodore E. White in 1939.
However, indirect evidence that Seymouria was not biologically reptilian started to emerge by the 1940s. Around this time, several newly described genera were linked to Seymouria as part of the group Seymouriamorpha. Some seymouriamorphs, such as Kotlassia, had evidence of aquatic habits, and even Seymouria itself had occasionally been argued to possess lateral lines, sensory structures only usable underwater. Watson (1942) and Romer (1947) each reversed their stance on Seymouria's classification, placing it among the amphibians rather than the reptiles. Perhaps the most damning evidence came in 1952, when Czech paleontologist Zdeněk Špinar reported gills preserved in juvenile fossils of the seymouriamorph Discosauriscus. This unequivocally proved that seymouriamorphs had an aquatic larval stage, and thus were amphibians, biologically speaking. Nevertheless, the numerous similarities between Seymouria and reptiles supported the idea that seymouriamorphs were close to the ancestry of amniotes.
Additional species and fossils
In 1966, Peter Paul Vaughn described an assortment of Seymouria skulls from the Organ Rock Shale of Utah. These remains represented a new species, Seymouria sanjuanensis. Fossils of this species are now understood to be more abundant and widespread than those of Seymouria baylorensis. Several more species were later named by Paul E. Olson, although their validity has been more questionable than that of S. sanjuanensis. For example, Seymouria agilis (Olson, 1980), known from a nearly complete skeleton from the Chickasha Formation of Oklahoma, was reassigned by Michel Laurin and Robert R. Reisz to the parareptile Macroleter in 2001. Seymouria grandis, described a year earlier from a braincase found in Texas, has not been re-referred to any other tetrapod, but it remains poorly known. Langston (1963) reported a femur indistinguishable from that of S. baylorensis in Permian sediments at Prince Edward Island on the Eastern coast of Canada. Seymouria-like skeletal remains are also known from the Richards Spur Quarry in Oklahoma, as first described by Sullivan & Reisz (1999).
A block of sediment containing six S. sanjuanensis skeletons was found in the Cutler Formation of New Mexico, as described by Berman, Reisz, & Eberth (1987). In 1993, Berman & Martens reported the first Seymouria remains outside of North America, when they described S. sanjuanensis fossils from the Tambach Formation of Germany. The Tambach Formation has produced S. sanjuanensis fossils of a similar quality to those of the Cutler Formation. For example, in 2000 Berman and his colleagues described the "Tambach Lovers", two complete and fully articulated skeletons of S. sanjuanensis fossilized lying next to each other (though it cannot be determined whether they were a couple killed during courtship). The Tambach Formation has also produced the developmentally youngest known fossils of Seymouria, assisting comparisons to Discosauriscus, which is known primarily from juveniles.
Description
Seymouria individuals were robustly-built animals, with a large head, short neck, stocky limbs, and broad feet. Even the largest specimens were fairly small, only about 2 ft (60 cm) long. The skull was boxy and roughly triangular when seen from above, but it was lower and longer than that of most other seymouriamorphs. The vertebrae had broad, swollen neural arches (the portion above the spinal cord). As a whole the body shape was similar to that of contemporary reptiles and reptile-like tetrapods such as captorhinids, diadectomorphs, and parareptiles. Collectively these types of animals have been referred to as "cotylosaurs" in the past, although they do not form a clade (a natural, relations-based grouping).
Skull
The skull was composed of many smaller plate-like bones. The configuration of skull bones present in Seymouria was very similar to that of far more ancient tetrapods and tetrapod relatives. For example, it retains an intertemporal bone, which is the plesiomorphic ("primitive") condition present in animals like Ventastega and embolomeres. The skull bones were heavily textured, as was typical for ancient amphibians and captorhinid reptiles. In addition, the rear part of the skull had a large incision stretching along its side. This incision is termed an otic notch, and a similar incision in the same general area is common to most Paleozoic amphibians ("labyrinthodonts", as they are sometimes called), but unknown in amniotes. The lower edge of the otic notch was formed by the squamosal bone, while the upper edge was formed by downturned flanges of the supratemporal and tabular bones (known as otic flanges). The tabular also has a second downturned flange visible from the rear of the skull; this flange (known as an occipital flange) connected to the braincase and partially obscured the space between the braincase and the side of the skull. The development of the otic and occipital flanges is greater in Seymouria (particularly S. baylorensis) than in any other seymouriamorph.
The sensory apparatus of the skull also deserves mention for an array of unique features. The orbits (eye sockets) were about midway down the length of the skull, although they were a bit closer to the snout in juveniles. They were more rhomboidal than the circular orbits of other seymouriamorphs, with an acute front edge. Several authors have noted that a few specimens of Seymouria possessed indistinct grooves present in bones surrounding the orbits and in front of the otic notch. These grooves were likely remnants of a lateral line system, a web of pressure-sensing organs useful for aquatic animals, including the presumed larval stage of Seymouria. Many specimens do not retain any remnant of their lateral lines, not even juveniles. Near the middle of the parietal bones was a small hole known as a pineal foramen, which held a sensory organ known as a parietal eye. The pineal foramen is smaller in Seymouria than in other seymouriamorphs.
The stapes, a rod-like bone which lies between the braincase and the wall of the skull, was tapered. It connected the braincase to the upper edge of the otic notch, and likely served as a conduit of vibrations received by a tympanum (eardrum) which presumably lay within the otic notch. In this way it could transmit sound from the outside world to the brain. The configuration of the stapes is intermediate between non-amniote tetrapods and amniotes. On the one hand, its connection to the otic notch is unusual, since true reptiles and other amniotes have lost an otic notch, forcing the tympanum and stapes to shift downwards towards the quadrate bone of the jaw joint. On the other hand, the thin, sensitive structure of Seymouria's stapes is a specialization over most non-amniote tetrapods, which have a thick stapes better suited for reinforcing the skull rather than hearing. The inner ear of Seymouria baylorensis retains a cochlear recess located behind (rather than below) the vestibule, and its anterior semicircular canal was likely encompassed by a cartilaginous (rather than bony) supraoccipital. These features are more primitive than those of true reptiles and synapsids.
The palate (roof of the mouth) had some similarities with both amniote and non-amniote tetrapods. On the one hand, it retained a few isolated large fangs with maze-like internal enamel folding, as is characteristic for "labyrinthodont" amphibians. On the other hand, the vomer bones at the front of the mouth were fairly narrow, and the adjacent choanae (holes leading from the nasal cavity to the mouth) were large and close together, as in amniotes. The palate is generally solid bone, with only vestigial interpteryoid vacuities (a pair of holes adjacent to the midline) separated by a long and thin cultriform process (the front blade of the base of the braincase). Apart from the fangs, the palate is also covered with small denticles radiating out from the rear part of the pterygoid bones. Seymouria has a few amniote-like characteristics of the palate, such as the presence of a prong-like outer rear branch of the pterygoid (formally known as a transverse flange) as well as an epipterygoid bone which is separate from the pterygoid. However, these characteristics have been observed in various non-amniote tetrapods, so they do not signify its status as an amniote.
The lower jaw retained a few plesiomorphic characteristics. For example, the inner edge of the mandible possessed three coronoid bones. The mandible also retained at least one large hole along its inner edge known as a meckelian fenestra, although this feature was only confirmed during a 2005 re-investigation of one of the Cutler Formation specimens. Neither of these traits are the standard in amniotes. The braincase had a mosaic of features in common with various tetrapodomorphs. The system of grooves and nerve openings on the side of the braincase were unusually similar to those of the fish Megalichthys, and the cartilaginous base is another plesiomorphic feature. However, the internal carotid arteries perforate the braincase near the rear of the bone complex, a derived feature similar to amniotes.
Postcranial skeleton
The vertebral column is fairly short, with a total of 24 vertebrae between the hip and skull. The vertebrae are gastrocentrous, meaning that each vertebra has a larger, somewhat spool-shaped component known as a pleurocentrum, and a smaller, wedge-shaped (or crescent-shaped from the front) component known as an intercentrum. The neural arches, which lie above the pleurocentra, are swollen into broad structures with table-like zygapophyses (joint plates) about three times as wide as the pleurocentrum itself. Some vertebrae have neural spines which are partially subdivided down the middle, while others are oval-shaped in horizontal cross-section. The ribs of the dorsal vertebrae extend horizontally and attach to the vertebrae at two places: the intercentrum and the side of the neural arch. The neck is practically absent, only a few vertebrae long. The first neck vertebra, the atlas, had a small intercentrum as well as a reduced pleurocentrum which was only present in mature individuals. Although the atlantal pleurocentrum (when present) was wedged between the intercentrum of the atlas and intercentrum of the succeeding axis vertebra (as in amniotes), the low bone development in this area of the neck contrasts with the characteristic atlas-axis complex of amniotes. In addition, later studies found that the atlas intercentrum was divided into a left and right portion, more like that of amphibian-grade tetrapods. Unlike almost all other Paleozoic tetrapods (amniote or otherwise), Seymouria completely lacks any bony remnants of scales or scutes, not even the thin, circular belly scales of other seymouriamorphs.
The pectoral (shoulder) girdle has several reptile-like features. For example, the scapula and coracoid (bony plates which lie above and below the shoulder socket, respectively) are separate bones, rather than one large shoulder blade. Likewise, the interclavicle was flat and mushroom-shaped, with a long and thin "stem". The humerus (forearm bone) was shaped like a boxy and slightly twisted L, with large areas for muscle attachment. This form, which has been described as "tetrahedral", is plesiomorphic for tetrapods and contrasts with the slender hourglass-shaped humerus of amniotes. On the other hand, the lower part of the humerus also has a reptile-like adaptation: a hole known as an entepicondylar foramen. The radius was narrowest at mid-length. The ulna is similar, but longer due to the possession of a pronounced olecranon process, as is common in terrestrial tetrapods but rare in amphibious or aquatic ones. The carpus (wrist) has ten bones, and the hand has five stout fingers. The carpal bones are fully developed and closely contact each other, another indication of terrestriality. The phalanges (finger bones) decrease in size towards the tip of the fingers, where they each end in a tiny, rounded segment, without a claw. The phalangeal formula (number of phalanges per finger, from thumb to little finger) is 2-3-4-4-3.
Two sacral (hip) vertebrae were present, though only the first one possessed a large, robust rib which contacted the ilium (upper blade of the hip). Some studies have argued that there was only one sacral vertebra, with the supposed second sacral actually being the first caudal due to having a shorter, more curved rib than the first sacral. Each ilium is low and teardrop-shaped when seen from the side, while the underside of the hip as a whole is formed by a single robust puboischiadic plate, which is rectangular when seen from below. Both the hip and shoulder sockets were directed at 45 degrees below the horizontal. The femur is equally stout as the humerus, and the tibia and fibula are robust, hourglass-shaped bones similar to the radius and ulna. The tarsus (ankle) incorporates 11 bones, intermediate between earlier tetrapods (which have 12) and amniotes (which have 8 or fewer). The five-toed feet are quite similar to the hands, with phalangeal formula 2-3-4-5-3.
There were only about 20 caudal (tail) vertebrae at most. Past the base of the tail, the caudals start to acquire bony spines along their underside, known as chevrons. These begin to appear in the vicinity of the third to sixth caudal, depending on the specimen. Ribs are only present within the first five or six caudals; they are long at the base of the tail but diminish soon afterwards and typically disappear around the same area the chevrons appear.
Differences between species
Seymouria baylorensis and Seymouria sanjuanensis can be distinguished from each other based on several differences in the shape and connections between the different bones of the skull. For example, the downturned flange of bone above the otic notch (sometimes termed the "tabular horn" or "otic process") is much more well-developed in S. baylorensis than in S. sanjuanensis. In the former species, it acquires a triangular shape (when seen from the side) as it extends downwards more extensively towards the rear of the skull. In S. sanjuanensis, the postfrontal bone contacts the parietal bone by means of an obtuse, wedge-like suture, while the connection between the two bones is completely straight in S. baylorensis.
Some authors have argued that the postparietals of S. baylorensis were smaller than those of S. sanjuanensis, but some specimens of S. sanjuanensis (for example, the "Tambach lovers") also had small postparietals. In addition, the "Tambach lovers" have a quadratojugal bone which is more similar to that of S. baylorensis rather than S. sanjuanensis. The combination of features from both species in these specimens may indicate that the two species are part of a continuous lineage, rather than two divergent evolutionary paths. Likewise, some differences relating to the proportions of the rear of the skull may be considered to be an artifact of the fact that most S. sanjuanensis specimens were not fully grown prior to the discovery of the "Tambach lovers", which were adult members of the species.
Nevertheless, several traits are still clearly differentiated between the two species. The lacrimal bone, in front of the eyes, only occupies the front edge of the orbit in S. baylorensis. Conversely, specimens of S. sanjuanensis have a branch of the lacrimal which extends a small distance under the orbit. In S. sanjuanensis, much of the rear edge of the orbit is formed by the chevron-shaped postorbital bone, which is more rectangular in S. baylorensis. The shape of the lacrimal and postorbital of S. sanjuanensis closely corresponds to the condition in other seymouriamorphs, while the condition in S. baylorensis is more unique and derived.
The tooth-bearing maxilla bone, which forms the side of the snout, is also distinctively unique in S. baylorensis. In S. sanjuanensis, the maxilla was low, with many sharp, closely spaced teeth extending along its length. This condition is similar to other seymouriamorphs. However, S. baylorensis has a taller snout, and its teeth are generally much larger, less numerous, and less homogenous in size. The palate is generally similar between the two species, although the ectopterygoids are more triangular in S. baylorensis and rectangular in S. sanjuanensis.
Paleobiology
Lifestyle
Romer (1928) was among the first authors to discuss the biological implications of Seymouria's skeleton. He argued that the robust limbs and wide-set body supported the idea that it was a strong, terrestrial animal with a sprawling gait. However, he also noted that Permian trackways generally support the idea that terrestrial tetrapods from this time period were not belly-draggers, but instead were strong enough to keep their bodies off of the ground. As with other paleontologists around the time, Romer assumed that Seymouria had a reptilian (or amniote) mode of reproduction, with eggs laid on dry land and protected from the elements by an amnion membrane.
White (1939) elaborated on biological implications. He noted that the presence of an otic notch reduces jaw strength by lowering the amount of surface area jaw muscles can attach to within the cranium. In addition, the skull would have been more fragile due to the presence of such a large incision. As a whole, he found it unlikely that Seymouria was capable of tackling large, active prey. Nevertheless, the sites for muscle attachment on the palate were more well-developed than those of contemporaneous amphibians. White extrapolated that Seymouria was a mostly carnivorous generalist and omnivore, feeding on invertebrates, small fish, and perhaps even some plant material. It may have even been cannibalistic according to his reckoning.
White also drew attention to the unusual swollen vertebrae, which would have facilitated lateral (side-to-side) movement but prohibit any torsion (twisting) of the backbone. This would have been beneficial, since Seymouria had low-slung limbs and a wide, top-heavy body that would have otherwise been vulnerable to torsion when it was walking. This may also explain the presence of this trait in captorhinids, diadectomorphs, and other "cotylosaurs". Perhaps swollen vertebrae were an interim strategy to prevent torsion, which would later be supplanted by strong hip muscles in later reptiles. The rather undeveloped hip muscles of Seymouria are in line with this hypothesis. Nevertheless, these vertebrae were inefficient at defending against torsion at any speed faster than a brisk walk, so Seymouria was probably not a quick-moving animal.
Although White considered Seymoria to be quite competent on land, he also discussed a few other lifestyles. He supposed that Seymouria was also a good swimmer, since he (erroneously) estimated that the animal had a deep and powerful tail similar to that of modern crocodilians. However, he also noted that it would have been vulnerable to semiaquatic or aquatic predators, and that Seymouria fossils were more common in terrestrial deposits as a result of its habitat preferences. Berman et al. (2000) supported this hypothesis, as the Tambach Formation preserved Seymouria fossils while also completely lacking aquatic animals. They also pointed out the well-developed wrist and ankle bones of the "Tambach lovers" as supportive of terrestrial affinities. Despite the strong musculature of the forelimbs, Romer (1928) and White (1939) found little evidence for burrowing adaptations in Seymouria.
Sexual dimorphism
Some authors have argued in favor of sexual dimorphism existing in Seymouria, but others are unconvinced by this hypothesis. White (1939) argued that some specimens of Seymouria baylorensis had chevrons (bony spines on the underside of the tail vertebrae) which first appeared on the third tail vertebra, while other specimens had them first appear on the sixth. He postulated that the later appearance of the chevrons in some specimens was indicative that they were males in need of more space to store their internal genitalia. This type of sexual differentiation has been reported in both turtles and crocodilians. Based on this, he also supported the idea that Seymouria females gave birth to large-yolked eggs on land, as with turtles and crocodilians. Vaughn (1966) later found a correlation between chevron acquisition and certain skull proportions in Seymouria sanjuanensis, and proposed that they too were examples of sexual dimorphism.
However, Berman, Reisz, & Elberth (1987) criticized the methodologies of White (1939) and Vaughn (1966). They argued that White's observations were probably unrelated to the sex of the animals. This was supported by the fact that some of the Cutler Formation specimens had chevrons which first appeared on their fifth tail vertebra. Although it was possible that genital size was variable among males to the extent of impacting the skeleton, the more likely explanation was that the differences White had observed were caused by individual skeletal variation, evolutionary divergence, or some other factor unrelated to sexual dimorphism. Likewise, they agreed that skull proportions supported Vaughn (1966)'s proposal that dimorphism was present in Seymouria fossils, though they disagreed with how he linked it to sex using a fossil which was considered "female" under White's criteria. The discovery of fossilized larval seymouriamorphs has shown that Seymouria likely had an aquatic larval stage, debunking earlier hypotheses that Seymouria laid eggs on land.
Histology and development
Histological evidence from specimens found in Richards Spurs, Oklahoma has provided additional information on Seymouria's biology. A femur was found to have an internal structure characterized by a lamellar matrix pierced by numerous plexiform canals. Rest lines of slow growth are indistinct and closely spaced, but there is no evidence that growth ceased at any time during bone development. Like most lissamphibians, the medullary cavity is open and has a small amount of spongiosa bone. The development of spongiosa bone is slightly higher that of Acheloma (a terrestrial amphibian), but is much less extensive than aquatic amphibians such as Rhinesuchus and Trimerorhachis. Seymouria's vertebrae are more robust in shape compared to Discosauriscus, and have a low amount of cartilage despite a high amount of porosity. Seymouria are inferred to have undergone metamorphosis very early in life, likely due to environmental stresses from fluctuating wet and dry seasons.
References
External links
A photograph of the "Tambach lovers" specimen, published by Mark MacDougall's twitter account
Another photograph of the "Tambach lovers", published by "Geology Page"
A photograph of the Cutler Formation block, published by "mskvarla36"'s twitter account
Translated DW documentary on Tambach fossils, including Seymouria
Basal tetrapods of Europe
Permian tetrapods of North America
Seymouriamorphs
Fossil taxa described in 1904
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicles%20of%20Ancient%20Darkness
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Chronicles of Ancient Darkness
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Chronicles of Ancient Darkness is a series of historical fantasy novels by the British author Michelle Paver; her first books for children. The books chronicle the adventures of Torak, an adolescent boy, and his friends Renn and Wolf. The main story arc revolves around Torak and his quest to defeat the Soul Eaters, a group of power hungry mages who seek out to destroy all life in the forest. Paver has called it simply "a single story: the tale of Torak's discovery of himself and his world."
Since the 30 May 2004 release of the first book in the series, Wolf Brother, the series has gained critical acclaim and commercial success worldwide. Wolf Brother became a national bestseller in the United States, and the rights to the series were bought by 20th Century Fox to be made into major motion pictures. In October 2013, Nick Hirschkorn's production company Feel Films picked up the film rights, with Will Davies attached as screenwriter.
The books are set 6000 years ago in prehistoric Europe during the Stone Age. The main character, Torak, alone in the world, meets a lone, scared wolf cub, Wolf with whom he can communicate (having spent around three months in a wolf den as a baby). A girl named Renn, who is part of the Raven Clan, befriends them and supports them throughout the series. Torak's quest, along with Renn and Wolf, is to defeat the Soul Eaters, a group of former clan mages who have turned to evil, and who seek to control the forest. The story is told primarily from three different third-person narratives: Torak, Renn and Wolf. Later books introduce an additional third-person narrative from the perspective of Dark.
For the book Ghost Hunter (2009) she won the Guardian Children's Fiction Prize, a book award judged by a panel of British children's writers.
In 2019, Paver announced that she would be returning to the Chronicles of Ancient Darkness with three further books, set after the end of the main series, once again following Torak, Renn and Wolf. The titles of the books were announced as: Viper's Daughter, Skin Taker and Wolfbane.
Main characters
Torak, the main character, begins the series as a naive, defensive, and curious boy of twelve. This boy does not want to take on a quest but has to in order to save the world. Over the course of the novels, he acquires several spiritual titles, including "Spirit Walker", and learns of titles his late father had, including "Soul Eater": this last title causes numerous difficulties, due to his desire to end the Soul Eaters and the evil they cause. He is slow to mature emotionally, but from the fourth book on he is described as taller and brave, in sharp contrast to the short, scrawny boy portrayed in the first three books. He becomes protective of Renn in the later books as they grow closer: this often annoys and frustrates her. He has the power to vanquish the Soul-Eaters and at first despises his power: he eventually grows to accept it.
Renn, the niece of the Raven Clan's leader, Fin-Kedinn. She is a year younger than Torak and is described as slim and small in the first few books. Later on, she is portrayed as tough, courageous and is shown to be an expert in archery. She has been forced into becoming a mage all her life because of her skill with magic but truly desires being a hunter. Torak, Wolf and Fin-Kedinn are her only true friends. Throughout the books, Renn is often described through Torak's eyes as older and beautiful, but is often frustrated by his seeming thoughtlessness. She also has a bad relationship with her brother, Hord, and disagrees with him many times throughout the first book.
Wolf, a wolf, is Torak's guide and adoptive brother. He grows from a wobbly cub to a young adult over the course of around a year, but stays with Torak and Renn throughout the series of books. As a cub his fur is grey, but as he matures his pelt molds into a golden grey tinged with white, with gold fur around his shoulders. At first he hates Renn intensely because of the way he treated her when he and Torak are first captured, and in the chapters that are written from his point of view, he initially refers to her as the "female tailless": as he develops affection to her, he begins to call her pack-sister. The author gives him an unusual vocabulary that often describes exactly what things are to a wolf or any other animal: for example, he refers to fire as the Bright Beast-that-Bites Hot. Wolf eventually finds a female wolf named Darkfur, with whom he produces cubs.
Fin-Kedinn is the wise leader of the Raven Clan, Renn's uncle and eventually Torak's foster father. In the past he was best friends with Torak's father and his brother Tenris, both of whom were ambitious to become mages. Fin-Kedinn was in love with Torak's mother, but she loved Fa, Torak's father, and followed him into exile when they fled the Soul-Eaters. Fin-Kedinn has won the respect of all the clans and even that of Wolf, who admire the 'lead wolf who smells of raven' because he has the habits of a wolf, such as only sleeping for short periods of time. Although impassive and refusing to show emotion, Fin-Kedinn cares deeply for both Renn and Torak.
The Soul-Eaters are a group of mages who united to combine their powers for the good of all people calling themselves the "Healers", but became corrupted and now wish to have power over everyone, using a crystal called the Fire Opal to make demons do their bidding. There were initially seven of mages in the group. Torak's late father, Fa, joined the group against his wife's advice, before rejecting their desire to take power. He summoned the seven together and shattered the Fire Opal into three pieces, causing a great fire that ripped across the forest. The Soul Eaters were scattered and Torak's father and mother went into exile. Torak's mother then gave birth to her son, and when she died shortly afterwards Fa continued his exile with his son for 12 years, before Fa's death at the beginning of the first novel. The seven mages were from the Otter Clan (the Walker/Narrander), Seal Clan (Tenris), Wolf Clan (Torak's Father), Bat Clan (Nef), Viper Clan (Seshru), Oak Clan (Thiazzi), and Eagle Owl Clan (Eostra).
Fa is Torak's father, the former Mage of the Wolf Clan, and one of the seven Soul Eaters. Although he only appears briefly at the start of Wolf Brother when he is killed by the demon bear, his legacy is the driving force behind the whole of the books. His name is never revealed, but is always referred to by Torak as 'Fa'. Once a young man coming from the secretive Wolf Clan, Fa's ambition was to become a Mage and he eventually succeeded, becoming the Wolf Clan Mage; in the words of the Clan Leader, Maheegun, Fa was the greatest Mage the clan ever had and succeeded in 'becoming wolf for a few heartbeats'. However, Fa was also naive and easily fooled in his youth and he blindly believed the promises and good intentions of the Soul Eaters. When they revealed to him their true natures, Fa tried to leave but they refused to let him. Determined to undo the evil he had unintentionally created, he summoned all of the Soul Eaters together and tried to kill all seven with fire before going into hiding with his wife. The World Spirit, angered by the Soul Eaters' crimes decreed that, Fa's son would be the one to destroy them and he granted him the ancient power of the spirit walker to help him accomplish his task. Fa raised Torak away from the clans after his wife's death to prevent the Soul Eaters from finding out about him and instead of teaching Torak magecraft, he decided to teach him important hunting and tracking skills, which would prove invaluable in Torak's quest to defeat the Soul Eaters.
Hord is Renn's brother. He unknowingly helps Tenris, who's acting as a 'crippled wanderer' create a demon by capturing a young bear. Throughout the first book Hord behaves stubbornly, and fueled by guilt, believes that he must deliver Torak's blood to the World Spirit himself. In the end, he follows Torak to the Mountain of the World Spirit and tries to kill him, he fails and he and the bear are killed by an avalanche created by the World Spirit.
Bale is a young man from the Seal clan who is also Torak's kinsman as Torak's paternal grandmother was from the Seal Clan. They initially get off to a bad start as he captures Torak and takes him to Seal Island, but later become friends. Bale first appears in the book Spirit Walker. Bale is killed in the beginning of the book Oath Breaker by the Soul Eater named Thiazzi.
Story
Wolf Brother
Torak is twelve years old when his father is killed by a bear that is possessed by a demon. As he is dying, he tells Torak to swear to find the Mountain of the World Spirit and ask for the Spirit's help in destroying the bear. On his journey he encounters Wolf, a lone wolf cub whose family has been killed by a flash flood. Wolf becomes Torak's guide in finding the World Spirit. Torak and Wolf are captured by the Raven Clan for hunting a deer on their land; they are befriended by Renn, the prickly and outspoken niece of the clan's leader Fin-Kedinn. Torak appears to be the fulfillment of a prophecy about a "listener" who will give his heart's blood to the Mountain of the World Spirit, kill the bear and defy the Soul-Eaters, a group of erstwhile Mages who were once healers but became power-hungry and now use their magic for selfish ends. Torak, Wolf and Renn journey to the Mountain, collecting the three parts of the Nanuak (the world soul in everything) that Torak needs to offer to the World Spirit. When Torak sets off to the Mountain with only Wolf to fulfill the prophecy, Renn's brother Hord follows Torak. Hord, who makes his dislike of Torak clear when they first meet, believes he must kill Torak and take his blood, as well as the Nanuak, to the Mountain. On the Mountain, as the bear gets closer, Torak and Hord fight. Torak realizes Hord unknowingly helped the Crippled Wanderer, one of the Soul Eaters, and his father's sworn enemy, create the bear. Torak also realizes that the heart's blood in the prophecy means Wolf. Knowing he must sacrifice Wolf for the World Spirit, Torak tells Wolf to run away. Wolf takes the three pieces of Nanuak to the mountain, as Hord and the bear are killed in an avalanche. Wolf leaves to join a pack of wolves and Torak, knowing his pack-brother still lives, returns to the Raven Clan.
Spirit Walker
The clans fall prey to a stalking sickness. Torak embarks on a search for a cure, which takes him to mysterious islands where the Seal Clan live. The Seal Mage, Tenris, promises to help him make a remedy. Torak meets a Seal Clan boy named Bale, who later becomes his friend. While on the island, Torak discovers that he is a spirit walker: his souls can move into other creatures, allowing him to feel and think as they do, but still remain himself. Tenris is not as helpful as he originally seemed: he is one of the Soul Eaters and plans to increase his powers by eating Torak's heart and becoming a spirit walker. Torak finds out that Tenris is actually his uncle, and the man known as the Crippled Wanderer who created the demon bear that killed Torak's father. As Tenris is about to kill Torak, Renn wounds Tenris, allowing Torak to escape. Tenris is killed by an orca, in revenge for Tenris killing its offspring for its teeth. Eventually, they discover the reason for the mysterious sickness is that Tenris sent demon-possessed children known as tokoroths to poison juniper berries.
Soul Eater
In their desire to subjugate all the clans, the Soul Eaters have captured a range of hunting animals, including Wolf, which they will sacrifice to unleash demons. They plan to control the demons with a fire opal. Torak and Renn make a dangerous journey across the frozen wilderness into the Far North to rescue Wolf; their friendship is tested to the limits and they become separated. They escape, but not before the Soul Eaters brand Torak against his will as one of them. Torak manages to deceive them into thinking Renn is the spirit walker who caused the death of Tenris. Renn, meanwhile, has possession of the fire-opal and is about to sacrifice herself to destroy it. When three of the Soul Eaters try to kill Torak, Renn and Wolf take back the fire opal, and Torak spirit walks into a polar bear to save his friends. Nef, one of the Soul Eaters, saves Renn and sacrifices herself instead, using her life to destroy the power of the fire opal and repay the Torak's father for saving her life before he was killed. Fin-Kedinn and some of the Raven Clan make the journey North and save Renn and Torak, and bring them back home. Torak is then told that the fire opal that was destroyed was only one of three parts. The original fire opal was broken by Torak's father to start the great fire that scattered the Soul Eaters. Another of the fragments was used by Tenris to create the demon bear and his tokoroths, and is believed to have been lost when he was killed. The whereabouts of the last fragment are unknown.
Outcast
After the secret of his Soul Eater mark is discovered, Torak is cast out by the clans, though Renn fiercely and furiously does all she can to stop it. Bale, who has traveled to the forests from his island in the sea, teams up with Renn to go after him: Renn helps him and then both Renn and Bale follow him as Torak wanders, suffering from insanity. Renn and Bale fight along the way, as Bale treats Renn condescendingly because of his beliefs about women, and he is confused about how strong and insistent Renn is. Renn sends help to Torak in the form of two ravens, which Torak has named Rip and Rek. While Torak is recovering his reason, Seshru the Viper Mage, a Soul Eater, uses her powers to draw him to her so she can control him. Renn and Bale together defy clan law by trying to help Torak. Seshru is revealed to be Renn's mother. Torak shows the clans that destroying him will not help them in their struggle against the Soul Eaters, and they accept him back. Fin-Kedinn makes Torak his foster son. Torak learns that his father hid the last fragment of the fire opal inside the knife he gave Torak before his death, and it is part of the reason why Seshru was hunting him. Seshru then steps forward to try and claim the fragment. Renn is about to kill Seshru, but Bale steals her bow and kills Seshru himself, because Renn would be tainted if she killed her own mother. In Seshru's final moments, Torak uses her life to destroy the fragment of the fire opal. Fin-Kedinn changes Torak's outcast tattoo, making him part of all types of clans. Bale also tells Torak and Fin-Kedinn that the fragment of the fire opal thought lost when Tenris was killed may not have been with him when he died. The three realize this was why the two surviving Soul Eaters were not hunting Torak as well.
Oath Breaker
While guarding the Seal Islands against the Soul Eaters for fear of them trying to take the last part of the Fire Opal, Bale asks Torak for his permission to take Renn for his mate, which angers Torak. Later, Bale is murdered by Thiazzi the Oak Mage, who then takes the last fragment of the fire opal. Torak vows to avenge Bale's death, and with Renn, Wolf and Fin-Kedinn follows Thiazzi into the Deep Forest where the Forest Horse and Auroch (sic) Clans are at war. As Torak, Renn and Fin-Kedinn are about to enter the Deep Forest, Fin-Kedinn is injured and turns back. Torak and Renn discover that Thiazzi is controlling the Deep Forest clans by impersonating their mages. A forest fire takes hold and Torak and Renn are separated. Torak finds his way to Thiazzi, while Renn is taken by the Auroch Clan. She defies the Auroch Clan and their belief that women can't be mages, by insisting that she is a mage and showing them her bond with Wolf and the ravens, Rip and Rek. She is then kidnapped by Thiazzi and imprisoned in a giant, hollow tree, where she cuts herself free in time to avoid choking on smoke. She climbs to the top, from where she sees Torak fighting Thiazzi. She throws a burning brand of wood to Torak, and a burning ember sets fire to Thiazzi's hair. He falls to his death as Eostra's eagle owl snatches the fire opal from the Oak Mage. Many months later, Wolf and his mate Darkfur show Torak and Renn their new cubs. Although Torak is happy for Wolf, the fight is not over, as Eostra, the last and most dangerous of the Soul Eaters, now possesses the fire opal.
Ghost Hunter
The Eagle Owl Mage, Eostra, sends a shadow sickness among the clans, to spread fear among them. Torak then sees his father's soul, seemingly in pain. Torak sets out alone to try and confront his destiny. Renn follows Torak, catching up with him. Wolf's family is then attacked by Eostra's owl, nearly sending Darkfur to her death, killing one of the cubs, and using the other to lure Wolf away for a time. Renn and Torak venture to the Mountain of Ghosts with a grieving Wolf to stop Eostra from killing all life in the forest. When Renn injures her leg because of Eostra's vicious dogs, Torak leaves without her: when she has recovered, she goes after him, furious. Torak is captured by a strange boy named Dark who has been cast out by his clan. After much pleading, Dark releases Torak and ventures with him to the Mountain of Ghosts. Torak and Wolf enter the Mountain, but Dark is trapped outside. Dark then meets Renn, who after trying to follow Torak had found Darkfur. Wolf's mate had nearly perished after going through miles in the snow with an infected wound to rescue her last cub. Torak and Wolf confront Eostra, who is summoning the ghosts of the dead Soul Eaters, including Torak's father. Renn and Dark also attempt to intervene, but Eostra appears unstoppable. Then the Walker, who appeared insane when Torak and Renn previously met him in Wolf Brother, arrives and reveals himself to be Narrander, the seventh Soul Eater thought to have been killed in the great fire years before. Torak destroys the Fire Opal, breaking Eostra's hold over the dead Soul Eaters. Eostra then tries to use Torak's hair to claim his power. Narrander summons the Hidden People to cause a rockfall. Eostra falls into a crevice, pulling Torak with her. Shortly afterwards, Wolf finds Torak's body and forces Torak's spirit to re-enter it. Renn, Dark, Rip and Rek reunite with Torak and Wolf. The last of Wolf's cubs, Pebble, who has survived his ordeal, is then discovered by his parents. Three months later, Dark is named the new Raven Mage, and, after saying goodbye to Fin-Kedinn and promising to return one day, Torak and Renn set off with Wolf, Darkfur, Pebble, and the ravens Rip and Rek, to continue to explore the forest.
Viper's Daughter
Two summers after the final defeat of the Soul Eaters, Torak and Renn have been living their own life apart from the Clans, with Wolf, Darkfur and their growing pack of new cubs. However, their happiness is broken when Renn disappears without warning. After seeking guidance from Dark and Fin-Kedinn, Torak and Wolf leave Darkfur and the cubs behind to follow Renn, who has left for the Far North in search of answers. Unbeknownst to Torak, Renn has left the Forest because of visions she has had of her mother, the Soul Eater Seshru, and because of several events in the days leading to her departure where she had almost accidentally killed Torak. Fearing that her Magecraft power, which she had left untouched for the past two summers, was resurfacing, she had left to find answers in the Far North.
As the three heroes travel the icy wastelands beyond the limits of the Forest, they come across old friends from the White Fox Clan and make the acquaintance of the Narwhal Clan, a much harder ice clan which raises its hunters in the hard, unforgiving hands of their uncles rather than their parents to prepare them for the difficult life of living on the ice. Renn is saved by a young Narwhal clan hunter named Naiginn and, when Torak and Wolf catch up to them, she reveals that Naiginn is actually her half-brother. Seshru had come to the Far North following the Great Fire which had broken apart the Soul Eaters the first time. There, she had seduced the Narwhal clan Mage and born him a child. Much as she had planned for Renn, she had turned the child into a demon-possessed tokoroth. Renn, assisted by Naiginn, is determined to find his father and discover the reasons why she has suddenly become compelled to harm her mate. Knowing Torak will never let her go, she drugs him in the night and leaves with Naiginn.
Torak awakes and, after continuing his search with Wolf's help, realizes that, whenever he, Renn or Wolf were in Naiginn's presence, they felt their old wounds from demon attacks had started reopening. Meanwhile, Naiginn turns on Renn and reveals that, unlike for her, Seshru had succeeded with him: she had turned him into a tokoroth bearing her Mage's gift. However, unwilling to let him run wild when she returned to the Forest to rejoin the Soul Eaters, she had bound his power and his demon nature with a charm, guaranteeing that she would release him when she returned to claim him. But, when Seshru died on Laxe Axehead, Naiginn's curse remained in place and condemned him to grow as a man without being able to free his demon nature. Eager to finally be free, Naiginn tricked Renn into believing she had almost killed Torak in the Forest, knowing she would follow her mother's path to the Far North where he could make her break Seshru's curse.
Torak and Wolf, aided by Naiginn's father, Marupai and a young halfman (girl) named Shamik from the Narwhal clan, trace Naiginn and Renn to the Edge of the World, a volcanic opening where an opening to the demonic Otherworld can be found. Naiginn wants to use the power of the Edge of the World to allow Renn to break his curse, but the proximity of flames (counter to Naiginn's nature as an ice demon) weaken him. Renn escapes and Wolf summons the ancient spirits of the long-dead mammoths to hunt the demons, who fear them. Naiginn disappears and Torak, Renn, Wolf and Shamik (eager to escape the abuse she suffers from the Narwhals) return to the Forest. However, although they promise to tell each other the truth from that moment onwards, Renn does not tell Torak that she is still seeing visions of Seshru.
Skin Taker
In Midwinter, the Clans are preparing for the Sunwake, a ceremony to celebrate the return of the Sun after its winter sleep when disaster strikes the Forest. A phenomenon the Clans call the Thunderstar hits, devastating the Forest. Several Clans are killed by the devastation, including the Lynx and Boar Clans, and dozens of hunters from other Clans are lost. Animals hibernating for the winter, such as bears, are awoken by the Thunderstar's fall, and the destruction of the trees has freed demons from the Otherworld. Torak and Renn, living separately from the Raven Clan with their pack made up of Wolf, Darkfur, Pebble and two small cubs, are not spared the destruction; the cubs are killed and Pebble is believed dead for a time until he is found alive by Dark, the Raven Clan Mage. The ghosts of the dead remain, haunting the land instead of moving on. And Torak, who has spirit walked inside the trees and felt the soul of the Forest, is badly affected by the disaster.
Survivors converge on the remains of the camp where several Clans had been gathering for the Sunwake ceremony, unanimously choosing Raven Leader Fin-Kedinn to lead the survivors and he immediately calls a Clanmeet to discuss the crisis facing them all. People from Clans as far as the Mountains gather, including survivors from the Swan Clan, Dark's birth father among them. Dark is displeased at meeting his father, the one who had abandoned him to his death in the mountains, again. While the Clans assess the extent of the disaster which has wiped out much of the western Open Forest and a large part of the Deep Forest in the east, the Walker comes to camp, revealing in one of his moments of sanity and wisdom that the disaster is far worse than anyone yet imagines. His prediction is shown to be true when he reveals that the First Tree, the winter lights of the sky where the Clans' dead go on the death journey, has been destroyed by the Thunderstar. The disappearance of the First Tree is a bitter blow to the surviving Clans, but the Walker reveals that there is a way to bring it back, a ritual from the Old Time when the first demon was defeated by the World Spirit, assisted by the first men who had shot their arrows into the sky to help it in its battle. The Walker confirms that, should the Clans find four pieces representing each part of the Forest and shoot them into the sky, carried by the cries of the purest souls in the Forest, the First Tree would return. Before he leaves, the Walker warns Renn that Torak has been more badly affected than she realizes, as the part of the Forest within him was broken with the fall of the Thunderstar.
Torak, Renn and Wolf leave the Clans for the Deep Forest, convinced they will find a piece of the Forest in the Sacred Grove, where the oldest tree stands, while Dark finds two pieces at camp. One is found by appealing the Hidden People of the caves, who hand him a crystal and tell him he will find another "in the jaws of the wolf". The second is found having been unmarked by Pebble chewing on it. At the same, Dark discovers his father, who he has lingering animosity towards but who had been trying to make amends, and the other Swan Clan hunters stealing food. He learns that there is a new Leader among the Deep Forest Clans, a powerful figure who protected them from the Thunderstar and convinced them to renounce the old ways of the Clans. Suspecting who this new Leader might be, Dark leaves camp with Fin-Kedinn's blessing to find Torak and Renn.
In the Deep Forest, Torak and Renn come across the Red Deer Clan, who have become a shell of their former self and believe the Thunderstar was a sign of the World Spirit's displeasure with them. Those Clans whose lands had been spared by the Thunderstar had abandoned their ways and, calling themselves the 'Chosen Ones', followed a new leader who defended them against a new threat which had emerged in the wake of the disaster: Skin Takers. The Skin Takers, announcing their arrival with piercing cries, steal the death marks from the dead, and eat the brains of the dead. As they hear tales of the Skin Takers, Renn shares with Torak her suspicion that Naiginn had survived their confrontation in the Far North and is responsible for the turmoil in the Deep Forest. Soon, both are separately captured by the Chosen Ones and, while Renn manages to escape with help from a sceptic hunter, Torak is brought to the Leader, who reveals himself to be Naiginn. The ice demon reveals that, in addition to surviving their battle on the Edge of the World, he had discovered his mother had lied to him about his curse: he could free his demon nature from his mortal body by consuming souls, specifically the brains of still living beings. Naiginn had created the myth of the Skin Takers, faking their cries and convincing the Chosen Ones and the subdued Deep Forest Clans that only he could defeat them. Torak manages to escape from Naiginn when Renn and Wolf send the sacred horses towards him and, much as he had during the events of Oathbreaker, he rides one away. Reaching the Sacred Grove, Torak's spirit breaks when he discovers that the oldest trees in the Forest, the Great Yew and the Great Oak, have been destroyed by the Thunderstar.
Eager to feel it again, Torak spirit walks into the trees and finds the Forest stone needed for the rite while Renn and Dark, with help from the Hidden People, find the last one: a piece of the Thunderstar itself. Torak regains his body long enough to give Renn and Dark his piece before the Forest pulls him back in and, only by spirit walking into a bear is he capable of escaping the vastness of the trees' consciousness. Renn and Dark, as Mages, perform the rite but are attacked by Naiginn just as they are about to fire their arrows into the sky. Torak, in the bear, attacks Naiginn, allowing Renn and Dark to complete the rite. As the arrows shoot into the sky, Wolf leads the other packs of the Forest in a howl, carrying the arrows to the sky. Naiginn flees, his lies exposed to the rest of the Deep Forest Clans who abandon the new way he had preached to control them and return to their Clans. Returning to the Open Forest, Torak, Renn and Dark rejoin the Ravens and the other Clans as Fin-Kedinn has convinced them to clear the rubble from the Thunderstar's disaster and free the trapped Windriver, which the Clans relied on for salmon in the spring. After days of difficult work during which time other Clans join them, the First Tree finally reappears, restoring hope to the Forest.
Development
In 1980, while Paver was attending Oxford University, she had the idea of writing a story about a young boy and a wolf cub. She scribbled down a few pages of a rough draft taking place in the 9th century, focusing on an orphaned boy with his wolf cub. Displeased with the rough draft, she locked the story away.
Fifteen years after writing the original rough draft, while Paver was hiking by herself in southern California, a large female black bear with two cubs walked onto the trail she was following. Paver was aware that black bears are at their most dangerous when they have cubs, and any sudden movement might cause the bear to attack. Paver began singing "Danny Boy" to the bear in an effort to show she meant no harm. The bear approached Paver, swaying its head from side to side and smelling her. She began backing up very slowly until the bear was out of sight, and she then fled the scene. Several years later, while looking through a pile of old notes, she stumbled upon the rough draft she had written in 1980. She felt the story was missing something, and her mind raced to the memory of her encounter with the bear, and the plot of Wolf Brother unfolded before her. Paver began researching the timeline of her story, and she traveled to northern Finland to research how the people in her book would have lived nearly six thousand years ago. After hours in the library and much travel, Paver began writing the book. Wolf Brother was published in September 2004, and shortly after the book's publication Paver began work on the next book in the series. Wolf Brother was not meant to be a series at first, but Paver said, "after writing my first draft, I knew one book could not hold this story."
Research
Paver researched extensively while developing the book. In addition to academic study, she travelled to north-eastern Finland, where she trekked with a field guide over 300 miles across the forests. To understand life in the New Stone Age, they used tools and clothing that would have been available 6000 years ago, slept in a traditional laavu shelter in a sleeping bag made of reindeer skin, and ate only foods that Stone-Age hunter-gatherers would have. In addition, she spent time at a wolf reserve studying the wolves and observing their behavior, and also named the main character "Torak." From the one of the wolves in the UK Wolf Conservation Trust.
Paver places the series in north-west Europe. She says about the fruit of her research, "I've tried hard to make Torak's world accurate, and I've been delighted that the stories have met with favor in archaeological circles. A few years ago, I was asked to open a special WOLF BROTHER display case at the Cambridge University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. The Museum had taken excerpts from the book, and exhibited them alongside real archaeological artifacts mentioned in the story, such as flint blades, red ochre, etc."
Film rights
In 2004, 20th Century Fox purchased the rights to make feature films of the book series. The first book in the series, Wolf Brother, has been optioned from $250,000 against $1 million. The film series was going to be produced by Ridley Scott and Erin Upson. A script was in production, according to an answer to a fan letter. However, the project was put on hold. The project has since been revived as announced at a Superfan event in July 2012, when Paver revealed the books will be made into films for theater or television.
During a "Michelle Live" live stream on YouTube and twitch on 30 March 2020, Paver herself revealed that she has just completed a deal with Kindle Entertainment and Lionsgate and that a live action TV series will be made based on the series. Paver said "I've had more meetings with producers about Wolf Brother than I can remember but Anne Brogan and Melanie Stokes from Kindle Entertainment stood out from the very first time I met them. They knew the series inside out and – a big plus for me – their children were fans. Wolf Brother fans have extremely high expectations for a television series and Anne and Mel share the same burning desire to create a legendary series. I'm entrusting them with the lives of Torak, Renn and Wolf! I know they will be in safe hands."
Sequels
On 18 March 2019, Paver announced to fans in a live-streamed YouTube video that she was planning three new books set after Ghost Hunter. In the announcement she mentioned that she seriously started thinking about it during a visit to arctic Norway, but that it had always been on her mind since finishing Ghost Hunter. The first sequel, Viper's Daughter was published on 2 April 2020, the second sequel, Skin Taker, was published on 1 April 2021, and the third and final sequel, Wolfbane, was published on 26 April 2022. Paver's original editor Fiona Kennedy, and original illustrators Geoff Taylor and John Fordham returned to work on the sequels. Sir Ian McKellen also returned to voice the audiobooks as he did for the original six books in the series.
References
External links
Michelle Paver's official website
Fantasy novel series
Series of children's books
Novels set in prehistory
Fiction set in the 4th millennium BC
Novels set in Europe
Norway in fiction
Wolves in literature
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Cymbospondylus
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Cymbospondylus (meaning "cupped vertebrae") is an extinct genus of large ichthyosaurs that lived in the Middle Triassic (Anisian), in what are now North America and Europe. The taxon was erected by Joseph Leidy in 1868 on the basis of vertebrae discovered in Nevada, before subsequent research found more complete fossil remains which were described by John Campbell Merriam in 1908. While many species have been assigned to the genus, only five are recognized as valid, the others being considered synonymous, doubtful or belonging to other genera.
As an ichthyosaur, Cymbospondylus had flippers for limbs and a fin on the tail. The different species of Cymbospondylus vary greatly in size, with the smallest reaching around to in length. The largest known species, C. youngorum, is estimated to be around long, making Cymbospondylus one of the largest ichthyosaurs identified to date, but also one of the largest animals known of its time. The animal has a skull with a long, thin snout, proportionally small eye sockets, an elongated trunk, and a less pronounced tail than in later ichthyosaurs.
The genus was formerly classified as a representative of the Shastasauridae, but more recent studies consider it to be more basal, considered to be the only recognized member of the Cymbospondylidae. The teeth are conical and pointed, having longitudinal ridges, indicating a diet of fishes and cephalopods, and possibly other marine reptiles for larger species.
Research history
Discovery and identification
In 1868, American paleontologist Joseph Leidy described two new genera of ichthyosaurs dating from the Middle Triassic on the basis of fossil vertebrae discovered in several localities in Nevada, United States, all of which were transmitted through the geologist Josiah Dwight Whitney. One of the two genera he names is Cymbospondylus, to which he assigns two species. The first one is C. piscosus, which Leidy named on the basis of several more or less complete vertebrae having been discovered in different mountain ranges of the state. The holotype of C. piscosus is a block containing five incomplete dorsal vertebrae that was discovered in the New Pass Range, northwest of the city of Austin. Leidy attributes two other specimens to the species, one being a series of eight caudal vertebrae discovered at Star Canyon in the Humboldt Range, and the other being a single vertebrae, probably also caudal, discovered in the Toiyabe Range, in the Reese River, northeast of Austin. The second species is C. petrinus, named from five large dorsal vertebrae discovered in the Humboldt Range. The genus name Cymbospondylus derives from the Ancient Greek words κύμβη (kymbē, "cup") and σπόνδυλος (spondylos, "vertebra"), all taken together literally meaning cupped vertebrae, in reference to the rather obvious shape of this part of the skeleton. As no type species was designated in the 1868 article, it was not until 1902 that John Campbell Merriam assigned C. piscosus to this title, the latter being the first named in Leidy's official description of the genus.
Between 1901 and 1907, the University of California sent ten expeditions across different corners of the United States to recover as many ichthyosaur fossils as possible dating from the Triassic, in order to be analyzed in more detail. These same expeditions were led by Merriam and were almost all financed by Annie Montague Alexander. The research finally collected more than fifty specimens, each preserving a significant portion of their skeletons. Among these fossils are several specimens of excellent quality from C. petrinus, including an almost complete skeleton, cataloged as UCMP 9950, all discovered in the origin locality mentioned by Leidy. Like the other ichthyosaurs mentioned in the work, Merriam describes the taxon in more depth based on new known fossil material. Merriam's anatomical descriptions of C. petrinus are still recognized as viable, and are even used in comparative anatomy in later studies of the genus Cymbospondylus, thus lending validity to the species.
Unlike C. petrinus, no additional fossils of the type species C. piscosus have been discovered. In Merriam's works, the latter recognized C. piscosus as distinct on the basis of its smaller size and by the regularly concave faces of the vertebrae of the holotype specimen. Only later did the validity of C. piscosus begin to be questioned, with authors mentioning the questionable nature of the fossils. In their work published in 2003, Christopher McGowan and Ryosuke Motani assert that the fossil vertebrae attributed to C. piscosus do not present distinctive characteristics to prove its validity. This would therefore pose a taxonomic problem, because if the type species turns out to be a nomen dubium, the genus to which it is classified will also be. To try to resolve this problem, the two authors suggest that the most complete known skeleton of C. petrinus (UCMP 9950) could be designated as a neotype of C. piscosus. However, as no formal ICZN appeal has been established to date, the name C. petrinus for the proposed neotype should be retained until further notice. In 2017, Andrzej Stefan Wolniewicz referred all additional fossil material described by Merriam to C. piscosus and synonymized C. petrinus to the latter. However, As the proposal remains restricted to a PhD thesis, it is defined as an unpublished work per Article 8 of the ICZN and therefore is not formally valid. Therefore, C. piscosus is not included in most descriptions of the genus, although it is still recognized as the type species.
Recognized species
In 1927, a partial skeleton of a large ichthyosaur was discovered in the Grenzbitumenzone Member at the Monte San Giorgio fossil site in Switzerland and was mentioned by Bernhard Peyer in 1944. In 1964, published a photo of this same specimen and suggested that it shared affinities with Cymbospondylus, then only known from North America at that time. The specimen in question, cataloged as PIMUZ T 4351, was formally described for the first time in 1989 under the name C. buchseri by , thus confirming the presence of the genus in Europe. The specific epithet buchseri is named in honor of Fritz Buchser, a member of the Museum of Paleontology at the University of Zurich, the latter having prepared the holotype skeleton in 1931 as his first major professional achievement.
While C. petrinus was for a time seen as the only valid species of the genus known from Nevada, it was not until the early 21th century that later discoveries contradicted this assertion. In 2006, Nadia Fröbisch and colleagues described the species C. nichollsi based on an incomplete skeleton, cataloged as FMNH PR 2251, which was discovered in the Augusta Mountains. The fossil was originally exhumed in the hope of finding a new specimen of C. petrinus, but the number of significant anatomical differences led researchers to establish a separate species. The species in question is named in honor to Elizabeth Nicholls, an American-Canadian paleontologist specializing in Triassic marine reptiles, who made a major contribution to the ichthyosaurs that lived during this period. In their description, Fröbisch and his colleagues consider that an almost complete skull attributed to C. petrinus, cataloged as UCMP 9913, could in fact belong to C. nichollsi, because it presents similar characteristics. However, as the specimen has been relatively little described in the scientific literature, the authors do not know whether it would show intraspecific variations within C. petrinus, judging therefore that a more in-depth description is necessary. Subsequent studies carried out on the genus Cymbospondylus nevertheless always refer specimen UCMP 9913 to C. petrinus, but still mentioning some notable differences.
In 2011, a notable new Cymbospondylus fossil was also discovered in the Augusta Mountains, then exhumed three years later in 2014. This discovery was a partial skeleton that was briefly mentioned in a 2013 study describing the large contemporary ichthyosaur Thalattoarchon, as well as in a 2018 histological study, where it is among the specimens analyzed. However, it was only later that the specimen, cataloged as LACM DI 158109, was formally designated a holotype for the species C. duelferi by Nicole Klein and colleagues in 2020. The species name duelferi was chosen in honor of Olaf Dülfer, fossil preparer who made many practical contributions to research on Mesozoic marine reptiles.
In 1998, still in the Augusta Mountains, Sander discovered another notable specimen of Cymbospondylus, and exhumed it with his colleagues between 2014 and 2015. After preparation of the fossils, the specimen, cataloged as LACM DI 157871, consists of a large complete skull, some cervical vertebrae, the right humerus as well as fragments of the shoulder girdle. It was in 2021, just one year after the identification of C. duelferi, that a new species of the genus was named from this specimen in Science Magazine by Sander and his colleagues. This species, C. youngorum, is named in honor of Tom and Bonda Young, these latter having financially supported the fossil exhumation project. However, in their main article, the anatomical description of this taxon is limited and is mainly focused on the evolution of the size of the oldests ichthyosaurs, the detailed anatomical descriptions being documented in a secondary article.
Formerly assigned species
Although many valid and distinct species have been assigned to Cymbospondylus throughout its taxonomic history, some of these have been reassigned to different genera or are considered synonymous or even doubtful. In his 1868 paper describing Cymbospondylus, Leidy also named another ichthyosaur as Chonespondylus grandis, based on a fragment of a caudal vertebra found at Star Canyon in the Humboldt Range. In 1902, Merriam listed Leidy's discoveries, but having found no features distinguishing Chonespondylus from Cymbospondylus, he decided to synonymize the first name with the second, under the name C. (?) grandis. In 1908, after the discovery of new very complete fossils from C. petrinus, Merriam decided to definitively synonymize C. (?) grandis with the latter. In 1873, John Whitaker Hulke described a species of Ichthyosaurus, I. polaris, named after two sets of vertebrae associated with rib fragments that were discovered on Isfjorden, Spitsbergen, an island in Norway. In 1902, the Russian paleontologist Nikolai Nikolajewitch Yakowlew moved the species within the genus Shastasaurus, referring an isolated vertebra to this taxon. In 1908, Merriam in turn moved this species into the genus Cymbospondylus, under the name C. (?) polaris. Merriam still expresses some hesitation about this attribution, asserting that the true generic identity cannot be determined for this species due to the few known fossils. In 1910, the species was moved to the newly erected genus Pessosaurus by Carl Wiman, as P. polaris, to which it has always been referred by this name ever since. Although this taxon is declared as a nomen dubium according to studies published at the end of the 20th century, it is seen as a species inquirenda according to McGowan and Motani in 2003, i.e. a taxon under investigation, as numerous fossils that have since been referred to P. polaris could make it once again as valid.
Still in his 1908 work, Merriam erects two new species of the genus, coming from the same locality from which C. petrinus is known. The first is C. nevadanus, named from fossils constituting a hind limb. Merriam distinguishes this species from C. petrinus on the basis of its larger size and the different proportions of some bones. However, the C. nevadanus material is not sufficiently diagnostic to support the validity of this species, and is considered a species inquireda according to McGowan and Motani in 2003. The second species erected by Merriam is C. natans, which he names from an isolated humerus, to which he attributes a radius, an ulna, carpals and a series of caudal vertebrae. In his article, he notes the similarity of these bones with those of Mixosaurus, leading the author to rename the species to M (?) natans in 1911. For much of the 20th century, M (?) natans was recognized as a valid species of Mixosaurus until 1999, when it was synonymized with M. nordenskioeldii. Although M. nordenskioeldii itself has been considered a nomen dubium since 2005, the fossil material concerned remains attributed to the family Mixosauridae and is no longer attributable to Cymbospondylus.
In a review of German ichthyosaurs published in 1916, Friedrich von Huene described two other species of Cymbospondylus whose fossils were discovered in the Muschelkalk of the town of Laufenburg in the state of Baden-Württemberg. The first is C. germanicus, which Huene names from a single vertebra associated with other vertebrae as well as a basioccipital. Immediately afterwards, the validity of C. germanicus was questioned the same year by Ferdinand Broili, the latter citing that the fossils concerned did not present notable features to be recognized as distinct. Additionally, the fossils appear to be very poorly preserved to be distinguished as a valid species, and is therefore a nomen dubium.
In 2002, paleontologists Chun Li and Hai-Lu You named a new species as C. asiaticus based on a complete skull discovered in the Xiaowa Formation, located in Guizhou Province, China, and it was considered as the most recent known representative of the genus. In the official description of C. nichollsi published in 2006, the authors are doubtful regarding the attribution of this species to Cymbospondylus. They mention that the latter does not share any notable commonalities with the three then recognized species of the genus at the time, namely C. petrinus, C. buchseri and C. nichollsi, and suggest that it would in fact be a junior synonym of Guizhouichthyosaurus tangae. The synonymy proposed by Fröbisch and colleagues was accepted in 2009 by Qing-Hua Shang and Li after the discovery of an almost complete skeleton of Guizhouichthyosaurus from the same formation. However, considering that Guizhouichthyosaurus is similar to Shastasaurus, they moved the species as S. tangae. This synonymy was contested the following year, in 2010, in which Michael W. Maisch provisionally reclassified Guizhouichthyosaurus as a distinct genus. In 2011, Sander and his colleagues considered that Guizhouichthyosaurus was distinct, while a 2013 study by Shang and Li still synonymizes it with Shastasaurus. However, numerous phylogenetic and morphological analyzes subsequently published consider Guizhouichthyosaurus to be distinct genus from Shastasaurus.
Description
Ichthyosaurs like Cymbospondylus are marine reptiles, with two pairs of flippers for limbs and a fin on the tail. Being one of the oldest and most basal (least derived) ichthyosaurs known from the fossil record, Cymbospondylus has an anatomy very different from those of the parvipelvians, the latter presenting the archetypal anatomy of this group of this now extinct marine reptiles (long and thin snout, large eye sockets and a homocercal caudal fin). The anatomy of Cymbospondylus, like other non-parvipelvians ichthyosaurs, is more "primitive", having a poorly developed or absent dorsal fin as well a less pronounced tail. In its overall anatomy, Cymbospondylus has a long trunk and a hypocercal fin. The anatomy of this type of ichthyosaur is similar to those of other marine vertebrates such as mosasaurs, marine crocodylomorphs, and archaeocete whales through convergent evolution.
Size
The size of Cymbospondylus varies greatly between recognized species. Possessing a skull which would measure a total of , C. duelferi is the smallest known species of the genus, having a size estimated at long in the study officially describing it, before being estimated at in the secondary article by Sander and colleagues in 2021. The estimated size of the C. buchseri holotype is slightly larger, reaching a length of with a skull long. Estimating the size of C. nichollsi is more complex, because although the holotype specimen is known from a significant portion of the skeleton, the latter preserves only half of the skull. However, based on the comparison with C. buchseri and C. petrinus, the total length of the skull is estimated at for an animal measuring long.
Estimates of the size of C. petrinus have changed relatively little since 1908, mainly due to the almost complete skeleton of specimen UCMP 9950, considered the best known specimen of Cymbospondylus. Merriam suggests that C. petrinus would reach a size exceeding in length based on specimens UCMP 9947 and 9950. In 2020, Klein and colleagues increased the size estimate of C. petrinus a little further, seeing them as reaching for a skull. In the secondary article published by Sander and colleagues in 2021, C. petrinus is estimated to be long for the same cranial measurements. The holotype specimen of C. youngorum having a skull measuring almost long and its humerus being the second largest bone of this type recorded in an ichthyosaur, the maximum size of the animal is therefore estimated at for a weight of . This estimate not only makes C. youngourum one of the largest ichthyosaurians identified to date behind Shastasaurus sikanniensis, but also makes it one of the largest animals known of its time. The antiquity as well as such an imposing size for an animal dating from the beginning of the Middle Triassic makes C. youngorum qualify as "the first aquatic giant" according to Lene Liebe Delsett and Nicholas David Pyenson.
Evolution
Of particular interest is the rapid increase in body size undergone by ichthyosaurs early in their evolutionary history. Ichthyosaurs evolved from small (skull length 55 mm) ancestors such as Cartorhynchus to giant forms like C. youngorum in the span of only 2.5 million years. Cetaceans meanwhile, which originated under similar conditions (following the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous period eradicating much of marine tetrapod diversity) took notably longer to obtain similar sizes. Between Pakicetus (skull width 127 mm) and Basilosaurus isis (skull width 600 mm) a total of 10 to 14 million years passed, almost five times as much as between Cartorhynchus and Cymbospondylus youngorum. In toothed whales, the size increase likewise took notably longer with around 25 million years passing between the basal Simocetus and the massive Livyatan. In their 2021 study Sander, Griebeler, Schmiz and their colleagues determined that ichthyosaurs underwent rapid size increase early on in their evolutionary history, in particular among Cymbospondylus and early merriamosaurs, while whales obtained great sizes relatively slowly. Even when restricting the analysis to only observe the growth in members of Pelagiceti (fully aquatic whales) to account for the varying degrees of aquatic adaptations, cetaceans still reached large body sizes much slower than ichthyosaurs. Meanwhile, after this initial burst the overall size of ichthyosaurs slowed down significantly, while among crown group whales body sizes increased initially slowly before accelerating rapidly later in their history. Sander et al. (2021) suggests that this rapid increase in body size may have been favored by the swift recovery of conodonts and ammonites following the Permian–Triassic extinction event. They further suggest that the evolution of large eyes, a trait present in many ichthyosaurs, further assisted them in exploiting this food source efficiently.
Classification
The exact placement of Cymbospondylus within Ichthyosauria is poorly understood with its position varying between different studies, sometimes being recovered as more and sometimes as less derived than mixosaurids. However it is agreed upon that Cymbospondylus is a rather basal member of the clade. Early phylogenies placed Cymbospondylus within Shastasauridae. In the analysis of Bindellini et al. (2021), Cymbospondylus is placed at the very base of Ichthyosauria, outside the more derived members of Hueneosauria (including Mixosauridae and Shastasauridae). In the publication describing C. duelferi, Klein and colleagues recovered that all species from the Fossil Hill Member in Nevada form a clade with one another. The description of C. youngorum further supports this Nevadan clade, recovering C. youngorum as its most derived member while C. buchseri from Europe sits at the base of the genus. Much like in the analysis by Bindellini and colleagues, shastasaurids and mixosaurids were recovered as more derived ichthyosaurs.
Like in many analyses prior, the type species was not included in the dataset due to its questionable and fragmentary nature. This causes Cymbospondylus to have a very convoluted taxonomy, with it being suggested that the type species should be neglected. The 2020 study reviewed the skull morphology of C. nichollsi and found the species to be valid, as the skull morphology accords with that of C. petrinus but is distinct enough to be separate, such as the upper temporal fenestra shape being oval in C. nichollsi but triangular in C. petrinus. In their phylogenetic analysis the authors did not recover a definite placement for C. buchseri, leading them to state that further study was needed to determine whether the Swiss species belonged to the genus.
The following cladogram shows the position of Cymbospondylus within the Ichthyosauria after Sander et al., (2021):
Palaeobiology
Massare & Callaway (1990) propose that many Triassic ichthyosaurs including Cymbospondylus may have been ambush predators. They argue that the long neck and torso would create drag in water while the laterally-flattened tail lacking the lunate fluke of later ichthyosaur taxa was more suited for an undulating swimming style. In their research they suggest that the elongated flexible bodies of early ichthyosaurs were built to support an undulating swimming style while the powerful tail would provide bursts of speed, both of which they cite as being possible adaptations to ambush prey. Massare & Callaway put this in contrast with Jurassic taxa, known for their compact, dolphin-like bodies adapted for more continuous swimming favorable to pursuit predators. A strikingly similar bauplan was later obtained by two other large bodied marine amniote groups, mosasaurs and archaeocete whales.
Direct evidence for its diet exists for the medium-sized Cymbospondylus buchseri from Switzerland, which was found with its stomach contents exclusively consisting of hooks belonging to soft-bodied coleoid cephalopods. However, this does not exclude the possibility that C. buchseri could have taken larger prey, as its last meal may not reflect its typical diet accurately. Bindellini and colleagues suggest that C. buchseri may have employed a more forceful feeding strategy with a slower feeding cycle and a higher biteforce, supported by the animal's robust rostrum. In the Besano Formation, Cymbospondylus would have coexisted with two other smaller ichthyosaurs, the more gracile skulled Besanosaurus and small mixosaurs. Whether or not C. buchseri would have gone after large vertebrate prey, all three taxa display clear adaptations for different hunting strategies and prey preferences, however the details of their ecologies are not yet fully understood.
For C. youngorum a generalist diet of squid and fish is inferred based on the blunt and conical teeth in combination with the elongated rostrum. However, as with C. buchseri, Sander et al. entertain the possibility that C. youngorum could have fed on large-bodied vertebrates as well, including the other Cymbospondylus species of the region.
Cymbospondylus was especially diverse in the Fossil Hill Member of the Favret and Prida formations of Nevada, which preserves a pelagic environment from the middle to late Anisian (ca. 246 - 242 million years ago). The Fossil Hill Member specifically preserves some of the greatest ichthyosaur diversity recorded, with eight distinct taxa present. This includes four species of Cymbospondylus, the early macropredatory Thalattoarchon, the small Phalarodon fraasi and P. callawayi as well as the poorly understood Omphalosaurus. Other animals present in the environment include a single sauropterygian, Augustasaurus hagdorni, halobiid bivalves but only few remains of fish. However this may be due to preservation bias. Despite this abundance of amniote fossils, analysis of the preserved ecosystem indicates that the Fossil Hill Member represents a stable food web largely dominated by said amniotes, occupying niches held by fish in modern marine ecosystems. Furthermore, the analysis conducted by Eva Maria Griebeler in the study of Sander and colleagues indicates the presence of an energy surplus, which may indicate the presence of an as of yet unknown animal in the Fossil Hill fauna or that this energy surplus may have been exploited by animals that evolved later. The ecosystem could have supported another giant marine reptile, assuming it were a bulk feeder specialised on small prey that's lower in the food chain. Such an animal could have for example been a filter feeder, a niche not yet occupied by any animal in the fauna of the Fossil Hill Member.
Bindellini and colleagues notes that shastasaurid diversity may have profited from the extinction of Cymbospondylus, such as the Carnian of China, known to have supported three ecologically different shastasaurids but no examples of cymbospondylids, which had gone extinct by that time.
Reproduction
The holotype of C. duelferi preserves three small strings of articulated vertebrae located within the trunk region of the specimen. These vertebrae, which are only a third the size of the adult specimen, have been interpreted to represent the remains of three fetuses, with one specimen specifically facing towards the rear end of the putative mother. Following this interpretation, Cymbospondylus would have given live birth to a minimum of three offspring.
See also
List of ichthyosaurs
Timeline of ichthyosaur research
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Middle Triassic ichthyosaurs
Early Triassic ichthyosaurs
Middle Triassic reptiles of Europe
Middle Triassic reptiles of North America
Early Triassic reptiles of Europe
Ichthyosauromorph genera
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore%20Komnenos%20Doukas
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Theodore Komnenos Doukas
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Theodore Komnenos Doukas (, Theodōros Komnēnos Doukas, Latinized as Theodore Comnenus Ducas, died 1253) was the ruler of Epirus and Thessaly from 1215 to 1230 and of Thessalonica and most of Macedonia and western Thrace from 1224 to 1230. He was also the power behind the rule of his sons John and Demetrios over Thessalonica in 1237–1246.
Theodore was the scion of a distinguished Byzantine aristocratic family related to the imperial Komnenos, Doukas, and Angelos dynasties. Nevertheless, nothing is known about Theodore's life before the conquest of Constantinople and dissolution of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Following the fall of Constantinople, he served Theodore I Laskaris, founder of the Empire of Nicaea, for a few years before being called to Epirus, where his half-brother Michael I Komnenos Doukas had founded an independent principality. When Michael died in 1215, Theodore sidelined his brother's underage and illegitimate son Michael II and assumed the governance of the Epirote state. Theodore continued his brother's policy of territorial expansion. Allied with Serbia, he expanded into Macedonia, threatening the Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica. The capture of the Latin Emperor Peter II of Courtenay in 1217 opened the way to the gradual envelopment of Thessalonica, culminating in the city's fall in 1224.
As ruler of Thessalonica, Theodore quickly declared himself emperor, challenging the Nicaean emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes's claims to the Byzantine imperial throne. In 1225, he advanced to the outskirts of Constantinople, but his final attack against the seat of the much-reduced Latin Empire was delayed until 1230. In that year, Theodore amassed an army to besiege Constantinople, but then diverted it against Bulgaria, an ambivalent ally which threatened his northern flank. Theodore was defeated and captured at the Battle of Klokotnitsa, and spent the next seven years in captivity. In the meantime, he was succeeded by his brother Manuel. Manuel quickly lost Thrace, most of Macedonia, and Albania to the Bulgarian Emperor John Asen II. Thessalonica itself became a Bulgarian vassal, while in Epirus proper power was seized by Michael II, returning from exile.
Theodore was released in 1237 when his daughter Irene married John Asen II, and quickly managed to regain control of Thessalonica, ousting Manuel. Having been blinded during his captivity and thus disqualified from occupying the throne again, he installed his eldest son John as emperor, but remained the de facto regent of the state. Manuel tried to regain Thessalonica with Nicaean support, but a negotiated settlement was reached which gave him Thessaly and left Thessalonica and its environs to Theodore and John. In 1241, John III Vatatzes invited Theodore to visit Nicaea. He was welcomed and treated with great honour, but was effectively detained there until the spring of next year, when Vatatzes marched on Thessalonica with Theodore in tow. Theodore was sent in to negotiate with his son and convince him to accept demotion to the rank of Despot and to recognize the suzerainty of Nicaea. John died in 1244 and was succeeded by Theodore's younger son Demetrios. In 1246, Vatatzes overthrew the unpopular Demetrios and annexed Thessalonica. Theodore influenced his nephew Michael II to launch an attack on Thessalonica in 1251, but in 1252, Vatatzes campaigned against them and forced Michael to come to terms. Theodore was taken prisoner and sent into exile in Nicaea, where he died around 1253.
Early life and career
Born between 1180 and 1185, Theodore was a son of the sebastokrator John Doukas and of Zoe Doukaina. His paternal grandparents were Constantine Angelos and Theodora, a daughter of the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos (). Theodore's uncle, Andronikos, was the father of the emperors Isaac II Angelos () and Alexios III Angelos (), who were Theodore's first cousins. As with most members of his family, he preferred to use the surname of "Doukas" or "Komnenos Doukas" (Κομνηνὸς ὁ Δούκας); contemporaries variously called him "Doukas", "Komnenos", or even "Grand Komnenos" (μέγας Κομνηνός), an appellation more usually found among the ruling family of the Empire of Trebizond. Theodore evidently preferred to be associated with the more successful dynasties of the Doukai and the Komnenoi, rather than the disastrous reign of the Angeloi; indeed the only medieval writers to call him "Angelos" were the later, hostile pro-Palaiologos historians Nikephoros Gregoras and Theodore Skoutariotes, while George Akropolites refers to him as "Komnenos" until his defeat at Klokotnitsa in 1230 and as "Angelos" after.
Theodore's early life is obscure. After the Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople in 1204, he followed Theodore Laskaris to Asia Minor, where Laskaris founded the Empire of Nicaea. Theodore's service under Laskaris is relatively unknown except for a brief reference in a letter written by the Metropolitan of Corfu, George Bardanes, one of Theodore's apologists. Bardanes writes that Theodore "took many dangers for his sake and wrested many fortresses from the enemies and subdued them to Laskaris' rule", distinguishing himself through his valour and receiving many rewards from the Nicaean ruler. Some modern scholars, such as Karl Hopf and Antoine Bon, have identified a certain Theodore, who appears as "lord of Argos" and was the successor of Leo Sgouros in leading the resistance against the Crusaders in the northwestern Peloponnese after Sgouros' death in 1208, with Theodore Komnenos Doukas. This view has been questioned by Raymond-Joseph Loenertz, who argues that there is no evidence for such an assumption, and that conversely it is well established that Theodore was in Nicaean service at the time.
Around 1210, Theodore was invited by his half-brother Michael I Komnenos Doukas to Epirus, where Michael had founded an independent Greek principality. Michael wanted Theodore's aid, as his only son, the future Michael II Komnenos Doukas, was underage and illegitimate, while Michael's other half-brothers were considered to lack the ability to rule. Laskaris allowed Theodore to leave, but bound him with an oath of allegiance to himself and his heirs. Before going to Epirus, Theodore had married Maria Petraliphaina, with whom he had four children.
Ruler of Epirus
From 1210 on, Michael I Komnenos Doukas was engaged in territorial expansion, chiefly at the expense of the Latin Kingdom of Thessalonica to his east; after initial reverses, much of Thessaly was conquered. By 1214, Dyrrhachium and Corfu had been recovered from the Latins as well. The traditional view of historians is that these events marked Michael I's repudiation of the allegiance he had sworn to the Latin Empire, but historian Filip Van Tricht argues that both Michael and later Theodore remained, at least in theory, vassals of the Latin Empire until 1217. Michael was assassinated by a servant in late 1214 or in 1215. As Michael II was illegitimate and too young, Theodore had no trouble in sidelining the boy. According to the hagiography of St. Theodora of Arta, the boy and his mother spent the duration of Theodore's reign exiled in the Peloponnese.
Relations with Serbia and Nicaea
Theodore was capable and extremely ambitious. Notwithstanding his oath to Laskaris, he aspired not only to expand his state at the expense of Thessalonica, but to eventually recover Constantinople and revive the Byzantine Empire with himself as its ruler. To secure his northern flank, Theodore allied himself with Serbia and the Albanian clans. The Principality of Arbanon had already come in the Epirote political orbit under Michael I, and closer ties developed when its ruler, Demetrios, died in 1215, leaving his principality to his widow, who promptly remarried the next year to a Greek magnate, Gregory Kamonas. Against the Serbs, Theodore abandoned Michael I's attempt to pursue a northward expansion into Zeta, and instead pursued an alliance with the Serbian prince Stefan II Nemanjić () that was directed towards keeping the Bulgarians in check. The ties between Epirus and Serbia were solidified by the marriage of Theodore's brother Manuel Komnenos Doukas to one of Stefan II's sisters . Stefan II then sought to wed one of his sons—in all likelihood his eldest son and heir, Stefan Radoslav—to Michael I's second daughter Theodora. The Archbishop of Ohrid, Demetrios Chomatianos, refused to sanction the marriage due to consanguinity—Theodora was a second cousin of Stefan Radoslav's mother, Eudokia Angelina, a daughter of Alexios III Angelos. In 1217, Stefan II tried to circumvent this by suggesting himself as the groom to Theodora's half-sister Maria, but Chomatianos vetoed this proposal as well on similar grounds. Finally, Stefan Radoslav married Theodore's firstborn daughter Anna in winter 1219/20.
With his position thus strengthened, Theodore expanded his territory into northern Macedonia, although it is possible that at least part of this region had already been captured by Michael I after the death of the local Bulgarian ruler Strez in 1214. It is unclear to what extent Theodore's expansion involved direct conflict with the Bulgarian Tsar Boril (), but by 1217 he held Ohrid, Prilep, and most of the plain of Pelagonia, at least up to Strez's old capital at Prosek, and likely beyond, approaching the Strymon River. As the Greek historian Konstantinos Varzos has noted, the capture of Ohrid, seat of the eponymous archbishopric, was particularly important for the standing of the Epirote state and Theodore's aspirations. Theodore sponsored the election of the distinguished canonist Chomatianos to the archiepiscopal throne in 1217, and Chomatianos would repay that support with his steadfast championing of Epirote claims to the Byzantine imperial inheritance vis-à-vis the rival claims of Nicaea.
Following the Fourth Crusade, the Orthodox clergy in the two main Greek states, Epirus and Nicaea, had effectively become separated. In 1208, the Nicaeans had convened a synod and elected Michael Autoreianos as successor to the vacant see of the Patriarch of Constantinople. The election was uncanonical and therefore of questionable legitimacy. This in turn meant that Laskaris' imperial title was also open to challenge, as he had been crowned by the same Michael Autoreianos. Already under Michael I, two local synods of bishops had emerged in the Epirote domains to carry on administration of the Church, largely independent of the Patriarch, one at Naupaktos under John Apokaukos, and one at Ohrid under Chomatianos. The more ambitious Chomatianos soon became the pre-eminent "western" bishop, and sought to strengthen the de facto Epirote autonomy in ecclesiastical affairs, including the appointment of bishops for the local sees without the Patriarch's interference. This policy, which dovetailed with Theodore's own ambitions of independence from and rivalry towards Nicaea, brought the two branches of the Greek Church to an open quarrel, as the Nicaea-based patriarch Manuel I Sarantenos began appointing bishops of his own to Epirote sees, whom the Epirotes refused to accept. Despite his close ties to Epirus, Stefan II Nemanjić exploited the Epirote–Nicaean rivalry to his advantage to secure autocephaly for the Serbian Church, which traditionally had been under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Ohrid. Brushing aside Chomatianos' vehement objections, Stefan managed to have his brother Rastko, renamed Sava, consecrated by Manuel Sarantenos as autocephalous archbishop of Serbia in 1219. Theodore took care not to let the quarrels of the churchmen affect his cordial relations with the Serbian ruler.
Theodore's drive into Macedonia disquieted another local strongman, Alexius Slav, ruler of Melnik. A sworn enemy of Boril, Alexius had been abandoned by his erstwhile ally, the Latin Emperor, Henry of Flanders (), who in 1213 allied himself with Bulgaria. Facing a possible attack by Theodore as well, Alexius now preferred to make common cause with him, and married a niece of Theodore's wife.
Capture of Peter of Courtenay
The Epirote successes in Macedonia worried the Latins, as they opened the way to another attack on Thessalonica. The Kingdom of Thessalonica had been much weakened after the death of its founder, Boniface of Montferrat, in 1207, since which it had been ruled by a regency for his underage son Demetrius (). Interrupting a campaign against the Nicaeans in Asia Minor, Henry of Flanders hastened to Thessalonica. He took up contact with Boril and was preparing to march against Theodore when he suddenly died on 11 June 1216, probably of malaria, although poisoning by his second wife Maria of Bulgaria has also been suggested. The death of the warlike Henry, followed by that of Pope Innocent III, the instigator of the Fourth Crusade, a month later, was a major stroke of good fortune for Theodore as it removed two of his most eminent and capable opponents.
The barons of the Latin Empire then elected Peter II of Courtenay, a cousin of King Philip II Augustus of France, as the new Latin Emperor. Receiving news of his election, Peter assembled a small army of 160 knights and 5,500 foot and horse, and set out from France. After being crowned by Pope Honorius III in Rome, he set sail from Brindisi in April 1217. Peter landed at Dyrrhachium, which he had promised to conquer and return to Venice, while his wife Yolanda of Flanders sailed on to Constantinople. As in the Norman invasion of William II of Sicily () in 1185, Peter intended (after capturing Dyrrhachium) to follow the ancient Via Egnatia to Thessalonica, wresting Albania and Macedonia from Epirote control in the process.
The commonly accepted version of events is that Dyrrhachium resisted with success, and as his casualties mounted Peter was forced to raise the siege and start his march towards Thessalonica. The march proved difficult, due to both the harsh terrain and the open hostility of the local population—the Western sources (the Annales Ceccanenses, Richard of San Germano, Philippe Mouskes, and the continuator of Robert of Auxerre) also stress the loyalty of the local Albanian population to Theodore. After a few days, Theodore with his army confronted Peter. Theodore requested talks with the papal legate, Giovanni Colonna, whom he assured of his goodwill and support. Western sources claim that Theodore offered to recognize the primacy of the Catholic Church and the suzerainty of the Latin Empire—as well as to support Peter in his planned participation in the Fifth Crusade—and offered the Latins food and guides through the mountains. Peter was glad to receive this unexpected help, and an agreement between the two was concluded. As soon as the Latins let their guard down, Theodore fell upon them. Peter of Courtenay, Colonna, the Latin Bishop of Salona, Count William I of Sancerre, and many Latin nobles were taken captive, while Peter's army scattered into small roving bands trying to survive. Akropolites, the chronicler Ephraim, and some Western sources on the other hand claim that Dyrrhachium was captured, and are followed by some modern scholars, including the Greek I. D. Romanos and the French Alain Ducellier. According to this view, Theodore offered to acknowledge Peter's suzerainty after the city's fall, only to treacherously ambush and defeat him. As the historian John Van Antwerp Fine remarks, "it is not important which version is correct"; the outcome was the same, and if lost, Dyrrhachium was quickly retaken after Peter's capture.
According to Philip Van Tricht, Theodore's actions were motivated by several factors, which led him to regard Peter as a threat to himself and his principality. Peter's attempt to return Dyrrhachium to Venice, even if it had failed for the moment, boded ill for the future. Peter's recognition of the rights of Demetrius' half-brother William VI of Montferrat over Thessalonica opened the way for William to take power there, and Theodore was loath to see Thessalonica—whose rulers still claimed suzerainty over Epirus—strengthened, particularly given the presence of his exiled nephew Michael II in the court of the Latin Principality of Achaea. At the same time, Theodore and his court resented the increased papal interference in Greek affairs, especially in the aftermath of the mission of Cardinal Pelagius, the previous papal legate to Constantinople, whose actions had deepened the rift between Greeks and Latins further.
Wars with the Latins and the capture of Thessalonica
Whatever the true course of events, Theodore's unexpected victory echoed throughout the Greek world, and greatly enhanced his standing; even the usually hostile Akropolites was forced to admit in his history that this feat was "of great help to the Romans". Conversely it dismayed Pope Honorius, who sent letters to the Latin princes of Greece as well as the Doge of Venice and Peter of Courtenay's son-in-law King Andrew II of Hungary (), urging them to engage themselves to secure the release of Peter and Colonna. He even wrote to Andrew and the French bishops to call for a crusade against Theodore, with which he also threatened Theodore in a letter. With the first contingents for the crusade assembling at Ancona in late 1217, and the Venetians eager to profit from the crusade to recover Dyrrhachium, the pressure bore fruit: in March 1218, Colonna was released, with Theodore offering his apologies and assurances of loyalty to the Pope. Honorius then changed his policy to the point of forbidding the Doge of Venice to harm Theodore in the slightest, hoping thereby to secure the release of more prisoners. Although some of the lesser barons were freed, Peter and many of the most senior lords remained in captivity until their death. It is unknown when Peter of Courtenay died, but this was probably before September 1219.
The capture of Peter of Courtenay left both major Latin states in northern Greece, Thessalonica and Constantinople, in the hands of female regents. Before arriving in Constantinople, where she gave birth to Peter's posthumous son, Baldwin II (), Yolanda had stopped at the Peloponnese. There she quickly came to appreciate the wealth and strength of the Principality of Achaea, and arranged the marriage of her daughter Agnes to the principality's heir, Geoffrey II of Villehardouin (). A politically astute ruler, Yolanda also secured her eastern border by offering her daughter Maria of Courtenay in marriage to Theodore Laskaris, who had just been widowed for the second time.
Before launching his final stroke against Thessalonica, Theodore also took care to secure his southern flank, by appointing his brother Constantine Komnenos Doukas as governor in Aetolia and Acarnania. An energetic governor, Constantine not only effectively shielded the Epirote domains from the threat of the Duchy of Athens, but soon recovered Neopatras and Lamia as well. Theodore himself turned his attention to clearing Thessaly of any remaining Latin presence, culminating in the surrender of the great Platamon Castle in 1218. Over the next few years, one by one, Theodore captured the fortresses around Thessalonica itself. Platamon controlled the entrance to the Thermaic Gulf, and with the surrender of Serres in late 1221, Theodore cut the land connection between Constantinople and Thessalonica as well. Thessalonica was left thereby, in the words of John Fine, "more or less an island in the midst of Theodore's possessions".
As the fall of Thessalonica appeared imminent, Pope Honorius excommunicated Theodore, ordered an embargo on horses, troops, and supplies from the Adriatic ports, and sent letters to Constantinople urging assistance to Demetrius. Demetrius himself went to Italy to seek aid, being received by the Pope in Rome in March 1222 and by Emperor Frederick II () soon after. A crusade was proclaimed against Theodore, and troops began to gather in Italy. In the meantime, the Latin Empire, now under Robert of Courtenay (), was once more embroiled in warfare with Nicaea as it supported Laskaris' brothers in their challenge against the new Nicaean emperor, John III Doukas Vatatzes (). The first detachments of the assembling crusade, under Count Oberto II of Biandrate, arrived at Thessalonica in summer 1222 and joined the de facto regent, Guy Pallavicini. Theodore now hastened his move against Thessalonica. After preliminary operations in late 1222, in early 1223 he laid siege to the city. Honorius excommunicated him again, and redoubled his effort to promote the crusade, which had come to a standstill in the meantime. At the Pope's urging, Venice and Emperor Frederick promised aid. Robert of Courtenay also pledged to assist, while Honorius called upon the Latin princes of southern Greece to join in the effort. The crusade finally assembled at Brindisi in March 1224. In his instructions to his legate, however, Honorius did not rule out the possibility of Theodore coming to terms with the Crusaders. True to his word, in April 1224 Robert of Courtenay sent an army to besiege Serres. During the siege, the Latin generals learned of the disastrous defeat of the main Latin army at the hands of John III Doukas Vatatzes at the Battle of Poimanenon. They lifted the siege and hastened back to Constantinople, only to be intercepted by Theodore's men; most of the Latin army were killed or taken prisoner.
This double disaster destroyed the Pope's plans for the crusade, as he had envisaged it to land in Theodore's rear while he was engaged with Robert's army. At the same time, the prospective leader of the crusade, William VI of Montferrat, fell ill. In November, the Pope was forced to postpone the crusade's departure for the next spring. With news of the Latin defeats and the postponement of the crusade, the exhausted defenders of Thessalonica surrendered the city to Theodore sometime in December 1224. The crusade to relieve it sailed in March 1225, and landed in Thessaly at Halmyros. The Crusader army was soon decimated by dysentery, allegedly because the Greeks had poisoned the local water supply. William of Montferrat himself succumbed to it, and the remnants of the army left Greece. Demetrius of Montferrat still hoped to recover his realm with the help of Frederick II, but died in 1227.
Emperor of Thessalonica
The capture of Thessalonica, traditionally the second city of the Byzantine Empire after Constantinople, was a major stroke against the Latins and greatly boosted Theodore's standing, so much that he now regarded himself as superior to Vatatzes, and openly claimed the Byzantine imperial title by putting on the purple boots reserved to the emperor. Indeed, one of his major supporters, the eminent Metropolitan of Naupaktos, John Apokaukos, in a letter to the Patriarch in 1222 declared that the Epirotes already regarded Theodore as their "God-sent regent and emperor", and later wrote to Theodore's wife expressing the hope that he might be able to assist at their imperial coronation at Thessalonica.
Coronation controversy with Nicaea
According to Byzantine custom, the coronation of an emperor could only take place in Constantinople and be performed by the Patriarch; yet Constantinople was still in Latin hands, and the Patriarch (now Germanus II, 1223–1240) resided in Nicaea. Theodore thus turned to the Metropolitan of Thessalonica, Constantine Mesopotamites, whom he had just restored to his see after removing the Latin prelate. Mesopotamites however recognized the Patriarch at Nicaea as legitimate, and steadfastly refused to perform the rite, despite pressure from Theodore, his brother Constantine, and John Apokaukos. Rather than submit, he preferred to return to exile. In response, in March 1225 Theodore convened a council of the bishops of his domains at Arta, chaired by Apokaukos. The council approved a declaration, composed by Apokaukos, which extolled Theodore's achievements against the Latins and Bulgarians, his liberation of Greek lands, eviction of Catholic priests and restoration of Orthodox bishops, and his imperial descent, and declared that the council recognized only him as emperor. Armed with this declaration, Theodore had the loyal Archbishop of Ohrid, Demetrios Chomatianos, perform the coronation instead.
Although Theodore appears to have assumed, and was addressed by, the imperial title almost immediately after the capture of Thessalonica, the date of his actual coronation is unknown. The French scholar Lucien Stiernon places it in the period between June 1227 and April 1228, but the Greek Apostolos D. Karpozilos rejects this, reasoning that Theodore had no obvious reason to delay his coronation for so long, and suggested that he was crowned in 1225, immediately after the council of Arta. Eleni Bees-Seferli on the other hand, based on the letters of Apokaukos, suggests a date between 3 April and August 1227, while Alkmini Stavridou-Zafraka has narrowed the date down to 29 May 1227.
As befitted a Byzantine emperor, Theodore began setting up a court at his new capital, and dispensed the usual court titles to his relatives and followers. Not much is known about the men that staffed Theodore's regime; most of the available information comes from the writings of Chomatianos. Theodore's brothers Manuel and Constantine were raised to the rank of Despot, the long-serving John Plytos became panhypersebastos and mesazon (chief minister), and a number of scions of old Byzantine aristocratic families, who had sought refuge in Epirus, were appointed as provincial governors alongside members of the local aristocracy. The title of doux was used, but unlike earlier times these were mostly civilian governors with little military authority. Theodore awarded titles with such largesse that formerly exclusive titles such as sebastos or megalodoxotatos were devalued and came to be held by city notables. His Nicaean rivals, notably Akropolites, mocked him for the haphazard way in which the titles were used and awarded, ignoring the old customs of Constantinople, as if he were "a Bulgarian or rather a barbarian". To secure his new capital, Theodore instituted a guard of "Tzakones" under a kastrophylax.
John Vatatzes initially reacted to Theodore's proclamation as emperor by offering to recognize him as a sort of viceroy in his lands, but Theodore rejected this and publicly assumed the full titulature of the Byzantine emperors, as "basileus and autokrator of the Romans". Theodore's coronation deepened the rift between the western Greeks and Nicaea, which once again was expressed in the ecclesiastic sphere. At first, the Nicaeans tried to limit the blame to Chomatianos: though writing respectfully of Theodore himself, Patriarch Germanus II expressed his indignation at the presumption of Chomatianos in usurping the patriarchal privilege of crowning an emperor, while Chomatianos claimed that, as the successor of the ancient see of Justiniana Prima, he was an independent prelate and had the authority to do so.
In 1227, a synod of Epirote bishops in Arta tried to find a compromise, acknowledging the overall authority of the Patriarch at Nicaea but requesting administrative autonomy, i.e. the right for Theodore to appoint bishops in his domains. They gave the Patriarch three months to reply, and suggested that if he did not heed their proposals, they might be forced to recognize the supremacy of the Pope instead. Germanus replied by having the patriarchal synod condemn Theodore's assumption of the imperial title. The conflict escalated when Germanus appointed his own candidate to the vacant see of Dyrrhachium. Theodore expelled the bishop, and the Epirote synod instead elected a friend of Chomatianos, Constantine Kabasilas, as the bishop. Germanus now attacked Theodore directly. In response, George Bardanes composed a letter to Germanus, which insisted on Epirote ecclesiastical autonomy and challenged the very legality of Germanus' claims to the patriarchate. The result was a full schism between the Nicaean and Epirote churches that lasted until 1232/33.
Expansion into Thrace
Following Theodore's coronation, there were four rulers who claimed the imperial title and vied for control of Constantinople: Theodore, the Latin Emperor, Robert of Courtenay, John III Doukas Vatatzes of Nicaea, and the young but ambitious John Asen II () of Bulgaria. The Latin Empire was a shadow of its former strength: following Poimanenon, the Latins had lost most of their territories in Asia, while in Europe, it was soon reduced to the environs of Constantinople itself. Already in 1224, or at least in 1225, Theodore captured Chalcidice with Mount Athos, and in spring 1225, he advanced through eastern Macedonia and western Thrace, seizing Christopolis, Xanthi, Gratianopolis, Mosynopolis and Didymoteicho. In an attempt to pre-empt him and block his advance onto Constantinople, the Nicaeans had answered the summons of the inhabitants of Adrianople and taken over the city from the Latins. Theodore however crossed the Evros River and blockaded the city, until it agreed to surrender. The Nicaean army, under the protostrator John Ises and John Kammytzes, was allowed to withdraw unmolested to Asia with ships provided by Theodore.
The capture of Adrianople opened the path to Constantinople for Theodore. In order to secure his northern flank, he concluded an alliance with John Asen, sealed by the (second) marriage of his brother Manuel to Maria, an illegitimate daughter of Asen. At the same time, the Latins turned to Nicaea and concluded a peace treaty in exchange for further territorial concessions. This pact too was sealed by a marriage, of Theodore Laskaris' daughter Eudokia to the Latin baron Anseau de Cayeux. In the same summer of 1225, Theodore led his army to the environs of Constantinople, reaching the towns of Bizye and Vrysis. Anseau de Cayeux, leading the Latin army, was heavily wounded in the clashes, but Constantinople itself was not attacked. Not only was Theodore unprepared for a siege against the mighty Theodosian Walls, but news of William of Montferrat's landing at Thessaly forced him to break off operations and return west.
For reasons that are unknown, Theodore did not renew his attack on Constantinople in 1226 or the years thereafter. Instead, he seems to have occupied himself with domestic affairs, as well as taking care to improve relations with Frederick II during the latter's stop-over at Corfu and Cephallonia to lead the Sixth Crusade in 1228. In 1229, he even sent a company of Greek troops to serve under Frederick in Italy. At the same time, Theodore presided over a rupture in relations with Venice, after his governor in Corfu sequestered the cargo of a shipwrecked Venetian ship. Theodore issued an edict on 19 August 1228 prohibiting Venetian merchants from practising commerce in his realm. In January of the same year, Robert of Courtenay died, leaving the throne of the Latin Empire to his eleven-year-old brother, Baldwin II. With a regency taking over the governance of the state, the Latin Empire stood further enfeebled. At this moment, John Asen offered an alliance. Baldwin II would marry his daughter Helena, while John Asen would take over the regency and lend his assistance at repelling Theodore's attacks. The Latin barons viewed the offer with mistrust, as it would offer John Asen every opportunity to take over Constantinople himself; instead, they strung out negotiations, and eventually chose the 80-year-old but energetic John of Brienne () as regent. Although the Bulgarian offer failed, it served to open a rift between Theodore and his nominal ally. In a move clearly directed against John Asen, in September 1228, Theodore agreed to a one-year truce with the Latin Empire's regent, Narjot of Toucy, with the border between the two empires running along a line from Ainos to Vrysis.
Klokotnitsa and Bulgarian captivity
Finally, in late 1229, Theodore began assembling his forces at Thessalonica—including a contingent of troops sent by Frederick II—for the projected final attack on Constantinople. As his troops marched east in spring 1230, he unexpectedly turned his army north and followed the Evros valley into Bulgaria. Theodore's motives for this sudden change are debated. Contemporary and later historians like Akropolites denounced this as a sign of Theodore's duplicity and treachery. A more likely suggestion is that Theodore, hitherto undefeated in battle, desired to check Bulgarian power and avoid the possibility of the Bulgarians striking in his rear while he was engaged in besieging Constantinople. Although caught by surprise, John Asen II reacted rapidly. Allegedly affixing the text of the broken treaty to one of his spears as a flag, he rallied his troops and met Theodore in battle in April 1230. The ensuing Battle of Klokotnitsa was a crushing victory for the Bulgarian ruler, who took Theodore and many of his officers captive.
In the aftermath of Klokotnitsa, Bulgaria emerged as the mightiest power in the Balkans. Deprived of its energetic ruler, Theodore's empire collapsed: within a few months Thrace, most of Macedonia, and Albania, fell under Bulgarian rule. As John Asen II boasted in an inscription in the Holy Forty Martyrs Church at his capital of Tarnovo, he "occupied all the land from Adrianople to Dyrrhachium, Greek, Serbian, and Albanian alike", although Dyrrhachium itself apparently remained in Greek hands. The Latin Duchy of Philippopolis was also annexed, and Alexius Slav's principality in the Rhodope Mountains was extinguished in the process, with Alexius spending the rest of his life at Asen's court.
Theodore's brother Manuel, who managed to escape from Klokotnitsa, now took over the throne in Thessalonica. His domain was reduced to the environs of the city and his family's core territories in Epirus and Thessaly, as well as Dyrrhachium and Corfu, while his brother Constantine in Aetolia and Acarnania recognized his suzerainty. As a son-in-law of John Asen II, Manuel was allowed to maintain internal autonomy, but to all intents and purposes he was a client of the Bulgarian Tsar. At about the same time, Michael I's bastard son Michael II returned from exile and quickly succeeded, apparently with the support of the local population, in taking over control of Epirus. Manuel was forced to recognize the fait accompli under the pretense that Michael recognized his suzerainty, in token of which Manuel conferred him the title of Despot. In reality Michael was fully independent, and very quickly ceased to acknowledge Manuel's suzerainty; by 1236, he had seized Corfu. In order to preserve some freedom of manoeuvre and counter Asen's attempts to subordinate the Epirote Church to the Bulgarian Church of Tarnovo, Manuel turned to his brother's erstwhile rivals in Nicaea and brought an end to the ecclesiastical schism by acknowledging the legitimacy and superiority of the Nicaea-based Patriarch.
Theodore himself remained in captivity at Tarnovo for seven years. Initially he was treated with honour, but at some point during his captivity he was accused of plotting against John Asen II and blinded as a result. This was the customary Byzantine punishment for treason and means of sidelining potential political rivals. According to a contemporary letter written in Hebrew, Asen initially ordered two Jews to carry out the deed, for Theodore had been persecuting the Jews in his territory and confiscating their wealth to fund his campaigns. Theodore begged to be spared, and they refused to carry out the blinding, whereupon the enraged Tsar had them thrown from a cliff. Finally, in 1237 Theodore was released when Asen, recently widowed, fell in love with Theodore's sole unmarried daughter, Irene. Immediately after the marriage, Theodore was released and allowed to depart Tarnovo to wherever he wished.
Return to Thessalonica and final years
Recovery of Thessalonica
As soon as he was set free, Theodore returned to Thessalonica. Lacking any escort or followers, he disguised himself as a beggar in order to enter the city in secret. There he contacted old supporters and favourites, and organized a conspiracy that soon ousted Manuel and took over the city. As Byzantine custom barred him from re-assuming the imperial office due to his blinding, Theodore installed his son John Komnenos Doukas () as emperor (without a coronation ceremony), but remained the real ruler of the empire in his son's name. John himself appears to have been mostly interested in religion, and more inclined to enter a monastery than to become emperor. Theodore had to persuade him that being named emperor was a God-given gift, and that he was indeed the rightful Emperor of the Romans due to his imperial descent.
The deposed Manuel was sent to exile at Attaleia in Asia Minor, while his wife Maria was allowed to return to her father. Despite Theodore's actions and the overthrow of his daughter and son-in-law, Akropolites reports that John Asen II remained favourably disposed towards Theodore due to his passionate love for Irene. Manuel did not remain quiescent in exile; determined to avenge himself, from Attaleia he secured passage through Turkish lands to Nicaea. There John Vatatzes welcomed him and agreed to support him, but not before he secured from Manuel oaths of loyalty to himself. Thus in early 1239 Manuel with six Nicaean ships set sail for Greece, landing near Demetrias in Thessaly. He received widespread support in the province, perhaps even from the local governor, Michael I's son-in-law Constantine Maliasenos, allowing him to raise an army and in a short time occupy Farsala, Larissa, and Platamon. Faced with the option of open civil war, Manuel and Theodore eventually came to terms by dividing the territories of Thessalonica among themselves. Manuel renounced his allegiance to Vatatzes and received Thessaly, John and Theodore kept Thessalonica and the remaining parts of Macedonia as far west as Vodena and Ostrovo, and Constantine was confirmed in his appanage of Aetolia and Acarnania. To further secure their position, both Theodore and Michael concluded treaties with the powerful Prince of Achaea, Geoffrey II of Villehardouin.
Submission of Thessalonica to Nicaea
Michael II in Epirus was not part of the brothers' agreement, and continued to pursue his own policies independently of his uncles. In 1241, when Manuel died, Michael moved quickly to occupy Thessaly. In June of the same year, John Asen II died, leaving the throne to his seven-year-old son Kaliman (). Coupled with the increasingly deteriorating situation of the Latin Empire, this development left John Vatatzes of Nicaea as the pre-eminent ruler of the region, and the obvious candidate for the capture of Constantinople.
Before undertaking any moves against Constantinople, Vatatzes realized the need to settle affairs with Thessalonica, and in particular with Theodore, whose ambition, capability, and machinations he feared. In 1240 or 1241 he therefore issued an invitation, with assurances of safe-conduct, to Theodore to visit Nicaea. Theodore accepted, and was treated with great honours by Vatatzes, who deferred to him as his "uncle" and dined with him at the same table. In reality, Theodore was a prisoner in Nicaea; he was not allowed to leave, and throughout his sojourn in the Nicaean court, preparations were in full swing for a campaign against Thessalonica. In spring 1242, Vatatzes crossed over into Europe at the head of his army, with Theodore accompanying him as an honorary prisoner. Facing no resistance, the Nicaean army and fleet arrived before Thessalonica. The city's garrison and inhabitants resisted with success and the Nicaean army, lacking heavy siege equipment, had to settle for a drawn-out blockade. Soon, however, news arrived of a Mongol invasion of Asia Minor, which forced Vatatzes to break off the campaign and return to Nicaea. Nevertheless, the Nicaean emperor kept this news a secret, and sent Theodore to his son to negotiate. John himself reportedly was willing to surrender the city outright, but his father convinced him to hold out for better terms. In the end, after 40 days of negotiations, John was allowed to keep control of Thessalonica, but renounced his imperial title and accepted Nicaean suzerainty and the title of Despot. Theodore was also allowed to remain at Thessalonica at his son's side.
John ruled as Despot in Thessalonica for two years, until his death in 1244. Theodore himself retired to Vodena, from where he supervised the affairs of state. On John's death he raised his younger son Demetrios Angelos Doukas () in his place, and sent an embassy to Nicaea to announce the succession, as befitted the terms of vassalage agreed in 1242. If John was a religious ascetic, Demetrios was a dissolute youngster who enjoyed partying with his favourites and seducing married women. Although Theodore remained in charge of governance, Demetrios quickly became so unpopular that many leading citizens began viewing direct Nicaean rule with favour.
Things came to a head in autumn 1246, when Kaliman of Bulgaria died, leaving the country in the hands of a regency for his younger brother Michael Asen (). Vatatzes quickly attacked Bulgaria, and within three months captured most of Thrace and all of eastern and northern Macedonia, while Michael II of Epirus also took advantage of the opportunity to expand into Albania and northwestern Macedonia. At the close of this campaign in November, as Vatatzes was encamped at Melnik, he was informed of a conspiracy to depose Demetrios and deliver Thessalonica to him in exchange for a chrysobull guaranteeing the traditional rights and privileges of the city. Vatatzes readily granted this, and sent envoys to Demetrios calling for him to appear in person at his camp. Demetrios, suspicious of Vatatzes' intentions, refused, and the Nicaeans marched on Thessalonica. After a few days, the conspirators opened one of the gates to the Nicaean army, and the city was quickly captured. Demetrios was captured and exiled to Lentiana in Bithynia, while Thessalonica and all of Macedonia were placed under the governance of the Grand Domestic Andronikos Palaiologos. Theodore himself, isolated and without power in his refuge at Vodena, apparently remained uninvolved in these events.
Final throw of the dice and death
With Thessalonica secured, Vatatzes turned to Epirus, offering Michael II a marriage alliance between Michael's eldest son Nikephoros and his own granddaughter Maria. The offer was enthusiastically accepted by Michael's wife, Theodora Petraliphaina (a niece of Theodore's own wife), and the young couple were engaged at Pegae. Michael, who had not abandoned his family's ambitions, remained ambivalent about the Nicaean alliance, and Theodore used his influence over his nephew to turn him against it. Thus, in spring 1251, Michael launched a sudden attack on Thessalonica. The city resisted successfully, and in spring of the next year Vatatzes once more crossed into Europe to campaign against the Komnenoi Doukai. Theodore with Michael had turned to the north, capturing Prilep and Veles, and when they received news of Vatatzes' arrival, they withdrew to Epirus via Kastoria. Vatatzes besieged and captured Theodore's stronghold of Vodena, but soon became bogged down in skirmishing in the area of Kastoria. The stalemate was broken when two Epirote generals, John Glabas and Theodore Petraliphas, defected to the Nicaeans, followed shortly after by the ruler of Kruja, Golem. This forced Michael to come to terms with Vatatzes, ceding the fortresses he had captured as well as his remaining holdings in Macedonia, and reconfirming the marriage alliance with Nicaea. Furthermore, Vatatzes explicitly demanded the handing over of Theodore. The Epirote ambassadors met Vatatzes at Vodena, where they offered Theodore and the young Nikephoros as hostages. The latter was granted the title of Despot and soon allowed to return to Epirus, but Theodore was moved as a prisoner to Asia Minor. He died shortly after, around 1253.
Assessment
The modern biographer of the Komnenoi, Konstantinos Varzos, described Theodore as an "energetic, resourceful, and exceedingly ambitious statesman, who inherited from his ancestor Alexios I Komnenos his endurance and persistence, but not the latter's intelligence, diplomacy, and ability to adapt". Varzos furthermore points out that despite his great ability, Theodore's ambition to be the one to recover Constantinople and his irreconcilable rivalry with Nicaea actually hampered and delayed the restoration of the Byzantine Empire by several decades.
Theodore's legacy left a lasting mark on the political worldview of the western Greeks: Byzantinist Donald Nicol remarks that "the memory of Theodore Doukas's victories and of his title to the Byzantine crown lived on in northern Greece and in the hearts of his descendants for many years to come". Michael II continued his uncle's rivalry with Nicaea, further delaying the recovery of Constantinople, and even after the restoration of the Byzantine Empire by Nicaea in 1261, the rulers of Epirus would continue to challenge the revived empire and uphold their own claim to the Byzantine throne.
Family
By his wife Maria Petraliphaina, Theodore had four children:
Anna Angelina Komnene Doukaina, who married King Stefan Radoslav of Serbia
John Komnenos Doukas, who became Emperor of Thessalonica in 1237
Irene Komnene Doukaina, who married John Asen II
Demetrios Angelos Doukas, who succeeded as ruler of Thessalonica in 1244
Footnotes
References
Sources
Further reading
1180s births
1253 deaths
13th-century despots of Epirus
Theodore
Theodore
Theodore
Byzantine people of the Byzantine–Bulgarian Wars
13th-century Byzantine people
Byzantine prisoners of war
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4676018
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niklas%20Edin
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Niklas Edin
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Johan Niklas Edin (born 6 July 1985) is a Swedish curler. He currently resides in Karlstad, which has been his curling home base since 2008. He holds several sport distinctions. He is the first and the only skip in World Curling Federation (WCF) history to win three Olympic medals – gold (2022), silver (2018), and bronze (2014) – and to skip men's curling teams to six World Men's Curling Championship medals (2013, 2015, 2018, 2019, 2021, 2022). He is also a seven-time European Curling Championship titleholder (2009, 2012, 2014–2017, 2019) and won three silver medals in those championships (2011, 2018, 2021). He is currently tied with Oskar Eriksson in first place on the WCF-recognized list of championship medals, with thirty-eight in total. He reached the playoffs in thirty-seven Grand Slam of Curling events and won the Pinty's Cup with his current teammates, Oskar Eriksson, Rasmus Wranå, and Christopher Sundgren. With the same lineup in 2022, Edin and his teammates also became the first and only men's curling team to win a fourth consecutive World Men's Curling Championship. Edin has played exclusively in the position of skip since 2007. The team bearing his name has been ranked on the World Curling Tour as high as No. 1, including for most of the 2017–18 season. As of the end of the 2021–22 Curling Season, Team Edin was ranked in the top three teams in the world.
Edin also coaches the Clancy Grandy rink.
Career
Beginnings
Niklas Edin participated in as many as ten different sports simultaneously before he took up curling. He started curling in 1999, inspired in part by the Swedish women's team skipped by Elisabet Gustafson when they secured the bronze medal at the 1998 Winter Olympics. Five years later in 2004, Edin skipped his own team to a World Junior Curling Championship title for Sweden, defeating the team skipped by Stefan Rindlisbacher for Switzerland. The following year, Edin was selected as the alternate for the silver medal-winning Swedish team skipped by Nils Carlsén at the World Junior Curling Championships. Edin also skipped a new team in 2005 to a silver medal at the European Mixed Curling Championships, together with future longtime teammate Sebastian Kraupp. In 2006, Edin won a second silver medal at the World Junior Curling Championships, this time playing third for Team Carlsén. The team also qualified for the 2006 World Men's Curling Championship, finishing in fifth place.
Over the next two years, Edin proved his skills with a variety of teams on an international level. In 2007, Edin skipped a new team, playing this time with his future teammates in the senior division Fredrik Lindberg and Kristian Lindström at the World Junior Championships, winning his third silver junior championship medal. In 2008, Edin also skipped yet another team to the bronze medal at the 2008 European Mixed Curling Championships, with Anna Hasselborg playing third. In 2007 and 2008, Edin joined up with Team Scotland to represent Sweden in the Contintental Cup and was the only participant from Sweden in 2007. As Sweden has participated in the Cup every other year, Edin's 2007 appearance has ensured that Sweden is the only European country to appear in every Continental Cup.
Team Edin I (2008–2014)
In the spring of 2008, Edin moved to Karlstad along with Sebastian Kraupp, Fredrik Lindberg, and Viktor Kjäll to form a new team, choosing the Karlstad Curling Club as their curling home. Together, the new team filled the void in Swedish men's curling left by the retirement of Peja Lindholm and quickly became seen in Sweden as the team most likely to have success on the international curling circuit. In 2009, Team Edin won Sweden's Elite Series as well as the Swedish National Championship. The team also represented Sweden at the Winter Universiade and won the gold medal. That same season, Team Sweden, led by Mattias Mabergs, finished in 8th place at the 2008 European Curling Championships and fell short in two of three tight games against Finland in the relegation challenge for the 2009 World Men's Curling Championship. No Swedish team, therefore, could compete at the world championships that year.
In the 2009–2010 season, Team Edin was considered the frontrunner for Sweden's national team. In December 2009, the team won the gold medal at the 2009 European Curling Championships, their first appearance at the championship. During the 2010 Elite Series, however, they lost a tough final to their closest rivals, Team Carlsén, by the score of 6–5. Team Carlsén was selected for the 2010 World Men's Curling Championship but underperformed with a 4–7 loss. Team Edin was selected to participate in the 2010 Winter Olympics. They barely missed the medal platform, placing fourth and losing the bronze medal game to Switzerland. They also cemented their status over their closest rivals Team Carlsén by winning the Swedish Curling Championships.
Team Edin's 2010–11 season continued to advance their status as the top team in Sweden by winning Sweden's Elite Series championships. On the World Curling Tour, the team also started strongly by winning the Oslo Cup and making the finals of the Baden Masters. At the 2010 European Curling Championships, the team was unable to secure a playoff spot but made up for this by winning a bronze medal at the 2011 World Men's Curling Championship. On the World Curling Tour, Team Edin also made it to two Grand Slam quarterfinals – the Masters and the National – as well as the Perth Masters semifinals. The team ended their season by becoming the first non-Canadian team to make it to a men's Grand Slam final at the 2011 Players' Championship, losing in the final to Team Kevin Martin.
Edin's rink continued its success into the 2011–12 season. The season became their best year at the Grand Slams, reaching the playoffs in three slams, including the semifinals of the Masters and Canadian Open and the quarterfinals at the National. They also successfully defended their title at the Oslo Cup and repeated their Elite Series title win. In the international curling championships, they first won a silver medal at the 2011 European Curling Championships after losing in the final to Norway's Thomas Ulsrud. Later that season, the team won its second bronze medal at the 2012 World Men's Curling Championship. Edin played three games through severe pain with significant injuries, requiring the team to be reshuffled with Sebastian Kraupp skipping for the team, Fredrik Lindberg moving up to the third position, and Oskar Eriksson curling in the second position through the bronze medal game.
The 2012–13 season became Edin's best season up until that point in time. Nationally, they won a third straight Elite Series title. Internationally, they only reached one Grand Slam playoff - the quarterfinal at the National. They also, however, won their third straight Oslo Cup and the Victoria Curling Classic. Their biggest success came by peaking when it counted in the international championships, taking two important gold medals in the same season. The first came at the 2012 European Curling Championships, where they beat Team Ulsrud in the final. The team then won the 2013 World Curling Championship, giving Edin his first world championship gold medal. It was also the first time since 2004 that a Swedish men's curling team had won a world championship title.
The 2013–14 season was not as successful for the Edin rink, becoming their first without any title. They achieved their best success reaching the semifinals of the Shorty Jenkins Classic, beating Kevin Martin in the quarterfinals. Unfortunately, the team reached the playoffs of only one Grand Slam, finishing in the quarterfinals of the Masters, along with the quarterfinals of the Baden Masters and Cactus Pheasant Classic. The team also finished with a disappointing 5th place at the 2013 European Curling Championships. At the 2014 Winter Olympics, Sweden finished in first place after the round-robin, with an 8–1 record but lost a tight match to the Great Britain team skipped by David Murdoch in the semi-final. Following this defeat, the team defeated China's Liu Rui to win the bronze medal, giving Edin the first Olympic medal of his career.
The last months of the 2013–14 season signaled the eventual end of what was then known as Team Edin. Because the team had increased their international travel and the time spent in Canada to become more competitive, they had to skip the Swedish Curling Championships and withdrew from the Elite Series, despite leading the series before the finals. The Swedish Curling Federation then chose the team led by Oskar Eriksson to represent Sweden at the 2014 World Men's Curling Championship, with Eriksson skipping a team including future Team Edin members Christoffer Sundgren and Kristian Lindström. The choice of Team Eriksson reflected that they had success on the World Curling Tour and were competitive with Team Edin, but they also won the Swedish Men's Curling Championships and lost a close final in the Elite Series, coming in second place. The team lived up to expectations by winning the silver World Championship medal. This also meant, however, that Team Edin was unable to defend their 2013 championship win. Instead, the team finished the season reaching the semifinals of the Pomeroy Inn & Suites Prairie Showdown, followed by a disappointing sixth-place finish at the European Masters. At the end of the season, the team formally announced that they were disbanding, with Niklas Edin eager to continue, but with Sebastian Kraupp and Fredrik Lindberg concerned about their ability to train and compete as necessary to reach the top of the World Curling Tour rankings while focusing on their future careers.
Team Edin II (2014–2016)
In May 2014, Edin and Team Eriksson agreed to form a new Team Edin, with Edin skipping the team in the fourth position, Oskar Eriksson playing third, Kristian Lindström at second, and Christoffer Sundgren as lead. The new team immediately saw their increased potential and aimed to become the number one team in the world. The 2014–15 season indeed became a golden year for the new Team Edin, as the team first won the gold medal at the 2014 European Curling Championships. Edin skipped Team Sweden to a perfect 11–0 record to win the European Championship, defeating Norway's Team Ulsrud in the final game, giving Edin his third European Championship gold. Team Edin then capped off the season by winning the World Championship gold medal at the 2015 Ford World Men's Curling Championship. While the team lost three round-robin games, they rallied in the playoffs defeating Finland, Canada, and then their Norwegian rivals again to pick up the championship. The victory meant that Edin and Eriksson held the gold medals at the European and World Championships for the second time in a single curling season. That season, the team also reached their second career Grand Slam final, losing in the inaugural Elite 10 event.
During the 2015–16 curling season, Team Edin picked up their second straight European Curling Championship gold medal when they won the 2015 European Curling Championships, this time defeating Switzerland's Peter de Cruz in the final. The team found less success at that season's World Championships, placing sixth. The team became increasingly competitive, however, at the Grand Slams, reaching the playoffs in the Masters, the Canadian Open, Players' Championship, and the Champions Cup. The team also won the Baden Masters, reached the finals of the European Masters, and finished in third place at the Karuizawa International, as well as the German Masters. At the end of the season, Lindström was forced to take a break from curling, requiring a shoulder operation and needing recovery.
Team Edin III (2016–present)
2016-2018: Grand Slam history and third World Championship
During 2016–17 curling season, Rasmus Wranå became Team Edin's new second and the final member to join the current Team Edin. The team had one of its greatest seasons, winning three Grand Slam events, starting with the 2016 WFG Masters, a win that also made curling history as Team Edin became the first non-Canadian skip to win a men's Grand Slam event. Later that same season, Team Edin became the first non-Canadian team to win the Tour Challenge and the Player's Championship. As a result, Team Edin also became the only non-Canadian team currently to have won more than one Slam. His team also finished the season in first place on the Tour in terms of order-of-merit points and money won, becoming the first time a non-Canadian team won the Pinty's Cup. Team Edin also won the 2016 European Curling Championships – the second for the new Team Edin and the fifth for Edin and his teammate Eriksson. Team Edin also made the finals of the 2017 World Men's Curling Championship, winning a silver medal after falling short in the final to Team Canada (skipped by Brad Gushue).
In the 2017–18 curling season, Team Edin had one of their most successful seasons, winning the gold medal at the European Curling Championships, the silver medal for the men's team at 2018 Winter Olympics (losing to the United States team skipped by John Shuster), and then avenged their loss at the 2017 Worlds by defeating Team Gushue in the finals of the 2018 World Men's Curling Championship, giving Edin his third World Championship gold medal. The team also won the Baden Masters, Curling Masters Champery, and Perth Masters, and reached the finals of three Grand Slam of Curling events - the Masters, the Canadian Open, and the Players' Championship.
2018-2022:The Road to World Championship History and Olympic Gold
In the 2018–19 curling season, at the 2018 European Curling Championships, Team Edin went undefeated in the tournament until the final, where they lost to Scotland's rink skipped by Bruce Mouat. They again represented Sweden at the 2019 World Men's Curling Championship, winning the gold medal over Team Canada's Kevin Koe. It was Edin's fourth career World championship, tying Ernie Richardson's record of four World championships as a skip. Edin's win was significant, however, as he is the only skip to reach this milestone since the World Championships (formerly known as the Scotch Cup) expanded to three or more teams, with Richardson's first two Championships secured in contests between only two teams (Canada and Scotland). Edin also played in all four legs of the inaugural Curling World Cup, losing in the finals of the second and third legs.
Team Edin had a slow start to the 2019–20 season but also reached new milestones as the season progressed. After finishing as the runner-up at the Baden Masters, they did not qualify for the playoffs at the first Grand Slam, the 2019 Masters. They then reached the bronze medal position at the Swiss Cup Basel, and made the playoffs at the 2019 Tour Challenge before losing to Team Brad Gushue in the quarters. In November 2019, however, Team Edin won a record seventh European Curling Curling Championship at the 2019 European Curling Championships. In December, the team also reached their tenth final at a Grand Slam of Curling event when they reached the final of the Boost National, losing to Team Brad Jacobs. The team finished the year in Japan at the Karuizawa International, coming in second to Team Matsumura. As the new year began, Team Edin, rejoined Team Europe and successfully defended their Continental Cup of Curling title, though they did not reach the playoffs at the 2020 Canadian Open. In February 2020, Team Edin won the Swedish Men's Curling Championships and thus cemented their right to compete for their third straight World Men's Championship title. Unfortunately, the 2020 World Men's Curling Championship was cancelled due to the global Coronavirus pandemic.
Team Edin began the 2020–21 season by winning the 2020 Baden Masters, Edin's third title in the event, tying the record held by Thomas Ulsrud, Andreas Schwaller, and Brad Gushue. The team then reached the quarterfinals at the final World Curling Tour men's series 400 event in Europe in 2020, the Curling Masters Champéry. With team curling effectively shut down in Europe after October 2020, Team Edin did not return to competitive play until the 2021 World Men's Curling Championship. Despite the challenge of returning without a competitive national championship, the team finished at the top of the leaderboard and was ranked first in the playoffs, defeating Team Mouat of Scotland in the final and winning the fourth gold medal for Edin and Eriksson and the third straight World Championship gold for the team - the first team to achieve this feat and to do so with the same four players. Edin and his teammates were also selected to compete in the 2022 Winter Olympics at the end of the season.
The 2021–22 season began with Team Edin reaching the playoffs in the first five tournaments they entered. In Switzerland, the team reached the semifinals of the Baden Masters, then the finals of the Swiss Cup Basel. The team then began the Canadian leg of their autumn schedule by winning the Penticton Curling Classic. The team also reached the quarterfinals in the Euro Super Series, as well as at the Masters and the National in the Grand Slam of Curling. At the 2021 European Curling Championships, the team won a silver medal, extending Team Edin's legacy of winning gold or silver at every championship since 2011 but one (2013). The team began 2022 with historic gold medals – their first Olympic gold and their fourth straight gold at the World Men's Curling Championship – the first team in history to win both Olympic and World Championship medals back-to-back in a single season. The World Championship win also gave Edin and Eriksson their sixth World Championship team gold medals – the first curlers in the world to do so – and gave Sundgren his fifth World Championship gold, placing him currently second on the all-time World Championship team gold medal list. The team wrapped up the season by coming in second place in the finals of the 2022 Players' Championship and reaching the semifinals of the 2022 Champions Cup.
2022-2026:The Road to the 2026 Olympics
Shortly after the 2021–22 season closed, Team Edin formally announced that the same lineup planned to continue through the end of the next Olympic cycle, aiming to secure another medal in the 2026 Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy. The 2022–23 season thus became the seventh season for the team, establishing the lineup as the longest-running Team Edin to date. The season started with Team Edin failing to make the playoffs in the Baden Masters, but then rallied to win the Oslo Cup and the Stu Sells Toronto Tankard. They then began the season's Grand Slam of Curling tour at the National, reaching the final. At the Tour Challenge(Tier 1), the team went undefeated on their way to winning the event, even though Edin was injured during the semifinal draw shot challenge and was sidelined through the final. Eriksson, Sundgren, and Wranå competed under the Edin banner for the team's next two events, winning the Western Showdown and reaching the semifinals of the Penticton Curling Classic. For the 2022 European Curling Championships, Team Eriksson competed for Sweden, with Daniel Magnusson moving to the second position, Wranå to third, and Eriksson as skip for the first time at a European Curling Championship. The team lost in the semifinal by one point to Team Switzerland, the first time since 2013 that Team Sweden did not reach the medal podium. Edin was back in the lineup to play in the 2023 Canadian Open played in January that season. The team found success with Edin back in the lineup, making it as far as the finals in the Canadian Open, before losing to Brendan Bottcher's rink. The team won the 2023 Swedish Curling Championship without him, but were re-united to play in the 2023 World Men's Curling Championship. The team went on to finish the 2023 Worlds with a 9–3 round robin record. They were eliminated by Canada in the qualification playoff game, ending their reign as World Champions for four years running. It also marked the first season in which Team Edin did not medal in either the European Curling Championship or World Curling Championship.
The "spinner"
In their Draw 12 game at the 2023 World Men's Curling Championship against Norway, Edin made what many were calling one of the greatest or "craziest" shots in curling history, which has been dubbed a "shot heard around the curling world". Down by two in the tenth end, Edin had to throw a rock with an incredible amount of spin, making it curl enough to bump a guarded corner-frozen Norwegian stone at the perfect angle to avoid moving the Swedish rock it was frozen to, while also moving the Norwegian stone far enough to score two. A near-impossible shot, it could have only been made by throwing a "spinner," a rarely thrown shot in the sport. Usually a rock will rotate just a few times during its trajectory, but Edin's rock made over 53.5 rotations according to curling oddsmaker Matt Hall. Throwing a spinner is so rare, laughter could be heard at the arena when Edin released the rock. Edin was successful though, with his shooter rock being the second point, which was confirmed after a measurement. TSN commentator Russ Howard called the shot "the best ... I've ever seen in my life!" World Curling Federation commentator Tyler George said "There's these moments in sports where sometimes the moment is bigger than the result of the game. I will remember that shot for as long as I live." Despite the shot, Team Sweden ended up losing the game in the extra end.
Mixed events
Despite his participation in mixed events early in his curling career, Edin had until recently primarily played mixed doubles and mixed team curling at the Continental Cup. After the addition of Mixed Doubles in the 2018 Olympics, however, Edin began to participate in mixed doubles events, in part reflecting the Swedish Curling Association's recognition that Team Sweden might more likely earn a place in the Mixed Doubles Olympic competition by permitting curlers on men's and women's national teams to vie for a chance to compete in Mixed Doubles at the World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship. As a result, Edin began to participate in the Swedish Mixed Doubles Curling Championships, placing 4th in 2019, but missing the playoffs in 2020. He also teamed up with Rachel Homan for the inaugural mixed doubles event at the 2018 WCT Arctic Cup, and the duo won the event.
In the 2020–21 season, the Swedish Curling Association launched a substantial effort to support five teams on the mixed doubles tour in order to prepare for the 2021 World Mixed Doubles Curling Championship and to secure an entry for Team Sweden to compete in mixed doubles at the 2022 Olympics. Edin was selected for one of the teams, partnering with Emma Sjödin of Team Sundberg for the 2020-21 curling season. In their inaugural event, the Oberstdorf International Mixed Doubles Cup, Sjödin and Edin reached the semifinals, losing to Sjödin's teammate Johanna Heldin and Team Edin alternate Daniel Magnusson. Sjödin and Edin won their next mixed doubles event, the 2020 WCT Tallinn Mixed Doubles International, defeating the tournament frontrunners Jayne Stirling and Fraser Kingan in the final.
Career Milestones and Records
Niklas Edin is the only skip in history to skip teams to six World Men's Curling Championship gold medals and the first to do so at four consecutive World Men's Curling Championships (2013, 2015, 2018, 2019, 2021, and 2022). He is also the only skip in history to have skipped a team to three Olympic medals ... a gold (2022), a silver (2018), and a bronze (2014) – and the only skip to secure back-to-back Olympic and World Men's Curling Championship in history. Currently, only two other curlers have won all three medals, Agnes Knochenhauer and Oskar Eriksson.
Edin also currently holds several records with his teammates Eriksson, Sundgren, and Wranå, who formed the team that won four gold medals between 2018 and 2022. Edin and Eriksson hold the most European Men's Curling Championship titles (seven) and share the record for most World Men's Curling Championship titles (six). They also hold the record as the first men's curlers to simultaneously hold both the World Curling Championship and European Curling Championships in three separate curling seasons (2012–2013, 2014–2015, and 2017–2018). In 2019, Edin, together with his teammates Eriksson and Sundgren, also became the first men's curlers to hold these same titles simultaneously in two separate calendar years (2015 and 2019). Edin, Eriksson, and Sundgren are also the first curlers in history on the men's side to win four European Championship gold medals in a row (2014–2017). Edin is also the only curler to appear in the Continental Cup for twelve consecutive competitions (2007–08 and 2011–2020, with the competition not held in 2009 or 2010). With Eriksson, Sundgren, and Wranå, Edin's team became the first non-Canadian men's team to win three Slams at the Grand Slam of Curling and the Pinty's Cup, with the only other non-Canadian men's team to win more slams skipped by Bruce Mouat.
In 2009 Edin was inducted into the Swedish Curling Hall of Fame.
Grand Slam Record
When Edin won the 2016 WFG Masters, he became the first non-Canadian skip to win a men's Grand Slam event.
Teams
References
External links
Living people
1985 births
People from Örnsköldsvik Municipality
Sportspeople from Karlstad
Swedish male curlers
Curlers at the 2010 Winter Olympics
Curlers at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Curlers at the 2018 Winter Olympics
Curlers at the 2022 Winter Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for Sweden
Olympic silver medalists for Sweden
Olympic bronze medalists for Sweden
Medalists at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 2018 Winter Olympics
Medalists at the 2022 Winter Olympics
Olympic medalists in curling
Olympic curlers for Sweden
World curling champions
European curling champions
Swedish curling champions
Universiade medalists in curling
FISU World University Games gold medalists for Sweden
Competitors at the 2009 Winter Universiade
Continental Cup of Curling participants
21st-century Swedish people
Swedish curling coaches
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4676259
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetsuz%C5%8D%20Iwamoto
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Tetsuzō Iwamoto
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Lieutenant Junior Grade was one of the top scoring aces among Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service (IJNAS) fighter pilots. He entered the Imperial Navy in 1934 and completed pilot training in December 1936. His first combat occurred over China in early 1938. He emerged as one of the top aces of the Imperial Japan during World War II, credited with at least 80 aerial victories, including 14 victories in China. Subsequently, he flew Zeros from the aircraft carrier Zuikaku from December 1941 to May 1942, including at the Battle of the Coral Sea. Iwamoto decorated his planes with victory markings of cherry blossom flowers, with a single or double blossom flower referring to a shot down enemy fighter or bomber aircraft respectively.
In late 1943, Iwamoto's air group was sent to Rabaul, New Britain, resulting in three months of air combat against Allied air raids.
Subsequent assignments were Truk Atoll in the Carolines and the Philippines, being commissioned an ensign in October 1944. Following the evacuation of the Philippines, Iwamoto served in home defense and trained kamikaze pilots.
As a result of the Japanese use of the British naval practices, the IJNAS scoring system was based on the system the Royal Navy and the Royal Air Force (RAF) adopted from World War I until World War II. This system differed from the scoring system used by some other nations during World War II. Research by academics surnamed Izawa and Hata in 1971 estimated his score at about 80 or more than 87. In December 1993, Izawa wrote that Iwamoto was virtually the top ace of the IJNAS.
As of mid-1944, there remained only two IJNAS fighter pilots who were credited with over 100 victories. Depending on various totals cited, Tetsuzō Iwamoto or Hiroyoshi Nishizawa was Japan's top ace. Iwamoto was known as the Chūtai leader (Flying Company, squadron of 8 to 16 fighters). Iwamoto was one of few survivors of the IJNAS from the early part of the Second World War. He fought over the Indian and the Pacific Ocean from north to south, and trained young pilots even in the last months of the war. Like many Japanese veterans, Iwamoto was reported to have fallen into depression after the war. His diary was found after his death, with claims of 202 Allied aircraft destroyed.
Early life
Tetsuzo was the third son of the Iwamoto family. He was born on a border town, southern part of Karafuto 15 June 1916, later grew up in Sapporo, Hokkaidō, Japan. He enjoyed skiing in his elementary school days. When he lived in Sapporo, his father was a chief police officer.
When he was 13, his father retired and Tetsuzo moved with his family to his father's hometown, Masuda, Shimane Prefecture. He studied at the Prefectural Masuda Agricultural and Forestry High School. His favorite school subjects were mathematics and geometry; in these subjects, he always scored As on his school report.
He was an active and nimble boy. He joined a school club brass band as a trumpeter. Another hobby was growing plants and flowers. He helped local fishermen in the fishing season, going out to the sandy beach early in the morning and driving fish into the nets. He talked down to his teachers sometimes in discussions, which was very impolite for a school student in pre-war Japan. He was regarded as the most opinionated student in his school.
Starting military career
Iwamoto started his military career in 1934 after he graduated the school at 18. Following the advice from his parents to study while young, Tetsuzo left for a large city where he was supposed to take a college entrance examination. He, however, secretly applied for and passed the examination for acceptance as an Imperial Japanese naval airman 4th class, and was promoted to 3rd class 5 months later. His parents were very disappointed, for they became reliant upon Tetsuzo rather than his eldest brother, who was already studying at some university in a large city and would not return to Masuda.
In 1936, when he was a naval mechanic 2nd class and a crewman on the light aircraft carrier Ryūjō, he studied hard and passed the difficult IJNAS exam, taken by thousands of applicants. He was enrolled in the class 34th Sōju-Renshūsei (Sōren means flight trainee program) for naval petty officers and sailors. He graduated as one of the select 26 young aviators of the class 34th Sōju-Renshūsei (flight trainee program) in December of that year.
On April 4, 1936, he was sent to Kasumigaura-Ku (Kasumigaura FR(AG)) as a probationer in the class 34th Sōju-Renshūsei (flight trainee program), then on April 28, formally joined Kasumigaura-Ku. While his training going on November 1, 1936, he was promoted to naval mechanic 1st class. Finally on December 26, he graduated 34th class of Sōju-Renshūsei, was promoted to airman 1st class (old rank name of pre-war Japan, equivalent to senior airman). During flight training school at the Tomobe branch of Kasumigaura-Ku (Kasumigaura FR(AG)), his fighter course instructor was the well-known Chitoshi Isozaki.
In December 1936. Iwamoto entered Saeki Kōkūtai (a Kōkūtai was a Naval Air Group, whether being based at land or on board a carrier) for 6 months of advanced training (termed extended education), finished and next entered Omura Kōkūtai on July 16, 1937. He had hard training there every day from senior pilots including Air Petty Officer 1st class Toshio Kuroiwa (rank grade was at that time), who was the IJNAS legendary dogfight master pilot. Tetsuzo Iwamoto (called Tetsu in short from his senior pilots) had to wait for his debut until February 10, 1938.
China front
Tetsuzo's ability as a fighter pilot was recognized by all on his first air mission with the 13th Flying Group on February 25, 1938, over Nanchang, China.
After combat training, on February 10, 1938, Tetsuzō Iwamoto was led by his leader APO 1/C Toshio Kuroiwa, flying for two and a quarter hours over the China Sea from Omura Airbase at Kyūshū Japan to the airfield outside of Nanjing China.
His squadron on the Chinese frontline was the 13th Flying Group Fighter Squadron. This Flying Group was highly regarded and was famed as the Nango Fighter Squadron, named after its former squadron leader, Mochifumi Nango, who had showed considerable courage and conspicuous leadership.
Iwamoto's first combat came on February 25, 1938, over Nanchang. His squadron's fighters escorted bombers Type 96 land-based attack aircraft. Chinese fighters attacked, and the squadron's leader Lieutenant Takuma was lost on this mission.
Iwamoto described his first combat in his notes. During the escort mission, his squadron was intercepted by sixteen I-15s and I-16s at an altitude of 5000 meters. Iwamoto claimed 4 victories (1 probable) in the combat. He secured his first victory by firing when within 50m of the enemy fighter. He first saw white smoke, then the enemy burned up and crashed. He was then at an altitude of 4000 m. When he looked back, there was an enemy fighter just behind him. He instantly made a Split S maneuver and narrowly escaped.
He got his second victory against an I-15. He saw it below him, turned and attacked from its 6 o'clock high. When it was hit, it climbed sharply and went spinning downward out of control and crashed into the ground. He kept his altitude of 4,000 m. He got an I-16 at the top of its roll in his gunsight and fired a burst, its engine burning and out of control; Tetsuzo lost sight of it before it crashed, and he reported this as probable. Another I-15 came down to him from 12 o'clock ahead. Both made a climb and were soon in a dogfight. The I-15 tried to break free of him and made a straight dive. That action made it easier for Tetsuzo to aim. He downed this I-15 on farmland near the airfield. He was flying at an altitude of 2000 m.
Above him, many enemy fighters were maneuvering. He found one of them coming down with landing gear down. He chased it to an altitude of 200 m and fired a burst. The I-16 was surprised and made a Split S maneuver, but crashed at a corner of the airfield. This was his 4th victory.
Anti-aircraft guns started firing heavily, and he found himself in an intense barrage of flak. Rushing to escape at full throttle with a number of enemy fighters behind him, he succeeded in returning safely from the battlefield. His leader Kuroiwa had already returned to the Wuhu airfield, Anhui China, waiting for his return. Kuroiwa scolded Tetsu severely for the rash attacks he made on the day.
The 13th Flying Group Fighter Squadron was merged with the 12th Fighter Squadron on March 22, 1938, where Type 96 carrier fighters for 1st Chutai had landing gear painted in red and were called Red legs squadron while 2nd Chutai had gear painted in blue and were called Blue legs squadron.
Iwamoto was awarded the citation of flying group Cmdr Tsukahara for his extreme courage and conspicuous gallantry in action above and beyond the call of duty as a fighter pilot against intense Chinese air force on April 29, 1938. He made 82 sorties and 14 victories credited in the China front. Tetsuzō Iwamoto became the top IJNAS ace. His activities subsequently earned him Order of the Golden Kite – 5th class recommendation in 1940.
In September 1938, 22-year-old Iwamoto was ordered back to Japan, where he became a member of the Saiki Air Group and appointed to a training staff.
His flight log
Flying Technique: Class-A of IJNAS
Flight hours: over 8,000 hrs in March 1944
(net hours, not tripled as with a US single-seated fighter pilot. It was very unusual among IJNAS, IJAAS fighter pilots, although it was usual over 10,000 flying hours among the multi-seated aircraft IJNAS, IJAAS veteran pilots.)
Oceanic Transition: possible, navigating and leading his fighter chutai (without Radar)
Instrument Flight: possible
Night Flight: possible
Single-seat Fighter reconnaissance and attack mission across night ocean: possible
Night landing: possible with simple approach lighting system
Night carrier landing: possible with approach path indicator lights
Only experienced fighter pilots in the IJNAS could execute instrument flight with their single-seat fighter aircraft on combat missions; few IJNAS officer pilots could fly on instruments.
Tactics
Single to single dogfight tactic – from losing to winning
Quick roll (Roll Senpō)
(up and down quick roll tactic, skidding sideway (sudden decelerate) within 1/2 quick roll to forward the opponent aircraft on one's tail and get tail shot position of it. Cmdr Takeo Shibata promoted, his men developed and taught him.)
Corkscrew loop (Hineri-Komi Senpō)
(short-cut or twist-in loop tactic, skidding loop. Lieutenant Isamu Mochizuki's special, Section leader and Warrant Officer Toshio Kuroiwa trained him.)
Yo-yo turn (Suichoku-Senkai Kasoku Senpō)
(Lt. JG Sadaaki Akamatsu's special at China front. )
Formation tactics –
Two groups linked formation attack
one section plays offence, zooming and diving formation attack, another section plays defense, positioned on the higher altitude to cover and support the offence section.
Keeping his groups underneath thick clouds to hide his formation and waiting until the small number of opponent aircraft group coming down, then diving and zooming attack with all in formation.
Attacking the opponent groups after their mission over and on the way to the waiting circle, in a group to fly back across the distance range over the sea. This tactics was taken when his group had much fewer aircraft.
No.3 Aerial Bomb attack tactic –
Twelve o'clock high vertical dive attack from the front top in inverted flight (Haimen Suichoku Kōka Senpō)
Almost vertical diving (about 60 degree) attack because the 30 kg No. 3 Aerial Bomb needs the releasing speed over 280 knots to work timer correctly for 1st small explosion.
Inverted flight at the starting point because Zero Fighter could not keep steep angle while diving due to its excellent flight stability.
Aerial victories claimed in his diary
(World War II, 8 December 1941 – July 1942, April 1943 – 15 August 1945, Allied U.S. Army, Navy, Marine, Royal Navy, Australia, New Zealand)
F4F victories – 7 (Coral Sea, 8 May 1942; Rabaul, late 1943 – 10AM 19 February 1944 the escort fighters of Martin flying boat)
P-38 victories – 4 (Rabaul, late 1943 – 1944)
F4U victories – 48; unconfirmed 1 (Rabaul, late 1943 – February 1944; Mobara-airbase outskirts of Tokyo, Japan, February 16, 1945; Operation Kikusui (Imperial Chrysanthemum on the Water – divine wind), Okinawa, March 10 – June 24, 1945). This is more than 1 in 4 of all F4U air-to-air losses during the Second World War.
P-39 victories – 2 (Rabaul, late 1943)
P-40 victory – 1 (Rabaul, late 1943)
F6F victories – 29 (Rabaul, late 1943 - Feb. 1944; Truk 28–29 April 1944; Operation Kikusui, Okinawa, March 10 – June 15, 1945)
P-47 victory – 1 (Rabaul, late 1943 - 1944)
P-51 victory – 1 (Rabaul, AM 19 February 1944, the Allied 2nd air-raid of the day, recognized as the latest-style escort fighters)
British "Spitfire" (= Hurricane) – 4; burned on the ground 2 (Indian Ocean, 9 April 1942)
SBD victories – 48; unconfirmed 7 (Coral Sea, 8 May 1942; Rabaul, late 1943 – February 1944; Truk 28, 29 April 1944; Battle off Formosa, 12 October 1944)
SBD w/No.3 Aerial Bomb victories – 30 (Rabaul, late 1943 – 1944)
TBF victories – 5; unconfirmed 19 (Rabaul, late 1943 – 1110 19 February 1944, the Allied 6th and the 3rd final air-raid of the day to Rabaul)
SB2C victories – 5 (Rabaul, late 1943 – 1944)
B-25 victories – 8 (Rabaul, late 1943 0900 19 February 1944, the Allied 4th air-raid of the day)
B-26 victories – 2 (Rabaul, late 1943 - 1944)
B-24 victories – 6; w/No. 3 Aerial Bomb victories (SH) 24, damaged 2 (Truk, 6 March – June 1944, confirmed by ground members)
B-29 victory – 1 (Kagoshima, Kyushu, Japan, April 1945)
PBY5A flying boat victory – (SH) 1 (Indian Sea, April 5, 1942)
Martin Mariner flying boat victory – (SH) 1 (Rabaul, 10AM 19 February 1944, interlude between Allied air-raids of the day, escorted by 12 F4Fs)
Strafed Destroyers – 3 (Rapopo Rabaul, Night February 5, 1944)
Strafed Landing Craft – some hundreds (Kerama islands, Okinawa, night March 26, 1945)
Strafed Airfields – Lae, Eastern New Guinea, January 23, 1942; Torokina, Bougainville, Solomons, night 1944)
Promotions
from the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia
Sailor Fourth Class (Seaman Recruit) – June 1, 1934
Sailor Third Class (Seaman) – November 15, 1934
Sailor Second Class (Able Seaman) – November 2, 1935
Sailor First Class (Leading Seaman) – December 26, 1935
Petty Officer Third Class – May 1, 1938
Petty Officer Second Class (Petty Officer) – November 1, 1939
Petty Officer First Class (Chief Petty Officer) – May 1, 1941
Chief Petty Officer (regrading of Petty Officer First Class) – November 1, 1942
Commissioned an Ensign – November 1, 1944
Promoted to Sub-Lieutenant upon retirement – September 5, 1945
Awards
from the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia
Order of the Golden Kite, Fifth Class – August 1, 1942
Post-war life
The Allied Occupation Forces searched for war criminals in the Japanese Officer Corps. Iwamoto was summoned twice for questioning to Douglas MacArthur's Allied GHQ office in Tokyo. Although he managed to avoid being declared a war criminal, he was nevertheless blacklisted from public sector employment. Managers of nongovernmental businesses and local factories in his hometown also did not dare to employ him, in order to comply with the wishes of the new Allied GHQ. In general, anyone who had been an officer in the IJA or IJN was disliked by the Allied Occupation Forces.
Japanese journalists who had promoted Japanese militarism campaign during the war started a radio program of anti-militarism postwar called Shin-Sō wa Kō Da ("The Truth Is This"). The program was initiated by GHQ and it considered people such as Iwamoto the cat's-paws of militarism.
Iwamoto struggled to survive until the San Francisco Peace Conference was held, after which, in the spring of 1952, the Allied Occupation Forces finally left Japan.
In 1952, Iwamoto finally obtained employment at the Masuda spinning mill of Daiwa Bōseki (since renamed to "Daiwabō" Co., Ltd, 大和紡績 ).
In the summer of 1953, Iwamoto developed a stomach ache. A surgeon examined him and diagnosed enteritis. It was found later to be appendicitis. After a series of operations, he complained of a backache. Doctors decided to operate on him again. For reasons which are not entirely clear, the surgical team decided to remove three or four ribs without anesthesia. This led to sepsis.
Iwamoto died on 20 May 1955, at the age of just 38 years old. His wife recalled his final words: "When I get well, I want to fly again."
Notes
References
Movie
Nippon Eiga-sha, Feb.16, 1944, Nippon News No.194 Solomon no Gekisen Nankai-Kessenjo (means, Southern Ocean Battle Fields of Solomon)
Nippon Eiga-sha, Feb.2, 1944, Nippon News No.192 Rabaul (means, Fortress Rabaul)
1916 births
1955 deaths
Japanese naval aviators
Japanese World War II flying aces
Deaths from sepsis
Infectious disease deaths in Japan
Imperial Japanese Navy officers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20Cry%20Campaign
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Battle Cry Campaign
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The Battle Cry Campaign was an organizing initiative of a now-defunct parachurch organization known as Teen Mania Ministries. This initiative, started in 2005 and headed by Teen Mania founder Ron Luce, had an evangelical Christian orientation; it primarily sought to influence American and Canadian social and political culture. Major backers included prominent evangelical leaders Joyce Meyer, Chuck Colson, Pat Robertson, Josh McDowell, and Jack Hayford.
Purpose and goals
The basic purpose of the Battle Cry Campaign, as described in its promotional materials and events, was to ensure that Christianity survived in America by redefining society:
"Christianity in America won't survive another decade... unless we do something now."
"Our nation is at a crossroads. The path America is currently headed towards is a future where Christianity may not survive."
"You are invited... to join in an effort to redirect the way America is headed.
The urgency of this "Wake Up Call" was based on the assertion that then-current trends among teenagers would result in an inevitable decline in the number of "Bible-based believers:"
"The evidence shows that if current evangelism trends prevail, only 4 percent of them [American teenagers] will stand firm for Jesus by the time they become the decision makers of our nation."
The fundamental goal of the campaign was the recruitment of 100,000 churches to implement a multifaceted campaign to promote youth commitment and involvement in church programs.
"The goal is 100,000 churches fully engaged in reaching this generation by doubling and discipling their youth group each year for the next 5 years."
Other notable aspects of the Battle Cry Campaign involved other church and political leaders as "BattleCry Partners," the then-existing arena events and other programs offered by Teen Mania Ministries, the battlecry.com website, and a "legislative strategy engaging lawmakers to protect our teens."
Major tenets
The Battle Cry Campaign maintained that "for the first time ever," "sexualized culture," "point and click pornography," and young people being "saturated with media influence" spelled doom for Christianity in America. It also cited gay marriage and other "culture war" issues as matters of current and future concern:
"Our current society with 35% baby boomers as bible-based believers: increasingly perverted TV, film, music and video games, proliferation of Internet pornography, rise of activist government officials promoting gay marriage, attempts to remove the Ten Commandments from public buildings and attempts to remove God from the Pledge of Allegiance."
"What does a nation with 4% evangelical Christians look like? Netherlands legalized euthanasia, Nudity in newspapers in England, Scotland's consenting age is 14 years old, Pastor arrested for preaching biblical perspective on homosexuality."
The campaign focused on corporations and media outlets for targeting young people with advertising and programming depicting content often labeled objectionable by evangelical leaders:
"A stealthy enemy has infiltrated our country and is preying upon the hearts and minds of 33 million American teens. Corporations, media conglomerates and purveyors of popular culture have spent billions to seduce and enslave our youth."
"This generation views 16 to 17 hours of television each week and sees on average 14,000 sexual scenes and references each year. That's more than 38 references every day."
"This generation spends three hours a day online and is the first to grow up with point-and-click pornography. Almost 90 percent of teens have viewed pornography online at one of the 300,000 adult websites, most while doing homework."
"More than 25 percent of teen-targeted radio segments contain sexual content; 42 percent of the top selling CDs contain sexual content"
When interviewed at a Battle Cry event in 2007, Ron Luce condemned "purveyors of popular culture" as "the enemy," who according to Luce are "terrorists, virtue terrorists, that are destroying our kids... they're raping virgin teenage America on the sidewalk, and everybody's walking by and acting like everything's OK. And it's just not OK." Battle Cry materials contain charges that a "sexualized culture" is the product of "media people" who are the "virtue terrorists" responsible for sexual content, naming examples such as "MTV, VH1, Desperate Housewives, and movies like ."
Other encouraged tenets included submission to certain kinds of authority:
"We will respect the authorities placed in our lives, even though some may not live as honorably as they should."
"We refuse to be led by those who are morally bankrupt."
Extending from Biblical analogies and characters used as role models, the campaign used narratives, metaphor and scripted staged presentations including images of weapons, pervasive use of a red pennant, and terms from a war lexicon such as "God's Army", "enemy" and "battle." It used current and former members of the U.S. armed forces prominently in the Battle Cry stadium events, encouraging young people to become "the warriors in this battle."
In "Battle Cry for a Generation," a book released at the start of the campaign, Ron Luce wrote, "This is war. And Jesus invites us to get into the action, telling us that the violent — the 'forceful' ones — will lay hold of the kingdom." At a Cleveland "Acquire the Fire" event, he said, "The devil hates us, and we gotta be ready to fight and not be these passive little lukewarm, namby-pamby, kum-ba-yah, thumb-sucking babies that call themselves Christians. Jesus? He got mad! ... I want an attacking church!"
Biblical passages reflecting this militarism that were often referenced in "Battle Cry" and "Acquire the Fire" events and promotional gatherings during the first year of the campaign included the following:
: "Praise be to the LORD my Rock, who trains my hands for war, my fingers for battle."
: "Endure hardship with us like a good soldier of Christ Jesus."
: "Fight the good fight of the faith."
: "Put on the full armor of God so that you can take your stand against the devil's schemes."
"From the days of John the Baptist until now, the kingdom of heaven has been forcefully advancing, and forceful men lay hold of it."
, the stories known as "The Levite and His Concubine" and "Israel’s War with Benjamin."
Programs, activities and methods
Mass events in stadiums and arenas. "Battle Cry" stadium event locations in 2006 included San Francisco at AT&T Park, Detroit at Ford Field, and Philadelphia at Wachovia Spectrum arena. In 2007, the "Battle Cry" event returned to San Francisco in March, and to Detroit in April. A third event, originally scheduled for the M&T Bank Stadium in Baltimore, was held at the Nissan Pavilion in Bristow, Virginia in May 2007. The 2008 events, titled "BattleCry Recreate," were held in East Rutherford, New Jersey, Dallas, Texas, and Winston-Salem, North Carolina, in February and March.
Pre-event rallies at places symbolic of governmental power. These smaller rallies in 2006, each with a few hundred participants, included San Francisco City Hall, Detroit City Hall, and Independence Visitor Center, in the area of historic sites associated with the American Revolution in Philadelphia. In following years, rallies were held again at San Francisco City Hall in March 2007 and in Times Square on February 8, 2008.
Battle Cry Leadership Summits. Advertised as the "Wake Up Call," these meetings, featuring Ron Luce and a guest speaker, were scheduled for 44 cities in the United States and Canada through the fall of 2006. Scheduled guest speakers in that tour included Blaine Bartel (15 cities), Ted Haggard (10 cities), Tommy Barnett (7 cities), Jack Hayford, Jerry Falwell and Wellington Boone. Materials distributed at these meetings presented the Battle Cry Campaign plan, recruited churches and individuals to the campaign, and promoted other Teen Mania Ministries programs.
Lobbying and gatherings intended to influence legislation and governmental policy. The initial legislative strategy of the Battle Cry Campaign was "to inform lawmakers of the plight of this generation and lobby them to pass legislation that protects our teens from the dangers they face while online and from advertising and other electronic media."
"Operation Truth," a rally co-sponsored by Battle Cry and the Christian Action Alliance, was announced for August 6, 2006, at the California State Capitol. One of the announced objectives of this event was "to publicly let legislators know that Christians will not stand idly by while being bombarded with legislation that attacks the core values of believers." Examples of the legislation that motivated the organizers to protest, according to the flyer announcing the rally, included Senate Bill 1437 and Assembly Bill 606 of the 2005–2006 legislative session. These bills were intended to prohibit discrimination in California public schools on the basis of gender identity and sexual orientation, and to prohibit school activities and instructional content that reflects adversely on persons on the basis of their sexual orientation. Joel Johnson, who was then a frequent co-host of Teen Mania's "Acquire the Fire" arena events, had been announced as an "Operation Truth" speaker. (Similar bills were eventually signed into law by Governor Schwarzenegger in October 2007.)
Letter to Presidential Candidates. In a letter to U.S. presidential candidates released to the press on February 1, 2008, Ron Luce invited candidates to participate in or to address the pre-event rally in Times Square on February 8. The letter asked that candidates consider the priorities of "Teen Mania teens," that "they are looking to you to carry their priorities forward to Washington and the White House." Enclosed with the letter was a "Top 8 Teen Concerns in '08" which through the posing of eight leading questions proposes governmental action against media content, abortion and sex education.
Rally in support of California Proposition 8. Ron Luce was one of the leaders of a youth rally, "The Fine Line," held in support of California Proposition 8 on October 1, 2008 at Rock Church in San Diego. Proposition 8 is an initiative that would constitutionally prohibit same-sex marriage in California. Luce presented the "8 for 8" action plan at the conclusion of the event.
Message encouraging support of California Proposition 8. On October 30, 2008, Teen Mania distributed an e-mail message to supporters reminding readers of the Battle Cry rallies in San Francisco, "when a culture war was stirred up right there on the street in front of City Hall," casting those Battle Cry and similar events as the reason why "important issues are coming to the forefront and being decided right now." The featured battle "still being fought at the highest levels of California's government" centered on the definition of marriage contained in Proposition 8. The message included this quote from San Diego pastor Jim Garlow: "The definition of marriage is one of these 'tipping points.' No single social issue has threatened to forever muzzle Bible believing Christians like this contest. One person has astutely observed that 'we cannot win the culture war merely on Prop 8, but we can lose it on Prop 8.'" Readers were asked "to continue to get involved however possible to protect the Biblical view of marriage in America" and were directed to iprotectmarriage.com, a website that is part of the youth outreach of the "Yes on 8" campaign. The e-mail was signed by Kevin Benson, "Director of the BattleCry Campaign."
Battle Cry 33 Affiliated Partner Churches. As of December 2006, 1077 churches and ministries were listed on the battlecry.com website as partner churches of the Battle Cry Campaign. "33" refers to 33 million American teens.
Marketing program. Battle Cry was marketed as a brand by Tocquigny, an advertising and marketing agency in Austin, Texas. "Tocquigny will help the organization re-launch its Battle Cry brand with the goal of spreading its message to 31 million teens across America." Teen Mania paid Tocquigny $451,397 for consulting services during the first full year of the Battle Cry Campaign.
"Christian alternative to Myspace", battlecry.com ("Let MySpace be His space")
Controversy and criticism
The "4 percent panic attack"
Some critics maintained that the statistics used by Teen Mania to support its cause were suspect and exaggerated. Rick Lawrence, who for the previous 18 years had edited Group Magazine, a publication for youth pastors, coined the label "4 percent panic attack" as the title of an editorial in his magazine in which he outright calls this statistic a "lie:"
Lawrence went on to point out that the "4 percent" statistic originated in a 2003 report by Christian statistician George Barna, which is based on a very narrow definition of what defines an "evangelical" or "Bible-believing Christian." A Barna press release issued in December 2003 announced a study that "showed only 4% of adults have a biblical worldview as the basis of their decision-making." Lawrence took issue with Barna's attempt to measure the number of teens who apply "biblical principles" to "every decision" they make:
Christian Smith, a professor of sociology at the University of Notre Dame and a specialist in the study of American evangelicals, said he was skeptical of the "4 percent" statistic and that that figure was inconsistent with research he had conducted and reviewed.
San Francisco demonstrations, city resolution and noise issue
Two weeks before the first Battle Cry stadium event in San Francisco, Teen Mania announced a pre-event rally to be held on the steps of City Hall on March 24, 2006. In the cover letter, signed by Ron Luce and sent to registered participants in the stadium event, the significance of City Hall as the location where gay marriages had been held two years before was explicitly pointed out:
City Hall is significant to many San Francisco residents for a different reason: it was where the city's first openly gay supervisor, Harvey Milk, and Mayor George Moscone, were assassinated in 1978. Ron Luce has said that, at the time of the rally, he was unaware of the historic and social relevance of the City Hall site.
Local activists organized a counter-demonstration of about 50 people to greet the Battle Cry participants. State Assemblyman Mark Leno, D-San Francisco, addressed the counter-demonstrators, saying that while such "fundamentalists" may be small in number,
"they're loud, they're obnoxious, they're disgusting, and they should get out of San Francisco."
Teen Mania later prominently quoted Leno as part of a postcard sent to San Francisco churches to promote the 2007 Battle Cry stadium event.
Earlier that week, the city's Board of Supervisors had passed a resolution "condemning upcoming rally to be held by anti-abortion groups in front of City Hall." The resolution called the rally an "act of provocation when a right-wing Christian fundamentalist group brings their anti-gay and anti-choice agenda of intolerance to the steps of San Francisco's City Hall" and that the presence of Battle Cry participants at City Hall "should be taken by no one as an official or semi-official sanctioning of their rally nor of their message by the elected officials of San Francisco."
This resolution was then cited by various commentators, including Fox News Channel's Bill O'Reilly and the city's leading newspaper, as evidence that the city itself was being intolerant of Christians or was attempting to silence the Battle Cry participants. Elizabeth Creely, a San Francisco activist with the Bay Area Coalition for Our Reproductive Rights, explained the purpose of the resolution this way:
Noise complaints from nearby residents received by the city due to the early Saturday morning start time became an issue during the preparations for the return of the Battle Cry event to AT&T Park in March 2007. According to the minutes of the city Entertainment Commission hearing regarding Teen Mania's application for a required loudspeaker permit,
the director of event production for AT&T Park had advised Teen Mania in advance that noise had been an issue and "advised them to start any musical component after 10:00 A.M. due to complaints last year." The Commission approved the permit with the stipulation that amplified music not be used before 10:00 A.M. on Saturday. In a notice sent to Battle Cry participants, Teen Mania described this action as a "last minute noise ordinance" imposed by the city's Board of Supervisors, and while the notice began by saying "we want to
respect and honor our lawmakers" it offered a sample letter to be sent to the Board that included the following:
The event began Saturday morning as originally scheduled, without amplified music, through the use of radios throughout the crowd tuned to a broadcast of the event on a local Christian radio station.
Other criticism
The Hamilton, Ontario "Acquire the Fire" event in October 2006 prompted some commentary on Teen Mania's methods and message in the region's media. Toronto Star writer Jen Gerson began her account of the event this way:
In an interview with a CBC Television reporter, Bob Shantz, former University of Toronto chaplain, commented on the militarism inherent in Teen Mania's programs:
In an interview with Bob Garfield on On the Media, Jeff Sharlet described a Battle Cry commercial in which replicated teens march off to war:
Mark Cox, a pastor at Bethel Christian Church in the Mission District of San Francisco, told a San Francisco Chronicle reporter that he attended one "Acquire the Fire" event and would never return, commenting:
See also
Teen Mania Ministries
Ron Luce
Notes and references
External links
Battle Cry web site
Teen Mania Ministries corporate website
Teen Mania Canada
Acquire the Evidence - Website "responding to Teen Mania's 'BattleCry' Campaign"
Evangelical parachurch organizations
Christian organizations established in 2005
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchess%20Cecilie%20of%20Mecklenburg-Schwerin
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Duchess Cecilie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
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Duchess Cecilie Auguste Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (20 September 1886 – 6 May 1954) was the last German Crown Princess and Crown Princess of Prussia as the wife of Wilhelm, German Crown Prince, the son of German Emperor Wilhelm II.
Cecilie was a daughter of Frederick Francis III, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna of Russia. She was brought up with simplicity, and her early life was peripatetic, spending summers in Mecklenburg and the rest of the year in the south of France. After the death of her father, she traveled every summer between 1898 and 1904 to her mother's native Russia. On 6 June 1905, she married German Crown Prince Wilhelm. The couple had four sons and two daughters. Cecilie, tall and statuesque, became popular in Germany for her sense of style. However, her husband was a womanizer and the marriage was unhappy.
After the fall of the German monarchy, at the end of World War I, Cecilie and her husband lived mostly apart. During the Weimar Republic and the Nazi period, Cecilie lived a private life mainly at Cecilienhof Palace in Potsdam. With the advance of the Soviet troops, she left the Cecilienhof in February 1945, never to return. She settled in Bad Kissingen until 1952 when she moved to an apartment in the Frauenkopf district of Stuttgart. In 1952, she published a book of memoirs. She died two years later.
Early years
Born on 20 September 1886 in Schwerin, Cecilie was the youngest daughter of Frederick Francis III, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Grand Duchess Anastasia Mikhailovna of Russia. She spent most of her childhood in Schwerin, at the royal residences of Ludwigslust Palace and the Gelbensande hunting lodge, only a few kilometres from the Baltic Sea coast. Her father suffered badly from asthma and the wet damp cold climate of Mecklenburg was not good for his health. As a result, Cecilie spent a large amount of time with her family in Cannes in the south of France, favoured at the time by European royalty, including some whom Cecilie met such as Empress Eugénie and her future husband's great-uncle, Edward VII.
During the winter visit of 1897, Cecilie's sister, Alexandrine, met her future husband, Crown Prince Christian, later Christian X of Denmark, shortly before the death of their father at the age of 46. After returning to Schwerin, Cecilie spent time with her widowed mother in Denmark. The wedding of her sister took place in Cannes in April 1898. After the death of her father, she traveled every summer, from 1898 to 1904, visiting her relatives in Russia. Cecilie lived there in Mikhailovskoe on Kronstadt Bay, the country home of her maternal grandfather, Grand Duke Michael Nikolaevich of Russia.
Engagement
During the wedding festivities of her brother Frederick Francis IV, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin in Schwerin in June 1904, the 17-year-old Duchess Cecilie got to know her future husband, Wilhelm, German Crown Prince. Kaiser Wilhelm II had sent his eldest son to the festivities as his personal representative. Taller than most women of her time at 182 centimetres (over 5'11"), Cecilie was as tall as the German Crown Prince. Wilhelm was struck by her great beauty, and her dark hair and eyes. On 4 September 1904, the young couple celebrated their engagement at the Mecklenburg-Schwerin hunting lodge, Gelbensande. The Kaiser as an engagement present had a wooden residence built nearby for the couple. On 5 September the first official photos of the couple were taken.
Wedding
The wedding of Duchess Cecilie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and the German Crown Prince Wilhelm took place on 6 June 1905 in Berlin. Arriving from Schwerin at Berlin's Lehrter Station, the future Crown Princess was greeted on the platform with a gift of dark red roses. She was greeted at Bellevue Palace by the entire German Imperial Family and later made a joyeuse entrée through the Brandenburg Gate to a gun salute in the Tiergarten. Crowds lined the sides of the Unter den Linden as she passed on the way to the Berlin Royal Palace. Kaiser Wilhelm II greeted her at the palace and conducted her to the Knight's Hall where over fifty guests from different European royal houses awaited the young bride including Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, as well as representatives from Denmark, Italy, Belgium, Portugal and the Netherlands. On her wedding day, Kaiser Wilhelm II presented his daughter-in-law with the Order of Louise.
The wedding ceremony took place in the Royal Chapel and also the nearby Berlin Cathedral. The royal couple received as wedding presents jewellery, silverware and porcelain. At the wish of the bride, Richard Wagner's famous wedding march from Lohengrin was played along with music from The Meistersinger from Nuremberg conducted by Richard Strauss. On her wedding day, Duchess Cecilie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin became Her Imperial and Royal Highness The German Crown Princess and Crown Princess of Prussia. She was expected to one day become German Empress and Queen of Prussia.
German Crown Princess
As German Crown Princess, Cecilie quickly became one of the most beloved members of the German Imperial House. She was known for her elegance and fashion consciousness. It was not long before her fashion style was copied by many women throughout the German Empire. After the end of the wedding festivities, the German Crown Princely couple made their summer residence at the Marble Palace in Potsdam. Every year at the beginning of the court season in January, the couple would return to the Crown Prince Palace in Berlin on Unter den Linden. Cecilie's first child was born on 4 July 1906 and given the traditional Hohenzollern name of Wilhelm. At the time, the German monarchy appeared to be very secure.
Nonetheless in private she had a fiery temper, not countenancing contradiction. Although in public the marriage of the Crown Prince and Princess appeared to be perfect, cracks quickly appeared due to the Crown Prince's wandering eye and controlling behaviour. Very early on, he began a series of affairs that strained the relationship between husband and wife - on one occasion announcing to his wife his latest escapade, whereupon she thought of drowning herself.
In spite of her husband's unfaithfulness, however, Cecilie had given birth to six children by 1917. They were:
Prince Wilhelm of Prussia (1906–1940); married Dorothea von Salviati, had issue.
Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia, Head of the House of Hohenzollern (1907–1994); married Kira Kirillovna of Russia, had issue.
Prince Hubertus of Prussia (1909–1950); married Baroness Maria von Humboldt-Dachroeden, no issue; married Princess Magdalena Reuss of Köstritz, had issue.
Prince Friedrich Georg of Prussia (1911–1966); married Lady Brigid Guinness, had issue.
Princess Alexandrine of Prussia (1915–1980), who had Down's syndrome.
Princess Cecilie of Prussia (1917–1975); married American architect Clyde Kenneth Harris, had issue.
She herself developed a passionate relationship with Baron Otto von Dungern (1873-1969), her husband's aide de camp - attempting, once, to get into bed with Dungern. On discovering that Dungern was also having an affair with another woman at court, she confessed to her husband who told him to resign with the words: "Only my consideration for his imperial majesty (his father, Kaiser William II) prevents me from grinding you into the dust."
Impact as German Crown Princess
Cecilie made considerable impact in a number of areas including women's education. Several schools and roads were named after her. On 6 December 1906, the German Crown Princess christened at the Stettin Vulkan Works the Lloyd Steamship, 'SS Kronprinzessin Cecilie'. For Cecilie, who had a great passion for the sea since childhood, the gesture brought her great joy and honour. Towards the end of 1910, the German Crown Prince couple undertook a tour to Ceylon, India and Egypt. Cecilie's life back in Berlin was made up of a constant round of royal duties attending military parades, gala state banquets, official ceremonies and other courtly expectations including state visits to foreign courts, including that of the Austrian Emperor Franz Josef in Vienna. In May 1911, Cecilie with the Crown Prince visited the Russian Imperial Court in St. Petersburg. The visit coincided with the birthday of the Russian Tsar. A visit to London to King George V and Queen Mary at Buckingham Palace followed in June 1911. The London illustrated magazine, 'The Sphere' reported the visit as "our beloved visitors for the coronation". Queen Mary was particularly fond of the imperial couple and maintained contact with the German Crown Princess until her death in 1953. The 1911 visit to London was Cecilie's last as representative of the German Empire.
Revolution and the overthrow of the German monarchy
The political and economic situation in the last year of the war became more and more hopeless. On 6 November 1918, the new German imperial Chancellor, Prince Max of Baden, met with Minister Wilhelm Solf to discuss the future of the German Empire. They were both of the opinion that the monarchy could only survive with the removal of the Kaiser and his son the Crown Prince and the setting up of a Regentship under the nominal rule of the young son of Crown Princess Cecilie. Such an idea quickly disappeared with Friedrich Ebert becoming Chancellor and a republic being declared a few days later. Both the Kaiser and the Crown Prince crossed the border to seek exile in the neutral Netherlands. The monarchy collapsed with the defeat of Germany at the end of the war. Cecilie with her young children was living in Potsdam during the revolutionary period. She had moved from her new home of Cecilienhof with her children to join her mother-in-law in the relative safety of the New Palace. It was here that the Empress Auguste Viktoria informed her daughter-in-law, "The revolution has broken out. The Kaiser has abdicated. The war is lost."
Life under the republic
The former German Crown Princess was nothing but realistic about the new political situation confronting her family and Germany. The former Empress went into exile to join her husband. The Crown Princess was quite prepared to do the same, but wanted to stay in Germany with her children if at all possible. This she was allowed to do and on 14 November, she quietly left the New Palace and returned to her private home of Cecilienhof. As a result of a change of circumstances, Cecilie reduced her household staff by 50%. Her children's tutor also left her service and as a result her two eldest sons, Princes Wilhelm and Louis Ferdinand, for the first time attended as day students at a nearby school. Cecilie had considerable sympathy for the plight of the German people. In reply to an address from the German Women's Union in Berlin, the former Crown Princess stated, "I need no sympathy. I have the beautiful situation that can befall any German woman, the education of my children as good German citizens."
Wilhelm was only allowed to return to Germany from his enforced exile in 1923. Before then visits to him were difficult. Fortunately for the Hohenzollern family they still possessed considerable private holdings in Germany due to a provisional agreement worked out between the Hohenzollern family and the Prussian state in November 1920. Castle Oels, a castle with 10,000 hectares of workable land in Silesia, now in modern day Poland, provided substantial income for Cecilie's family. In the absence of her husband, Cecilie became the leading figure in the once ruling House of Hohenzollern. The former Crown Princess was under no illusions that the empire would be restored, unlike her father-in-law exiled in Doorn in the Netherlands. His return was completely impossible. With the election of Gustav Stresemann as Chancellor of the Weimar Republic in August 1923, negotiations for the former Crown Prince commenced. On the evening of 13 November 1923, Cecilie met her husband at Castle Oels. The years of separation and the behavior of Wilhelm had made the marriage now merely one in name only, but Cecilie was determined to keep things together even at a distance. More and more she lived in Cecilienhof at Potsdam, while her husband lived in Silesia. The couple would come together when necessary for the sake of family unity for occasions such as family weddings, confirmation of children, christenings and funerals. In 1927, a final financial agreement was reached between the Hohenzollerns and the Prussian state. Cecilie remained active within several charity organizations such as the Queen Luise Fund, Chair of the Fatherland's Women Union and the Ladies of the Order of St. John, while keeping clear of any political involvement. With the coming to power of the National Socialist Party of Adolf Hitler in 1933, all such charitable organizations were dissolved.
Under Nazi German rule 1933-1939
During 1933–1945, Cecilie lived a private life at Cecilienhof in Potsdam. Her eldest son, Prince Wilhelm forfeited his position as possible heir when he married Dorothea von Salviati on 3 June 1933. This occurred as she was not from a suitable royal family. Even though the royal house was formally deposed, its strict house rules persisted. The former Crown Prince and Princess were more understanding of their son than the exiled Kaiser. Cecilie was not perturbed and made the best of the situation and was delighted when she became a grandmother for the first time on 7 June 1934. In 1935, Cecilie's second son worked, after studying economics and working for a time in the United States as a mechanic for Ford, with Lufthansa. Her third son, Hubertus, after spending a period of time farming joined the military and then the air force to become a pilot. The youngest son Friedrich went into business. In May 1938, Prince Louis Ferdinand married the Russian Grand Duchess Kira, daughter of the pretender to the Russian throne, Grand Duke Cyril Vladimirovich, at Cecilienhof. It would be the last great family occasion before the outbreak of war in September 1939.
World War II
A period of relative calm for Cecilie's family and for Germany came to an end with the outbreak of World War II in September 1939. Cecilie's 24-year-old nephew, Prince Oskar, fell as a casualty five days after the start of the invasion of Poland. More personal tragedy occurred when Prince Wilhelm was mortally wounded in battle at Valenciennes in France on 25 May 1940. He died on 26 May in a field hospital at Nivelle. His funeral took place in the Church of Peace at Potsdam on 28 May. Over 50,000 people lined the way to his final resting place in the Antique Temple near the remains of his grandmother, former Empress Auguste Viktoria. The huge turnout in respect for a Prince, who had died a hero's death, from the former ruling dynasty, alarmed and infuriated Adolf Hitler. As a result, no Prince from a former German dynasty was allowed to serve at the front and in 1943 Hitler ordered that they all be discharged from the armed forces.
In 1941, the former Kaiser Wilhelm II died. At the age of 55, Cecilie's husband became Head of the House of Hohenzollern. While under the monarchy this would have meant a great change for Cecilie and her husband, the change was potentially dangerous because of the leader of the Nazi German state. During this time, Cecilie and her husband increasingly retreated to Castle Oels to live a quiet life, far away from the dangers of Berlin. Even Potsdam, only 30 minutes away by train from the capital was too close for comfort. With the war going badly, Cecilie and her family left the advancing danger of the Soviet army to return to Potsdam where they celebrated Christmas in December 1944. It would be the last such occasion at her beloved home. In February 1945, Cecilie left Cecilienhof for the last time.
Final years
Cecilie fled the Red Army in February 1945 to the sanatorium of Dr. Paul Sotier (personal physician of Kaiser Wilhelm II) Fürstenhof in Bad Kissingen in Bavaria. On 20 September 1946, she celebrated her 60th birthday. She was joined on this occasion by her husband and some of their children. Wilhelm had settled into a small house in Hechingen. Tragedy struck again when yet another son, this time Prince Hubertus, died from appendicitis on 8 April 1950. In early 1951, the health of the former Crown Prince deteriorated and on 20 July he died. On 26 July, his funeral took place at Castle Hohenzollern where he was buried in the ground near an urn containing the ashes of the late Prince Hubertus. On the arm of her son, Prince Louis Ferdinand, Cecilie bade a final farewell to her husband. She remained in Bad Kissingen until 1952 when she moved to an apartment in the Frauenkopf district of Stuttgart.
In 1952, Cecilie's memoirs, 'Remembrances' were published. In an act of healing and friendship, the former Crown Princess Cecilie was received by King George V's widow, Queen Mary, in May 1952 during a visit to England. Cecilie visited for the first time to attend the christening of her granddaughter, Princess Victoria Marina of Prussia, the daughter of her son Prince Frederick. Tragedy once again struck when Cecilie's sister, the Danish Queen Mother, Queen Alexandrine died on 28 December of the same year. On 3 January 1953, Cecilie attended her funeral at Roskilde Cathedral in Denmark. From this time on, the former German Crown Princess never fully recovered. She managed to struggle on with the help of her family until 6 May 1954 when she died on a visit to Bad Kissingen. It was the 72nd birthday of her late husband. On 12 May 1954, her funeral took place and her remains were interred next to Crown Prince Wilhelm in the grounds of Castle Hohenzollern.
Ancestry
References
Sources
Cecilie, Crown Princess of Germany, 'My Memories of Imperial Russia', Royal Russia, No. 10, 2016.
Easton, Laird M., ed. and trans., Journey to the Abyss: The Diaries of Count Harry Kessler 1880–1918, New York, Vintage Books, 2013.
Kirschstein, Joerg, Kronprinzessin Cecilie: Eine Bildbiographie, Berlin, Quintessenz Verlags GmbH, 2004.
Zeepvat, Charlotte, 'The Other Anastasia: A Woman who Loved and Who Lived', Royalty Digest Quarterly, No. 2, 2006. ISSN 1653-5219
External links
1886 births
1954 deaths
People from Schwerin
House of Hohenzollern
Prussian princesses
Duchesses of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
Crown princesses
Grand Cordons of the Order of the Precious Crown
Daughters of monarchs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clothing%20laws%20by%20country
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Clothing laws by country
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Clothing laws vary considerably around the world. In most countries, there are no laws which prescribe what clothing is required to be worn. However, the community standards of clothing are set indirectly by way of prosecution of those who wear something that is not socially approved. Those people who wear insufficient clothing can be prosecuted in many countries under various offences termed indecent exposure, public indecency, nudity or other descriptions. Generally, these offences do not themselves define what is and what is not acceptable clothing to constitute the offence, and leave it to a judge to determine in each case.
Most clothing laws concern which parts of the body must not be exposed to view; there are exceptions. Some countries have strict clothing laws, such as in some Islamic countries. Other countries are more tolerant of non-conventional attire and are relaxed about nudity. Many countries have different laws and customs for men and women, what may be allowed or perceived often varies by gender.
Separate laws are usually in place to regulate obscenity, which includes certain depictions of people in various states of undress, and child pornography, which may include similar photographs of children.
In some countries, non-sexual toplessness or nudity is legal. However, private or public establishments can establish a dress code which requires visitors to wear prescribed clothing.
There are a variety of laws around the world which affect what people can and cannot wear. For example, some laws require a person in authority to wear the appropriate uniform. For example, a police officer on duty may be required to wear a uniform; and it can be illegal for the general public to wear a police officer's uniform. The same could apply to firefighters and other emergency personnel. In some countries, for example in Australia, the boy scouts uniform is also protected.
In most courts of law, lawyers and judges are required by law or custom to wear court dress, which may entail robes or traditional wigs.
In many countries, regulations require workers to wear protective clothing, such as safety helmets, shoes, vests, etc., as appropriate. The obligation is generally on employers to ensure that their workers wear the appropriate protective clothing. Similarly, health regulations may require those who handle food to wear hair covering, gloves and other clothing.
Governments can also influence standards of dress shown on television through their licensing powers.
In addition to nude beaches and similar exceptional locations, there are some public events in which nudity is tolerated more than usual, such as the naked bike rides held in several countries.
International laws and customs and culture
There are many specific circumstances where body parts have to be covered, often for safety or sanitary reasons.
Australia
In Australia, indecent exposure laws only refer to the genital area. However, many local councils impose their own rules, and have the power to ask topless people to leave an area. Additionally, women who go topless are sometimes slapped with more vague charges such as being a public nuisance, or offensive behaviour.
On public beaches, local bylaws are not heavily enforced, and women can often sunbathe topless without issues.
Breastfeeding in public is a legal right in Australia. Under the Sex Discrimination Act 1984, no business or service provider can discriminate against a breastfeeding woman.
Brazil
Ever since 1940, in the Title VI of the Penal Code, naming crimes against sexual dignity (until 2009 crimes against [social] conventions), the fourth chapter is dedicated to a crime named "public outrage [related] to modesty" (, ).
It is composed of two articles, Art. 233 "Obscene Act", "to practice an obscene act in a public place, or open or exposed to the public", punished with arrest of three months to one year or a fine; and Art. 234 "Obscene Written Piece or Object", to do, import, export, purchase or have in one's property, to ends of trade, distribution or public display, any written, drawn, painted, stamped or object piece of obscenity, punished with arrest of six months to one years or a fine.
It is often used against people who expose their nude bodies in public environments that were not warranted a license to cater to the demographic interested in such practice (the first such place was the Praia do Abricó in Rio de Janeiro, in 1994), even if no sexual action took place, and it may include, for example, a double standard for the chest area of women and men in which only women are penalized. Such a thing took place in the 2012 FEMEN protests in São Paulo.
Criticism
Pervasive points of criticism to the legislation have included:
They do not attack anyone's sexual dignity, instead causing outrage at best, but generally just extreme discomfort or embarrassment, that can be easily avoided through not looking to such a scene.
The Art. 234 is aside obsolete, unconstitutional, for the 1988 post-military dictatorship Constitution having in its Fifth Chapter: "[the people] are free to the expression of intellectual, artistic, scientific and communicative activity, independently of censorship and license", reason to which, instead of making it suffer penal restriction, gives any distribution of media the right to be fully exerted.
The flourishing Internet culture of Brazil, where such clearly banned media is freely shared in a public place, as well as its pornographic industry and sex shops.
Exceptions
Brazil has about 35 spaces open or mostly open to the public where it is possible to freely practice nudism, its sole public spaces being 8 beaches. They are not criminalized when the clothes-free area is private and away from a view from the street, or through legislation when the beaches are officiated by a municipal decree, for example. It has hosted the meeting of the International Federation of Naturism in 2008, and there is a growing interest in the practice.
Canada
In Canada, s.173 of the Criminal Code prohibits "indecent acts". There is no statutory definition in the Code of what constitutes an indecent act (other than that the exposure of the genitals for a sexual purpose to anyone under 16 years of age), so the decision of what state of undress is "indecent", and thereby unlawful, is left to judges to decide. Judges have held, for example, that nude sunbathing is not indecent. Also, streaking is similarly not regarded as indecent. Section 174 prohibits being "nude" in a public place or in public view without "a lawful excuse", but defines "nude" only as being "so clad as to offend against public decency or order". The courts have found that nude swimming is not offensive under this definition.
Toplessness is also not an indecent act under s.173. In 1991, Gwen Jacob was arrested for walking in a street in Guelph, Ontario, while topless. She was acquitted in 1996 by the Ontario Court of Appeal on the basis that the act of being topless is not in itself a sexual act or indecent. The case has been referred to in subsequent cases for the proposition that the mere act of public nudity is not sexual or indecent or an offence. Since then, the court ruling has been tested and upheld several times.
A Canadian legal advice web site observes, "Canada has a tangle of confusing and inconsistently-enforced nudity laws. ... The public nudity section is one of the few areas of the Criminal Code that requires the attorney general's consent to lay a charge, implying a certain grey area around what constitutes illegal nudity. According to the government's Public Prosecution Service, the attorney general's consent is needed for two reasons: to avoid the specific harm that could result from prosecuting an innocent person; and to avoid the general harm resulting from prosecuting a case that is not in the public interest.
Germany
Germany has a long history of allowing mixed sex public nudity in designated areas (e.g., beaches and parks). This was true before WWII, after WWII in both West and East Germany, and currently. Some of these areas are where clothing is optional and some are where clothing is forbidden (i.e., mandatory nudity). In non-designated areas, appearing nude in public "counts as a minor breach of the law. Prosecutions can follow if another citizen is offended, but few ever are."
India
In India, British colonial acts such as "indecent exposure", "public indecency", and so on, that involve exposure of a specific body part (genitals, buttocks, anus, nipples on women), a specific intention or effect (being sexually suggestive, offending or annoying observers) are illegal.
People in India have the right to wear any dress they like. The Constitution of India gives their citizens the right to wear anything as per their comfort.
Iran
Police and religious morality agencies have been punishing women and men on a daily basis since 1979. Following the dress code is required for buying public transport cards; signs noting this are required to be displayed in every public, private, and government service location.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, there is no specific law prohibiting nudity in public places. If a person is nude and also exhibiting lewd and lascivious, or obscene behaviour, then they may fall foul of obscenity laws.
The Police Offences Act 1908 prescribed imprisonment with hard labor for anyone who "willfully and obscenely exposes his person in any public place or within the view thereof". Male offenders could, at the court's discretion, also be sentenced to be whipped. This was replaced in 1981 by the Summary Offences Act, which abolished the hard labor and whipping and changed the offence to consist of the intentional and obscene exposure of the "genitals" rather than the "person". As well as excusing exposure of the buttocks or female breast from the offence, the change implies – since the words "genitals" and "obscenely" are both specified – that neither one can be automatically taken to imply the other. Public nudity is generally prosecuted under the offensive behaviour or disorderly conduct provisions instead.
The High Court of New Zealand has upheld a conviction of disorderly conduct for nudity in the street, because it was not a place where nudity was known to occur or commonplace. Being nude in the street is likely to incur a small fine if a complaint is made against the person, or if the person ignores a police order to cover themselves. However in practice, the likelihood of being prosecuted for nudity on a public beach is low, and in the past authorities have declined to prosecute topless and nude people on beaches.
In 1991, a High Court judge quashed a conviction of offensive behaviour for nudity on a beach in the presence of children, on the grounds that, since the beach in question was "a place where it was not uncommon for persons to sunbathe in the nude", a reasonable person would "regard the conduct... as inappropriate, unnecessary, and in bad taste, but not arousing feelings of anger, disgust, or outrage." New Zealand is a common law country, which means that judicial decisions determine the law that subsequent cases must follow.
Qatar
In Qatar, the penal code punishes and forbids the wearing of revealing or indecent clothes, this dressing-code law is enforced by a government body called "Al-Adheed". In 2012, a Qatari NGO organized a campaign of "public decency" after they deemed the government to be too lax in monitoring the wearing of revealing clothes; defining the latter as "not covering shoulders and knees, tight or transparent clothes". The campaign targets foreigners who constitute the majority of Qatar's population.
Singapore
In Singapore, public nudity and nudity in private premises exposed to public view are illegal under section 27A of the Miscellaneous Offences (Public Order and Nuisance) Act.
South Africa
In South Africa specific clothing laws exist for the general public. Nudity is treated under indecent exposure. On 3 April 2015 the country's first official clothing optional beach, Mpenjati Beach near Trafalgar in KwaZulu-Natal, opened after the Hibiscus Coast Local Municipality approved the South African Nudist Association's (SANNA) application. Although nudity has gradually been tolerated on Sandy Bay in Cape Town after the National Party (NP) lost the election in 1994, and strict enforcement of its moral values is no longer applied, it is not an official legally recognised public nude beach. Full or partial nudity may also be tolerated on other beaches or at least turned a blind eye towards.
United Arab Emirates
Since 2008, the municipality of Dubai in the United Arab Emirates has ensured that signs are posted on beaches warning women against topless bathing and indecent exposure contrary to the cultural values of the UAE. There is no fine for breaking this rule, however a warning is issued and if necessary, ejection from the beach. This was said to be in response to residents' complaints about tourists sunbathing topless or nude and changing their clothes in public.
There are also signs at malls and shopping centers that advocates modest clothing which indicates that shoulders and knees must be covered, and public nudity is against the law. Violation of the law lead to a warning to cease and desist at first and would be followed with arrest if the person chooses to disobey the law.
United Kingdom
There are three legal jurisdictions in the United Kingdom (England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland). There are a further three jurisdictions that are Crown dependencies (Isle of Man, Bailiwick of Guernsey and Bailiwick of Jersey). The details of the law regarding public nudity differ substantially between them. In general nudity is not an explicit offence but there are various offences that may apply to nudity in unsuitable circumstances. What constitutes unsuitable circumstances varies according to the jurisdiction but nudity is legal in a much wider range of circumstances than many people assume.
The Crown Prosecution Service has published guidance for England and Wales; as have the College of Policing.
British Naturism has published guidance for England and Wales, and Scotland. They are preparing guidance for Northern Ireland.
In England and Wales the two statutes most likely to be applicable are s.5 Public Order Act 1986, and for aggressive nudity s.66 Sexual Offences Act 2003.
Stephen Gough, popularly known as the Naked Rambler, has been repeatedly prosecuted for public nudity in the UK.
United States
In the United States there are variety of different offenses, such as "indecent exposure", "public lewdness", "public indecency", "disorderly conduct" and so on, which may involve exposure of a specific body part (genitals, buttocks, anus, nipples on women), or a specific intention or effect (being sexually suggestive, offending or annoying observers). In some cases, a member of the opposite sex must be present. In Florida, designated nudity areas are given an explicit exception. There are also some specific prohibitions against sexual acts, such as having sexual intercourse in public, or publicly caressing someone in a sexual way. In Indiana and Tennessee, there are specific prohibitions against showing a noticeably erect penis through clothing, or other sensitive areas through semi-transparent clothing. In some states, indecent conduct can also occur on private property, depending on the intent or effect of the act. In some cases there are exceptions for spouses, breastfeeding, and in New York, theatre performances. In most states, there is a governing state statute which defines the offense; in Maryland and Massachusetts, indecency is defined by case law. Some local (county and municipal) governments also regulate personal exposure, as well as commercial activities such as strip clubs.
Case law in general governs the interpretation of the statutory definition, and in some cases allows for additional exceptions.
In general, exposure of the head, upper chest, and limbs is legal, and considered socially acceptable except among certain religious communities.
Federal, state, and local regulations for certain occupations require various pieces of protective clothing for the safety of the wearer. Such items include hard hats, safety vests, life jackets, aprons, hairnets, and steel-toe boots.
In the first decade of the twenty-first century, there was some controversy in some southern U.S. states over the wearing of trousers so low as to expose the underwear (sagging). The practice was banned in some places.
Some states and towns have loose, or no, regulations for requiring clothing. The city of San Francisco has a history of public nudity, including at public events such as Bay to Breakers. The town of Brattleboro, Vermont, experienced a brief period during which there was public nudity, until a law was passed banning it.
Summary of various countries
See also
Beard and haircut laws by country
Beard tax
Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Saudi Arabia)
Emo killings in Iraq
Hijab and burka controversies in Europe
Hijab by country
Issues in social nudity
Jewish hat
Let's trim our hair in accordance with the socialist lifestyle (North Korea)
List of places where social nudity is practised
Muslim patrol incidents in London
Naturism
Nude recreation
Nudity and protest
Nudity and sexuality
Nudity
Right to clothing
Sumptuary law
Timeline of social nudity
Topfreedom
Zunnar
World Naked Bike Ride
References
Clothing by country
Nudity
Naturism
Clothing
Modesty
Dress codes (legal)
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Androgynous Peripheral Attach System
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The terms Androgynous Peripheral Attach System (APAS), Androgynous Peripheral Assembly System (APAS) and Androgynous Peripheral Docking System (APDS) are used interchangeably to describe a Russian family of spacecraft docking mechanisms, and are also sometimes used as generic names for any docking system in that family. A system similar to APAS-89/95 is used by the Chinese Shenzhou spacecraft.
Overview
The name of the system is Russian in origin, and is an acronym, , in the Cyrillic alphabet, from the Russian (Androginno-periferiynyy agregat stykovki). The English acronym was designed to be just the same letters but in the Latin alphabet, for which the first two words are direct counterparts of those in the original. The third word in Russian comes from the German , meaning "complicated mechanism", and the last means "docking". The last two words in the English name were picked to begin with the same equivalent letters as in the Russian name.
The idea behind the design is that unlike with the probe-and-drogue docking system, any APAS docking ring can mate with any other APAS docking ring; both sides are androgynous. In each docking there is an active and a passive side, but both sides can fulfill either role. There are three basic variations of the APAS system.
APAS-75
Co-developed by American and Soviet engineers through a series of in-person meetings, letters and teleconferences, APAS-75 was initially planned to be used on an American mission to a Salyut space station which instead became Apollo–Soyuz. There were differences between the American and Soviet version of the docking mechanism, but they were still mechanically compatible. Early on, the Americans called the device both the International Rendezvous and Docking Mission (IRDM) Docking Mechanism and the International Docking System. The device is called the Androgynous Peripheral Docking System (APDS) in the NASA press packet for ASTP.
Design
Unlike previous docking systems, either APAS-75 unit could assume the active or passive role as required. For docking, the spade-shaped guides of the extended active unit (right) and the retracted passive unit (left) interacted for gross alignment. The ring holding the guides shifted to align the active unit latches with the passive unit catches. After these caught, shock absorbers dissipated residual impact energy in the American unit; mechanical attenuators served the same function on the Soviet side. The active unit then retracted to bring the docking collars together. Guides and sockets in the docking collars completed alignment. Four spring push rods drove the spacecraft apart at undocking.
The Americans selected North American Rockwell to construct seven docking mechanisms (two flight, four test, and one spare).
The Soviet Union built five Soyuz spacecraft that used APAS-75. The first three flew as test systems (Cosmos 638, Cosmos 672 and Soyuz 16). One was used for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, Soyuz 19 the only Soyuz to actually use the docking system, and the last one flew as Soyuz 22. On the American side the Apollo–Soyuz Docking Module carried one APAS-75 docking collar and one Apollo docking collar.
Development
In April 1970 NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine suggested, in an informal meeting with Russian academician Anatoli Blagonravov in New York, that the two nations cooperate on astronaut safety, including compatible docking equipment on space stations and spacecraft to permit rescue operations in space emergencies.
Engineer Caldwell Johnson proposed a ring and cone system during a meeting in Moscow during October 1970. Boris N. Petrov rejected the simple adaptation of Apollo and Soyuz as a "space stunt" and had proposed developing a universal docking mechanism, Johnson suggested that the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) draw up a "design specifically adequate to requirements of a particular CSM/Salyut mission, the design being representative only of the fundamental form and function of docking gear satisfying the requirements for compatible docking system for future spacecraft."
During a meeting in Houston during June 1971, Soviet docking specialist Valentin N. Bobkov indicated that the Soviets also favored some version of the double ring and cone. Bobkov illustrated through sketches that the overall diameter of the docking system could not exceed 1.3 meters, because any larger system would require a change in the launch shroud. When Johnson raised the question of altering the shroud, the Soviets stressed the major impact that such a modification would have. In addition to having to design a new shroud, they would have to test out the launch aerodynamics of the altered hardware. The Americans had hoped to argue for a larger tunnel, but such a change appeared to be too great for their counterparts.
After the June meetings, Johnson had put Bill Creasy and his mechanical designers to work on the preliminary design of a docking mechanism. By the time the NASA delegation left for Moscow, Creasy's crew had designed and built a 1-meter double ring and cone docking system that had four guide fingers and attenuators on both rings, so either half could be active or passive during docking. The Structures and Mechanics Laboratory at MSC made 16-millimeter movies demonstrating this system in action, which Johnson took to Moscow in November, along with a booklet describing the system and a model of the capture latches. To Johnson's surprise, Vladimir Syromyatnikov had been working on a variation of NASA's ring and cone concept since the previous October. Instead of the four guide fingers in the American proposal, Syromyatnikov suggested three, and in lieu of hydraulic shock-absorbers, he proposed electromechanical attenuators. In essence, the Soviets had accepted the idea of using a set of intermeshing fingers to guide the two halves of the docking gear from the point of initial contact to capture. The concept of using shock absorbing attenuators on the active spacecraft's capture ring to buffer the impact of two spacecraft coming together was also acceptable. Both groups of engineers planned to retract the active half of the docking gear using an electrically powered winch to reel in a cable. Once retracted, structural or body latches would be engaged to lock the two ships together. Three basic issues had to be resolved — the number of guides, the type of attenuators, and the type of structural latches — before the design of a universal system could proceed.
Johnson, Creasy, and the other engineers in the Spacecraft Design Division had wanted to use four guides because they believed that it provided the best geometry when using hydraulic attenuators. As Bill Creasy subsequently explained it, the most probable failure situation using hydraulic attenuators would be a leak that would cause one shock absorber to collapse on impact. A study of various combinations had led the MSC specialists to conclude that four guides and eight shock absorbers was the optimum design. Creasy pointed out too that the most likely trouble with an electromechanical system would be a freeze-up or binding of one of the pairs of attenuators. Thus, the Soviets had sought to minimize the number of pairs in their system for the same reason that the Americans had preferred a larger number to limit the probability of something going wrong.
Since the United States had no significant engineering or hardware equity in its proposed design, and since the USSR had considerable equity in its proposed design, the Soviet design was selected as a baseline for the next phase of study.
By the end of the November–December meeting, the two teams had signed a set of minutes outlining the basic concept for a universal androgynous docking system. The formal statement read, "The design concept includes a ring equipped with guides and capture latches that were located on movable rods which serve as attenuators and retracting actuators, and a docking ring on which are located peripheral mating capture latches with a docking seal." Basic information on shapes and dimensions of the guides were also included in the minutes. They were to be solid and not rodlike; as first proposed by the Soviets, and three in number. As long as the requirement for absorbing docking forces was met, each side was free to execute the actual attenuator design as it best saw fit. The Soviets planned to use an electromechanical approach designed for the Soyuz docking probe, and the Americans proposed to stick with hydraulic shock absorbers similar to those used on the Apollo probe. This proposal also called for developing docking gear that could be used in either an active or passive mode; when one ship's system was active, the other would be passive.
Looking into the detailed design of the mechanism, the two sides had further agreed that the capture latches would follow the design developed at MSC and the structural latches and ring would follow the Soviet pattern. These paired sets of hooks had been successfully used on both Soyuz and Salyut. In addition, the group concurred on details regarding the alignment pins, spring thrusters (to assist in the separation of the spacecraft at undocking), and electrical connector locations. To evaluate the docking system concept and to ensure the establishment of compatibility at an early point in the development, the men planned to build a two-fifths-scale test model, the exact details of which would be decided at the next joint meeting.
Upon his return to Houston, Caldwell Johnson prepared a memorandum to document some of the informal understandings reached in Moscow. He indicated that this reflected "upon the manner in which the two countries will conduct and coordinate the next phase of the engineering studies of those systems ... The understandings ... were reached more often than not outside of formal meetings, and so are not likely otherwise to be reported." For example, in the area of hatch diameter, he noted that "it became apparent from the beginning ... that a hatch diameter greater than about 800 mm could not be incorporated into the Salyut spacecraft without great difficulty," but MSC had "long since reconciled itself" to a test hatch diameter of less than 1 meter. Johnson went on to comment that "the capture ring assembly had variously been called ring and cone, double ring and cone, and ring and fingers. It was agreed henceforth to call the capture ring 'ring' and the fingers 'guides.'"
Bill Creasy and several of his colleagues worked with Yevgeniy Gennadiyevich Bobrov at the drafting table to lay out these first Soviet-American engineering drawings. Larry Ratcliff drew the capture ring and guides on drafting paper, and Robert McElya supplied the details of the structural interface ring, while Bobrov prepared a similar drawing for the structural latches. T.O. Ross then took these drawings and conducted a dimensional analysis to be sure that all items were compatible. Agreement on technical specifications for the docking system cleared the way for NASA to begin discussions with Rockwell about building the docking system.
In April 1972, the Soviets informed NASA that they had chosen to use a Soyuz spacecraft in place of a Salyut space station for cost and technical reasons.
Final official approval of a joint docking mission came in Moscow on 24 May 1972. U.S. President Nixon and U.S.S.R. Premier Aleksey N. Kosygin signed the Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes, including development of compatible spacecraft docking systems to improve safety of manned space flight and to make joint scientific experiments possible. The first flight to test the systems was to be in 1975, with modified Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft. Beyond this mission, future crewed spacecraft of the two nations were hoped to be able to dock with each other.
In July 1972, the group concentrated on spelling out more fully specifications for the docking system. Some refinements were made in the guides and other parts of the mechanism; as with the other groups, a schedule for the upcoming months was written, indicating documents to be prepared and tests to be conducted. After the team had a thorough look at the American two-fifths-scale docking system, which helped the designers discuss the operation of the mechanism and decide on refinements, they scheduled joint model tests for December. Then the engineers would be able to see just how the interfacing elements of one country's system mated with those of the other. The Soviets said they would draft the "Test Plan for Scale Models of Apollo/Soyuz Docking System" (IED 50003), while the Americans drew up the dimensions of the model and the test fixtures.
Under the direction of Syromyatnikov, the Soviet team had readied their documentation in both English and Russian and had prepared their two-fifths-scale model of the docking system for the joint meeting. Some of the Americans observed that while the U.S.S.R. mechanism was more complex mechanically than the American one, it was suitable for the mission and "sophisticated" in its execution. The two sides reviewed and signed the two-fifths-model test plan and scheduled the test for December in Moscow.
The Preliminary Systems Review (PSR) was planned to be a "formal configuration review ... initiated near the end of the conceptual phase, but prior to the start of detail design" work on the docking mechanism. As part of their presentation to the Preliminary Systems Review Board (the Board being the Technical Directors), Don Wade and Syromyatnikov included all the test data, specifications, and drawings for the docking system, as well as a design evaluation for the mechanism. After hearing their report, Lunney and Bushuyev felt three problem areas needed further study. First, the requirement for a spring thruster designed to help separate the two spacecraft had caught their attention, since the failure of this thruster to compress properly could prevent completion of docking. Second, Lunney and Bushuyev emphasized the importance of an indicator that would verify that the structural latches were properly in place. The American system provided information on the functioning of each latch but did not indicate that the interface seals were compressed, while the Soviet system gave data on compression of the seals but none for the latches. To assure the structural integrity of the transfer tunnel, it was important to know that all eight latches were closed. The third problem area was whether it was possible for the structural latches be inadvertently released. Bushuyev and Lunney called for a thorough re-evaluation of all these issues and advised the group to present their specific recommendations to them in December and January.
The group tests of the two-fifths-scale model and the second part of the Preliminary Systems Review for the docking system was the last joint activity scheduled for 1972. The Americans arrived in Moscow on December 6 and worked through December 15. Testing the scale models occurred at the Institute of Space Research in Moscow.
Tests of the full-scale Soviet and American docking systems began in Houston during October 1973.
APAS-89
When the USSR started working on Mir they were also working on the Buran shuttle program. APAS-89 was envisioned to be the docking system for Buran with the Mir space station. The APAS-75 design was heavily modified. The outer diameter was reduced from 2030 mm to 1550 mm and the alignment petals were pointed inward instead of outward. This limited the internal passage diameter of the docking port to about 800 mm. The Buran shuttle was finally canceled in 1994 and never flew to the Mir space station, but Mir's Kristall module was outfitted with two APAS-89 docking mechanisms. The Mir Docking Module, basically a spacer module between Kristall and the Shuttle, also used APAS-89 on both sides.
APAS-95
APAS was selected for the Shuttle-Mir program and manufactured by Russian company RKK Energiya under a $18 million contract signed in June 1993. Rockwell International, prime contractor for the Shuttle, accepted delivery of hardware from Energiya in September 1994 and integrated it onto Space Shuttles' Orbiter Docking System, an add-on that was installed in the payload bay and was originally meant for use with Space Station Freedom.
Although Energia's code for the Shuttle APAS is APAS-95, it has been described as being basically the same as APAS-89. It had a mass of 286 kg.
APAS-95 was selected to join the American and Russian modules on the International Space Station (ISS) and to allow the Space Shuttle to dock. The Shuttle's Orbiter Docking System remained unchanged from when it was used for the Shuttle–Mir Program in 1995. The active capture ring that extends outward from the spacecraft captured the passive mating ring on the space station's APAS-95 connection on the Pressurized Mating Adapter. The capture ring aligned them, pulled them together and deployed 12 structural hooks, latching the two systems with an airtight seal. The Pressurized Mating Adapters are permanently passive.
ASA-G/ASP-G
It is used only by Nauka Science (or Experiment) Airlock, to berth to Nauka forward port on 4 May 2023, 01:00 UTC during VKD-57 spacewalk. The non-androgynous berthing mechanism is a unique hybrid derivative the Russian APAS-89/APAS-95 system as it has 4 petals instead of 3 along with 12 structural hooks and is a combination of an active "probe and drogue" soft-dock mechanism on port and passive target on airlock.
Images
See also
Space rendezvous
International Docking System Standard
NASA Docking System
References
External links
Video of docking using APAS-95
Spacecraft components
Spacecraft docking systems
Components of the International Space Station
Soviet inventions
Mir
Apollo–Soyuz Test Project
Soviet Union–United States relations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France%E2%80%93Iran%20relations
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France–Iran relations
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French–Iranian relations are the international relations between France and Iran. Iran has generally enjoyed a friendly relationship with France since the Middle Ages. The travels of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier are particularly well known to Safavid Persia. France has an embassy in Tehran and Iran has an embassy in Paris.
Recently, however, relations have soured over Iran's refusal to halt uranium enrichment and France supporting the referral of Iran to the United Nations Security Council.
Safavid era
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Persia tried to obtain support among European nations against the expansionism of the Portuguese and the neighbouring Ottoman Empire. Since France was tied into an Ottoman alliance, however, the Persian embassy to Europe of 1599–1602 and the Persian embassy to Europe of 1609–1615 avoided France. A Capuchin mission was however established in Ispahan under Pacifique de Provins in 1627.
Trade contacts however existed, and the French trader Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (1605–1689) is known to have been as far as Isfahan circa 1632.
Relations took an official turn under Louis XIV and Colbert, when Colbert founded the French East India Company in 1664, and subsequently asked Lalain and Laboulaye to go to Ispahan to promote French interests in Persia. The Shah welcomed them as he was delighted to be given an opportunity to counterbalance English and Dutch influence in his country. He provided a three-year exemption from customs duties, and gave France the same privileges as other countries. Further, a trading post was given to France in Bandar Abbas.
Another French trader Jean Chardin (1643–1715) visited Persia and received the patronage of the Safavid monarch Shah Abbas II and his son Shah Suleiman I. Chardin returned to France in 1670. The following year, he published an account of Le Couronnement de Soleïmaan (English translation: The Coronation of Shah Soleiman). He again visited Persia between 1673 and 1680.
Numerous trade contacts continued to occur between Persia (modern Iran) and France. In 1705, Louis XIV dispatched an Ambassador Extraordinary in the person of Jean-Baptiste Fabre, accompanied by a party including Jacques Rousseau, uncle of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and a woman named Marie Petit, who owned a gaming house, probably also a brother, in Paris. Fabre died in Persia, but negotiations were taken over by Pierre-Victor Michel, leading to a largely ineffective signed in September 1708. Prior to that he had to sideline Marie Petit who, "in the name of the Princesses of France", tried to persuade the shah to recognize her as France's sole legitimate representative.
Wishing to reinforce exchanges, the Shah sent an embassy in 1715, led by Mohammad Reza Beg, the Persian embassy to Louis XIV. The embassy visited king Louis XIV and obtained a new treaty of alliance signed in Versailles on 13 August 1715. Contact was then interrupted with the fall of the Safavid Empire in 1722 and the subsequent troubles, until the end of the century.
Impressed by the Persian visits, the French author Montesquieu wrote a fictional account about Persia, the Lettres persanes, in 1721.
Qajar Era
Attempts to resume contact were made following the French revolution, as France was in conflict with Russia and wished to find an ally against that country. In 1796, two scientists, Jean-Guillaume Bruguières and Guillaume-Antoine Olivier, were sent to Persia by the Directoire, but were unsuccessful in obtaining an agreement.
A Franco-Persian alliance was formed for a short period between the French Empire of Napoleon I and the Persian Empire of Fath Ali Shah against Russia and Great Britain between 1807 and 1809. The alliance was part of Napoleon's plan to create another front on Russia's southern borders, as Iran and Russia were directly bordering each other there in the Caucasus region. Furthermore, the Iranian king was involved in a territorial dispute with the Russian tsar following its annexation of Georgia, which had been intermittently part of Iran since the mid 16th century. The alliance unravelled when France finally allied with Russia and turned its focus to European campaigns, and dropped its support during the Russo-Persian War (1804-1813), which eventually turned out into an Iranian defeat and huge irrevocable territorial losses, comprising modern-day Georgia, Dagestan, and most of the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan.
Diplomatic relations with France resumed in 1839 following a dispute between Great Britain and Persia over the Iranian city of Herat. Great Britain would remove its military and diplomatic missions from Persia, occupy Kharg island, and attack Bushehr. Mohammad Shah Qajar would in turn resume diplomatic relations with France, and send a diplomatic mission to Louis-Philippe under Mirza Hossein Khan to obtain military help. In response, a group of French officers was sent to Persia with the returning ambassador.
Pahlavi Era
France had close economic collaboration with Iran during the Pahlavi era, especially with numerous contracts related to public works.
Islamic Republic of Iran
Nuclear program
Following the 1979 Islamic Revolution, France refused to continue to provide Iran with enriched uranium, which it needed for its nuclear program. Tehran also did not get its investment back from the Eurodif joint stock company formed in 1973 by France, Belgium, Spain and Sweden. In 1975 Sweden's 10% share in Eurodif went to Iran as a result of an arrangement between France and Iran. The French government subsidiary company Cogéma and Tehran established the Sofidif (Société Franco–iranienne pour l’enrichissement de l’uranium par diffusion gazeuse) firm with 60% and 40% shares, respectively. In turn, Sofidif acquired a 25% share in EURODIF, which gave Iran its 10% share of Eurodif. Reza Shah Pahlavi lent 1 billion dollars (and another 180 million dollars in 1977) for the construction of the Eurodif factory, to have the right of buying 10% of the production of the site.
In 1982, president François Mitterrand, who had been elected the year before, refused to give any uranium to Iran, which also claimed the $1 billion debt. In 1986, Eurodif manager Georges Besse was assassinated; the act was allegedly claimed by left-wing militants from Action Directe. However, they denied any responsibility during their trial. In their investigation La République atomique, France-Iran le pacte nucléaire, David Carr-Brown and Dominique Lorentz pointed to the Iranian intelligence services' responsibility. They also claimed that the French hostage scandal was connected to the Iranian blackmail. Finally an agreement was reached in 1991: France refunded more than 1.6 billion dollars. Iran remained shareholder of Eurodif via Sofidif, a Franco-Iranian consortium shareholder to 25% of Eurodif. However, Iran refrained from asking for the produced uranium.
Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988)
Furthermore, with the United States and other countries, France supported Saddam Hussein in the war against Iran (1980–1988). Saddam's airforce included dozens of Dassault Mirage F1s, Dassault-Breguet Super Étendards, and Aérospatiale Gazelles, among other weaponry. Iraqi military purchases from France totaled $5.5 Billion in 1985, prompting U.S. Senator Ted Stevens of Alaska, and chairman of the U.S. Senate Appropriations Committee, to declare France's selling of military equipment to Iraq as "international treason".
Jacques Chirac helped sell Saddam the two nuclear reactors that started Baghdad on the path to nuclear weapons capability. By 2000, France had become Iraq's largest supplier of military and dual-use equipment, according to a senior member of Congress who reportedly declined to be identified.
The French were concerned that their support for Iraq would harm their relations with Iran, but their economic and commercial interests in Iraq were too important. The French military reinforced their naval presence in the Gulf in response to Iranian threats of deteriorating relations. France's history with Baghdad reached back decades. France was extremely popular in the Middle East after their public stance of neutrality in the Six-Day War. General de Gaulle invoked symbolic references of the cooperation between Charlemagne and the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid, promising Soviet aligned Iraq with French cooperation at a time when Iraq was politically isolated from the West as a consequence of Cold War tensions. The French companies Berliet, Saviem and Panhard began selling military vehicles to the Iraqi army. Saddam Hussein visited France in 1972 to officially finalize the agreements of petroleum cooperation between the two countries following nationalization of the Iraqi oil industry. Hussein gave the French a list of weapons desired by the Iraqi military including radars, helicopters and fighter planes.
Paris and Baghdad grew closer and closer. By the end of the 1970s over 65 French companies were operating in Iraq. The Bouygues group had built underground shelters for the Iraqi army. They sold Iraq missiles and other war equipment. Relations with Iran were, on the other hand, primarily limited to cultural exchanges. France recognized the Shah as friendly overall, but condemned the regime's authoritarian streak. Tehran was considered firmly within the American and British sphere and Paris was less interested in Tehran then Baghdad because they could not sell French weapons to Iran. They did develop other commercial ties including for nuclear equipment and in 1974 the French government entered into an agreement to sell Iran nuclear power stations. The Shah gave France a one billion dollar loan for a 10% share in Eurodif allowing Iran to purchase 10% of the enriched uranium produced by the Tricastin plant.
France remained committed to the recognition of the Palestinian people's rights. When the Ayatollah Khomeini was expelled from Iran, the French government granted him political asylum, but later Khomeini returned to take power after the Islamic Revolution in 1979. The Islamic government withdrew from nuclear cooperation agreements with France and a dispute over the Eurodif partnership greatly damaged ties between the two nations. When François Mitterrand was elected in May 1981 he sent Hussein public messages of French support. Iraq was regarded as an example of secular, progressive and modernist values contrasted with Iran's conservatism. Claude Cheysson states that "Iraq is the only barrier to an Islamic onslaught that would destabilize the entire region and topple the moderate Arab regimes."
2003 raid on the People's Mujahedin of Iran
In June 2003 French police raided the People's Mujahedin (PMOI)'s properties, including its base in Auvers-sur-Oise, under the orders of anti-terrorist magistrate Jean-Louis Bruguière, after suspicions that it was trying to shift its base of operations there. 160 suspected MEK members were then arrested, 40 went into a hunger strike to protest against the repression, and ten immolated themselves in various European capitals in protestation against the raids. French Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy (UMP) declared that the MEK "recently wanted to make France its support base, notably after the intervention in Iraq," while Pierre de Bousquet de Florian, head of the DST, France's domestic intelligence service, claimed that the group was "transforming its Val d'Oise centre [near Paris] ... into an international terrorist base".
US Senator Sam Brownback, Republican of Kansas and chairman of the Foreign Relations subcommittee on South Asia, then accused the French of doing "the Iranian government's dirty work". Along with other congressmen, he wrote a letter of protest to President Jacques Chirac, while longtime OMPI supporters such as Sheila Jackson-Lee, Democrat of Texas, criticized Maryam Radjavi's arrest.
However, the MEK members were quickly released, in the French action against the National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI) have been accused of being parts of negotiation between Paris and Tehran, concerning the nuclear program and maybe also some business deals. The MEK claims that after three years, there is nothing in the files that would implicate the NCRI and Mrs. Rajavi in any wrongdoing and the case has essentially died.
As of 2007, the PMOI have received support from many members of the political and judicial classes, from different backgrounds.
Other
In 2019, French-Iranian academic Fariba Adelkhah and French academic Roland Marchal were arrested on security charges. Marchal was later released in a prisoner swap. Adelkhah was sentenced in 2020 to five years on security charges and one year concurrently on charges of propaganda. According to France24, the case has been a "thorn in relations" between France and Iran. The academics' support committee has asked scientific institutions to "suspend all scientific co-operation with Iran". In May 2022, Iran's intelligence ministry said it had arrested two Europeans, later identified as French nationals, for allegedly fomenting "insecurity" in Iran. In October 2022, Iranian authorities announced more arrests in "the case of French spies", accusing those detained of "conspiracy and collusion" to harm Iran's national security.
In January 2023, French special forces seized a boat in the Gulf of Oman loaded with Iranian-supplied weapons and ammunition which were bound to militants in Yemen.
Economic relations
With 6.25% of the market share in exports to Iran, France was Iran's sixth-leading supplier in 2005. Iran is France's 27th customer (its third-leading customer in the Middle East). Fifty-five percent of French exports are concentrated in the automotive sector. French companies are also very active in the oil industry, rail and shipping transport, and the financial sector. For the most part, imports from Iran are crude oil. Altogether, 3% of French hydrocarbon imports come from Iran. A reciprocal agreement protecting and encouraging investment signed by the French Minister Delegate for Foreign Trade on 12 May 2003 in Tehran came into force on 13 November 2004. Iran's Minister of Commerce, Mr. Mohammad Shariat-Madari, made an official visit to France from 20 through 23 January 2004. The French Secretary of State for Transport and the Sea, Mr. François Goulard, went to Iran on 20 June 2004, on the occasion of the resumption of Air France's Paris-Tehran flights. The nuclear issue will determine any changes in the business climate in Iran. France and its European partners have emphasized to Iran the promising prospects that would result from a negotiated solution. However, the present worsening of the nuclear crisis could damage France's economic cooperation with Iran in the long run.
IKCO cooperation with France's Peugeot dates back to more than two decades ago and seven different Peugeot models accounted for about 64 percent of the total of 542,000 passenger cars and pickups produced by IKCO in 2007. IKCO and Iran's second-largest car company, Saipa, produce Logan in a joint venture with France's Renault.
Diplomatic relations
The most recent bilateral visits of political leaders occurred during the first half of 2005:
President Khatami met with the French President in Paris on 5 April 2005, on the sidelines of a conference at UNESCO, where he gave an address on the dialogue between civilizations. The Minister received his Iranian counterpart, Mr. Kamal Kharazi, who was accompanying the Iranian President.
Mr. Xavier Darcos, the Minister Delegate for Cooperation, Development and Francophony, went to Tehran and Bam on 22–23 May 2005.
The declarations made by the Iranian President promoting the destruction of Israel and negating the Nazi genocide have been strongly condemned by the French President. Iran's ambassador was summoned to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on 27 October 2005 regarding this matter. The French government has expressed its concerns to the Iranian government about the human rights situation in Iran. On 12 December 2005, the Prime Minister awarded the French Human Rights Prize to the wife of Emadeddin Baqi, an Iranian dissident who fights for prisoners’ rights and against the death penalty in Iran. In the context of its policy supporting defenders of human rights, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs summoned the Iranian chargé d'affaires to Paris in August 2005 to express its concerns regarding the fate of journalist, Akbar Gandji, and his lawyer, Mr. Soltani (who was awarded the French Human Rights Prize in December 2003 on behalf of the Human Rights Defence Centre, of which Ms. Shirin Ebadi, Nobel Peace Prize Laureate, is the President).
Iran's ambassador in Paris, Mr. Sadegh Kharazi, ceased to hold office on 22 November 2005. His successor Ali Ahani is currently the new ambassador under President Ahmadinejad and thereafter.
The Franco-Iranian relation has cooled off in recent years. Some leaders of MKO were admitted to France and they have actively campaigned against the Islamic regime. Since election of President Ahmadinejad in 2005, the relation has become more contentious. In January 2007, Jacques Chirac warned in an interview that "if Iran were to launch a nuclear weapon against a country like Israel, it would lead to the immediate destruction of Tehran", but he quickly retracted his comments. In 2009 Ahmadinejad's re-election, France supported the opposition candidates, who lost the election. The Iranian movie maker Mohsen Makhmalbaf resided in France during the run-off to the elections in 2009 and was spreading anti-government propaganda and promoting the Green velvet revolution. Also, Iran accused the French embassy for having a role in instigating post election protest via its embassy personnel in Tehran.
In late August 2010, Iran's state-run daily paper Kayhan called France's first lady Carla Bruni-Sarkozy a 'prostitute' after she had condemned the stoning sentence against Sakineh Mohammadi Ashtiani for adultery in an open letter, along with several French celebrities. The paper later also called for Bruni to be put to death for supporting Sakineh Ashtiani, and for what the paper described as Bruni's moral corruption and having had extra-marital affairs herself. Even though Kayhan is a state-sponsored paper and it continued its tirade against Bruni along with other state-run Iranian media, Iranian officials tried to distance themselves from that violent stance, while a spokesman for the French Foreign Ministry criticized the comments as being 'unacceptable'. The incident rapidly found its way into the Iranian domestic politics.
On 10 April 2019, Iran's president, Hassan Rouhani held a telephone conversation with French President Emmanuel Macron, discussing about how the labeling of Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC) as a terrorist organization in the United States Department of State list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations served as a very provocative action taken against Iran.
On May 12, 2022, France summoned a senior Iranian envoy after two of its citizens were imprisoned in Tehran in an arbitrary detention, according to the French government.
On July 15, 2022, the French foreign ministry announced that France had requested Iran to free three filmmakers who were detained earlier that month.
Cultural, scientific and technical relations
Cooperation relations are managed in the context of the general arrangement of 14 September 1993 and the cultural arrangement of 31 January 1999. Four priorities have been established:
The promotion of inter-university partnerships and advanced French training. France is the sixth-leading country in terms of hosting Iranian scholars. Actions supporting university cooperation conducted by the embassy in Tehran (welcoming and guiding students, improving language skills, providing networking opportunities with former scholars) are to be grouped together in a centre for university information and exchange.
Increased French instruction in Iran's secondary and higher education. Several public secondary schools in Iran offered French classes in Autumn 2003.
Borrowed words from French, and language similarities due to both being Indo-European languages.
The promotion of scientific partnerships (seismology, biology, environmental sciences, town planning, human and social sciences, veterinary medicine) in compliance with the rules of vigilance and with Iranian co-financing. A two-year integrated action programme (called “Gundishapur”) ended in July 2004.
Bidirectional development in cultural dialogue. The embassy provides volunteer translation and publication services and organizes cultural and scientific events. The French Research Institute in Iran is the only foreign research centre authorized to take part in disseminating information about Iranian culture.
Polls
According to a 2012 BBC World Service poll, only 7% of French people viewed Iran's influence positively, with 82% expressing a negative view. According to a 2012 Pew Global Attitudes Survey, 14% of French people viewed Iran favorably, compared to 86% who viewed it unfavorably; 96% of French people opposed Iranian acquisition of nuclear weapons and 74% approved of "tougher sanctions" on Iran, while 51% supported use of military force to prevent Iran from developing nuclear weapons.
2016
France's imports from Iran in the first nine months of 2016 showed a 34-fold rise compared to the corresponding period in 2015, Iran's state-run Tasnim News Agency reported on 10 December 2016.
Resident diplomatic missions
France has an embassy in Tehran.
Iran has an embassy in Paris.
See also
Foreign relations of France
Foreign relations of Iran
2011–12 Strait of Hormuz dispute
Iranians in France
Iran–EU relations
Joseph Labrosse (Carmelite)
Notes
References
Amini, Iradj (2000). Napoleon and Persia: Franco-Persian relations under the First Empire. Washington, D.C.: Taylor & Francis. .
External links
French Foreign Ministry- France & Iran
Iranian Foreign Ministry
Persia and Napoleon - A Lecture by Ambassador Iradj Amini
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mud%20March%20%28suffragists%29
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Mud March (suffragists)
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The United Procession of Women, or Mud March as it became known, was a peaceful demonstration in London on 9 February 1907 organised by the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) in which more than 3,000 women marched from Hyde Park Corner to the Strand in support of women's suffrage. Women from all classes participated in what was the largest public demonstration supporting women's suffrage seen until then. It acquired the name "Mud March" from the day's weather since incessant heavy rain left the marchers drenched and mud-spattered.
The proponents of women's suffrage were divided between those who favoured constitutional methods and those who supported direct action. In 1903, Emmeline Pankhurst formed the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). Known as the suffragettes, the WSPU held demonstrations, heckled politicians, and from 1905 saw several of its members imprisoned, which gained press attention and increased support from women. To maintain that momentum and to create support for a new suffrage bill in the British House of Commons, the NUWSS and other groups organised the Mud March to coincide with the opening of Parliament. The event attracted much public interest and broadly sympathetic press coverage, but when the bill was presented the following month, it was "talked out" without a vote.
While the march failed to influence the immediate parliamentary process, it had a considerable impact on public awareness and on the movement's future tactics. Large peaceful public demonstrations, which had never been attempted, became standard features of the suffrage campaign. On 21 June 1908, up to 500,000 people attended Women's Sunday, a WSPU rally in Hyde Park. The marches showed that the fight for women's suffrage had the support of women in every stratum of society, and despite their social differences, they united to work together for a common cause.
Background
In October 1897, Millicent Fawcett was the driving force behind the formation of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS), a new umbrella organisation for all the factions and regional societies, and the liaison with sympathetic MPs. Initially, 1u groups affiliated to the new central body. The organisation became the leading body that followed a constitutional path to women's suffrage. In October 1903, Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughter Christabel Pankhurst formed a women-only group in Manchester, the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). Although the NUWSS sought its objectives through constitutional means, such as petitions to Parliament, the WSPU organised open-air meetings and heckled politicians and chose jail over fines when it was prosecuted. From 1906, it began to use the nickname "suffragettes", which differentiated it from the constitutionalist "suffragists".
At the time of the Mud March, before the suffragette campaign had progressed to damaging property, relations between the WSPU and the NUWSS remained cordial. When 11 suffragettes were jailed in October 1906 after a protest in the House of Commons lobby, Fawcett and the NUWSS stood by them. On 27 October 1906, in a letter to The Times, she wrote:
The militant actions of the WSPU raised the profile of the women's suffrage campaign in Britain, and the NUWSS wanted to show that it was as committed as were the suffragettes to the cause. In January 1906, the Liberal Party, led by Henry Campbell-Bannerman, had won an overwhelming general election victory. Although before the election, many Liberal MPs had promised that the new administration would introduce a women's suffrage bill, once in power, Campbell-Bannerman said that it was "not realistic" to introduce new legislation. A month after the election, the WSPU held a successful London march, which was attended by 300–400 women. To show that there was support for a suffrage bill, the Central Society for Women's Suffrage suggested in November 1906 to hold a mass procession in London to coincide with the opening of Parliament in February. The NUWSS called on its members to join the march.
March
Organisation
The task of organising the event, scheduled for Saturday, 9 February 1907, was delegated to Pippa Strachey of the Central Society for Women's Suffrage. Her mother, Lady Jane Strachey, a friend of Fawcett, was a long-standing suffragist, but Pippa Strachey had shown little interest in the issue before a meeting with Emily Davies, who quickly converted her to the cause. She took on the organisation of the London march with no experience of doing anything similar, but she carried out the task so effectively that she was given responsibility for the planning of all future large processions of the NUWSS. On 29 January, the executive committee of the London Society determined the order of the procession and arranged for advertisements to be placed in the Tribune and The Morning Post.
Regional suffrage societies and other organisations were invited to bring delegations to the march. The art historian Lisa Tickner wrote that "all sensibilities and political disagreements had to be soothed" to make sure that the various groups would take part. The Women's Cooperative Guild would attend only if certain conditions were met, and the British Women's Temperance Association and the Women's Liberal Federation (WLF) would not attend if the WSPU was formally invited. The WLF, a "crucial lever on the Liberal government", according to Tickner, objected to the WSPU's criticism of the government. At the time of the march, 10 of the 20 women who sat on the NUWSS executive committee were connected to the Liberal Party.
The march would begin at Hyde Park Corner and progress via Piccadilly to Exeter Hall, a large meeting venue on the Strand. A second open-air meeting was scheduled for Trafalgar Square. Members of the Artists' Suffrage League produced posters and postcards for the march. In all, around 40 organisations from all over the country chose to participate.
9 February
On the morning of 9 February, large numbers of women converged on the march's starting point, the statue of Achilles, near Hyde Park Corner. Between 3,000 and 4,000 women were assembled from all ages and strata of society in appalling weather with incessant rain; "mud, mud, mud" was the dominant feature of the day, wrote Fawcett. The marchers included Lady Frances Balfour, sister-in-law of Arthur Balfour, the former Conservative prime minister; Rosalind Howard, the Countess of Carlisle, of the Women's Liberal Federation; the poet and trade unionist Eva Gore-Booth; and the veteran campaigner Emily Davies. The march's aristocratic representation was matched by numbers of professional women: doctors, schoolmistresses, artists () and large contingents of working women from northern and other provincial cities who marched under banners that proclaimed their varied trades: bank-and-bobbin winders, cigar makers, clay-pipe finishers, power-loom weavers and shirt makers.
Although the WSPU was not officially represented, many of its members attended, including Christabel Pankhurst, Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence, Annie Kenney, Anne Cobden-Sanderson, Nellie Martel, Edith How-Martyn, Flora Drummond, Charlotte Despard and Gertrude Ansell. According to the historian Diane Atkinson, "belonging to both organisations, going to each others' events and wearing both badges was quite usual".
By around 2:30 pm, the march had formed a line that stretched far down Rotten Row. It set off in the drenching rain with a brass band leading and Lady Frances Balfour, Millicent Fawcett and Lady Jane Strachey at the head of the column. The procession was followed by a phalanx of carriages and motor cars, many of which carried flags bearing the letters "WS", red-and-white banners and bouquets of red and white flowers. Around 7,000 red-and-white rosettes had been provided for the marchers by the manufacturing company of Maud Arncliffe-Sennett, an actor and leader among the London Society for Women's Suffrage and the Actresses Franchise League.
Despite the weather, thousands thronged the pavements to enjoy the novel spectacle of "respectable women marching in the streets", according to the historian Harold Smith.
The Observers reporter recorded that "there was hardly any of the derisive laughter which had greeted former female demonstrations" although The Morning Post reported "scoffs and jeers of enfranchised males who had posted themselves along the line of the route, and appeared to regard the occasion as suitable for the display of crude and vulgar jests". Katharine Frye, who joined the march at Piccadilly Circus, recorded "not much joking at our expense and no roughness". The Daily Mail, which supported women's suffrage, carried an eyewitness account, "How It Felt", by Constance Smedley of the Lyceum Club. Smedley described a divided reaction from the crowd "that shared by the poorer class of men, namely, bitter resentment at the possibility of women getting any civic privilege they had not got; the other that of amusement at the fact of women wanting any serious thing ... badly enough to face the ordeal of a public demonstration".
Approaching Trafalgar Square, the march divided: representatives from the northern industrial towns broke off for an open-air meeting at Nelson's Column, which had been arranged by the Northern Franchise Demonstration Committee. The main march continued to Exeter Hall for a meeting chaired by the Liberal politician Walter McLaren, whose wife, Eva McLaren, was one of the scheduled speakers. Keir Hardie, leader of the Labour Party, told the meeting, to hissing from several Liberal women on the platform, that if women won the vote, it would be thanks to the "suffragettes' fighting brigade". He spoke strongly in favour of the meeting's resolution, which was carried, that women be given the vote on the same basis as men, and he demanded a bill in the current parliamentary session. At the Trafalgar Square meeting, Eva Gore-Booth referred to the "alienation of the Labour Party through the action of a certain section in the suffrage movement", according to The Observer, and asked the party "not to punish the millions of women workers" because of the actions of a small minority. When Hardie arrived from Exeter Hall, he expressed the hope that "no working man bring discredit on the class to which he belonged by denying to women those political rights which their fathers had won for them".
Aftermath
Press reaction
The press coverage gave the movement "more publicity in a week", according to one commentator, "than it had enjoyed in the previous fifty years". Tickner writes that the reporting was "inflected by the sympathy or otherwise of particular newspapers for the suffrage cause". The Daily Mirror, which was neutral on the issue of women's suffrage, offered a large photospread and praised the crowd's diversity. The Tribune also commented on the mix of social classes represented in the marchers. The Times, an opponent of women's suffrage, thought the event "remarkable as much for its representative character as for its size" and described the scenes and speeches in detail over 20 column inches.
The protesters had had to "run the gauntlet of much inconsiderate comment", according to the Daily Chronicle, a publication supportive of women's suffrage. The pictorial journal The Sphere provided a montage of photographs under the headline "The Attack on Man's Supremacy". The Graphic, a pro-suffrage paper, published a series of illustrations sympathetic to the event except for one that showed a man holding aloft a pair of scissors "suggesting that demonstrating women should have their tongues cut out", according to Katherine Kelly in a study of how the suffrage movement was portrayed in the British press. Some newspapers, including The Times and the Daily Mail, carried pieces written by the marchers.
In its leading article, The Observer warned that "the vital civic duty and natural function of women... is the healthy propagation of race" and that the aim of the movement was "nothing less than complete sex emancipation". It was concerned that women were not ready for the vote. The movement should educate its own sex, it said, rather than "seeking to confound men". The newspaper, nevertheless, welcomed that there had been "no attempts to bash policemen's helmets, to tear down the railings of the Park, to utter piercing war cries ..." Likewise, The Daily News compared the event favourably to the actions of suffragettes: "Such a demonstration is far more likely to prove the reality of the demand for a vote than the practice of breaking up meetings held by Liberal Associations". The Manchester Guardian agreed: "For those ... who, like ourselves, wish to see this movement – a great movement, as will one day be recognised – carried through in such a way as to win respect even where it cannot command agreement Saturday's demonstration was of good omen."
Dickinson Bill
Four days after the march, the NUWSS executive met with the Parliamentary Committee for Women's Suffrage (founded in 1893) to discuss a private member's bill. On the same day, the suffragettes held their first "Women's Parliament" at Caxton Hall, and 400 women then marched toward the Commons to protest the omission from the King's Speech the day before of a women's suffrage bill. Over 60 were arrested, and 53 chose prison over a fine.
On 26 February 1907, the Liberal MP for St Pancras North, Willoughby Dickinson, published the text of a bill proposing that women should have the vote subject to the same property qualification that applied to men. That would, it was estimated, enfranchise between one and two million women. (On the day that the bill was published, the Cambridge Union passed by a small majority a motion "that this House would view with regret the extension of the franchise to women".) Although the bill received strong backing from the suffragist movement, it was viewed more equivocally in the House of Commons, some of whose members regarded it as giving more votes to the propertied classes but doing nothing for working women. On 8 March, Dickinson introduced his Women's Enfranchisement Bill to the House of Commons for its second reading, with a plea that members should not be swayed by their distaste for militant actions; the House of Commons "Ladies Gallery" was kept closed during the debate for fear of protests by the WSPU. The debate was inconclusive, and the bill was "talked out" without a vote. The NUWSS had worked hard for the bill and found the response insulting.
Legacy
The Mud March was the largest-ever public demonstration until then in support of woman's suffrage. Although it brought little by way of immediate progress on the parliamentary front, its significance in the general suffrage campaign was considerable. By embracing activism, the constitutionalists' tactics become closer to those of the WSPU, at least in relation to the latter's nonviolent activities. In her 1988 study of the suffrage campaign, Tickner observes that "modest and uncertain as it was by subsequent standards, [the march] established the precedent of large-scale processions, carefully ordered and publicised, accompanied by banners, bands and the colours of the participant societies". The feminist politician Ray Strachey wrote:
The march marked a change in perception of the NUWSS from what The Manchester Guardian described as "regional debating society" into the sphere of "practical politics". According to Jane Chapman, in her study Gender, Citizenship and Newspapers, the Mud March "established a precedent for advance press publicity".
The failure of Dickinson's bill brought about a change in the strategy of the NUWSS, which began to intervene directly in by-elections on behalf of any party's candidate who would publicly support women's suffrage. In 1907, the NUWSS supported the Conservatives in Hexham and Labour in Jarrow; where no suitable candidate was available, it used the by-elections to propagandise. That tactic met with sufficient success for the NUWSS to resolve that it would fight in all future by-elections, and between 1907 and 1909, it had been involved in 31 by-elections.
From 1907 to the start of the First World War, the NUWSS and suffragettes held several peaceful demonstrations. On 13 June 1908, over 10,000 women took part in a London march organised by the NUWSS, and on 21 June, the suffragettes organised Women's Sunday in Hyde Park, which was attended by up to half a million. During the NUWSS's Great Pilgrimage of April 1913, women marched from all over the country to London for a mass rally in Hyde Park that 50,000 attended.
The Mud March is featured in window No. 4 of the stained-glass Dearsley Windows in St Stephen's Hall,in the Palace of Westminster. The window includes panels depicting, among other things, the formation of the NUWSS, WSPU and Women's Freedom League; the NUWSS's Great Pilgrimage, the force-feeding of suffragettes; the Cat and Mouse Act and the death in 1913 of Emily Davison. The window was installed in 2002 as a memorial to the long and ultimately-successful campaign for women's suffrage.
See also
List of MPs elected in the 1906 United Kingdom general election
Women's Sunday, 1908 suffrage march and rally in London
Women's Coronation Procession, 1911 suffrage march in London
Suffrage Hikes, 1912 to 1914 in the US
Woman Suffrage Procession, 1913 march in Washington, D.C.
Great Pilgrimage, 1913 suffrage march in the UK
Silent Sentinels, 1917 to 1919 protest in Washington, D.C.
Selma to Montgomery march, 1965 suffrage march in the US
Notes
References
Sources
Books
Journals
Newspapers
Websites
Further reading
"Suffragette timeline: the long march to votes for women", The Daily Telegraph.
1907 in London
1907 in women's history
February 1907 events
1907 protests
First-wave feminism in the United Kingdom
Protest marches
Protests in London
Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom
1900s in the City of Westminster
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trabancos%20%28river%29
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Trabancos (river)
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The Trabancos is a river in Spain that flows between the Zapardiel and the Guareña rivers, and is a tributary of the Duero river. The source of the Trabancos is in Moraña, a region in the north of the province of Ávila, near Blascomillán. The Trabancos is at an elevation of approximately , is approximately long and, although its river bed is stable, only has a constant water flow during and immediately after torrential rains.
Fluvial geomorphology
From its source in the province of Ávila, to its mouth in the village of Pollos ("Village of Chickens" in Spanish) in the Vallisoletana ("confluence of waters") region, the course of the Trabancos is markedly affected by a geologic fault originating in the Tertiary era—likely pre-Pliocene that, like most of the observed faults of that geological era, follows a NNE-SSW direction. As shown in the graph below, the fault separates material laid down during the Oligocene epoch on the right margin, from material laid down during the Miocene epoch on the left margin. The surface level represents material deposited during the Quaternary period.
Archeological research in areas that surround the Trabancos River, between the villages of Castrejón and Pollos (Valladolid province) have been compared with the specialized bibliography and the published geological charts (infra). This produced identified a sequence of river terraces as follows, on the left hand margin of the chart: TT-1 platform (the most ancient, at +35/40 meters over the flood plain); the TT-2 platform (the second one at +25/30 meters); the TT-3 platform (at +15 meters over the floodplain); and the TT-4 platform (at +10 meters, the last and most recent).
The right hand margin of the designated chart depicts a gravel plateau present along the middle and final courses of the Trabancos River. The scientist Alfredo Pérez-Gonzalez named this formation "Superficie de Alaejos" ("The Plateau of Alaejos", after a nearby village). The Alaejos Plateau incorporates a number of different types of materials, including red argillic soil and a colluvium buildup of gravels with rounded stones of quartz and quartzite.
The terraces of the Trabancos River only occur on the left hand side of the valley. Their sediments overlie Miocene sediments. This is the result of a hard slope in the opposite margin, where the terrain is heavily eroded, which renders the formation and maintenance of river terraces impossible.
Of the previously mentioned river terraces, the one known as TT-4 is only visible near Narros del Castillo (Ávila). Terrace TT-3 is the best preserved of the lot; although its height on the bed of the stream is not constant, it clearly stands out on the floodplain. Terrace TT-2 is quite well preserved as well, although it has been more heavily sculptured by other small tributaries of the Trabancos River. By contrast, terrace TT-1 is greatly eroded; although some sections survive to the south of the municipality of Alaejos (Valladolid), they are very difficult to differentiate from the colluvium floor that covers the Superficie de Alaejos. Entering into land in the municipality of Pollos, the stream stops to form river terraces, cutting traversely and lowering enough (between 40 and 60 meters) to meet the terrace deposits of the Duero River.
The TT-3 platform features a very compact and thick Miocene epoch conglomerate formed of river-smoothed pebbles of quartzite, most likely cut by the Trabancos River ages ago, and cemented together by chalk and sandstone materials. While this Miocene conglomerate emerges from the banks of each river terrace, the quartzite in the conglomerate on the TT-2 platform, just northwest of the municipality of Siete Iglesias de Trabancos, likely derives from the action of the Duero River rather than the Trabancos River, as a slope in the terrain is thought to have caused the formation of an alluvial fan that deposited quartzite on the fluvial fossil river bed of the Trabancos.
The fact that the river terraces of the Trabancos River cut and cross some terraces of the Duero River indicates the affected Duero River terraces are younger than those not formed from activity of the waters of this river. The "superficie de Alaejos" carve-out intrudes 4 to 6 meters into the Duero River terrace designated TD-7 (+74/80 m) to the northwest of Siete Iglesias de Trabancos village. Likewise, the TT-2 fluvial terrace of Trabancos cuts some Duero River terraces. Since the previously mentioned Duero River terrace named TD-7 has been dated by Alfredo Pérez-González (op.cit.) to the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene, meaning the river terraces of Trabancos River are younger than the "Superficie de Alaejos", it appears plausible that this postdates the creation of Trabancos valley: the proposed date could, thus, be halfway through the Middle Pleistocene or later.
History of the Trabancos region
Although the eastern portion of the river is of insignificant hydrographic importance, at least until the 13th century, it played an important role in the history of the North Spanish Plateau.
Prehistoric era
Evidence of prehistoric human habitation has been unearthed in hillsides in some areas of Narros del Castillo (Ávila), and in Siete Iglesias de Trabancos (Valladolid), dating from the Quaternary period, and have been further pinpointed as originating in the Lower Paleolithic era. At both sites, collections of lithic stone artifacts knapped during the Acheulean period are found on the surface (not as a result of archeological excavation), including centripetally knapped lithic cores, others displaying non-arranged lithic reduction, as well as lithic flakes characteristic of both the Levallois and Kombewa techniques, chopping tools, and handaxes.
Only ambiguous archaeological evidence has been found dating from the late Roman period. It has been suggested by some that this is a result of the severity of the land and weather in the Trabancos valley and its surrounding regions. Possibly, during the pre-Roman period the territory was a no-man's-land between the Hispanic tribes of the Vaccei and Vettoni.
Some archaeological remains have been found in the municipality of Siete iglesias de Trabancos (Valladolid), but they are not well preserved, having been situated on the surface of the terrain. Such remains consist of, for instance, broken pieces of comb-decorated pottery that appear to date from Spain's Iron Age. There are few other examples of prehistoric findings directly along the Trabancos river. However, in the surrounding regions, such as the municipality of Alaejos (Valladolid), archaeological investigation has unearthed several human burials sites that have been dated to the Bronze Age. In addition, some prehistoric remains have been found near the mouth of the Trabancos River, in Pollos village that originated from the Duero River. These include relics of the Spanish Bronze Age classified as Cogotas pottery, as well as Proto-Cogotas pottery, both featuring incised decoration.
Roman times
The Romans likely came to the Trabancos region in the 2nd century, during the campaigns of Lucius Licinius Lucullus (152 BC), but the area was peripheral to the regions of principal occupation, as well as to the creation of early towns and more importantly, trade routes: most travel routes were in the east of this region, which followed the river Eresma from the town of Coca (Cauca, in Roman times) and Matapozuelos village (Nivaria in Roman times), up to Simancas (Septimanca); and at the west, for the "Vía de la Plata" ("silver road"), the most important Roman route in Lusitania Province. Nevertheless, it is known that in the Vallisoletan area, there was several villages that probably are of pre-Roman origin. In fact, the etymology of the word 'Trabancos' suggests a name originating before the Roman occupation.
At the Lavachicha site (municipality of Castrejón, Valladolid) several pieces of typical Roman pottery named terra sigillata hispanica have been unearthed and there was also an archaeological excavation in the 1980s that revealed a necropolis from late Roman times or, perhaps, from Visigothic times. Similar remains of late Roman pottery, have been found in Carpio (Valladolid), but only at ground level, and not from archaeological excavation. Another municipality crossed by the Trabancos River is Nava del Rey (a small town located in Valladolid), where, once again, are found superficial pieces of terra sigillata hispanica and a striking plate fragment with red gloss, resembling those that were carried by Roman legionaries on military campaigns.
The Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, the area remained a zone of little interest. No written documents exist prior to the 12th century that mention the region. It is known, however, that between 711 and 740 AD the Berbers had stationed troops in the valley of the Duero, but the majority of these peoples left the area because of a severe drought that occurred sometime between 750 and 753 AD. Only the most important centers of habitation survived (Medina del Campo, Olmedo, Alcazarén, Tordesillas, etc.).
During the Christian conquest, little emphasis was placed on resettling the region, as it was essential for the sovereigns of the time to consolidate more strategic zones (in the 11th century, priority was placed on the south of the Sistema Central, a mountain range located in the center of the Iberian peninsula), which is why Medina del Campo remained intact into the 12th century.
Nevertheless, Tomas Mañanes, a professor at the University of Valladolid, who investigated the Trabancos valley and Guareña area, found numerous defensive turrets or "Torrejones" (according to the local dialect) that were dated to the 11th century; that is to say, previous to any official resettlement. Specifically, more than ten defensive structures of various sizes were verified along the course of the Trabancos River in the province of Valladolid.
Character and purpose of the Torrejones
Almost all the torrejones are in areas now uninhabited (except those in Castrejón and Alaejos, both of which were turned into castles, in later history). The torrejones were relatively simple square or egg-shaped structures, with several floors, built of limestone or brick. At least two categories of torrejones can be identified: The first have small peepholes in their walls and are built in regions that were in isolated areas at the time of use, and the other are small castles located in what were rural farming villages (though today they are deserted).
Nevertheless, the typological similarity of the structures and the relatively short distance between them (ideal for visual communication), has led some to think that they were on opposite sides of the frontier line between the Kingdoms of León and Castile (in Salamanca there is a town names Zorita de la Frontera ("Zorita on the Border") in memory of those times). These fortresses were reinforced in the 12th and 13th centuries due to conflicts between the two kingdoms; but it appears that they are more plentiful on the Castilian side (near the Trabancos) than on the Leonese side (near the River Guareña). This has been seen as indicative of a certain independence on the part of the militia of the Community of Medina del Campo and surrounding areas, which was thereby forced to defend itself without outside help, while the Leonese side would have been able to rely on the help of Royal troops, and the Knights Hospitaller of the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, billeted in Castronuño and Torrecilla de la Orden.
Trabancos River area becomes strategically important
As indicated at the start of the discussion of the area during the Middle Ages, despite its history as a fortified border from the tenth century, the area was unimportant until the thirteenth. The King of the (now united) Kingdom of Castile and Leon, Alphonse VII (1126–1157), made a series of internal territorial changes that transferred Leonese territories to the Crown of Castille: specifically, The Tierra de Campos to the north of the Duero, an area valued at the time for its riches, and the alfoz de Medina del Campo (to the south of the Duero), a poor and sparsely populated zone, although it possessed a certain strategic value in terms of the defense of the passes of the Duero valley. During the time of the union of the two crowns, the question of who owned these areas was of little importance; however, upon the death of Alphonse VII and the division of his possession amongst his sons, continuous conflicts arose over the control of the area, especially Tierra de Campos, but also, though less importantly, over the area of Medina del Campo.
The wars over the area intensified between 1178 and 1181. The Leonese Alfoz de Toro was heavily defended, thanks to the Fortress of Castronuño, with a vicious battle taking place even on the shores of the Trabancos River itself. Of particular note is an encounter in 1179 between Leonese and Castilian forces, just outside the Fortress of Cast'cam (Castrejón), which led to the signing of a peace treaty between Alphonse VIII of Castille and Ferdinand II of León. But in fact peace came to a swift end in the year 1183, when the Kings of Castille and Leon made camp on the outskirts of the towns of Carpio and Fresno el Viejo (both towns in the Province of Valladolid) respectively.
After the death of Ferdinand II, fighting resumed (interspersed with a short truce in 1204 thanks to the marriage of Alphonse IX of León to his niece, Berenguela of Castile); but the marriage was annulled by her father because of the close blood-relationship of the spouses. Finally, the Crowns of both kingdoms were taken by King Ferdinand III of Castile.
The logical conclusion of these events was that the border was heavily militarized, involving the building of castles and reinforcements of troops in the areas surrounding the Trabancos River, with some castles being erected in the west, such as in Alaejos. Paradoxically, the wars increased the value of the region, and for the first time there began to appear documents recording the area in the files of the cathedrals of Zamora, Salamanca and Segovia including documents regarding: Siete Iglesias de Trabancos ("Seven Churches at Trabancos") in 1178, Alaejos (Falafeios) in 1167, and in 1180, Eván de Arriba, Eván de Abajo, Valdefuentes and Pedroso (which are now deserted villages), together with Nava del Rey in 1265, among others.
This last date, 1265, corresponds to a document found in the 'Book of Loans' of Salamanca cathedral, which records the result of a new conflict: the battle between the dioceses of Salamanca and Segovia for the possession of the parishes to the east of the Trabancos; an area that hitherto had been accorded little worth. Salamanca had made use of the frontier struggles to take possession of the towns of Medina del Campo, provoking a conflict of interest since the region was under Castilian rule, and Salamanca belonged to the crown of León. In fact, the Salmantinos created new parishes, like Siete Iglesias de Trabancos in 1167, and Alaejos in 1185.
Trabancos River area today
Looking at the Trabancos today and at a time when it is dry, it might seem preposterous that at one time it held a position of strategic importance for the town of Medina del Campo, and also, for the so-called "Extremadura Catellana" (the wildest border of Castile). However, the area's archaeological heritage is fast disappearing.
ZEPA designation
The middle and final course of the river Trabancos has been included in the Special Protection Area (SPA or in Spanish ZEPA) Tierra de Campiñas (Land of champaigns).
ZEPA SPAs, are catalogued by the member states of the European Union as natural zones of special interest for the conservation of bird species threatened with extinction, in accordance with the criteria established by the community board Birds Directive 79/409/CEE and subsequent modifications by the (Directiva de Aves) "Aviary Regulation Board" of the EU.
Although the designation also includes a portion of the Guareña River's course to the west, and the Zapardiel River's course to the east, the Trabancos River ZEPA SPA designated area is the largest in the Autonomous Community of Castile and León, since it covers almost 1,400 square kilometres, including the Campo de Peñaranda (in Salamanca), the Moraña (in Ávila) and, especially, a large part of the Tierra de Medina del Campo. In all, 73% of the territory of the Trabancos ZEPA SPA corresponds to the province of Valladolid.
The designated region is largely uninhabited —97% of the area is agricultural land, with an emphasis on cereal crops and other irrigation farming purposes. The areas of ecological interest are found in the remaining 3% percent of the terrain. The region is characterized by tilled land and pastures, small pine woods and holm oak woods, with interspersed wasteland areas covered in halophile bushes. There are also many small ephemeral ponds; a characteristic of Spanish steppes, which are only water-filled during the winter. From a conservation standpoint, such ponds, like nearby segments of the Trabancos River's banks, are in a precarious ecological state. Nevertheless, the areas are still capable of sustaining the flora and fauna commensurate with a natural riverside environment.
The Trabancos region stands out for its concentration of great bustards (more than 2000); as well as having the largest reproductive concentration of black-bellied sandgrouses (Pterocles orientalis) in Castile and León (with more than 200 mating pairs). It is also the winter season nesting ground of more than 1,500 red kites (Milvus milvus). There are also numerous birds of prey; the most abundant are Montagu's harriers (Circus pygargus, 50 mating pairs) and lesser kestrels (Falco naumanni; almost 150 mating pairs), but there are also hawks, goshawks, falcons, owls, and others. The region is also host to numerous gamebirds, including the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa).
Despite their importance, the population of little bustard (Tetrax tetrax) in the region appear to be diminishing. Although not all the species protected in this ZEPA SPA can be listed, the protected area is a migratory crossing site and wintertime nesting area that, along with the Riberas de Castronuño (Valladolid) nature reserve, is frequented by many waterfowl (cranes, geese, etc.), some of which even take advantage of the area ephemeral ponds for nesting during humid winters.
References and notes
Zonas de especial protección para las aves (ZEPA). From the Spanish-language Wikipedia. Retrieved April 10, 2006.
Michelin 2001 - 2006. map of Ávila Province. Retrieved April 10, 2006.
Pearson Education, publishing as Fact Monster 2000–2006. Geologic Timescale. Retrieved April 10, 2006.
Trabancos. From the Spanish-language Wikipedia. Retrieved April 10, 2006 and including the internal references:
See also
List of rivers of Spain
External links
ZEPAs in English
Eván de Abajo in English
El Ajo (Ávila)
Siete Iglesias de Trabancos (Valladolid)
La Sed del Trabancos, por Alfonso Balmori paraEl Norte de Castilla
History of Spain by location
Rivers of Spain
Rivers of Castile and León
Geography of the Province of Ávila
Rivers of Valladolid
Tributaries of the Douro River
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Bigger%20Bang%20Tour
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A Bigger Bang Tour
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A Bigger Bang was a worldwide concert tour by the Rolling Stones which took place between August 2005 and August 2007, in support of their album A Bigger Bang. At the time, it was the highest grossing tour of all time, earning $558,255,524. It has since been surpassed by U2's 2009–11 U2 360 Tour, placing second . The tour was chronicled on the video release The Biggest Bang, compiling full performances, several recordings from shows and documentaries. Notable concerts on the tour included a two-night stand in the autumn of 2006 at the Beacon Theatre filmed by Martin Scorsese for Shine a Light, and their half-time performance at Super Bowl XL.
History
In 2005, the Stones announced plans for another world tour starting 21 August at a press conference and a mini concert at the Juilliard School in New York City. The A Bigger Bang Tour was expected to include dates throughout the United States and Canada before going to South America, Asia and Europe. During the Q&A, Mick Jagger told reporters that it would not necessarily be their last tour.
All rehearsals for the tour took place in Toronto, Ontario, at the midtown private school Greenwood College School; for the full stage rehearsals, a hangar at Pearson International Airport was rented.
In keeping with tradition, the Rolling Stones performed a surprise club show on 10 August 2005 at the Phoenix Concert Theatre before an audience of 1,000, each only paying $10 (the Phoenix's regular cover charge).
The tour had its official start on 21 August 2005 with two shows at historic Fenway Park in Boston. The Stones' huge stage caused extensive damage to the outfield, so that approximately 40,000 square feet (4,000 m2) of sod had to be brought in to repair it, and a subsequent baseball game held at the park three days later had to be pushed back an hour to give the grounds crew more time to complete the repairs.
At the end of 2005, it was announced by tour producer Michael Cohl that the A Bigger Bang Tour had grossed a record-shattering $162 million since opening at Fenway Park. This broke the previous North American record, held by the Stones themselves for their own 1994/1995 Voodoo Lounge Tour, which grossed approximately $120 million.
In terms of revenue, the A Bigger Bang Tour was the largest tour in North America. The second largest was the Stones' 1997/1998 Bridges to Babylon Tour.
On 1 February 2006, the Stones played their first concert at the Baltimore Arena since 1969, the second smallest venue they played for the entire tour. Their most intimate performance, save the surprise Phoenix show in Toronto, was in Radio City Music Hall on 14 March 2006, in a private concert for supporters of the Robin Hood Foundation. This benefit concert was their only performance at the venue to date. Other intimate venues the Stones played during the tour was the Beacon Theatre in New York City. On 28 August 2005, the Rolling Stones performed at Frank Clair Stadium in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, their first performance in Ottawa since a performance at the Ottawa Auditorium 40 years earlier on 24 April 1965.
While on the American leg of the tour, on 5 February 2006 the Stones played "Start Me Up", "Rough Justice" and "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" at the halftime show of Super Bowl XL in Detroit. Before performing "Satisfaction", Jagger made an uncharacteristic comment on their longevity: "This one we could've done for Super Bowl I." Jagger was asked to leave out two sexually suggestive lyrics. The audio on his microphone was lowered twice for the two requested omissions, but Jagger still sang those lyrics.
The outstanding scale of the tour was realised on 18 February 2006 when the Stones played a one-night concert on Copacabana Beach in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The free concert was broadcast on television and broke several records as the largest rock concert of all time. There were a reported two million people present on the beach and crowding subsequent streets. A special bridge was constructed for the band to cross from the stage to the hotel safely. Three days after the monstrous event, U2 played in São Paulo, and clearly affected by the huge night, ended their concert with the words: "I can't get no satisfaction!". While the Guinness Book of World Records states the largest free concert ever was given in the same spot in 1994 by Rod Stewart, to 3.5 million people, that figure includes everyone who was on Copacabana Beach for fireworks and New Year's Eve celebrations, not just for that concert. This show was recorded for exhibition on digital movie screens across the United States via Regal Cinemas and heard live on XM Radio. Additionally, the show was shown live on AOL Music in partnership with Network Live.
The Stones arrived on 8 April in the People's Republic of China for their first-ever performance in the world's most populous country (performances planned in 2003 for the Licks Tour were canceled due to the SARS epidemic). The Chinese authorities requested that the group not perform "Brown Sugar", "Honky Tonk Women", "Beast of Burden", and "Let's Spend the Night Together", as they were considered to be "too suggestive."
The Biggest Bang, a four-disc concert DVD collection with several shows from the band's 2005–2006 legs of this tour, was released in June 2007.
"A Bigger Bang: Live on Copacabana Beach", a double CD / triple LP / Blu-ray / double DVD live album, was released on July 9, 2021.
After their 18 April 2006 performance in Wellington, New Zealand, the Rolling Stones took a one-month break before embarking on the European leg of their A Bigger Bang Tour. Mick Jagger remained in New Zealand to film a cameo in the sitcom The Knights of Prosperity, while Keith Richards and Ronnie Wood went to Fiji for two weeks with their wives.
During the vacation, Richards fell from a tree. After suffering a concussion, he was rushed back to Ascot Private Hospital in Auckland, New Zealand, for further observation. Although reports claimed he had been released two days later, it was soon confirmed by the hospital he underwent brain surgery on 5 May to relieve a blood clot that had gathered behind his skull. The BBC reported that upon discharge, Richards profusely thanked the hospital staff for his care.
On 15 May, Britain's The Independent newspaper said that the injury meant up to six shows could be pulled from the start of the band's European tour at an estimated cost of £1 million a show. The A Bigger Bang Tour restarted in Milan, Italy on 11 July 2006 at Stadio Giuseppe Meazza, with Jagger singing an entire Italian translation of "As Tears Go By" and Richards having made a full recovery; four of the first fifteen dates were rescheduled for later in the summer, with the rest of the dates taking place in the summer of 2007. As well as the first fifteen dates, two more dates were postponed due to Jagger contracting laryngitis.
The only previous show cancelled was one in Dublin, Ireland, due to complications with the promoter. Due to delays with construction, the two shows set to be at Wembley Stadium were moved to Twickenham Stadium, London, England. To promote this European leg of the A Bigger Bang Tour, there were plans to release the new track "Biggest Mistake" from the A Bigger Bang album.
In mid-August 2007, several media sources reported that the band would quit touring at the end of their tour, and the last concert on the tour, in London on 26 August, would be their last gig ever. Less than a week later, in an interview with The Sun newspaper, Wood said the band had no plans to quit. and Jagger also stated "I'm sure the Rolling Stones will do more things and more records and more tours."
The tour concluded with a record total gross of $558,255,524. This surpassed the previous record of $377 million earned by U2 for their successful Vertigo Tour. The Stones also hold the record for third and fourth highest grossing tours with the Voodoo Lounge Tour and Bridges to Babylon Tour.
The official logo for the tour was the "Chippy Tongue"—an exploding re-design of the tongue and lips logo.
The show
There were five different ticket options at each concert in the USA: Gold Seating $100, Diamond Seating $350, Premium Seating $175, General Admission $100 and Side Seating $50. In the United Kingdom, the price levels were £40, £60, £90, £150 and £340. Tickets had been seen on eBay for up to $4000. Hundreds of tickets remained unsold at some of the band's UK shows, such as the show at Hampden Park, Glasgow, Scotland, though the show at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff, Wales, was a sell out. The first concert at Fenway Park also saw California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger charge 36 Republican donors US$100,000 each to view the show with him in his VIP box. Jagger quipped about Schwarzenegger, "Apparently he's been fundraising outside, selling bootleg T-shirts and scalping tickets", to the crowd, with Richards adding, "Hey, Arnold, don't forget our cut on the T-shirts."
The A Bigger Bang Tour stage was designed by Mark Fisher. Production design was by Fisher, Charlie Watts, Mick Jagger and Patrick Woodroffe. The show included state-of-the-art electronics that presented visual screen shots of the Stones Tongue and live footage. The stage was 25 m (84 ft) tall. The multi-level construction included balconies behind the stage with accommodation for 400 audience. As on the Bridges to Babylon and Licks tours, the band played part of the set on a 'B' stage in the center of the field. A section of the stage detached itself and rolled the entire band along a catwalk, creating an "island" B stage in the middle of the stadium. Unusual stage designs in and of themselves have been a feature since Rolling Stones Tour of the Americas '75.
The introduction featured fireworks and computer-generated graphics representing the literal Big Bang. The four band members' faces hazily appear, and further graphics depicting fast travel through a city's streets before Keith Richards appeared on the screen to the sound of the band's opening song (mainly "Start Me Up" or "Jumpin' Jack Flash" although a handful of other numbers opened shows on the tour).
During the concerts, one large central screen played live footage of the various band members, predominantly Jagger. Either side of the main screen, there were two sets of lighting effect panels that combine with the main screen to produce visual effects at various points in the show.
At stadium gigs, during "Sympathy for the Devil", huge flames were sent into the air above the stage. During the 1970s, this song only made sporadic live appearances, though is captured on 1977's Love You Live. However, since 1989's Steel Wheels Tour, "Sympathy for the Devil" has become a setlist mainstay and a vehicle for the show's most elaborate effects.
On Saturday 11 November 2006, Mick Jagger's father, Joe Jagger, died of pneumonia at age ninety-three in Kingston upon Thames near London. Jagger flew to Britain the day before to see his father one last time before returning to Las Vegas the same day, where he was to perform on Saturday night. The show went ahead as scheduled.
Personnel
Rolling Stones
Mick Jagger – lead vocals, guitars, harmonica, keyboards
Keith Richards – rhythm guitars, backing vocals
Ronnie Wood – lead guitar
Charlie Watts – drums
Additional musicians
Darryl Jones – bass
Chuck Leavell – keyboards, backing vocals
Bernard Fowler – backing vocals
Lisa Fischer – backing vocals, percussion
Blondie Chaplin – backing vocals, acoustic guitar
Bobby Keys – saxophone
Tim Ries – saxophone, keyboards
Michael Davis – trombone
Kent Smith – trumpet
Set lists
The set list played at the concerts changed at every destination and included new and old songs, but mostly centred around the same numbers. Altogether 80 different songs were played. At almost every destination, the opening song switched between "Jumpin' Jack Flash", "Start Me Up", "It's Only Rock 'n' Roll", and "Paint It Black"; the closing numbers were either "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" or "Brown Sugar." A selection of new material was frequent as well as two songs sung by guitarist Keith Richards.
New tracks included: "Rough Justice", "Infamy", "This Place Is Empty", "It Won't Take Long", "Rain Fall Down", "Streets of Love", "Back of My Hand" and "Oh No, Not You Again."
The set list for the final show in The O2 in London, England, on 26 August – the last concert of the tour – was the following:
"Start Me Up"
"You Got Me Rocking"
"Rough Justice"
"Ain't Too Proud To Beg"
"She Was Hot"
"You Can't Always Get What You Want"
"Can't You Hear Me Knocking"
"I'll Go Crazy"
"Tumbling Dice"
"You Got the Silver"
"Wanna Hold You"
"Miss You"
"It's Only Rock 'n Roll (But I Like It)"
"(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction"
"Honky Tonk Women"
"Sympathy for the Devil"
"Paint It Black"
"Jumpin' Jack Flash"
"Brown Sugar"
According to Setlist.fm, these were the most frequently performed songs on the tour:
Jumpin' Jack Flash: 147 times
Tumbling Dice: 147 times
Start Me Up: 147 times
(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction: 147 times
Sympathy for the Devil: 146 times
Brown Sugar: 146 times
Honky Tonk Women: 144 times
Rough Justice: 127 times
It's Only Rock and Roll (But I Like It): 125 times
Miss You: 121 times
Support acts
Artists playing as an introduction to the Stones at various destinations included Toots & the Maytals, Lifehouse, The Black Eyed Peas, Alice Cooper, Maroon 5, Kanye West, Beck, Pearl Jam, The Smashing Pumpkins, Alanis Morissette, Christina Aguilera, Mötley Crüe, Metallica, Brooks & Dunn, Bonnie Raitt, Trey Anastasio, Dave Matthews Band, Living Colour, The Living End, Joss Stone, Nickelback, Buddy Guy, The Charlatans, Regina, Feeder, the John Mayer Trio, Wilco, Richie Kotzen and Our Lady Peace.
Dominican artist Juan Luis Guerra opened the San Juan, Puerto Rico, show, making him the only Merengue artist that has ever opened for the Stones. This opening act "garnered the best reception ever seen at a Stones show", as reported by It's Only Rock and Roll, the Rolling Stones Fan Club of Europe.
For the Halifax, Nova Scotia, show acts included Halifax natives Sloan, well known rap artist Kanye West and Alice Cooper. Black Rebel Motorcycle Club opened the shows in Wichita and Missoula. Three Days Grace opened both concerts in Regina. Blue October opened for them in Nampa, Idaho.
The two shows in San Francisco were supported by Metallica, who said they were "honoured" to break a seventeen-year span of not performing an opening show, in order to open for the Stones. The Stones acknowledged this gesture by giving them 75 minutes per show, instead of the usual 45 to 60 minutes. They were also Metallica's only dates that year as they had planned to take 2005 off from touring.
Guns N' Roses were scheduled to open for the Stones for two dates in Germany, whilst on one of their Chinese Democracy Tour pre-legs. However, due to Keith Richards' fall from a tree, the shows were cancelled.
Van Morrison was the supporting act in Nijmegen, Netherlands, as well as in Oakland, California. Due to heavy rain his amps, etc. were getting wet, so he was forced to stop after two songs.
Tour dates
Festivals and other miscellaneous performances
This concert was a part of "Super Bowl XL"
This concert was a part of "Isle of Wight Festival"
Box office score data
Gallery
See also
Rolling Stones concerts
List of highest grossing concert tours
List of highest-attended concerts
List of most-attended concert tours
The Rolling Stones first concert in China
References
External links
2005 concert tours
2006 concert tours
2007 concert tours
The Rolling Stones concert tours
Concert tours of Argentina
Concert tours of Australia
Concert tours of Austria
Concert tours of Belgium
Concert tours of Brazil
Concert tours of Canada
Concert tours of China
Concert tours of the Czech Republic
Concert tours of Denmark
Concert tours of Finland
Concert tours of France
Concert tours of Germany
Concert tours of Hungary
Concert tours of Ireland
Concert tours of Italy
Concert tours of Japan
Concert tours of Mexico
Concert tours of Montenegro
Concert tours of the Netherlands
Concert tours of New Zealand
Concert tours of Norway
Concert tours of Poland
Concert tours of Portugal
Concert tours of Puerto Rico
Concert tours of Romania
Concert tours of Russia
Concert tours of Serbia
Concert tours of Spain
Concert tours of Sweden
Concert tours of Switzerland
Concert tours of the United Kingdom
Concert tours of the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Johnson%20%28sports%20executive%29
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Don Johnson (sports executive)
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Donald Stewart Johnson (March 25, 1930May 12, 2012) was a Canadian sports executive. He was elected president of the Newfoundland Amateur Hockey Association (NAHA) in 1966, sought to expand minor ice hockey in Newfoundland and negotiated for the NAHA to become a member of the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA). He was elected president of the CAHA in 1975, resolved internal disagreement over the jurisdiction of junior ice hockey, avoided the withdrawal of the Western Canada Hockey League and sought a new professional-amateur agreement with the National Hockey League and World Hockey Association. He was part of negotiations to end the Canada men's national ice hockey team hiatus from the Ice Hockey World Championships and the Olympic Games, in exchange for International Ice Hockey Federation approval of the 1976 Canada Cup. He established a long-term sponsorship to improve the National Coaching Certification Program, twice visited China with a Canadian amateur team for instructional tours and arranged an exchange for Chinese players and coaches to attend training camps in Canada. He was chairman of the 1978 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships as the CAHA past-president, and was posthumously credited by Hockey Canada for playing an important role in Canada's return to international competitions and improving Canada's hockey reputation.
Johnson was a member of the Royal St. John's Regatta committee for 18 years, which included a term as president and obtaining permission to use the Royal prefix. He served as a director of the Sports Federation of Canada and the National Sport Recreation Centre. He was also chairman of the Interprovincial Sports and Recreation Council, a member of the Canada Games council and sat on the board of governors for Canada's Sports Hall of Fame. He was the assistant deputy Newfoundland Minister of Sport during the late 1970s, was an executive member of the Newfoundland and Labrador Amateur Sports Federation, served as treasurer of Softball Newfoundland and the Newfoundland Amateur Sports Federation, and was president of the St. John's Senior Softball League. His other sporting interests included sitting on the board of directors for the St. John's Maple Leafs, a director of the Youth Bowling Council of Canada, and a delegate to the Canadian Amateur Swimming Association. Johnson was inducted into the Newfoundland and Labrador Sports Hall of Fame, the Newfoundland Hockey Hall of Fame, the Royal St. John's Regatta Hall of Fame, the Newfoundland and Labrador Volunteer Hall of Fame, and was made the namesake of the Don Johnson Memorial Cup.
Early life and education
Donald Stewart Johnson was born on March 25, 1930, in Halifax, Nova Scotia, to parents Donald Johnson Sr. and Ina MacRobson. He began playing ice hockey as a youth and became a defenceman. He attended St. Mary's High School where he played junior ice hockey, then completed university studies while playing for the Saint Mary's Huskies. He remained with St. Mary's to coach at both the high school level and the Atlantic Universities Athletics Association level.
Johnson began working for the Bank of Nova Scotia in Middleton, Nova Scotia, in 1949, and later worked at several branches in the Annapolis Valley while playing senior ice hockey. He played for the Middleton Maple Leafs for two seasons, then later played for the Digby Ravens, then transferred to a branch in Halifax and played for the Fairview Aces. In the late 1950s, he became an accountant at the branch in Campbellton, New Brunswick, and won a provincial hockey championship during his second season with the Campbellton Tigers.
Newfoundland hockey career
Johnson relocated to Newfoundland in December 1959, after he was appointed the accountant of the main Bank of Nova Scotia branch in downtown St. John's. He played senior hockey for the St. Patrick's team that won the Boyle Trophy championship in the 1959–60 and 1960–61 seasons. His assist on the winning goal in the decisive game in 1960 ended a 16-year consecutive championship streak by the Saint Bonaventure's College alumni senior team. The St. John's Daily News reported in 1960 that Johnson was a critic of the local sports news, but credited him for being a new citizen to the city who showed interested in the administration and growth of local hockey.
Johnson temporarily retired as a player and was named head coach of the St. Patrick's junior and senior hockey teams for the 1961–62 season. In August 1962, he was promoted to become manager of the Bank of Nova Scotia branch on Water Street in St. John's. He came out of retirement to play the 1962–63 season for the St. John's Royal Canadian Legion senior hockey team.
Johnson permanently retired from playing in 1963, and was named to a new committee set up by St. Patrick's Hall Schools to focus on intramural sports leagues for its alumni, and he was subsequently elected secretary of the St. John's Junior and Senior Amateur Hockey League. He coached several senior and minor ice hockey teams in the league, then oversaw a period of growth when he became league president in 1964.
Johnson was elected president of the Newfoundland Amateur Hockey Association (NAHA) in 1966 and wanted to expand minor ice hockey as one of its permanent programs. He expected that the NAHA could join the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) within five years if the terms of affiliation were acceptable, and that it could be admitted independent of and equal to the Maritime Amateur Hockey Association. He sought for the CAHA to accommodate more NAHA requests than in previous offers of affiliation, which included the NAHA keeping regulations which allowed a paid player-coach and the occasional professional player on a roster. The NAHA also wanted its senior league to have shorter playoffs for the Allan Cup instead of an interlocking schedule with teams from the Maritimes. In May 1966, Johnson reached an agreement with CAHA president Lionel Fleury who accepted the NAHA as a branch member for the 1966–67 season. Johnson stated that despite Newfoundland becoming Canada's tenth province in 1949, the NAHA took 17 years to affiliate with the CAHA "through lack of information, misinterpretation of correspondence and other factors".
CAHA vice-president
Johnson and the NAHA hosted the 1970 CAHA general meeting in St. John's, which focused on Canada's possible return to international competition at the Ice Hockey World Championships and in ice hockey at the Olympic Games. The CAHA also discussed having the Allan Cup finals as a tournament format located in one host location, which was supported by Johnson and the NAHA. At the same meeting, he was elected vice-president of the CAHA in charge of senior and intermediate hockey and served in the same position until 1973.
Johnson was elected first vice-president of the CAHA in May 1973. He remained involved in senior hockey in Newfoundland, and was an assistant coach with the St. John's Capitals that won three consecutive Herder Memorial Trophy championships from 1973 to 1975. He travelled to China to represent the CAHA on an exhibition tour by the UBC Thunderbirds men's ice hockey team in December 1973. The trip was supported by the Government of Canada as part of a desire to normalize relations with China, and coach Bob Hindmarch and his players conducted practices attended by the Chinese.
Johnson was re-elected first vice-president in May 1974 by acclamation. He also acted as chairman of the CAHA's development council, and arranged an international junior ice hockey coach seminar in Winnipeg, in conjunction with the 1975 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. The Winnipeg Free Press reported that Johnson achieved a personal victory at the 1974 CAHA general meeting, after the CAHA removed "sudden death" and replaced it with "sudden victory" in its rules and regulations. He felt the previous overtime rule to be "distasteful" and had tried to get it changed for several years.
In May 1975, the CAHA adopted of series of updates to its ice hockey rules in an effort to reduce on-ice violence and improve the safety of players. Changes specifically targeted fighting, cross-checking, high-sticking, head butting and preventing the abuse of on-ice officials. Johnson felt that the changes were improvements and had been resisted for a long time due to "tradition and history" in the game.
CAHA president
First term
Johnson was elected president of the CAHA to succeed Jack Devine in May 1975, and became the only person from Newfoundland to hold the position. He was immediately faced with a large budget shortfall and internal disagreement over the jurisdiction of junior hockey in Western Canada.
The CAHA sought C$195,000 from the World Hockey Association (WHA) in outstanding payments for drafting and signing junior-aged players to professional contracts. The CAHA asked for assistance from Marc Lalonde, the Minister of National Health and Welfare, in getting the National Hockey League (NHL) and the WHA back to the negotiation table for a new professional-amateur agreement after the previous deal expired earlier in 1975. The CAHA approved an operating budget with an $88,450 deficit excluding projected income from draft fees, and relied on its financial reserves to cover operating costs and conducting instructional clinics for coaches. Johnson announced coaching clinics targeted at regional, provincial and national levels, with plans to begin clinics for international level coaching. Financial assistance was provided by the Government of Canada and from a sponsorship negotiated with the O'Keefe Sports Foundation and the Daoust-Lalonde skate company.
The Western Canada Hockey League (WCHL) threatened to withdraw from the CAHA and the newly formed Canadian Major Junior Hockey League due to the Western Canada branches of the CAHA refusing to allow junior-aged players to be recruited across provincial boundaries. The Alberta Amateur Hockey Association was upset with the WCHL which relocated teams into Alberta without consultation, and the British Columbia Amateur Hockey Association had withdrawn from the general meeting in protest of perceived lack of support in getting the WCHL to affiliate its three teams in British Columbia. Alberta later threatened suspension of the WCHL teams due to disagreements on the drafting and placement of players. Johnson stated that the CAHA would take necessary action if any party did not live up to expectations, and felt that negotiations with WCHL president Ed Chynoweth were going smoothly. The Lethbridge Herald reported that after Johnson attended the 1976 WCHL All-star Game banquet and used "personality and polish" to make friends, the previous differences between the WCHL and the CAHA were forgotten.
Johnson was part of the Hockey Canada delegation to the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) congress in July 1975 to discuss the Canada men's national ice hockey team returning to international play. Canada had withdrawn from international play prior to the 1970 Ice Hockey World Championships over disagreements on the use of professional players. Johnson stated that Canada had a "strong desire" to participate in the World Championships, but sought co-operation from North American professional leagues and the Government of Canada. Canada proposed hosting an invitational tournament for the world's top six national teams allowing professionals, which became the Canada Cup. The IIHF approved the tournament and in return Canada agreed to play at the World Championships in 1977.
Second term
Johnson was re-elected president of the CAHA by acclamation in May 1976, and looked to implement a national championship for the senior intermediate division which only had regional playoffs. The WCHL issues were settled with the approval to have affiliated lower-level junior teams in Western Canada. Johnson and the Labatt Brewing Company announced a long-term sponsorship to improve the National Coaching Certification Program, which expected to raise the calibre of instruction of coaches with the influx of money and marketing.
In May 1976, the CAHA approved a return to ice hockey at the Olympic Games in 1980, where professionals were not allowed and only amateurs were eligible. Father David Bauer was named to oversee the committee for Canada's return to the Olympics. Hockey Canada restructured its board of directors in July 1976 to include more groups involved in professional and amateur hockey. Johnson held one of the two CAHA seats to represent amateur hockey, along with one seat held by the Canadian Interuniversity Athletics Union.
Johnson sat on the directing committee for the 1976 Canada Cup. The tournament reported a profit of $2.2-million, which helped funding for Canada's national team. Johnson sat on the business committee to review the finances for the upcoming 1977 Ice Hockey World Championships. He stated the possibility that Canada might be represented by a junior all-star team at the World Championships if professional players were unavailable, and noted that failure to send a team would likely mean the end of all international games involving Canada. The IIHF agreed to delay the tournament by two weeks, which allowed Canada to access more professionals who were no longer active in NHL or WHA playoffs.
China invited another Canadian amateur team for an instructional tour and requested the CAHA bring along referees to teach Chinese on-ice officials. Johnson felt that the invitation showed Canada had teams which could play the game in a sportsmanlike manner, despite its reputation for physical play internationally. He also arranged an exchange for Chinese players and coaches to attend professional and junior training camps in Canada, and hoped for the China men's national ice hockey team to visit. Johnson later accompanied the Toronto Varsity Blues men's ice hockey team to China in December 1976.
The CAHA continued to have disagreements with the WHA regarding payments for junior-aged players signed to contracts. Johnson and Hockey Canada attempted to force the WHA into negotiations by using the CAHA membership in the IIHF to block the WHA from gaining approval to play games against European teams. The issues were still unresolved by May 1977 and Canadian junior leagues prepared a lawsuit to get compensation.
Johnson was succeeded by Gord Renwick as CAHA president in May 1977, and was a candidate to replace Gordon Juckes as the CAHA executive director when the latter retired in 1977. Johnson instead served as chairman of the 1978 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in his role as past-president.
Other sporting interests
Johnson was involved in other sporting interests at the national and provincial level. He was a director of the Sports Federation of Canada and the National Sport Recreation Centre. He served as chairman of the Interprovincial Sports and Recreation Council and was a member of the Canada Games council. He was a director of the Youth Bowling Council of Canada, a delegate to the Canadian Amateur Swimming Association, and sat on the board of governors for Canada's Sports Hall of Fame. He served as treasurer of Softball Newfoundland and the Newfoundland Amateur Sports Federation, and was an executive member of the Newfoundland and Labrador Amateur Sports Federation. He also served as the assistant deputy Newfoundland Minister of Sport during the late 1970s.
Johnson was a member of the Royal St. John's Regatta committee for 18 years from 1986, and served as a director, secretary, treasurer, vice-president, and president. He was chairman of the Royal St. John's Regatta Hall of Fame, served as captain-of-the-course in recreational regattas and time trials, and collaborated with Frederick Russell and Geoff Carnell to get permission to use the Royal prefix for the Regatta.
Johnson became a sports columnist for The Evening Telegram in 1990. He sat on the board of directors for the St. John's Maple Leafs from 1991 to 1995, and the charitable Leafs Foundation from 1995 to 2005. He also served as president of the St. John's Senior Softball League, was a director for the Bally Haly Golf & Curling Club, chairman of the St. John's Figure Skating Club carnival committee, and a commodore of the Terra Nova Yacht Club.
Personal life
Johnson was married to Florence Helen Harris and had three children. After his career at the Bank of Nova Scotia ended, he worked as a civil servant and was the assistant deputy minister for the Newfoundland Department of Rehabilitation and Recreation, and was an administrator for Newfoundland Parks. He volunteered as president of the Newfoundland Lung Association, sat on the board of directors for the Duke of Edinburgh's International Award and was chairman of the Williams Family Foundation. He also served on the board of directors for the Newfoundland Tuberculosis and Respiratory Disease Association and the Association for the Help of Retarded Children. Johnson died on May 12, 2012, in St. John's at age 82.
Honours and legacy
Johnson was named the CAHA executive of the year when he completed his second term as president in 1977, and was named a life member of the CAHA in May 1982. The Don Johnson Cup was established in 1982, to be awarded for the junior-B hockey championship of Atlantic Canada. At the end of inaugural competition for the cup, Johnson awarded his namesake trophy to his own son as the assistant captain of the Brother Rice Celtics from St. John's, Newfoundland.
Johnson was inducted into the builder category of both the Newfoundland and Labrador Sports Hall of Fame in 1982, and the Newfoundland Hockey Hall of Fame in 1994. He was later inducted into the Royal St. John's Regatta Hall of Fame in 2005. In 2011, the Metro Minor Hockey League was renamed the Don Johnson Hockey League in his honour, to serve competitive minor ice hockey in the greater St. John's area. Other honours Johnson received were induction into the Canada Games Council Hall of Honour; and life memberships with Hockey Newfoundland and Labrador, Softball Newfoundland and Labrador, Sport Newfoundland and Labrador, and the Sports Federation of Canada.
After Johnson's death, he was given a tribute in the Newfoundland House of Assembly on May 14, 2012, by Derrick Dalley, the Minister of Tourism, Culture and Recreation. Hockey Canada credited Johnson for playing an important role in Canada's return to international competitions and improving Canada's international hockey reputation. The Don Johnson Cup was renamed to the Don Johnson Memorial Cup in 2013, and Johnson was posthumously inducted into the Newfoundland and Labrador Volunteer Hall of Fame in 2018.
References
Bibliography
1930 births
2012 deaths
20th-century Canadian civil servants
20th-century Canadian journalists
Canadian accountants
Canadian Amateur Hockey Association presidents
Canadian Amateur Hockey Association vice-presidents
Canadian bankers
Canadian ice hockey coaches
Canadian ice hockey defencemen
Canadian male journalists
Canadian referees and umpires
Canadian sports builders
Canadian sports executives and administrators
Canadian sportswriters
Hockey Canada personnel
Newfoundland and Labrador civil servants
Rowing officials
Saint Mary's Huskies ice hockey players
Scotiabank people
Sportspeople from Halifax, Nova Scotia
Sportspeople from St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador
St. John's Maple Leafs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto%20FC
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Toronto FC
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Toronto Football Club (commonly known as Toronto FC or TFC) is a Canadian professional soccer club based in Toronto. The club competes in Major League Soccer (MLS) as a member of the Eastern Conference. The team plays its home matches at BMO Field, located at Exhibition Place on Toronto's shoreline west of Downtown Toronto. Toronto FC joined MLS in 2007 as an expansion team and was the first Canadian-based franchise in the league.
The first team is operated by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE), which also operates the MLS Next Pro affiliate team Toronto FC II and most other professional sports franchises in the city, like the Toronto Maple Leafs of the National Hockey League (NHL), Toronto Raptors of the National Basketball Association (NBA) and the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League (CFL).
In 2017, Toronto FC won the domestic treble with the MLS Cup, Supporters' Shield and Canadian Championship, making them the first and only MLS club to ever do so. They are eight-time winners of the Canadian Championship and were runners-up of the 2018 CONCACAF Champions League and the MLS Cup in 2016 and 2019.
, the club has an estimated value of US$690 million, making them the sixth most valuable club behind Los Angeles FC, LA Galaxy, Atlanta United FC, New York City FC, and D.C. United, and have the highest player payroll in Major League Soccer.
History
Expansion
MLS awarded Toronto a team in 2005. Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE) paid US$10 million for the franchise. The name of the team was announced on May 11, 2006.
The announcement followed an online consultation in which the public was invited to vote on the name for a limited period. The voting options were "Toronto Northmen", "Inter Toronto FC", "Toronto Reds", and "Toronto FC". MLSE's strategy in choosing "Toronto FC" following this process was based on two reasons. Firstly, over 40 percent of the online vote supported the simple Toronto FC name during the consultation; secondly, MLSE hoped that the fairly generic name would help the new club earn a more organic nickname from the Toronto fans rather than having one imposed upon the team. The team has been called "TFC" and "the Reds" by the media, the team, and the fans. The "FC" ("Football Club") in the club's name is the conventional initialism for association football teams across Europe and is commonly used among MLS teams to present a more authentic soccer brand.
Formative years (2007–2010)
Despite a long scoreless streak to start the club's history, Toronto FC quickly began to establish itself as a club with significant fan support. The club's first win came on May 12, 2007, at BMO Field as Danny Dichio scored the team's first goal in the 24th minute of a 3–1 home win over the Chicago Fire. Though TFC slipped to the bottom of the MLS standings with a record of , the team built a foundation as the first Canadian team in MLS. In the club's second season in 2008, Toronto hosted the 2008 MLS All-Star Game. The club finished last in the Eastern Conference with a record of 9–13–8, but the enthusiastic fan base continued to fill BMO Field to capacity. To determine the Canadian Soccer Association's representative in the CONCACAF Champions League, Toronto FC played in the inaugural Canadian Championship in 2008 competing for the Voyageurs Cup. TFC were the favourites to win the championship in its first year, but the Montreal Impact prevailed.
The last-place New York Red Bulls defeated Toronto FC 5–0 in the final 2009 regular season game, leaving TFC one point out of the playoffs. Despite bringing in some high-profile talent, the Reds could not seem to field a consistent side. Dwayne De Rosario became an immediate scoring influence and Amado Guevara was a strong playmaker and established MLS veteran, but the Honduran's future at the Canadian team seemed murky with looming 2010 FIFA World Cup duties. Rookie goalkeeper Stefan Frei quickly replaced Greg Sutton as a regular starter and immediately became a fan favourite. TFC only scored two goals in the final 15 minutes of games all season (last in MLS). During the same 15-minute period, they gave up 16 goals (most in MLS), thus creating a −14 goal differential during the final 15 minutes.
In the 2009 Canadian Championship, Toronto FC required a four-goal victory over the Montreal Impact in the final game of the competition to nullify the Vancouver Whitecaps' +4 goal differential. Anything less would result in Vancouver winning the championship. Toronto FC went down 1–0 early but overwhelmed an under-strength Impact side 6–1 on the back of a hat-trick by De Rosario. Guevara added two, scoring in the 69th and 92nd minute. Chad Barrett scored the decisive goal in the 82nd minute, which gave TFC the lead over Vancouver. The unlikely victory was dubbed by fans and media as the "Miracle in Montreal". Toronto FC subsequently participated in the 2009–10 CONCACAF Champions League, but lost 1–0 on aggregate to the Puerto Rico Islanders in the preliminary round of the tournament.
After failing to qualify on the final day of the 2009 campaign, Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment said anything short of a playoff spot in 2010 would be unacceptable. With that directive, former director of soccer Mo Johnston hired Preki and made wholesale changes to the roster to reflect the U.S. Hall of Fame's plan to play a tough, defensive style. Despite scoring troubles, TFC played well at the start, going undefeated in seven games at one time. The team struggled following the World Cup break. Sensing problems in the locker room and to try to salvage the season, MLSE dismissed both Johnston and Preki on September 14, naming Earl Cochrane interim director of soccer and Nick Dasovic interim coach. The players responded to Dasovic's more open flexible style, but it was not enough as the club was eliminated from playoff contention with three games left in the season. Off-field issues with season-seat holders over the 2011 season ticket package added to the fans' frustrations, forcing MLSE to hold a series of town hall meetings.
Toronto FC played Honduran side C.D. Motagua in the preliminary round of the 2010–11 CONCACAF Champions League. TFC won 1–0 in the first leg on a goal by Chad Barrett, and tied 2–2 in the second leg on goals by De Rosario and Barrett, qualifying for the group stage. Toronto FC won their first group stage match 2–1 against Mexican side Cruz Azul on August 17, 2010. However, the team failed to qualify for the championship round after finishing in third place behind group winners Real Salt Lake and second place Cruz Azul.
Cup success and league failure (2011–2014)
On November 3, 2010, MLSE announced the hiring of former German international and coach Jürgen Klinsmann, and his California-based company, SoccerSolutions, to fix the team's game. Over the next six months, Klinsmann assessed the team, identifying a playing style, and recommended a candidate for the director of soccer position. On January 6, 2011, the new management team for Toronto FC was announced. Aron Winter was hired as head coach with his compatriot Bob de Klerk named first assistant coach. Paul Mariner was named as director of soccer. Winter was selected to bring the Ajax culture, possession and 4–3–3 system to Toronto FC. Management made wholesale changes to the roster before and during the 2011 season, trading numerous players and eventually their captain and Toronto native De Rosario.
Toronto FC used its remaining two designated player slots on two notable European players, signing Torsten Frings and Danny Koevermans to 2.5-year contracts. The team went on to set a record for most players used in a MLS season with 39. Despite a strong finish to the season with only two losses in their last 12 games, TFC missed the MLS playoffs for a fifth straight year. Nonetheless, they earned a win in their final group stage match of 2011–12 CONCACAF Champions League visiting the FC Dallas, securing a berth in the knockout stage versus LA Galaxy. After a 2–2 draw in Toronto before 47,658 fans at the Rogers Centre, Toronto FC defeated the Galaxy 2–1 in Los Angeles to reach the CONCACAF Champions League semi-finals, the first Canadian team to do so. They were defeated by Mexican side Santos Laguna in the semi-finals 7–3 on aggregate.
On June 7, 2012, Aron Winter resigned from the team upon refusing to be reassigned from his head coaching role after the team started the season with a nine-game losing streak, setting an MLS record for the worst start to a season. Under Winter in 2012, the team's league record was 1–9–0 and in all other competitions was 3–1–4, including a fourth-straight Canadian Championship. He was replaced by Paul Mariner, but TFC continued to struggle finishing with a 4–12–8 record in league play under him. Toronto FC also failed to advance in the CONCACAF Champions League, finishing second in its group with a 2–2–0 record. Overall, they finished the MLS season on a 14-game winless streak and ended up in last place, with five wins and 23 points.
It was announced Kevin Payne would be leaving D.C. United for the general manager position at Toronto FC on November 27, 2012. First-time coach Ryan Nelsen replaced Mariner as of January 7, 2013. On April 25, 2013, Payne signed the first young designated player in MLS, Matías Laba. On July 9, Payne controversially traded Luis Silva to D.C. United for an undisclosed amount of allocation money. The team fired Payne on September 4. Following the removal of Payne, recently appointed MLSE president Tim Leiweke reasoned that there were philosophical differences between them as to how Toronto FC should move forward. Leiweke, who brought David Beckham to the LA Galaxy in early 2007, quickly revealed that he intended to make TFC more competitive with similarly ambitious, blockbuster signings. On September 20, Toronto FC announced that the vacant general manager position had been filled by Tim Bezbatchenko.
Under Bezbatchenko, Toronto FC made several high-profile moves during the 2013–14 off season. Among the transfers were MLS veterans Justin Morrow and Jackson; Brasileiro star Gilberto, United States international Michael Bradley of A.S. Roma, and the return of Toronto FC leading goal scorer De Rosario. On January 10, 2014, Tottenham Hotspur announced they had agreed a deal with the team over the transfer of England international Jermain Defoe for a reported fee of £6 million, and an Advertising Rights Agreement with Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment Ltd. Defoe would earn a reported £90,000 a week, making him the highest earner in MLS. These moves required the trade of Matias Laba to Vancouver to comply with MLS's maximum of three designated players per team. On February 7, 2014, Brazil national team keeper Júlio César joined on loan from Queens Park Rangers. The team started the year with promise, but much like 2010, they floundered after the World Cup break. On August 31, Nelsen was fired by Bezbatchenko a day after a 0–3 defeat to the New England Revolution at BMO field, where Nelsen criticized Bezbatchenko in his post-match press conference for putting the players under needless pressure in the media. The head coaching position was filled by former American international and Chivas USA assistant, Greg Vanney. Although the team won the most games in its history, it failed to reach the playoffs for the eighth consecutive year. After completing only 11 months of his four-year contract with TFC, Defoe joined Premier League club Sunderland on January 16, 2015. On the same day, Toronto received American Jozy Altidore from Sunderland to complete the other half of the player swap. Three days later, the team signed Italian international Sebastian Giovinco from Juventus on an annual salary of $7 million.
Contenders in the league and treble (2015–2017)
Michael Bradley was named team captain in 2015, following the retirement of Steven Caldwell, and would become the longest-serving captain of the club. On September 26, 2015, Giovinco scored and assisted in a 3–2 win over Chicago, putting him on 35 points for the season, breaking Chris Wondolowski's league record. Giovinco's totals of 22 goals and 16 assists, for 38 total points, made him the first TFC player to win the MLS Golden Boot, MLS MVP and MLS Newcomer of the Year Award. He was named to the MLS All-Star Game and the MLS Best XI and became the first player in MLS history to lead the league in both goals and assists in a single season. Toronto FC clinched a playoff berth on October 14, for the first time in franchise history.
The team were eliminated in the knockout round of the 2015 MLS Cup Playoffs by a 3–0 loss at Canadian Classique rivals Montreal Impact.
On June 29, 2016, Toronto FC won its fifth Canadian Championship against Vancouver 2–2 on aggregate, winning on away goals. Giovinco scored a hat-trick against D.C. United, on July 23, 2016, in a 4–1 home win, surpassing De Rosario's previous all-time record as Toronto FC's top scorer by two goals to 35 goals. In October 2016, Toronto FC clinched a playoff spot for the second straight season. The team proceeded to defeat the Philadelphia Union at BMO Field in the Eastern Conference Knockout Round to record their first-ever playoff win and to secure entry into the first Eastern Conference Semi-final in franchise history. Toronto FC defeated New York City FC 7–0 on aggregate to reach an all-Canadian Eastern Conference finals derby against Montreal Impact. Montreal won the first leg of the Conference Championship, 3–2 at the Olympic Stadium in Montreal on November 22. Toronto beat Montreal 5–2 in extra time in the return leg at BMO Field in Toronto on November 30, winning on an aggregated score of 7–5, making Toronto FC the first Canadian team to compete in an MLS Cup Final. On December 10, Toronto lost the final at home to the Seattle Sounders 5–4 in penalty shoot-out following a goalless draw after extra-time.
On June 27, 2017, Toronto FC won their sixth Canadian Championship 3–2 on aggregate over Montreal, earning them a spot in the 2018 CONCACAF Champions League. On September 30, Toronto FC won their first Supporters' Shield with a 4–2 home win over New York Red Bulls to clinch top of the league with the most points that season. By doing so, they also became the first Canadian team to win the Supporters' Shield. On October 22, the final day of the season, they played to a 2–2 away result against Atlanta United FC, where Toronto FC set a new MLS regular season points record with 69, eclipsing the 1998 LA Galaxy by one point. On November 29, 2017, Toronto FC won the Eastern Conference finals for the second time in a row, with a 1–0 aggregate win over Columbus Crew, also entering the MLS Cup Final for the second time in a row. On December 9, 2017, at home, Toronto FC defeated Seattle 2–0 in the MLS Cup, which was a rematch of the previous year's MLS Cup. Toronto FC became the first MLS team to complete a domestic treble with their win, as well as the first Canadian team to win the MLS Cup.
Post-MLS Cup win (2018–present)
Toronto FC started the 2018 season with a 2–0 away win over the Colorado Rapids in the 2018 CONCACAF Champions League round of 16 on February 20. After a goalless draw in the return leg against Colorado on February 27, TFC were matched up with Mexican side Tigres UANL for the quarterfinals, where they won the first leg 2–1 at home. In the return leg on March 13 in Mexico, TFC lost the match 3–2, however progressed to the semi-finals for the second time in its history since the 2011–12 Champions League, on away goals, following a 4–4 draw on aggregate. On April 10, TFC drew 1–1 to Club América at the Estadio Azteca in the second leg of the semi-final after a 3–1 home win on April 3 in the first leg, to advance 4–2 on aggregate to the finals for the first time in their history. After a 2–1 home loss to Guadalajara on April 17 in the first leg of the CONCACAF Champions League final, Toronto FC would win the return away leg 2–1 on April 25, leading to a draw on aggregate, but lost 4–2 in the penalty shootout. Later in the season, on September 19, Toronto FC played against Tigres UANL in the inaugural Campeones Cup, losing the match 3–1 at home. They failed to qualify for the playoffs after a 2–1 home loss against Vancouver on October 6, 2018, with three games left to play in the season.
During the 2018–19 off-season, on January 4, 2019, Toronto FC announced the appointment of Ali Curtis as general manager after the departure of Bezbatchenko. After failing to reach a contract agreement with the club, on January 30, 2019, Toronto FC sold Giovinco to Saudi Arabian club Al Hilal for an undisclosed fee.
On March 4, 2019, Spaniard Alejandro Pozuelo signed with Toronto FC as a designated player to help fill the void left by the recently departed Sebastian Giovinco and compatriot Víctor Vázquez in the creative midfield role. Pozuelo inherited the number ten shirt, which had previously been worn by the Italian. On June 26, 2019, Japanese forward Tsubasa Endoh scored the fastest goal in TFC history, only 29 seconds into the game against Atlanta United FC. After missing the playoffs the previous season, they qualified for the 2019 Playoffs. Toronto FC progressed to the final on November 10, 2019, where they faced the Seattle Sounders for the third time in four of the then-most recent MLS Cup finals held; Toronto FC was ultimately defeated in Seattle by a score of 3–1.
On February 7, 2020, Toronto FC signed Argentine Pablo Piatti as a designated player, while Michael Bradley signed a new contract below the designated player salary, while remaining as captain.
Marking the return of soccer after its suspension due to the COVID-19 pandemic, during the MLS is Back Tournament at the ESPN Wide World of Sports Complex in Bay Lake, Florida, Toronto FC reached the round of 16, but they lost 3–1 to New York City FC on July 16, 2020.
Following the MLS is Back Tournament, due to Canadian government restrictions relating to the COVID-19 pandemic, Toronto FC played its six regular-season home matches at Pratt & Whitney Stadium at Rentschler Field in East Hartford, Connecticut.
On December 1, 2020, Vanney stepped down as head coach and technical director after seven years with the team, calling it a "personal family decision". He left as the team's longest-tenured and best-record coach. Chris Armas, the former New York Red Bulls coach, was appointed to the role on January 13, 2021.
During the 2021 season, Toronto FC played some of their home games in Exploria Stadium in Orlando, Florida, also home to Orlando City SC. After a poor run in the early season, which reached its nadir with the worst loss in club history on July 3, Armas was fired and replaced by interim coach Javier Pérez. Toronto played their first game back at BMO Field on July 17, 2021, against Orlando City SC with 7,000 in attendance. It was the first sporting event in Ontario since COVID-19 restrictions were implemented. On August 9, Pérez was officially named the head coach for the remainder of the season, removing the interim title. Toronto FC finished the season in second-last place, and on November 22, 2021, Curtis left his post as general manager. Two days later, Bob Bradley (father of Toronto FC captain Michael Bradley) was announced as the head coach replacement for Pérez, and in the same announcement, Bob Bradley was also named sporting director.
2022 Italian Influx
On January 8, 2022, Italian international Lorenzo Insigne signed with Toronto FC as a winger on a free transfer; the contract is a four-year deal and began on July 1. Toronto FC also signed Italian defender Domenico Criscito on June 29, 2022 to a TAM deal. On July 15, 2022, they were joined by compatriot Federico Bernardeschi, who signed with Toronto FC; the contract is also a four-year deal. Both Insigne and Bernardeschi signed as designated players. Canadian internationals Doneil Henry, Mark-Anthony Kaye, and Richie Laryea were also acquired.
The 2022-2023 off-season saw further overhaul of the club roster, including the additions of American Matt Hedges and Norwegian Adama Diomande, and the return of Victor Vazquez. Jason Hernandez became general manager of Toronto FC.
Stadium
Before the 2007 Major League Soccer season, construction was completed on a new stadium at Exhibition Place in Toronto at a cost of $62.5 million. On September 20, 2006, MLS's official website announced that BMO Financial Group had purchased the naming rights for the new stadium. It is the largest soccer-specific stadium in Canada. It is owned by the City of Toronto, while MLSE, the team's owner, operates it.
Following criticism of BMO Field's use of FieldTurf and its rapid deterioration, MLSE agreed to a deal with the city to replace it with a natural grass surface in time for the 2010 MLS Season. Along with the grass, a heating and drainage system was also installed for $3.5 million to MLSE.
In March 2012, TFC played its first-ever match in the Rogers Centre, the 49,982-seat home of Major League Baseball's Toronto Blue Jays and former home of the Argonauts and the Toronto Raptors, hosting the LA Galaxy in the home leg of the 2011–12 CONCACAF Champions League championship round. The retractable roof stadium was also the venue for a friendly against Liverpool of the English Premier League in July of that year and their only MLS home match in Toronto away from BMO Field, the 2013 home opener against Sporting Kansas City on March 9, 2013, with a then-record Toronto FC home MLS attendance of 25,991.
Expansion
Expansion to the north end that cost $2 million, added 1,249 seats and was completed for the start of the 2010 MLS Season. A$120 million renovation to the stadium was officially announced September 23, 2014. It included a second tier of seating that added 8,400 seats, raising the capacity of the stadium to 30,991. New suites, washrooms, concourse and a roof were added. Construction began in September 2014 and would be divided into two phases; the completion of the project was set for May 2016. The expansion would accommodate a Canadian football field with artificial turf end-zones when the Toronto Argonauts move to BMO Field in 2016, along with hosting the Grey Cup that year.
Stadiums during the COVID-19 pandemic
On September 11, 2020, Connecticut governor Ned Lamont announced that Toronto FC would finish their season's home matches at Pratt & Whitney Stadium in East Hartford, Connecticut, as well as during the playoffs, due to the Canadian government's response to limit cross-border travel during the COVID-19 pandemic. Likewise, Toronto FC played some of their home games in Exploria Stadium in Orlando, Florida during the 2021 season. Exploria Stadium is also home to Orlando City SC.
Club culture
Supporters
Toronto FC's initial seasons saw TFC fans set the standard for MLS fan support, selling out its first three seasons. Referred to as the model franchise off the field by MLS commissioner Don Garber, the team was credited for starting "MLS 2.0" for their embrace of supporters' culture. Lack of on-field success caused frustration among the fanbase, spurring fan protests against ownership. In response, MLSE acknowledged the lack of quality on the on-field product, lowering ticket prices in 2013 to 2007 levels. Following a resurgence of interest in the team due to the major signings of designated players Jermain Defoe and Michael Bradley, the team capped season tickets at 17,000 for the 2014 season.
Toronto FC's recognized supporters' groups are the Red Patch Boys, U-Sector, Kings in the North, Tribal Rhythm Nation and Original 109. On August 23, 2018, Toronto FC permanently terminated Inebriatti's supporter status for a fire they started at TD Place Stadium in Ottawa during their match-up with Toronto FC in the Canadian Championship earlier that year on July 18.
Mascot
Bitchy the Hawk is a female Harris's hawk employed by BMO Field falconry staff to sit perched atop the field to ward off seagulls. Originally brought to work in 2007 to prevent seagulls from attacking patrons, the hawk has become a fixture of BMO Field. She has also been employed at Molson Canadian Amphitheatre (renamed Budweiser Stage in 2018 due to a change in naming rights between the multinational breweries) in Ontario Place to the south to prevent seagulls from attacking concert-goers since the 1990s. While no official word has come from the club about her status, she has been called the official mascot of the team.
Rivalries
The club shares a soccer rivalry with several clubs in the MLS, including the Columbus Crew and CF Montréal. Toronto FC also have a rivalry with the other Canadian team, the Vancouver Whitecaps FC. CF Montréal and Vancouver Whitecaps FC compete with Toronto FC in the Canadian Championships.
CF Montréal
Toronto FC's biggest rival, CF Montréal (formerly known as Montreal Impact), joined MLS in 2012. In the years leading up to this, they emerged as fierce rivals during the Canadian Championship. The proximity of the two cities and the fact that Toronto and Montreal are long-standing rivals in the National Hockey League (NHL) contributes to these meetings being combative. Since both teams have joined MLS, the rivalry has intensified and the matches have become a Canadian soccer classic, nicknamed the 401 Derby after Ontario Highway 401, a freeway that indirectly links the two cities (alongside Quebec Autoroute 20). The rivalry is also known as the Canadian Classique.
On March 16, 2013, Toronto FC fans set an MLS record for travelling support with 3,200 away fans in Montreal to watch TFC lose 2–1, eclipsing their own record of 2,400 at Columbus Crew in 2008.
The 2016 MLS Cup Eastern Conference finals were part of the 401 Derby as well, with Toronto FC winning the series 7–5 on aggregate.
Columbus Crew
Columbus Crew and Toronto FC have competed for the Trillium Cup since 2008. Although a manufactured rivalry, albeit linked by the fact that the official flower of both Ontario and Ohio is the white trillium (Trillium grandiflorum), the meetings have since sparked bitterness. On March 28, 2009, approximately 1,700 Toronto FC supporters travelled to Columbus Crew Stadium and witnessed a 1–1 draw, during which they lit a number of flares and committed vandalism. Following the game, some altercations broke out between the two supporter groups. Overwhelmed security called local police who ended the melees and made arrests, at which time a Toronto FC fan was tasered while being subdued. The first rematch back in Columbus Crew Stadium following the incident was boycotted by Toronto FC supporters in wake of restrictions imposed on them by Crew officials.
The 2017 MLS Cup Eastern Conference finals were part of the Trillium Cup as well, with Toronto FC winning the series 1–0 on aggregate.
Colours and sponsorship
The official team colors include red as the primary color, with black, grey, dark grey, and white as secondary colors.
The primary uniform (jersey, shorts, and socks) is red with alternating lighter and darker horizontal bands, black sleeves with red trim, and a vertical black band below each sleeve extending the full length of the jersey. The secondary uniform includes white jerseys with a large red horizontal band below a smaller blue band across the chest with blue and red trim, white socks with blue trim, and with either red or blue shorts (the choice of which is subject to the opponent's uniform). In its first three seasons, Toronto FC's secondary uniform colors were light and dark grey. In the following four seasons, the team wore white secondary uniforms, whereas in 2014, the secondary uniforms were changed to onyx. As with all MLS teams, the uniforms are produced by Adidas. In 2013 and 2014, a shadow-print maple leaf was featured on Toronto FC's primary jerseys.
Since the team's formation in 2007, it has been sponsored by the Bank of Montreal (BMO). The sponsorship was worth $1–1.5 million per season, but in 2010, a new five-year deal worth $4 million per season was signed. In February 2016, it was announced that BMO had extended its sponsorship agreement by another ten years.
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Ownership
Toronto FC are operated by Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment (MLSE), which also operates the National Hockey League's Toronto Maple Leafs (and the American Hockey League's Toronto Marlies by extension), the National Basketball Association's Toronto Raptors (and the NBA G League's Raptors 905 by extension), the Canadian Football League's Toronto Argonauts, and MLS Next Pro's Toronto FC II. MLSE also own and operate sports ventures like Leafs Nation Network and NBA TV Canada.
The company is also involved in real estate and property management, owning such sports venues as the Scotiabank Arena in downtown Toronto and being a partner in the development of the nearby Maple Leaf Square. The partners of Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment are Larry Tanenbaum and rival media outlets Rogers Communications and Bell Media; Rogers and Bell own each of the primary English-language sports television outlets in Canada (Sportsnet and TSN, respectively).
Players and staff
Roster
Out on loan
Current staff
Head coaches
1.Includes league, playoff, Canadian Championship, CONCACAF Champions League, Campeones Cup, Leagues Cup, and MLS is Back Tournament games.
2.John Herdman was named head coach effective October 1, 2023, however, Terry Dunfield continued to serve as coach the team through October 7.
General managers
Youth development
Toronto FC II
Toronto FC II was established in November 2014 and is the farm team of Toronto FC. Toronto FC II competes in the USL League One, the third division of the American and Canadian soccer league system. The team serves as a reserve team for TFC and a bridge between the Academy and first team. The team began play in March 2015. Their home stadium was the then-newly constructed 3,500-seat stadium at the Ontario Soccer Centre in Vaughan, just north-northwest of Toronto. Jason Bent is the team's first head coach.
Toronto FC previously had a one-year partnership with the Wilmington Hammerheads of the USL in 2014.
For the 2018 season, TFC II moved its home games to BMO Field and Lamport Stadium. On July 2, 2018, the team announced they would move down from the United Soccer League to USL League One for the league's first season in 2019. With their drop to Division 3, the team moved their home games to BMO Training Ground. At the conclusion of the 2021 season, TFC II departed USL altogether for MLS Next Pro.
TFC Academy
TFC Academy is the youth academy and development system of Toronto FC that was established in 2008. The academy consists of multiple teams spanning different age groups from U12 to U20. Starting in 2020, the senior academy squad (known as Toronto FC III) plays in the MLS Next.
In June 2012, TFC academy moved to their new practice facility originally named Kia Training Ground, but subsequently renamed BMO Training Ground as the former's naming rights expired at the end of 2017, located in Downsview Park in North York. Built at a cost of $21 million to MLSE, the facility has seven pitches: three full-sized grass pitches and four artificial turfs with two capable of being bubbled for year-round use. The facility also contains first team facilities, gym, kitchen, and offices.
TFC Juniors
The Toronto FC Juniors, also known as the TFC Juniors, is part of the youth academy and development system of Toronto FC. The program holds camps regionally and has held camps in Toronto, Pickering, Vaughan, Stoney Creek in Hamilton, Oakville, and Markham. The Toronto FC Juniors program is one of Toronto FC Academy's main sources for prospects alongside their network of scouts.
TFC Regional Partners
TFC Academy has made regional partnerships with local youth clubs in other Ontario cities re-branding under the TFC name: Windsor TFC, London TFC, Ottawa TFC, Kitchener TFC, Hamilton TFC, and DeRo TFC, the lattermost being based in Scarborough, the eastern district of Toronto. Windsor TFC was the re-branded name from Windsor Stars SC, whose senior team plays in League1 Ontario (L1O). London TFC was re-branded from FC London, whose senior team retained their name in L1O. Ottawa TFC was formed from a merger of Cumberland United SC and Capital United SC. Kitchener TFC rebranded from Kitchener SC, Hamilton TFC rebranded from Mount Hamilton Youth SC (Mount Hamilton is also part of the Hamilton United group that competes in League1 Ontario) and DeRo TFC rebranded from DeRo United Futbol Academy, named after former Canadian Toronto FC player Dwayne De Rosario.
Broadcasting
As of the 2023 season, all Toronto FC MLS matches are carried by MLS Season Pass on Apple TV, with all matches available with English, French, and Spanish commentary options. Select matches are being non-exclusively aired in English on TSN and in French on RDS. Since 2019, Canadian Championship matches are broadcast by OneSoccer.
From 2017 through 2022, all of Toronto FC's MLS matches were exclusively broadcast in English by TSN, holding both the rights to the team's "regional" package (despite this, all matches were carried nationally and not subject to blackout outside of Ontario) and the national English rights to Major League Soccer, with selected national matches simulcast by parent network CTV. Prior to 2017, Toronto FC games were broadcast by TSN and Sportsnet. Games that were not covered under national broadcast contracts with MLS or other competition organizers were divided evenly between the two broadcasters, pursuant to agreements between their parent companies (Bell Canada and Rogers Communications, respectively) in connection to their joint 2011 purchase of MLSE. Radio broadcasts are divided between TSN 1050 and Sportsnet 590.
In the team's inaugural season in 2007, broadcasting rights were split between CBC Sports, Sportsnet, and The Score, with CBC broadcasting games from 2007 to 2010.
Honours
Record
Year-by-year
This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by Toronto. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Toronto FC seasons.
1. Average attendance include statistics from league matches only.
2. Top goalscorer(s) includes all goals scored in League, MLS Cup Playoffs, Canadian Championship, MLS is Back Tournament, CONCACAF Champions Cup, FIFA Club World Cup, and other competitive continental matches.
International competitions
Toronto has qualified for the CONCACAF Champions League seven times and reached the final once, in 2018.
Scores and results list Toronto's goal tally first.
Individual awards
MLS MVP
MLS Golden Boot
MLS Rookie of the Year
MLS Newcomer of the Year
MLS Coach of the Year
CONCACAF Coach of the Year
MLS Cup MVP
CONCACAF Champions League Golden Ball
CONCACAF Champions League Golden Boot
Attendance
Average attendance
Attendance for Toronto FC dipped during 2012 and 2013 due to continued poor results by the team. Attendance bounced back in 2014 and in following years due in large part to the major signings of designated players such as Michael Bradley, Jermain Defoe and Sebastian Giovinco.
The largest attendance for a Toronto FC game at the team's home stadium, BMO Field, was on December 10, 2016, when they hosted the Seattle Sounders in the 2016 MLS Cup Final in front of 36,045 attendees; the stadium was expanded beyond its capacity to accommodate that year's Grey Cup. The highest overall attendance for a home game was on March 7, 2012, when they hosted the Los Angeles Galaxy in the 2011–12 CONCACAF Champions League quarter-finals at the Rogers Centre in front of 47,658 attendees.
See also
Canadian Championship
Canada men's national soccer team
Canadian Soccer Association
Toronto Lynx
Toronto Blizzard (1971–1984)
Toronto Blizzard (1986–1993)
Toronto Rockets
Notes
References
External links
2005 establishments in Ontario
Association football clubs established in 2005
Major League Soccer teams based in Canada
Major League Soccer teams
Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment
Soccer clubs in Toronto
Expatriated football clubs
Events in Toronto
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4678309
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaysuma%20Saidy%20Ndure
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Jaysuma Saidy Ndure
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Jaysuma Saidy Ndure (born 1 January 1984) is a Gambian-Norwegian sprinter. He is of Serer heritage of the noble Ndure family. In 2002, he went to Oslo, aged 18 and settled with his father who has lived in Norway since the 1970s. Having changed nationality from Gambia to Norway in 2006, he holds Norwegian records in the 100 and holds both the Gambian and Norwegian records in the 200 metres, and is the seventh and fourth fastest European of all times on the two distances. He has a bronze medal from the African Championships and several top-three placings in IAAF Golden League meets and the IAAF World Athletics Final.
Early and personal life
Saidy was born in Bakau, western Gambia, and raised by his mother. His first experience in the sprint events came in high school in his hometown. He reportedly took up the 200 metres event in order to avoid beating his friend, who already had taken up the 100 metres event. In June 2001 Saidy entered the West African Championships in Lagos, and won the 200 metres in 21.27. The result was a new Gambian record time. However, setting a national record did not inspire him to commence serious training, as he still preferred to play basketball and volleyball for fun with his schoolmates.
In 2002, Saidy moved to Oslo, Norway. A number of relatives already lived in the vicinity, most importantly Saidy's father who had lived in Norway since the 1970s. Searching for a leisure activity, Saidy decided to take up athletics again and joined one of the athletics clubs in the Norwegian capital, IL i BUL, whose training sessions were held in the internationally known Bislett stadion. Here, his talent was soon discovered and Saidy was put in contact with coach Olav Magne Tveitå, who still coaches him.
Saidy later established a relationship with Heidi Trollsås, a retired 400 m hurdler hailing from the Norwegian city Sandefjord who competed on the national level. The couple eventually moved to Blystadlia outside of Oslo, where they still live. Trollsås also functioned in the capacity of manager until 2008. Feeling that a professional agent was needed to handle Saidy's career, they hired noted Swedish athletics manager Daniel Westfeldt. Shortly thereafter Saidy signed a lucrative five-year contract with Nike.
Athletic career
2002 to 2003
In 2002, the year Saidy came to Norway, he started competing more seriously in more international competitions. Eighteen years of age, he was in the age group to compete at the World Junior Championships in Kingston, Jamaica. He competed in the 200 metres, but did not progress past the first round with a fifth place in his heat. With the time of 21.53 seconds he finished fifth in his heat, behind such athletes as eventual bronze medalist Wes Felix and Leigh Julius. A week later Saidy entered the Commonwealth Games held in Manchester, England. Here he qualified for the next round for the first time, at the same time setting a new Gambian record of 21.25 seconds. He did exit in the next round after finishing fifth in the heat, the four best finishers in each heat progressing to the semi-finals. However, the quarter-final time of 21.20 seconds marked yet another Gambian record.
After arriving in Norway that summer, he tried the 100 metres and ran in 10.66 seconds in Drammen in August. In Norway alone, five athletes had better marks that season.
The 2003 season turned out to be another season with steady progression, but still without achieving the major international breakthrough. In July he broke his first Gambian 100 metres record, running in 10.52 seconds in Gothenburg. The old record was 10.54 seconds, set by Lamin Sanyang in May 2001 in Saidy's hometown Bakau. The next day he ran the 200 metres, and set his second Gambian record in two days with 21.18 seconds, this time in headwind.
At the 2003 African Junior Championships he won a bronze medal in the 100 metres and the 200 metres gold medal. In August Saidy competed at his first World Championships, still only 19 years old. The competition in the 2003 World Championships in Paris proved too tough, as Saidy once again failed to reach the second round. With 21.42 seconds, he finished sixth out of seven in a heat where eventual silver medalist Darvis Patton, among others, ran. Saidy did however have the fastest reaction time in his heat with 0.128 seconds.
On another note, in May Saidy he tried the 400 metres for the first time, clocking in 48.76 seconds in a local meet in Oslo. As of 2007, he has not run the distance again. Nonetheless, he has stated that the 400 metres might become his special event after turning 30 years old.
2004 to 2005
2004 would be the year when Saidy won his first international medal at senior level, and progressed significantly in both the short sprint events.
During the indoor season, he lowered his personal best in the 60 metres to 6.77 seconds, achieved in a February meet in Gothenburg. In late May he broke the 21-second barrier on the 200 metres, demolishing his own Gambian record with 20.69 seconds in Szombathely. During the same meet he also broke the 100 metres record twice in as many days, with 10.46 on 29 May and then 10.37 on 30 May. Two months later he won the bronze medal in the 100 metres event at the 2004 African Championships, clocking in 10.43 seconds and finishing behind Olusoji Fasuba and Idrissa Sanou. It was the third Gambian medal at the African Championships, following the two bronze medals at the 1996 edition. He did not place in the 200 metres at this championships.
In August, Saidy made his final preparations for his first Olympic Games participation. He showed great form by lowering the national 100 metres record yet again, first to 10.29 seconds in Malmö and then 10.27 seconds a week later in Lillehammer. The Olympic Games began three weeks later. The Gambian Olympic squad only consisting of two athletes, Saidy and female runner Adama Njie, Saidy was chosen as the Gambian flagbearer at the opening ceremony. He entered both the 100 and 200 metres, and for the first time, he progressed from the first round in a global international competition. Moreover, he did so in both events. The 100 metres event took place first. Here, Saidy lowered his record to 10.26 seconds as he progressed by finishing third in his heat, behind eventual silver medalist Francis Obikwelu and Ronald Pognon. In the quarter-final, however, 10.39 seconds was not enough to reach the next round. He finished in last place in his heat, this time having the slowest reaction time. In the 200 metres event, the first four finishers of each heat plus the four fastest times overall would qualify for the next round; with a fifth-place finish in the heat and a time of 20.78 seconds Saidy became the last athlete to qualify. Again, he ran in the heats with an eventual medalist, Shawn Crawford who went on to win the Olympic gold medal. The quarter-final saw Saidy finish sixth, failing to progress further.
His season debut in 2005 came at Florø on 4 June, where he ran the 100 metres in 10.53 seconds and the 200 metres in a mediocre 21.14 seconds. The main goal for the 2005 season was the World Championships. Unlike the Olympic Games the previous year, Saidy only competed in the 200 metres. He progressed comfortably from both the heat and the quarter-final. In the semi-final he ended fifth in his heat, 0.07 seconds behind Usain Bolt who with 20.68 seconds secured the last spot in the final.
Two months before the World Championships, he had set another Gambian record in the 200 metres, running in 20.57 seconds on 12 June in Warsaw. At the same meet he also clocked a season's best in the 100 metres of 10.31 seconds, which meant that he did not break the 100 m record in 2005. In July he ran under his 2004 record time on two further occasions. Only a week after the World Championships, he won a meet in Malmö to break the 200 metres record once more. The new record was 20.51 seconds.
2006 to 2007
The 2006 season began early, with the 2006 Commonwealth Games being held in March in Melbourne, Australia. Saidy ran a 10,56-second 100 metres on 9 March as a test, but did not compete in the 100 metres event at the Commonwealth Games which took place on 19 March. Instead he opted for the 200 metres event. Having progressed to the semi-final, he was eliminated there after placing fifth in his heat. He was only 0.04 seconds behind Uchenna Emedolu who secured the last final spot in that heat; the other heat saw three competitors finish in the range of 20.72–20.73 seconds, yet still advance to the final.
After the Commonwealth Games Saidy spent the next month training, before running a 20.89-second 200 metres in Dakar in late April. Two weeks later he improved to 20.59 seconds at the Super Grand Prix meet in Doha. He remained active through the summer, despite not entering the 2006 African Championships to defend his medal from 2004. Having run well at various Grand Prix meets, he collected enough points to finish fifth on the World Athletics Tour, thus enabling him to compete at the World Athletics Final for the first time. The 2006 World Athletics Final was held in Stuttgart, and Saidy made an international breakthrough as he finished sixth in the 200 metres in a new Gambian record time of 20.47 seconds.
This would be his last Gambian record. He had filed for Norwegian citizenship a few days before the World Athletics Final. The next month his citizenship application was accepted by the Norwegian Directorate of Immigration.
In 2007 he made his season debut with 20.62 in the 200 metres at the Super Grand Prix meet in May in Doha. He did not run the 100 metres until late June, when he achieved a mediocre 10.50 seconds in pouring rain during a national meet in Lillehammer. Another low-key 10.44 performance in Malmö the next week followed, but the meet was still successful as he broke his own best time in the 200 metres with a 20.41-second race. The display of form continued at the end of the month, as he finally broke his three-year-old personal best in the 100 metres, running in 10.10 seconds in Tallinn. In addition, he lowered his personal best time in the 200 metres to 20.25 seconds at the same meet. The news report titled "Norwegian record up next", he indeed lived up to the expectations: On 7 August he participated in both events at the DN Galan Super Grand Prix meet in Stockholm. He ran the 100 metres in 10.07 seconds, erasing the Norwegian record held by former European champion Geir Moen since 1996. The result was even achieved in a headwind of 1,0 m/s, leading him to believe that a time in the range of 9 seconds was achievable in a manner of time.
Eligible to compete in the Norwegian championships for the first time, Saidy won both short sprint events. On the first day of the championships, which were staged in mid-August in Askim, he ran the 100 metres in 10.14 seconds despite the drizzling and somewhat cold weather, beating the runner-up by more than half a second. For this result, he was awarded the King's Cup, a trophy given to the best male and female performer of the national championships. On the second day of the championships he won the 200 metres in a race he described as a "training session". However, he was not allowed to participate in the 2007 World Championships because of nationality issues. Instead, he opted to focus on the IAAF Golden League competitions in September.
On 7 September he participated in the Weltklasse Zürich meet, the first Golden League meet after a two-month break due to the World Championships. He finished second in 10.20 seconds, behind Francis Obikwelu as the starting field clocked in overall mediocre times. Two days later, he went to Rieti, Italy to compete against Asafa Powell among others. In splendid conditions with a 1.7 m/s tailwind, Powell set a new world record of 9.74 seconds in the qualifying heat while Saidy equaled his own Norwegian record with 10.07 seconds. The next week, it was time for the Memorial Van Damme Golden League meet in Brussels. Here, Saidy took another second place, again behind Asafa Powell, this time with 10.11 seconds. Two days later, at the ISTAF meet in Berlin Saidy showed consistency as he finished in 10.14 seconds, this time ahead of Marlon Devonish to win his first Golden League race. His success at these IAAF World Athletics Tour competitions ensured his qualification to compete in both sprint events at the World Athletics Final, held in Stuttgart one week after the ISTAF meet which had concluded the 2007 Golden League circuit.
At the 2007 IAAF World Athletics Final, Saidy finished second in the 100 metres and first in the 200 metres, setting new Norwegian records in both. In the 200 metres, he beat recent World Championships bronze medalist Wallace Spearmon to clock in 19.89 seconds. The result was described as a "huge surprise", whereas Saidy himself described the sub-20 second time as "crazy" and "unbelievable". The previous day he lowered his national 100 metres record to 10.06 seconds to finish second behind Asafa Powell, but after two false starts in the field the conditions were not optimal. These results propelled him to number four on the European all-time 200 metres list, only behind Pietro Mennea, Konstadinos Kederis and John Regis, and joint tenth place on the European all-time 100 metres list.
In September Saidy was nominated for the European athlete of the month award, but finished runner-up as Polish hurdler Marek Plawgo won the prize. In early 2008 he was declared Breakthrough Sportsperson of the Year in Norway, beating two female World Championships medalists in cross-country skiing. Attending a training camp in South Africa at that time, he was absent at the prize ceremony.
Controversies
Nationality
Since moving to live in Norway, a nationality change in order to represent his new home country was in the cards. In a newspaper interview, Saidy stated that he "is one hundred percent Norwegian". As an immigrant to Norway must wait for five years before getting a Norwegian citizenship, the process was fulfilled in December 2006, enabling him to compete at the Norwegian championships and to represent Norway in major international competitions such as the World Championships or Olympic Games. In his native Gambia, on the other hand, his new citizenship was described as a "shocking revelation". The Gambia Athletics Association, the Gambian National Olympic Committee and the Department of State for Youth and Sports were all reluctant to let him change nationality, as Saidy was deemed a "national hero" and a "national treasure".
Ultimately, Gambia opted to block Saidy's participation for Norway in major international championships for three years. This measure was created mainly to stop African athletes from pursuing careers in more wealthy nations, such as Olympic champion runner Saif Saaeed Shaheen who changed his allegiance from Kenya to Qatar. However, unlike Shaheen, Saidy was a naturalized Norwegian. Still, since leaving his Gambian citizenship behind, Saidy was not able to represent any nation at the 2007 World Championships, even while his name was accompanied by the Norwegian flag in the IAAF World Athletics Tour meetings. The Norwegian Athletics Association then hoped to get the block lifted in time for the 2008 Summer Olympics; this would depend on the approval of the Gambia Athletics Association.
In November 2007, it was reported that the disagreement had been resolved. The Norwegian Athletics Association and the Norwegian Olympic Committee and Confederation of Sports made an agreement with its Gambian counterpart, whose conditions included that Saidy would head a fourteen-day-long training camp for young athletes in his birth country. By the end of the year, only "formalities" remained as Saidy was presented as a part of the Norwegian elite athletics team for the first time.
In a 2008 television interview, he elaborated on his sense of nationality. While expressing a feeling of being both Gambian and Norwegian, he would emphasize the similarities between people rather than differences.
Doping case
In 2007, Saidy became the subject of a doping case. On 8 August, the IAAF reported that Saidy Jaysuna (sic) had tested positive for cannabis in an in-competition test on 28 June 2007 in Luzern, Switzerland. Saidy had competed in the Spitzenleichathletik EAA meeting there in both sprints events, running in 10.26 and 20.41 seconds respectively. Being a first violation, the only sanctions imposed on Saidy were disqualification from the competition in question as well as a public warning.
The news were not picked up by the Norwegian media until 14 August, two days after the Norwegian championships where Saidy won the King's Cup. The general secretary and the sports director of the Norwegian Athletics Association were unaware of the case, as was the Norwegian Anti-Doping Agency (Antidoping Norge). It was later discovered that the case had been sent to the Gambian Athletics Association. Saidy had been listed as a Gambian competitor in Luzern, even though he got Norwegian citizenship half a year ago. In September the case was transferred to the Norwegian authorities.
Reacting to the case, Saidy immediately blamed passive marijuana smoking sustained during a visit at a friend's house a few days before the Luzern meeting. He stated that he would never consume the substance knowingly, referring to the detrimental effects of cannabis on performances. The explanation was pulled in doubt as "very unlikely" by a doping expert in Norway, who claimed that passive smoking was not enough to affect a doping test. Others supported the explanation. In a similar case, Canadian snowboarder Ross Rebagliati originally lost his 1998 Olympic gold medal, but the medal was later returned; Rebagliati blamed passive smoking.
It was later revealed that Saidy had consumed the substance via attaya tea drinking at the same gathering with friends, one of whom admitted to preparing the tea with cannabis. This explanation was believed, and in December Saidy was acquitted by the Norwegian Anti-Doping Agency. The IAAF did however not accept the decision and gave Ndure the choice of accepting a public warning for an anti-doping rule violation in return for IAAF not appealing the case to CAS. Ndure accepted the public warning.
2008
Unlike the previous year, Saidy decided to compete during the 2008 indoor season. He chose three 60 metres competitions in February. The first competition was held in Florø; here he was disqualified in the semi-final. In an unofficial extra race he clocked in 6.71 seconds, which would be a new Norwegian indoor record had the race been official. However, the next week Saidy ran in 6.56 seconds in Birmingham, England to lower the Norwegian record by 0.01 second. He had run in 6.58 seconds in the heats. Reportedly, he had potential for improvement as the start was not optimal. Finally, one week later in Ghent he lowered his own record by an additional 0.01 second as he won the race in 6.55 seconds.
To the surprise of the Norwegian Athletics Association, Saidy announced that he would not compete at the 2008 World Indoor Championships. According to his coach, the World Indoor Championships had a "low status" among the best sprinters, moreover Saidy wanted to prepare thoroughly for the 2008 Olympic season. Instead, he announced that he will commence the outdoor season on 9 May at the Super Grand Prix meet in Doha. Still, during a training camp in California in April, he joined a 4 x 100 metres relay team composed of runners from the USA Olympic Training Center in San Diego to clock in a world leading time of 38.72 seconds. The result equalled the time achieved by the United States "Blue" team, with Tyson Gay in its ranks, one week earlier.
On 9 May in Doha Saidy won the 100 metres race, in a new national record time of 10.01 seconds. His new record pushed him to a joint seventh place on the European all-time list. According to the IAAF reporter, this was "probably his most impressive 100m victory", considering not only the strong field of competitors, but also a suboptimal start. In addition, the last fifteen metres of the race were hampered by hamstring pains, with Saidy clutching his thigh as he crossed the finish line. As a result, he withdrew from the 200 metres race scheduled to be held later that evening. However, the injury was stated to be minor; Saidy was "not very worried".
Two weeks before the Bislett Games, which Saidy considered important in the Olympic preparations, it was reported that the injury was healed, and that Saidy would compete in both the 100 and the 200 metres. One week later, however, the reports were countered. Having not recovered fully from the injury, Saidy stated that he would compete no earlier than late June. His eyes were still fixed on the main goal for the 2008 season, the 2008 Summer Olympics. In Beijing he competed at the 100 metres sprint and placed 3rd in his heat after Derrick Atkins and Andrey Yepishin in a time of 10.37 seconds. He qualified for the second round in which he improved his time to 10.14 seconds. However, he was unable to qualify for the semi-finals as he finished in 4th place of his heat after Usain Bolt, Darvis Patton and Francis Obikwelu. He also took part in the 200 metres individual, finishing second in his first round heat, with a time of 20.54 seconds. With 20.45 seconds in the second round he placed third in his heat and he qualified for the semi-finals, however he did not show up at the start of the race.
Looking further into the future, he has stated that he might specialize in the 400 metres event. Being slimmer than many sprinters, he has a relatively low body mass index and does not train bench press to enhance his pectoral muscles. He weighed 74 kilograms after the training camp in California, but the goal was to lose at least 2 kilograms before the Olympic Games.
He ran at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics in Berlin, reaching the semi-finals of the 100 m. He went to the final of both the 100 m and 200 m at the 2010 European Athletics Championships, but finished in sixth and fifth place, respectively. He finished 3rd in the 100 m at the 2012 European Athletics Championships edition.
References
External links
1984 births
Living people
Norwegian male sprinters
Doping cases in athletics
Norwegian sportspeople in doping cases
Gambian male sprinters
Serer sportspeople
Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic athletes for the Gambia
Olympic athletes for Norway
Athletes (track and field) at the 2002 Commonwealth Games
Athletes (track and field) at the 2006 Commonwealth Games
Gambian emigrants to Norway
Naturalised citizens of Norway
European Athletics Championships medalists
World Athletics Championships athletes for Norway
World Athletics Championships athletes for the Gambia
Commonwealth Games competitors for the Gambia
People associated with direct selling
People from Bakau
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4678739
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure%20mapping%20engine
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Structure mapping engine
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In artificial intelligence and cognitive science, the structure mapping engine (SME) is an implementation in software of an algorithm for analogical matching based on the psychological theory of Dedre Gentner. The basis of Gentner's structure-mapping idea is that an analogy is a mapping of knowledge from one domain (the base) into another (the target). The structure-mapping engine is a computer simulation of the analogy and similarity comparisons.
The theory is useful because it ignores surface features and finds matches between potentially very different things if they have the same representational structure. For example, SME could determine that a pen is like a sponge because both are involved in dispensing liquid, even though they do this very differently.
Structure mapping theory
Structure mapping theory is based on the systematicity principle, which states that connected knowledge is preferred over independent facts. Therefore, the structure mapping engine should ignore isolated source-target mappings unless they are part of a bigger structure. The SME, the theory goes, should map objects that are related to knowledge that has already been mapped.
The theory also requires that mappings be done one-to-one, which means that no part of the source description can map to more than one item in the target and no part of the target description can be mapped to more than one part of the source. The theory also requires that if a match maps subject to target, the arguments of subject and target must also be mapped. If both these conditions are met, the mapping is said to be "structurally consistent."
Concepts in SME
SME maps knowledge from a source into a target. SME calls each description a dgroup. Dgroups contain a list of entities and predicates. Entities represent the objects or concepts in a description — such as an input gear or a switch. Predicates are one of three types and are a general way to express knowledge for SME.
Relation predicates contain multiple arguments, which can be other predicates or entities. An example relation is: (transmit (what from to)). This relation has a functor transmit and takes three arguments: what, from, and to.
Attribute predicates are the properties of an entity. An example of an attribute is (red gear) which means that gear has the attribute red.
Function predicates map an entity into another entity or constant. An example of a function is (joules power source) which maps the entity power source onto the numerical quantity joules.
Functions and attributes have different meanings, and consequently SME processes them differently. For example, in SME’s true analogy rule set, attributes differ from functions because they cannot match unless there is a higher-order match between them. The difference between attributes and functions will be explained further in this section’s examples.
All predicates have four parameters. They have (1) a functor, which identifies it, and (2) a type, which is either relation, attribute, or function. The other two parameters (3 and 4) are for determining how to process the arguments in the SME algorithm. If the arguments have to be matched in order, commutative is false. If the predicate can take any number of arguments, N-ary is false. An example of a predicate definition is: (sme:defPredicate behavior-set (predicate) relation :n-ary? t :commutative? t)
The predicate’s functor is “behavior-set,” its type is “relation,” and its n-ary and commutative parameters are both set to true. The “(predicate)” part of the definition specifies that there will be one or more predicates inside an instantiation of behavior-set.
Algorithm details
The algorithm has several steps.
The first step of the algorithm is to create a set of match hypotheses between source and target dgroups. A match hypothesis represents a possible mapping between any part of the source and the target. This mapping is controlled by a set of match rules. By changing the match rules, one can change the type of reasoning SME does. For example, one set of match rules may perform a kind of analogy called literal similarity. and another performs a kind of analogy called true-analogy. These rules are not the place where domain-dependent information is added, but rather where the analogy process is tweaked, depending on the type of cognitive function the user is trying to emulate.
For a given match rule, there are two types of rules that further define how it will be applied: filter rules and intern rules. Intern rules use only the arguments of the expressions in the match hypotheses that the filter rules identify. This limitation makes the processing more efficient by constraining the number of match hypotheses that are generated. At the same time, it also helps to build the structural consistencies that are needed later on in the algorithm. An example of a filter rule from the true-analogy rule set creates match hypotheses between predicates that have the same functor. The true-analogy rule set has an intern rule that iterates over the arguments of any match hypothesis, creating more match hypotheses if the arguments are entities or functions, or if the arguments are attributes and have the same functor.
In order to illustrate how the match rules produce match hypotheses consider these two predicates:
transmit torque inputgear secondgear (p1)
transmit signal switch div10 (p2)
Here we use true analogy for the type of reasoning. The filter match rule generates a match between p1 and p2 because they share the same functor, transmit. The intern rules then produce three more match hypotheses: torque to signal, inputgear to switch, and secondgear to div10. The intern rules created these match hypotheses because all the arguments were entities.
If the arguments were functions or attributes instead of entities, the predicates would be expressed as:
transmit torque (inputgear gear) (secondgear gear) (p3)
transmit signal (switch circuit) (div10 circuit) (p4)
These additional predicates make inputgear, secondgear, switch, and div10 functions or attributes depending on the value defined in the language input file. The representation also contains additional entities for gear and circuit.
Depending on what type inputgear, secondgear, switch, and div10 are, their meanings change. As attributes, each one is a property of the gear or circuit. For example, the gear has two attributes, inputgear and secondgear. The circuit has two attributes, switch and circuit. As functions inputgear, secondgear, switch, and div10 become quantities of the gear and circuit. In this example, the functions inputgear and secondgear now map to the numerical quantities “torque from inputgear” and “torque from secondgear,” For the circuit the quantities map to logical quantity “switch engaged” and the numerical quantity “current count on the divide by 10 counter.”
SME processes these differently. It does not allow attributes to match unless they are part of a higher-order relation, but it does allow functions to match, even if they are not part of such a relation. It allows functions to match because they indirectly refer to entities and thus should be treated like relations that involve no entities. However, as next section shows, the intern rules assign lower weights to matches between functions than to matches between relations.
The reason SME does not match attributes is because it is trying to create connected knowledge based on relationships and thus satisfy the systematicity principle. For example, if both a clock and a car have inputgear attributes, SME will not mark them as similar. If it did, it would be making a match between the clock and car based on their appearance — not on the relationships between them.
When the additional predicates in p3 and p4 are functions, the results from matching p3 and p4 are similar to the results from p1 and p2 except there is an additional match between gear and circuit and the values for the match hypotheses between (inputgear gear) and (switch circuit), and (secondgear gear) and (div10 circuit), are lower. The next section describes the reason for this in more detail.
If the inputgear, secondgear, switch, and div10 are attributes instead of entities, SME does not find matches between any of the attributes. It finds matches only between the transmit predicates and between torque and signal. Additionally, the structural-evaluation scores for the remaining two matches decrease. In order to get the two predicates to match, p3 would need to be replaced by p5, which is demonstrated below.
transmit torque (inputgear gear) (div10 gear) (p5)
Since the true-analogy rule set identifies that the div10 attributes are the same between p5 and p4 and because the div10 attributes are both part of the higher-relation match between torque and signal, SME makes a match between (div10 gear) and (div10 circuit) — which leads to a match between gear and circuit.
Being part of a higher-order match is a requirement only for attributes. For example, if (div10 gear) and (div10 circuit) are not part of a higher-order match, SME does not create a match hypothesis between them. However, if div10 is a function or relation, SME does create a match.
Structural evaluation score
Once the match hypotheses are generated, SME needs to compute an evaluation score for each hypothesis. SME does so by using a set of intern match rules to calculate positive and negative evidence for each match. Multiple amounts of evidence are correlated using Dempster’s rule [Shafer, 1978] resulting in positive and negative belief values between 0 and 1. The match rules assign different values for matches involving functions and relations. These values are programmable, however, and some default values that can be used to enforce the systematicity principle are described in [Falkenhainer et al., 1989].
These rules are:
If the source and target are not functions and have the same order, the match gets +0.3 evidence. If the orders are within 1 of each other, the match gets +0.2 evidence and -0.05 evidence.
If the source and target have the same functor, the match gets 0.2 evidence if the source is a function and 0.5 if the source is a relation.
If the arguments match, the match gets +0.4 evidence. The arguments might match if all the pairs of arguments between the source and target are entities, if the arguments have the same functors, or it is never the case that the target is an entity but the source is not.
If the predicate type matches, but the elements in the predicate do not match, then the match gets -0.8 evidence.
If the source and target expressions are part of a matching higher-order match, add 0.8 of the evidence for the higher-order match.
In the example match between p1 and p2, SME gives the match between the transmit relations a positive evidence value of 0.7900, and the others get values of 0.6320. The transmit relation receives the evidence value of 0.7900 because it gains evidence from rules 1, 3, and 2. The other matches get a value of 0.6320 because 0.8 of the evidence from the transmit is propagated to these matches because of rule 5.
For predicates p3 and p4, SME assigns less evidence because the arguments of the transmit relations are functions. The transmit relation gets positive evidence of 0.65 because rule 3 no longer adds evidence. The match between (input gear) and (switch circuit) becomes 0.7120. This match gets 0.4 evidence because of rule 3, and 0.52 evidence propagated from the transmit relation because of rule 5.
When the predicates in p3 and p4 are attributes, rule 4 adds -0.8 evidence to the transmit match because — though the functors of the transmit relation match — the arguments do not have the potential to match and the arguments are not functions.
To summarize, the intern match rules compute a structural evaluation score for each match hypothesis. These rules enforce the systematicity principle. Rule 5 provides trickle-down evidence in order to strengthen matches that are involved in higher-order relations. Rules 1, 3. and 4 add or subtract support for relations that could have matching arguments. Rule 2 adds support for the cases when the functors match. thereby adding support for matches that emphasize relationships.
The rules also enforce the difference between attributes, functions, and relations. For example, they have checks which give less evidence for functions than relations. Attributes are not specifically dealt with by the intern match rules, but SME’s filter rules ensure that they will only be considered for these rules if they are part of a higher-order relation, and rule 2 ensures that attributes will only match if they have identical functors.
Gmap creation
The rest of the SME algorithm is involved in creating maximally consistent sets of match hypotheses. These sets are called gmaps. SME must ensure that any gmaps that it creates are structurally consistent; in other words, that they are one-to-one — such that no source maps to multiple targets and no target is mapped to multiple sources. The gmaps must also have support, which means that if a match hypothesis is in the gmap, then so are the match hypothesis that involve the source and target items.
The gmap creation process follows two steps. First, SME computes information about each match hypothesis — including entity mappings, any conflicts with other hypotheses, and what other match hypotheses with which it might be structurally inconsistent.
SME then uses this information to merge match hypotheses — using a greedy algorithm and the structural evaluation score. It merges the match hypotheses into maximally structurally consistent connected graphs of match hypotheses. Then it combines gmaps that have overlapping structure if they are structurally consistent. Finally, it combines independent gmaps together while maintaining structural consistency.
Comparing a source to a target dgroup may produce one or more gmaps. The weight for each gmap is the sum of all the positive evidence values for all the match hypotheses involved in the gmap. For example, if a source containing p1 and p6 below, is compared to a target containing p2, SME will generate two gmaps. Both gmaps have a weight of 2.9186.
Source:
transmit torque inputgear secondgear (p1)
transmit torque secondgear thirdgear (p6)
Target:
transmit signal switch div10 (p2)
These are the gmaps which result from comparing a source containing a p1 and p6 and a target containing p2.
Gmap No. 1:
(TORQUE SIGNAL)
(INPUTGEAR SWITCH)
(SECONDGEAR DIV10)
(*TRANSMIT-TORQUE-INPUTGEAR-SECONDGEAR *TRANSMIT-SIGNAL-SWITCH-DIV10)
Gmap No. 2:
(TORQUE SIGNAL)
(SECONDGEAR SWITCH)
(THIRDGEAR DIV10)
(*TRANSMIT-TORQUE-SECONDGEAR-THIRDGEAR *TRANSMIT-SIGNAL-SWITCH-DIV10)
The gmaps show pairs of predicates or entities that match. For example, in gmap No. 1, the entities torque and signal match and the behaviors transmit torque inputgear secondgear and transmit signal switch div10 match. Gmap No. 1 represents combining p1 and p2. Gmap No. 2 represents combining p1 and p6. Although p2 is compatible with both p1 and p6, the one-to-one mapping constraint enforces that both mappings cannot be in the same gmap. Therefore, SME produces two independent gmaps. In addition, combining the two gmaps together would make the entity mappings between thirdgear and div10 conflict with the entity mapping between secondgear and div10.
Criticisms
Chalmers, French, and Hofstadter [1992] criticize SME for its reliance on manually constructed LISP representations as input. They argue that too much human creativity is required to construct these representations; the intelligence comes from the design of the input, not from SME. Forbus et al. [1998] attempted to rebut this criticism. Morrison and Dietrich [1995] tried to reconcile the two points of view. Turney [2008] presents an algorithm that does not require LISP input, yet follows the principles of Structure Mapping Theory. Turney [2008] state that their work, too, is not immune to the criticism of Chalmers, French, and Hofstadter [1992].
In her article How Creative Ideas Take Shape, Liane Gabora writes "According to the honing theory of creativity, creative thought works not on individually considered, discrete, predefined representations but on a contextually-elicited amalgam of items which exist in a state of potentiality and may not be readily separable. This leads to the prediction that analogy making proceeds not by mapping correspondences from candidate sources to target, as predicted by the structure mapping theory of analogy, but by weeding out non-correspondences, thereby whittling away at potentiality."
References
Further reading
Papers by the Qualitative Reasoning Group at Northwestern University
Chalmers, D. J., French, R. M., & Hofstadter, D. R.: 1992, High-level perception, representation, and analogy: A critique of artificial intelligence methodology. Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence, 4(3), 185–211.
Falkenhainer, B: 2005, Structure Mapping Engine Implementation. sme implementation
Falkenhainer, B, Forbus, K and Gentner, D: 1989, "The structure-mapping engine: Algorithm and examples". Artificial Intelligence, 20(41): 1–63.
Forbus, K.D., Gentner, D., Markman, A.B., and Ferguson, R.W.: 1998, Analogy Just Looks Like High Level Perception: Why a Domain-General Approach to Analogical Mapping is Right. Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Artificial Intelligence, 10(2), 231-257.
French, RM: 2002. "The Computational Modeling of Analogy-Making". Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(5), 200-205.
Gentner, D: 1983, "Structure-mapping: A Theoretical Framework for Analogy", Cognitive Science 7(2)
Shafer, G: 1978, A Mathematical Theory of Evidence, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. .
Morrison, C.T., and Dietrich, E.: 1995, Structure-Mapping vs. High-level Perception: The Mistaken Fight Over The Explanation of Analogy. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, 678-682.
Turney, P.D.: 2008, The latent relation mapping engine: Algorithm and experiments, Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research (JAIR), 33, 615-655.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20the%20Lion%20%28MGM%29
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Leo the Lion (MGM)
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Leo the Lion is the mascot for the Hollywood film studio Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and one of its predecessors, Goldwyn Pictures. The logo was created by artist Lionel S. Reiss, who served as art director at Paramount Pictures.
Since 1917, and through the time the studio was formed by the merger of Samuel Goldwyn's studio with Marcus Loew's Metro Pictures and Louis B. Mayer's company in 1924, several different lions have been used for the MGM logo.
Although MGM is referred to all of the lions used in their trademark as "Leo the Lion", only the lion in use since 1957 (a total of years), was actually named "Leo". In 2021, MGM introduced a new CGI logo which features a lion partially based on Leo.
History
Goldwyn Pictures lions (1917–1924)
The lion was chosen as the company's mascot in 1916 by publicist Howard Dietz, as a tribute to his alma mater Columbia University, whose mascot is a lion. Dietz was most directly inspired by the university's fight song, "Roar, Lion, Roar". Names of the first 2 lions used for the Goldwyn Pictures logos are unknown.
Slats (1924–1928)
Slats, trained by Volney Phifer, was the first lion used in the branding of the newly formed studio. Born at the Dublin Zoo on March 20, 1919, and originally named Cairbre (Gaelic for 'charioteer'), Slats was used on all black-and-white MGM films between 1924 and 1928. The first MGM film that used the logo was He Who Gets Slapped (1924).
Unlike his successors, Slats did nothing but look around in the logo, making him the only MGM lion not to roar. However, it is rumored that Phifer trained the lion to growl on cue, despite the fact that synchronized sound would not be used in motion pictures until 1927.
Slats died in 1936 when he was 17. At that time Phifer retired to his farm in Gillette, New Jersey, where he kept other animals used on Broadway. Upon his death, Phifer buried the lion on his farm and placed a plain block of granite to mark the grave. Later, Phifer planted a pine tree directly above the grave so that the roots would "hold down the lions spirit", replacing the granite block.
Jackie (1928–1956)
Jackie was the second lion used for the MGM logo and the first MGM lion to audibly roar. Born around 1915, he was a wild lion cub brought from the Nubian Desert in Sudan, and trained by Mel Koontz. Jackie bore a resemblance to his predecessor, Slats. He roared three times before looking off to the right of the screen (the lion's left); in the early years that this logo was used (1928 – c. 1933), there was a slightly extended version wherein, after looking off to the right, the lion would return his gaze to the front a few seconds later. Jackie's roar and growls were recorded long after he was filmed and at least four different recordings of roars/growls were used (some of the roars likely don't even belong to Jackie), first heard via a gramophone record for MGM's first production with sound, White Shadows in the South Seas (1928). Jackie appeared on all black-and-white MGM films from 1928 to 1956 (replacing Slats), as well as the sepia-tinted opening credits of The Wizard of Oz (1939). He also appeared before MGM's black-and-white cartoons, such as the Flip the Frog and Willie Whopper series produced for MGM by the short-lived Ub Iwerks Studio, as well as the Captain and the Kids cartoons produced by MGM in 1938 and 1939. A colorized variation of the logo can be found on the colorized version of Babes in Toyland (1934), also known as March of the Wooden Soldiers; an animated version created using rotoscope appeared on the 1939 Captain and the Kids cartoon Petunia Natural Park. For the films Westward the Women and The Next Voice You Hear... (both 1950), a still frame of the logo – sans growling—was used at the beginning. Jackie would make his last film appearance at the beginning of the film Hearts of the West (1975).
In addition to the MGM logo, Jackie also appeared in over a hundred films, including the Tarzan film series that starred Johnny Weissmuller. Jackie also appeared alongside a clearly apprehensive Greta Garbo in a famous 1926 MGM publicity still. A short 1933 film of a very annoyed Jackie receiving a bath from trainer Mel Koontz also exists. The lion is also known for surviving several accidents, including two train wrecks, a sinking ship, a 1933 earthquake, and an explosion in the studio. The most notable accident was a plane crash. On September 16, 1927, Martin "Marty" Jenson was hired to fly Jackie cross-country. The airplane was a B-1 Brougham airplane, a modified version of Charles Lindbergh's Spirit of St. Louis. Installed behind the pilot's seat was a glass enclosed iron bar cage. The plane took off from Camp Kearny Airfield, near San Diego. However, the plane was over weight as Jackie weighed 350 pounds. The excessive weight caused the plane to go down in the mountains near Payson, Arizona. Both Jenson and Jackie survived the crash and for four days subsisted on sandwiches, milk and water that were on board the plane. After being rescued, a thin and weak Jackie was returned to MGM and he was well cared for by his handlers for the rest of his life. Due to surviving these accidents, Jackie received the nickname "Leo the Lucky".
In the early 1930s, MGM reissued some of its earlier, pre-1928 silent films with prerecorded music soundtracks and sounds; such films included Greed (1924), Ben-Hur (1925), Flesh and the Devil (1926), and The Unknown (1927). For these sound reissues, the original Slats logo was replaced with Jackie.
In 1931, Jackie went on a farewell tour and subsequently retired to the Philadelphia Zoo. Jackie was reportedly quite tame and gentle and liked people. On February 25, 1935, Jackie was found dead by his zookeeper John McCullen. The cause of his death was attributed to heart issues. Jackie's body was flown from Philadelphia to Los Angeles where taxidermist Thomas Hodges preserved his skin into a rug. Jackie's present location is unknown.
Bill (c. 1927–1928), Telly (1928–1932), Coffee (1932–1935)
MGM began experiments with two-strip color short subjects in 1927 and animated cartoons in 1930. For these productions, three different lions were used.
Footage of the first lion is very rare, although a few frames of the logo with this lion exist in the public domain. He is known to have appeared in the silent color films Buffalo Bill's Last Fight (1927) and The Heart of General Robert E. Lee (1928). The former gave him the nickname Bill, while the latter is currently being restored by the Library of Congress.
The second lion, Telly, appeared on color MGM movies between 1928 and 1932. An extended version of the logo featuring Telly appears at the beginning of the film The Viking (1928), featuring the lion having the same roar as Jackie. In current prints of The Mysterious Island (1929), Telly appears in black and white because the color version is lost.
The third lion, Coffee, who was trained by Mel Koontz, appeared on color films between 1932 and 1934 or 1935 for the Happy Harmonies shorts, until production was switched to full three-strip Technicolor filming. The Cat and the Fiddle (1934) had brief color sequences, but was otherwise in black-and-white including its opening credits, so it used Jackie instead of Coffee. The Cat and the Fiddle however, showed its "The End" title card against a Technicolor background. An extended version of the logo featuring Coffee appears at the beginning of the short Wild People (1932), featuring the lion roaring three times, rather than just twice.
Tanner (1934–1956, 1963–1967)
The first full three-strip Technicolor film, Holland in Tulip Time, was released in 1934. Tanner was trained by Mel Koontz, like Jackie, and appeared on all Technicolor MGM films (1934–1956) and cartoons (1935–1958, 1963–1967, except for 1965's The Dot and the Line), replacing Telly and Coffee. The Wizard of Oz (1939) had the Oz scenes in color, but it had the opening credits, closing credits, and the Kansas scenes in sepia-toned black-and-white, so it used Jackie instead of Tanner. Third Dimensional Murder (1941) was shot in 3-D and in Technicolor, but it had the opening credits in black-and-white, so it also used Jackie instead of Tanner. The Picture of Dorian Gray (1945) and The Secret Garden (1949) both had brief color sequences, but were otherwise in black-and-white including their opening credits, so they used Jackie instead of Tanner as well. The Secret Garden, however, showed its "The End" title card and the cast list against a Technicolor background. The Long, Long Trailer (1954) and Forever, Darling (1956) use Tanner with Jackie's roar instead. Tanner roared three times in the logo; an extended version of this logo appeared on the Colortone Musicals shorts, such as The Spectacle Maker, My Grandfather Clock and Star Night at the Cocoanut Grove (all 1934), and several early James A. Fitzpatrick Traveltalks color shorts, with two additional roars from the lion.
Tanner was MGM's third longest-used lion, for a total of 22 years. His first feature film appearance was before Sweethearts four years later, in 1938. He featured after Jackie, who was used for a total of 28 years, and the current lion, who has been retained for years. It is this version of the logo that was the most frequently used version throughout the Golden Age of Hollywood, although color did not really become the norm until the 1960s, and even then, many movies were still being made in black-and-white.
In addition to being used as MGM's lion mascot, Tanner also made an appearance in Three Stooges shorts Movie Maniacs (1936), Wee Wee Monsieur (1938), Three Missing Links (1938), You Nazty Spy (1940) and Hold That Lion! (1947). Also, between the mid-1940s and 1960s, MGM's cartoon studio would use Tanner's roar as a sound effect for many of their animated shorts.
Tanner and Jackie were both kept in the change from Academy ratio films to widescreen CinemaScope movies in 1953, with Tanner for color films and Jackie for black-and-white films. The logo was modified for this change; the marquee below the ribbon design was removed, and the company name was thus placed in a semi-circle above the ribbon.
George (1956–1957)
George, the seventh lion made his debut in 1956 and had the heaviest mane of all the MGM lions. Although George had the shortest tenure (around one year) of all the official MGM lions, there are at least three different variations of the logo with George. His first appearance was in High Society (1956), and examples of his most famous films are Lust for Life (1956), The Wings of Eagles (1957) and Silk Stockings (1957). The logo was reused from the Canadian VHS release of Cinema Paradiso (1988) (which was distributed by Alliance Releasing Home Video), while the logo was removed from the U.S. VHS release of Cinema Paradiso (1988) (which was distributed by HBO Video under license from Miramax Films).
Leo (1957–present)
Leo, the eighth and current lion, is by far MGM's longest-used, having appeared on most MGM films since 1957. Leo was born in 1956 in Dublin Zoo, Ireland, the same as Slats. He was also the youngest at the time MGM filmed him roaring, hence his much smaller mane. Leo made his debut for the film Tip on a Dead Jockey.
Leo was purchased from animal dealer Henry Trefflich, and trained by Ralph Helfer. In addition to being used as the MGM lion, Leo also appeared in other productions such as the religious epic King of Kings (1961), The Lion (1962), Zebra in the Kitchen (1965), Fluffy (1965), and Napoleon and Samantha (1972); as well as a memorable TV commercial for Dreyfus Investments in 1961. Leo also made several appearances on the 1971–72 TV series The Pet Set, proving himself gentle enough to let a blind teenage girl pet him in one episode (his extremely gentle temperament was one the reasons Leo got into the MGM logo with a short, thin mane that had not yet finished growing).
Two different versions of this logo were used: From 1957 to 1960, an "extended" version, with the lion roaring three times and the "standard" version from 1960 on, with the lion roaring twice (though the "extended version" with three roars was occasionally used after 1960, including before Nothing Lasts Forever in 1984). In the Chuck Jones-directed Tom and Jerry cartoons released by MGM Animation/Visual Arts between 1963 and 1967 (as with cartoons from the same series made between 1957 and 1958), Tanner appeared in the openings instead of Leo, though the former's roar was also used de facto for the latter. Three MGM films, Raintree County (1957), Ben-Hur (1959) and Mutiny on the Bounty (1962) utilized a still-frame variation of this logo on Raintree County and Mutiny of the Bounty also had the lion's roar played along with their opening scores. For Ben-Hur, the reason for this was because the film's director, William Wyler, thought that the roar would feel out of place for the opening nativity scene. This logo also appeared on black-and-white films, such as Jailhouse Rock (1957) and A Patch of Blue (1965). Some television prints of the 1943 film Cabin in the Sky, have replaced the Jackie logo with Leo for unknown reasons.
The logo was modified for MGM's 50th anniversary in 1974. The usual film ribbon appeared on screen with the sound of Leo roaring and the phrase "BEGINNING OUR NEXT 50 YEARS..." on a black background within the film circle; the phrase dissolves as "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer" (above the ribbon) and "GOLDEN ANNIVERSARY" (in place of the usual "TRADE MARK") both rendered in gold fade in along with Leo, who continues to roar. The 50th anniversary logo appeared on several MGM films released during 1974–75 including That's Entertainment! (1974) and The Wind and the Lion (1975).
In 1981, MGM acquired United Artists which had been the domestic distributor for MGM films since 1974. Beginning in 1983, the MGM logo was modified to read "MGM/UA Entertainment Co." in place of "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer"; this logo would appear on all MGM/UA films from 1983 until 1986 and again in 1987 on the film O.C. and Stiggs, which was originally produced in 1985. It was also at this time that the original lion roar sound which actually sampled Tanner's roar was replaced with a remade stereophonic one, redone by Mark Mangini. This later version featured tiger sounds; as Mangini would later explain, "Lions don't make that kind of ferocious noises, and the logo needed to be ferocious and majestic.". The first film to use the new roar sound was Poltergeist (1982). Incidentally, the sound effect was also used for the "door ghost" near the end of the film.
From 1984 to 1985, MGM used a variation of its main studio logo for its 60th anniversary based on the print logo, with the ribbons in a golden color. Above the ribbons were the words "Diamond Jubilee", replacing the standard company name, and its font color was silver and below the ribboning was the phrase "Sixty Years of Great Entertainment". The "Ars Gratia Artis" motto was removed from inside the circle and replaced with the text "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer/United Artists". The drama mask from the bottom had its surrounding laurels removed, and the mask itself was moved up a little so that an additional golden ribbon with the text reading "Entertainment Co." below would be added. Although the new roar effect done by Mangini was primarily being used at the time, 2010: The Year We Make Contact had both the original and 1982 roar effects mixed together.
When the company began using MGM and UA as separate brands in 1986, a new logo for MGM was introduced; the same gold ribbons used for the "Diamond Jubilee" variant was retained, and the text was redone in exactly the same color. The following year, a new "MGM/UA Communications Co." logo was introduced, and would precede both the MGM and UA logos until it was dropped in 1990. However, both logos would maintain the byline "An MGM/UA Communications Company" until 1992. Mangini remixed Leo's 1982 roar in 1995, using digital audio technology to blend it in with several other roar sounds; the remixed sound effect debuted with the release of Cutthroat Island (1995). This was done to give the roar more "muscle" which an MGM executive reportedly had found the iconic sound to be lacking beforehand, as well as fit it into films with 5.1 surround sound. In 2001, MGM's website address, "www.mgm.com", was added to the bottom of the logo.
The logo was revised again in 2008, with the ribbons, text, and drama mask done in a more brilliant gold color. Also, Leo's image was digitally restored and enhanced, thanks to the work of staff at Pacific Title: first off, a three-dimensional model of Leo's mane was designed, and then composited and blended onto the lion's actual mane; secondly, the tips of the lion's ears were digitally remodeled, so that the tip of his left ear would now cross in front of the film ribbon, in an effort to give the logo more depth. For the restoration process, the extended "three-roar" version of Leo's footage was used, sourced from the master negative print of 1958's Cat on a Hot Tin Roof, as the original, raw footage of the lion, which was originally going to be used for the restoration, had been considered lost by this point. For MGM's upcoming feature films, it would have to be shortened to show the lion roaring just twice. The new logo's design was based on that of MGM's then-current print logo, which had been introduced in 1992. The website address was also shortened to "MGM.COM". The lion's roar was remixed once again by sound editor Eric Martel, maintaining most of the original 1982 sound elements. However, beginning with The Taking of Pelham 123 (2009), the 1995 roar was reused. The newly-done logo debuted with the release of the James Bond film Quantum of Solace.
In 2012, Shine Studio was chosen to redesign and animate the logo in stereoscopic 3-D (three-dimensional). A lion's eye irises in and zooms out to reveal Leo the Lion encircled in a digital moving golden filmstrip. Shine re-built all the elements of the logo in 3-D and then placed on different planes to add dimensional layers and drama, including the words "Ars Gratia Artis" moving from right to left. The 1995 roar and the digitally restored and enhanced 1957 footage is reused once again as Leo roars and the company name is brought in from above to center the top screen, which completes the logo sequence. MGM's website address was removed, as MGM is no longer as of 2012 a self-distribution entity, but rather a production company. This logo was first used in the 2012 James Bond film Skyfall.
On March 8, 2021, MGM unveiled an updated logo, with Leo now being CGI animated, while being based on its 1957 footage, the first major redesign for the mascot in over six decades. The latest rendition leans into the company's traditional gold design, filtering out sepia tones and modernizing the logo by sharpening the film roll, mask and lettering. The biggest change is evident in the brand's new monogram, which uses the classic font of the MGM logo rather than the blocky lettering associated with MGM Resorts. Furthermore, the motto now shows its English translation, "Art for Art's Sake", then changing to its original Latin motto. It also had a proper fanfare composed by Sounds Red, alongside the re-used 1995 roar. MGM worked with Culver City, Calif.-based Baked Studios on the new look. While the new logo, similar to the previous logos, was set to be unveiled with the James Bond film No Time to Die, it was frequently delayed over 2 years from its intended November 2019 release to October 2021 due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. It instead debuted with the Aretha Franklin biopic Respect, which was released on August 13, 2021. On January 19, 2022, a special variation was released to coincide with the 60th anniversary of the James Bond franchise, once again by Baked Studios, with the logo zooming out further to make room for the "60 Years of Bond" logo which appears on the right next to it, being backed by the James Bond theme, based on the remastered version of the Dr. No version, composed by Monty Norman and performed by The John Barry Orchestra, following the usual fanfare. It premiered in front of the IMAX re-release engagement of No Time to Die on January 21, 2022, and appeared on Ron Howard's Thirteen Lives and the documentary The Sound of 007. Beginning with 2021's Wrath of Man (released just over 2 months after the unveiling of the new MGM logo, though the film itself retains the 2012-era logo), the company quietly unveiled a new secondary logo mainly used for digital/physical/television advertising (as well as becoming the new logo on the company's home entertainment releases and film posters), phasing out the static MGM logo (though it remains at the end of the company's films) in favor of simply 'MGM' in the same typeface as the logo. On July 1st, 2023, the logo was used on the MGM+ ident and its Feature Presentation ident by Imaginary Forces, using elements from the logo in the channel's Next bumper and its secondary ident, under assistance from AFX Creative. On August 30, 2023, in reflection of Amazon's acquisition of the studio the year before, a byline reading "An Amazon Company" (in the font of Amazon Studios) was added below the logo. This version premiered on the teaser trailer for Saltburn and made its official debut on Sitting in Bars with Cake, which was released on Prime Video on September 8, 2023.
Stylized Lion (1968)
In 1965, in an attempt to update its image, MGM recruited Lippincott to create a more contemporary logo. The result, a circular still graphic of a lion known as "The Stylized Lion", appeared at the beginning of two films in 1968: 2001: A Space Odyssey and The Subject Was Roses. Afterwards, Leo was reinstated for the opening logo.
The Stylized Lion, however, was retained by the studio, shown at the end of credit rolls of most MGM movie releases until 1982. MGM also used the Stylized Lion as its print logo, on theatrical posters, studio advertising and by the MGM Records division. This logo was later used by the MGM Grand casinos. A refined version of the Stylized Lion is currently used as the logo for their parent company, MGM Resorts International, no longer affiliated with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer.
Secondary MGM logo
MGM also used a secondary logo, seen in the opening and closing credits of most classic MGM movies. This design originated as the Metro-Goldwyn Pictures logo from 1923 to 1925. The logo features a graphic of a reclining lion (from a side view) on a pedestal that has the text "A Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Picture" inscribed on it. Behind the lion is a semi-circular film ribbon with the "Ars Gratia Artis" motto ("Art for art's sake"), much like the film ribboning of the company's primary logo. On either side of the pedestal are torches. This secondary logo was used in the opening title and end titles of most MGM films from the mid-1920s until the early 1960s, then moved to the main film credits until c. 1983. This logo was last seen in the 1994 film That's Entertainment! III.
Many of the short subjects produced by Hal Roach studios and distributed by MGM during the late 1920s and 1930s such as Our Gang and Laurel and Hardy featured a variation of the secondary logo in their closing titles. This variation had a lion cub on the pedestal, looking straight at the viewer.
In addition, several MGM films made in the late 1930s and early '40s set their entire opening credits against a background of a relief carving of an outline of the reclining lion image, similar to the one seen on the secondary logo. Among the many films that include this kind of credits sequence are Ninotchka (1939), starring Greta Garbo and This Man's Navy (1945) with Wallace Beery. This reclining lion image was later used as the logo for MGM Television in the late 1950s.
Puppet
Little Leo the Lion, "son of" the "real" Leo, appears as an elaborate hand puppet on MGM Parade, a 1955–1956 television show. In the second episode, he reclines on a bookcase in the "MGM Trophy Room" set, wearing full evening dress (but no shoes). Leo interrupts host George Murphy to speak for all the cartoon animals who want to appear on MGM Parade. He introduces the animals' pitch reel, a 7-minute Tex Avery cartoon. Leo promises more acts for next week, but Murphy replies with a variation on the cliché, "Don't call me, I'll call you."
Parodies
The Leo the Lion logo had been parodied in many films and television programs.
Monty Python's film And Now for Something Completely Different (1971) parodied MGM's logo with a croaking frog in place of the lion. The UK TV series The Goodies episodes "Gender Education" and "The Movies" parodied the logo with a blanket obscured man and a chicken respectively taking the lion's place.
The logo for MTM Enterprises used on its television shows, including The Mary Tyler Moore Show, The Bob Newhart Show, "WKRP in Cincinnati" and others, parodied the Leo the Lion logo with its colophon, at the very end of the program. In place of Leo was Mimsie the Cat, who meowed at the end of each show. The ribbon over the kitten's head read "MTM" instead of "Ars Gratia Artis."
MGM made their first of several spoofs of their own logo for the first Marx Brothers MGM film, A Night at the Opera (1935). Jackie appears in the opening credits for the actual film, but the re-release trailer for the movie shows a lion that is probably Tanner, followed by Groucho, then Chico, roaring inside of the film circle, with the sound of the actual lion being heard, and then Harpo doing the same, but silently. (Harpo then honks his horn instead of roaring again.)
The parody was originally created to open the actual film but was vetoed by MGM studio head Louis B. Mayer who felt the spoof would "cheapen" MGM's respected trademark.
MGM's compilation film The Big Parade of Comedy (1964) opens with Leo "out to lunch", munching on a cartoon protestor.
Another parody MGM used for its own logo appeared in Roman Polanski's 1967 film, The Fearless Vampire Killers. Here, the lion morphs into a creepy-looking cartoon vampire with blood dripping from its mouth; in the European version, after a short introductory cartoon, Leo zooms in and roars as the cartoon's two main characters cower in fear, then grows saber-teeth (like the extinct cat Smilodon) as they run off.
The 1981 film Tarzan, the Ape Man has the classic Tarzan yell in place of Leo's roar.
The 1983 comedy film Strange Brew opens with a one-off version of the MGM logo where the lion belches within one second of the fade-in. Then the lion grunts and the camera begins a sweeping dolly move to the right and then the rear of the logo. Behind the logo, Rick Moranis and Dave Thomas as Bob and Doug McKenzie are trying to goad the sedated lion into roaring. Thomas (as Doug) says, "Maybe I oughta crank his tail, eh? That oughta start him up." He then begins cranking the lion's tail, yelling "start up, eh!" When the lion stirs, Moranis (as Bob) says "Oh, jeez, he's getting mad, eh?" Then, in a breaking of the fourth wall, they both notice the camera and run to their Great White North set to begin the movie. The lion also growled during that scene, where Doug exclaims "Now that hoser's growling!" The 1981 roar was reused.
In the 2001 film Josie and the Pussycats, the lion roars and turns into a screaming female fan.
In the 2014 film Robocop, the lion's roars are changed with the sound of talk show host Pat Novak doing his vocal warmups.
In The Pink Panther (2006), starring Steve Martin, Leo starts roaring, but is then interrupted as Inspector Clouseau opens the circle like a door, looking around the place before leaving. The Pink Panther character appears behind him unnoticed, cleverly smirking, and closes the door immediately afterwards, leaving Leo confused.
In The Crocodile Hunter: Collision Course (2002), Leo is replaced with a saltwater crocodile, with actual crocodile roars being used. A trailer for the film features a lion different from the standard lion; Steve Irwin also appears and breaks the fourth wall by briefly addressing the viewers.
In an episode of Sidekick called "Trevor the Hero", the title card has Eric as the drama mask and Trevor in the logo acting like the MGM Lion.
The Steven Universe episode "Lion 2: the Movie" ends with Steven's pet lion, Lion, appearing in a spoof of the MGM logo. MGM parodied their logo in several of their cartoons.
In The Addams Family (2019), Leo roars and a flash of light turns him into the Addams family's pet lion Kitty Cat who roars and finds a red ball and jumps out of the logo and plays with it as the logo falls over, revealing the family's interior, as if it was made of cardboard.
In the 1961 Tom and Jerry cartoon Switchin' Kitten, Jerry roars like Leo at his mouse hole that resembles the ribbon of the MGM logo with the "Ars-Gratia-Artis" motto. The Chuck Jones-directed Tom and Jerry cartoons from 1963 to 1967 begin with a cartoon variation of the MGM logo using Tanner instead of Leo. Tanner from the early Tom and Jerry cartoon intros from MGM roars at the beginning, and is then replaced by Tom, who yowls and hisses; the logo then transitions to the cartoon series' title sequence. Also, in the episode "Sorry Safari", there is a lion in the jungle sitting down and roaring while the company's name is on the top of the screen. The same lion appears later in the episode.
In the 1933 Looney Tunes cartoon Bosko's Picture Show, the feature film shown in Bosko's theater is produced by the "TNT Pictures" company, whose logo is a roaring and burping lion with the motto Eenie Meanie Minie Moe. Other Warner Bros. cartoons, such as She Was an Acrobat's Daughter and Bacall to Arms also poke fun at their cross-town rival studio. (Ironically, MGM would obtain the rights to these two cartoons in 1981 through United Artists and UA's purchase of Associated Artists Productions and its library in 1958, which included all pre-August 1948 color Looney Tunes/Merrie Melodies.)
In National Lampoon's Animal House (1978), the motto of the Delta House is "Ars Gratia Artis".
The Soviet animated film Ograblenie po... (1978/1988) parodied the logo with Cheburashka replacing the lion.
The animated television series Tiny Toon Adventures included "end tags" for several of its main characters – short clips featuring the character(s) that were played immediately after the end credits. One of the end tags and post-credit scenes featured the character Furrball, who began by roaring at the screen like a lion before covering his mouth and letting out an apologetic mew.
The Muppets parodied the logo in two of their productions in 1981. It was spoofed by Animal in the role of Leo in The Great Muppet Caper, and by Fozzie Bear in the same role in The Muppets Go to the Movies. Also, in one Muppet Babies episode ("The Daily Muppet", which first aired on CBS on Saturday, November 1, 1986), Baby Animal roars as Gonzo's face replaces the mask usually seen under the lion.
One of the episode title cards for the animated PBS Kids series, Arthur (the episode "Sue Ellen Moves In") involves Buster walking into the circle and roaring like the MGM lion (subsequent episodes with the title card would feature Buster making other noises such as an elephant trumpeting or simply belching). The titular character then walks up behind him and laughs.
The animated sitcom Family Guy parodied Leo in the Season 12 episode "Brian's a Bad Father".
The Pokémon anime featured a Zorua, a Meowth, and a Pikachu parodying Leo.
In the 1997 Warner Bros./Turner Pictures/Turner Feature Animation feature film Cats Don't Dance, the story takes place at Mammoth Pictures in Hollywood. Mammoth's logo is also a spoof of MGM's, with a trumpeting elephant seen in the filmstrip circle and a Latin motto in the filmstrip above the elephant's head reading, "Optimum Est Maximum," which translates to "Bigger is better."
A "film" called Sonia Honey (a spoof of skater/actress Sonia Henie) was featured in the "movie" segment of an episode of The Carol Burnett Show which originally aired on CBS-TV on Wednesday, October 13, 1971, at 8:00 P.M. Eastern time. The "film" was produced by "Metro-Goldwyn-Mouth," with Ms. Burnett seen in the filmstrip circle in a sequined dress and heard doing a variation on her famous "Tarzan yell," with the "studio"'s name seen in a Wide Latin chiseled font on the top of the circle (a la the MGM logo of the 1950s).
In an episode of Punky Brewster entitled "Punky Brewster's Workout", Punky, Margeaux, and Alan make a Jane Fonda-style workout video. The "video" is produced by "P.B.P." (Punky Brewster Productions), with an MGM logo parody at the end of the video, in which Punky's dog, Brandon, is seen and heard barking in the filmstrip circle, drawn and colored in by the kids.
In an episode of the PBS Kids series Zoom, which aired Monday, January 9, 1978, "Zoomer" Shona parodies Leo for the opening of the "Cinema ZOOM" segment.
Other parodies, in Malaysian cartoon Upin & Ipin character, Kak Ros parody MGM logo old version with the gold logo sign in a special episode of Upin & Ipin.
See also
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
MGM Television
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio
The Lionhearts
Art for art's sake
List of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
References
External links
MGM official site
MGM page at Hollywood Lost and Found
Lion roar (MP3 format), as trademarked by MGM, at the United States Patent and Trademark Office website
Video compilation MGM Logo History (1916–2021)
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
Corporate mascots
Film and television opening sequences
Lion mascots
Film studio mascots
Sound trademarks
Individual lions
Fictional lions
Male characters in film
Male characters in advertising
Mascots introduced in 1916
Animal actors
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4680415
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam-assisted%20gravity%20drainage
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Steam-assisted gravity drainage
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Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD; "Sag-D") is an enhanced oil recovery technology for producing heavy crude oil and bitumen. It is an advanced form of steam stimulation in which a pair of horizontal wells is drilled into the oil reservoir, one a few metres above the other. High pressure steam is continuously injected into the upper wellbore to heat the oil and reduce its viscosity, causing the heated oil to drain into the lower wellbore, where it is pumped out. Dr. Roger Butler, engineer at Imperial Oil from 1955 to 1982, invented the steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) process in the 1970s. Butler "developed the concept of using horizontal pairs of wells and injected steam to develop certain deposits of bitumen considered too deep for mining". In 1983 Butler became director of technical programs for the Alberta Oil Sands Technology and Research Authority (AOSTRA), a crown corporation created by Alberta Premier Lougheed to promote new technologies for oil sands and heavy crude oil production. AOSTRA quickly supported SAGD as a promising innovation in oil sands extraction technology.
Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) and cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) steam injection (oil industry) are two commercially applied primal thermal recovery processes used in the oil sands in Geological formation sub-units, such as Grand Rapids Formation, Clearwater Formation, McMurray Formation, General Petroleum Sand, Lloydminster Sand, of the Mannville Group, a stratigraphic range in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin.
Canada is now the single largest supplier of imported oil to the United States, supplying over 35% of US imports, much more than Saudi Arabia or Venezuela, and more than all the OPEC countries combined. Most of the new production comes from Alberta's vast oil sands deposits. There are two primary methods of oil sands recovery. The strip-mining technique is more familiar to the general public, but can only be used for shallow bitumen deposits. However, the more recent steam-assisted gravity drainage technique (SAGD) is better suited to the much larger deep deposits that surround the shallow ones. Much of the expected future growth of production in the Canadian oil sands is predicted to be from SAGD.
Steam Assisted Gravity Drainage emissions are equivalent to what is emitted by the steam flood projects which have long been used to produce heavy oil in California's Kern River Oil Field and elsewhere around the world.
Description
The SAGD process of heavy oil or bitumen production is an enhancement on the steam injection techniques originally developed to produce heavy oil from the Kern River Oil Field of California. The key to all steam flooding processes is to deliver heat to the producing formation to reduce the viscosity of the heavy oil and enable it to move toward the producing well. The cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) process developed for the California heavy oil fields was able to produce oil from some portions of the Alberta oil sands, such as the Cold Lake oil sands, but did not work as well to produce bitumen from heavier and deeper deposits in the Athabasca oil sands and Peace River oil sands, where the majority of Alberta's oil sands reserves lie. To produce these much larger reserves, the SAGD process was developed, primarily by Dr. Roger Butler of Imperial Oil with the assistance of the Alberta Oil Sands Technology and Research Authority and industry partners. The SAGD process is estimated by the National Energy Board to be economic when oil prices are at least US$30 to $35 per barrel.
In the SAGD process, two parallel horizontal oil wells are drilled in the formation, one about 4 to 6 metres above the other. The upper well injects steam, and the lower one collects the heated crude oil or bitumen that flows down due to gravity, plus recovered water from the condensation of the injected steam. The basis of the SAGD process is that thermal communication is established with the reservoir so that the injected steam forms a "steam chamber". The heat from the steam reduces the viscosity of the heavy crude oil or bitumen which allows it to flow down into the lower wellbore. The steam and associated gas rise because of their low density compared to the heavy crude oil below, ensuring that steam is not produced at the lower production well, tend to rise in the steam chamber, filling the void space left by the oil. Associated gas forms, to a certain extent, an insulating heat blanket above (and around) the steam. Oil and water flow is by a countercurrent, gravity driven drainage into the lower well bore. The condensed water and crude oil or bitumen is recovered to the surface by pumps such as progressive cavity pumps that work well for moving high-viscosity fluids with suspended solids.
Sub-cool is the difference between the saturation temperature (boiling point) of water at the producer pressure and the actual temperature at the same place where the pressure is measured. The higher the liquid level above the producer the lower the temperature and higher is the sub-cool. However, real life reservoirs are invariably heterogeneous therefore it becomes extremely difficult to achieve a uniform sub-cool along the entire horizontal length of a well. As a consequence many operators, when faced with uneven stunted steam chamber development, allow a small quantity of steam to enter into the producer to keep the bitumen in the entire wellbore hot hence keeping its viscosity low with the added benefit of transferring heat to colder parts of the reservoir along the wellbore. Another variation sometimes called Partial SAGD is used when operators deliberately circulate steam in the producer following a long shut-in period or as a startup procedure. Though a high value of sub-cool is desirable from a thermal efficiency standpoint as it generally includes reduction of steam injection rates but it also results in slightly reduced production due to a corresponding higher viscosity and lower mobility of bitumen caused by lower temperature. Another drawback of very high sub-cool is the possibility of steam pressure eventually not being enough to sustain steam chamber development above the injector, sometimes resulting in collapsed steam chambers where condensed steam floods the injector and precludes further development of the chamber.
Continuous operation of the injection and production wells at approximately reservoir pressure eliminates the instability problems that plague all high-pressure and cyclic steam processes and SAGD produces a smooth, even production that can be as high as 70% to 80% of oil in place in suitable reservoirs. The process is relatively insensitive to shale streaks and other vertical barriers to steam and fluid flow because, as the rock is heated, differential thermal expansion allows steam and fluids to gravity flow through to the production well. This allows recovery rates of 60% to 70% of oil in place, even in formations with many thin shale barriers. Thermally, SAGD is generally twice as efficient as the older CSS process, and it results in far fewer wells being damaged by the high pressures associated with CSS. Combined with the higher oil recovery rates achieved, this means that SAGD is much more economic than cyclic steam processes where the reservoir is reasonably thick.
History
The gravity drainage idea was originally conceived by Dr. Roger Butler, an engineer for Imperial Oil in the 1970s In 1975 Imperial Oil transferred Butler from Sarnia, Ontario to Calgary, Alberta to head their heavy oil research effort. He tested the concept with Imperial Oil in 1980, in a pilot at Cold Lake which featured one of the first horizontal wells in the industry, with vertical injectors.
Alberta Oil Sands Technology and Research Authority (AOSTRA) 1974
In 1974, Premier of Alberta Peter Lougheed created the Alberta Oil Sands Technology and Research Authority (AOSTRA) as an Alberta crown corporation to promote the development and use of new technology for oil sands and heavy crude oil production, and enhanced recovery of conventional crude oil. Its first facility was owned and operated by ten industrial participants and received ample government support (Deutsch and McLennan 2005) including from the Alberta Heritage Savings Trust Fund. One of the main targets of AOSTRA finding of suitable technologies for that part of the Athabasca oil sands that could not be recovered using conventional surface mining technologies.
AOSTRA Underground Test Facility 1984
In 1984, AOSTRA initiated the Underground Test Facility in the Athabasca oil sands, located between the MacKay Rivers and the Devon River west of the Syncrude plant as an in-situ SAGD bitumen recovery facility. It was here that their first test of twin (horizontal) SAGD wells took place, proving the feasibility of the concept, briefly achieving positive cash flow in 1992 at a production rate of about from three well pairs.
Foster Creek
The Foster Creek plant in Alberta Canada, built in 1996 and operated by Cenovus Energy, was the first commercial Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) project and by 2010 Foster Creek "became the largest commercial SAGD project in Alberta to reach royalty payout status. "
The original UTF SAGD wells were drilled horizontally from a tunnel in the limestone underburden, accessed with vertical mine shafts. The concept coincided with development of directional drilling techniques that allowed companies to drill horizontal wells accurately, cheaply and efficiently, to the point that it became hard to justify drilling a conventional vertical well any more. With the low cost of drilling horizontal well pairs, and the very high recovery rates of the SAGD process (up to 60% of the oil in place), SAGD is economically attractive to oil companies.
At Foster Creek Cenovus has employed its patented 'wedge well' technology to recover residual resources bypassed by regular SAGD operations, this improves the total recovery rate of the operation. The 'wedge well' technology works by accessing the residual bitumen that is bypassed in regular SAGD operations by drilling an infill well between two established operating SAGD well pairs once the SAGD steam chambers have matured to the point where they have merged and are in fluid communication and then what is left to recover in that reservoir area between the operating SAGD well pairs is a 'wedge' of residual, bypassed oil. Wedge well technology has been shown to improve overall recovery rates by 5%-10% at a reduced capital cost as less steam is required once the steam chambers mature to the point where they are in fluid communication and typically at this stage in the recovery process, also commonly known as the 'blow down' phase, the injected steam is replaced with a non-condensable gas such as methane, further reducing production costs.
Current applications
This technology was not at-first commercially viable. It became so during the increased oil prices during the 2000s. While traditional drilling methods were prevalent up until the 1990s, high crude prices of the 21st Century are encouraging more unconventional methods (such as SAGD) to extract crude oil. The Canadian oil sands have many SAGD projects in progress, since this region is home of one of the largest deposits of bitumen in the world (Canada and Venezuela have the world's largest deposits).
The SAGD process allowed the Alberta Energy Resources Conservation Board (ERCB) to increase its proven oil reserves to 179 billion barrels, which raised Canada's oil reserves to the third highest in the world after Venezuela and Saudi Arabia and approximately quadrupled North American oil reserves. As of 2011, the oil sands reserves stand at around 169 billion barrels.
Disadvantages
Oil and water nexus
SAGD, a thermal recovery process, consumes large quantities of water and natural gas.
"Petroleum from the Canadian oil sands extracted via surface mining techniques can consume 20 times more water than conventional oil drilling." However, by 2011 there was inadequate data on the amount of water used in the increasingly important steam-assisted gravity drainage technique (SAGD) method. Evaporators can treat the SAGD produced water to produce high quality freshwater for reuse in SAGD operations. However, evaporators produce a high volume blowdown waste which requires further management.
Use of natural gas for steam generation
As in all thermal recovery processes, cost of steam generation is a major part of the cost of oil production. Historically, natural gas has been used as a fuel for Canadian oil sands projects, due to the presence of large stranded gas reserves in the oil sands area. However, with the building of natural gas pipelines to outside markets in Canada and the United States, the price of gas has become an important consideration. The fact that natural gas production in Canada has peaked and is now declining is also a problem. Other sources of generating heat are under consideration, notably gasification of the heavy fractions of the produced bitumen to produce syngas, using the nearby (and massive) deposits of coal, or even building nuclear reactors to produce the heat.
Use of water for steam generation
A source of large amounts of fresh and brackish water and large water re-cycling facilities are required in order to create the steam for the SAGD process. Water is a popular topic for debate in regards to water use and management. As of 2008, American petroleum production (not limited to SAGD) generates over 5 billion gallons of produced water every day. The concern of using large amounts of water has little to do with proportion of water used, rather the quality of the water. Traditionally close to 70 million cubic metres of the water volume that was used in the SAGD process was fresh, surface, water. There has been a significant reduction in fresh water use as of 2010, when approximately 18 million cubic metres were used. Though to offset the drastic reduction in fresh water use, industry has begun to significantly increase the volume of saline groundwater involved. This, as well as other, more general water saving techniques have allowed surface water usage by oil sands operations to decrease by more than threefold since production first began.
Relying upon gravity drainage, SAGD also requires comparatively thick and homogeneous reservoirs, and so is not suitable for all heavy-oil production areas.
Alternative methods
By 2009 the two commercially applied primal thermal recovery processes, steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) and cyclic steam stimulation (CSS), were used in oil sands production in the Clearwater and Lower Grand Rapids Formations in the Cold Lake Area in Alberta.
Cyclic steam stimulation (CSS)
Canadian Natural Resources employs cyclic steam or "huff and puff" technology to develop bitumen resources. This technology requires one well bore and the production consists of the injection to fracture and heat the formation prior to the production phases. First steam is injected above the formation fracture point for several weeks or months, mobilizing cold bitumen, the well is then shut in for several weeks or months to allow the steam to soak into the formation. Then the flow on the injection well is reversed producing oil through the same injection well bore. The injection and production phases together comprise one cycle. Steam is re-injected to begin a new cycle when oil production rates fall below a critical threshold due to the cooling of the reservoir. Cyclic steam stimulation also has a number of CSS Follow-up or Enhancement Processes, including Pressure Up and Blow Down (PUBD), Mixed Well Steam Drive and Drainage (MWSDD), Vapor Extraction (Vapex), Liquid Addition to Steam for Enhanced Recovery of Bitumen (LASER) and HPCSS Assisted SAGD and Hybrid Process.
High pressure cyclic steam stimulation (HPCSS)
"Roughly 35 per cent of all in situ production in the Alberta oil sands uses a technique called high pressure cyclic steam stimulation (HPCSS), which cycles between two phases: first, steam is injected into an underground oil sands deposit to fracture and heat the formation to soften the bitumen just like CSS does, excepting at even higher pressures; then, the cycle switches to production where the resulting hot mixture of bitumen and steam (called a "bitumen emulsion") is pumped up to the surface through the same well, again just like CSS, until the resulting pressure drop slows production to an uneconomical stage. The process is then repeated multiple times." An Alberta Energy Regulator (AER) news release explained the difference between high pressure cyclic steam stimulation (HPCSS) and steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD). "HPCSS has been used in oil recovery in Alberta for more than 30 years. The method involves injecting high-pressure steam, well above the ambient reservoir pressure, into a reservoir over a prolonged period of time. As heat softens the bitumen and water dilutes and separates the bitumen from the sand, the pressure creates fractures, cracks and openings through which the bitumen can flow back into the steam-injector wells. HPCSS differs from steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) operations where steam is continuously injected at lower pressures without fracturing the reservoir and uses gravity drainage as the primary recovery mechanism."
In the Clearwater Formation near Cold Lake, Alberta the high pressure cyclic steam stimulation (HPCSS) is used. There are both horizontal and vertical wells. Injection is at fracture pressure. There is a 60 m to 180 m spacing for horizontal wells. Vertical wells are spaced at 2 to 8 Acre spacing for vertical wells. The development can be as low as 7 m net pay. It is used in areas generally with no to minimal bottom water or top gas. The CSOR is 3.3 to 4.5. The ultimate recovery is predicted at 15 to 35%. SAGD thermal recovery method is also used in Clearwater and Lower Grand Rapids Formations with Horizontal Well Pairs (700 to 1000 m), Operating pressure 3 to 5 MPa, Burnt Lake SAGD was started with higher operating pressure close to dilation pressure, 75 m to 120 m spacing, Development to as low as 10 m net pay, In areas with or without bottom water, CSOR: 2.8 to 4.0 (at 100% quality), Predicted ultimate recovery: 45% to 55%.
Canadian Natural Resources Limited's (CNRL) Primrose and Wolf Lake in situ oil sands project near Cold Lake, Alberta in the Clearwater Formation, operated by CNRL subsidiary Horizon Oil Sands, use the high pressure cyclic steam stimulation (HPCSS).
Vapor extraction (Vapex)
Alternative enhanced oil recovery mechanisms include VAPEX (Vapor Assisted Petroleum Extraction), Electro-Thermal Dynamic Stripping Process (ET-DSP), and ISC (for In Situ Combustion). VAPEX, a "gravity-drainage process that uses vapourized solvents rather than steam to displace or produce heavy oil and reduce its viscosity, was also invented by Butler.
ET-DSP is a patented process that uses electricity to heat oil sands deposits to mobilize bitumen allowing production using simple vertical wells. ISC uses oxygen to generate heat that diminishes oil viscosity; alongside carbon dioxide generated by heavy crude oil displace oil toward production wells. One ISC approach is called THAI for Toe to Heel Air Injection. The THAI facility in Saskatchewan was purchased in 2017 by Proton Technologies Canada Inc., who has demonstrated separation of pure hydrogen at this site. Proton's goal is to leave the carbon in the ground and extract only the hydrogen from hydrocarbons.
Enhanced Modified Steam and Gas Push (eMSAGP)
eMSAGP is a MEG Energy patented process wherein MEG, in partnership with Cenovus, developed a modified recovery process dubbed “enhanced Modified Steam and Gas Push” (eMSAGP), a modification of SAGP designed to improve the thermal efficiency of SAGD by utilizing additional producers located midway between adjacent SAGD well pairs, at the elevation of the SAGD producers. These additional producers, commonly referred to as “infill” wells, are an integral part of the eMSAGP recovery system.
See also
Enhanced oil recovery
Heavy crude oil
Oil sands
Oil shale
Mazut
References
External links
SAGD process with a focus on Reverse Emulsions
Description of SAGD and SAGD history
Example Supplier of SAGD components
Key Supplier of SAGD components
Key Supplier of SAGD boilers
Unconventional oil
Petroleum technology
Water pollution
Bituminous sands
Stratigraphy of Alberta
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4680513
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona%20%28fictional%20world%29
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Corona (fictional world)
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Corona is the name of the fantasy world in which R.A. Salvatore's The DemonWars Saga, The Highwayman and The Coven series are all set.
Geography
It can be noted that the world of Corona bears a striking resemblance to Eastern Canada. Major rivers as well as landmasses are shown. The area titled as Alpinador is in the same location and has the same basic shape as Labrador.
Several populated areas of Corona have been introduced in the novels to date.
Alpinador
Alpinador is the home of the Alpinadorans, a somewhat barbaric race of tall, strong men and women. The ranger Andacanavar is an Alpinadoran. This is the northernmost and most mountainous known nation of Corona. As a result, it is bitingly cold most of the year.
Andur'Blough Inninness
Also known as the 'Valley of Mists' or the 'Forest of Cloud', Andur'Blough Inninness is the hidden home of the Touel'alfar, the winged elves who raise and train the few human rangers of the world. The land is ruled by Lady Dasslerond, the queen of the Touel'alfar. It is the place where Elbryan Wyndon, the Nightbird, was raised and trained after his home, Dundalis, was destroyed. After the events of the novel Immortalis, Lady Dasslerond is replaced by Belli'mar Juraviel as ruler.
The Barbican
The Barbican is a region of dangerous mountainous wilderness in the northwest of Corona.
Mount Aida
In The Demon Awakens, this volcanic mountain is the unholy lair of the demon dactyl Bestesbulzibar, but becomes a site of holy power after Avelyn Desbris slays the monster.
Avelyn's mummified arm, which extends out of the flattened mountaintop, has significant magical power. Whenever any evil creature sets foot upon the plateau, waves of holy power turn the creature to dust. As of the events of the novel Mortalis and the spreading of the smallpox-like 'rosy plague', a small amount of blood can always be found oozing from Avelyn's palm. Anyone who touches his or her lips to the blood is cured of the rosy plague and is forever after immune to the disease. After news of the arm's power had spread across Corona, pilgrims have travelled regularly to the site, and (in the novel Immortalis) Avelyn was canonized as a saint of the Abellican Church.
Behren
Behren is the southernmost kingdom in the world of Corona; however, it is known that impenetrable jungles exist to the south of that land. Behren is ruled by religious clerics called Yatols, the most important of them being the Chezru Chieftain, Yakim Douan. However, the ruling system of Behren begins to break down after the events of the novel Transcendence. Behren's key city is Jacintha, the largest known city in Corona.
The Belt-and-Buckle
The Belt-and-Buckle mountain range is one of the most distinctive physical landmarks in Corona. It divides Honce-the-Bear to the north from Behren and To-Gai to the south. Bogs and dark forests cover the northern foothills of the westernmost known part of the mountain range.
Tymwyvenne
Tymwyvenne is a city in the darkest part of the bogs of the Belt-and-Buckle. So dense is the canopy that no light penetrates to the ground. This city is the home of the Doc'alfar, the dark elves. These elves have long been separated from the Touel'alfar, after a plague devastated the Doc'alfar population, doing virtually nothing to the Touel'alfar. In meeting a member of their fabled cousin race, the Touel'alfar, they were at first suspicious, but eventually befriended Juraviel since the events of the novel Transcendence. The ruler of Tymwyvenne is King Eltiraaz.
Honce-the-Bear
Honce-the-Bear is the preeminent kingdom in the DemonWars Saga. It is ruled by the Ursal line of kings, specifically Danube Brock Ursal and then his brother, Midalis Ursal, in the Saga. The most important cities in the kingdom are Ursal, the capital of the kingdom; Palmaris; and Entel. Finally, there is St.-Mere-Abelle, the most important monastery in the Abellican Church. St.-Mere-Abelle holds perhaps the greatest collection of magical gemstones in the world.
All Saints Bay
This body of water is a wedge-shaped extension of the Bay of Corona, which juts into Honce-the-Bear just south of the Masur Delaval. Docks on this bay constitute the second of two entrances to St.-Mere-Abelle.
Gulf of Corona
The Gulf of Corona is an extension of the Mirianic Ocean. Invaders from the Julianthes typically attack throughout the gulf's coastal region. The gulf is defended from those and other attackers by seaside forts defended by the Coastpoint Guards, three contingents of Kingsmen: Pireth Vanguard on the northern coast, Pireth Tulme on the southern coast, and Pireth Dancard on an island directly between the other two.
Masur Delaval
The Gulf of Corona is fed by the Masur Delaval. The Masur Delaval's mouth is in the northwestern corner of the Gulf of Corona. The Masur Delaval extends straight southwest to the city of Ursal. The city of Palmaris sits on northern bank of the Masur Delaval, near its mouth on the Gulf of Corona. On the opposite bank from Palmaris is the smaller city of Amvoy.
Mirianic Ocean
The only known ocean allows for travel between Alpinador, Honce-the-Bear, the Julianthes, Pimaninicuit, and Behren. It extends into Honce-the-Bear as the Bay of Corona.
The Julianthes
These islands, located in the distant northwest of the known Mirianic Ocean, are also known as 'the Weathered Isles'. They are home to the powrie dwarves, also known as 'bloody caps'.
The Pirate Shoals
This collection of islands off the southern coast of Behren is home to many pirates, as its name implies.
The Mountains of Fire
This volcanic mountain range exists along the southernmost part of the border between To-Gai and Behren. The Walk of Clouds monastery is here.
The Walk of Clouds
The monastery home of the Jhesta Tu mystics rests on the edge of the Mountains of Fire.
Pimaninicuit
This equatorial island is where the brothers of St.-Mere-Abelle retrieve the gemstones with which they work their magic. The stones fall onto the island from the sky in dangerous showers approximately once every 173 years, and the monks must retrieve and prepare the gems before they can be used. If the monks fail to do so within a short period of time, the gems lose their magical potential and become ordinary (if valuable) jewels.
The location of the island is a secret even to most of the Abellican Order. Only the Father Abbot, the order's leader, has the authority to share the secret. Those that learn of or share knowledge of Pimaninicuit's existence or location without the express approval of the Father Abbot face death by order of the Church.
The Timberlands
Made up of the villages of Dundalis, End o' the World and Weedy Meadow, this area is still a wild land inhabited by hardy folk. It is the land from which Elbryan Wyndon and Jilseponie Ault came.
To-gai
To-gai is the home of the nomadic To-gai-ru, who were under the heel of the Behrenese until the arrival and subsequent actions of Brynn Dharielle. The region consists primarily of vast plains and steppes.
The Wilderlands
'The Wilderlands' is the name given to a vast, unclaimed, and inhospitable land. It lies to the north and west of Honce-the-Bear and the Timberlands, and to the west of Alpinador. It is west of Andur'Blough Inninness, and south and west of the Barbican.
The Moorlands
The Moorlands lie directly between Andur'Blough Inninness and the Timberlands. The region is covered with shallow, stagnant water.
History
Corona's timeframe is recorded in the novels according to the reckoning of the Abellican Church. Time is recorded as "God's Year" followed by the year, counted as the number of years since the death of Saint Abelle. For example, God's Year 74 would be the 74th year after Saint Abelle's death. The current year as of the chronologically latest novel, Immortalis, is God's Year 857.
47 - Brother Bran Dynard of the Abellican Church begins his Journey Proselyt, leaving Pryd Town in the land of Honce for Behren.
54 - Brother Bran Dynard leaves the Walk of Clouds monastery with his wife, Sen Wi, to return to his church in Pryd Town.
Late 1st century - Laird Deleval names himself the first King of Honce. This begins a civil war which ends with the city of Deleval renamed Ursal and Dame Gwydre and Laird Bannagran become the first true King and Queen of Honce-the-Bear
111 - King Bannagran dies. An abbey in his honor is declared and planned in the capital, establishing the Abellican church as the dominant religion
c. 516 - Bestesbulzibar, a demon dactyl, awakens. It initiates a war (called Co'awille or 'Endwar' by the elves) that decimated the elf population and leads to the self-seclusion of the elves. Terranen Dinoniel dies while defeating the dactyl.
6th century - King Archibald the Red incites a bloody five-year civil war after upsetting the aristocracy. (Precise dates unknown)
c. 700 - Brother Allarbarnet wanders unsettled parts of the Wilderlands and Honce-the-Bear, planting apple groves.
796 - Avelyn Desbris is born.
804 - Elbryan Wyndon and Jilseponie Ault are born; Jilseponie is the younger of the two by five months.
808 - Avelyn Desbris begins his theological education.
816 - Bestesbulzibar awakens again. Avelyn Desbris enters St.-Mere-Abelle. The town of Dundalis is destroyed.
821 - A Ring Stone shower occurs on Pimaninicuit.
823 - Elbryan Wyndon is initiated as a ranger, taking the name "Nightbird".
827 - The rosy plague begins ravaging the population of Honce-the-Bear.
828 - Abbot Je'howeth of St. Honce dies. Merwick Pemblebury Ursal is born.
829 - Torrence Pemblebury Ursal is born.
830 - Brother Francis Delacourt dies from the rosy plague, helping its victims against the will of the Abellian Church who had closed its monasteries to prevent the plague from infecting monks.
831 - The Second Miracle of Avelyn occurs, when blood begins to flow from Avelyn's mummified hand. (Any person who partakes of the blood directly from Avelyn's palm is totally cured of and protected against the rosy plague.)
834 - The rosy plague ends. Jilseponie Wyndon is appointed Baroness of Palmaris.
839 - The Chapel of Avelyn Desbris is founded in Caer Tinella, with Braumin Herde presiding as Parson. Baroness Jilseponie Wyndon of Palmaris becomes Bishop of Palmaris.
840 - Bishop Jilseponie Wyndon marries King Danube Brock Ursal, becomes Queen Jilseponie Wyndon Ursal. Braumin Herde becomes Bishop of Palmaris.
841 - Father Abbot Agronguerre dies. Master Fio Bou-Raiy is elected the new Father Abbot.
846 - Aydrian Wyndon murders King Danube Brock Ursal and his heirs Merwick and Torrence. Aydrian takes the title King Aydrian Baudabras, initiating a civil war against the rightful heir to the throne, Prince Midalis Dan Ursal. Lady Dasslerond sacrifices her life in a spell to hide Andur'Blough Inninness. (See Tel'ne'kin Dinoniel, below.) Belli'mar Juraviel becomes leader of the now dispossessed Touel'alfer.
847 - Father Abbot Fio Bou-raiy is killed by Aydrian. Prince Midalis officially claims his rightful place as King of all Honce-the-Bear.
857 - Aydrian Wyndon breaks Lady Dasslerond's spell and cleanses Bestesbulzibar's stain, leaving Andur'Blough Inninness free and untainted for the Touel'alfar to reclaim. Jilseponie Wyndon Ursal dies; she is given the title of ranger and is buried in the same grove as Elbryan and Mather.
Magic
Gemstone magic
In this world, most magic is done by the monks of the Abellican Church using the 'sacred' gemstones collected from Pimanincuit. Each stone has a unique set of powers that is related to its type. Larger stones have more power, although the effect created also depends upon the stamina and natural talent of the stone's user. The gems are also known as 'Ring Stones'.
Common stones
Most magical gemstones fit into these categories, both by type and by function, but a few do not. (See Unique stones, below.)
Amber: allows the user to walk on water.
Cabochon garnet: allows the user to detect the use of stone magic. It is sometimes called a 'carbuncle' or 'Dragon's Sight'.
Celestine: can be thrown to create a firecracker-like explosion. Unlike other stones, a celestine is destroyed in creating its effect.
Chrysoberyl: allows the user to see in the dark. It is often called a 'cat's-eye'.
Clear quartz: allows the user to see as if he were in another place.
Diamond: projects light.
Emerald: allows the user to walk faster.
Graphite: creates a blast of lightning.
Hematite: the most powerful and versatile common stone, can create a variety of effects relating to the soul. It can be used to perform astral projection, letting the user's soul float free of its physical body. In that state, the user can instinctively possess the bodies of others or attack others in a sort of combat involving only sheer will power. Possessing a body is a difficult task especially if the host has a strong will. The hematite can also be used to heal injuries or fight diseases with a touch. However, fighting disease is dangerous to the user because the disease can very easily infect him. A hematite is often called a 'soul stone'.
Magnetite: allows the user to detect metal, repel metal, or create an incredibly strong attraction between the stone and any one metal object. The last function allows the magnetite to be used as a projectile weapon.
Malachite: creates an intangible energy field within which any matter becomes as light as air.
Ruby: creates a spherical blast of fire. The user is no less vulnerable to the fire than any other person.
Serpentine: creates an intangible green barrier that blocks fire and heat.
Smoky quartz: creates a false image that the user has imagined.
Sunstone: can nullify or diminish all other magic within an area. A sunstone can neutralize poison if the user is touching the poison victim. Inversely, it can inflict a magical poison upon someone if the user touches or uses the stone to touch broken skin on the victim.
Tiger's paw: turns the user partially into a tiger. Most users can only turn one arm into a tiger's foreleg, but some masters can make other changes, including turning entirely into an animal.
Unique stones
A rare few magical gemstones do not fit into the categories mentioned above, generally possessing far more power than normal.
Avelyn's amethyst: could only be activated by destroying it. Avelyn Desbris used Tempest, Elbryan Wyndon's sword, to break the amethyst in order to slay Bestesbulzibar. The stone, the largest magical gemstone yet recorded, unleashed incredible magical energy: it blasted clean many square miles of land and obliterated the peak of Mount Aida. Avelyn and Bestesbulzibar died in the blast, and Avelyn's body was encased in rock and mummified, so that only his arm was left above the surface. As his last act, the monk preserved Tempest and his collection of magical gemstones above the rock for his companions to claim.
Tel'ne'kin Dinoniel: is an emerald larger than a fist, known as the 'gem of the precious land'. It is held by the leader of the Touel'alfar. The stone lacks the typical power of an emerald, but has been known to allow its user to teleport, control plants, create impenetrable earthen barriers, and hide areas (making them harder or impossible to locate, even if one knows the way).
A'bu'kin Dinoniel: is a sapphire larger than a fist, known as the 'gem of the air and mists'. It is held by the leader of the Doc'alfar. Tel'ne'kin Dinoniel and A'bu'kin Dinoniel share a mystical link of some sort.
Gemstone-empowered magic items
Magical items have been created by attaching Ring Stones to other objects. Sometimes, an item enchanted this way can make magic without requiring its user to know how to use gemstone magic.
Dosey's brooch: is a large piece of golden jewelry. The center is a large hematite, ringed by tiny clear-crystal quartz stones. The quartz guides the hematite; if a person who knows how to use gemstone magic uses the hematite to separate his spirit from his body, his spirit is propelled by the brooch almost instantaneously to the presence of Bestesbulzibar, the demon dactyl. The brooch was destroyed in The Demon Awakens.
Sadye's lute: is a jewel-encrusted instrument. The lute creates subtle emotional effects on those who hear it when it is used to play music. It has differing powers dependent upon what song it is used to play.
Aydrian's Armor: a hematite is set in the center, over his heart. Around the hematite is a cirle of magnetite stones for added protection against metallic weapons and projectiles
Elbryan Wyndon's sword, Tempest: the sunstone in the sword's pommel is able to nullify magic with the sword blade to cut through magical defenses
Jilseponie Wyndon's sword, Defender: the magnetite in the pommel can be activated to deflect metallic weapons to the sword rather than at the bearer
Brynn Dharielle's sword, Flamedancer: can be activated to engulf the blade in flame
Chezru Chieftain Yakim Douan's Chalice: contains a hematite in the base which allows the user to heal himself or spirit walk
Cat's Eye Head band: allows the wearer to see in the dark
Marcalo De'Unnero's hematite ring: allows for constant regeneration.
Earth magic
Demon dactyls work magic through the power of earth, and has also been described as hell magic. Specifically, they draw power from magma, and their magic grows more powerful when they are closer to it. The only known demon dactyl, Bestesbulzibar, has been known to attack enemies with waves of lava and magically animated stone statues. He also had the power to fire out black or red (the red were more powerful and presumably he needed to near magma to use them) bolts of lightning that he could guide with his own will.
Demon-forged magic items
Demons have created magic items by instilling them with power while they are being forged.
Bestesbulzibar's bracers: were forged for his mortal generals. These bracers prevented their wearers from suffering any harm from weapons. How they worked was that any weapon aimed at them would miss regardless of the users skill with it. The bracers, however, had their limitations and couldn't protect the wearer from a large fire, since a constantly burning flame was too much for it to ward off. A sunstone's antimagic effect could also nullify the protection.
Bestesbulzibar's spike: glowed with the heat of liquid magma constantly and was made to home in on Elbryan and his group. The heat from it could melt rock and create a constant flow of magma.
Innate magic
Some creatures, such as centaurs, demons, and elves, have shown the ability to cast spells and use other sorts of magic without intermediary tools such as Ring Stones. Although such creatures can work magic without intermediary tools, they are usually more powerful when they do use such tools.
Novels published
Listed in order of publication
First Trilogy
The Demon Awakens (1997)
The Demon Spirit (1998)
The Demon Apostle (1999)
Bridge
Mortalis (2000)
Second Trilogy
Ascendance (2001)
Transcendence (2002)
Immortalis (2003)
Saga of the First King
The Highwayman (2004)
The Ancient (2008)
The Dame (2009)
The Bear (2010)
Tale of the Coven
Child of a Mad God (2018)
Reckoning of Fallen Gods (2019)
Song of the Risen God (2020)
References
Fantasy worlds
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%20Song%20%28politician%29
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Li Song (politician)
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Li Song () (died December 12, 948), nickname Dachou (), was an official of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period states Later Tang, Later Jin, and Later Han, as well as the Khitan-led Liao dynasty. He was particularly prominent during Later Jin, when he served as chief of staff (Shumishi) and chancellor. During Later Han, he was falsely accused of treason and executed.
Background
It is not known when Li Song was born, but it is known that he was from Raoyang (饒陽, in modern Hengshui, Hebei). His father Li Shunqing () was the tactical officer at Shen Prefecture (深州, in modern Hengshui), which Raoyang belonged to. He had at least two younger brothers, Li Yu () and Li Yi (李㠖). Li Shunqing was a descendant of Li Lin (李𬭸). Li Lin said to be 6th generation descendant of Li Yuanyi, Prince Zhenghui (鄭惠王, 李元懿), who was a 13th son of Emperor Gaozu of Tang. It was said that he was intelligent in his youth, and was writing artful texts even when he was in his teenage years, surprising his family members. Once he reached adulthood, he became an officer at Shen Prefecture. (Historical descriptions do not give dates, or even the sovereigns that he was under, during these events.)
During Later Tang
During Li Cunxu's reign
However, it is known that by 923 — at which time Li Cunxu had declared himself emperor of a new Later Tang and had commissioned his oldest son Li Jiji the defender of Zhending (真定, in modern Shijiazhuang, Hebei) and the director of Xingsheng Palace () — Li Song was serving on Li Jiji's staff as an officer. At that time, Li Jiji's secretary Li Rao () was in charge of Li Jiji's correspondences. Li Song had seen some of Li Rao's writings and considered them poorly written, He secretly spoke with the head of Li Jiji's household, Lü Rou (), stating, "The Lord Chancellor [(as Li Jiji carried an honorary chancellor title)] is the Emperor's son. The whole realm looks at him. Both his correspondences and his records need to be logically and properly written. The drafts written by Censor Li [(as Li Rao carried an honorary censor title)] lacked perfection." Lü asked Li Song to try to write for Li Jiji on a trial basis, and then showed what Li Song had written to Li Cunxu's secretaries Lu Zhi () and Feng Dao, both of whom praised Li Song's writing. Li Song was therefore soon promoted to be the surveying officer for Xingsheng Palace, and put in charge of Li Jiji's correspondences. After Li Cunxu conquered archrival Later Liang later in the year and made Luoyang his capital, he gave Li Song the title of Xielü Lang ().
In 925, Li Cunxu commissioned Li Jiji, who carried the title of Prince of Wei by that point, as the supreme commander of an army against Later Tang's southwestern neighbor Former Shu, with the major general Guo Chongtao serving as Li Jiji's deputy and actually in charge of the operation. Li Jiji made Li Song his secretary on the campaign. The Later Tang army was soon able to destroy Former Shu. However, after Former Shu's fall, both Li Cunxu and his wife (Li Jiji's mother) Empress Liu suspected Guo of plotting rebellion, and Empress Liu, even though she did not have agreement from Li Cunxu, issued an order to Li Jiji that he kill Guo. Li Jiji, after receiving her order, ambushed Guo and killed him. Hearing this, Li Song quickly went to see Li Jiji, lamenting to him, "Now the army is 3,000 li away from the capital. Why did Your Royal Highness carry out the dangerous act of killing a major general without an imperial edict? Why cannot you wait until getting back to Luoyang?" Li Jiji responded that he regretted the decision, but it had already been done. Li Song then summoned several scribes and secretly forged an imperial edict, using Li Jiji's seal to pretend to be an imperial seal in stamping the edict. Only after that did the army acquiesce.
The deaths of Guo and, subsequently, his ally and fellow major general Zhu Youqian, however, spawned a number of mutinies in the Later Tang army. In summer 926, Li Cunxu was killed in a mutiny at Luoyang itself. His adoptive brother Li Siyuan entered Luoyang and claimed the title of regent. Li Jiji, who was then withdrawing his army back from Former Shu's capital Chengdu back to Luoyang, headed for Luoyang, trying to contend for imperial title, but his army began to desert him. He committed suicide, and the army subsequently returned to Luoyang under the command of his general Ren Huan and submitted to Li Siyuan.
During Li Siyuan's reign
Ren Huan subsequently became a chancellor for Li Siyuan. He also was in charge of the three financial agencies (taxation, treasury, and salt and iron monopolies), and he made Li Song his assistant for salt and iron monopolies. Later, when Li Song's mother died, Li Song left governmental service to observe a mourning period for her. After the mourning period was over, Fan Yanguang, who was then the military governor of Chengde Circuit (成德, headquartered at Zhending), made Li Song his secretary, in charge of the communications. When Fan was later recalled to the imperial government to serve as chief of staff (Shumishi), Li Song became a member of the office of chief of staff. While serving there, his title gradually rose from Shiyi (), to Bujue (補闕, both consultant titles), to imperial chronicler (起居郎, Qiju Lang), to a supervisory position at the executive bureau of government (尚書省, Shangshu Sheng). Near the end of Li Siyuan's Changxing era (930-933), Li Song became an imperial scholar (翰林學士, Hanlin Xueshi).
As of 932, Later Tang's northern rival Khitan Empire was making repeated incursions into Later Tang territory. Li Siyuan wanted an appropriate military governor for Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi) to combat the Khitan incursions. Li Siyuan's son-in-law Shi Jingtang, who wanted to avoid conflicts with Li Siyuan's oldest surviving son Li Congrong the Prince of Qin, wanted the Hedong military governorship, but Fan and his fellow chief of staff, Zhao Yanshou (also a son-in-law to Li Siyuan) wanted to commission the general Kang Yicheng (), and therefore the matter was unsettled for a while. During a meeting at the office of the chief of staff, it was Li Song who spoke up in favor of commissioning Shi. Li Siyuan happened to be sending emissaries to the meeting at that time to rush the decision, so Fan and Zhao acquiesced. Shi was then made the military governor of Hedong. When Shi became aware that it was Li Song who advocated for his commission, he sent Li Song a message of appreciation.
After Li Siyuan's reign
Li Siyuan died in 933 (after a disturbance in which Li Congrong tried to seize power but was defeated and killed). Another of his sons, Li Conghou the Prince of Song, succeeded him as emperor. In 934, LI Siyuan's adoptive son Li Congke the Prince of Lu overthrew Li Conghou and became emperor. Li Song became one of the officials Li Congke frequently consulted, along with Li Zhuanmei (), Lü Qi (), Xue Wenyu (), and Zhao Yan'ai ().
Li Congke and Shi had long disliked each other. Li Congke frequently suspected Shi of plotting rebellion, and a major concern at the time in Li Congke's inner circle was that Shi would seek aid from the Khitan in such a rebellion. Li Song and Lü advocated entering into a peace treaty with the Khitan by returning a number of Khitan officers that Later Tang had earlier captured and giving a large amount of money to the Khitan. The chancellor Zhang Yanlang, who then oversaw the three financial agencies, supported the idea. Li Congke initially was in favor as well, and had Li Song and Lü draft a proposed letter to Khitan's Emperor Taizong to suggest the treaty. However, Xue opposed, and argued that the Khitan emperor would insist on having Li Congke's young daughter marry him (or his son). Li Congke thus changed his mind, and one day thereafter summoned Li Song and Lü to rebuke them. They apologized profusely and were spared, but their proposal was not considered again. Li Congke also distanced himself away from Lü, although apparently Li Song remained part of the inner circle.
Li Congke then considered moving Shi to another circuit. Then-chief of staff Fang Gao and Li Song (and Lü, prior to Lü's departure from his inner circle) all strenuously opposed, believing that would provoke Shi into a rebellion. However, one night, when Li Song was had the night off and Xue was on duty, Li Congke consulted Xue by himself, and Xue argued that Shi would eventually rebel anyway — that having him rebel earlier was better than having him rebel later. Li Congke agreed. Shortly after, he issued an edict moving Shi from Hedong to Tianping Circuit (天平, headquartered in modern Tai'an, Shandong). Shi, as expected, rebelled and sought aid from Khitan's Emperor Taizong. Emperor Taizong launched an army to aid him, and their joint forces defeated the Later Tang army Li Congke sent, under the command of the general Zhang Jingda. Zhang was killed by his deputy Yang Guangyuan, who then surrendered to the joint Khitan/Hedong forces. Emperor Taizong declared Shi the emperor of a new Later Jin, and they advanced south. Believing the situation to be hopeless, Li Congke committed suicide with his family, ending Later Tang. Shi entered Luoyang and took over Later Tang territory.
During Later Jin
During Shi Jingtang's reign
At the time that Shi Jingtang entered Luoyang, Li Song and Lü Qi hid themselves among the people at Yijue (伊闕, in modern Luoyang). Shi discovered this. He was still grateful to Li Song for having spoken for his military governorship at Hedong and also respected Lü for what he believed to be Lü's correct recommendation to Li Congke to enter into a peace treaty with the Khitan, and therefore restored both of them to governmental positions. In Li Song's case, he was made the deputy minister of defense (兵部侍郎, Bingbu Shilang) and put in charge of taxation. Shortly after, he further promoted Li Song to be Zhongshu Shilang (中書侍郎, the deputy head of the legislative bureau (中書省, Zhongshu Sheng)) as well as chancellor, with the designation of Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi (). He was also made chief of staff, serving with Sang Weihan. However, this displeased Liu Churang (who wanted to be chief of staff) and Yang Guangyuan, who was then sieging Fan Yanguang at Tianxiong Circuit (天雄, headquartered in modern Handan, Hebei) as Fan had rebelled against Shi earlier in the year (as Sang was putting curbs on Yang's power). Yang thus submitted a petition arguing that chancellors should not also be chiefs of staff. Shi felt compelled to remove both Sang and Li Song as chiefs of staff. Li Song was given the additional title of minister of public works (工部尚書, Gongbu Shangshu), while Liu was made chief of staff.
In 941, Shi made his general Liu Zhiyuan, who was then the commander of the imperial guards, the military governor of Hedong. At the recommendations of Li Song and Feng Dao (who was then also chancellor), Shi's brother-in-law Du Chongwei, whom Liu despised, succeeded Liu as the commander of the imperial guards. It was said that Liu resented Li and Feng from this point on. Li accompanied Shi to Yedu (鄴都, i.e., Tianxiong's capital, also known as Wei Prefecture () later in the year, as Shi was then anticipating a rebellion by An Chongrong the military governor of Chengde. Apparently while Li was at Yedu, his father died, and he left governmental service briefly to observe a mourning period, but Shi immediately recalled him to the imperial government without a lengthy mourning period.
During Shi Chonggui's reign
Shi Jingtang died in summer 941 and was succeeded as emperor by his nephew Shi Chonggui the Prince of Qi. One immediate question was how the Later Jin court would report this news to Emperor Taizong (who had changed his state's name from Khitan to Liao by this point). Shi Jingtang had earlier, not only submitted to Liao as a subject, but referred to Emperor Taizong as "father emperor" while referring to himself as "son emperor." The officials largely wanted Shi Chonggui to submit a report (as a subject) and refer to himself as "subject." The general Jing Yanguang, who supported Shi Chonggui's ascendency and who was then made a chancellor as well, however, opposed, suggesting that Shi Chonggui merely write a letter (i.e., to show equality between the states, rather than submission) in which he would merely refer to himself as "grandson" and not subject. Li Song opposed Jing, pointing out that this would lead to discord and war between the two states. Feng Dao took no position, and Shi Chonggui eventually agreed with Jing. This led to Emperor Taizong to angrily respond, through an emissary, "How do you dare to take the throne without first reporting to me?" Jing authored the response, with rudeness, to that rebuke, precipitating an eventual war between Later Jin and Liao, particularly given that Zhao Yanshou, then a Liao general, was urging Emperor Taizong to wage a war, as he himself wanted to become emperor of China.
By 944, Sang Weihan was again chief of staff and chancellor, and was said to control the army with discipline, enabling its effectiveness in battles against Liao. Shi Chonggui's brother-in-law Feng Yu and another close associate, Li Yantao (), however, disliked Sang, and frequently defamed him before Shi. Shi thus considered removing Sang, but did not do so, at the urging of Li Song and Liu Xu. However, he made Feng also a chief of staff, to divide Sang's power. In late 945, Shi finally removed Sang as chief of staff and chancellor, making him the mayor of then-capital Kaifeng. Li Song was made chief of staff to replace Sang in that capacity, while Zhao Ying, who already carried a chancellor title but was acting as mayor of Kaifeng, was made full chancellor to replace Sang in that capacity.
In 946, Emperor Taizong decided to create a trap for Later Jin. He spread false news that Zhao Yanshou was intending to defect to Later Jin, rumors that were believed by Feng and Li Song. They had Du Chongwei (whose name had been changed to Du Wei by that point due to naming taboo for Shi Chonggui's name), who was then the military governor of Tianxiong, write a secret letter to Zhao, to see if Zhao intended to defect. Zhao, who was part of Emperor Taizong's plan, wrote back and indicated that, indeed, he wanted to defect, along with his Lulong Circuit (盧龍, headquartered in Beijing — which had previously been Later Tang territory but which Shi Jingtang, as part of the agreement in which Emperor Taizong aided him to become emperor, ceded to Emperor Taizong); in his letter, he asked for a major Later Jin army to be launched to support his defection. After discussions between Shi Chonggui, Feng, and Li Song, it was agreed that a large army would be launched, commanded by Du, with Li Shouzhen serving as his deputy. (This was opposed by Zhao Ying, who believed that Du was untrustworthy due to his unthankful nature, but Zhao Ying was not listened to.)
Du's army was soon launched, but as it approached Liao territory, was met by a large, highly mobile Liao army commanded by Emperor Taizong himself. It tried to retreat, but became encircled by the Liao army at Zhongdu Bridge (中度橋, in modern Baoding, Hebei). After Emperor Taizong made a promise (which he would eventually repudiate) to have Du made emperor, Du and Li Shouzhen surrendered with their army. As virtually the entire Later Jin imperial army was under Du's command, Kaifeng was left defenseless, and the Liao army advanced quickly toward it. Shi Chonggui surrendered, ending Later Jin.
During Liao
After Kaifeng's fall to Liao, Shi Chonggui and his family (including Shi Jingtang's wife Empress Dowager Li) were put under house arrest by the Liao general (formerly a subordinate of Du Wei's), Zhang Yanze, whom Emperor Taizong sent as forward commander to take control of the city. Li Song took a dissociative approach as far as his former emperor was concerned — including finding excuses not to go when Shi requested the presence of both him and Li Yantao. Emperor Taizong soon arrived at Kaifeng and claimed to be the emperor of China as well. With both Zhao Yanshou and Zhang Li recommending Li Song for his talent, Emperor Taizong made Li Song a chief of staff, and also gave him the honorary title Taizi Taishi (). Emperor Taizong made the comment, "All I gained by destroying the southern dynasty was Li Song."
Meanwhile, Zhao, finally realizing that Emperor Taizong had no intent on fulfilling his promise to make Zhao emperor of China, had Li Song request, on his behalf, for him to be made crown prince. Emperor Taizong, citing the fact that the Crown Prince should be a son of the emperor, also refused that request, although he gave Zhao a number of additional honorary titles.
Initially, nearly all of Later Jin military governors submitted to Emperor Taizong, but with Emperor Taizong allowing the ethnic Khitan soldiers to pillage the Central Plains region, many Han rebellions soon overtook the territory. Tiring of dealing with these rebellions, he decided to leave his brother-in-law Xiao Han in charge at Kaifeng, while he himself headed back to Liao's main territory. On the way, however, he fell ill, and died near Chengde's capital Heng Prefecture (恆州, i.e., Zhending).
In the aftermaths of Emperor Taizong's death, Zhao wanted to seize what remained of Liao-controlled former Later Jin territory, but not wanting to yet break with Liao, he only claimed that Emperor Taizong left an edict authorizing him to oversee the southern court (i.e., the former Later Jin territory). At the same time, unknown to Zhao, the Khitan generals at Heng were secretly meeting and agreed to support Emperor Taizong's nephew Yelü Ruan the Prince of Yongkang as the new emperor. Unaware of this development, Zhao prepared to hold a semi-imperial ascension ceremony, in which the officials and generals would all bow to him. Li Song, pointing out to him that it was uncertain whether the Khitan generals would agree, persuaded him not to hold the ceremony. Shortly after, Yelü Ruan used trickery to arrest Zhao, and commented to Zhang Li that had Li Song not talked Zhao out of holding the ceremony, the Khitan army would have overrun the ceremony and killed everyone present. He then declared himself emperor (as Emperor Shizong).
Emperor Shizong's succession to the Liao throne was immediately contested by his grandmother (the mother of both Emperor Taizong and his father, Yelü Bei), who wanted another son of hers, Yelü Lihu, to succeed to the throne. Emperor Shizong headed back to Liao's main territory to engage his grandmother's army, while leaving a Khitan army, along with the remainder of the captured Han army, as well as most of the Han officials (including Li Song and fellow captured chancellors Feng Dao and He Ning), at Heng, leaving Emperor Taizong's cousin Yelü Mada () in charge at Heng. Yelü Mada mistreated both the people of the region and the Han soldiers. When Emperor Shizong subsequently sent emissaries to summon Feng, He, and Li Song to join him for Emperor Taizong's funeral, the Han soldiers decided to mutiny, and a street battle developed in Heng. The battle initially did not go well for the Han mutineers, but the official Li Gu persuaded Feng, Li Song, and He to appear at the battle. When the Han soldiers saw the chancellors, their morale was greatly increased, and they eventually defeated the Khitan soldiers under Yelü Mada, who fled back to Liao territory. In the aftermaths of the battle, the city became controlled by the officer Bai Zairong (), who had the soldiers surround Li Song's and He's residences, demanding treasury. Li Song and He surrendered all their treasure, but Bai then considered killing them to prevent reprisal later, but Li Gu talked him out of it, pointing out that the new emperor (i.e., Liu Zhiyuan, who had established Later Han and taken over the Central Plains by this point) would punish him if he frivolously killed the chancellors. Bai therefore did not kill them.
During Later Han
After the Heng mutiny, Li Song, along with Feng Dao and He Ning, returned to Kaifeng to submit to Liu Zhiyuan. None of them, however, was given a key position, but only honorific titles — in Li Song's case, Taizi Taifu ().
While Li Song was with the Liao army at Heng, however, Liu, apparently believing that both Feng and Li Song had turned their loyalty over to Liao, awarded their mansions at Kaifeng to his key followers (and by this point, chancellors) Su Yugui and Su Fengji, respectively. Su Fengji thus also took control of all of the precious items that Li Song had collected over the years, and further seized Li Song's mansion at Luoyang. After Li Song's return to Later Han, he knew that he lacked allies at the Later Han court, and therefore was carefully dealing with the new powerful Later Han officials with respect. However, his brothers Li Yu and Li Yi were not as careful, and, as they were colleagues at the Later Han court with Su Fengji's brothers and sons, they were occasionally drinking together, and they made such statements as, "You seized our houses and savings!" Su Fengji thus began to be apprehensive of Li Song. When Li Song then offered the deeds of the mansions to Su, rather than being soothed, Su was further displeased.
In 948, by which time Liu Zhiyuan had died, and his son Liu Chengyou was emperor, there was a time when Li Yu had discovered his servant Ge Yanyu () to be embezzling from him, and was trying to force Ge to return the embezzled funds. Ge thus decided to, in conjunction with Su's servant Li Cheng (), accuse Li Yu of treason. Su then put Li Song under arrest as well. Subsequently, under torture, Li Yu wrote out a confession in which he implicated not only himself, but Li Song and Li Yi, as well as his nephew Wang Ning (), of plotting a rebellion at Kaifeng, in conspiracy with Li Shouzhen, who had earlier rebelled at Huguo Circuit (護國, headquartered in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi), and Liao. Li Song, believing that he could not escape, also confessed. His entire family was executed, and the people lamented for them.
Notes and references
Old History of the Five Dynasties, vol. 108.
New History of the Five Dynasties, vol. 57.
Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 274, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288.
948 deaths
Year of birth unknown
Politicians from Hengshui
Generals from Hebei
Executed people from Hebei
People executed by Later Han (Five Dynasties)
Executed Later Han (Five Dynasties) people
People executed by a Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms state by decapitation
Later Tang government officials
Later Jin (Five Dynasties) chancellors
Later Jin (Five Dynasties) shumishi
Liao dynasty shumishi
Later Han (Five Dynasties) government officials
Zhao (Five Dynasties period) people
Jin (Later Tang precursor) people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hank%20Skinner
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Hank Skinner
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Henry Watkins Skinner (April 4, 1962 – February 16, 2023) was an American death row inmate in Texas. In 1995, he was convicted of bludgeoning to death his live-in girlfriend, Twila Busby, and stabbing to death her two adult sons, Randy Busby and Elwin Caler. On March 24, 2010, twenty minutes before his scheduled execution (second execution date), the U.S. Supreme Court issued a stay of execution to consider the question of whether Skinner could request testing of DNA his attorney chose not to have tested at his original trial in 1994. A third execution date for November 9, 2011, was also ultimately stayed by the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals on November 7, 2011.
On March 6, 2011, the Supreme Court issued an opinion holding that Skinner may sue under 42 U.S.C. § 1983 (see Civil Rights Act of 1871), claiming that Texas' rules for seeking post-conviction DNA testing upon which the judges rely are too narrow or restrictive. The ruling did not specifically grant Skinner the DNA testing he had been seeking, but on June 1, 2012, the Texas attorney general's office finally agreed to the analysis of the evidence required by the defense.
On November 14, 2012, the Texas Attorney General's office released an advisory to the Gray County state district court that convicted Skinner advising the court that the DNA testing further implicated Skinner in the Busby family murders. Among the findings: Skinner's blood was found in numerous places in the back bedroom where Busby's two sons were murdered. Skinner's DNA was also found on the handle of a bloody knife, but along with DNA from one of the sons and an "unknown contributor". Skinner's attorney, Rob Owen, has requested additional DNA testing to identify DNA from an "unknown contributor" on the knife and in the back bedroom. Additionally, the state lost a bloody jacket found under Twila Busby's arm which Skinner claims belonged to her uncle, Robert Donnell, a convicted felon and accused molester of Twila – Skinner claimed that Donnell is the real killer.
On August 29, 2013, a private Virginia laboratory published the results of tests conducted on four hairs found in the hand of the slain woman, Twila Busby – and three of them show a family link with the three victims, but do not belong to them, with only one of them belonging to Skinner. These results could incriminate Robert Donnell, a deceased (1997) maternal uncle, who Twila Busby had told friends had molested her on multiple occasions and who had threatened her shortly before the murders. , these findings had not yet been assessed by judicial authorities.
On February 3 and 4, 2014 an evidentiary hearing took place in Pampa, Texas. "Prosecutors argued that the tests only confirmed Skinner's guilt, while lawyers for the 51-year-old defendant said the results raised enough questions about the identity of the perpetrator that a jury would not have condemned him to death."
In July 2014, Judge Steven Emmert issued a ruling saying that "it was 'reasonably probable' Skinner would have still been convicted of a triple murder even if recently conducted DNA evidence had been available at his 1995 trial". The Attorneys for Skinner said they would appeal the decision to the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals.
The Judicial District court continues to rule that the DNA testing is not favorable to the accused, while the defense team considers that the presence of an unknown third-party DNA detected, and the loss of evidence by the state should definitively rule out the reasonable character of the conviction and even more the death penalty.
Skinner was scheduled to be executed on September 13, 2023, his sixth scheduled execution date. However, he died in February of that year.
Circumstances surrounding the murders
The murders occurred on December 31, 1993, at 804 East Campbell Avenue in Pampa, Texas. Skinner was convicted of the murders on March 18, 1995, and sentenced to death.
Skinner lived with the victims and admitted that he was in the home when the murders took place, but claims he was in a comatose condition from a near lethal dose of codeine and alcohol. In a letter published in April 2010, Skinner put forth a new claim that he was colorblind and accidentally ingested the near-lethal mix because he had confused the victim's "fuchsia pink" glass (which contained codeine) with his own "baby blue" glass. Twila Busby was murdered in the living room just feet from the couch where Skinner claims he was lying passed out on a sofa.
After the murders, Skinner claims he was roused off the couch by one of the mortally wounded victims – Elwin "Scooter" Caler. Caler died on the porch of a neighbor of Twila Busby. Skinner made his way to the home of Andrea Joyce Reed, four blocks away, and she let him in. Reed initially testified that Skinner threatened her if she called the police. Later, however, Reed recanted that claim and said Skinner merely "told" her not to call the police – never actually threatening her.
Skinner was arrested several hours later, being found in the darkened front bedroom of Reed's home. When he was arrested, Skinner was wearing clothes bearing blood spatters that were DNA-matched to two of the victims.
Postponed execution and campaign for DNA testing
Despite pending litigation, Skinner was given an execution date for November 9, 2011. Gray County District Attorney Lynn Switzer (the respondent in Skinner's lawsuit) had written, in a brief to the court filed on June 2, 2011, that "Texas satisfied all the requirements of constitutional due process when it offered Skinner the opportunity to test the DNA evidence at trial."
In March, the U.S. Supreme Court held that a civil suit against Switzer, over post-conviction DNA testing, could proceed – but did not rule on whether Skinner should be given access to the actual evidence.
A new Texan law, SB 122, took effect on September 1, 2011. SB 122 intends to ensure that procedural barriers do not prevent prisoners from testing biological evidence that was not previously tested or could be subjected to newer testing. On September 6, 2011, Skinner's attorneys filed a motion in state district court in Gray County, Texas, to compel DNA testing of key pieces of evidence that have never been tested. However, on November 2, 2011, Judge Steven R. Emmert of the district court of Gray County denied the third motion of DNA testing introduced by the defense, without explaining his decision.
On November 7, 2011, the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals stayed Skinner's most recent execution so that a determination could be made about whether Texas law allowed for DNA evidence from the crime scene to be tested.
On June 1, 2012, one month after an oral argument at the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, the Texas attorney general's office says it no longer opposes a death row inmate's request for DNA testing his attorneys say could prove his innocence.
In November 2012, a further analysis of DNA evidence found Skinner's blood on numerous objects and furniture in the back bedroom where Busby's sons were murdered. It also found Skinner's DNA, along with that of Caler (one of the sons) and an unidentified third contributor on the handle of a knife found on the front porch.
U.S. Supreme Court issues
March 2011 ruling
On July 22, 2010, Skinner's lawyer presented his brief to the U.S. Supreme Court. In it, he asks one question: "may a convicted prisoner seeking access to biological evidence for DNA testing assert that claim in a civil rights action under 42 U.S.C. § 1983, or is such a claim cognizable only in a petition for writ of habeas corpus?"
Skinner's lawyer's brief also notes: "Mr. Skinner's suit for access to DNA evidence does not challenge the validity of his underlying conviction or sentence."
Skinner's petition was heard by the Supreme Court on October 13, 2010, at 10:00. The oral argument was widely covered by, among other media, the Washington Post.
On March 7, 2011, the decision of the Supreme Court agreed that the civil rights action was appropriate in this case.
Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg wrote that a Section 1983 suit was available in cases where the relief sought by the inmate would
not "necessarily imply the invalidity of his conviction or sentence." Since there was no telling whether the results of the tests Mr. Skinner sought would establish his guilt, clear him or be inconclusive, she wrote, the suit was proper.
Skinner echoed this strategy to a CNN reporter: "all the District Attorney's gotta do is turn over the evidence, test it and let the chips fall where they may. If I'm innocent, I go home, if I'm guilty I die..."
Issues and claims surrounding the case
Background
On March 24, 2010, thirty-five minutes before the scheduled execution, the U.S. Supreme Court granted Skinner a stay of execution to allow time to consider his petition for writ of certiorari.
On May 24, 2010, the U.S. Supreme Court announced that it would review Skinner's case. The justices agreed to grant full review of the issue his lawyers raised: whether prisoners can use a federal civil-rights law to request DNA testing after their convictions.
At issue was whether post-conviction DNA testing is a civil right even though the DNA, in this case, was available at trial but Harold Comer, the appointed attorney of Skinner at trial, chose not to have it tested at the time because he believed it could be damaging to the case. Today, Comer says that even though he still defends his trial strategy, he would now request the testing. According to Professor David Protess, "Comer failed to request DNA testing, or present compelling evidence about the alternative suspect. And, at the sentencing hearing, he failed to object to using Skinner's prior convictions – which he had prosecuted – to justify the death penalty.".
Gray County District Attorney Lynn Switzer responded to the Supreme Court's decision to hear Skinner's case in a letter to an Amarillo News Station. Switzer accused Skinner of "gaming the system" and said that, on two previous appeals, Skinner had failed to show how additional testing could exonerate him. Switzer's position was based on the decisions of The Texas Court of Criminal Appeals (CCA), which had written, "The Appellant's request to compare fingerprint evidence would not provide a reasonable probability of the Appellant's innocence, but instead would only demonstrate the presence of a third party." So the position of the Texas authorities was that the existence of a third party, being not an actual proof of innocence, was not a point to investigate.
Claims against trial counsel
Comer was a former district attorney who had prosecuted Skinner in earlier cases, before losing his position and pleading guilty to criminal charges over the mishandling of cash seized in drug cases. The Washington Post cited Comer's appointment as a possible case of cronyism, where Comer was appointed to a highly paid case by a friend in order to help him raise the funds needed to pay off his overdue federal income taxes:
Comer had twice personally prosecuted Skinner for other crimes, which created a potential conflict for him in defending Skinner. State law required the judge to hold a hearing on the question, then give Skinner the option of a new lawyer if it became clear in the hearing that Comer had a conflict. But according to the trial record, Sims, who was aware of Comer's history with Skinner, did not hold such a hearing. Sims later approved $86,000 in legal fees for Comer's work in the case, one of the biggest sums ever paid to a court-appointed attorney in Texas. At the time, Comer was in debt to the Internal Revenue Service for about the same amount, according to court documents.
Comer has stated, repeated on a 2018 episode of HLN's investigative series "Death Row Stories", that right or wrong, he knowingly chose to not DNA test every single piece of evidence in order to at least give his client grounds for future delays of his execution, by requesting tests at some future date.
Witness recants testimony
The main accusation witness was Andrea Joyce Reed, who owned the house where Skinner was found by police several hours after the murders. After the trial, Reed recanted several specific elements of her testimony. Reed's daughter's testimony, however, contradicted portions of the new claims and ultimately a magistrate found Reed's recantation not to be credible.
Reed claimed that she had given false testimony at trial after having been threatened to be charged as an accomplice to capital murder, to have children taken away and to have her daughter called to testify at trial. Among the new claims, Reed said that Skinner told her not to call anybody but did not threaten to kill her (as Reed testified in court). Reed also claimed that she believed Skinner's sentence "I have kicked Twila. She's dead" to be "a drunken fantasy like the other violent stories that he told me to explain how he was injured."
Skinner has never commented if he asked Reed not to call anybody that night. According to Skinner, the phone cable was jerked out of the wall, and nobody could call from the crime scene"
Occupational therapist testimony
"Occupational therapist Joe Tarpley testified at trial that, as result of an injury sustained six months before the murders, he believed Mr. Skinner's right hand's grasping strength was half normal at the time of the murders. Tarpley testified he didn't believe Skinner would have had the strength needed to choke Ms. Busby with enough force to break her larynx and hyoid bone."
Toxicology testimony
At trial, the defense's toxicology expert, Dr. Lowry, had stated that based on the alcohol and codeine in his blood, Skinner was too intoxicated to be able to physically commit the murders, but his testimony was weakened by the original statements of Reed, which led the jury to accept the prosecution's theory that Skinner had developed a resistance to alcohol and codeine which would have allowed him to function even under heavy doses. Lowry did not testify to when, exactly, Skinner ingested the codeine. The timing of the codeine ingestion has been called into question, but at trial, prosecution witness Howard Mitchell claimed that 90 minutes before the crime, Skinner was lying on the living room couch completely unresponsive.
Harold Kalant, professor emeritus of toxicology and pharmacology at the University of Toronto, reviewed several of Skinner's trial documents. Based on his review, Kalant wrote "I wouldn't be surprised if the heavy drinker would be able to move about somewhat, but he would be very confused and badly impaired, and would have difficulty standing or walking in a coordinated manner". Kalant based his calculations on the assumption that Skinner consumed the alcohol and codeine at 9:30 the evening of the murders.
Theory about alternative suspect and rape
Shortly before the murders Twila Busby had been threatened by an uncle (killed in an automobile accident when drunk driving on January 5, 1997), Robert Donnell. Though Skinner and his legal team have raised questions, Donnell was never considered as a suspect by the D.A. or the police.
"The Skeptical Juror" reported on an interview with Howard Mitchell (the man who drove Twila Busby to the New Year's Eve Party) by an investigator with the DA's office. According to Mitchell, Donnell had a history of violent behavior, and attempted rape. Cliff Carpenter, an investigator for Skinner's appellate team, claimed to have spoken with Donnell's widow, Willie Mae Gardner, and neighbor Deborah Ellis who called Gardner "Grandmother" though they were not related. According to Carpenter, Gardner told him Donnell came home very late the night of the murders, and also that he thoroughly washed the interior of the truck, cleaned the truck's carpets and repainted the truck within a week of the murders.
During cross-examination, at an evidentiary hearing in 2005, Ellis testified that she did not see any blood in the truck and that Donnell was just cleaning the truck.
According to the Texas Department of Public Safety, Donnell had no prior criminal history. According to the affidavit of Cliff Carpenter, Donnell had a criminal history in Oklahoma, for theft, embezzlement and burglary in the 1950s, and served three years in prison in 1989 for auto theft. According to the State of Oklahoma, Robert E. Donnell (white/male, born May 5, 1930, 5'8" and 191 lbs.) was incarcerated for 7 years (which may have included parole) for one conviction of auto theft beginning on November 29, 1988. Other arrests are recorded in Oklahoma, and they include grand larceny (7/01/83), and DUI (6/05/87). No assaultive offense is attributed to Donnell.
There is also an affidavit by Ronald Campbell, an acquaintance of Twila Busby, who said that on the night of the murders he tried to place a collect call to Busby from the Gray County Jail, where he was an inmate, around 11:00 PM (2300 hrs). Campbell claimed that the oldest son answered but couldn't summon Twila Busby to the phone. Campbell claimed the boy sounded "upset and scared." Campbell also claimed he could hear the noise of "one hell of a fight," in the background, and the deep voice of an unknown male individual who wasn't Skinner. Phone records didn't corroborate Campbell's statements – so his testimony was not used at trial.
On November 14, 2012, the Texas Attorney General indicated that test results on the rape kit indicated that Twila Busby had not been raped.
Claims of color-blindness and accidental codeine ingestion
It has never been clearly determined exactly how Skinner ingested the codeine which he said made him comatose. Skinner's website has always claimed "it is believed that he was either accidentally or intentionally poisoned by the addition of the [codeine] pills to his drinks."
In an April 2010 letter responding to what Skinner called "false and undocumented allegations" circulating on the web, Skinner put forth a new theory that he was colorblind at the time and drank from the wrong cup.
Skinner himself explains: "A few years ago I learned that truth from a toxicologist who testified in another guy's case, here. He says that once you reach a certain level of intoxication you go colorblind. Twila was always putting pills in her drink and sipping that one drink all evening. I later learned her girlfriend (G.S.) had given her 13 Fiorinal #4 codeine that she'd put in her drink. Twila and I had identical glasses but hers was fuschia pink, mine was baby medium blue. I vaguely remember seeing the dregs of pills in the bottom of my cup and getting sick, passing out. I couldn't figure out how it got into my cup. So I thought someone must have poisoned me. I think now I was just too messed up and colorblind to tell our cups apart anymore, I accidentally got Twila's cup and drank from it, thinking it was my cup."
DNA issue
Unanalyzed crime scene objects
Skinner and his appellate team have repeatedly tried to obtain a DNA analysis on seven other items found at the crime scene; including fingernail clippings, a knife found on the porch of Busby's house and a second knife found in a plastic bag in the house, a towel with the second knife, a jacket next to Busby's body and any hairs found in her hands that were not destroyed in previous testing, and vaginal swabs taken from Twila Busby at the time of her autopsy.
At the time of the trial, DNA analysis had been performed only on the clothes that Skinner was wearing at the time of his arrest, and the results were incriminating because DNA of two of the victims was found on the clothes.
On November 14, 2012, the Texas Attorney General released a statement indicating that Skinner's DNA, and that of an unknown contributor, was found on the bloody knife on the front porch. Skinner's blood was also found in numerous places in the bedroom where Busby's two sons were murdered – somewhere Skinner's blood had not previously been found. The jacket, found next to Busby's body, was lost by the state and was not available for testing.
Analysis of hair clutched in victim's hand
During the post-conviction appeals, DNA analysis of only the hairs clutched in Twila's hand were tested and the results may have been either exculpatory (one of the head hairs and an unmatched fingerprint found on a plastic bag containing a bloodied knife excluded Skinner), or inconclusive, and no further analysis was made. All the requests for DNA testing of the other items have been denied on the grounds that Skinner's trial attorney did not seek DNA analysis. Lynn Switzer, the Gray County District Attorney, claims that additional testing would not prove Hank Skinner's innocence.
The claim that Twila Busby had been raped was not raised at Skinner's trial. Further, medical examiner Elizabeth Peacock testified at trial that Twila Busby was not raped.
An analysis of the rape kit, conducted in November 2012, showed Twila Busby had not been raped. The hair in Busby's hand was from Busby and a knife found on the front porch contained Skinner's DNA on the handle along with DNA from an "unknown contributor."
Skinner vs. Switzer
On November 27, 2009, the defense team filed a complaint in federal court against the Gray County DA, Lynn Switzer, for refusing to release the evidence to the defense for private DNA testing, which she could conceivably do without a court order. On January 15, the magistrate in charge of the complaint recommended that it be dismissed and on January 20, the Federal district Judge affirmed the dismissal. This decision is being appealed at the Federal Court of Appeals. In January 2010, Hank Skinner wrote to Lynn Switzer a letter where he states that his former prosecutor John Mann lied about the results of the hair analysis, and concludes his letter "All what I am asking you, Madam, is to do the right thing and test the evidence."
The right for Skinner to bring suit under Civil Rights laws claiming that Texas law regarding post-conviction DNA testing was too restrictive was affirmed by the Supreme Court in March 2011.
Texas Criminal Justice Reform Law
On May 26, 2011, the Senate of Texas voted unanimously for the Senate Bill 122, a Criminal Justice Reform Bill, expanding access to post-conviction DNA testing. This bill, would allow post-conviction testing "whenever there is biological evidence that has not previously been tested, or when the evidence can be subjected to newer techniques that might be more revealing than the results of an older test." The passing of this law would prevent Texas courts from blocking access to DNA testing in cases where DNA was not tested through "no fault of the defendant."
Skinner has maintained that the decision to not test certain pieces of DNA evidence was not his. Skinner claims that Comer made the decision believing the results would further incriminate Skinner.
Texas Senator Rodney Ellis, who authored the bill, said: "Under current law, innocence is often being left to chance [...] Strengthening Texas' post-conviction DNA law is an essential measure to improve justice in Texas." The bill was signed into law on June 17, 2011, effective September 11, 2011.
Post-conviction history
Skinner maintains he is innocent, and has repeatedly appealed his conviction both at state and federal levels.
Marriage
Skinner married Sandrine Ageorges while on Texas death row in 2008. Ageorges-Skinner, a French national, has been an anti-death penalty activist for more than thirty years – well before she met Skinner. She has corresponded with numerous death row inmates and has participated in numerous protests against the death penalty. Ageorges-Skinner was banned from visiting or corresponding with Skinner because of violations of prison policies – a charge both claim was fabricated. The Texas Department of Criminal Justice refuses to release records, so the claim cannot be supported or contradicted. Ageorges-Skinner has received the official support of the French Government in her persistent efforts to save her husband from execution and prove his innocence. France generally opposes the death penalty in all cases.
Defense team
For the post-conviction appeals, Rob Owen, co-director of the University of Texas at Austin School of Law's Capital Punishment Clinic was appointed to represent Skinner. Owen has represented Skinner since 2004, after his previous court-appointed attorney, Steven Losch, died. Skinner's new defense team obtained an evidentiary hearing in November 2005, the full transcript of which is available, along with numerous other legal documents, on the website set up to defend his case.
Partial appeal accepted, then rejected
On May 14, 2008, a limited certificate of appealability was granted.
Skinner's consecutive appeal, a federal habeas corpus petition centering on inadequate performance by his trial attorney on issues involving the investigation of an alternative suspect and a blood spatter analysis, was denied by the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit on July 14, 2009. On August 10, 2009, Skinner's Defense team introduced a new petition for a rehearing en banc with the 5th Circuit Court of Appeals. The petition was rejected on August 28, 2009.
Execution orders
On October 26, 2009, Judge Steven Emmert signed the order setting an execution date for Hank Skinner on February 24, 2010 (first execution date). The date was then changed to March 24, due to procedural errors which rendered the original mandate invalid.
After the SCOTUS decision, Skinner was given a new execution date of November 11, 2011. That date was stayed in order for the courts to consider Skinner's request for DNA testing.
Skinner resided on death row in the Allan B. Polunsky Unit in Polk County, Texas.
Skinner's writings
Skinner is the author of a series of self-published articles called "Hell Hole News" which covers a broad range of topics related to his case and the conditions on Texas' death row.
Prison issues: contraband cell phone and SIM
After a fellow death row inmate, Richard Tabler, used a smuggled cell phone to threaten a Texas state legislator from his jail cell, authorities conducted a series of raids aimed at confiscating the contraband phones.
During the raids, according to a statement issued by TDCJ's spokesperson Michelle Lyons, two SIM cards were found hidden in Skinner's bible. Skinner denied having a cell phone, but an x-ray revealed an illegal cell phone hidden in his rectum.
Death
Skinner died at Hospital Galveston in Galveston, Texas, on February 16, 2023. He was 60. His attorneys said he died due to complications following surgery in December 2022 to remove a brain tumor. He is buried at Captain Joe Byrd Cemetery.
Articles and television coverage
On November 10, 2007, Al Jazeera International aired a two-part program titled American Justice – Fatal Flaws, the second part of which deals with wrongful convictions and evokes Skinner's case and that of Curtis McCarty, who was exonerated from Oklahoma's death row after 22 years.
As of February 2010, the Skinner case is included in the Medill Innocence project of Professor David Protess.
On February 24, Amarillo News Channel 10 posted its full, unedited exclusive 30-minute interview with Skinner.
In March 2010, The Skeptical Juror site carried a 10-part series reprising the facts of the Skinner case.
On March 24, the evening Skinner's execution was stayed, Ageorges-Skinner and Curtis McCarty were interviewed on Larry King Live. Both pleaded against the denial of analysis of the full available evidence and expressed their belief that Skinner is innocent.
On April 4, Twila Busby's daughter Lisa and Busby's uncle Dave Brito "broke years of silence" and gave an interview to News Channel 10 in Amarillo. Lisa was the only one in her family to survive the murders and chose "to stay at her aunt and uncles' place – keeping away from home because she was scared her mom's boyfriend [Hank Skinner] might turn violent after drinking that night at a New Year's Eve party." Lisa Busby also appeared to advocate for Skinner's execution. "We're suffering. We have no closure. We have no peace because he's still alive," she said. Lisa finished her interview by agreeing that the testing needed to be done, saying "I mean test the DNA and get it over with [...] That way we have something of peace and closure."
On April 22, 2010, Skinner wrote Channel 10 a letter to "clarify" statements he made in an interview that was aired nationally. On May 3 Channel 10 produced a follow-up piece containing Skinner's letter to them regarding the statement he made. The statement in question related to the "violent stabbing and death of the beating victims" in the February interview. On camera, Skinner said referring to the murders: "if it had to happen and it had to go that way I wished I had 'uv done it because I wouldn't have done 'em like that."
On May 25, 2010, Time published an article about the case: "In death penalty case, innocence has to matter".
On June 10, 2010, Politics Daily published a report of recent interviews of former jurors at Skinner's trial, which states "Many of the jurors interviewed were taken aback by the amount of untested evidence, stunned that even the blood on two of the murder weapons had not been analyzed. The seven jurors agreed that all the evidence should undergo DNA analysis."
On November 8, 2011, in the Huffington Post, David Protess described the succession of district attorneys who have prevented the DNA from being tested.
On March 22, 2012, episode 1 of the UK Channel 4 series Death Row focused on an hour-long interview granted with Skinner. Taken from 4's site: "Death Row is a documentary series written and directed by legendary feature filmmaker Werner Herzog."
See also
Capital punishment in Texas
References
External links
Inmates on Death Row. Texas Department of Criminal Justice. Retrieved on 2023-2-20.
1962 births
2023 deaths
1993 murders in the United States
American people convicted of murder
American prisoners sentenced to death
American people who died in prison custody
People convicted of murder by Texas
People from Danville, Virginia
Prisoners sentenced to death by Texas
Prisoners who died in Texas detention
Writers from Texas
Writers from Virginia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mormon%20handcart%20pioneers
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Mormon handcart pioneers
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The Mormon handcart pioneers were participants in the migration of members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) to Salt Lake City, Utah, who used handcarts to transport their belongings. The Mormon handcart movement began in 1856 and continued until 1860.
Motivated to join their fellow church members in Utah, but lacking funds for full teams of oxen or horses, nearly 3,000 Mormon pioneers from England, Wales, Scotland and Scandinavia made the journey from Iowa or Nebraska to Utah in ten handcart companies. The trek was disastrous for two of the companies, which started their journey dangerously late and were caught by heavy snow and severe temperatures in central Wyoming. Despite a dramatic rescue effort, more than 210 of the 980 pioneers in these two companies died along the way. John Chislett, a survivor, wrote, "Many a father pulled his cart, with his little children on it, until the day preceding his death."
Although only about 5 percent of the 1846–1868 Latter-day Saint emigrants made the journey west using handcarts, the handcart pioneers have become an important symbol in LDS culture, representing the faithfulness and sacrifice of the pioneer generation. They continue to be recognized and honored in events such as Pioneer Day, church pageants, and similar commemorations.
Background to the migration
The Latter Day Saints were first organized in 1830. Early members of the church often encountered hostility, primarily due to their practice of withdrawing from secular society and gathering in locales to practice their religious beliefs. Neighbors who were not Mormon felt threatened by the church's rapid growth in numbers, its tendency to vote as a bloc and acquire political power, its claims of divine favor, and the practice of polygamy. Violence against the church and its members caused most church members to move from Ohio to Missouri, then to Illinois. Despite the frequent moves, church members were unable to prevent opposition, culminating in the extermination order against all Mormons living Missouri by the state's governor Lilburn Boggs in 1838 and the murder of their leader Joseph Smith in 1844. After Smith's death, Brigham Young said that he had received divine direction to organize the church members. In early 1846 he began leading them beyond the western frontier of the United States to settle in the Great Basin.
Need for handcart companies
Soon after the first Mormon pioneers reached Utah in 1847, the church encouraged its converts in Europe to emigrate to Utah. On December 23, 1847, the church leadership sent an epistle to the members in the British Isles saying "Emigrate as speedily as possible to this vicinity." Many British church members were disparaged and ridiculed due to the church's practice of polygamy. From 1849 to 1855, about 16,000 European Latter-day Saints traveled to the United States by ship, through the eastern states by rail, and to Utah by ox and wagon. Although most of these emigrants paid their own expenses, the church established the Perpetual Emigrating Fund to provide financial assistance for poor emigrants to trek west, which they would repay as they were able.
When contributions and loan repayments decreased in 1855 after a poor harvest in Utah, Young began to use handcarts because the church members who remained in Europe were mostly poor. Young also believed it would speed the emigrants' journey. Young proposed the plan in a letter to Franklin D. Richards, president of the European Mission, in September 1855. Young's letter and an editorial endorsing Young's plan by Richards was published in the Millennial Star the church's England-based periodical, on December 22, 1855. The cost of the migration was expected to be reduced by one-third. Poor church members who wanted to emigrate responded enthusiastically to the new plan—in 1856 the Perpetual Emigration Fund supported the travel of 2,012 European emigrants, compared with 1,161 the year before.
Outfitting
Emigrants departed from an English port (generally Liverpool) and travelled by ship to New York or Boston. The emigrants who arrived from 1855 to 1857 traveled by railroad to Iowa City, Iowa, the western terminus of the rail line, where they would be outfitted with handcarts and other supplies, while later emigrants traveled by rail and boat up the Missouri River to Florence, Nebraska (now part of Omaha).
Built to Young's design, the handcarts resembled a large wheelbarrow, with two wheels. They were in diameter and a single axle wide, and weighing . Running along each side of the bed were seven-foot (2.1 m) pull shafts ending with a three-foot (0.9 m) crossbar at the front. The crossbar allowed the carts to be pushed or pulled. Cargo was carried in a box about three feet by four feet (0.9 m by 1.2 m), with walls. The handcarts generally carried up to of supplies and luggage, though they were capable of handling loads as heavy as . Carts used in the first year's migration were made entirely of wood; in later years a stronger design was substituted, which included metal elements.
The handcart companies were organized using the handcarts and sleeping tents as the primary units. Five people were assigned per handcart, with each individual limited to of clothing and bedding. Each round tent, supported by a center pole, housed 20 occupants and was supervised by a tent captain. Five tents were supervised by the captain of a hundred (or "sub-captain"). Provisions for each group of one hundred emigrants were carried in an ox wagon, and were distributed by the tent captains.
1856: First three companies
The first two ships departed England in late March and mid-April and sailed to Boston. John Taylor was the church's agent in New York, and he arranged train transportation for the emigrants to Iowa City. Unaware of how many emigrants to expect, Taylor ordered the construction of 100 handcarts, but that would be inadequate for the companies. The emigrants spent several weeks in Iowa City building additional handcarts and obtaining supplies before beginning their trek of about .
About 815 emigrants from the first two ships were organized into the first three handcart companies, headed by captains Edmund Ellsworth, Daniel D. McArthur, and Edward Bunker. The captains were missionaries returning to their homes in Utah and were familiar with the route. Most of the sub-captains were also returning missionaries.
Across Iowa they followed an existing road about to Council Bluffs, following a route that is close to current U.S. Route 6. After crossing the Missouri River, they paused for a few days at a Mormon outpost in Florence, Nebraska for repairs, before beginning the remaining journey along the Mormon Trail to Salt Lake City.
Initial problems with the carts occurred because the wood used to construct them was said to have been "green timber", or wood from trees that were recently chopped down and not given sufficient time to dry, causing an increase in breakdowns. When the first handcart company reached Winter Quarters, Ellsworth had a member of the company "tin" the wooden axles and also installed "thick hoop iron skeins" which enabled the handcart axles to turn more easily and resist breakage much better.
The companies made good time, and their trips were largely uneventful. The emigrant companies included many children and elderly individuals, and transporting handcarts was difficult. Journals and recollections describe periods of illness and hunger; the handcart companies were not able to carry enough food to sustain themselves without additional relief supplies sent from Utah. Hafen and Hafen's Handcarts to Zion lists 13 deaths from the first company, seven from the second, and fewer than seven from the third. The first two companies arrived in Salt Lake City on September 26 and the third followed less than a week later. The first three companies were regarded as having demonstrated the feasibility of emigrating using handcarts.
1856: Willie and Martin handcart companies
The last two handcart companies of 1856 departed late from England. The ship Thornton, carrying the emigrants who became the Willie Company, left England on May 4. The leader of the Latter-day Saints on the ship was James G. Willie. Horizon departed eleven days later, carrying the emigrants who later formed the Martin Company. The late departures may have been the result of difficulties in procuring ships in response to the unexpected demand.
With slow communications in the era before the transatlantic telegraph, the church's agents in Iowa City were not expecting the additional emigrants and made frantic preparations for their arrival. When the emigrants arrived in Iowa City, no handcarts had been built, and three weeks were spent hastily assembling the carts and outfitting the companies. When the companies reached Florence, additional time was lost making repairs to the poorly built carts. Emigrant John Chislett describes the problems with the carts:
Prior to the Willie Company departing Florence, the company met to debate if they should continue the journey immediately or wait for the spring. Because the emigrants were unfamiliar with the trail and the climate, they deferred to the returning missionaries and church agents. One of the returning missionaries, Levi Savage, urged them to spend the winter in Nebraska. He warned them that they could not travel "with a mixed company of aged people, women, and little children, so late in the season without much suffering, sickness, and death." All of the other church elders argued that the trip should go forward, expressing optimism that the company would be protected by divine intervention. Some members of the company, perhaps as many as 100, decided to spend the winter in Florence or in Iowa, but the majority, about 404 in number (including Savage) continued the journey west. The Willie Company left Florence on August 17 and the Martin Company on August 27. Two ox-wagon trains, led by captains W.B. Hodgett and John A. Hunt, followed the Martin Company.
Near Wood River, Nebraska, a herd of bison caused the Willie Company's cattle to stampede, and nearly 30 cattle were lost. Left without enough cattle to pull all of the wagons, each handcart was required to take on an additional of flour. In early September, Richards, returning from Europe where he had served as the church's mission president, passed the emigrant companies. Richards counseled the emigrants to be faithful and obedient to their leaders, and promised that the Lord would open a way for them to "get to Zion in safety." Richards and the 12 returning missionaries who accompanied him, traveling in carriages and light wagons pulled by horses and mules, pressed on to Utah to obtain assistance for the emigrants.
Disaster and rescue
In early October the two companies reached Fort Laramie, Wyoming. They expected to be restocked with provisions, but they were unavailable. The companies cut back food rations down to per person, hoping that their supplies would last until help arrived from Utah. To lighten their loads, on October 17 the Martin Company cut the luggage allowance to per person, discarding clothing and blankets.
On October 4, the Richards party reached Salt Lake City and conferred with Brigham Young and other church leaders. The next morning the church held a general conference, where Young and the other speakers called on church members to provide wagons, mules, supplies, and teamsters for a rescue mission. On the morning of October 7, the first rescue party left Salt Lake City with 16 wagon-loads of food and supplies, pulled by four-mule teams with 27 young men serving as teamsters and rescuers. Throughout October more wagon trains were assembled, and by the end of the month 250 relief wagons were sent.
The Willie and Martin companies were running out of food and encountering extremely cold temperatures. On October 19, a blizzard struck the region, halting the two companies and the relief party. The Willie Company was along the Sweetwater River approaching the Continental Divide. A scouting party sent ahead by the main rescue party found and greeted the emigrants, gave them a small amount of flour, encouraged them that rescue was near, and then rushed onward to try to locate the Martin Company. The members of the Willie Company had reached the end of their flour supplies and slaughtered the handful of broken-down cattle that still remained. On October 20, Captain Willie and Joseph Elder went ahead by mule through the snow to locate the supply train and inform them of the company's desperate situation. They arrived at the rescue party's campsite near South Pass that evening, and by the next evening, the rescue party reached the Willie Company and provided them with food and assistance. Half of the rescue party remained to assist the Willie Company while the other half pressed forward to assist the Martin Company. On October 23, the second day after the main rescue party had arrived, the Willie Company faced the most difficult section of the trail—the ascent up Rocky Ridge. The climb took place during a howling snowstorm through knee-deep snow. That night 13 emigrants died.
On October 19, the Martin Company was about further east, making its last crossing of the North Platte River near present-day Casper, Wyoming. Shortly after completing the crossing, the blizzard struck. Many members of the company suffered from hypothermia or frostbite after wading through the frigid river. They set up camp at Red Bluffs, unable to continue forward through the snow. Meanwhile, the original scouting party continued eastward until it reached a small vacant fort at Devil's Gate, where they had been instructed to wait for the rest of the rescue party if they had not found the Martin Company. When the main rescue party rejoined them, another scouting party consisting of Joseph Young, Abel Garr, and Daniel Webster Jones was sent forward. The Martin company remained in their camp at Red Bluffs for nine days until the three scouts arrived on October 28; 56 members of the company had died while they waited. The scouts urged the emigrants to begin moving again. During this interval, the party was met by Ephraim Hanks, bringing meat from a recently slaughtered buffalo. The meat likely saved many lives as the nutritive value was much higher than that of the other supplies. He also performed many blessings and helped in some amputations to stop the progression of the frostbite and gangrene that would have otherwise killed more members of the company. Three days later the main rescue party met the Martin Company and the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies, and they helped them on to Devil's Gate.
George D. Grant, who headed the rescue party, reported to Young:
At Devil's Gate, the rescue party unloaded the baggage carried in the wagons of the Hodgett and Hunt wagon companies that had been following the Martin Company so the wagons could be used to transport the weakest emigrants. A small group, led by Jones, remained at Devil's Gate over the winter to protect the property. The severe weather forced the Martin Company to halt for five days; the company moved into Martin's Cove, a few miles west of Devil's Gate, as it was much more protected than the open plains to the east. During this season, the river, though shallow at about , was also wide. The stream temperature was frigid and clogged with floating ice. Some of the men of the rescue party spent hours pulling the carts and carrying many of the emigrants across the river, while many members of the company crossed the river themselves, with some pulling their own handcarts. The rescue parties escorted the emigrants from both companies to Utah through snow and severe weather. When the Willie Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 9, 68 members of the company had died from disease and exposure.
Meanwhile, a backup relief party of 77 teams and wagons was making its way east to provide additional assistance to the Martin Company. After passing Fort Bridger, the leaders of the backup party concluded that the Martin Company must have wintered east of the Rockies, so they turned back. When word of the returning backup relief party was communicated to Young, he ordered the courier to return and tell them to turn back east and continue until they found the handcart company. On November 18, the backup party met the Martin Company with the supplies so they could continue the journey. The 104 wagons carrying the Martin Company arrived in Salt Lake City on November 30; at least 145 members of the company had died during the journey. Many of the survivors had to have fingers, toes, or limbs amputated due to severe frostbite. Residents of Utah allowed the companies to stay in their homes during the winter. The emigrants would eventually go to Latter-day Saint settlements throughout Utah and the West.
Responsibility for the tragedy
As early as November 2, 1856, while the Willie and Martin companies were still making their way to safety, Young responded to criticism of his own leadership by rebuking Franklin Richards and Daniel Spencer for allowing the companies to leave so late. Many authors argued that Young, as author of the plan, was responsible. Ann Eliza Young, daughter of one of the men in charge of building the carts and a former plural wife of Brigham Young, described her ex-husband's plan as a "cold-blooded, scheming, blasphemous policy". Most survivors refused to blame anyone. One traveler, Francis Webster, said it was a privilege to be part of the Martin company. One survivor, John Chislett, wrote bitterly of Richards's promise that "we should get to Zion in safety."
American West historian, Wallace Stegner, described the inadequate planning and improvident decisions of leadership caused the struggles of the companies. He described Richards as a scapegoat for Young's fundamental errors in planning, though Howard Christy, professor emeritus at Brigham Young University, noted that Richards had the authority to halt the companies' late departure because he was the highest-ranking official in the Florence, Nebraska area. Christy also pointed out that Young and the other members of the church's First Presidency had consistently pointed out that departure from what is now Omaha, Nebraska, needed to happen by the end of May to safely make the journey.
1857–60: Last five companies
The church enacted many changes following the journeys of the Willie and Martin companies. Handcart companies were not to depart Florence after July 7. The construction of the handcarts was modified to strengthen them and reduce repairs, and they would be regularly greased. Arrangements were made to replenish supplies along the route. By 1857 the Perpetual Emigration Fund was exhausted; almost all of the handcart emigrants that year and in subsequent years had to pay their own way. With the increased cost, the number of handcart emigrants dropped from nearly 2,000 in 1856 to about 480 in 1857. In 1857 two companies made the trek, both arriving in Salt Lake City by September 13.
With the uncertainty caused by the Utah War, the church prevented European emigration for 1858. In 1859 one handcart company crossed the plains. The emigrants could travel by rail to Saint Joseph, Missouri, after which they went by riverboat to Florence, where they were outfitted with handcarts and supplies. When the 1859 company reached Fort Laramie, they discovered their food was running dangerously low, so they cut back on rations. The hunger worsened when expected supplies were not available when they reached the Green River. Three days later wagons from Utah carrying provisions arrived to be distributed to the emigrants. The last two handcart companies made the journey in 1860, following the route through St. Joseph. Although the journey proved to be difficult for the emigrants, these companies had relatively uneventful trips and experienced little loss of life.
The outbreak of the American Civil War likely hastened the handcart system's demise by disrupting immigration from Europe and placing severe restrictions on rail travel from the East Coast. At the end of that conflict, the church implemented a new system of emigration in which wagon trains travelled east from Salt Lake City in the spring and returned with emigrants in the summer. The transcontinental railroad was being constructed in the mid-to-late 1860s and was completed in 1869; the railroad terminus gradually moved westward, progressively shortening the trip.
Legacy
Handcart pioneers and the handcart movement are important parts of LDS culture, music and fiction. Arthur King Peters described these journeys as important parts of Mormon history and stated that these journeys caused the qualities of discipline, devotion, and self-sacrifice to be shown among the Mormon people. Wallace Stegner said the handcart pioneers were one of the greatest stories of the American West.
Reenactments, in which a group dressed in 19th-century garb travels for one or more days pushing and pulling handcarts, have become a popular activity among LDS wards, youth groups, and families. The first known modern-era reenactment took place in 1966 from Henefer, Utah, to the mouth of Emigration Canyon by young men from Phoenix, Arizona, using handcarts between metal wheels repurposed from old farm wagons. In 1968, 44 girls from Long Beach, California reenacted that same stretch of the Mormon Trail with homemade handcarts. From the mid-1970s until the early 1990s, participation in handcart reenactments were offered at BYU as a wilderness survival activity for youth conference participants. Beginning in 1977, similar treks were offered as part of Ricks College's outdoor recreation program, on connected jeep trails from Rexburg, Idaho and into Montana.
In 2006, Harriet Petherick Bushman created a concert opera called "1856: Long Walk Home.". A musical called 1856, produced by Cory Ellsworth, a descendant of Edmund Ellsworth, was performed in Mesa, Arizona and Salt Lake City in July 2006. Filmmaker Lee Groberg and historian Heidi Swinton created a documentary for PBS called Sweetwater Rescue: The Willie & Martin Handcart Story and first broadcast on December 18, 2006.
See also
History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
History of the Latter Day Saint movement
History of Utah
Notes
References
External links
Pioneer Database 1847-1868 – Search for people on the trek
Sweetwater Rescue – information site for Sweetwater Rescue: The Willie & Martin Handcart Story, PBS documentary
Norman Bosworth photos – for Sweetwater Rescue
Handcart construction plans
The Pioneer Story: Handcart Beginning
www.handcart.com – stories compiled by the Riverton Wyoming Stake of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Willie Handcart Company Chronology at BYU.edu – a day-by-day chronology of the Willie Company's journey from Liverpool to Salt Lake City
Martin Company: Mormon Pioneers Used Handcarts to Trek to Salt Lake City article by Sherman L. Fleek
The Mormon Handcart Pageant – A theatrical re-enactment, dedicated to the Martin and Willie Handcart Companies of 1856 and their Rescuers, both past and present.
Pre-statehood history of Utah
Pre-statehood history of Wyoming
Handcart pioneers
History of the American West
Handcart
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curse%20of%20the%20Starving%20Class
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Curse of the Starving Class
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Curse of the Starving Class is a play by Sam Shepard, considered the first of a series on family tragedies. Some critics consider it part of a Family Trilogy that includes Buried Child (1979) and True West (1980). Others consider it part of a quintet that includes Fool for Love (1983) and A Lie of the Mind (1985). The play was commissioned by Joseph Papp and premiered in London in 1977 before playing at Papp's New York Shakespeare Festival in 1978.
Production history
The play was initially produced in London at the Royal Court Theatre on April 21, 1977, directed by Nancy Meckler. The play was commissioned by Joseph Papp.
Curse of the Starving Class premiered Off-Broadway at the New York Shakespeare Festival, on March 2, 1978, presented by Joseph Papp. The play closed on April 9, 1978.
The cast was as follows:
Wesley – Ebbe Roe Smith
Ella – Olympia Dukakis
Emma – Pamela Reed
Taylor – Kenneth Welsh
Weston – James Gammon
Ellis – Eddie Jones
Malcolm – John Aquino
Emerson – Michael J. Pollard
Slater – Raymond J. Barry
Directed by Robert Woodruff
Setting and Costumes by Santo Loquasto
Lighting by Martin Tudor
Music by Bob Feldman
The play was revived Off-Broadway at the Promenade Theatre, running from July 30, 1985 to February 16, 1986. Directed by Robin Lynn Smith, the cast featured Kathy Bates (Ella) and Bradley Whitford (Wesley).
The play was produced at Yale Repertory Theatre, New Haven, Connecticut, in February 2000, directed by Jim Simpson and featuring Kristine Nielsen, Guy Boyd, Mandy Siegfried, Danny Seckel, Paul Boocock, Ron Faber, Steve Mellor, Dan Moran and Chime Serra. The production had original live rock, blues, jazz, punk, and Latin-style music, composed and arranged by Steve Bargonetti and Diane Gioia.
Curse of the Starving Class won the 1976–77 Obie Award for Best New American Play.
Theme
Curse of the Starving Class "balances dark comedy and biting satire in its look at a family fighting to stay alive," according to the Long Wharf Theatre. The play focuses on the disturbed Tate family—the drunken father, burned-out mother, rebellious teenage daughter, and idealistic son—as they struggle for control of the rundown family farm in a futile search for freedom, security, and ultimately meaning in their lives.
Plot summary
Act I
The play opens with Wesley putting pieces of a broken down door into a wheelbarrow. Ella, his mother, enters and they begin to discuss the events of the night before that lead to Wesley's father, Weston, breaking down the door. Wesley begins a monologue narrating exactly what he saw and heard happen from the night before. Wesley then leaves and Ella begins to give a motherly talk on what happens during menstruation and what cannot be done during the cycle. Ella is on stage alone for the beginning of the talk, but her daughter, Emma, walks on stage mid-talk and joins the conversation as though she has been there all along. Ella then asks Emma what she is holding and Emma reminds her that these are her poster for the 4-H project on how to properly cut up a frying chicken that she has been working on quite some time. Emma goes to the refrigerator and begins to look for her chicken. Ella begins to act antsy and Emma realizes that Ella has boiled her chicken. Emma begins a rant about how she raised the chicken and hand fed it every day, then killed and cleaned it and her mother has gone and boiled it. Ella tries to feign innocence and Emma storms out. Wesley enters and decides that Emma's project is pointless and that she ought to focus on more important things. Emma returns, still furious, and the three begin an argument about the starving class and whether or not they are part of it. During their argument, Wesley goes to Emma's posters and begins to urinate on them. Ella points this out to Emma and Emma storms off, insisting that she is going to take the horse and run away. Ella tells Emma that the horse is crazy and that she is too young to leave home but Emma refuses to listen.
Ella tries to get Wesley to go down and stop Emma from taking the horse. Wesley refuses to stop Emma, and Ella begins to tell him about her plans to sell the house. Wesley is not happy with his mother's decision, and she continues to try and ask him to go stop Emma. Wesley still refuses to go after his sister, and Ella tells him that she is planning to use the money from the house to go to Europe and that he and Emma can come if they want. When Wesley tells her that there will not be enough money from the house to move to Europe Ella gets angry that Wesley is ruining her dream. Wesley then leaves and Emma returns, covered in mud after being thrown from the horse and dragged through the mud. Ella does not tell Emma that she plans to sell the house, but Emma tells Ella that she dreams of moving to Mexico and becoming a mechanic.
Ella goes to the back part of the house and Emma goes to the refrigerator. Emma asks the refrigerator why it doesn't have any food because they aren't part of the starving class. She reassures the refrigerator that soon there will be little eggs, butter, and other foods tucked away inside of it. She then becomes angry with the refrigerator and slams it shut. When she turns around she finds that there is a man standing in the room with her. The man tells her that he was going to knock but that there was no door. Emma explains that her father broke the door down the night before in a drunken rage. The man tells her that his name is Taylor and that he is looking for her mother. She wants to know what he wants her mother for and he tells her that he is in the real-estate business and is helping her mother sell the house. Emma is enraged that her mother is selling the house and Taylor tries to convince her that selling the property is in their best interest. Emma tells Taylor that her family has violent tendencies caused by some family members having nitroglycerin, which is a very explosive element, in their blood.
Wesley then enters and sets up a small enclosure in the kitchen. He exits again and returns with a lamb, which he puts in the enclosure. Ella finally enters and says that she is going on a business luncheon with Taylor. Emma yells at Ella and exits. Ella leaves with Taylor, telling Wesley to take the lamb with the maggots back outside.
Weston enters, drunk, with a large bag of groceries. Weston talks to the lamb briefly, and then begins putting the groceries, which turn out to only be desert artichokes, in the refrigerator. Wesley enters and they discuss Weston's laundry and the best way to help the lamb with the maggots.
Act II
Act two opens on Wesley and Emma in the kitchen, where Wesley is building a new front door for the house. Emma and Wesley discuss whether their mother will come back, or whether she will run off to Mexico with Taylor. Wesley and Emma then argue over who is going to go add water to the artichokes that are boiling on the stove. Wesley does not want to do it because he is making the door and Emma doesn't want to do it because she is remaking her posters. Wesley says that Emma doesn't want to do it just because she is “on the rag”, so she throws down her markers and gets up to add the water.
Wesley then explains to Emma that it is not typical homebuyers who are going to purchase the house, but that it is land developers. He compares it to a zombie invasion and takeover, where the zombies build their own city. He then suggests that they move away to some place safe, like Alaska.
Weston enters, even drunker than he was before. Emma is frightened by him, but Wesley tells her to stay calm. Weston asks where Ella is, and then goes into a rage when Wesley and Emma tell him where she went. Weston then tells them that he has already found someone who will buy the land and pay in cash. Emma, angry, leaves. Weston begins to tell Wesley about how he began to see the ‘poison’ in his own father, and how Wesley can see it in him. Weston tries to explain the poison to Wesley by comparing it to the way to you poison a coyote by putting strychnine in the belly of a dead lamb.
Wesley then tells Weston that Ella has also found a buyer for the house and Weston goes into a rage, and then collapses on a table and falls asleep. Ella returns with groceries that Taylor has bought for the family and throws out the artichokes. Wesley deduces that Taylor is the one who sold Weston worthless desert property in the first place. Ella talks about the curse that is plaguing their family. She tells Wesley that just when you think the curse has been beaten, and it has retreated back into the smallest cells of their genetics, it will suddenly reappear in full force.
Ellis, the owner of the “Alibi Club” walks into the house and sees Weston on the table. He tells Wesley and Emma that he has already purchased the house from Weston and shows them the cash. He pulls out the $1,500, telling them that is the amount that Weston owes to some “pretty hard fellas”. Wesley takes the money, offering to deliver it to the people his father owes money to. Ella tries to take the money from Wesley, but he tells her there is not enough to go to Europe on. Taylor then enters and Ella tells him what is happened. Taylor says that any deal Weston makes is void because he is considered incompetent by the state. Taylor declares that he will go to court and have the deed taken back and then buy the property from Ella, then leaves the house.
Sergeant Malcolm from the police department enters and tells Ella that Emma has been arrested for riding a horse into the “Alibi Club” and shooting the place full of holes. Ellis says that Weston must have sent Emma down there and takes back his $1,500 and runs off to his club, swearing he will get revenge on Weston. Ella goes downtown to get Emma out of jail.
Act III
This act opens with Weston, who is now clean, and sober. He has done his laundry, which is all nicely folded on the table, and the lamb is back in the kitchen. He tells the lamb a story about an eagle who was diving very close down to the ground trying to steal the testes of the lambs he was castrating. In the end he was cheering for the eagle. Wesley, who has been listening to this story, then asks what happens next. Weston becomes grumpy and refuses to tell the rest of the story. He asks what happened to Wesley, who had clearly been beaten up. Wesley tells him that he ran into a brick wall.
Weston tells Wesley that he has decided to stay and fix up the house instead of leaving, no matter who holds the deed. Weston says that when he woke up that morning, after sleeping on the table, that he felt like a new man and walked around their property naked to reclaim ownership. He then came inside and took a bath, made a big breakfast, drank some coffee, and did everyone's laundry. He tells Wesley to go clean up, and he'll make him a big breakfast. While Wesley is bathing, Weston yells in to him that he agrees to become an avocado grower for the Grower's Association.
Ella enters and she and Weston discuss Emma's shooting up of the club. Weston is proud of Emma, saying that it takes guts to do something like that at her age. Ella begins to yell at Weston for pulling a Jekyll and Hyde act by changing overnight. He tells her it was the night's sleep on the table that fixed everything. Ella pushes all the laundry to the floor and lies on the table. As she is falling asleep, and Weston is talking to her about the benefits of sleeping on the hard table, Wesley walks into the kitchen, naked, and takes the lamb outside.
Wesley re-enters, wearing his father's old clothes. He tells Weston that he has butchered the lamb for food. Weston yells at him, telling him that they didn't need the food, because the refrigerator is full for once. Wesley then begins to gorge himself on all of the food in the refrigerator. Weston tries to calm Wesley down, and to wake Ella up, but cannot seem to do either. He declares to them that he is a whole new person, and Wesley, finally stopped eating, tells Weston that the men who are after him are going to kill him. At first, Weston can't remember who all he has loaned money to, and begins to rant about how this is his home and nobody ought to be able to take it from him because he has nowhere else to go. Wesley tells him to take the Packard and escape to Mexico. Weston leaves.
Emma enters, carrying her riding crop. She asks Wesley why he is wearing their father's clothes. He tells her that as he put them on he could feel his own essence slipping out of him, and his father's essence coming into him. Wesley asks her how she got out of jail and she tells him that she made sexual overtures at the guard. She then pulls out a wad of cash and tells him that she's taking their mother's car and going into crime. As she leaves, Ella wakes up, mistakes Wesley for Weston, and tells him to go after Emma because she's too young to leave on her own. Wesley tells Ella to let Emma go and then there is a bright flash and a loud explosion from outside. Emerson, a small well dressed thug, enters, giggling about the explosion. His partner, Slater, enters after him, playing with the skinned lamb carcass. Since Ella is still under the impression that Wesley is Weston, Emerson and Slater also mistake Wesley for Weston. Wesley tries to tell them that Weston is his father. They tell him that they have blown up the car with Emma in it. The men tell Wesley, still calling him Weston, that he is to pass on the warning to his father and they leave.
Ella believes that Emma has left on the horse, and is not overly concerned about her. Looking at the lamb carcass, she asks Wesley to help her remember the story Weston always told about the eagle. They finish the story, saying that a tom cat had come to sniff around in the testes and the eagle picked it up. The tom cat and the eagle start fighting in midair, with the cat clawing out the eagle's chest, and the eagle trying to drop it. However, the tom cat won't let go because if it does it will fall and die. Instead, it chooses to bring the eagle down, even if it means certain doom for the cat as well.
The play ends with Ella and Wesley staring at the lamb carcass.
Character summaries
The Tate family is a lower middle class, rural California family, trying to hold on to the last shreds of a family bond and traditional living.
Wesley Tate is the son of the family. Feeling strong ties to his family and to the land, Wesley maintains the farm after the others have given up. The prospect of selling the land to real estate developers has a significance far greater than the loss of a mere house, but his family. At times, Wesley loses patience with his family members, as evidenced by his lack of sympathy for his sister's ruined 4-H project, to which he responds by urinating on her charts and suggesting that his sister do something truly useful with her time.
Ella Tate is the mother of the family. As the play opens, she and Wesley are both looking through the chunks of the broken door that her husband, Weston, broke in a fit of rage. Ella is a highly dysfunctional individual with no capacity to cope with her husband's alcoholism. She often changes topics when she feels it in her best interest and tries to ignore the things going on immediately around her. Ella decides to take matters into her own hands and puts the house up for sale without consulting her husband.
Emma Tate is the daughter of Ella and Weston Tate. She has just started her first period, and has several mood swings during the play. Emma hates living with her family and repeatedly announces plans to leave home. She first tries to run away by taking the family horse, but it throws her off and drags her through the mud, so she comes back. Later, she becomes so angry about Ellis buying their house, she rides the family horse into his bar and shoots the place full of holes. Once she is arrested she says that she gains her freedom by offering sexual bribes to the sheriff. She then decides to steal her mother's car and take up a life of crime, claiming that it is the only way to make a real living in this world. In her attempt to steal the car, she is blown up with the car by the bomb that Slater puts in it.
Ellis is the owner of a bar, the Alibi Club, where Weston spends his time when he is not at home. Ellis is a greedy charlatan who tries to cheat the family out of their house. Ellis represents the greed and controlling nature of business owners and the tendency of these people to take unfair advantage of each other and people below them.
Emerson is a minor character who represents the men that Weston is in debt to. He and Slater, another minor character, only appear at the end of the production when they blow up Weston's car for compensation. He is a wicked man, a villain in the story.
Weston Tate is the father of the family and an abusive alcoholic. Incapable of driving or holding a job, he is a profoundly unstable man controlled by the alcohol that runs in his system. His violent nature and utter lack of accountability are the crux of many of the family's issues. He is easily taken advantage of and when his debts are not paid, it takes an even more terrifying toll on the people close to him.
Sergeant Malcom is the police officer who arrives at the house to inform Ella that Emma has been arrested for riding a horse into the “Alibi Club” and shooting it up. He is uninterested in the other crimes that Wesley and Ella accuse Taylor and Ellis of, stating that he is only there to tell Ella about Emma.
Taylor is a lawyer who is involved in real estate and is looking to buy the property from Ella. He is the representative for several large corporations that are looking to buy up land. He is also the same man who swindled Weston into buying the useless desert property.
Slater is Emerson's accomplice. He is the one who actually put the bomb in the car that kills Emma. He and Emerson represent the men that Weston owes money to, and have come to serve as a warning. Slater also brings the dead lamb's carcass into the house.
Film adaptation
A 1994 film adaptation of the same name stars James Woods (Weston), Kathy Bates (Ella), Henry Thomas (Wesley), Randy Quaid (Taylor), and Jim Fitzpatrick (Emerson). The film was written by Bruce Beresford and directed by J. Michael McClary.
References
Text
1978 plays
Plays by Sam Shepard
Absurdist fiction
Plays set in California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1976 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1976 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 44th Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 12 and 13 June 1976. This year the FIA introduced its new Group 5 and Group 6 regulations and the race was now open to nine distinct classes, although it was still not part of the World Championship seasons.
Porsche introduced its new models, the 936 in Group 6, the 935 in Group 5 and the 934 in Group 4. In response, BMW had its modified 3.0 CSL in Group 5.
It was the year that turbos arrived in considerable numbers, with over a dozen turbocharged entries, led by the Renault Alpine A442. It saw the arrival of French prototype manufacturers Jean Rondeau and Gérard Welter in a new GTP class and a first-time invitation to American IMSA and NASCAR entries.
Once an initial challenge from Renault Alpine was seen off, the 936 of previous race-winners Jacky Ickx and Gijs van Lennep built a relentless, inexorable lead that was never headed. Even a 30-minute stop to repair a cracked exhaust on Sunday morning was not enough for the following pack and they won by a comfortable 11-lap margin. Second was the Mirage of French drivers François Migault and Jean-Louis Lafosse – the same car that had finished third the year before. Alain de Cadenet’s privateer effort showed far greater reliability this year and he achieved his best Le Mans result with third place.
The works Porsche 935 turbo of Rolf Stommelen and Manfred Schurti was fourth, easily winning the Group 5 class. After early issues, Henri Pescarolo and Jean-Pierre Beltoise bought their new Inaltéra home in 8th to take the inaugural GTP-class win. André Gahinet's privateer Porsche 911 was the unexpected winner in Group 4 when all the major teams, and their new Porsche 934s faltered. The race also saw the death of Frenchman André Haller when his Datsun 260Z crashed at speed at the Mulsanne Kink and caught fire.
Regulations
After a year's delay, the CSI (Commission Sportive Internationale - the FIA’s regulations body) issued its new regulation. The former Group 5 was renamed as Group 6. Engines permitted were either a standard production engine up to 5-litre capacity or racing engines up to 3-litres (or 2.1 litres if turbo-charged). The FIA revived the World Sportscar Championship for the Group 6 cars.
The new Group 5 was for Special Production Cars. A silhouette formula that allowed considerable modification of a Group 2 or Group 4 car, with no minimum production required. The FIA used the separate World Championship of Makes (with more endurance races) for the new Group 5 with Group 4 and Group 2 cars, run separately but in parallel to the Group 6 cars. To encourage manufacturers to join in, the FIA also dropped the required production number of Group 4 cars from 500 to 400.
The Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) saw the small fields in these events and decided it needed to open its entry to both categories in one race, against current FIA policy. The FIA promptly scheduled a championship race at the Circuit Paul Ricard on the same weekend which, unsurprisingly, then had to be cancelled for lack of entries. Ostracised by the FIA, the ACO instead developed closer bonds with the developing IMSA organisation in North America. A new Le Mans-Daytona Trophy was inaugurated linking the 24-hour sports-car races. The ACO opened its entry list to IMSA-category cars as well as NASCAR racers to encourage American participation.
For their own part, the ACO continued with its GTX non-homologated class – a counterpoint to Group 5. Significantly, this year it also introduced its new GTP (Grand Touring Prototype) class – a counterpart of Group 6. These cars were closed-topped cars at least 110 cm high, 850 kg minimum weight (heavier than Group 6) and without wings, nominally as prototypes for new GT designs. GTP was to become the forerunner of the Group C regulations used in the 1980s. All together there were now nine separate classes of entry.
The ACO's 1975 experiment with the fuel limitations was not repeated (although GTP cars had to use less than 25 litres of fuel per 100 km). Consequently, the freedom to replace and repair all parts was also rescinded. It was now not permitted to replace the engine block, cylinder heads, gearbox or differential within the course of the race. The ACO stated that all entries had to have been built from January 1, 1972. They also dictated that every driver had to do at least 1 lap with 125% of the fastest 3 laps done by drivers in their category.
Finally, there was no Index of Thermal Efficiency competition. Instead, this year the ACO offered £1000 prizemoney to the cars that covered the most laps within each 6-hour period.
Entries
This year the ACO received 97 applications, of which 68 were accepted and 58 arrived for qualifying on race week. Significantly, it was the first Le Mans with no Ferrari entrants since that company's founding in 1947. Works teams from Porsche, BMW and Renault arrived. It was notable that with the times of limited finances, even major manufacturers only ran 1-2 car works teams. It did see an increase in the number of turbo-powered cars. With the 1.4x capacity equivalence, the power increase versus extra weight made them very attractive: 17 turbo cars arrived for race week.
Note: The first number is the number of arrivals, the second the number who started.
The Porsche works team returned with two new designs for the new regulations. Norbert Singer had led the development of the Group 5 Porsche 935 from the 934 Turbo of 1974. The 2.85-litre flat-6 engine was augmented by a KKK (Kühnle, Kopp & Kausch) turbo, producing 590 bhp and capable of 335 kp/h (210 mph). The chassis only weighed 900 kg, well under the 970 kg minimum stipulated for a 4-litre car in the rules, allowing the compulsory ballast to then improve weight distribution. Regulations also permitted the lights to be recessed into the front spoiler further improving aerodynamics. For Le Mans, the works car was driven by Rolf Stommelen/Manfred Schurti.
The Porsche 936 was even newer – developed in only nine months. Group 6 cars were allowed 40 litres more fuel and to be more than 200 kg lighter. Its 2.1-litre flat-6 engine was also turbocharged and could produce 520 bhp and, when the turbo was wound up, could reach 320 kp/h (200 mph). Jacky Ickx and Jochen Mass had been doing double-duty running both the works 936 and 935 in alternate races of the World Championships, and were entered in the lead 936 for Le Mans. A second works car was prepared, taking over an entry of Joest Racing and driven by that team's regular drivers, Reinhold Joest himself with Jürgen Barth.
Renault-Alpine would be Porsche's main opposition in the shorter-format World Championship races. Gérard Larrousse had retired from racing at the end of 1975 and taken up the role of motorsport director at Renault. The company bought out the final share of Jean Rédélé at Alpine and renamed it Renault Sport. Over the winter the A442 had been developed and a longtail version was found to be best for Le Mans. With its Garrett turbo, it could produce 500 bhp and reach 335 kp/h (210 mph). As the race clashed with the Formula 1 Swedish GP, Larrousse had fewer driver options, so only one car was entered. This would be driven by Jean-Pierre Jabouille, José Dolhem and Patrick Tambay (in his first race out of a single-seater).
With John Wyer’s retirement, the Gulf-Mirage operation was taken over by American Harley Cluxton. With John Horsman still as technical director, the same two cars that had finished first and third in the previous year's race were entered again. Rebadged as Mirages again, they were driven respectively by Derek Bell/Vern Schuppan and former Ligier drivers François Migault and Jean-Louis Lafosse. Without the tight fuel restrictions of the previous year, they could run the cars back at higher revs.
The rise of the privateer car-builder continued. Alain de Cadenet, with his regular co-driver Chris Craft, returned with a slightly modified version of his Lola T380, now capable of 320 kp/h (200 mph). This year was the production debut for another man passionate to win the race in a car of his own design: Le Mans local Jean Rondeau’s team was the first to build a car to the ACO's new GTP specification. Financed by Charles James of French home-furnishings company Inaltéra, the car had the proven Cosworth DFV V8 engine and Hewland gearbox. A team of notables was brought in to run the cars: Vic Elford was team manager, with Henri Pescarolo/Jean-Pierre Beltoise in the lead car and Jean-Pierre Jaussaud/Christine Beckers with Rondeau himself in the second car. Peugeot designer Gérard Welter and engineer Michel Meunier had started making their own racing cars under the name WM. They designed the P76 for the new GTP formula, using the Peugeot 2.7-litre V6 PRV engine. In patriotic red-white-blue, they had French drivers Claude Ballot-Léna, Guy Chasseuil and Xavier Mathiot. The final GTP entry was a return of Lancia after 23 years. The Lancia Stratos, homologated in Group 4, was a successful rally-car for the works team, and was being adapted to the Group 5 regulations by designer Giampaolo Dallara and ex-Ferrari racer and engineer Mike Parkes. A privateer entry of French rally drivers Robert Neyret and Bernard Darniche added a KKK-turbo to the 2.4-litre Ferrari V6 and modified the bodywork and suspension. Driver were the female pairing of Lella Lombardi and Christine Dacremont.
Kremer Racing was one of the strong customer Porsche teams and the first to get the new 935. Under their own modification, what became known as the 935K-1 retained more of the look of the original 911 RSR. Team driver Hans Heyer teamed up with Mexicans Juan Carlos Bolaños, Eduardo Negrete and American Billy Sprowls. Porsche also supplied the RSR 2.1-litre turbo engine to customers to retrofit into their 908 prototypes to keep them competitive. Reinhold Joest and Egon Evertz both entered their uprated cars.
The under-2000 class was essentially a battle between Lola and Chevron. The cars were designed to fit a variety of powerplants, with most teams settling on either the British Cosworth FVC or French ROC engines. A solid entry of nine cars was accepted that also included two from the Société ROC and cars from small manufacturers Jörg Obermoser (Toj) and Charles Graemiger (Cheetah).
Porsche's main rival in Group 5 was BMW. Porsche, through Peter Gregg’s Brumos Racing, had won the 1975 IMSA season and both manufacturers had won two Championship races this season. The BMW used the 3.0 CSL as the base design, releasing cars to their customer teams. Schnitzer Motorsport entered one for Dieter Quester, Alpina-Faltz had one for Harald Grohs and new British team Hermetite Racing had John Fitzpatrick as lead driver. There was also a first privateer entry from Australia led by Peter Brock. The works team also adapted a CSL, fitting it with 19” rear tyres, a 3.2-litre engine and twin KKK-turbochargers that put out a monstrous 750 bhp. Painted by American artist Frank Stella, it was the second BMW Art Car and was driven by Brian Redman and Peter Gregg (along with art-car originator Hervé Poulain as reserve).
Group 4 was dominated by Porsche. As well as the 340 bhp 911 Carrera RSR, a number of the top customer teams ran its successor, the 934. The 3-litre was turbocharged to now put out 480 bhp. The German Kremer and Gelo teams, and French ASA-Cachia teams were early purchasers. The only opposition to the Porsche juggernaut was the returning French privateer Andre Haller, who had uprated his Datsun to the new 2.6-litre variant.
The ACO was working closer with IMSA and Bill France Jr. of NASCAR and Daytona Speedway, to encourage inter-series racing. To that end four IMSA and two NASCAR-spec cars were entered. Although the race clashed with a NASCAR race at Riverside two of the junior teams arrived. Hershel McGriff raced with his son in their Dodge Charger, while Dick Brooks shared his Ford Torino with Dick Hutcherson (also a NASCAR-driver, and veteran from the 1966 race with Ford) and Marcel Mignot (a driving instructor at Le Mans circuit). The cars had to be adapted for hard right-hand turns and be fitted with window wipers and lights. Easily the heaviest cars at the race, they attracted considerable media attention and were very popular with the French public. Current American Trans-Am champion John Greenwood had previously brought Corvettes over to race. This year his IMSA-spec modified Corvette, nicknamed the “Batmobile” arrived. The chassis was designed by Bob Riley (ex-Ford GT and Saturn rocket engineer) and aerodynamics by Zora Arkus-Duntov. Although heavy, and with big disc-brakes, its giant 427 cubic inch V8 pushed out 700 bhp and got the car up to an impressive 355 kp/h (220 mph). Michael Keyser bought one of the new Chevrolet Monzas modified by DeKon Engineering, built to take on Porsche in the IMSA series. Tom Vaugh and Diego Febles also entered two of those IMSA-spec Porsches for the race.
Practice
On Wednesday, the first day of practice, Jean-Pierre Jabouille immediately threw down the gauntlet with a blistering 3:33.1 lap that dissuaded the Porsches from trying to compete for pole position. Ickx's best time in the 936 was a distant 3:39.8 for second and Stommelen was third in the 935 with 3:41.7. Xavier Lapeyre, in his privateer Group 6 Lola impressed getting fourth fastest with 3:44.0, ahead of Joest in the other works Porsche (3:45.4). Next were the two Mirages at almost identical times to their qualifying times from the previous year. Eighth was Brian Redman in the Group 5 BMW art-car, but they blew both engines in the process. After a clutch failure, John Greenwood's Corvette monster made it to ninth, and Chris Craft in the De Cadenet rounded out the top-10.
The Pescarolo/Beltoise Inaltéra was fastest of the GTP class in 12th (3:56.9) with the Hezemans/Schenken Gelo Porsche the quickest in Group 4 (4:.01.1) by four seconds over Wollek's Kremer Porsche. The Alpina-Faltz BMW had qualified 18th. But its ultra-thin doors flexed at speed and let in the exhaust fumes makes the drivers quite nauseous. Best qualifier in the 2-litre group 6 class was Servanin/Ferrier Chevron of Société ROC in 19th (4:05.4). Both TOJ entries had considerable problems and neither qualified. The big NASCARS struggled with the tight corners and winding track and could only manage 47th (McGriff 4:29.7) and 54th (Brooks 4:38.0) while working on engine problems caused by the fuel's low octane rating.
Race
Start
The hot weather through the week continued into the race weekend – it was to be one of the hottest Le Mans in years. Honorary start this year was Bill France Jr., President of NASCAR. From the rolling start, the Alpine immediately shot out into the lead, followed by the works Porsches. Redman, knowing he was on borrowed time, wound the BMW's turbo right up and blasted past Stommelen and Joest up into third before an inevitable oil-leak forced him to pit in a cloud of smoke. Meanwhile, on the first lap, the NASCAR Dodge had ground to a halt with burnt-out pistons from the lower-octane fuel. Other early casualties included the French Lola with engine issues, and the IMSA Chev Monza that had battled for sixth with John Greenwood's IMSA-Corvette. A bent propshaft put the Monza in the pits and out of the race.
After an hour, the two 936s and the Alpine had a lap over the Martini 935, then back to De Cadenet, the two Mirages, Greenwood, Kinnunen in the Evertz 908, and the two Inaltéras filling the top-10. The Alpine had pitted after 10 laps to check rising engine temperatures, and with its smaller fuel-tank the Alpine had to pit more often. A misfire necessitated changing sparkplugs and then the ignition box, dropping Tambay to 7th. Ickx took over the lead when the French car was delayed. In the third hour three of the BMWs had problems: Redman's engine finally gave out, as did that of the Hermetite car, stranding Walkinshaw out at Arnage, while Posey had to bring his in to change the windscreen. Many drivers were suffering in the strong late-afternoon heat. The Inaltéra team had its problems: the Pescarolo/Beltoise had oil-leak and alternator issues, while the Rondeau car needed a shock absorber replaced twice. Also before 8pm the thirsty works 935 was delayed as night fell having to have its alternator replaced, then a puncture at high-speed tore up the rear bodywork. A puncture also put out the Greenwood Corvette when it damaged the rear suspension and fuel-cell.
Then, at 9pm, as it started getting darker there was a bad accident on the Mulsanne Straight. André Haller, just out on his second driving stint, lost control of his Datsun 260Z when it slipped onto the grass verge at the kink near the end of the straight. It spun several times, crashed in to the barrier and caught fire. Although marshals managed to extricate Haller from the wreck, he died en route to hospital from severe chest injuries.
Night
The Kremer 935 had been holding a solid 7th behind the De Cadenet when the clutch failed as night fell, dropping it down the order. The Alpine had fought its way back up the field (Jabouille setting the fastest lap of the race), overtaking the Bell/Schuppan Mirage to get into third until it was stopped for good by a blown piston. When the lead Mirage lost 4 laps at 1am fixing its alternator, the team car of Migault/Lafosse took over 3rd place.
The remaining two works BMWs were running eighth and tenth at midnight. But the Schnitzer car was put out by a broken camshaft early in the morning, just as the British Hermetite entry had.
By the halfway point, at 4am, Ickx and van Lennep had completed 180 laps, with a 2-lap cushion over their 936 teammates and six over Lafosse in the Mirage. The De Cadenet was fourth (169) from the second Mirage (168) and Martini 935 (167). The Gelo Porsche was next (162), leading Group 4, followed by the Alpina-BMW (161), the Touroul/Cudini Porsche RSR (160) and the Joest 908 in tenth.
Morning
As the morning broke the Ickx/van Lennep Porsche was still running like clockwork doing a metronomic 15 laps per hour. However, behind them most cars started having problems: The other 936 lost 20 minutes at 7am fixing its valve-gear, and then its clutch broke straight afterward. The Mirages had issues with their fuel pumps, while the De Cadenet lost a crucial 8 minutes with a jammed wheel nut The works 935 had been closing fast, but then had an ignition malfunction, and later a turbo failure at midday.
This left the Ickx/van Lennep car with a 16-lap lead, until they lost five laps spending 34 minutes repairing a split exhaust pipe (to keep the turbo working) just before midday. With four hours to go, the Migault/Lafosse Mirage was now only two laps ahead of the De Cadenet, the Stommelen/Schurti 935 three laps further back then the second Mirage in fifth a distant 6 laps behind.
The Gelo Porsche had been comfortably leading Group 4, and was running sixth overall, when it came to the pits running with only 1st and 2nd, to get a gearbox rebuild. They resumed and eventually finished 16th. The Porsche Club Romand car inherited the class lead, but then its engine expired soon after midday while running in ninth.
Finish and post-race
Things were coming to a predictable end when drama broke out in the final hour. Hans Heyer was at speed on the back straight when an oil line came loose in the Kremer 935's engine. A spectacular fire broke out but Heyer was able to park it by the marshal post at Mulsanne corner and get out safely. With less than twenty minutes to go, the rear engine cover of Lafosse's Mirage flew off. Although the car lost time in the pits getting it replaced, and then trying to restart, he was able to stay a lap ahead of a hard-charging Chris Craft in the resurgent De Cadenet. In the end Ickx and van Lennep cruised to an eleven-lap victory, and with two Le Mans victories (including the record-breaking 1971 race) Gijs van Lennep immediately announced his retirement. It was the first victory for a turbo or super-charged car since Bugatti in 1939.
The 935 of Stommelen/Schurti was fourth, 23 laps behind their teammates but clear winner in Group 5. The other Mirage, race-winner in 1975, was fifth. The Pescarolo/Beltoise Inaltéra won the new GTP class, finishing 8th, while the winner of Group 4 was the privateer Porsche of “Segolen”/Gadal/Ouvière after all the new 934s failed. Tom Waugh's 911 RSR was the sole IMSA finisher in 14th. In the 2-litre Sports class, the three Lolas finished while the three Chevrons did not. Winning the class was Daniel Brillat's Lola-Cosworth in 15th by a clear 27 laps. The only Group 2 entry, the BMW of Jean-Louis Ravenel, was the final classified finisher over 100 laps and 1500 km behind the winner.
It was a strong debut by the new Porsche 936 and 935, which would re-assert the company's dominance at Le Mans, and in world sports-car racing, over the next few years. It would also mark the start of the turbo-era.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text.
'Note *: Not Classified because did not cover sufficient distance (70% of the leader) at the 12, 18 or 24-hour intervals.
Did Not Finish
Note: listed as a Group 4 car in Spurring and on 1976 Le Mans program's Entry List. But listed as GTX by World Sports Cars, Le Mans History & TeamDan websites .
Did Not Start
Class Winners
Note: setting a new class distance record.
Six-Hour Segment Winners
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Pole Position –J.-P. Jabouille, #19 Renault-Alpine A442 – 3:33.1secs;
Fastest Lap – J.-P. Jabouille, #19 Renault-Alpine A442 – 3:43.0secs;
Winning Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
Attendance – ?
Citations
References
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Porsche Years 1975-1982' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1970-79 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
Wimpffen, János (2007) Spyders and Silhouettes Hong Kong: David Bull Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1976 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 7 Aug 2018
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, quotes, YouTube links). Retrieved 7 Aug 2018
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 7 Aug 2018
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 7 Aug 2018
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 7 Aug 2018
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 7 Aug 2018
YouTube - Colour report of race (10mins). Retrieved 19 Aug 2018
YouTube - Report by BMW of the BMW-Porsche GT duel (in German - 5mins). Retrieved 19 Aug 2018
YouTube - Colour report of race (in German - 13mins). Retrieved 19 Aug 2018
YouTube - Article about the #76 Greenwood Corvette (6mins). Retrieved 19 Aug 2018
YouTube - Article about the #41 BMW artcar (2mins). Retrieved 19 Aug 2018
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1976 in French motorsport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy%20of%20South%20India
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Economy of South India
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The economy of South India after independence in 1947 conformed to a socialist framework, with strict governmental control over private sector participation, foreign trade and foreign direct investment (FDI). Through 1960–1990, South Indian economies experienced mixed economic growth. In the 1960s, Kerala achieved above-average economic growth, while Andhra Pradesh's economy declined during this period. Similarly, Kerala experienced an economic decline in the 1970s while the economies of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka consistently exceeded national average growth rates after 1970. South India first started to overtake the rest of India economically in the 1980s. Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka were noted by some to be more reform-oriented in terms of economic policy when compared to other Indian states. Over the last decade South India has grown at 8% annually. Future economic growth will be shackled by a relatively low proportion of the active age population to the number of dependents. Today, South India has about 20% of India's population, and contributes about 31% of India's GDP; it is projected to contribute 35% by 2030.
Over 48% of South India's population is engaged in agriculture, which is largely dependent on seasonal monsoons. Some of the main crops cultivated in South India include paddy, sorghum, pearl millet, pulses, sugarcane, cotton, chilli, and ragi. Areca, coffee, tea, vanilla, rubber, pepper, tapioca, and cardamom are cultivated on the hills, while coconut grows in abundance in coastal areas. The region is the most industrialized in the country with the city of Chennai, with a large automobile manufacturing presence, having the highest no of industries country-wide. Information Technology is a growing field in South India with Bangalore home to over 200 software companies. Three of the country's top software exportersBangalore, Chennai and Hyderabadare located in South India.
Andhra Pradesh
Visakhapatnam district leads in Industrial sector and Service sector, which contributed and respectively. The per capita income of the state for 2014–15 was $$1,780.47
Agricultural sector is one of the chief sector contributing to the economy of Andhra Pradesh. Two important rivers of India, the Godavari and Krishna, flow through the state, which provide fertile soil favourable for agriculture. The state is the main producer of Rice and hence, it is also known as Rice Bowl of India. Poultry is another sector in the state contributing to the economy of the state. The state is a leading egg producer and also nicknamed as Egg Bowl of Asia.
The state has also started to focus on the fields of Information technology and Biotechnology. Cities such as Visakhapatnam and Vijayawada have shown growth in IT exports. During 2012–13, the contribution of Visakhapatnam was while it was for Vijayawada. This is a chart of trend of gross state domestic product of Andhra Pradesh at market prices by Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation with figures in crores of Indian Rupees. Accordingly, the state ranks fourth in terms of overall gross state domestic product and fourth in per capita gross state domestic product among the major states of India.
Karnataka
Karnataka's net state domestic product is of $47 billion. Bengaluru, Mysuru, Mangaluru & Hubballi-Dharwad are the major contributors, Belagavi & Kalaburagi are the other important cities contributing to the economy of Karnataka. Between 1992 and 2002, Karnataka attracted the fourth highest total Foreign Direct Investment approvals in India, to the tune of Rs. 21,566 million. Karnataka accounts for one third of India's Information technology exports. For the year 2006, the state is expected to bring in 37% of all IT revenues amounting to Rs. 370 billion ($8.2 billion). Nearly 35% of IT companies and 40% of bio-technology companies are based here. Agriculture in Karnataka, like most of India, employs 80% of the population. Agriculture and its allied activities account for 49% of the state's income. The coastal plains of Karnataka, which include Uttara Kannada and Dakshina Kannada are cultivated with rice and sugarcane. Coffee and Tea are also grown on the slopes of the Western Ghats in the district of Kodagu, Chikkamagaluru and Hassana. Karnataka produces 70% of India's coffee, of which about 50% is exported. The black soil in the northwest of the state, is hospitable for the growth of cotton, onion, course cereal, sunflower and peanuts.
The forests of the Malenadu region produce timber, bamboo and sandalwood. Karnataka is the only exporter of sandalwood in the country. Most of the world's sandalwood oil is produced in Karnataka. All of India's gold comes from the Kolar district of Karnataka. Karnataka is also rich in minerals which form the bulk of the raw materials for iron and steel industries in the state such as the one at Bhadravati. All of India's Iron ore comes from the Malnad region. The first power station in Asia was set up in Karnataka at Shivanasamudra in 1902 to produce hydroelectric power. Karnataka has 18 power stations which generate annually 16,513 million units. The state, however generates insufficient power and is forced to buy electricity from neighbouring states.
Mangaluru
One of the biggest business centres & the fastest growing cities in India. It is the best city to do business, after the capital Bangalore in Karnataka. It is the major & the fastest growing city in Karnataka only after Bangalore. It is the largest city in the Coastal and Malnad regions of Karnataka, besides being a leading commercial, industrial, educational, healthcare and petrochemical hub on the West Coast. It is also the 13th best business destination in India and 2nd best in Karnataka. One of the largest SEZ's in India, the ONGC MSEZ is in Mangalore. The way in which the city is growing can be gauged by pace of growth of real estate industry. Mangalore's economy is dominated by the industrial, commercial, agricultural processing and port-related activities. Karnataka's 2nd biggest industrial area-Baikampady is in Mangalore. The New Mangalore Port is India's seventh largest port, in terms of cargo handling. It handles 75 per cent of India's coffee exports and the bulk of its cashew nuts. The city's major enterprises include Mangalore Chemicals and Fertilizers Ltd. (MCF), Kudremukh Iron Ore Company Ltd. (KIOCL), Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals Ltd. (MRPL), BASF, Bharati Shipyard Limited and TotalEnergies India Limited (ELF Gas). Mangalore is one among the only 5 cities in the country to have both a Major Port and an International Airport. Mangalore also has an IT Park called Soorya IT Park in Mudipu. Mangalore is also home to the National Institute of Technology, Karnataka. Major information technology (IT) and outsourcing companies like Infosys, Cognizant Technology Solutions, MphasiS BPO, Thomson Reuters, Endurance International Group have established a presence in Mangalore. Plans to create three dedicated I.T. parks are underway, with two parks (Export Promotion Industrial park (EPIP) at Ganjimutt and Special Economic Zone (SEZ) near Mangalore University) currently under construction. A third IT SEZ is being proposed at Ganjimutt. Another IT SEZ, sponsored by the BA group, is under construction at Thumbe and spans 2 million square feet (180,000 m2).
The Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) plans to invest over ₹35000 crore (US$5.15 billion) in a new 15 million tonne refinery, petrochemical plant and power, as well as LNG plants at the Mangalore Special Economic Zone. Indian Strategic Petroleum Reserves Ltd, a special purpose vehicle under the Oil Industry Development Board, is developing strategic crude oil reserves in Mangalore and two other places in India. Out of the proposed 5 million metric tonnes (MMT) storage, 1.5 MMT would be at Mangalore. According to an International edition of India Today (28 November – 4 December 2006), Mangalore is the fastest growing non-metro in South India.
Corporation Bank, Canara Bank, and Vijaya Bank were the three nationalised banks established in Mangalore during the first half of the 20th century. Karnataka Bank, founded in Mangalore, was one of the largest banks to have not been taken over by the Government. The Mangalore Catholic Co-operative Bank (MCC Bank) Ltd. and SCDCC Bank were the scheduled banks established in Mangalore. Mangalore city is the one of the best connected cities in South India with 4 National Highways (17,48,13 & 169; all old numbers), apart from other roadways, railways, waterways and airways. Udupi the temple city is contributing towards the higher education with large number of professional colleges in Manipal. It is also the home of the software company Robosoft Technologies.
Hubballi-Dharwad
Hubli-Dharwad is the second largest city in Karnataka, in terms of area and population, and is one of the 49 Metropolitan clusters selected by McKinsey & Company as growth hotspots in India. It is also a major city in terms of Administration, Business and Commerce in Karnataka after Bangalore and Mangalore. It is the nerve centre for North Karnataka region. It is the fastest growing city after the capital, Bangalore and the port city Mangalore. It is the Headquarters of South Western Railway, and the Hubli Division of SWR is one of the highest revenue generating railway divisions in India. The High Court of Karnataka is situated at Belur in Hubli-Dharwad, it also has the largest number of government offices outside Bangalore. The Agriculture Produce market at Amargol in Hubli is one of the largest markets in Asia and the cotton market is among the largest cotton markets in India. The city is a major industrial centre, the railway workshop set-up in 1880 is one of the oldest workshops in India and is also the largest holder of EMD locomotives of Indian Railway, the city is home to Tata Motors, Marcopolo, Hitachi Construction Equipment, Telcon, Sankalp Semiconductors etc. Infosys is about to start its operations from Hubli with a campus of over 50 acres.
Hubli, also known as Hubballi, is the second major city of Karnataka. The city has a huge Maharashtrian's effect on it. It was ruled by Marathas and Peshwas for a long time. In old times, Hubli used to be a business centre and it grew some useful things for trade such as cotton, peanuts and chilly.
The city is also named as chhota Mumbai and resides 550 km from Mumbai. It is a fast growing city and turning into a technology hub. It is also being seen as an alternative to Bangalore. Hubli is often known combined with Dharwad, a nearby city. The importance of these two cities can be understood by the fact that they have been recently selected by Indian Government for the smart city project.
Mysuru
Mysore is the third largest and a very important city in Karnataka. Being tagged as the Heritage City, tourism is a major economic driver and while it is among the top tourist attractions in India, it is said to rank next only to Madame Tussauds in London in the list of most-visited tourist attractions receiving more than 3 million tourists per year.
On the IT front, Infosys has developed the world's largest corporate training centre in the city. Mysore is the second largest exporter of IT in the state and it houses nearly 60 major and minor IT players registered with the Software Technology Park of India [STPI], Mysore and this includes Infosys, WIPRO Technologies, IBM software, Paradigms India, WIFI Net, Logrosoft, Excel soft and Larsen & Toubro Infotech, Theorem etc. Mysore figured high in the vibrancy index survey of Morgan Stanley India last year. Mysore & Bangalore account for more than 60% of the incense stick manufacture & export.
Kerala
Kerala's economy is predominantly service based. As per a recent Niti Aayog report, Kerala has been ranked the most investment friendly state in India, and in terms of Human Development Index and life standard of the people, Kerala is ahead of all other states in India. In fact, in certain development indices it is on a par with some of the developed countries. This peculiar paradox is often termed as the "Kerala Phenomenon" or Kerala model of development by experts.
Kerala follows a mixed capitalist-welfare economy. In fact, the state's strong emphasis on social welfare has also resulted in slow economic progress. There are few major industries in Kerala, but the per capita GDP is higher than the national average. Remittances from Keralites working abroad, mainly in the Middle East, makes up a large share in Kerala's Gross Domestic Product.
However, today, the state is emerging as a future IT centre of India, owing to its high internet connectivity (undersea cable landing points at Kochi), along with skilled labour. The government has established three IT Parks in the state are Technopark in Trivandrum and Infopark in Kochi and Cyberpark Calicut. The Technopark at Trivandrum is the third largest IT park in Asia, and the largest in India. In addition to Inforpark in Kochi, an IT park named as Smartcity by Dubai Internet City is under construction. Kochi is a safe natural harbour, and hence one of the most important ports of India. A new International Container Transshipment Terminal is commissioned at Vallarpadam, which is expected to be a major transshipment port in India. In addition, the construction of the proposed mega Deep Water Container Transshipment Port at Vizhinjam near Trivandrum is expected to boost up the economy of the state.
Coconut, tea and coffee are grown extensively, along with rubber, cashew and spices. Spices commonly cultivated in Kerala include pepper, cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon and nutmeg. Much of Kerala's agriculture is in the form of home gardens.
Unemployment is typically high in Kerala, though a recent study by centre for development studies in trivandrum have shown unemployment rate down to 9%.Traditional low-wage cottage industries such as the processing of coconut fibre and cashew or weaving employ most workers. More half of Kerala's workers are employed in the service sector.
One of the major ship building yards of India is in Kerala at Kochi. The Southern Naval Command of India has its headquarters in Kochi, and the Southern Air Command headquarters is in Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum). There are four international airports in Kerala. They are Trivandrum, Cochin, Kozhikode and Kannur. Cochin International Airport is the first International Airport in India that has been built with private participation, without the Central Government's stake.
Kerala is also one of the tourist hot-spots of India. It was proclaimed as one of the ten paradises on earth by the National Geographic traveller. The state has also won a large number of awards for its ecotourism initiatives.
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu's net state domestic product is the second largest economy in India. Tamil Nadu is the second largest state economy after Maharashtra with a gross state domestic product of . With GDP per capita of $3,000 it ranks fourth among Indian states. It is second most industrialized state in India next to Maharashtra. It ranks second in per capita income (2017–2018) among large states. It ranks third in foreign direct investment (FDI) approvals (cumulative 1991–2002) of , next only to Maharashtra () and Delhi (). The State's investment constitutes 9.12% of the total FDI in the country. According to the 2001 Census, Tamil Nadu has the highest level of urbanisation (43.86%) in India, which accounts for 6% of India's total population and 9.6% of the urban population.
Chennai houses the automobile manufacturing giants in the country. More than 65% of heavy vehicles produced in the country, such as cars, buses, lorries, trains and bicycles, are produced in Chennai, and it is referred to as the Detroit of Asia. Coimbatore (also known as "Cotton City" and "Manchester of South India") in Tamil Nadu is the source of nearly 35% of India's yarn production from cotton.
Arni is well known for raw silk production & India’s largest raw silk export hub. Vellore is the largest hub for Leather processing. Erode is well known for its Turmeric and textile products. Tirupur is the largest producers of cotton vests and inners ; it exports much of its production to South East Asia and European countries. Karur is the India's largest home textiles production & export hub. Gobichettipalayam is one of the largest producers of White silk with the country's first automatic silk reeling unit established here. Namakkal is one of the largest producers of poultry in the country.
Salem Steel Plant (SSP), a unit of Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL), is a steel plant involved in the production of stainless steel. It is located along the Salem — Bangalore National Highway 44 in the foothills of Kanjamalai in Salem district, Tamil Nadu, India. The plant has an installed capacity of 70,000 tonnes per annum in its cold rolling mill and 3,64,000 tonnes per annum in the hot rolling mill. It also has the country's first stainless steel blanking facility.
Tamil Nadu has most number of engineering Institutions in India. Chennai is referred as the Gateway of South India. Chennai is the second leading Software exporter in India. Companies such as Cognizant, Covansys, Xansa, Verizon, iSoft, Invensys, Schneider Electric and many others are Chennai based companies in India. Infosys has set up India's largest software development centre to house 25,000 software professionals at an estimated investment of Rs 12.50 billion (Rs 12.5 billion) in Chennai. Chennai has become the most preferred BPO hub in India and South Asia. Chennai is sometimes referred to as the Health Capital of India or the Banking Capital of India, having attracted investments from International corporations and the World Bank and it is called as Detroit of Asia.
Tamil Nadu has a network of about 110 industrial parks/estates that offer developed plots with supporting infrastructure. Also, the Government is promoting other industrial parks like Rubber Park, Apparel Parks, Floriculture Park, TICEL Park for Biotechnology, Siruseri IT Park, Agro Export Zones among others.
The heavy engineering manufacturing companies are centred around the suburbs of Chennai. Chennai boasts presence of global car manufacturing giants like Ford, Daimler, Hyundai, BMW, Mitsubishi, Komatsu, Yamaha, Nissan and Renault as well as home grown companies like MRF, JK Tyre, TI Cycles of India, Ashok Leyland TVS and Mahindra and Mahindra. Chennai is also home to Indian Institute of Technology, Madras. The Koyambedu Bus Stand (Asia's largest bus stand) operated by CMDA is the first bus stand in India to get the global positioning system which will use sensors to track vehicles on the move. Kalpakkam nuclear power plant, Neyveli Lignite Corporation, and the Narimanam natural gas plants provide sources of fuel and energy for the nation. 55% of electricity from wind power produced in India from wind mills comes from Tamil Nadu. The Kalpakkam Mini Reactor (Kamini) is the only U-233fueled operating reactor in the world.
Coimbatore, also known as the Manchester of South India, is one of the fast developing cities in India and the second largest city in Tamil Nadu. Coimbatore is also known for its textile factories, engineering firms, automobile parts manufacturers, health care facilities, educational institutions, wet grinders and water pumps. 76% of India's total textile market is from Erode (Loom City) and Tirupur (Textile City). It exports much of its production to South East Asian and European countries.
Karur (Home Textile City) is the India's hub for home textiles production & export. It contributes over 60% of total production of India. Karur is also known for its bus bodybuilding (contributes 80% of South Indian bus body building). Karur TNPL is the Asia's largest eco friendly paper mill in production. Erode is also known as the Turmeric City, since it has the Asia's largest market for Turmeric. Gobichettipalayam is one of the largest producers of White silk with the country's first automatic silk reeling unit established here. Namakkal is one of the largest producers of poultry in the country. Salem is called as steel city and has many sago producing units, mineral wealth. Sivakasi is the leader in printing, fireworks, safety matches production in India. It contributes 80% of India's total safety matches production and 90% of India's total fireworks production.
Thoothukudi is the gateway of Tamil Nadu. it is a major chemical producer only next to chennai. As of 1980's Asia's largest chemical industry DCW Ltd, is situated in the district. And many more chemical industries such as SPIC, Sterlite copper, VV Titanium pigments, Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals, HWP-Tuticorin, Ferron Steels, etc.
Biovalleys in Tamil Nadu include Biotechnology Incubator Park Near Chennai, Women's Biotechnology Park Kelambakkam, Medicinal Plants Biotechnology Park, Madurai, Marine Biotechnology Park, Mandapam and Bioinformatics and Genomics Centre (BGC), Chennai.
Tiruchirappalli is a major engineering equipment manufacturing hub in Tamil Nadu. It also home to National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli, a premier technical university of India. The Golden Rock Railway Workshop, moved to Tiruchirappalli from Nagapattinam in 1928, is one of the three railway workshop–cum–production unit in Tamil Nadu. The workshops produced 650 conventional and low-container flat wagons during the year 2007–08.
Telangana
See also
Economy of Tamil Nadu
Economy of Telangana
Economy of Andhra Pradesh
Economy of Kerala
Economy of Karnataka
References
South India
Economy of India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary%20ovarian%20insufficiency
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Primary ovarian insufficiency
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Primary ovarian insufficiency (POI) (also called premature ovarian insufficiency, premature menopause, and premature ovarian failure) is the partial or total loss of reproductive and hormonal function of the ovaries before age 40 because of follicular (egg producing area) dysfunction or early loss of eggs. POI can be seen as part of a continuum of changes leading to menopause that differ from age-appropriate menopause in the age of onset, degree of symptoms, and sporadic return to normal ovarian function. POI affects approximately 1 in 10,000 women under age 20, 1 in 1,000 women under age 30, and 1 in 100 of those under age 40. A medical triad for the diagnosis is amenorrhea, hypergonadotropism, and hypoestrogenism.
Physical and emotional symptoms are similar to those seen during menopause and can include hot flashes, night sweats, dry skin, vaginal dryness, irregular or absent menstruation, anxiety, depression, mental fog, irritability, nervousness, decreased libido, and increased autoimmune disruption. The sense of shock and distress on being informed of the diagnosis can be overwhelming. Hormonal therapy with estrogen and progesterone is the first line treatment and is associated with improvement of symptoms and possibly improvement in other parameters such as bone density, mortality and cardiovascular risk. The general treatment is for symptoms, bone protection, and mental health. Although 5 to 10% of women with POI may ovulate sporadically and become pregnant without treatment, others may use assisted reproductive technology including in vitro fertilization and egg donation or decide to adopt or remain childless.
The causes of POI are heterogeneous and are unknown in 90% of cases. It can be associated with genetic causes, autoimmune disease, enzyme deficiency, infection, environmental factors, radiation, or surgery in 10%. Two to 5% of women with POI and a premutation in FMR1, a genetic abnormality, are at risk of having a child with fragile X syndrome, the most common cause of inherited intellectual disability.
The diagnosis is based on ages less than 40, amenorrhea, and elevated serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels. Typical serum FSH levels in POI patients is in the post-menopausal range. Treatment will vary depending on the symptoms. It can include hormone replacement therapy, fertility management, and psychosocial support, as well as annual screenings of thyroid and adrenal function.
Signs and symptoms
The signs and symptoms of POI can be seen as part of a continuum of changes leading to menopause. POI contrasts with age-appropriate menopause in the age of onset, degree of symptoms and sporadic return to normal ovarian function. As some women retain partial ovarian function, symptoms may not be as severe as regular menopause. In others, particularly with coexistent depression, symptoms such as decreased quality of life can be severe.
Hormonally, POI is defined by abnormally low levels of estrogen and high levels of FSH, which demonstrate that the ovaries are no longer responding to circulating FSH by producing estrogen and developing fertile eggs. The ovaries will likely appear smaller than normal. The age of onset can be as early as 11 years. POI can be seen as part of a continuum of changes leading to menopause that differ from age-appropriate menopause in the age of onset, degree of symptoms, and sporadic return to normal ovarian function. A contrasting problem can be when a girl never begins menstruation due to a genetic condition causing primary amenorrhea.
Causes
The cause of POI is idiopathic in 39-67% of cases. Some cases of POI are attributed to autoimmune disorders such as autoimmune oophoritis, Hashimoto thyroiditis, Addison disease, type I diabetes mellitus, pernicious anemia, genetic disorders such as Turner syndrome and Fragile X syndrome, metabolic defects, and enzyme defects. One study showed a strong correlation between incidence of POI and certain variants in the inhibin alpha gene. Chemotherapy and radiation treatments (especially radiation to the pelvis) for cancer can sometimes cause POI. The effect of chemotherapy or radiation is variable and in a mouse model, with results consistent with observations in humans, cyclophosphamide can result in an 87% reduction in primordial follicles 72 hours after administration. Women who have had a hysterectomy tend to go through menopause early and have a nearly twofold increased risk of POI. Almost any pelvic surgery has the potential to damage the ovary by affecting its blood supply or causing inflammation in the area resulting in POI, especially surgery to the ovaries themselves (such as for ovarian cysts or endometriosis). Certain environmental toxins such as phthalates, bisphenols, and dioxins are also associated with POI. Certain infectious diseases, such as mumps or HIV may also damage the ovaries, leading to POI.
Galactosemia
Women who have inherited classic galactosemia (galactose intolerance) may develop primary ovarian insufficiency.
Mechanism
The pathogenic mechanisms of POI are highly heterogeneous and can be divided into four major categories: follicular migration defect early in embryogenesis; an early decrease in the primordial follicles; increased follicular death; and altered maturation or recruitment of primordial follicles. These result in a decrease of the ovaries' general supply of eggs that normally lasts until an average age of 51 for age of age-appropriate menopause.
Genetic causes such as Turner syndrome have initial ovarian development but then ovaries degenerate rapidly during prenatal life, often leading to gonadal dysgenesis with streak ovaries. In those cases where POI is associated with adrenal autoimmunity, histological examination almost always confirms the presence of an autoimmune oophoritis in which follicles are infiltrated by lymphocytes, plasma cells, and macrophages that attack mainly steroid-producing cells and eventually result in follicular depletion.
In some women FSH may bind to the FSH receptor site, but be inactive. By lowering the endogenous FSH levels with ethinylestradiol (EE) or with a GnRH-a the receptor sites are free and treatment with exogenous recombinant FSH activates the receptors and normal follicle growth and ovulation can occur. (Since the serum Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) level is correlated with the number of remaining primordial follicles some researchers believe the above two phenotypes can be distinguished by measuring serum AMH levels.
Genetic associations include genetic disorders, autoimmune diseases, enzyme defects, and resistant ovaries.
Mutations in FOXL2 cause Blepharophimosis Ptosis Epicanthus inversus Syndrome (BPES). Premature ovarian failure is part of the BPES Type I variant of the syndrome but not of the BPES Type II variant.
DNA repair deficiency
BRCA1 protein plays an essential role in the repair of DNA double-strand breaks by homologous recombination. Women with a germline BRCA1 mutation tend to have premature menopause as evidenced by the final amenorrhea appearing at a younger age. BRCA1 mutations are associated with occult POI. Impairment of the repair of DNA double-strand breaks due to a BRCA1 defect leads to premature ovarian aging in both mice and humans.
In addition to BRCA1, the MCM8-MCM9 protein complex also plays a crucial role in the recombinational repair of DNA double-strand breaks. In humans, an MCM8 mutation can give rise to premature ovarian failure, as well as chromosomal instability. MCM9, as well as MCM8, mutations are also associated with ovarian failure and chromosomal instability. The MCM8-MCM9 complex is likely required for the homologous recombinational repair of DNA double-strand breaks that are present during the pachytene stage of meiosis I. In women homozygous for MCM8 or MCM9 mutations, failure to repair breaks apparently leads to oocyte death and small or absent ovaries.
Diagnosis
The diagnosis is based on age less than forty, amenorrhea, and two elevated serum follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and decreased estrogen measurements at one-month intervals. The anterior pituitary secretes FSH and LH at high levels to try to increase the low estrogen levels that are due to the dysfunction of the ovaries. Typical FSH in POI patients is over 40 mlU/ml (post-menopausal range). The evaluation of amenorrhea for other common causes includes checking a blood pregnancy test, checking the prolactin level, as prolactinomas or certain medications can increase prolactin levels and lead to amenorrhea, and checking the thyrotropin (thyroid hormone) level, as hypothyroidism can cause amenorrhea. A karyotype (to evaluate for Turner's Syndrome) and a Fragile-X premutation carrier analysis is also recommended, with additional genetic testing possibly being warranted based on family history of amenorrhea or early menopause or signs and symptoms of a genetic disorder.
Treatment
Fertility
Between 5 and 10 percent of women with POI may become pregnant with no treatment. As of 2016 no fertility treatment has been found to effectively increase fertility in women with POI, and the use of donor eggs with in-vitro fertilization (IVF) and adoption are a means of achieving parenthood for women with POI. Some women with POI choose to live child-free.
Researchers have investigated the use of a hormone called dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in women with POI to increase spontaneous pregnancy rates. Results from studies on DHEA in 2010 indicated that DHEA may increase spontaneously conceived pregnancies, decrease spontaneous miscarriage rates and improve IVF success rates in women with POI. This includes women referred for donor eggs or surrogacy in 2009. In 2018, there was no significant improvement in ovarian function by 12-month on DHEA supplementation in women with POI. Given the inconclusiveness of potential benefits and risks of testosterone and DHEA supplementation, longer-term, randomized studies are warranted for women and girls with POI.
Ovarian tissue cryopreservation can be performed on prepubertal girls at risk for premature ovarian failure, and this procedure is as feasible and safe as comparable operative procedures in children.
In 2013, Kawamura in Japan and his collaborators at Stanford University published treatment of infertility of POI patients by fragmenting ovaries followed by in vitro treatment of ovarian fragments with phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase activators to enhance the AKT pathway followed by autografting. They successfully promoted follicle growth, retrieved mature oocytes, and performed in vitro fertilization. Following embryo transfer, a healthy baby was delivered. A 2020 review covered variations including phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase activators to enhance the AKT pathway, fragmentation of ovarian cortex, combining those two into in-vitro activation (IVA), and drug-free IVA. Two laparoscopies are needed in conventional IVA and one with drug-free IVA.
Hormonal replacement
Women with POI can develop symptoms of estrogen deficiency, including vasomotor flushes and vaginal dryness that respond to physiologic replacement of hormones. Most authorities recommend that this hormone replacement continue until age 50 years, the normal age of menopause. The leading hormone replacement regimen recommended involves the administration of estradiol daily by either skin patch or vaginal ring. This approach reduces the risk of pulmonary embolism and deep venous thrombosis by avoiding the first pass effect on the liver that is induced by oral estrogen therapy. The transdermal estradiol patch also provides the replacement by steady infusion rather than by bolus when taking daily pills.
Concerns of estrogen supplement are addressed in The US Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use, 2010 provides guidance for safety of contraceptive methods and include guidance for conditions associated with increased risk of thrombosis such as postpartum, history of thrombosis, thrombogenic mutations, systemic lupus erythematosus, diabetes, and hypertension. There is also an increased risk with valvular heart disease and cardiomyopathy.
To avoid the development of endometrial cancer young women taking estradiol replacement need also to take a progestin in a regular cyclic fashion. The most evidence supports the use of medroxyprogesterone acetate per day for days one through 12 of each calendar month. This will induce regular and predictable menstrual cycles. It is important that women taking this regimen keep a menstrual calendar. If the next expected menses is late it is important to get a pregnancy test. It this is positive, the woman should stop taking the hormone replacement. Approximately 5 to 10% of women with confirmed POI conceive a pregnancy after the diagnosis without medical intervention.
In observational studies, hormone replacement therapy in women with primary ovarian insufficiency and other causes of early menopause was associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease, increased bone density, and a reduced mortality.
Prognosis
Primary ovarian insufficiency is associated with co-morbidities associated wtih menopause including osteoporosis (decreased bone density), which affects almost all women with POI due to an insufficiency of estrogen. There is also an increased risk of heart disease, hypothyroidism such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Addison's disease, and other autoimmune disorders.
Emotional health
The most common words women use to describe how they felt in the two hours after being given the diagnosis of POI are "devastated", "shocked," and "confused." The diagnosis is more than infertility and affects a woman's physical and emotional well-being. Patients face the acute shock of the diagnosis, associated stigma of infertility, grief from the death of dreams, anxiety and depression from the disruption of life plans, confusion around the cause, shame, insecurity and lowered self-esteem, anger in reflection of being letdown by the medical system, symptoms of estrogen deficiency, worry over the associated potential medical sequelae such as reduced bone density and cardiovascular risk, and the uncertain future that all of these factors create. Women diagnosed with POI in their 20s have disproportionately reported experiencing dismissiveness, bias, and "not being taken seriously" by healthcare professionals.
Some have advocated formation of a patient registry as well as a community-based research consortium with integrative care to better understand the etiology and treatment of the condition, including treatment of it's psychological effects. Women with POI perceive lower social support than control women, so building a trusted community of practice for them would be expected to improve their well-being. Also, when having that social support, it often helps with reducing stress and having better coping skills. It is important to connect women with POI to an appropriate collaborative care team because the condition has been clearly associated with suicide related to the stigma of infertility. Suicide rates are known to be increased in women who experience infertility.
Epidemiology
The prevalence increases with age and is approximately 1 in 10,000 women under age 20, 1 in 1,000 women under age 30, and one percent by age of 40. It occurs in 3.7% of women worldwide and 1% of women in the United States. In the United States, the incidence is 1% in White women, 1.4% in Black and Hispanic women, with lower rates seen in Chinese and Japanese women, at 0.5% and 0.1% respectively.
History
Fuller Albright et al. in 1942 reported a syndrome with amenorrhea, estrogen deficiency, menopausal FSH levels, and short stature. They used the term "primary ovarian insufficiency" to distinguished POI from ovarian insufficiency secondary to a primary failure of pituitary FSH and other hormonal secretion. POI has been described as a more accurate and less stigmatizing term than premature ovarian failure or premature menopause.
Chapter 28 of the early Qing dynasty work Fù Qīngzhǔ Nǚkē (《傅青主女科》Fù Qīngzhǔ's Gynecology) describes the cause and appropriate treatment for premature menopause. 年未老经水断 (niánwèilǎo jīngshuǐduàn) glosses as 'not yet old, menstrual water cut-off.'
References
External links
Primary Ovarian Insufficiency (POI): Overview National Institutes of Health
Menopause
Fertility
Gynaecologic disorders
Menstrual cycle
Endocrine gonad disorders
Human female endocrine system
Medical triads
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Air%20Force%20Base
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George Air Force Base
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George Air Force Base was a United States Air Force base located within the city limits, 8 miles northwest, of central Victorville, California, about 75 miles northeast of Los Angeles, California.
Established by the United States Army Air Corps as an Advanced Flying School in June 1941, it was closed at the end of World War II. It was again activated as a training base by the United States Air Force with the outbreak of the Korean War in November 1950. It remained a training base throughout the Cold War and in the immediate post-Cold War period, primarily for the Tactical Air Command (TAC) and later the Air Combat Command (ACC), training USAF, NATO and other Allied pilots and weapon systems officers in front-line fighter aircraft until being closed in 1993.
George AFB was closed pursuant to a decision by the 1988 Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission at the end of the Cold War. It is now the site of the Southern California Logistics Airport. Since 2009, the California Air National Guard's 196th Reconnaissance Squadron (96 RS) has operated an MQ-1 Predator Remotely Piloted Aircraft (RPA) training facility at the site.
History
George Air Force Base was named in honor of Brigadier General Harold Huston George. He was a World War I fighter ace, serving with the 185th and 139th Aero Squadrons. At the beginning of World War II he was assigned to the V Interceptor Command, Far East Air Force in the Philippines. There, he directed air operations in defense of the fortified islands in Manila Bay. Withdrawn to Australia, he died on 29 April 1942 in an aircraft accident near Darwin, Northern Territory.
A Curtiss P-40 of the 49th Fighter Group, piloted by Lt. Bob Hazard, taking off as second of two P-40s from Twenty-Seven Mile Field, SE of Darwin, Australia, lost directional control in the propwash of the lead fighter, striking a recently arrived Lockheed C-40 parked next to airstrip, killing General Harold H. George, Time-Life war correspondent Melvin Jacoby, and base personnel 2nd Lt. Robert D. Jasper, who were standing next to the Lockheed. A number of others received injuries, but the P-40 pilot survived. George Air Force Base was named for the late general in June 1950.
World War II
In April 1940, civic leaders from Victorville, California approached the United States Army with a proposal to develop an airfield in the High Mojave Desert. They promoted the area's 360-days per year of sunny weather, abundance of wide-open spaces, and the availability of services from the nearby towns of both Victorville and Adelanto. In 1941, as part of the buildup of the United States Army Air Corps prior to the entry of the United States into World War II, an agreement was made, and construction of the 2,200-acre base, called Victorville Army Air Field at the time, commenced with a groundbreaking ceremony on 12 July 1941.
Runway construction consisted of a four runway configuration along with seven hangars. Known sub-bases and auxiliaries of Victorville AAF were:
Hawes Auxiliary Airfield (No 1) (Abandoned)
Helendale Auxiliary Airfield (No 2) (Now home to a test facility operated by Lockheed Skunk Works)
Mirage Auxiliary Airfield (No 3)
Grey Butte Auxiliary Airfield (No 4)
To support the airfields the Silver Peak Light Annex was built.
To support the airfields the Victorville Precision Bombing range was built.
In addition to the airfield, the building of a large support base was carried out with barracks, various administrative buildings, maintenance shops and hangars.
The station facility consisted of a large number of buildings based on standardized plans and architectural drawings, with the buildings designed to be the "cheapest, temporary character with structural stability only sufficient to meet the needs of the service which the structure is intended to fulfill during the period of its contemplated war use" was underway. To conserve critical materials, most facilities were constructed of wood, concrete, brick, gypsum board and concrete asbestos. Metal was sparsely used. The station was designed to be nearly self-sufficient, with not only hangars, but barracks, warehouses, hospitals, dental clinics, dining halls, and maintenance shops were needed. There were libraries, social clubs for officers and enlisted men, and stores to buy necessities. With over 250 buildings, together with complete water, sewer, electric and gas utilities, the airfield served over 4,000 military personnel.
Training began in February 1942 on Curtiss AT-9's, T-6 Texan's, and AT-17's for pilots, and AT-11's and BT-13 Valiant's for bombardiers. The army operated an advanced twin-engine pilot training school at the field, its graduates generally flying C-47 Skytrain transports, B-25 Mitchell or B-26 Marauder medium bombers. The school also trained replacement crew members in the B-25 and B-26. The first class of flying cadets graduated on 24 April 1942.
In addition to the pilot training, a USAAF Bombardier training school was operated. The 516th, 517th, and 518th Twin-Engine Flying Training Squadrons were the flying squadrons. Bombardier training was conducted by the 519th, 520th, 521st, and 522d Bombardier Training Squadrons. In April 1942, these training squadrons were organized under the 36th Flying Training Wing, which became the main flying operations command and control organization. The first bombardier classes had to practice their target runs at nearby Muroc Army Air Field (later renamed Edwards Air Force Base). The pilots used Highway 395 as a landmark and guide north to the bombing range.
Waco CG-4 Glider pilots were also trained at Victorville Field, with special emphasis on spot-landing and night flying. The gliders were an essential part of the 6 June 1944, D-Day invasion as hundreds of gliders carried troops and equipment to landing sites in Normandy, France. To ease the overcrowded runways at Victorville, glider students practiced take-offs and landings at the El Mirage Lakebed and El Mirage Field. There were seven oiled runways on the dusty dry lake and they worked well until the lake bed flooded in January 1943.
1944 saw several changes at Victorville Field, with the 3035th Army Air Forces Base Unit taking over the administrative organization of the school in April. On 15 March 1944 a transition training school for P-39 Airacobra single-engine pursuit pilots was established, announced that date by base C.O. Col. Earl C. Robbins. Also training for B-24 Liberator bombardiers began, and in September, a RADAR training school for bombardiers was established.
In May 1945, with the surrender of Germany, the training at Victorville Field began to slow down, and on 15 August, all training at the base ceased. After the Japanese capitulation, the post commander, Colonel Earl C. Robbins, was notified by Major General Willis H. Hale, Fourth Air Force, on 25 September that Victorville was to be placed in a standby status. On 12 October 1945, all flying at the airfield ended and the base was placed on standby status.
Postwar years
Victorville Army Airfield was used during the postwar years to store aircraft by Air Materiel Command. Sacramento Air Materiel Area took control in May 1947. Large numbers of aircraft were flown to the field and parked out in the high desert. These included Boeing B-29 Superfortress, Beechcraft AT-7 Navigator, and AT-11 trainers. Its caretaker host unit was renamed the 2756th Air Base Squadron in January 1948 after the establishment of the United States Air Force.
Cold War
The outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950 meant that the United States Air Force would soon see an increase in training requirements. By 1 July the Air Force had approved plans to increase to 95-wings from the reduced force during the postwar years due to the demobilization after World War II. Experienced pilots trained in fighter jets were needed. The new Continental Air Command (ConAC) was assigned the dual missions of the air defense of the United States as well as the employment of tactical air forces to support contingency deployments around the world. ConAC activated the World War II training base at Victorville, now called George Air Force Base, and assigned it to the Air Defense Command.
When re-activated, George AFB had been in mothballs for five years, and many of the World War II buildings on it were deteriorating due to the temporary nature of the structures when they were built. A rapid refurbishment of the base was necessary to bring it up to postwar standards including updated electrical telephone and electrical systems, barracks and support buildings and extending a runway to accommodate jet aircraft. A dial telephone system was activated in mid-September 1953 after a year's planning. A new communications building was built with a main switchboard installed by the Kellogg Switchboard & Supply Company, Chicago.
Recent history
In recent history, the abandoned, but still intact military housing block has been used by private companies for various purposes. The site was a filming location for the films Jarhead, an episode of the TV series Mythbusters, as well in an episode of Roadkill. The abandoned housing is also used extensively for airsoft games, particularly milsim ones. The airsoft event organizer Milsim West has used the location over five times, Milsim organizer Operation Lion Claws Military Simulation Series (O.L.C.M.S.S.) has hosted an annual, Memorial Day Weekend event since 2001, and the event organizer/storefront Evike has used the site as well.
Primary USAF wings assigned
1st Fighter-Interceptor Wing
The initial USAF unit assigned to George AFB was the Continental Air Command's (ConAC) 1st Fighter-Interceptor Wing, being reassigned from March AFB, California on 18 July 1950. Operational squadrons of the 1st FIW were:
27th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (1950–1951) (F-86A)
71st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (1950–1951) (F-86A)
94th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (1950–1955) (F-86A/D)
The 1st FIW headquarters was normally assigned to George, however during its time at George, its 27th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was detached to Griffiss AFB, New York for attachment to the Eastern Air Defense Force (EADF). The 71st Fighter-Interceptor Squadron was attached to Air Force Reserve/Air National Guard facility at Pittsburgh International Airport, Pennsylvania, also as part of the EADF.
Air Defense Command (ADC) was reestablished as a major command on 1 January 1951. Continental Air Command lost responsibility for air defense on that date and the wing was reassigned to ADC.
In May 1951, the 27th and the 71st were attached to the 103d Fighter-Interceptor Wing, which provided administrative and logistical support and operational control, although the squadrons remained assigned to the 1st Fighter Group. Air Defense Command planners recognized that the policy of deploying squadrons over a wide area negated whatever advantages may have accrued from the establishment of the wing-base plan in 1948. In the case of the 1st Fighter-Interceptor Wing, a wing headquarters stationed in California could provide only limited control and virtually no support to squadrons deployed on the East Coast.
With the exception of the Headquarters and Headquarters Squadron, and the three fighter-interceptor squadrons, all 1st Fighter-interceptor Wing organizations and the group headquarters were reduced to a strength of one officer and one enlisted man on 30 November 1951, at which time the wing moved from George to Norton Air Force Base, California. The 94th FIS remained at George until 1955 when it was reassigned to Selfridge AFB, Michigan.
Other ADC squadrons assigned to the Western Air Defense Force at George were:
327th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (1955–1958) (F-86D, F-102A)
Activated at George, 1955. First ADC squadron to fly the F-102A. Reassigned to Thule AB, Greenland
329th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron (1955–1967) (F-86D/L, F-102A, F-106A)
Activated at George, 1955. First ADC squadron to fly the F-106A. Inactivated 1967.
518th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron(1955–1959) (F-86D)
479th Tactical Fighter Wing
The 479th Fighter-Bomber Wing was activated at George AFB on 1 December 1952. It was redesignated as the 479th Fighter-Day Wing on 15 February 1954, and the 479th Tactical Fighter Wing on 1 July 1958. Replaced the 131st Fighter-Bomber Wing at George AFB.
Operational Squadrons were 434th, 435th, 436th and 476th Fighter-Bomber/Tactical Fighter Squadrons. Maintained tactical proficiency with F-51Ds (1952–53), later with F-86Fs (1953–55).
Tactical components participated in numerous exercises, augmented air defenses of the West Coast, and deployed overseas to support other commands.
Converted to the North American F-100A Super Sabre beginning in September 1954 and to Lockheed F-104C Starfighter beginning in October 1958. The 479th TFW was first TAC Wing equipped with the F-100. Trained F-104 pilots of foreign states, January 1962 – August 1963. Deployed to Ramstein Air Base, Germany in September 1961 during the building of the Berlin Wall. Had one squadron deployed at NAS Key West, Florida, (435th TFS) during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962.
During 1964–1965 the 23d Air Base Group at Da Nang AB South Vietnam supported the 476th and 479th TFS in regular TDY rotations. Their job was to fly MiG combat air patrol (MiGCAP) missions to protect American fighter bombers against attack by North Vietnamese fighters.
In April 1965, deployed two squadrons to Ching Chuan Kang Air Base Taiwan (434th and 435th TFS) and one Takhli RTAFB Thailand (476th TFS) to provide air defenses of northern area of the Republic of Vietnam.
Transferred one F-104 (476th TFS) squadron to Udon RTAFB Thailand in June 1966 to carry out escort and bombing missions with the F-4Cs at Udon. An additional 12 F-104Cs joined the 8th TFW at Udon on 22 July.
The wing conducted F-104 replacement training until early-1967. Transferred all F-104s in July 1967.
Retired F-104s and gained four McDonnell Douglas F-4C Phantom II Combat Crew Training Squadrons in December 1965 (68th TFS, 71st TFS, 431st TFS, plus one other, four squadrons total), and began F-4D replacement training in February 1967.
68th TFS inactivated April 1968, F-4Ds assigned to a newly created 4535th CCTS,(Combat Crew Training Squadron). 435th TFS inactivated May 1970, F-4s assigned to 4552d CCTS.
Began training foreign personnel in F-4 operations and maintenance in March 1969, including pilots from Israel, Iran, Japan, and West Germany.
Inactivated, and replaced by the 35 TFW, in October 1971.
35th Tactical Fighter Wing
The 35th Tactical Fighter Wing reactivated at George Air Force Base, California, on 1 October 1971, where it replaced the 479th Tactical Fighter Wing. The wing's mission at George was to take over the mission of training F-4 flight crews. Its operational squadrons (Tail Code: GA) were:
434th Tactical Fighter Squadron (October 1971 – October 1975) (F-4D)434th Tactical Fighter Training Squadron (October 1975 – January 1977) (F-4E)
4435th Combat Crew Training Squadron (October 1971 – December 1972) F-4C, Red/White Tail stripe.4435th Tactical Fighter Replacement Squadron (December 1972 – January 1976) (F-4E, 1972) (F-4C, 1972–1976)
4452nd Combat Crew Training Squadron (October 1971 – October 1973) (F-4D, 1972) (F-4E, 1972–1973)
20th Tactical Fighter Squadron(December 1972 – 1981) (F-4C) (1972–1975) (F-4F) (1981 – June 1992) (F-4E)
21st Tactical Fighter Training Squadron (December 1972 – October 1980) (F-4C)21st Tactical Fighter Squadron (October 1980 – October 1989) (F-4E)21st Tactical Fighter Training Squadron (October 1989 – June 1991) (F-4E)
431st Tactical Fighter Training Squadron (December 1972 – October 1978) (F-4D, 1972) (F-4E, January 1976 – October 1978)
4535th Combat Crew Training Squadron (December 1972) (F-4C)
With the arrival of F-105F/G aircraft from the 388th TFW at Korat RTAFB, Thailand in July 1973, the wing began training aircrews for radar detection and suppression or "Wild Weasel" missions in addition to other F-4 training. By 1975, with the arrival of new F-4G aircraft, the wing was training aircrews exclusively in Wild Weasel operations for deployment to operational units in Okinawa and Germany.
561st Tactical Fighter Squadron (July 1973 – July 1980) (F-105F/G), (F-4G, Tail Code: WW July 1980 – October 1989)
562nd Tactical Fighter Squadron (October 1974 – July 1980) (F-105F/G), (F-4G, Tail Code: WW July 1980 – October 1989)
563rd Tactical Fighter Training Squadron (July 1975 – July 1977) (F-105F/G)563rd Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-4G, Tail Code: WW July 1977 – October 1989)
39th Tactical Fighter Squadron(January 1977 – May 1984) (F-4C Tail Code: WW) (January 1976 – October 1980) (F-4E, January 1982 – May 1984)
In 1980, the wing received the new F-4G and its advanced Wild Weasel system. By July 1980, the last F-105G left George Air Force Base, leaving the 37th TFW with F-4Gs in its inventory for Wild Weasel training and operational missions.
Operations at George Air Force Base were reorganized by mission requirements 30 March 1981. The 35th Tactical Fighter Wing retained control of the 20th and 21st Tactical Fighter Training Squadrons and gained the 39th Tactical Fighter Squadron.
With the inactivation of the 39th Tactical Fighter Squadron in 1985, the 35th Tactical Fighter Wing was redesignated the 35th Tactical Training Wing. However, the wing kept its air defense augmentation responsibility. It provided operations and maintenance support for the close air support portion of Army training exercises conducted at the U.S. Army National Training Center at Fort Irwin, Calif., from 1981 to 1990. Also, the wing advised specific Air National Guard units on F-4 operations from 1981 to 1991.
The new 37th Tactical Fighter Wing assumed the 561st Tactical Fighter Squadron (TFS), 562nd Tactical Fighter Training Squadron (TFTS), and 563rd Tactical Fighter Squadron (TFS)for active Wild Weasel missions in 1981. This training ended in 1989 when the 37th TFW was reassigned to Tonopah Test Range Nevada assuming F-117A operational development.
Operations at George Air Force Base were reorganized again 5 October 1989. The 37th Tactical Fighter Wing and the 35th Tactical Training Wing consolidated all operations under the newly redesignated 35th Tactical Fighter Wing. Under the reorganization the 35th regained control of the 561st Tactical Fighter Squadron and the 562nd Tactical Fighter Training Squadron.
In August 1990, the 35th Tactical Fighter Wing mobilized in support of Operation Desert Shield. On 16 August 1990, 24 F-4Gs of the 561st Tactical Fighter Squadron left George Air Force Base en route to Shaikh Isa Air Base, Bahrain. Once in the Middle East, its deployed people established operational, maintenance and living facilities for the 35th Tactical Fighter Wing (Provisional). These facilities eventually housed more than 60 active duty and Air National Guard F-4s and more than 2,600 military members.
During Operation Desert Storm, which started 17 January 1991, the 561st Tactical Fighter Squadron flew 1,182 combat sorties for a total of 4,393.5 hours. The 35th Tactical Fighter Wing (Provisional) was credited with flying 3,072 combat missions for 10,318.5 hours. U.S. Central Command relied heavily on the wing's Wild Weasels to suppress enemy air defense systems. The F-4G aircrews were credited with firing 905 missiles at Iraqi targets, while the RF-4C aircrews shot more than 300,000 feet of vital reconnaissance film. During operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, the 35th Tactical Fighter Wing (Provisional) suffered no casualties. The wing's people began returning to George Air Force Base 23 March 1991, with its aircraft and pilots following three days later.
The 35th became the host unit for George Air Force Base when the 831st Air Division there inactivated on 31 March 1991. As a result, the wing gained several support agencies, including the 35th Combat Support Group and associated squadrons. In support of the Air Force's force reduction programs, the 21st Tactical Fighter Training Squadron inactivated 28 June 1991. That October, as part of the Air Force's reorganization plan, the 35th Tactical Fighter Wing was redesignated the 35th Fighter Wing. A month later, the wing's tactical fighter squadrons were redesignated as fighter squadrons.
In 1992, the 35th began downsizing in preparation for the closure of George Air Force Base. On 5 June 1992, the 20th Fighter Squadron moved to Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, and by the end of June, the 561st and 562nd Fighter Squadrons were inactivated.
On 15 December 1992, the 35th Fighter Wing inactivated and George Air Force Base closed bringing an end to 21 years of continuous service and more than 34 years of total service for the 35 FW.
Secondary USAF wings assigned
452d Bombardment Wing (Light)
As a result of the Korean War, the Long Beach Municipal Airport, California Air Force Reserve 452d Bombardment Wing (Light) was mobilized at George AFB and ordered to active duty 10 August 1950. Four squadrons (728th, 729th, 730th, 731st) of Douglas B-26 Invaders.
The wing was deployed to Itazuke AB Japan October 1950. It was the first Air Force Reserve wing to fly combat missions in Korea.
116th Fighter-Bomber Wing
The 116th Fighter-Bomber Wing was a Washington Air National Guard unit activated to federal service during the Korean War. Received five Republic F-84G Thunderjets becoming the first Guard unit west of the Mississippi River to be equipped with the jets. On 1 February 1951, as a result of the Korean War, the 116th Fighter Squadron received new North American F-86A Sabres.
The 116th FBW was ordered to RAF Shepherds Grove, England, in August 1951 to bolster NATO forces in Europe. The move was the first time in aviation history that a full tactical fighter squadron had crossed an ocean.
131st Fighter-Bomber Wing
The 131st Fighter-Bomber Wing was a federalized Missouri Air National Guard unit during the Korean War. It was assigned to George AFB during August 1951. The wing trained at George AFB with North American F-51D Mustangs. It was relieved from active duty and returned to state control on 1 December 1952.
21st Fighter-Bomber Wing
The 21st Fighter-Bomber Wing was activated at George AFB on 1 January 1953 with three (72d, 416th and 531st) Fighter-Bomber squadrons, equipped with F-86F Sabres. While at George AFB, the wing established and maintained tactical proficiency and provided air defense augmentation. In December 1954, the wing was assigned to NATO and was reassigned to Chambley-Bussieres Air Base, France.
413th Tactical Fighter Wing
The 413th Tactical Fighter Wing was activated at George AFB on 11 November 1954 as the 413th Fighter-Bomber Wing. It was initially equipped with four (1st, 21st, 34th, and 474th) F-86H squadrons.
Transitioned to the F-100D/F in 1958, becoming the 413 TFW. The wing trained to achieve and maintain combat readiness by participation in tactical exercises, firepower demonstrations, joint training with US Army and US Marine Corps units, and tactical evaluations. Provided augmentation of Sixteenth Air Force to Morón Air Base, Spain through deployment of assigned squadrons on a rotational basis, 1958–1959. The 1st Fighter Day Squadron was commanded by then-Lieutenant Colonel Chuck Yeager from April 1957 until its inactivation in March 1959. The wing was inactivated on 15 March 1959 for budgetary reasons. The 34 TFS was inactivated, and personnel and F-100s of all four squadrons were reassigned to incoming 31 TFW.
31st Tactical Fighter Wing
On 15 March 1959 the 31st Tactical Fighter Wing was activated without personnel or equipment at George AFB, and absorbed the personnel and equipment of the inactivated 413 TFW.
The 31st was previously assigned to Turner AFB, Georgia as a Strategic Air Command fighter wing and had transferred its F-100s to the 354th Tactical Fighter Wing at Myrtle Beach Air Force Base, South Carolina in 1956 after SAC turned all of its strategic escort fighters over to Tactical Air Command. The 31st was maintained as an inactive "paper unit" by TAC with no personnel or equipment assigned until it was reactivated at George AFB.
The reassignment equipped four F-100D/F tactical fighter squadrons (306th, 307th, 308th, 309th) which were trained for nuclear as well as conventional operational capabilities. The 31 TFW was reassigned to Homestead AFB, Florida on 31 May 1962.
355th Tactical Fighter Wing
The 355th Tactical Fighter Wing was activated at George AFB on 13 April 1962. Four operational tactical fighter squadrons (354th, 357th, 421st, and 469th) equipped with Republic F-105D/F aircraft. The wing trained in tactical fighter operations and deployed tactical squadrons overseas as required, primarily to combat duty in Southeast Asia.
354th TFS deployed to Korat RTAFB and Takhli RTAFB, Thailand 24 January–21 February 1964, and 2 May–20 September 1964 as a part of the USAF buildup of forces in Thailand.
The 355 TFW was reassigned to McConnell AFB, Kansas on 21 July 1964.
32d/8th Tactical Fighter Wing
On 1 April 1964, the 32d Tactical Fighter Wing was activated and being organized at George AFB. Three fighter squadrons (68th, 433d, and 497th) were equipped with F-4Cs.
On 18 June 1964, the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing was reassigned without personnel or equipment to George AFB from Itazuke AB, Japan as part of an overall effort to reduce the number of wings in Japan. The 8th TFW replaced and absorbed the resources of the 32d TFW. Operational squadrons of the 8th TFW at George were:
68th Tactical Fighter Squadron
433d Tactical Fighter Squadron
497th Tactical Fighter Squadron
While at George AFB, the wing trained with the McDonnell Douglas F-4C Phantom II fighter aircraft. The 68th TFS deployed to Korat RTAFB Thailand during July–December 1964, with the wing participated in numerous exercises, operational readiness inspections, and the like.
The entire 8th TFW was reassigned to Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand in December 1965 to commence combat operations in the Vietnam War.
Det 1 84 Fighter Interceptor Squadron
The Det1 of 84th FIS was (primary unit was at Castle AFB) opened in 1975 and was a live alert defense unit. One of many F106 units around the country to protect the US borders.
37th Tactical Fighter Wing
The 37th was reactivated on 30 March 1981 by Tactical Air Command at George Air Force Base, California. Its mission was to provide pilot transition training to the F-4G Phantom II "Wild Weasel" RADAR suppression aircraft. The mission was transferred to the 37th from the 35th Tactical Fighter Wing, which was TAC's primary F-4E Phantom II training organization in a mission realignment. Both wings were under the TAC's 831st Air Division. Assigned squadrons of the 37th (Tail Code: "WW") at George AFB were:
561st Tactical Fighter Squadron: 30 March 1981 – 5 October 1989 (Yellow Tail Stripe)
562nd Tactical Fighter Training Squadron: 30 March 1981 – 5 October 1989 (Blue Tail Stripe)
As the only "Wild Weasel" training wing in the world, it provided instructor pilots and qualified aircrews for the other two "Wild Weasel" wings in the Philippines (3d TFW) and West Germany (52d TFW). As part of the training mission, the wing participated in numerous tactical, maritime, and electronic warfare exercises locally and worldwide in hunter/killer tactics, suppression of enemy air defenses, force escort operations and dissimilar air combat training with Air National Guard and Air Force Reserve squadrons, and various allies. Wing aircrews and ground personnel won the United States Air Force Worldwide Fighter gunnery meet in 1985 and 1987.
In 1988, George AFB was scheduled in the first round of base closures passed by Congress under the Base Realignment and Closure program. On 5 October 1989, the 37th TFW turned over F-4G aircraft to the host 35th TFW at George AFB.
Superfund site
In June 2018, Military Times reported several cases of unusual medical conditions suffered by Air Force women and wives of service members, plus one case of a rare cancer that killed the Air Force husband of one of the affected women. The article claims that nearly 300 women have connected on Facebook, and shared tales of ovarian cysts, uterine tumors, birth defects in their children, hysterectomies, and miscarriages. Jet fuel, trichloroethylene, and PFOS/PFOA are said to contaminate the base's water supply. George AFB was designated a superfund site by the Environmental Protection Agency in 1990. Remedial action is still underway to clean up 33 separate hazardous wastes left there.
Closure
George Air Force Base was officially decommissioned in December 1992. In 1993, President Bill Clinton announced a "Five Part Plan" to speed economic recovery in communities where military bases were to be closed. One part of this plan called for improving public participation in the base's environmental cleanup program. George AFB was among a number of installations where environmental cleanup was placed on a "fast track" so base property could be quickly transferred to the community for reuse. While the base remains closed, local rumors continue of the Wherry housing units being haunted.
Names of facility
Air Corps Advanced Flying School, 23 June 1941
Victorville Army Flying School, 6 February 1942
Victorville Army Air Field, 23 April 1943
Victorville Air Force Base, 13 Jan 1948
George Air Force Base, 2 June 1950
Major commands to which assigned
West Coast Air Corps Training Center, 26 June 1941
Air Corps Flying Training Command, 23 January 1942
Re-designated: Army Air Forces Flying Training Command, 15 March 1942
Re-designated: Army Air Forces Training Command, 31 July 1943
Placed on standby and inactive status, 12 October 1945
Air Technical Service Command, 1 November 1945
Re-designated Air Materiel Command, 9 March 1946
Transferred to jurisdiction of Sacramento Air Materiel Area, 15 May 1947
Designated a sub-installation of San Bernardino Air Depot, 15 December 1948
Continental Air Command, 1 April 1950
Activated: 1 November 1950
Air Defense Command, 1 January 1951
Strategic Air Command, 23 July 1951
Tactical Air Command, 15 November 1951 – 1 June 1992
Air Combat Command, 1 June 1992 – 15 December 1992
Major units assigned
USAAF Bombardier School, June 1941 – December 1944
87th Base HQ and Air Base Sq, 1 October 1941
Redesignated: 87th Air Base Sq, 18 July 1942 – 30 April 1944
Air Corps (later Army Air Force) Advanced Flying School, 26 June 1941 – 23 December 1944
63d Troop Carrier Group, 18 November 1942 – 7 May 1943
3035th AAF Base Unit, 1 March 1944
Redesignated: 4196th AAF Base Unit, 1 November 1945
Redesignated: 2756th AF Base Unit, 28 August 1948
Redesignated: 2579th Air Base Sq, 1 May – 18 July 1950
36th Fighter-Interceptor Training Wing, 8 January – 30 December 1943
Army Air Force Radar Observer School, September 1944 – October 1945
434th Troop Carrier Group, 1 October 1945 – 2 February 1946
482d Bombardment Group, 5 July 1945 – 1 September 1945
1st Fighter-Interceptor Wing, 18 July – 1 December 1951
94th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 18 July 1950 – 15 August 1955
452d Bombardment Wing, 10 August 1950 – 26 October 1950
116th Fighter-Bomber Wing, 7 November 1950 – 1 July 1951
Federalized Georgia Air National Guard
131st Fighter-Bomber Wing, 7 August 1951 – 1 December 1952
Federalized Missouri Air National Guard
146th Fighter-Bomber Wing, 25 October 1951 – 1 January 1953
Federalized California Air National Guard
479th Fighter-Day (later Tactical Fighter) Wing, 1 December 1952 – 1 October 1971
21st Fighter-Bomber Wing, 1 January 1953 – 28 November 1954
456th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 8 August 1954 – 18 August 1955
518th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 8 January 1955 – 18 August 1955
327th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 18 August 1955 – 2 July 1958
329th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 18 August 1955 – 1 July 1967
413th Fighter-Day (later Tactical Fighter) Wing, 24 October 1957 – 15 March 1959
831st Air Division, 8 October 1957 – 20 April 1971; 1 December 1980 – 31 March 1991
31st Tactical Fighter Wing, 15 March 1959 – 31 May 1962
355th Tactical Fighter Wing, 8 June 1962 – 31 July 1964
USAF Advanced Flying (later Combat Crew Training) School, 1 July 1962 – 8 January 1965
431st Fighter-Interceptor (later Tactical Fighter) Squadron, 18 May 1964 – 30 October 1970; 15 January 1976 – 1 October 1978
32d Tactical Fighter Wing, 1 April 1964
Inactivated and replaced by 8th Fighter-Bomber (later Tactical Fighter) Wing, 10 July 1964 – 8 December 1965
68th Fighter-Interceptor (later Tactical Fighter) Squadron, 16 June 1964 – 1 October 1968
497th Fighter-Interceptor (later Tactical Fighter) Squadron, 18 June 1964 – 8 December 1965
35th Tactical Fighter (later Fighter) Wing, 1 October 1971 – 15 December 1992
37th Tactical Fighter Wing, 30 March 1981 – 5 October 1989
George Air Force Base in popular culture
The following projects used the base as a filming location from 1940–2005.
Movies
The Starfighters
The War of the Worlds: was namechecked as Victorville in the 1953 version of the film.
Jet Pilot
Face Off
Jarhead
Television
Six Million Dollar Man
See also
United States Air Forces in Europe
United States Air Force In Thailand
California World War II Army Airfields
35th Flying Training Wing (World War II)
Western Air Defense Force (Air Defense Command)
References
Bibliography
Donald, David (2004) Century Jets: USAF Frontline Fighters of the Cold War. AIRtime
Endicott, Judy G. (1999) Active Air Force wings as of 1 October 1995; USAF active flying, space, and missile squadrons as of 1 October 1995. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. CD-ROM.
Menard, David W. (1998) Before Centuries: USAFE Fighters, 1948–1959. Howell Press Inc.
Manning, Thomas A. (2005), History of Air Education and Training Command, 1942–2002. Office of History and Research, Headquarters, AETC, Randolph AFB, Texas
Martin, Patrick (1994). Tail Code: The Complete History of USAF Tactical Aircraft Tail Code Markings. Schiffer Military Aviation History. .
Shaw, Frederick J. (2004), Locating Air Force Base Sites, History’s Legacy, Air Force History and Museums Program, United States Air Force, Washington DC.
Aerospace Defense Command publication, The Interceptor, January 1979 (Volume 21, Number 1).
USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers — 1908 to present
External links
Global Access Victorville (redevelopment project)
George AFB Hazardous, Toxic and Radioactive Waste (HTRW) (Superfund Site, EPA ID: CA2570024453)
Installations of the United States Air Force in California
Formerly Used Defense Sites in California
Airports in San Bernardino County, California
Victor Valley
Military facilities in the Mojave Desert
Military in San Bernardino County, California
Military Superfund sites
Superfund sites in California
Buildings and structures in San Bernardino County, California
History of San Bernardino County, California
Post-World War II aircraft storage facilities
Victorville, California
Military airbases established in 1941
Military installations closed in 1992
1941 establishments in California
1992 disestablishments in California
World War II airfields in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20aid%20to%20Palestinians
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International aid to Palestinians
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International aid has been provided to Palestinians since at least the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. The Palestinians view the aid as keeping the Israeli–Palestinian peace process going, while Israelis and other foreign policy authorities have raised concerns that it is used to fund terrorism and removes the imperative to Palestinians to negotiate a settlement of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. As a provision of the Oslo Accords, international aid was to be provided to the Palestinians to ensure economic solvency for the Palestinian National Authority (PA). In 2004, it was reported that the PA, within the West Bank and Gaza Strip, receives one of the highest levels of aid in the world. In 2006, economic sanctions and other measures were taken by several countries against the PA, including suspension of international aid following Hamas’ victory at the Palestinian Legislative Council election. Aid to the PA resumed in 2008 following the Annapolis Conference, where Hamas was not invited. Aid has been provided to the Palestinian Authority, Palestinian non-governmental organizations (PNGOs) as well as Palestinian political factions by various foreign governments, international organizations, international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), and charities, besides other sources.
The Ad Hoc Liaison Committee coordinates the delivery of most aid to Palestinians. The entities that provide such aid are categorized into seven groups: the Arab nations, the European Union, the United States, Japan, international institutions (including agencies of the UN system), European countries, and other nations. The United States has been a major donor, providing more than $5.2 billion through USAID since 1994. In July 2018, Australia ceased providing direct aid to the Palestinian Authority, saying the donations could increase the PA's capacity to pay Palestinians convicted of politically motivated violence, and that it will direct its funds through United Nations programs.
The international community has sent billions of dollars in aid to the Gaza Strip to provide relief to the more than 2 million Palestinians living there. From 2014 to 2020, U.N. agencies spent nearly $4.5 billion in Gaza, including $600 million in 2020 alone. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, aid to Palestinians totaled over $40 billion between 1994 and 2020.
History
Before Oslo Accords
Before the signing of the Oslo Accords, international aid for the West Bank and Gaza came mainly from Western and Arab states, mostly through UN agencies such as UNRWA. Most programs were started or developed during the 1970s, and expanded during the 1980s. Most of the aid was channeled through PNGOs or INGOs. Although the stance of the donors during the pre-Oslo period is regarded by some analysts, such as Rex Brynen, as controversial and linked with phenomena such as corruption, nationalism and factional rivalries, International aid effectively financed a series of programs in the sectors of agriculture, infrastructure, housing and education.
Oslo Accords
The Oslo Accords, officially signed on September 13, 1993, contained substantial provisions on economic matters and international aid: Annex IV of the Declaration of Principles (DoP) discusses regional cooperation and implicitly calls for major international aid efforts to help the Palestinians, Jordan, Israel and the entire region.
On October 1, 1993, the international donor community (nations and institutions) met in Washington to mobilize support for the peace process, and pledged to provide approximately $2.4 billion to the Palestinians over the course of the next five years. The international community's action was based on the premise that it was imperative to garner all financial resources needed to make the agreement successful, and with a full understanding that in order for the Accords to stand in the face of daily challenges on the ground, ordinary Palestinians needed to perceive positive change in their lives. Therefore, the donors had two major goals: to fuel Palestinian economic growth and to build public
support for negotiations with Israel. According to Scott Lasensky, "throughout the follow-up talks to the DoP that produced the Gaza-Jericho Agreement (May 1994), the Early Empowerment Agreement (August 1994), the Interim Agreement (September 1995), and the Hebron Accord (January 1997), [...] economic aid hovered over the process and remained the single most critical external component buttressing the PNA."
1993–2000
Between 1993 and 1997 the PNA faced serious economic and financial problems. International aid prevented the collapse of the local economy, and contributed to the establishment of the Palestinian administration. Donors' pledges continued to increase regularly (their value had risen to approximately $3,420 million as of the end of October 1997) as a result of the faltering peace process, along with the increase in needs and the consequent increase in the assistance necessary for Palestinians to survive. Reality led, however, to a revision of the donors' priorities: Out of concern that the deteriorating economic conditions could result in a derailment of the peace process, donor support was redirected to finance continued budgetary shortfalls, housing programs and emergency employment creation. According to a more critical approach, international aid in the mid-1990s supported PNA's bureaucracy and belatedly promoted the centralization of political power, but in a way that did not enhance government capacity and harmed the PNGOs. In 1994–1995 problems of underfunding, inefficiency and poor aid coordination marked donors' activity, and led to tensions among the different aid bodies, and between the international community and the PNA. In 1996, the link between development assistance and the success of the peace process was made explicit by the President of the World Bank, James Wolfensohn, who stated: "The sense of urgency is clear. Peace will only be assured in that area if you can get jobs for those people."
After 1997, there was a reduction in the use of closure policy by Israel, which led to an employment growth and an expansion of the West Bank and Gaza economy. After the signing of the Wye River Memorandum, a new donors' conference was convened, and over $2 billion was pledged to the PNA for 1999–2003. Nevertheless, overall donor disbursements fell in 1998–2000, and the 1998 disbursements=to-commitments ratio was the lowest since 1994. As for international institutions, they began to play a bigger role in the international funding process, in spite of the decline in the absolute value of these institutions' total commitments. After 1997, the need for donor support for the current budget and employment generation programs receded due to the PA's improved fiscal performance, and attention was focused instead on infrastructures to the detriment of institution building. Donors' activity was also characterized by a decline in support for PNGOs, and by a preference to concessionary loans (instead of grants) with generous grace periods, long repayment periods and low interest rates
2000–2006
The second Intifada led to one of the deepest recessions the Palestinian economy
experienced in modern history. In those two years, Palestinian real
GDP per capita shrunk by almost 40 percent. The precipitator of this economic crisis was again a multi-faceted system of restrictions on the movement of goods and people designed to protect Israelis in Israel itself and in the settlements.
One of the many frustrations of the crisis was the erosion of the development effort financed by the international community, since the overwhelming emphasis in donor work was now directed towards mitigating the impact of the economic and social crisis. A collapse of the PNA was averted by emergency budget support from donor countries. Despite a significant increase in donor commitments in 2002 compared with 2001, commitments to infrastructure and capacity-building work with a medium-term focus continued to decline. In 2000, the ratio was approximately 7:1 in
favor of development assistance. By 2002, the ratio had shifted to almost 5:1 in favor of
emergency assistance.
Yasser Arafat's death in 2004 and Israel's unilateral disengagement from Gaza created new hopes to the donor community. In March 2005, the Quartet on the Middle East underscored the importance of development assistance, and urged the international donors community to support Palestinian institution building, without however ignoring budgetary support. The Quartet also urged Israel and the PNA to fulfill their commitments arising from the Road map for peace, and the international community "to review and energize current donor coordination structures [...] in order to increase their effectiveness." The international community's attempt in late 2005 to promote Palestinian economic recovery reflected a long-standing assumption that economic development is crucial to the peace process and to prevent backsliding into conflict. Although a mild positive growth returned in 2003 and 2005, this fragile recovery stalled as a result of the segmentation of the Gaza Strip, the stiff restrictions on movements of goods and people across the borders with Israel and Egypt, and the completion of the Israeli West Bank barrier. As the World Bank stressed in December 2005, "growth will not persist without good Palestinian governance, sound economic management and a continued relaxation of closure by GOI."
2006–07
On 25 January 2006, the Islamist organization, Hamas, which is considered by the main donor countries to be a terrorist organization, won the Palestinian legislative elections and formed government on 29 March 2006, without accepting the terms and conditions set by the Quartet. This resulted in the imposition of economic sanctions against the PA, including near cessation of direct relations and aid between most bilateral donors and the PA, with only some multilateral agencies and a few donors continuing direct contact and project administration. The Quartet's decision was criticised by the Quartet's former envoy, James Wolfensohn, who characterized it "a misguided attempt to starve the Hamas-led Palestinians into submission," and of UN's Middle East former envoy, Alvaro de Soto.
Because of the worsening humanitarian crisis, the EU proposed a plan to channel aid directly to the Palestinians, bypassing the Hamas-led government. The Quartet approved the EU proposal, despite an initial US objection, and the EU set up a "temporary international mechanism" (TIM) to channel funds through the Palestinian President for an initial period of three months, which was later extended. Oxfam was one of the main critics of the EU TIM program arguing that "limited direct payments from the European Commission have failed to address this growing crisis."
The emergence of two rival governments in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in June 2007 presented the international community with the prospect of shouldering a huge aid burden. The World Bank estimated that in 2008 the PNA would need $1.2 billion in recurrent budget support, in addition to $300 million in development aid. The formation of the emergency government in mid-2007 in the West Bank led by Salam Fayyad, led to the resumption of aid to the West Bank PA government which partly reversed the impact of the aid boycott. Nevertheless, economic indicators have not changed considerably. For instance, because of the situation in Gaza, real GDP growth was estimated to be about -0.5% in 2007, and 0.8% in 2008.
According to the Development Assistance Committee, the main multilateral donors for the 2006–2007 period were UNRWA and the EU (through the European Commission), while the main bilateral donors were the US, Japan, Canada and five European countries (Norway, Germany, Sweden, Spain and France).
2007–09
In December 2007, during the Paris Conference, which followed the Annapolis Conference, donor countries pledged over $7.7 billion for 2008–2010 in support of the Palestinian Reform and Development Program (PRDP). Hamas, which was not invited to Paris, called the conference a "declaration of war" on it. In the beginning of 2008, the EU moved from the TIM mechanism to PEGASE, which provided channels for direct support to the PA's Central Treasury Account in addition to the types of channels used for TIM. The World Bank also launched a trust fund that would provide support in the context of the PA's 2008–2010 reform policy agenda. However, neither mechanism contained sufficient resources to cover the PA's entire monthly needs, thus not allowing the PA to plan expenditures beyond a two-month horizon.
The World Bank assesses that the PA had made significant progress on implementing the reform agenda laid out in the PRDP, and re-establishing law and order. Gaza, however, remained outside the reforms as Hamas controls security and the most important ministry positions there. Palestinian inter-factional tension continued in the West Bank and Gaza, with arrests of people and closures of NGOs by each side, resulting in a deterioration in the ability of civil society organizations to continue to cater to vulnerable groups. Following the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict, an international conference took place in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, where donors pledged almost $4.5 billion for the reconstruction of Gaza. These funds bypassed Hamas, since the PA in collaboration with the donor community has taken the lead in delivering and distributing the assistance. India which is aspiring to be recognized as 'globally respected power' has made concerted efforts in fostering better relations with the PA. When PA President Abbas visited New Delhi in 2008 he was offered a credit of US$20 million (Rs.900 million) by the Indian government. India also continued to offer eight scholarships under ICCR Schemes to Palestinian students for higher studies in India, while also offering several slots for training courses under the ITEC Program.
According to estimates made by the World Bank, the PA received $1.8 billion of international aid in 2008 and $1.4 billion in 2009.
2010
In 2010, the lion's share of the aid came from the European Union and the United States. According to estimates made by the World Bank, the PA received $525 million of international aid in the first half of 2010. Foreign aid is the "main driver" of economic growth in the Palestinian territories. According to the International Monetary Fund, the unemployment rate has fallen as the economy of Gaza grew by 16% in the first half of 2010, almost twice as fast as the economy of the West Bank.<ref name=Economistgaza>[Hamas and the Peace Talks,"] The Economist, September 25, 2010, p. 59.</ref>
In July 2010, Germany outlawed a major Turkish-German donor group, the Internationale Humanitaere Hilfsorganisation (IHH) (unaffiliated to the Turkish İnsani Yardım Vakfı (İHH)) that sent the Mavi Mamara aid vessel, saying it had used donations to support projects in Gaza that are related to Hamas, which is considered by the European Union to be a terrorist organization, while presenting their activities to donors as humanitarian help. German Interior Minister Thomas de Maiziere said, "Donations to so-called social welfare groups belonging to Hamas, such as the millions given by IHH, actually support the terror organization Hamas as a whole."
2011
In March 2011, there were threats to cut off aid to the PA if it continued to move forward on a unity government with Hamas, unless Hamas formally renounced violence, recognized Israel, and accepted previous Israel-Palestinian agreements. Azzam Ahmed, spokesman for PA President Abbas, responded by stating that the PA was willing to give up financial aid in order to achieve unity, "Palestinians need American money, but if they use it as a way of pressuring us, we are ready to relinquish that aid."
2014
In October 2014, the Cairo Conference on Palestine, an international donor conference on reconstructing the Gaza Strip, garnered $5.4 billion in pledges, of which $1 billion was pledged by Qatar. Half of the pledges were to be used for rebuilding efforts in Gaza, while the remainder was to support the PA budget until 2017.
2018
On 23 March 2018, U.S. President Donald Trump signed the Taylor Force Act into law, which will cut about a third of US foreign aid payments to the PA, until the PA ceases making payment of stipends to terrorists and their surviving families.
In July 2018, Australia stopped the A$10M (US$7.5M) in funding that had been sent to the PA via the World Bank, and instead is sending it to the UN Humanitarian Fund for the Palestinian Territories. The reason given was that they did not want the PA to use the funds to assist Palestinians convicted of politically motivated violence.
On 24 August, the United States cut more than $200 million in direct aid to the PA. The administration had previously cut aid to several UN bodies devoted to the Palestinian cause, including cutting $300 million off the contribution to United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA), and the UN Human Rights Council.
2019
In February 2019, the US stopped all USAID to Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza. The US stopped providing more than $60m in annual funds for the Palestinian security services at the request of the PA because of a fear of lawsuits following the enactment of the Anti-Terrorism Clarification Act of 2018 (ATCA), which came into force in February 2019, and allows Americans to sue in US courts those receiving US foreign aid over alleged complicity in "acts of war". The stopping of funding for security services has raised some concerns.
In November 2019, the Netherlands cut the US$1.5 million per annum it paid directly to the Palestinian Authority over payments it makes to families of militants killed, hurt, or imprisoned by Israel (described by Israel as salaries to terrorists).
Hamas takeover and Israeli blockade of the Gaza Strip
In 2007, Israel, the Quartet on the Middle East (comprising the United Nations, the United States, the European Union, and Russia) and other countries ceased providing aid to the PA Hamas-led government that refused to accept the conditions set by them, and imposed sanctions against the PA. After Hamas took control of the Gaza Strip and a non-Hamas government installed in the West Bank, the sanctions against the PA administered West Bank were withdrawn and donations resumed. Israel and Egypt imposed a land, air, and sea blockade of the Gaza Strip, which is ongoing. The PA administration imposed its own sanctions against the Hamas-ruled Gaza Strip.
Since 2014, with Israel's approval despite the blockade, Qatar has provided aid to the Gaza Strip that has partially relieved some of the economic pressure on the Gaza Strip. Between 2014 and 2019, Qatar has provided over $1 billion in reconstruction funds and stipends for poor Palestinians.
Major donors
Since 1993 the European Commission and the EU member-states combined have been by far the largest aid contributor to the Palestinians.
Arab League states have also been substantial donors, notably through budgetary support of the PNA during the Second Intifada. However, they have been criticized for not sufficiently financing the UNRWA and the PNA, and for balking at their pledges. After the 2006 Palestinian elections, the Arab countries tried to contribute to the payment of wages for Palestinian public servants, bypassing the PNA. At the same time Arab funds were paid directly to Abbas' office for disbursement.
During the Paris Conference, 11% of the pledges came from the US and Canada, 53% from Europe and 20% from Arab countries.
The US is also a major contributor, providing more than $5.2 billion through USAID since 1994. In recent years, this aid has totaled around $600 million annually. Since April 2021, the United States has provided over half a billion dollars in assistance for the Palestinians, including more than $417 million in humanitarian assistance for Palestinians through UNRWA, $75 million in support through USAID, and $20.5 million in COVID and Gaza recovery assistance.
Donor coordination
The Ad Hoc Liaison Committee (AHLC) was established in November 1993 to coordinate donor donations and in an effort to balance competing United States and European positions, to facilitate agenda-setting, reduce duplication, and foster synergies. The AHLC operates on the basis of consensus, and aims at promoting dialogue between the partners of the "triangular partnership", namely the donors, Israel and the Palestinian Authority.
UNRWA
The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) was set up in 1949 to provide humanitarian relief to Palestinians displaced by the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. Originally, it was intended to provide jobs on public works projects and direct relief. Today, UNRWA provides education, health care, and social services to more than 5 million registered Palestinian refugees and their descendants, and other segments of Palestinian society, as well as providing some financial aid to Palestinians. UNRWA has also been a donor to the PA. UNRWA employs over 30,000 staff, 99% of whom are locally recruited Palestinians. Most of UNRWA's funding comes from European countries and the United States. Between 2000 and 2015 the European Union contributed €1.6 billion to UNRWA. In addition to its regular budget, UNRWA receives funding for emergency activities and special projects.
In 2009, UNRWA's total budget was US$1.2 billion, of which it received US$948 million. In 2009, the retiring Commissioner General spoke of a $200 million shortfall in UNRWA's budgets. Officials in 2009 spoke of a 'dire financial crisis'.
In 2010, the biggest contributors to its regular budget were the United States and the European Commission with $248 million and $165 million respectively. Sweden ($47m), the United Kingdom ($45m), Norway ($40m), and the Netherlands ($29m) were also important donors.
In 2011, the US was the largest single contributor with a total contribution of over $239 million, followed by the European Commission's $175 million contribution.
According to World Bank data, for all countries receiving more than $2 billion international aid in 2012, Gaza and the West Bank received a per capita aid budget over double the next largest recipient, at a rate of $495.
In 2013, $1.1 billion was contributed to UNRWA, of which $294 million was contributed by the United States, $216.4 million by the EU, $151.6 million by Saudi Arabia, $93.7 million by Sweden, $54.4 million by Germany, $53 million by Norway, $34.6 million by Japan, $28.8 million by Switzerland, $23.3 million by Australia, $22.4 million by the Netherlands, $20 million by Denmark, $18.6 million by Kuwait, $17 million by France, $12.3 million by Italy, $10.7 million by Belgium as well as $10.3 million by all other countries.
In 2016, the US contributed $368 million to UNWRA, and $350 million in 2017, but has cut around one-third of its contributions for 2018. In January 2018, the US withheld $65 million, roughly half the amount due in the month, again creating a financial crisis for UNRWA. Belgium and the Netherlands announced a plan to increase their contributions to UNRWA. In August 2018, the US cut its annual contribution of $360m to UNWRA, citing many complaints, including the number of Palestinians UNWRA recognizes as refugees, which number more than 5 million. In mid-2019, Netherlands, Belgium and Switzerland temporarily suspended funding to UNRWA. In December 2019, the Netherlands restored funding to UNWRA, increasing its donation by €6 million for 2019, to €19 million.
In April 2021, the US contributed $150 million to UNRWA, on condition that the funds are not used to assist any refugee receiving military training or has participated in any terrorist act.
In 2021 and 2022, the US was the largest single donor to UNRWA, contributing over $338 million in 2021 and $344 million in 2022. UNRWA received over $1.18 billion in donations in 2021 and over $1.17 billion in 2022 from various nations and organizations.
USAID
The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) provides financial support to the Palestinian people for various development and humanitarian projects. Since 1994, the United States has provided more than $5.2 billion in aid to Palestinians through USAID. There have been some reports suggesting that USAID had not properly accounted for the risks of providing aid to West Bank and Gaza, including the risk of giving money to local groups that have terrorist ties, when other aid organizations and countries chose not to use those risky groups as local partners in their foreign aid projects. The USAID official told the inspector general that "such restrictions reduce the number of potential partners available to the mission." Some examples of USAID projects in Palestine include:
Small and Medium Enterprise Assistance for Recovery and Transition (SMART): This project was launched on February 28, 2022. It offers immediate financial support for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and "sustainable systemic strengthening" for the Palestinian economy. The project seeks to help Palestinian SMEs and startups rapidly recover from shocks and create job opportunities.
Palestinian Community Infrastructure Development (PCID) Program: This program concluded on December 14, 2022, and created 12,500 short-term jobs for Palestinians. Key accomplishments were:
Installation of 18 water networks and construction of 10 water reservoirs, allowing 7 communities have access to proper drainage and sewage systems. This resulted in 418,660 people having improved access to drinking/domestic water.
Renovation/construction of 8 schools which benefitted 2,230 students. 2 additional educational centers were constructed.
Upgrade and improvement of 4 internal roads. Construct/rehabilitate 2 public parks and 2 markets.
Construct and renovate 4 youth centers and 3 centers for persons with disabilities. Construct 1 women’s center and 1 health clinic.
Renovate and expand 1 home for the elderly.
Near East Foundation (NEF)’s USAID-funded Olive Oil Without Borders: This project is boosting economic cooperation between Palestinian and Israeli olive farmers.
Human rights organizations concerns
In June 2016, the Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor released a report, titled Squandered Aid: Israel's repetitive destruction of EU-funded projects in Palestine'', discussing Israel’s repeated destruction of EU-funded projects in the Palestinian territories. The report claimed that, since 2001, Israel had destroyed around 150 development projects, which incurs the EU a financial loss of approximately €58 million. The report estimated the total value of EU squandered aid money, including development and humanitarian projects, amounted to €65 million, of which at least €23 million was lost during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict alone. The Monitor called for an investigation on all destroyed structures built with funding from the UN, EU or member states on Palestinian land. In addition, the Monitor recommended continued investing in Palestinian development, but substantively penalize the Israeli government when UN- or European-funded projects are targeted.
2023
In 2023, concerns over Hamas redirected aid for military activities were expressed after a 2021 Hamas propaganda video showed Hamas members digging up and dismantling pipelines to produce rockets such as the Qassam rocket which is commonly assembled from industrial piping. As of 2021 the EU provided €9 million for the purchase of bulk pipes in Gaza City and Jabalia and in 2023 £26 million has been spent by Brussels for expanding pipelines networks in Palestine. UK which had provided significant aid for building pipelines in Palestine has denied that its funds could be abused by Hamas.
The humanitarian situation in Gaza has been termed a "crisis" and a "catastrophe." As a result of Israel's siege, Gaza faces shortages of fuel, food, medication, water, and medical supplies. UN Humanitarian Aid chief Martin Griffiths said, "the noose around the civilian population in Gaza is tightening." On 13 October, UNRWA commissioner Philippe Lazzarini said, "The scale and speed of the unfolding humanitarian crisis is bone-chilling."
On 16 October, doctors warned of an impending disease outbreak due to hospital overcrowding and unburied bodies. The same day, the World Health Organization stated there were only "24 hours of water, electricity and fuel left" before "a real catastrophe." On 18 October, the United States vetoed a UN resolution urging humanitarian aid to Gaza. The World Health Organization stated the situation in Gaza was "spiralling out of control."
See also
Palestine Children's Relief Fund
Ad Hoc Liaison Committee
Saudi foreign assistance
United States foreign aid
United States security assistance to the Palestinian National Authority
References
Sources
External links
Report to Congress on US aid the Palestine
Economy of the State of Palestine
Palestine
Humanitarian aid
Palestinian politics
Foreign relations of the State of Palestine
Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the United Nations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern%20monetary%20theory
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Modern monetary theory
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Modern monetary theory or modern money theory (MMT) is a heterodox macroeconomic theory that describes currency as a public monopoly and unemployment as evidence that a currency monopolist is overly restricting the supply of the financial assets needed to pay taxes and satisfy savings desires. According to MMT, governments do not need to worry about accumulating debt since they can create new money by using fiscal policy in order to pay interest. MMT argues that the primary risk once the economy reaches full employment is inflation, which acts as the only constraint on spending. MMT also argues that inflation can be addressed by increasing taxes on everyone to reduce the spending capacity of the private sector.
MMT is controversial, and is actively debated with dialogues about its theoretical integrity, the implications of the policy recommendations of its proponents, and the extent to which it is actually divergent from orthodox macroeconomics. MMT is opposed to the mainstream understanding of macroeconomic theory and has been criticized heavily by many mainstream economists.
Principles
MMT's main tenets are that a government that issues its own fiat money:
Can pay for goods, services, and financial assets without a need to first collect money in the form of taxes or debt issuance in advance of such purchases;
Cannot be forced to default on debt denominated in its own currency
Is limited in its money creation and purchases only by inflation, which accelerates once the real resources (labour, capital and natural resources) of the economy are utilized at full employment
Recommends strengthening automatic stabilisers to control demand-pull inflation rather than relying upon discretionary tax changes
Issues bonds as a monetary policy device, rather than as a funding device
The first four MMT tenets do not conflict with mainstream economics understanding of how money creation and inflation works. However, MMT economists disagree with mainstream economics about the fifth tenet, on the impact of government deficits on interest rates.
History
MMT synthesizes ideas from the state theory of money of Georg Friedrich Knapp (also known as chartalism) and the credit theory of money of Alfred Mitchell-Innes, the functional finance proposals of Abba Lerner, Hyman Minsky's views on the banking system and Wynne Godley's sectoral balances approach.
Knapp wrote in 1905 that "money is a creature of law" rather than a commodity. Knapp contrasted his state theory of money with the Gold Standard view of "metallism", where the value of a unit of currency depends on the quantity of precious metal it contains or for which it may be exchanged. He said that the state can create pure paper money and make it exchangeable by recognizing it as legal tender, with the criterion for the money of a state being "that which is accepted at the public pay offices".
The prevailing view of money was that it had evolved from systems of barter to become a medium of exchange because it represented a durable commodity which had some use value, but proponents of MMT such as Randall Wray and Mathew Forstater said that more general statements appearing to support a chartalist view of tax-driven paper money appear in the earlier writings of many classical economists, including Adam Smith, Jean-Baptiste Say, J. S. Mill, Karl Marx, and William Stanley Jevons.
Alfred Mitchell-Innes wrote in 1914 that money exists not as a medium of exchange but as a standard of deferred payment, with government money being debt the government may reclaim through taxation. Innes said:
Knapp and "chartalism" are referenced by John Maynard Keynes in the opening pages of his 1930 Treatise on Money and appear to have influenced Keynesian ideas on the role of the state in the economy.
By 1947, when Abba Lerner wrote his article "Money as a Creature of the State", economists had largely abandoned the idea that the value of money was closely linked to gold. Lerner said that responsibility for avoiding inflation and depressions lay with the state because of its ability to create or tax away money.
Hyman Minsky seemed to favor a chartalist approach to understanding money creation in his Stabilizing an Unstable Economy, while Basil Moore, in his book Horizontalists and Verticalists, lists the differences between bank money and state money.
In 1996, Wynne Godley wrote an article on his sectoral balances approach, which MMT draws from.
Economists Warren Mosler, L. Randall Wray, Stephanie Kelton, Bill Mitchell and Pavlina R. Tcherneva are largely responsible for reviving the idea of chartalism as an explanation of money creation; Wray refers to this revived formulation as neo-chartalism.
Rodger Malcolm Mitchell's book Free Money (1996) describes in layman's terms the essence of chartalism.
Pavlina R. Tcherneva has developed the first mathematical framework for MMT and has largely focused on developing the idea of the job guarantee.
Bill Mitchell, professor of economics and Director of the Centre of Full Employment and Equity (CoFEE)
at the University of Newcastle in Australia, coined the term ''. In their 2008 book Full Employment Abandoned, Mitchell and Joan Muysken use the term to explain monetary systems in which national governments have a monopoly on issuing fiat currency and where a floating exchange rate frees monetary policy from the need to protect foreign exchange reserves.
Some contemporary proponents, such as Wray, place MMT within post-Keynesian economics, while MMT has been proposed as an alternative or complementary theory to monetary circuit theory, both being forms of endogenous money, i.e., money created within the economy, as by government deficit spending or bank lending, rather than from outside, perhaps with gold. In the complementary view, MMT explains the "vertical" (government-to-private and vice versa) interactions, while circuit theory is a model of the "horizontal" (private-to-private) interactions.
By 2013, MMT had attracted a popular following through academic blogs and other websites.
In 2019, MMT became a major topic of debate after U.S. Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez said in January that the theory should be a larger part of the conversation.
In February 2019, Macroeconomics became the first academic textbook based on the theory, published by Bill Mitchell, Randall Wray, and Martin Watts. MMT became increasingly used by chief economists and Wall Street executives for economic forecasts and investment strategies. The theory was also intensely debated by lawmakers in Japan, which was planning to raise taxes after years of deficit spending.
In June 2020, Stephanie Kelton's MMT book The Deficit Myth became a New York Times bestseller.
In 2020 the Sri Lankan Central Bank, under the governor W. D. Lakshman, cited MMT as a justification for adopting unconventional monetary policy, which was continued by Ajith Nivard Cabraal. This has been heavily criticized and widely cited as causing accelerating inflation and exacerbating the Sri Lankan economic crisis. MMT scholars Stephanie Kelton and Fadhel Kaboub maintain that the Sri Lankan government's fiscal and monetary policy bore little resemblance to the recommendations of MMT economists.
Theoretical approach
In sovereign financial systems, banks can create money but these "horizontal" transactions do not increase net financial assets because assets are offset by liabilities. According to MMT advocates, "The balance sheet of the government does not include any domestic monetary instrument on its asset side; it owns no money. All monetary instruments issued by the government are on its liability side and are created and destroyed with spending and taxing or bond offerings." In MMT, "vertical money" enters circulation through government spending. Taxation and its legal tender enable power to discharge debt and establish fiat money as currency, giving it value by creating demand for it in the form of a private tax obligation. In addition, fines, fees, and licenses create demand for the currency. This currency can be issued by the domestic government or by using a foreign, accepted currency. An ongoing tax obligation, in concert with private confidence and acceptance of the currency, underpins the value of the currency. Because the government can issue its own currency at will, MMT maintains that the level of taxation relative to government spending (the government's deficit spending or budget surplus) is in reality a policy tool that regulates inflation and unemployment, and not a means of funding the government's activities by itself. The approach of MMT typically reverses theories of governmental austerity. The policy implications of the two are likewise typically opposed.
Vertical transactions
MMT labels a transaction between a government entity (public sector) and a non-government entity (private sector) as a "vertical transaction". The government sector includes the treasury and central bank. The non-government sector includes domestic and foreign private individuals and firms (including the private banking system) and foreign buyers and sellers of the currency.
Interaction between government and the banking sector
MMT is based on an account of the "operational realities" of interactions between the government and its central bank, and the commercial banking sector, with proponents like Scott Fullwiler arguing that understanding reserve accounting is critical to understanding monetary policy options.
A sovereign government typically has an operating account with the country's central bank. From this account, the government can spend and also receive taxes and other inflows. Each commercial bank also has an account with the central bank, by means of which it manages its reserves (that is, money for clearing and settling interbank transactions).
When a government spends money, its treasury credits its operating account at its central bank and deposits this money into private bank accounts. This money increases the total deposits in the commercial bank sector. Taxation works oppositely: taxpayers credit their bank accounts to pay the government; thus, deposits in the commercial banking sector fall.
Government bonds and interest rate maintenance
Virtually all central banks set an interest rate target, and conduct open market operations to ensure base interest rates remain at that target level. According to MMT, the issuing of government bonds is best understood as an operation to offset government spending rather than a requirement to finance it.
In most countries, commercial banks' reserve accounts with the central bank must have a positive balance at the end of every day; in some countries, the amount is specifically set as a proportion of the liabilities a bank has, i.e., its customer deposits. This is known as a reserve requirement.
At the end of every day, a commercial bank will have to examine the status of their reserve accounts. Those that are in deficit have the option of borrowing the required funds from the Central Bank, where they may be charged a lending rate (sometimes known as a discount window or discount rate) on the amount they borrow. On the other hand, the banks that have excess reserves can simply leave them with the central bank and earn a support rate from the central bank. Some countries, such as Japan, have a support rate of zero.
Banks with more reserves than they need will be willing to lend to banks with a reserve shortage on the interbank lending market. The surplus banks will want to earn a higher rate than the support rate that the central bank pays on reserves; whereas the deficit banks will want to pay a lower interest rate than the discount rate the central bank charges for borrowing. Thus, they will lend to each other until each bank has reached their reserve requirement. In a balanced system, where there are just enough total reserves for all the banks to meet requirements, the short-term interbank lending rate will be in between the support rate and the discount rate.
Under an MMT framework where government spending injects new reserves into the commercial banking system, and taxes withdraw them from the banking system, government activity would have an instant effect on interbank lending. If on a particular day, the government spends more than it taxes, reserves have been added to the banking system (see vertical transactions). This action typically leads to a system-wide surplus of reserves, with competition between banks seeking to lend their excess reserves, forcing the short-term interest rate down to the support rate (or to zero if a support rate is not in place). At this point, banks will simply keep their reserve surplus with their central bank and earn the support rate.
The alternate case is where the government receives more taxes on a particular day than it spends. Then there may be a system-wide deficit of reserves. Consequently, surplus funds will be in demand on the interbank market, and thus the short-term interest rate will rise towards the discount rate. Thus, if the central bank wants to maintain a target interest rate somewhere between the support rate and the discount rate, it must manage the liquidity in the system to ensure that the correct amount of reserves is on-hand in the banking system.
Central banks manage liquidity by buying and selling government bonds on the open market. When excess reserves are in the banking system, the central bank sells bonds, removing reserves from the banking system, because private individuals pay for the bonds. When insufficient reserves are in the system, the central bank buys government bonds from the private sector, adding reserves to the banking system.
The central bank buys bonds by simply creating money – it is not financed in any way. It is a net injection of reserves into the banking system. If a central bank is to maintain a target interest rate, then it must buy and sell government bonds on the open market in order to maintain the correct amount of reserves in the system.
Horizontal transactions
MMT economists describe any transactions within the private sector as "horizontal" transactions, including the expansion of the broad money supply through the extension of credit by banks.
MMT economists regard the concept of the money multiplier, where a bank is completely constrained in lending through the deposits it holds and its capital requirement, as misleading. Rather than being a practical limitation on lending, the cost of borrowing funds from the interbank market (or the central bank) represents a profitability consideration when the private bank lends in excess of its reserve or capital requirements (see interaction between government and the banking sector). Effects on employment are used as evidence that a currency monopolist is overly restricting the supply of the financial assets needed to pay taxes and satisfy savings desires.
According to MMT, bank credit should be regarded as a "leverage" of the monetary base and should not be regarded as increasing the net financial assets held by an economy: only the government or central bank is able to issue high-powered money with no corresponding liability. Stephanie Kelton said that bank money is generally accepted in settlement of debt and taxes because of state guarantees, but that state-issued high-powered money sits atop a "hierarchy of money".
Foreign sector
Imports and exports
MMT proponents such as Warren Mosler say that trade deficits are sustainable and beneficial to the standard of living in the short term. Imports are an economic benefit to the importing nation because they provide the nation with real goods. Exports, however, are an economic cost to the exporting nation because it is losing real goods that it could have consumed. Currency transferred to foreign ownership, however, represents a future claim over goods of that nation.
Cheap imports may also cause the failure of local firms providing similar goods at higher prices, and hence unemployment, but MMT proponents label that consideration as a subjective value-based one, rather than an economic-based one: It is up to a nation to decide whether it values the benefit of cheaper imports more than it values employment in a particular industry. Similarly a nation overly dependent on imports may face a supply shock if the exchange rate drops significantly, though central banks can and do trade on foreign exchange markets to avoid shocks to the exchange rate.
Foreign sector and government
MMT says that as long as demand exists for the issuer's currency, whether the bond holder is foreign or not, governments can never be insolvent when the debt obligations are in their own currency; this is because the government is not constrained in creating its own fiat currency (although the bond holder may affect the exchange rate by converting to local currency).
MMT does agree with mainstream economics that debt in a foreign currency is a fiscal risk to governments, because the indebted government cannot create foreign currency. In this case, the only way the government can repay its foreign debt is to ensure that its currency is continually in high demand by foreigners over the period that it wishes to repay its debt; an exchange rate collapse would potentially multiply the debt many times over asymptotically, making it impossible to repay. In that case, the government can default, or attempt to shift to an export-led strategy or raise interest rates to attract foreign investment in the currency. Either one negatively affects the economy.
Policy implications
Economist Stephanie Kelton explained several points made by MMT in March, 2019:
Under MMT, fiscal policy (i.e., government taxing and spending decisions) is the primary means of achieving full employment, establishing the budget deficit at the level necessary to reach that goal. In mainstream economics, monetary policy (i.e., Central Bank adjustment of interest rates and its balance sheet) is the primary mechanism, assuming there is some interest rate low enough to achieve full employment. Kelton said that "cutting interest rates is ineffective in a slump" because businesses, expecting weak profits and few customers, will not invest even at very low interest rates.
Government interest expenses are proportional to interest rates, so raising rates is a form of stimulus (it increases the budget deficit and injects money into the private sector, other things being equal); cutting rates is a form of austerity.
Achieving full employment can be administered via a centrally-funded job guarantee, which acts as an automatic stabilizer. When private sector jobs are plentiful, the government spending on guaranteed jobs is lower, and vice versa.
Under MMT, expansionary fiscal policy, i.e., money creation to fund purchases, can increase bank reserves, which can lower interest rates. In mainstream economics, expansionary fiscal policy, i.e., debt issuance and spending, can result in higher interest rates, crowding out economic activity.
Economist John T. Harvey explained several of the premises of MMT and their policy implications in March 2019:
The private sector treats labor as a cost to be minimized, so it cannot be expected to achieve full employment without government creating jobs, too, such as through a job guarantee.
The public sector's deficit is the private sector's surplus and vice versa, by accounting identity, which increased private sector debt during the Clinton-era budget surpluses.
Creating money activates idle resources, mainly labor. Not doing so is immoral.
Demand can be insensitive to interest rate changes, so a key mainstream assumption, that lower interest rates lead to higher demand, is questionable.
There is a "free lunch" in creating money to fund government expenditure to achieve full employment. Unemployment is a burden; full employment is not.
Creating money alone does not cause inflation; spending it when the economy is at full employment can.
MMT says that "borrowing" is a misnomer when applied to a sovereign government's fiscal operations, because the government is merely accepting its own IOUs, and nobody can borrow back their own debt instruments. Sovereign government goes into debt by issuing its own liabilities that are financial wealth to the private sector. "Private debt is debt, but government debt is financial wealth to the private sector."
In this theory, sovereign government is not financially constrained in its ability to spend; the government can afford to buy anything that is for sale in currency that it issues; there may, however, be political constraints, like a debt ceiling law. The only constraint is that excessive spending by any sector of the economy, whether households, firms, or public, could cause inflationary pressures.
MMT economists advocate a government-funded job guarantee scheme to eliminate involuntary unemployment. Proponents say that this activity can be consistent with price stability because it targets unemployment directly rather than attempting to increase private sector job creation indirectly through a much larger economic stimulus, and maintains a "buffer stock" of labor that can readily switch to the private sector when jobs become available. A job guarantee program could also be considered an automatic stabilizer to the economy, expanding when private sector activity cools down and shrinking in size when private sector activity heats up.
MMT economists also say quantitative easing is unlikely to have the effects that its advocates hope for. Under MMT, QE – the purchasing of government debt by central banks – is simply an asset swap, exchanging interest-bearing dollars for non-interest-bearing dollars. The net result of this procedure is not to inject new investment into the real economy, but instead to drive up asset prices, shifting money from government bonds into other assets such as equities, which enhances economic inequality. The Bank of England's analysis of QE confirms that it has disproportionately benefited the wealthiest.
MMT economists say that that inflation can be better controlled (than by setting interest rates) with new or increased taxes to remove extra money from the economy. These tax increases would be on everyone, not just billionaires, since the majority of spending is by average Americans.
Comparison of MMT with mainstream Keynesian economics
MMT can be compared and contrasted with mainstream Keynesian economics in a variety of ways:
Reaction and commentary
A 2019 survey of leading economists by the University of Chicago Booth's Initiative on Global Markets showed a unanimous rejection of assertions attributed by the survey to MMT: "Countries that borrow in their own currency should not worry about government deficits because they can always create money to finance their debt" and "Countries that borrow in their own currency can finance as much real government spending as they want by creating money". Directly responding to the survey, MMT economist William K. Black said "MMT scholars do not make or support either claim." Multiple MMT academics regard the attribution of these claims as a smear.
The post-Keynesian economist Thomas Palley said that MMT is largely a restatement of elementary Keynesian economics, but prone to "over-simplistic analysis" and understating the risks of its policy implications. Palley does not agree with MMT saying that standard Keynesian analysis does not fully capture the accounting identities and financial restraints on a government that can issue its own money. He said that these insights are well captured by standard Keynesian stock-flow consistent IS-LM models, and have been well understood by Keynesian economists for decades. He also says MMT "assumes away the problem of fiscal–monetary conflict" – that is, that the governmental body that creates the spending budget (e.g. the legislature) may refuse to cooperate with the governmental body that controls the money supply (e.g., the central bank). He said the policies proposed by MMT proponents would cause serious financial instability in an open economy with flexible exchange rates, while using fixed exchange rates would restore hard financial constraints on the government and "undermines MMT's main claim about sovereign money freeing governments from standard market disciplines and financial constraints". He says that MMT lacks a plausible theory of inflation, particularly in the context of full employment in the employer of last resort policy first proposed by Hyman Minsky and advocated by Bill Mitchell and other MMT theorists; of a lack of appreciation of the financial instability that could be caused by permanently zero interest rates; and of overstating the importance of government-created money. Palley concludes that MMT provides no new insights about monetary theory, while making unsubstantiated claims about macroeconomic policy, and that MMT has only received attention recently due to it being a "policy polemic for depressed times".
Marc Lavoie said that whilst the neochartalist argument is "essentially correct", many of its counter-intuitive claims depend on a "confusing" and "fictitious" consolidation of government and central banking operations, which is what Palley calls "the problem of fiscal–monetary conflict". James K. Galbraith, a son of John Kenneth Galbraith, supports MMT and wrote the foreword for Mosler's book Seven Deadly Innocent Frauds of Economic Policy in 2010.
New Keynesian economist and recipient of the Nobel Prize in Economics, Paul Krugman, says MMT goes too far in its support for government budget deficits, and ignores the inflationary implications of maintaining budget deficits when the economy is growing. Krugman described MMT devotees as engaging in "calvinball" – a game from the comic strip Calvin and Hobbes in which the players change the rules at whim. Austrian School economist Robert P. Murphy states that MMT is "dead wrong" and that "the MMT worldview doesn't live up to its promises". He said that MMT saying cutting government deficits erodes private saving is true "only for the portion of private saving that is not invested" and says that the national accounting identities used to explain this aspect of MMT could equally be used to support arguments that government deficits "crowd out" private sector investment.
The chartalist view of money itself, and the MMT emphasis on the importance of taxes in driving money, is also a source of criticism. In 2015, three MMT economists, Scott Fullwiler, Stephanie Kelton, and L. Randall Wray, addressed what they saw as the main criticisms being made.
See also
Everything bubble
References
Further reading
. Introduction to modern (as of 2009) Chartalism.
External links
January 2012: Modern Monetary Theory: A Debate (Brett Fiebiger critiques and Scott Fullwiler, Stephanie Kelton, L. Randall Wray respond; Political Economy Research Institute, Amherst, MA)
June 2012: Knut Wicksell and origins of modern monetary theory (Lars Pålsson Syll)
September 2020: Degrowth and MMT: A thought Experiment (Jason Hickel)
The Modern Money Network is currently headquartered at Columbia University in the city of New York.
Ideologies of capitalism
Macroeconomic theories
Political terminology
Post-Keynesian economics
Schools of economic thought
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingkang%20incident
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Jingkang incident
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The Jingkang Incident (), also known as the Humiliation of Jingkang () and the Disorders of the Jingkang Period (), was an episode of invasions and war crimes that took place in 1127 during the Jin–Song Wars when the forces of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty besieged and sacked the imperial palaces in Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng), the capital of the Han-led Northern Song dynasty. The Jin forces captured the Northern Song ruler, Emperor Qinzong, along with his father, the retired Emperor Huizong, and many members of the imperial family of Emperor Taizong's bloodline and officials of the Song imperial court. The ordinary Song civilians of Bianjing living in the non-imperial quarter were left alone after being forced to pay huge ransoms to the Jin.
This event marked the collapse of the Northern Song dynasty that originally controlled most of China proper. Many members of the Song imperial family, most notably Zhao Gou (later Emperor Gaozong), managed to escape to southern China, where they reestablished the Song dynasty (known in historiography as the Southern Song dynasty) in the new capital, Lin'an (present-day Hangzhou). This event also greatly contributed to the return of the descendants of Emperor Taizu to the line of succession, as most of Emperor Taizong's descendants were abducted; Emperor Gaozong himself failed to produce an heir as well.
This event is known as the "Jingkang Incident" because it took place during the Jingkang era of the reign of Emperor Qinzong.
Background
In 1120, under the Alliance Conducted at Sea, the Jin and Song dynasties agreed to form a military alliance against the Liao dynasty and, if victorious, divide up the Liao territories. The Jin would get a large portion of the northern land and the Song would get a smaller portion in the southern region called the Sixteen Prefectures.
Led by Tong Guan, the Song army marched to the Song-Liao border and was stopped by the defensive forest that the Song had maintained since the reign of Emperor Taizu. In order to pass through, Tong Guan ordered the soldiers to clear the forest and continued the expedition into the Liao.
The Jin army sacked the Liao capital of Shangjing and ended the Liao dynasty. The Song army in the south, however, could not even penetrate the Liao's defensive positions and the army was defeated by the remaining Liao troops afterwards. This exposed the limitations of the Song army as well as the corruption and inefficiency in the Song imperial court. In the end, the Jin took control of all former Liao territories.
After the fall of the Liao dynasty, the Song dynasty wanted the Sixteen Prefectures as promised. The Jin dynasty sold the land at a price of 300,000 bolts of silk and 200,000 ounces of silver. This price was considered to be extremely generous because it was the tribute that the Song had been paying to the Liao annually since the Chanyuan Treaty of 1005.
Prelude to the war
According to the Twenty-Four Histories, in 1123, three years after the fall of Liao, a Jin general Zhang Jue (), defected to the Song dynasty. He was governor of the Jin-controlled Pingzhou Prefecture (present-day Zunhua), which was within the Great Wall, but not counted among the Sixteen Prefectures. Nonetheless, the Song imperial court initially welcomed the defection and awarded Zhang Jue an honorific title and land. The Jin dynasty, on the other hand, sent a small army aiming to overturn the defection but was defeated by Zhang Jue's troops.
In 1123 or 1124 (records differ), Jin sent diplomats for Zhang Jue and sacked three Song cities. Panicking, Wang Anzhong (a Song general) killed someone who looked like Zhang Jue and sent the head to Jin. The Jin realized it was a ruse and attacked Song again. Zhang Jue was eventually executed in the winter of the same year. This came too late: in the fall of 1125, Emperor Taizong of the Jin dynasty issued an order to launch a full-scale attack on Song territories.
First Siege of Bianjing
The Jin armies invaded Song territory from the west and from the north. When the Jin troops reached the former Song-Liao border in Heibei, since the original defensive forest was cleared during 1122 expedition, the Jin troops marched through a defenseless border without impediment. The Jin northern army advanced quickly, sacking Qinhuangdao in October 1125, followed Baoding, Dingzhou, Zhengding and Xingtai in January 1126. This army, commanded by Wolibu (Wanyan Zongwang), did not meet much resistance as most of the Song generals surrendered themselves and their cities as soon as the Jin army arrived. On the other hand, the Jin western army, commanded by Nianhan (Wanyan Zonghan), was held up near the cities of Datong and Taiyuan from the very beginning and did not make much progress for the rest of the war. In February 1126, the Jin northern army crossed the Yellow River and began the siege of Bianjing (present-day Kaifeng), the Song capital. Before the invaders surrounded the city, Emperor Huizong had abdicated in favor of his eldest son, Emperor Qinzong, and fled to the countryside with his entourage. The Jin northern army faced difficult siege fighting that was not well-suited for cavalry. At the same time, the Jin western army was still held up in the Datong area and could not come to the aid of the northern army. In an effort to end the battle sooner, Emperor Qinzong sent his ninth brother, Zhao Gou to the enemy camp for peace talks. The Jin emperor, Emperor Taizong, ordered Zhao Gou taken hostage until the Song imperial court came up with a ransom. Eventually, the Song imperial court came forth with the ransom and the city of Taiyuan was also given to Jin as a gift in good faith. Zhao Gou was released and the Jin northern army started to withdraw.
Second Siege of Bianjing
Everything went back to normal as soon as the Jin forces retreated. Lavish parties continued to be held daily at the imperial palace. Emperor Huizong returned to Bianjing from the countryside. Song generals suggested that large numbers of troops ought to be garrisoned along the border of the Yellow River. Emperor Qinzong rejected the proposal by citing that the Jin forces might never come back. Many experienced generals who defended the city in the first siege of Bianjing were removed from the capital and posted elsewhere in the country. Many army groups were decommissioned or sent back to their prefectures of origin.
Three months after the first siege of the city, the Jin imperial court sent two ambassadors to Song. The two ambassadors were nobles from the former Liao dynasty. Emperor Qinzong misjudged the situation and believed that they could be turned against the Jin ruler, Emperor Taizong. Emperor Qinzong sent a coded letter which was sealed in candle wax, inviting them to join Song to form an anti–Jin alliance. The two handed the letter to Emperor Taizong right away. Furious, Emperor Taizong ordered an even bigger army to attack Song. This second campaign would eventually topple the Northern Song dynasty.
Since most of the Jin troops had just returned from their first expedition and had not even demobilized, the army was quickly remobilized. Following precedents set in the previous campaign, the Jin army divided into two groups, Wolibu's northern army and Nianhan's western army, even daring to take the same routes again.
In September 1126, the two Jin army groups set foot in Song territory. Unlike the previous battle, however, the western army was able to sack Datong within only one month. Cities like Luoyang and Zhengzhou surrendered themselves, clearing the way to Bianjing. The northern army, having sacked Baoding, Dingzhou and Zhengding in September, regrouped and crossed the Yellow River in November. It then went on a rampage and sacked Qingfeng, Puyang and other satellite cities around Bianjing in December. By the middle of December, the two forces regrouped at Bianjing and the capital was finally besieged.
Unlike the first siege, Bianjing's defenses in the second siege had some fatal flaws:
Due to the lack of experienced generals and personnel, the whole defense process was unorganized.
The Jin army was much bigger than the last time. Emperor Taizong sent a 150,000 strong force, having learnt from the first siege, when the western army was held up in Datong and could not advance on Bianjing. This time, however, Datong was sacked within a month, and the full strength of the western army was under the city walls.
Although Emperor Qinzong called for help and many responded, the rapid deployment of Jin troops made it impossible to aid the city. Song troops from all over the country, including Zhao Gou's troops came to Bianjing but were not able to get into the city.
Emperor Qinzong's trust in a minister who claimed he could summon "divine soldiers" from Heaven to the battleground was misplaced, causing much wasted time and human lives.
On 9 January 1127, Bianjing fell to Jin forces. Emperor Qinzong and his father, Emperor Huizong, were captured by the Jin army. Thus, the Northern Song dynasty came to an end.
In exchange for the Jin soldiers sparing Kaifeng's ordinary civilian population, the people of Kaifeng gave them wine, meat, silk and gold. Song officials turned over wine, wine makers, painters, weapons, horses, gold, silver and plain silk bolts after the Jin demanded them. Gold and silver were given to the Jin in exchange for Jin soldiers sparing the Kaifeng's people from looting, as well as Buddhist and Daoist books, printing blocks, silk bolts, silk thread pharmacy pills, parasols, ox carts, old bronze vessels, Buddhist monks, professors, storytellers, painters, clerks, jade carvers,
gardeners, masons, weapons makers, astronomers, musicians, physicians diagrams, maps, headgear worn by consorts, musical instruments, bells and shop, temple and palace lanterns.
Abduction
On 20 March 1127, Jin troops summoned the two captured emperors to their camps. Awaiting them was a directive from Emperor Taizong that they were to be demoted to commoners, stripped of their ceremonial trappings and Jin troops would compound the imperial palace.
According to The Accounts of Jingkang, Jin troops looted the entire imperial library and the decorations in the palace. Jin troops also abducted all the female servants and imperial musicians. The imperial family was abducted and their residences were looted. All the female prisoners were ordered, on pain of death, to serve the Jin aristocrats no matter what rank in society they had previously held. A Jin prince wanted to marry Emperor Huizong's daughter, Zhao Fujin, who had been another man's wife. Later on, the emperor's concubines were also given to the prince by Emperor Taizong. To avoid captivity and slavery under the Jurchens, many palace women committed suicide.
Emperor Taizong feared that the remaining Song troops would launch a counter-offensive to reclaim the capital. Therefore, he set up in Bianjing a puppet government for the lands south of the Yellow River, called Chu (), and ordered all the assets and prisoners to be taken back to the Jin capital – Shangjing (in present-day Harbin). The captives marched to the Jin capital along with the assets. Over 14,000 people, including the Song imperial family, went on this journey. Their entourage – almost all the ministers and generals of the Northern Song dynasty – suffered from illness, dehydration and exhaustion, and many never made it. Upon arrival, each person had to go through a ritual where the person has to be naked and wearing only sheep skins. Contrary to what was previously thought, the ceremony was drawn from ancient Han Chinese customs, drawn together by Jin experts on Han rather than a Jurchen ritual. Empress Zhu committed suicide because she could not bear the humiliation. Men were sold into slavery in exchange for horses with a ratio of ten men for one horse. Women, especially former Song princesses, became palace slaves in a part of the Jin palace called the laundry hall () and others were taken as slaves by Jin princes and others. Some Song princesses became Jin princes' concubines. Someone bought an "ex–royal" for less than ten ounces of gold.<ref>"The Accounts of Jingkang" (靖康稗史箋證) 设也马北上途中就以富金为妻,回到上京后,金太宗诏许,「赐帝姬赵富金、王妃徐圣英、宫嫔杨调儿、陈文婉侍设也马郎君为妾。」 Sheyema married Zhao Fujin during his journey back north. After Sheyema arrived in the Supreme Capital, the Jin Emperor Taizong delivered the following edict: "The Imperial Concubine Zhao Fujin, along with Concubines Xu Shengying, Yang Diao'er and Chen Wenwan are hereby bestowed upon Prince Sheyema.""The Accounts of Jingkang" (靖康稗史箋證) 「以八金买倡妇,实为亲王女孙、相国侄妇、进士夫人」 ("For eight pieces of gold, one purchased a singer who had been a prince's granddaughter, prime minister's daughter-in-law, and minister's wife.")</ref>
In retaliation for Jurchen women being raped by Khitan men, Khitan women prisoners were given as wives to the Han Chinese Song princes when they were both taken into captivity by the Jurchen. The Song male Han Chinese princes who were captured were given Khitan women to marry from the Liao dynasty palace by the Jin Jurchens, who had also defeated and conquered the Khitan of the Liao dynasty in Mongolia. The original Chinese wives of the Song princes were confiscated and replaced with Khitan ones. One of the Song Emperor Huizong's sons was given a Khitan consort from the Liao palace and another one of his sons was given a Khitan princess by the Jin at the Jin Supreme capital (Shangjing, now in Acheng District, Harbin, Heilongjiang province). The Jin Jurchens continued to give new wives to the captured Song royals, the grandsons and sons of Song Emperor Huizong after they took away their original Chinese wives. The Jin Jurchens told the Han Chinese Song royals that they were fortunate because the Liao Khitan royals were being treated much worse by the Jurchen than the Song Chinese royals, Jurchen soldiers were given the children of the Liao Khitan Tianzuo Emperor as gifts while the Song Emperor was allowed to keep his children while he was in captivity. The Jurchens had sacked and destroyed the Khitan Liao supreme capital in Inner Mongolia and burned the ancestral tombs of the Liao Emperors. Emperor Qinzong of Song would spend the rest of his life in Jin captivity, although his status was eventually raised to nobility and he began to receive a stipend. In 1156, as a humiliation for both men, the former Emperor Qinzong of Song and the former Khitan Emperor Tianzuo of Liao were forced by the Jin Emperor to play a match of polo against each other. Qinzong was weak and frail, and so fell off his horse, while the Khitan Liao Emperor Tianzuo, even though he was quite old himself, was more familiar with horse-riding and tried to escape on his horse, but was shot and killed by Jurchen archers. Khitan Liao royal princesses from the Khitan Liao Yelü royal family and Khitan Xiao family (the Liao dynasty consort clan) were also distributed to Jurchen Jin princes as concubines. Jurchen Prince Wanyan Liang married the Khitan women Lady Xiao (), Consort Chen () Lady Yelü (), Consort Li (), Consort Rou () and Zhaoyuan (). Before the Jurchens overthrew the Khitan, married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls were raped by Liao Khitan envoys as a custom which caused resentment by the Jurchens against the Khitan. Liao Khitan envoys among the Jurchens were treated to guest prostitutes by their Jurchen hosts. Unmarried Jurchen girls and their families hosted the Liao envoys who had sex with the girls. Song envoys among the Jin were similarly entertained by singing girls in Guide, Henan. Song princesses committed suicide to avoid rape or were killed for resisting rape by the Jin.
Aftermath and appraisal
The scale of destruction and devastation was unprecedented: treasures, art collections, scrolls from the imperial library were lost on a scale that the Chinese had never seen before. Due to the heavy damage to the country's economy and military, and the loss of talented manpower, the Southern Song dynasty did not recover the lost territories, despite constant fighting between the Song and Jin, the territory was ruled by non-Han Chinese emperors.大金弔伐錄 It would take another 200 years, until the Ming dynasty, to claim back all the territories that the Song dynasty lost.
Many foreign-sounding, non-traditional Chinese family names existing in China today can date back to this incident, as the Han Chinese captives were forced to adopt Jurchen family names. In fact, many members of the imperial family of the Qing dynasty had the surname "Gioro" (e.g. Aisin Gioro, Irgen Gioro); it is believed that they were the descendants of Emperor Huizong and Emperor Qinzong.
This invasion, combined with the later Mongol rule, were speculated to have caused China's advance into capitalism to fall behind by several centuries; although the Ming dynasty later restored the old order, the results of their own fall to the Manchus was to stagnate China once more. This view is supported by the fact that the Song economy had been advanced, and exhibited many features of capitalism. According to this view, the Jingkang Incident holds historic significance in regard to late imperial China's decline.
Researchers in China who published their findings in the People's Political Consultative Daily in 2001, pointed out that this incident led to the transformation of women's rights after the Song dynasty. Since the members of the imperial family who were captured were sold as slaves or concubines, Chinese rulers after the Song dynasty greatly emphasized the importance of sexual norms, especially a woman's chastity and loyalty towards her husband. Chinese rulers of later dynasties instructed that when a woman is confronted between the choice of survival or the honor of chastity, survival is not an option.
In popular culture
This incident was referred to as the "Lingering Humiliation of Jingkang" () in Man Jiang Hong, a lyrical poem commonly attributed to the Song dynasty general Yue Fei, but was actually written by an anonymous poet in the Ming dynasty.
In The Legend of the Condor Heroes, a wuxia novel by Louis Cha, this national humiliation inspired the Quanzhen Taoist Qiu Chuji to name the two main characters, Guo Jing and Yang Kang, who were born soon afterwards in the storyline.
In Bandit Kings of Ancient China, a video game by Koei, failure to win the game before 1127 results in the Jurchens occupying the entire China in January 1127, ending the game.
Guy Gavriel Kay liberally fictionalized the incident in River of Stars, an alternate historical fiction novel for adults. Kay uses alternate names for historic places and fictional characters.
See also
Jin–Song Wars
Timeline of the Jin–Song Wars
Han Shizhong
Li Qingzhao
Zhou Tong (archer)
References
Further reading
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. (2013). Emperor Huizong (Harvard University Press; 2013) 661 pages; scholarly biography online review
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. (1999). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (paperback).
Jing-shen Tao (1976) The Jurchen in Twelfth-Century China. University of Washington Press. .
Franke, Herbert and Denis Twitchett. Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368 (Cambridge History of China, vol. 6). Cambridge University Press, 1994. . Partial text on Google Books.
Kaplan, Edward Harold. Yueh Fei and the founding of the Southern Sung''. Thesis (PhD) – University of Iowa, 1970. Ann Arbor: University Microfilms International, 1970.
Battles involving the Song dynasty
History of Kaifeng
Jin–Song Wars
1127 in Asia
12th century in China
Conflicts in 1127
War crimes in China
Wartime sexual violence
Massacres in China
Chinese war crimes
Emperor Huizong of Song
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender%20mainstreaming
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Gender mainstreaming
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Gender mainstreaming is the public policy concept of assessing the implications for people of different genders of a planned policy action, including legislation and programmes. Mainstreaming offers a pluralistic approach that values the diversity among people of different genders.
The concept of gender mainstreaming was first proposed at the 1985 Third World Conference on Women and has subsequently been pushed in the United Nations development community. The idea was formally featured in 1995 at the Fourth World Conference on Women, and was cited in the document that resulted from the conference, the Beijing Platform for Action.
Definition
Most definitions of gender mainstreaming conform to the UN Economic and Social Council formally defined concept:
Mainstreaming a gender perspective is the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making women's as well as men's concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality.
There are different approaches to gender mainstreaming:
Institutional perspective: The ways in which specific organizations adopt and implement mainstreaming policies. This will often involve an analysis of how national politics intersects with international norms and practices.
Discursive perspective: Queries the ways in which mainstreaming reproduces power relations through language and issue-framing. This approach will often involve looking at documents, resolutions and peace agreements to see how they reproduce the narratives of gender in a political context.
These approaches are not necessarily competing, and can be seen as complementary.
The ways in which approaches are used, however, can also reflect differing feminist theories. For example, liberal feminism is strongly invoked by mainstreaming through the binary approach of gender in strict relation to the public sphere of policymaking. Poststructuralist feminism can be seen in mainstreaming thought which seeks to displace gender difference as the sole axis of difference and to highlight the diversity of policy its ramifications.
Principles
Prioritizing gender equality
Gender mainstreaming tries, among others, to ascertain a gender equality perspective across all policy areas. According to Jacqui True, a Professor of politics and international relations, "[e]very policy or piece of legislation should be evaluated from the perspective of whether or not it reduces or increases gender inequalities." This concept of gender equality is not limited to formal equality, it includes as well equality de facto, which is a more holistic approach to gender policy in order to tackle the interconnected causes that create an unequal relation between the sexes in all areas of life (work, politics, sexuality, culture, and violence).
Lombardo notes that "[t]here should be evidence that gender equality objective and policies of special concern for women (for example, social policy) have been prioritized in the organization among competing objectives (in terms of financial and human resources, type of measures adopted, voting systems used, and so forth)."
Incorporating gender into politics and decision making
Puechguirbal takes a discursive approach to argue that in order to successfully mainstream a gendered perspective in politics, language needs to be reevaluated and used to change the parameters of how women are perceived.
Historically, documents concerning international agreements, peacekeeping arrangements and legal resolutions have perpetuated stereotypes that disempower women. This can be seen through the use of language, even as simply as in the UN Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration program's (DDR) motto: 'One man, on weapon'.
Reference of gender issues should be found in all policy areas. "There must be evidence that the mainstream political agenda has been reoriented by rethinking and rearticulating policy ends and means from a gender perspective," Lombardo says, referencing Rounaq Jahan, a political scientists, feminist leader and author. As the Beijing Platform for Action states, "women's equal participation in political life plays a pivotal role in the general process of the advancement of women."
Further, according to the Beijing Platform for Action "[w]ithout the active participation of women and the incorporation of women's perspective at all levels of decision-making, the goals of equality, development and peace cannot be achieved." Therefore, Lombardo claims that women and men should be equally represented in any decision-making institution. Charlesworth agrees and believes that every effort should be made to broaden women's participation at all levels of decision-making.
Post-conflict peace-building (PCPB)
An area of policy and decision making that will particularly benefit from gender mainstreaming is post-conflict peace-building, also known as PCPB. Various feminist research has concluded that men and women experience violent conflict differently and moreover, the current policies surrounding PCPB are insufficient in addressing the disadvantaged position of women in male-dominated power structures that are further reinforced by peace-building efforts, both from the domestic and international communities. Gender mainstreaming in PCPB would emphasize the importance of gendered considerations of particular issues that disproportionally affect women in post-conflict settings. This would mean that policy reflected an acknowledgment of the many instances of wartime sexualized violence perpetrated on women, among other issues that (primarily) women face during conflict. A major focus of the effort towards gender mainstreaming in post-conflict peace-building policy is to lessen the international community's inclination towards building a return to 'normal' for the post-conflict region. Much of feminist research has found that returning to 'normal' is of little comfort for women, who were burdened by the patriarchal systems that were in place before conflict broke out. As Handrahan notes, the international community involved in much of PCPB "tolerates high levels of violence against women in their own societies." Policy that prioritized gender in its applications and goals would seek to build a society where women are better off than they were before conflict broke out.
Shifts in institutional culture
Gender mainstreaming can be seen as a process of organizational change. Gender mainstreaming must be institutionalized through concrete steps, mechanisms, and processes in all parts of the organization. According to Lombardo, this change involves three aspects: policy process, policy mechanisms; and policy actors. She explains as follows:
"1. A shift in policy process means that the process "is reorganized so that ordinary actors know how to incorporate a gender perspective" or that gender expertise is included "as normal requirement for policy-makers" (Council of Europe 1998, 165).
2. A shift in policy mechanism involves (a) the adoption of horizontal cooperation on gender issues across all policy areas, levels, and departments; and (b) the use of appropriate policy tools and techniques to integrate the gender variable in all policies and to monitor and evaluate all policies from a gender perspective.
3. The range of policy actors participating in the policy-making process is broadened to include, apart from policy-makers and civil servants, gender experts and civil society."
Gender budgeting
Gender budgeting encompasses activities and initiatives aiming at the preparation of budgets or the analysis of policies and budgets from a gender perspective. It can also be referred to as gender-sensitive budgeting or gender-responsive budgeting. Gender budgeting does not aim at creating separate budgets for women, or only increasing spending on women’s programmes. It is rather concerned with addressing budgetary gender inequality concerns, as for instance, how gender hierarchies influence budgets, and gender-based unpaid or low paid work.
Examples
As Jacqui True says, "[m]ainstreaming was established as a global strategy for achieving gender equality, and in turn for achieving sustainable economic development in the 1995 Beijing Platform for Action ratified by all United Nations member states. It is now incumbent upon nation-states and international organizations to carry out gender mainstreaming. As such, mainstreaming has achieved widespread endorsement by individual governments, regional supra-state bodies." What follows is a non-exhaustive list of examples of these endorsements.
Nicaragua
The election of 1990 in Nicaragua brought to office the first female president in the Americas. On April 25, 1990, Violeta Chamorro became the first and only woman to defeat a male incumbent presentment. This helped to change and mobilize mainstream gender structure within Nicaragua. In 1993 the existing outdated Sandinista Women's organization, the Nicaraguan Institute for Research on Women, was revitalized and renamed by the Chamorro government as the Nicaraguan Institute for Woman (INIM). This was to encourage the involvement of Nicaraguan women in the country's economic, social, cultural, and political development and to promote a change in mainstream gender constructs. More specifically, the INIM aims to institute in all sectors a system of gender-focus indicators and to achieve equal opportunity in all State body programming. In 1994, the INIM with 62 women's groups held discussions to mobilize their initiatives and form a bill of action. The discussions formed a plan, which defined patriarchy, sexism, and gender stereotypes to reduce inequality in education, employment, and violence.
Although the Nicaraguan Institute for Women claimed to "have been instrumental in mainstreaming gender equality principles and strategies into agriculture, socio-economic development, higher education, and sexual and domestic violence prevention," the United Nations General Assembly on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in 2007 raised several concerns, such as the backlog of important women's rights legislation in the country, the lack of studies on abortion, and the available funds of the Institute.
Taiwan
Under the influence of the UN community, the usage of the term increased in Taiwan since 2000. Local feminist organizations have different views on gender mainstreaming. Some groups considered that the Commission on Women Rights Promotion under Executive Yuan should be expanded, while other groups, including the National Alliance of Taiwan Women's Associations, considered that gender mainstreaming is not promotion of women's rights but an assessment of all policies and requires a specific organization.
Foundation of Women's Rights Promotion and Development (FWRPD) has conducted research on gender mainstreaming and gender equality development, produced gender resources kits for training and education, networked women groups and entrepreneurs, participated in international exchange in UN, APEC gender related meetings.
Vienna, Austria
In late 2006, the city council of Vienna, capital of Austria, ordered several gender mainstreaming measures for public facilities and areas. Pictograms and information display charts feature a male silhouette holding a baby in his arms to advise passengers on the underground railway to offer seating to parents with children.
Emergency escape paths are marked by a square table featuring a long-haired lady running in her high heel boots.
A pilot kindergarten now uses a flexible open play area instead of separate "playing corners" with toy cars and LEGO for boys or dolls and faux fireplaces for girls. In some pilot kindergartens, traditional fairy tales were rewritten, and a songbook featuring active women was created.
Infrastructure changes have included "unisex" playgrounds for city parks, which encourage young boys and girls to mix and redesigned streetlights to make parks and sidewalks safer for late night joggers.
UN Peacekeeping Operations
The United Nations began acknowledging the importance of gender mainstreaming as a tool towards achieving gender equality in the mid-1990s, as outlined in the Beijing Platform for Action and the Report from the Secretary General to the Economic and Social Council.
In October 2000, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1325, a resolution that called for an enhanced female participation in the prevention, management and resolution of conflict. Peacekeeping was an area of particular concern, and the Security Council recognized "the urgent need to mainstream a gender perspective into peacekeeping operations." The Council requested "the Secretary-General, where appropriate, to include in his reporting to the Security Council, progress on gender mainstreaming throughout peacekeeping missions and all other aspects relating to women and girls." As a result, there has been an increase in female peacekeeping personnel. As of 2012, in peacekeeping operations and special political missions, 29 percent of international and 17 percent of national staff were women. If we compare these figures with the 48 percent representation of women at the UN Headquarters, the participation of women in the United Nations Peacekeeping operations still faces challenges.
European Union
The equality policy of the European Union consists of three pillars: (1) anti-discrimination, (2) affirmative action policies, and (3) gender mainstreaming.
In the 1990s the European Union officially put gender mainstreaming on their agenda, "fixing the principle in treaty articles, action programs and communications, and setting up institutional bodies and mechanisms to promote the incorporation of a gender perspective into policymaking." More specifically, gender mainstreaming was introduced in 1991 in the European Community as an element of the Third Action Programme on Equal Opportunities. Currently, the legal basis for gender mainstreaming in European law is Article 8 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). This article states the following: "In all its activities, the Union shall aim to eliminate inequalities, and to promote equality, between men and women".
What follows is a non-exhaustive overview of current gender governance initiatives in the European Union that encourages gender mainstreaming.
For instance, since 1997 gender mainstreaming has been part of the European Employment Strategy, a concept launched by the European Council. The European Employment Strategy requires governments to adopt an approach that complies with the concept of gender mainstreaming, while deciding on employment policies. Some concrete examples: new equal opportunities acts requiring mainstreaming (e.g., in France social partners are required to promote gender equality through collective bargaining); mainstreaming or gender assessment in individual ministries or areas of public services (e.g., in Finland and Sweden); and gender assessment of all new pieces of legislation. According to Jill Rubery, a Professor of comparative employment system at Manchester School of Management, so far "the experience has been mixed: though the argument that increasing women's employment is critical to the achievement of Europe's aspirations for a higher employment rate has been widely accepted, there is a much weaker and more fragile commitment to improving the quality of work available to women."
A second example is the Transnational Women's Networks. As such we can cite the European Women's Lobby (EWL) as an important women's organization at EU level that was created in 1990. About 2,500 NGOs of 30 European countries are part of the EWL. The European Women's Lobby encourages "coordination of women's civic groups on the EU stages." The EWL lobbied for increasing the involvement of women's organizations in the process of gender governance. In addition the EWL has been pushing for "an EU Strategy to promote, implement and facilitate civil society and specifically women's organizations input into the European debate as an essential part of the European social model." Another important organization is Women in Development Europe (WIDE). This network, created in 1985, consists of NGOs, women's organizations, gender experts, and activists active in development. Women in Development Europe monitors European economic and developmental policies and practices and is involved at many phases in policy-making activities as knowledge source.
Another gender governance actor is the European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE), established in May 2007. The EIGE has as mandate to "provide expertise, improve knowledge and raise visibility of equality between men and women".
Obviously there are many more initiatives on EU level, to name a few: Advisory Committee on Equal Opportunities for Women and Men, High Level Group on Gender Mainstreaming, Inter-Service Group on Gender Equality, Informal Group of Experts on Gender Equality in Development Cooperation, Women in Europe for our Common Future.
Criticism
Ineffective results
Maria Stratigaki, Assistant Professor at the Department of Social Policy of Panteion University, claims that the transformative effect of gender mainstreaming was minimal and its application has led to contradictory results. It opened important opportunities for specific policies in new policy areas, whereas in some other it diluted positive action. She also claims that, at least as of 2003, gender mainstreaming has failed to affect core policy areas or radically transform policy processes within the European Institutions.
Some say that gender mainstreaming has not increased women's participation in decision making. As Charlesworth notes, "[i]n the most readily measurable area, the United Nations' employment of women in professional and managerial posts, progress has been glacial. In 2004, women held 37.4 percent of these positions. The annual growth rate toward the 50 percent target [...] is predicted to be 0.4 percent. On top of this slow growth, there is a considerable hierarchy based on sex. On June 30, 2004, women held 83.3 percent of positions at the lowest professional level, P-1, but just 16.7 percent at the highest staff level, Under-Secretary-General." In a similar vein, concerning the European Union, Lombardo reports that as of 2003 women represented only 20 percent of the representatives of the head of state or government the member states, 10 percent of the representatives of national parliaments, 31.25 percent of the representatives of the European Parliament and so forth.
True claims that mainstreaming gender does not end in simply increasing the number of women within a specific institution. It is about changing social consciousness, so that the effects of a policy for both women and men are truly analyzed before they are implemented. While it is necessary for feminists to engage with mainstream institutions, the ability of gender mainstreaming to deconstruct the embedded masculinization of institutions varies depending on the characteristics of the policy, the political nature of the institution, and the depth of the institution's consultation with civil society and other members of the women's rights movement. The danger of gender mainstreaming is that large compromises can be made for small gains and can lead to what feminist and sociology professor Gail Dines calls "trickle-down feminism"—i.e., "working to increase the ranks of women in elite jobs without a strategy for wider economic and social change represents a kind of "trickle-down feminism."
Poor implementation
Charlesworth remarks that "[a]lthough it has not been difficult to encourage the adoption of the vocabulary of mainstreaming, there is little evidence of monitoring or follow-up. A consistent problem for all the organizations that adopted gender mainstreaming is the translation of the commitment into action." She continues: "A review of gender mainstreaming policies implemented under the United Nations Development Programme, World Bank, and ILO found inadequate budgeting for the gender components of projects, insufficient development of analytical skills, poor supervision of the implementation of gender components and a general lack of political commitment both within the organization and at the country level."
Hindering progress
Stratigaki claims that positive action was sidelined after the launch of gender mainstreaming as a result of the specific way gender mainstreaming was used by the opponents of gender equality. According to Stratigaki, "[a]lmost all analyses of [gender mainstreaming] agree that it is a strategy which complements but does not replace previous gender specific equality policies like equal treatment legislation and positive action." However, she states too that "in a hostile gender equality policy environments (i.e. patriarchal structures of institutional organisations or the prevalence of policy objectives contrary to gender equality etc.), [gender mainstreaming] may be conceived and applied as an alternative to positive action and used to downplay the final overall objective of gender equality.
True is of the opinion that in practice, attempts to mainstream gender within international institutions have led to the marginalization and increasing invisibility of gender in each policy area. Anne-Marie Goetz, a Clinical Professor at NYU, and Joanne Sandler, a consultant for gender equality and organizational development, argue that ironically, mainstreaming gender runs the risk of becoming everyone's responsibility, yet nobody's at the same time. Gender mainstreaming can allow those in power who are not genuinely interested in the women's movement to adopt the language of women's rights, a reflection of power politics that becomes more of a tool used to legitimize the actions of governments. Gender mainstreaming then becomes more about advising governments than advancing gender equality.
Other criticism
As differences are silenced, the kind of feminism that is likely to be mainstreamed could be a western or middle class brand of feminism. When mainstreaming decisions within international organizations are made by elites can undermine the input of local women's groups.
When gender mainstreaming policies are drafted without consulting sections of the women's movement (i.e., women's rights civil society groups), they lack ground level-expertise. Policy decisions related to gender that are made without consulting sections of the women's movement do not demonstrate a clear political willingness to addressing gender inequality. When institutions reach out to the women's rights movement, it demonstrates transparency, inclusiveness, accountability and the implementation process is more likely to be monitored with diligence. For example, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), as an attempt at mainstreaming gender into development, were formed with minimal consultation with women's groups. The MDGs have led to a considerable amount of theoretically discourse about the goals but less analysis about how they will be implemented.
True highlights the tendency for gender mainstreaming to become a guise under which women are used as economic subjects. Women are framed in terms of advancing economic growth, as opposed to the inherent normative ideal for women and men to hold equal positions of power in society.
See also
Feminist economics
Gender and security sector reform
Gender Empowerment Measure
Gender mainstreaming in teacher education policy
Gender mainstreaming in mine action
History of feminism
Material feminism
Special measures for gender equality in the United Nations
Youth mainstreaming
References
External links
WomenWatch, the United Nations Internet Gateway on Gender Equality and Empowerment of Women
Women's Empowerment, the United Nations Development Programme's gateway on women's empowerment and gender equality
Active work for Gender Equality, SALAR's booklet "Active work for Gender Equality – a challenge for municipalities and county councils""
EIGE, the European Institute for Gender Equality official website
The European Community of Practice on Gender Mainstreaming, The European Commission's learning network on Gender Mainstreaming within the European Social Fund (ESF)""
Libguide on Gender Regional Agenda
Feminism and society
Feminist terminology
Gender equality
Gender and society
Public policy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shedden%20massacre
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Shedden massacre
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The Shedden massacre involved the gang-related killing of eight men, whose bodies were found in a field five kilometres north of Shedden, a small village in the Canadian province of Ontario, on April 8, 2006. Four vehicles, with the bodies inside, were first discovered by a farmer. The day after the bodies were discovered, five people, including one member of the Bandidos motorcycle gang, were arrested for the murders, and three more people were arrested in June 2006. The Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) said the killings were an isolated event and there were no fears for the safety of local residents. The name Shedden massacre is a misnomer. The killings took place at a farm outside of Iona Station and Shedden was the hamlet closest to where the bodies were discovered in a farmer's field.
Background
"Patching over": consolidation in the outlaw biker world
Unable to stand on their own against the Hells Angels, the Chatham chapter of the Loners joined the Bandidos on 22 May 2001 as probationary members, becoming full members on 1 December 2001. Wayne Kellestine and Giovanni Muscedere were two of the Loners that joined the Bandidos. On 5 June 2002, after a series of police raids led to the arrest of several Bandidos in Ontario and Quebec, Giovanni Muscedere became the group's new president. After the arrests, the remaining Canadian Bandidos consisted of 15 members in Ontario spread over three chapters who were consolidated into a single chapter based in Toronto, although its members were actually scattered across southern Ontario. Muscedere became president as the only senior Bandido not in prison or facing charges.
The new chapter
In July 2004, Muscedere opened a new Bandido chapter in Winnipeg, whose members were only probationary members. The leader of the new chapter was Michael "Taz" Sandham, an ambitious former policeman who resigned rather than be fired for associating with outlaw bikers, and who worked hard to keep his past as a policeman secret.
In August 2004, after being released from prison following his conviction on gun and drug charges, Kellestine became the sargento de armas of the Canadian Bandidos, and was displeased at the way his former protégé Muscedere now overshadowed him. Journalist Peter Edwards wrote that outlaw biker clubs claim that they are all about freedom, but in reality they are rigid, rule-bound organizations run in a quasi-militaristic fashion with a strict hierarchy and rules governing every aspect of the members' existence. It was a great source of resentment that Kellestine now answered to president Muscedere, a man to whom he used to give orders when he was the Annihilators' president. When Sandham indicated he wanted to join the Bandidos, one of the Bandido leaders, Frank "Cisco" Lenti, was highly suspicious of him, saying he kept hearing rumours that Sandham used to be a policeman and that he had been rejected by the Outlaws for that reason. He assigned Kellestine to investigate him, and Kellestine reported that the rumours were not true, and that Sandham had never been a policeman.
On 25 June 2005, Sandham visited Kellestine's farm to complain about the unwillingness of the Toronto chapter to make the Winnipeg chapter full members, asking for his support. The principal reason why the Winnipeg chapter were not granted full patches was that the treasurer of the Toronto Bandidos, Luis "Chopper" Raposo, accused Sandham of not paying the monthly membership dues that were owed to Toronto, with Sandham insisting that he had paid the dues.
Edwards wrote that Sandham had "a talent for ruthless politicking and manipulation" as his goal was to take over the entire outlaw biker scene in all of Canada. Sandham had behaved in a very sycophantic manner towards Muscedere, Luis Raposo and Frank Salerno when he wanted to join the Bandidos in 2004, but turned on them when they stood in his ambitions' way. Sandham began writing emails to the Bandidos' mother chapter in Houston denouncing Muscedere's leadership and accusing Raposo of embezzlement.
Rift in the Bandidos: Houston vs. the "No Surrender Crew"
On 6 December 2005, drug dealer Shawn Douse was murdered. He had last been seen alive that day visiting the apartment of Bandido Jamie "Goldberg" Flanz in Keswick. Four Bandidos were charged with his murder. A Bandido, Cameron Acorn, was unhappy with Douse and decided to kill him for selling cocaine to Acorn's girlfriend's sister despite orders to stop, and possibly for sleeping with her. Douse was a worker at the Chrysler factory in Bramalea, a drug dealer and father of two. Flanz was only a "prospect" with the Bandidos. He agreed to let the full patch Bandidos use his apartment in hope that he might become a full patch Bandido. Bandido Robert Quinn had his girlfriend call Douse from her cell phone, saying that she was at a party at Flanz's apartment and wanted to buy some cocaine right away. The all-white Bandidos hated Douse, who was of Black Jamaican descent, and Quinn's girlfriend later testified in court Douse was often described as a "nigger". Outlaw bikers are often white supremacists, and in some circles it is considered honourable for them to slay non-whites.
Douse arrived at Flanz's apartment by taxi. Acorn and his fellow Bandidos Pierre Aragon, Rudolph Brown, Paul Sinopoli, and Robert Quinn fell on Douse, stuffed a gag into his mouth and beat him to death. Douse screamed repeatedly as he was beaten to death in Flanz's basement, saying "I'm sorry", but no mercy was granted as he was considered to be just a "nigger" by the Bandidos. Later that night, Flanz came home from work as a bouncer at a bar. He was shocked to discover that his fellow Bandidos had killed Douse in his apartment, saying this was extremely "stupid" as Douse had arrived via taxi, meaning the police would connect the murder to him. However, Flanz was desperate to be promoted and become a "full patch" Bandido, and so declined to report the murder and helped clean up the crime scene. On 8 December 2005, Douse's burnt body was found. The Ontario Provincial Police (OPP) suspected Flanz had been involved in the murder and tapped his phone. As part of the investigation into Douse's death, the OPP ultimately brought not only Flanz, but the rest of the Toronto Bandido chapter under surveillance, tapping all of their phones.
On 28 December 2005, the American leadership of the Bandidos, which had grown increasingly unhappy with Muscedere's leadership, expelled him and his followers, charging that they were failing to make money, not paying their monthly membership dues because they did not have the money, and were going about business in a "sloppy" manner, leaving them wide open to prosecution. An officer with the Texas Department of Public Safety told the journalist Julien Sher of The Globe and Mail in 2006: "Because their numbers were so low in Canada, the U.S. Bandidos had tried to separate themselves from Canada. When you get to the point when you're not even breaking even – on drugs, like any other trade – you decide to close the business. If you're not bringing anything into the pot, you're a liability instead of an asset".
Muscedere took the expulsions very badly. After being ordered to return their Bandido patches and property, Muscedere sent out an email to Bandidos chapters around the world calling for a vote to allow him and his followers to stay. Jeff Pike, the world leader of the Bandidos, emailed Muscedere back that "Bandidos don't vote, they do what the fuck they're told".
Muscedere and his followers took to calling themselves the "no surrender crew", after an ultra-violent faction of the Irish Republican Army opposed to the Good Friday Agreement of 1998, because they refused the orders from Houston to surrender their patches, saying they were going to stay on as Bandidos despite Pike's decision to expel them. Outlaw bikers attach enormous symbolic importance to their patches, which show which club they belong to and what their position is. The patches belong to the club, not to the men wearing them, and must be returned at once if a member is expelled or resigns. It is considered extremely offensive for someone to wear the patch of a club that they do not belong to, which often results in violence against anyone who does so.
Pike was greatly displeased by the refusal of the "no surrender crew" to return their patches, together with Muscedere's call for a vote to allow the Toronto chapter to stay, bluntly announcing the "Bandido Nation" was not a democracy. At the same time, Sandham was writing emails to Houston disavowing Muscedere and the rest of the "no surrender crew", proclaiming in highly obsequious language that he was with Houston against the "no surrender crew". Sandham had also told Kellestine at this time that the "no surrender crew" were planning to "patch over" to join the Outlaws without him. Kellestine believed what Sandham had told him, and this bit of misinformation turned Kellestine against the "no surrender crew".
The "farm crew" assembles
On 7 March 2006, Sandham, Kellestine and the younger Weiche travelled to British Columbia to visit the Peace Arch Park on the American-Canadian border. American bikers generally cannot enter Canada, as most of them have criminal records. The Peace Arch Park, where it is possible to hold a conversation without crossing the border, is a popular meeting place for Canadian and American bikers. An American Bandido, Peter "Mongo" Price, told Sandham and Kellestine that Houston was furious that the "no surrender crew" were still wearing Bandido patches despite being expelled in December 2005. Price was the national sergeant-at-arms of Bandidos USA, making him in charge of discipline, and accompanying him were Keinard "Hawaiian Ken" Post and Brian Bentley of the Washington state Bandidos. The fact that Price had flown from Houston to meet Kellestine and Sandham in the Peace Arch Park suggested he had something especially important to say, that he could not say on the phone or write in an email.
Price further informed Kellestine that he would become the new Canadian Bandido president if he succeeded in "pulling the patches" of the "no surrender crew", while the Winnipeg chapter would be granted "full patches", making them into full members. Price concluded by stating that both Kellestine and Sandham would be expelled as well if they failed with removing the patches being worn by the rogue Toronto chapter. At his trial in 2009, Sandham testified that Price who was representing Pike had told him that Muscedere and the rest of the "no surrender crew" were to be killed, and Kellestine would become the new leader of the Canadian Bandidos as the reward. After the meeting in the Peace Arch Park, Weiche chose to remain in Vancouver, though he regularly exchanged phone calls with Sandham. In his emails to his enemy Raposo after the meeting in the Peace Arch Park, Sandham adopted a mocking, condescending tone of superiority, as he was secure in the knowledge that Houston was on his side. Between 20 and 22 March, Sandham again went to Vancouver to meet with American Bandidos in the Peace Arch Park. The Winnipeg crew claimed that Sandham received a phone call from an American Bandido, Keinard "Hawaiian Ken" Post, asking why the "no surrender crew" were still wearing Bandido patches five months after being expelled and accused them all of incompetence in allowing this situation to persist.
On 25 March 2006, Sandham announced to his followers that he had received orders from Houston to act against the "no surrender crew", so they were departing for Kellestine's farm without telling him that they were coming. Sandham assured his followers that Kellestine had plenty of guns at his farm, but he brought along a bullet-proof vest and a box of surgical gloves, saying he needed them to leave no fingerprints on the guns that Kellestine would provide. While stopping in Dryden in northern Ontario, Sandham received a phone call from his common-law wife Kathleen saying that Pierre "Carlitto" Aragon had arrived in Winnipeg and was looking for him. Aragon had apparently been dispatched by Muscedere and Salerno to kill Sandham, who was seen as the source of their problems with Houston. When Sandham arrived at Kellestine's farm, he lied to him by claiming not to know why he had been sent there, and told Kellestine that he would receive further orders from Houston. Kellestine was surprised by Sandham's visit, but he quickly took charge of his guests and provided them with weapons from his hidden cache of arms he kept at his farm. Despite two lifetime bans on possessing weapons, the self-proclaimed "gun nut" Kellestine continued to collect guns and had a large collection of guns and ammunition. Kellestine also produced what he called his "wet work kit" for cleaning up after murders of hydrochloric acid and rubber gloves, saying he always used his "wet work kit" after he killed somebody.
Arriving to help Kellestine with "pulling the patches" were Sandham together with three other Winnipeg Bandidos, namely Dwight "Big Dee" Mushey; Marcello "Fat Ass" Aravena; a former iron-worker from Calgary named Brett "Bull" Gardiner, whom Mushey had recruited into the Bandidos; and another man known only as M.H.
Joining them was a man that Kellestine had recruited, a career criminal from New Brunswick with a long record for home invasions, Frank Mather, who was serving as his bodyguard. During the trial in 2009, the Crown Attorney prosecuting the case, Kevin Gowdey, took to referring to the men gathered at Kellestine's farm as the "farm crew" and it is by that name that they are known. Kellestine treated the junior Bandidos like Aravena and Gardiner like slaves, expecting them to do all of his housework for them. Gardiner was a man of very limited intelligence, whom Kellestine had once asked to supply him with pickles from a "pickle tree" growing on his farm, which led him to spend hours looking for the elusive "pickle tree" before telling Kellestine that he couldn't find it.
At the beginning of April 2006, Kellestine accused one of the "no surrender crew", Flanz, of being a police informer. As Flanz was Jewish and the rabidly anti-Semitic Kellestine hated him for that, Muscedere did not take the allegation seriously, but to settle the matter, it was agreed that the "no surrender crew" would visit Kellestine's farm to discuss his claims. Most of the "no surrender crew" lived in the Toronto area, but Kellestine insisted that the meeting be held at his farm, and Muscedere agreed. Kellestine also stated that Sandham and some other members of the Winnipeg chapter were staying with him, which was intended as a "bait" as he knew that relations between Muscedere and Sandham were very poor. Muscedere and the "no surrender crew" were planning to "pull the patch" on Kellestine, whose racist paranoia had become too much for them.
On the night before the massacre, Kellestine had his common-law wife, Tina Fitzgerald, and his daughter together with Mather's girlfriend leave his farm, saying no women could be present at the "church" meeting (in outlaw biker slang a "church" meeting is a mandatory meeting for the chapter). Despite the rules forbidding bringing guns to "church" meetings, Raposo brought a sawed-off shotgun with him to the meeting as he knew that his enemy Sandham was going to be present. Muscedere believed that nothing would happen to him at the "church" meeting, seeing his enemy only as Sandham and believed that his "brother" Kellestine would never betray him. Unknown to the "no surrender crew", a team of detectives investigating Douse's murder followed them down the 401 highway as they went to meet Kellestine at his farm at 32196 Aberdeen Line. During the trip to Kellestine's farm, Acorn called Raposo on his cell phone from the prison phone, to tell him "I love you bro" over and over again, and did not mention his call with Kellestine. During his call, Acorn also spoke with Muscedere and Edwards wrote: "Faced with the chance to alert Boxer and Chopper as they drove to Kellestine's farm, Acorn said nothing, betraying his president with his silence on the night of his murder". The policemen following the "no surrender crew" had no warrant to enter Kellestine's farm, and as he had chopped down most of the trees on the flat land around his farm to provide a wide open view in all directions, the police decided not to compromise the operation by getting too close, parking their cars several miles away in a wooded country lane.
The massacre
The arrival of the "no-surrender crew"
On the night of April 7, 2006, a meeting at Kellestine's farm attended by the two factions began at about 10:30 PM, when the "no surrender crew" entered his barn. The barn was full of rusting machinery, old furniture, and children's toys while its walls were decorated with pornographic photographs of buxom young women sitting atop Harley-Davidson motorcycles or half-dressed as construction workers together with "Kellestine's usual Nazi propaganda". Kellestine instructed his guests to stay in the middle where he had cleared out some space. Sandham was standing in the rafters with a rifle while Mushey, Mather, Aravena and MH were patrolling outside armed with rifles and shotguns, and Gardiner listened to the police scanners inside Kellestine's house. According to one version of the events, upon entering the barn, Luis "Chopper" Raposo saw Sandham with his rifle, and realizing that he been betrayed fired at him with his sawed-off shotgun. Sandham was only slightly injured as he was wearing a bullet-proof vest, returned fire and killed Raposo. However, Raposo's favourite gesture was to "give the finger", and the autopsy revealed at the time of his death, Raposo had raised his middle finger while the rest of his fingers clinched into his fist and that Sandham's bullet had gone through Raposo's raised finger, shattering it completely. The forensic evidence does not support's Sandham's claim that Raposo had fired at him, and moreover Sandham is a "well known pathological liar" not known for his willingness to take responsibility for his actions. It is not entirely clear what happened other than Raposo was giving Sandham the finger at the time when Sandham used his skills as a marksman to put a bullet through it. Two of the "no surrender crew", Paul "Big Paulie" Sinopoli and George "Crash" Kriarakis attempted to flee, but were shot down and wounded by Kellestine who was armed with a handgun. Kellestine shouted: "Everybody get on the floor! Nobody move! I'm here to pull your patches. This is being done by the orders of the States [the U.S leadership of the Bandidos]".
The last hours of the "no-surrender crew"
Over the next two hours, Kellestine frequently changed his mind about whether he was going to "pull the patches" or execute the "no surrender crew", and at one point allowed Muscedere to call his girlfriend, Nina Lee, on his cell phone provided he "didn't say anything fucking stupid". Muscedere told Lee: "How's the baby? I'll see you in a couple hours. I love you." The macho Muscedere opted to be faithful to the outlaw biker's code of never asking for help, and did not alert Lee to his predicament, instead asking about how their daughter Angelina was doing. Kellestine drank heavily over the course of the night and ranted to his prisoners about his grievances with them. Kellestine pistol-whipped Flanz several times and told him: "I'm saving you for last, you fucking Jew!" Kriarakis, who was wounded in the thigh, prayed to God and asked that his captors to spare him as his family would miss him and he had a wife he loved back at home, but was told to shut up. As Kriarakis prayed in Greek while Sinopoli cried, saying he never wanted to come to Kellestine's farm, which led to both men being told by another prisoner, Francesco "Frank the Bammer" Salerno: "We're bikers. We're not the fucking Boy Scouts, so stop your whining". Several times, Kellestine asked Muscedere to join him despite the way he was attempting to depose him as national president, but he firmly declined, instead asking that an ambulance be called for Sinopoli and Kriarakis, who were bleeding to death. Muscedere also defended Flanz against charges of being disloyal; Kellestine was an admirer of Nazi Germany and had issues with the Jewish Flanz. Finally, Kellestine decided to execute the "No Surrender crew" and they were all taken out one by one and shot execution-style, in what the Ontario Court of Appeal described as "an execution assembly line". At about midnight, Constable Perry Graham of the OPP doing his nightly patrol around the countryside in his cruiser, ran into the surveillance team, sitting in the wooded lane in the dark, to ask them what they were doing, and learned that they were investigating the murder of Douse. At about 12:30 am, the surveillance team went home, having noticed nothing.
As the men were marched out and shot, Kellestine, who was drinking very heavily that night, danced a jig while singing Das Deutschlandlied. Between dancing his jig while singing the anthem and executing his prisoners, Kellestine would go over to torment Flanz. Realizing he was doomed, Muscedere stated: "Do me. Do me first. I want to go out like a man." A police wiretap recorded that Mushey told Aravena about Muscedere's execution: "This guy, he went out like a man...He laughed. Went like a man." Kellestine personally executed Muscedere, who had once been his friend. Muscedere was marched out of the barn, forced to sit in his car, and then shot in the head at point-blank range, followed by another shot to his chest. The next to be killed was Kriarakis, who prayed in Greek, as he went out and was shot. Mushey speaking to M.H some weeks later and unaware that the latter was wearing a wire, said he was surprised by how much Kriarakis cried as he was marched out to be shot, saying he expected a fellow outlaw biker to be tougher. George "Pony" Jessome, went out next, not saying a word. Sinopoli was taken to be shot, crying and screaming hysterically, saying that he had really wished that he not attended this meeting as he had wanted to. Sinopoli was shot but survived while Kellestine's gun jammed. Aravena then had to fetch Kellestine another gun, which he then used to finish off Sinopoli who had been left bleeding and in great pain in the interval. Flanz and another of the "no surrender crew", Michael "Little Mickey" Trotta were ordered to clean up the blood on the ground, using bleach. At this point, Kellestine began to rant about how he was such a hard worker who was doing such a great job killing the "no surrender crew", who were not thankful for his hard work, as if he expected them to appreciate his work in killing them. As Kellestine went in and out of his barn with prisoners to kill, none of his colleagues, the majority of whom had guns made any effort to free the prisoners or to shoot Kellestine, though they were all to claim at the trial that they wanted to stop Kellestine. Even those who did not have guns like Gardiner could have called the police as all of the "farm crew" had cell phones with them or access to a phone, but none did. Gardiner had a telephone right next to him as he listened to the police scanners, but he never called the police as he wanted to be a full patch Bandido.
One of the killers who later turned Crown's evidence, known as only as "MH", stated one of the victims, Frank "Bammer" Salerno, tried to shake his hand with MH testifying in 2009: "Bammer went to shake my hand. I didn't do it. Dwight did." Salerno also tried to shake Aravena's hand, but he declined, saying: "I'm not shaking your hand". As Salerno was marched out to be shot, his last words to his killers were to think of his newly born son, Mario. Flanz was shot last in order to ensure that he would suffer the most because he was Jewish, and he talked much about his children as he waited for his time to die. Trotta was taken out to be shot, not saying a word, and finally Flanz was killed. Gardiner removed the children's toys from the back of Trotta's Grand Prix to make room for Flanz while M.H, Aravena, Mushey, and Mather watched. By this point, Kellestine was too drunk to kill Flanz, and instead Sandham shot him in the head. Sandham was too nervous to aim properly despite shooting at point-blank range, and Flanz was still alive after Sandham had shot him. As Flanz looked up with a sad expression, as if begging with his eyes to save his life, Sandham could not bring himself to kill him, claiming his gun was jammed. Finally, Mushey, who was a more experienced killer than Sandham, took his gun and proved it was not jammed by finishing off Flanz with another shot to the head.
Disposing of the bodies
Afterwards, Kellestine ordered the bodies be placed into their vehicles. Nobody wanted to drive Muscedere's car with his body in the driver's seat and the entire front seats soaked in blood, so his car was attached to Jessome's tow truck. Sinopoli's obese corpse did not fit properly into the trunk of the SUV that it was packed into with the other corpses, and nearly rolled out several times during the trip up the 401 highway. Mushey who drove Trotta's Pontiac Grand Prix, complained his car was full of toys belonging to his daughter, which had to be cleared away to make room for the corpses. Kellestine had planned to take the bodies up the 401 and dump them in Kitchener, which was known as a stronghold of the Hells Angels, out of the belief the police would blame them, but he did not buy enough gas for the trip, forcing the killers to abort the trip to Kitchener, with the bodies dumped in a farmer's field chosen at random only because they couldn't go any further up the 401. Mather who was driving Flanz's Infiniti reported the vehicle was almost out of gas, and turned into a farmer's field where the Stafford Line met the 401 highway. The bodies and vehicles dumped in the farmer's field were not burned because the killers were "too cheap to buy enough gasoline" to set them afire. Kellestine who remained at his farm was surprised when the "farm crew" returned after about half an hour, asking: "How fucking far did you guys go? I thought I told you to take them all the way to Kitchener". Afterwards, the "farm crew" went to work destroying the evidence, burning some of the items that belonged to the victims while keeping some for themselves. Edwards stated: "I don't think Kellestine would've been that dangerous that night if it wasn't for Sandham,
the cop. They needed Sandham's ambition, and Kellestine's craziness."
Investigation
Discovery of the corpses
At about 7:45 am on 8 April 2006, a farmer, Russell Steele and his wife Mary, received a phone call from another farmer, Forbes Oldham, saying that there were vehicles parked in their cornfield. The Steeles went to investigate and upon seeing the corpses, called the police. Muscedere's girlfriend, Nina Lee, called Kellestine at about 8:00 am to ask where her boyfriend was, and he told her that he had just left. Both Aravena and Gardiner were promoted up the Bandido ranks, and Gardiner chose to stay with Kellestine at his farm. Sandham and the rest of the Winnipeg Bandidos left Kellestine's farm later that morning. The road trip back to Winnipeg was unhappy one with Mushey calling Sandham a "pussy" for being unable to finish off Flanz, Aravena kept seeking assurances from Mushey that he would not kill him, Sandham being more pompous and conceited than ever and M.H. already considering turning Crown's evidence. The security cameras at a Walmart in Barrie showed that between 10:21-10:53 am, the Winnipeg Bandidos were in the store with M.H. later testifying that Mushey told the other Bandidos that they should buy some Head and Shoulders shampoo, which he assured them was the best shampoo for removing gunpowder residue. As the victims had last been seen alive entering Kellestine's farm and the bodies were found close to his farm, he was considered to be a prime suspect right from the start. The same day the bodies were found, Detective Inspector Paul Beesley of the OPP, who was in charge of the investigation, had asked a judge for a search warrant for Kellestine's farm. At about 3:05 pm, two of Kellestine's friends, Kerry Morris and Eric Niessen, arrived at his farm to help him destroy the evidence and to discuss the alibi they were planning on giving him. The alibi was that Niessen and Morris had spent the night of 7 April drinking beer with Kellestine at his farmhouse and that was all that happened there that night. The police had stationed cars on the Aberdeen Line and observed Morris and Niessen helping Kellestine clean his barn.
Kellestine arrested
The discovery of the bodies caused a media frenzy and the Toronto media blamed the Hells Angels at once. Edwards stated: "Right after the killings, I phoned a Hells Angel member and said 'Don't you guys have anything to do with this?' and he said 'What could we take from them? They don't have two nickels to rub together.' And it turned out that was true; they really didn't have anything to steal, and so there was no point to that. I talked to another Hells Angel and he said 'It's a great day when you wake up and your enemies have killed each other.'" Around the world, the massacre attracted attention, making the front pages of The Times of London, The Sydney Morning Herald of Sydney, The Irish Examiner of Cork, and The People's Daily of Beijing while both CNN and Fox News sent news teams to Shedden to cover what the media took to referring to as the "Shedden massacre". The phrase "Shedden massacre" caused much chagrin to the residents of Shedden who complained their hamlet had nothing to do with the massacre. On the Bandidos website in Houston, no message of condolence was posted and messages of condolences that were left by visitors were promptly deleted. Upon returning to Winnipeg, Sandham, who as ambitious as ever, started sending emails to Houston denigrating Kellestine as a loose cannon, and demanded he be made Bandido national president instead. In a typical email, full of gushing praise for the "Bandido way", Sandham wrote: "This Brotherhood means everything to me and to wear the best colours is [in] the world is a great honour for me". In the meantime, Kellestine was arrested and charged with first-degree murder on the evening of 9 April 2006. Because Niessen and Morris gave Kellestine an alibi, saying they were at his farm on the night of killings, they were also charged with first-degree murder, much to their own shock as they never expected that lying to the police would have such consequences. When the couple were arrested for murder, Morris screamed "What!" over and over again. Mather and Gardiner were also arrested with Kellestine and charged with first degree murder. Searching Kellestine's farm, the police found evidence that guns had recently been cut down at a vise in his workshop, but found no murder weapons, which caused Beesley much concern.
Sandham investigated
The Winnipeg police started following Sandham after his return, and on the afternoon of 10 April 2006, Constable Grant Goulet observed Sandham taking his Blazer to a car wash to have the interior of his vehicle cleaned. On 14 April 2006, M.H. met with Constable Timothy Diack, who told him the police knew he was involved in the massacre and he could either turn Crown's evidence or go to prison for the rest of his life. On 15 April, Sandham was observed having the tires of his vehicle removed with Sandham dumping his old tires on the side of a remote country road. An examination revealed the tires that Sandham had just abandoned in the countryside matched the tire prints found on Kellestine's farm. The next day, M.H. met with Diack, where he demanded $750,000 and immunity for testifying against the others. Eventually, it was agreed that M.H would receive total immunity, $1,300/per month for the rest of his life, and free rent in exchange for which he would wear a wire and turn Crown's evidence. M.H. wore a wire starting from early May 2006 at his meetings with Mushey and Aravena, the latter greatly pleased at becoming a Bandido prospect, which allowed him to wear the Bandido patch. However, the "Fat Mexican" that Aravena wore had been sewed by his mother rather than supplied by Houston.
Finding the evidence
A massive forensic investigation had begun on the Kellestine farm, and by May the police had found in the fireplace the charred keys to the houses and apartments of the "Shedden Eight" murder victims, and a partially burned business card reading ONICO, the name of Flanz's computer company. On 24 May 2006, Constable Al Dubro discovered under Kellestine's micro-wave a secret doorway, where the police found Kellestine's gun cache. Dubro called Beesley, who found 18 guns in Kellestine's gun cache. Ballistic tests showed some of the guns found in Kellestine's cache were the murder weapons. On one of the handguns, a Mossberg, was found microscopic traces of blood, which DNA testing showed came from Flanz, Kriarakis, Sinopoli, Jessome and Salerno while on another handgun, a Hi-Point .380, had microscopic blood traces from Trotta and Sinopoli. The floor of Kellestine's barn was found to be soaked in hydrochloric acid from Kellestine's "wet work kit". Inside Kellestine's farmhouse, the police found a ring that had skin flakes embedded in it; DNA testing showed that the skin came from Flanz. The police also found a baseball cap in the farmhouse that had a hair in it and which DNA testing revealed to be from Kriarakis. As an undercover agent, M.H. began to speak with Mushey and Aravena about the massacre while wearing a wire, and found it easy to get Mushey to start talking by telling him that Sandham was boasting about killing 3 of the 8 men in underworld circles, which led Mushey to say that Sandham had killed only Raposo and botched the killing of Flanz.
Sandham expelled
Sandham became involved in a feud with Pierre Aragon over who had the right to be the Bandidos national president. The feud ended with Sandham being expelled from the Bandidos on 6 June 2006. At the same time, "Mary Thompson" who was full of guilt by not doing anything to save Douse's life, told the OPP that the truth about the murder of Douse, and Brown, Quinn, Acorn, and Aragon were all arrested for his murder in June 2006. Acorn was in the Penetanguishene prison and Brown was in the Lindsay jail awaiting charges for other offences at the time of their arrests, Aragon was arrested on the streets on Kipling Avenue in Toronto on 21 June and Quinn was arrested on 26 June in Nelson, British Columbia.
Legal proceedings
Alibis abandoned
Eric Niessen, 45, and his common-law wife Kerry Morris, 47, both from Monkton, Ontario, were initially charged with first degree murder, but police dropped those charges on May 6, and they were instead charged with eight counts of being accessories after the fact. Facing first-degree murder charges, Niessen and Morris abandoned the alibi they had given Kellestine, stating that they were not present at his farm on the night of the murders as they had no desire to go to prison for the rest of their lives. Both Niessen and Morris pled guilty to obstructing justice on 15 October 2007, admitting they had given Kellestine a false alibi and helped him destroy evidence, being sentenced to two years in prison. Morris complained afterwards to the media: "It's been horrible, Absolutely horrible. My life's been destroyed...Friends, they've just turned their backs". Kellestine and the other four suspects were all arrested at his residence, only a few kilometres from the crime scene. The surrounding Elgin County has a history of biker gang activity, though not of major crime.
Arrests in Winnipeg
On June 16, 2006, police in Winnipeg arrested three additional men, all from that city, in connection with the killings:
Dwight Mushey, 36
Marcello Aravena, 30
Michael Sandham, 36
The three were delivered into OPP custody and transported to St. Thomas, Ontario for a court appearance that afternoon. All were charged with eight counts of first-degree murder. A woman, whom police refused to identify, was also arrested but was not charged. Police also seized an SUV for forensic testing in Ontario. After his arrest, Sandham denied 223 times to OPP Sergeant Mick Bickerton who was questioning him that he was involved in the massacre, claiming he was not even in Ontario at the time of the killings, instead maintaining that he was raking leaves in front of his Winnipeg home on the weekend of the massacre, despite the fact there are no trees on the street that Sandham lived on. Sandham also denied to Bickerton that he was a member of the Bandidos, saying he had left the club in 2005.
Preliminary hearings
On January 9, 2007, a preliminary hearing for all six suspects began in a court in London, Ontario, under extremely tight security. On the first day of the proceeding, Kellestine gave reporters the finger and swore at a courtroom artist. A gag order was issued prohibiting media reports on the evidence presented in the hearing. The hearing was expected to take about three months, but did not conclude until June 21, 2007, at which time Justice Ross Webster ruled that all six defendants would stand trial on all charges. At the time, defence lawyers for at least two of the suspects said that the evidence presented warranted a reduction in charges for their clients. The lawyers were considering asking for a review of Webster's ruling by a higher court, which could delay the case by several months.
On 3 July 2007, the preliminary inquiry into Douse's death began with "Mary Thompson" testifying that the accused had beaten Douse to death in Flanz's apartment on 6 December 2005. The accused took to laughing and snickering when "Mary Thompson" mentioned that their favourite term for Douse was "nigger", which clearly pained Douse's parents and sister who also attending the preliminary inquiry. Edwards who attended the preliminary hearing noted that the accused clearly relished their role as "racist thugs". Edwards wrote: "Boxer Muscedere and Ripper Fullager would been mortified by how the accused men were representing their club. For all of their faults, Boxer and Ripper weren't racists, nor were they bullies towards women". After the preliminary inquiry ended with the judge ruling the case would go to trial, "Mary Thompson" apologized in person to the Douse family for not stepping forward and for her own use of the term "nigger" for Shawn Douse. Shawn Douse's father, John Douse, told "Mary Thompson": "Why are you sorry? You helped us. You are the star witness. Without you, there would be no case". The charges relating to Douse's death ended on 7 January 2008 with the four Bandidos charged all pleading guilty. Robert Quinn pleaded guilty to second-degree murder, Rudolph Brown and Cameron Acorn to manslaughter and Pierre Aragon to aggravated assault. Justice Edwin Minden called the killing of Douse "a vicious, senseless, callous and cowardly killing", saying the defendants should count themselves lucky for receiving such light sentences.
The trial begins
The murder trial for Aravena, Gardiner, Kellestine, Mather, Mushey and Sandham commenced on March 31, 2009, in London, Ontario, with all six of the accused entering pleas of not guilty. The senior Crown Attorney (prosecutor) on the case was Kevin Gowdey assisted by junior Crown Attorneys Fraser Kelly, Tim Zuber, David D'Iorio and Meredith Gardiner. Kellestine was defended by Clay Powell, a Toronto lawyer best known for defending Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones after he was arrested for heroin possession in Toronto in 1977 while Sandham was defended by Don Crawford, a lawyer used to defending "ambitious dimwits. Assisting Crawford was Gordon Cudmore and assisting Powell was Ken McMillian.
During the trial, Powell and McMillian portrayed Sandham as a cold-blooded, ruthless schemer who manipulated Kellestine into committing the murders; Crawford and Cudmore portrayed Kellestine as a bloodthirsty, deranged psychopath who pressured Sandham into committing the massacre; and the lawyers for the rest blamed both Sandham and Kellestine for their actions of their clients. Gardiner's lawyer, Christopher Hicks, used his lengthy search for the "pickle tree" alleged to be growing on Kellestine's farm as evidence that his client had a very low IQ and was easily manipulated by those around him as his main defence argument. Edwards wrote the lawyer for each men competed to "...prove their clients were dumber, weaker and crazier than their old Bandidos brothers".
Sandham on the stand
Only two of the defendants took the stand to testify in their defence. Sandham spent most of his time on the stand crying that it was "unfair" that he should be charged with first-degree murder for his part in the massacre. Sandham delivered what Edwards called "a lie-filled fusion of self-pity and selfless heroism" starting on 9 September 2009.
Aravena on the stand
After Sandham's testimony on the stand, widely viewed as a "train-wreck" that did himself much damage, Aravena took the stand on 22 September 2009. Aravena testified that he was of low intelligence, but the Crown Attorney cross-examining him forced to concede on the stand that he could have sought help had he so desired.
M.H. on the stand
The star witness known as "MH" testified to a bungled and 'cheap' plot, led by an indecisive Kellestine. MH, one of the killers agreed to turn Crown's evidence in exchange for being granted immunity.
Final submissions
In his final address to the jury, Gowdey admitted that M.H was far from being a model citizen, but that the forensic evidence supported his testimony. Gowdey argued though Mather, Aravena, and Gardiner had not killed anyone, they were still guilty of first degree murder as there had been a plan to murder the "no surrender crew", which they were a part of, and that by guarding the prisoners, Mather, Aravena and Gardiner had facilitated the killings, making them just as guilty as Kellestine, Sandham and Mushey. Gowdey stated: "People who intentionally help or encourage others to kill are as guilty as those who pull the trigger". Gowdey argued that a first degree murder conviction was warranted as there was premeditation to the killings, noting the killers had armed themselves beforehand, were wearing rubber gloves and in the case of Sandham was wearing his "ratty" bullet proof vest, saying: "If this wasn't a plan, this is amazing luck...It has plan and ambush written all over it".
Verdicts
On October 29, 2009, the jury returned 44 guilty verdicts for first degree murder and four for manslaughter, believed to be the largest number of murder convictions ever produced from a single criminal proceeding in Canada.
Wayne Kellestine, Michael Sandham and Dwight Mushey were each found guilty of eight counts of first-degree murder. Frank Mather and Marcelo Aravena were both found guilty of seven counts of first degree murder and one count of manslaughter. Brett Gardiner was found guilty of six counts of first degree murder and two counts of manslaughter.
Addressing the court, Kriarakis's mother Vickie Kriarakis stated: "I miss George...I wake up in the middle of the night and I feel the terror in his eyes". Muscedere's daughter, Teresa, told the court she missed her father intensely and her daughter would never know her grandfather. Teresa Muscedere further noted her father had helped Kellestine with paying his mortgage because he wanted to help his friend, and was rewarded with being murdered by him.
Aravena, Gardiner, Kellestine, Mather, Mushey and Sandham appealed their convictions; but Sandham ultimately abandoned his appeal. On April 16, 2015, the Ontario Court of Appeal dismissed the remaining appeals.
Gardiner, Mather and Aravena then sought leave to make their final appeals to the Supreme Court of Canada. On April 7, 2016, the Supreme Court of Canada dismissed their applications for leave to appeal.
Legacy
Referring to the massacre, Yves Lavigne, an expert on outlaw bikers in Canada, told The London Free Press in 2016 that: "Bikers are not the smartest people. Or wannabes...It's like the NHL. They expanded too fast and too much. Now they're just recruiting anyone. How can they call themselves a "motorcycle club" when some recruits don't even know how to ride a motorbike? You don't romanticize these people ... These guys [the killers and the victims] were all rejects from other gangs. These guys were the class dummies. So the lesson in Shedden is: Don't try to be something you're not". Lavigne concluded that the Shedden massacre were amateurish killings of men of low intelligence perpetrated by men of low intelligence. The former Bandido Edward Winterhalder told Edwards in 2016: "It's meth logic. That's all that was. It was logical in (Kellestine's) mind because he was whacked out on methamphetamine." As the result of the massacre with the Toronto chapter of the Bandidos all killed and the Winnipeg chapter all imprisoned was the end of the Bandidos in Canada, leaving the Hell's Angels as the dominant outlaw biker gang in Canada. Edwards stated: "In Ontario, you had the Hells Angels and the people the Hells Angels let exist. They either worked with you or they didn't care about you".
See also
Lennoxville massacre
Notes
References
"Five held for Canada biker deaths.", BBC News, April 10, 2009
AShedden massacre
2006 murders in Canada
2006 disasters in Canada
2006 in Ontario
2009 in Canada
April 2006 crimes
April 2006 events in North America
Bandidos Motorcycle Club
Crime in Ontario
Elgin County
Mass murder in 2006
Massacres in Canada
Murder in Canada
Murder in Ontario
Organized crime events in Canada
Outlaw motorcycle club conflicts
People murdered in Ontario
Deaths by firearm in Ontario
2006 mass shootings in North America
Attacks in Canada in 2006
Mass shootings in Canada
Mass shootings in Ontario
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaukkala
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Klaukkala
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Klaukkala (; , ) is the southern-most urban area () of the Nurmijärvi municipality in Uusimaa, Finland, located near Lake Valkjärvi. It is the largest urban area in Nurmijärvi, and despite the fact that it officially has the status of a village, it's often mistakenly thought to be a separate town due to its size and structure. In the 2010s, Klaukkala's urban area grew to be part of the larger Helsinki urban area.
Klaukkala has a population of over 20,000 and is the fastest-growing area of Nurmijärvi; almost half of the total population of the municipality lives in Klaukkala. Its population began to rise in the 1960s, when it surpassed the church village of Nurmijärvi. In the 1970s, Klaukkala also grew larger than Rajamäki, which until then was the largest of Nurmijärvi's villages. At that time, Klaukkala's population was over 2,500. Klaukkala has significant migration mainly from the Helsinki conurbation; being a rural village a half-hour's drive away from the Helsinki centre, it especially attracts families with children. Unfortunately, due to the enormous population growth, the village is also infamous for its growing traffic, which causes local problems at the mornings and afternoons.
In the early 2000s, many detached houses were built in Klaukkala, but the situation has changed as up to three-quarters of the new houses are apartment, terraced and semi-detached houses.
Etymology
The name of Klaukkala in Finnish is based on the name of the house, which in turn includes the name of the early host of the house, a variant of the name of Nikolaus, as well as Klaus, Klavus and Klåvus in Swedish. The name of the house is originally Finnish and its host is called "Klaukka". The names of the village used in history include Klöckeskoogh in 1527, Klockskoby in 1540, Klöckeskoby in 1544, Klauko in 1710 and Klaukala Hemmi in 1835. The name Klaukkala was officially established in 1866. In the present-day Swedish name, Klövskog, the first part klöv means hoof and the second part skog means forest.
History
Early history
The earliest references to Klaukkala date back to the 16th century, at which time the village was part of the Helsinki parish (). The earliest inhabitants were mainly tavastians. In the 1540s there were as many as 11 houses in Klaukkala, which together constituted five full taxes: Viiri, Tilkka, Gunnari, Olli, Huitti, Seppälä and Klaukka, which was the oldest house in the village. In 1592, a part of Klaukka's estate was created by dividing the Mylläri house according to its host, miller Erkki Niilonpoika. Thus, in 1600 there were 10 farms in Klaukkala and one desert farm (one of the houses in Viiri). Klaukkala is mentioned in the 1500s as the prosperous village of the parish.
The population of Klaukkala remained unstable between the mid-16th century and the 18th century. In the 16th century, the population remained fairly constant through the early 17th century, but then began to decline due to superpower wars, until the Great Famine years of the 1690s reduced the population by about 20%. The population grew momentarily before the Great Northern War, which again caused the population to decline. By the mid-18th century, however, the population had grown considerably. The fluctuations in house numbers in the villages followed the boom and bust until the late 17th century, after which the number of deserts remained the same. The reason for this was that the rapid population growth was mainly due to the stateless population, while the old farm numbers remained the same and more resources were needed to maintain them. In the latter part of the 18th century, the homeless population created a need for colonization and the establishment of farmhouses.
Axe murders and the civil war
In the late 19th century, Klaukkala became infamous for the massacre that took place on May 10, 1899 in Simola's croft. At that time Karl Emil Malmelin, the croft's farmworker, killed the entire seven-member household with an axe. All in all, the incident was so terrible that it resulted in one of the most notable manhunts in Finnish history, folk tales, and at least two well-known and surviving broadside ballads. The incident affected the entire Nurmijärvi's reputation for a long time, giving the parish a nickname such as Murhajärvi (literally "murder lake"). At that time, the incident was the worst massacre in Finland since the Åbo Bloodbath in 1599, almost 300 years earlier.
During the Finnish Civil War, after the Battle of Helsinki, German troops who cooperated with the Whites in the fight against the Red Guards, conquered Klaukkala on April 19, 1918 from the Reds with the aim of getting the troops from Helsinki to Hämeenlinna. According to the Germans, the conquest of Klaukkala was a strict operation. The Red Guards defended the hill of the village in the "frustration of despair". They had good positions on the hill, but only four machine guns, possibly against the fourteen machine guns of the Whites. German sources recall that Klaukkala was captured by an assault in an hour and a half, which caught a total of 55 red prisoners.
Improvement of the market area
The most significant shopping center in Klaukkala are the Viirintori marketplace and Viirinlaakso areas. The history of Viirintori dates back to the 19th century and the handed over to Karelia through family business. Kaarlo Narinen and his wife Anna founded the Kilpeenjoki's general merchandise store in the Vyborg village in 1897. The Narinen family fled the Russian invasion during the war as far as Klaukkala and founded the economic store Klaukkalan Talouskauppa in the early 1950s.
The next generation to lead it, Kaarlo and Anna's son Sakeus Narinen, along with wife Helmi. Their son Jouko Narinen is the originator of the Klaukkala's Viirintori and Viirinlaakso commercial center. He has been a merchant and developer of initiative and diligence for five decades.
The area of Viirintori has increased significant commercial activity in Viirinlaakso and Klaukkala. The continuous development of the Klaukkalan Talouskauppa, which began in the 1960s, has now led to a situation where the municipality of Nurmijärvi plans to make Viirinlaakso a commercial center for Klaukkala. Jouko Narinen and his wife Ritva took over the Klaukkalan Talouskauppa in 1961. Since then, Jouko Narinen has been developing and growing the trade and the commercial real estate surrounding it throughout his career.
Every ten years a new one was built and later the old one was also renovated. The first phase of growth began immediately after the last generation change. In 1963, Narinen built a new commercial building, which, among other things, was rented by a post office. The commercial building was renovated again in 1970. In 1976 an iron hall was erected on the fields and in 1982 Kiinteistö Oy Viirintori was completed. At the same time, Klaukkalan Talouskauppa became Viiri-Market Ky, which also included a commercial car circling the area. Viiri-Market employed 25 people at its best, and Viirintori had ten companies leased in addition to Viiri-Market. Viirintori's rapture and publishing activities as well as Jouko Narinen's activity were more visible in the construction of Klaukkala. The Viiri Fair and Viirintorin Sanomat became known in Klaukkala's households since the 1980s.
Jouko Narinen is a founding member of Klaukkalan Yrittäjät and a long-time active member. Ritva and Jouko Narinen retired from active business in 1994. They transferred the Viiri-Market store to Kesko. The Viirintori still remained owned by Jouko Narinen and the business will continue as a rental business under the management of daughter Päivi Salo (née Narinen). The marketplace has been further expanded, Viirintori has been renovated and the parceled plot has become K-Citymarket. Currently there are more than 20 tenants in Viirintori.
Geography
Location
The distance from Klaukkala to the border of Espoo is about 5 km and also the border of Vantaa is about 3 km, which is why Klaukkala is very close to the capital region of Greater Helsinki. The nearest districts are Luhtaanmäki, Vestra and Riipilä in Vantaa and Lahnus in Espoo. The distance to the Helsinki center is less than 30 km and the distance to Loppi is over 40 km. The church village of Nurmijärvi is about 15 km from Klaukkala.
Helsinki-Vantaa Airport is about 20 minutes' drive from Klaukkala; the fastest route is along National road 3 (E12) and Ring III highways.
Areas
There are several residential areas in Klaukkala, including Haikala, Harjula, Lintumetsä, Mäntysalo, Pietarinmäki, Pikimetsä, Ropakko, Syrjälä, Talvisto and Toivola. Of the above-mentioned areas, for example, the largest suburban neighborhood Harjula has more than 2000 inhabitants. In 2017, the construction of the new center of the Klaukkala, Viirinlaakso, was started, and there will be seven new apartment buildings. Another planned residential area is Vanha-Klaukka, which will appear in the western part of Klaukkala; it is estimated to increase Klaukkala's population by about 2,000 and make the road between Klaukkala and the neighboring village Lepsämä more street-like with possible traffic light intersections.
There is also one industrial and business area in village, Järvihaka, right by Lake Valkjärvi. The area includes at least 20-30 companies and a couple of lunch restaurants. Later in the future, a new industrial areas is planned: one for Mäyränkallio between Metsäkylä village and the old highway of Hämeenlinna (Mt 130), and another for Sudentulli between Numlahti village and Mäntysalo area.
Features
Klaukkala encompasses about 43 square kilometres (about 17 sq mi). The village is mostly suburban and urban area with some rural landscape. Next to the village is the lushest lake of Nurmijärvi, Lake Valkjärvi, encompassing about 1,5 square kilometres (about 0,6 sq mi), which flows as the River Luhtajoki from the north of the village to the east and southeast into the River Vantaa. In the south, there is another river called Lepsämänjoki, which also flow into the River Vantaa. Located in the southern part of Klaukkala village, Isosuo is a 366-acre marshland. Isosuo is part of the Natura 2000 program and is also included in the state's mire protection program, which is why the marsh is almost entirely state owned. The predominant habitat type of the Natura Habitats Directive is the raised bog, but it also has some the poor fen.
In the middle of the village is the large rock called Vaskomäki, which at the highest point of village emphasizes the identity of the Klaukkala and which is popular with local climbers. In cooperation with the municipality, HOK-Elanto is negotiating the future of the plots. As early as 1996, the Rotary Club of Klaukkala presented the municipality with a plan for an indoor swimming pool, a shelter and a multipurpose facility inside Vaskomäki. Admittedly, Vaskomäki's mining has strongly divided opinions.
Another noteworthy high point in village is Tornimäki near the residential areas of Harjula and Syrjälä, where the resort center Klaukkalan Tornikeskus is located. This resort offers mountain biking in summer and snowtubing in winter. In May 2019, a fitness staircase with 348 stairsteps (formerly 337 stairsteps originally intended to be based on the literary production of Aleksis Kivi) was officially launched at the Tornikeskus. Before that, the stairs contract was tendered twice, but no contractor was found either time. In the end, the stairs were decided to be purchased directly and they received a government subsidy of €70,000. Stairway construction started in fall 2018. In less than a month since its inauguration, stairs has gained great popularity.
About a kilometer from the Klaukkala central, there is a farm called Ali-Ollin Alpakkatila, which is known for alpacas. The farm offers pony rides and agilities with alpacas, which is a specialty of the farm.
Infrastructure
Transport
The ribbon structure of the Klaukkala has been built on along the Finnish regional road 132 (Mt 132), which serves as a road connection from Finnish national road 3 to Loppi. Back in the late 1950s, it was the original main road before the current freeway, and in addition to passing through Loppi, it continued through the remote forest areas of Janakkala all the way to Hämeenlinna. And before the completion of the current Finnish national road 2, it also served the traffic of Forssa and Pori, which passed through Loppi and Tammela.
The increased traffic, resulting from the increase in population causes problems in the Road 132, especially main challenge is the highly congested main street of Klaukkala, which is used by about 17,000 vehicles per day. Because of this, a new road line, the so-called "Klaukkala bypass", of Road 132 between freeway and Numlahti village to get around Klaukkala from the north is being planned since the 1980s, and possibly also a rail traffic connection to Helsinki, probably as a continuation of the Vantaankoski rail. However, the train track plan is likely to be rejected, but it has been proposed to handle traffic by super bus or light rail. The Klaukkala bypass is estimated to be completed in fall 2021, but despite initial estimates, construction work on the bypass has progressed faster than expected and will be opened to traffic in November 2020. According to current plans, the Klaukkala bypass would be to continue eastbound towards Tuusula in connection with the planned "Ring IV" project, which is being funded in particular by the Tuusula municipality.
In the under constructed Viirinlaakso area, there are a new transport hub called Klaukkala Travel Center (Klaukkalan Matkakeskus) with a new bus station. There are bus connections from Klaukkala to Helsinki, Kivistö of Vantaa, Hyvinkää, Loppi and elsewhere to Nurmijärvi. Bus traffic on Nurmijärvi is operated by the bus company Korsisaari.
Services and buildings
Klaukkala has several grocery stores and one shopping mall called Viiri, which includes K-Citymarket and 17 other stores. Along the Lahnus road (Lahnuksentie), another shopping mall called Kauppakeskus Brunni is home to the S Group-owned S-Market, where it moved from the old center of Klaukkala in 2016. The formerly dilapidated S-Market building from the 1970s along the Lepsämä road (Lepsämäntie), would be demolished and a new store replaced. The locals had hoped to replace the building with hypermarket Prisma, but according to HOK-Elanto, Klaukkala would get another S-Market, but it will become HOK-Elanto's largest S-Market store in size and range.
Also, Klaukkala's service portfolio includes a health center, a library, opticians, a pharmacy (another is planned), two municipal dental clinics and a private dentist, three bank offices (including Osuuspankki and Nordea offices) and two hardware stores, Tokmanni and K-Rauta. For pets, there is a veterinary clinic in Klaukkala and two pet food stores, Musti & Mirri and Halikatti. There are also about 10–20 dining places in the Klaukkala, such as the Hesburger fast food restaurant in the old center, the Pihvimylläri restaurant in the market square and the Ararat Pizzeria in Kauppakeskus Viiri. In the center of Klaukkala, there is also the business building called Keidas (literally translated "oasis"), which features a karaoke bar Oluthuone Charles and a nightclub Club & Lounge Klaken's, which later replaced Pub Nikolai and Nightclub Charlotta after they served in Klaukkala for about 30 years. The new bar and nightclub set called K-Kino Bar & Night Club open doors in shopping center at the Lepsämä road on April 3, 2020.
Klaukkala includes many primary schools, of which the largest is Isoniittu School (Isoniitun koulu), which includes all nine grades of the Finnish primary school system. There is also a primary school of Swedish, Vendlaskolan, located on the same property as the Syrjälä School. Klaukkala also has one of the three gymnasiums of Nurmijärvi, Arkadian yhteislyseo. A new children's indoor playground, Play Jays, was opened along the Kuonomäki road (Kuonomäentie) in August 2019, and was run by Pauline J. Ferguson, a Scottish teacher originally from Edinburgh, but it was closed in May 2020 due to high rental costs and the COVID-19 pandemic.
In 2017 a new multipurpose building called "Monikko" was built, to the Klaukkala sports area. Monikko hosts a number of events, including entertainment as music and stand-up shows. Tennis, squash and ice hockey halls are also located near the sports area along the Lepsämä road. Many of Nurmijärvi's sports clubs operates in Klaukkala, such as SB-Pro and Nurmijärven Jalkapalloseura (also in Rajamäki).
A possible tourism sight is modern-styled, copper-plated Klaukkala church, designed by architect Anssi Lassila, in the old center of Klaukkala. Mikko Heikka, a bishop of the Evangelic Lutheran Church, dedicated it on November 28, 2004. The village also has a wooden Orthodox church of Saint Nectarios of Aegina, built in 1995. Before both churches, there was only a parish centre in Klaukkala, completed in 1973, which is located in the immediate vicinity of the current church.
Nurmijärven Uutiset, a local free newspaper of the Nurmijärvi municipality, is headquartered in Klaukkala.
Notable people
Riikka Honkanen (born 1998), alpine ski racer
Kalle Johansson, known as Eno Kalle (1884–1941), poet
Linde Lindström (born 1976), guitarist of HIM
Aimo Mustonen (1909–1994), composer
Aki Sirkesalo (1962–2004), singer
Timo Tolkki (born 1966), ex-guitarist of Stratovarius
Lepsämä, a neighboring village next to Klaukkala, is the place where the former Prime Minister of Finland Matti Vanhanen currently lives. Before that, he lived in Lintumetsä on the outskirts of the village, which belongs to Klaukkala. Hundred Years, a Finnish hard rock and heavy metal band founded in 1991, was originally from Klaukkala.
See also
Lahnus, a district of Espoo
Lepsämä, a neighboring village near Klaukkala
Luhtaanmäki, a district of Vantaa
Nurmijärven Jalkapalloseura, a local football club
SB-Pro, a local floorball club
Viiri, a shopping centre in Viirinlaakso, Klaukkala
Sources
References
External links
Klaukkala - On the website of Nurmijärvi municipality
Nurmijärvi
Villages in Finland
Populated places established in the 16th century
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.300%20Winchester%20Magnum
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.300 Winchester Magnum
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The .300 Winchester Magnum (also known as .300 Win Mag or .300 WM) (7.62×67mmB, 7.62x66BR) is a belted, bottlenecked Magnum rifle cartridge that was introduced by the Winchester Repeating Arms Company in 1963. The .300 Winchester Magnum is a magnum cartridge designed to fit in a standard rifle action. It is based on the .375 H&H Magnum, which has been blown out, shortened, and necked down to accept a .30 caliber (7.62 mm) bullet.
The .300 Win Mag is extremely versatile and has been adopted by a wide range of users including big game hunters, target shooters, military units, and law enforcement departments.
Many hunters have found the cartridge to be an effective all-around choice with bullet options ranging from the flatter shooting 150 grain to the harder-hitting 200+ grain selections available in factory ammunition. The .300 Win Mag remains the most popular .30 caliber magnum with American hunters, despite being not being as fast as more powerful .300 Magnums such as the .300 Weatherby Magnum and .30-378 Weatherby Magnum as well as the newer .300 Remington Ultra Magnum, .300 Norma Magnum, .30 Nosler, and .300 PRC, though all of these must be chambered in a long magnum action while the .300 Win Mag uses a standard length action, resulting in a lighter rifle.
Designed as a hunting cartridge and widely used all over the world for hunting a wide range of mid-to-large-sized big game such as North American moose, elk, bighorn sheep, mule deer and white tail, making it one of the most versatile big game hunting cartridges.
The .300 Win Mag is capable of delivering better long-range performance with heavier, large ballistic coefficient projectiles than any other standard and short length .30 caliber cartridge. Military and law enforcement departments have also adopted the cartridge as a long-range sniper round, intended to be used for shots at longer ranges than the .308 Winchester. As a testament to its accuracy, following its introduction, it went on to win several competitions.
Cartridge history
Prior to the advent of the .300 Winchester Magnum there were already a number of .30 caliber (7.62 mm) cartridges billed as offering a "magnum" level of performance. Such rounds included the .30 Newton of 1913 and the .300 H&H Magnum of 1925. The .30 Newton saw limited commercial success, however, and the .300 H&H was too long for the standard length Mauser and Springfield rifle actions of the time, barring substantial modifications.
Beginning with the .270 Weatherby Magnum in 1943, Roy Weatherby introduced a popular line of rifle cartridges based on the H&H case shortened to fit a standard length () action. The Weatherby cartridges of any given caliber followed a formula of "improved" design, which entailed "blowing out" the H&H Magnum parent case, thereby reducing case taper and increasing usable powder capacity. The .300 Weatherby Magnum, an "improved", full-length cartridge derived from the .300 H&H was introduced in 1944.
The larger manufacturers soon noticed Weatherby's standard length magnum case, and in due time followed suit. From 1956 to 1959 Winchester introduced three such cartridges: the .264 Winchester Magnum, .338 Winchester Magnum and .458 Winchester Magnum, all based on the shortened and blown out .375 H&H Magnum case. The popular .30 caliber's omission from that lineup prompted a response by the shooting community and Winchester's competition. Wildcatters soon produced the .30-338 Winchester Magnum and Norma Projektilfabrik, who were by now manufacturing ammunition for Weatherby, took the standard length basic Weatherby brass and necked it down to .30 caliber (7.62 mm) to form the .308 Norma Magnum.
The .300 Winchester Magnum was introduced in 1963 by Winchester for use in the Model 70 rifle. Winchester developed the .300 Win Mag by taking the .338 Winchester Magnum, which was introduced in 1958, moving the shoulder forward by and lengthening it by . This resulted in a cartridge with a neck somewhat shorter than the diameter of the bullet. Some gun writers have speculated that, had the cartridge been released earlier, its dimensions would have more closely matched the .30-338 Winchester Magnum wildcat cartridge.
The .300 Winchester Magnum was not an instant success, mainly due to competition from the comparable 7mm Remington Magnum cartridge introduced in 1962. However, interest among hunters and shooters grew with time, and it gradually became the most popular of the magnum cartridges.
The .300 Winchester Magnum's broad availability in popular rifles such as the Winchester Model 70, Ruger M77, Remington Model 700 and Weatherby Mark V, together with the wide availability of ammunition from a number of manufacturers, made the cartridge a popular choice among hunters and competitive shooters the world over. Although the .300 H&H Magnum, .300 Weatherby Magnum, .30-338 Winchester Magnum, and the .308 Norma Magnum had a head start on the .300 Win Mag, most of these cartridges eventually faded into obscurity. Only the .300 Win Mag and the .300 Weatherby Mag survived into the 21st century as readily available cartridges, with the Winchester round by far the more popular of the two. New .30 caliber magnums have since been introduced, including the .300 Winchester Short Magnum, .300 Remington Ultra Magnum, .30 Nosler, and 300 PRC; however, none of these have achieved the popularity that the .300 Win Mag retains.
Design and specifications
The .300 Winchester Magnum uses the same case head design of the .375 H&H Magnum, its parent cartridge, though the taper of the round has been significantly reduced to ensure greater case volume. The larger dimensions of the .300 Win Mag compared to the .308 Norma Magnum and .30-338 Winchester Magnum cartridges ensures that rifles chambered in such rounds can readily be rechambered to the .300 Win Mag, though the shorter neck of the longer round necessitates comparable bullets must be seated more deeply in the case.
Cartridge dimensions
The ammunition standards organizations SAAMI (Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute) and C.I.P. (Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives) have provided specifications for the .300 Winchester Magnum cartridge. Almost no divergence between C.I.P. and SAAMI dimensional values exist for this cartridge.
However, case volume varies from manufacturer to manufacturer to such an extent that the reloading software suite QuickLOAD provides five differing cartridge case capacities for the cartridge.
The SAAMI specification .300 Winchester Magnum case capacity is 91.5 grains of H2O (5.93 ml).
According to QuickLoad, the case capacities of .300 Win Mag brass produced by four ammunition manufacturers measure as follows:
Remington 88.0 grains of H2O (5.70 ml)
Federal 92.0 grains of H2O (5.96 ml)
Winchester 93.8 grains of H2O (6.08 ml)
Norma 95.5 grains of H2O (6.19 ml)
.300 Winchester Magnum SAAMI cartridge dimensions. All sizes in inches (in) and millimeters (mm). The projectile diameter should be 0.309 in (7.85 mm)
SAAMI recommends a bore diameter of and a groove diameter of . SAAMI recommended a six-groove barrel with each groove being wide. Recommended twist ratio is 1:10 (254 mm).
C.I.P. defines the common rifling twist rate for this cartridge as 254 mm (1 in 10 in), 6 grooves, Ø lands = , Ø grooves = , land width = , and the primer type is large rifle magnum.
The SAAMI Maximum Average Pressure (MAP) for this cartridge is piezo pressure (54,000 CUP).
According to the official C.I.P. (Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives) rulings the .300 Winchester Magnum can handle up to Pmax piezo pressure. In C.I.P. regulated countries every rifle cartridge combo has to be proofed at 125% of this maximum C.I.P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers. This means that .300 Winchester Magnum chambered arms in C.I.P. regulated countries are currently (2013) proof tested at PE piezo pressure.
Performance
Capable of stabilizing bullets weights ranging from 110 to 220 grains, the .300 Winchester Magnum happens to be a very versatile cartridge for different purposes and conditions including big game hunting, bench rest shooting and military applications.
The most useful bullet weights for the .300 Winchester Magnum are those weighing between . However, bullets weighing between are available to the reloader for the .300 Winchester Magnum.
150-grain bullets
Although the 150 grain bullet may have a lower ballistic coefficient than heavier alternatives, this is compensated by its high velocities which extend its maximum point blank range to considerable distances making it suitable for light skinned big game such as deer and sheep, up to considerable distances. Winchester's factory ammunition for the .300 Winchester Magnum is capable of with the bullet and with the bullet, however old Western "Power Point" soft point can reach past with projectiles. The maximum point blank range for the bullet is yards when zeroed at . The maximum point blank range for the bullet is 300 yards when zeroed at . The ability to zero the .300 Winchester Magnum and shoot without hold over to makes the cartridge one of the flatter shooting cartridges.
165 grain bullets
The 165 grain bullet provides a higher ballistic coefficient than similarly shaped 150 grain bullet while maintaining a very high velocity which is translated into a flatter trajectory. Usually a 165 grain bullet shot from a .300 Win Mag has a muzzle velocity of approximately 3160 fps, which is 100 to 150 fps slower than the lighter 150 grain bullet. A almost similar 168 grain bullet is also popular among the .300 win mag as well as other .30 cal. magnum cartridges.
180-grain bullets
Probably the most popular weight for the 300 Win Mag is the 180 grain bullet, with high ballistic coefficient and capable of taking down light skinned big game of any weight. The 180 and 185 grain bullets are also considered the most versatile, with a muzzle velocity of 2950 fps from average factory loads.
190 to 220-grain bullets
Due to its high ballistic coefficients, the heavier bullets are usually preferred by long range shooters being extremely efficient in bucking wind as well as carrying downrange energy capable take down game of any size in America and Europe. These bullets are generally loaded to reach muzzle velocities of 2700 to 2800 fps.
Comparison with other .30 Caliber Big Game Cartridges
Compared with the 30-06 Springfield the .300 Winchester Magnum provides a roughly increase in velocity. This translates to about 20% greater energy advantage over the 30-06 Springfield cartridge. Due to the short neck, heavier bullets particularly those weighing greater than and mono-metal bullets such as the Barnes X bullets will need to be seated more deeply into the cartridge. As the bullet will take up volume which could have been taken by the propellant velocity advantages diminish as the weight of the bullet increases.
The .300 Winchester Magnum is known for its accuracy and has been used for and competitions. While in hunting situations such accuracy is unnecessary, such accuracy does aid in the extending the range of the cartridge. Taken together with its performance it remains one of the most useful and popular cartridges today.
Although cartridges such as the .30-378 Weatherby Magnum, .300 Remington Ultra Magnum and the .300 Weatherby Magnum all exceed performance of the .300 Winchester Magnum none of these cartridges can be chambered in a standard length action. Few .30 caliber (7.62 mm) standard length cartridges can match the performance and versatility of the .300 Winchester Magnum.
The down side to this performance is recoil. The amount of recoil the cartridge generates is a step up from the non-magnum .30 caliber (7.62 mm) cartridges. Its recoil is about 30% greater than that of the .30-06 Springfield, which is known as a 'stout' cartridge. With the average load for the .300 Winchester Magnum, the recoil energy is roughly 30 ft lbs. This would put the .300 Winchester Magnum at the upper limit of what most shooters can shoot comfortably for extended shooting sessions. As a rough comparison, the recoil of the .300 Winchester Magnum is roughly comparable to a 12 gauge shotgun shooting 1 oz. slugs. This greater recoil can make the .300 Winchester Magnum, despite its inherent accuracy advantages, a harder cartridge to shoot accurately, when compared to non-magnum .30 caliber cartridges such as the .30-06 Springfield or the .308 Winchester. On the other hand, recoil is subjective (some are more sensitive to it than others) and one can get used to it with practice. Also, many rifles available today now have effective recoil attenuating features built into them, such as muzzle compensators and energy absorbing stocks and butt-pads, that can significantly lessen recoil as it is felt by the shooter.
Recoil from the .300 Win Mag is noticeably higher than the well-known and popular .30-06 Springfield. Subsequently, Remington has made low-recoil rounds called "Managed-Recoil" available for the .300 Win Mag, which recoil less while providing performance similar to the .30-06 Springfield.
Hunting Application
The .300 Winchester Magnum is powerful enough to hunt any North American game animal and is commercially loaded with bullets ranging from 150 grain to 220 grain bullets, making it a very versatile cartridge for hunting big game of all weighs and under all conditions.
"If you need to shoot long or short, big or small, if the house was burning down and you could only save one, I'd make it the 300 win mag"
It is particularly useful when hunting the members of the ungulate family such as sheep, deer, elk, and moose; being popular cartridge among hunters for these class 3 game species. Elk can weigh as much as and moose . Bullet weights of are the preferred choices for these game species. Controlled expansion bullets such as the Nosler Partition or Barnes X are preferred rather than more lightly constructed bullets for these larger species of ungulate. Bullets weighing are adequate for smaller deer such as the mule deer and white-tailed deer.
150-grain bullets are generally used for hunting medium sized game species. Factory loads are usually loaded to leave the muzzle at 3,250 feet per second, offering the hunter a very flat bullet suitable for long range shots. Nevertheless, handloaders may increase muzzle velocities in 150 fps. 165 and 168-grain bullets also offer a flat trajectory with higher ballistic coefficients, which hold on better in cross winds and higher energy downrange, which makes them a fine alternative for hunting mountain game. But probably the most popular bullet weigh is the 180-grain, which is offered in commercial loads a muzzle velocity of 3,000 fps, offering a good balance between flat trajectory, ballistic coefficient and energy to emphatically hunt large-size big game animals such as elk and moose up to considerable distances. Loaded with heavier 200 to 200 grain bullets, the .300 Win Mag shines for hunting thick boned heavier game.
"So, while the .300 Winchester Magnum does very well with standard .30-caliber hunting bullets from 150 to 180 grains, it starts to lose ground with extra-heavy bullets of 200 grains and more"
With its velocity, low bullet drop and high energy retention, the .300 Winchester Magnum is useful for hunting sheep and other mountain game species, even at extended range, which may be considered unethical for many sport hunters.
The .300 Winchester Magnum cartridge is also very effective on dangerous class 3 game such as bear. Both black bears and grizzly bears are hunted using the cartridge. Many consider the .300 Winchester Magnum to be on the lighter side of what is required for the largest bears, but loaded with heavier bullets, hunters have had success with the cartridge against these large bears.
The .300 Winchester Magnum is well-suited for 95% of the world's game. Due to its worldwide ability and ballistic capability to shoot flat and carry its energy efficiently, due to its high sectional densities and ballistic coefficients, the cartridge is one of the more favored rounds for African plains game as well as big game hunting for different species and hunting conditions globally. With heavier bullets boasting high sectional density and ballistic coefficients, the cartridge possesses the long-range performance necessary to take large game species at extended ranges. Due to the wide selection of bullet weights and construction, the .300 Winchester Magnum may be used to hunt effectively everything from the dik-dik to the giant eland, being an excellent cartridge choice for all plains game under . However, it is also an excellent cartridge for mountain hunting conditions such as found in the Asian Mountains, Rockies and Andes, where fast bullets carrying enough energy to sit game fast while being able to buck cross winds efficiently are praised.
Military and law enforcement applications
The .300 Win Mag sees use in long-range benchrest shooting competitions and has been adopted by law enforcement marksmen and by a few specific branches of the U.S. Military for use by snipers. Maximum effective range is generally accepted to be with ammunition incorporating low-drag projectiles. Sub 1 minute-of-angle (MOA) accuracy out to is not unusual in precision-built rifles firing match-grade ammunition.
The U.S. government purchased MK 248 MOD 1 .300 Winchester Magnum match-grade ammunition in 2009 for use in adapted M24 Sniper Weapon Systems and other .300 Winchester Magnum sniper rifles like the U.S. Navy Mk.13s. This ammunition was developed as a .300 Winchester Magnum Match Product Improvement (PIP) and uses the 220 gr (14.26 g) Sierra MatchKing Hollow Point Boat Tail (HPBT) very-low-drag bullet fired at a nominal muzzle velocity of 2,850 ft/s plus or minus 50 ft/s (869 m/s ± 15.2 m/s). According to the U.S. Navy this ammunition should increase the maximum effective range of .300 Winchester Magnum sniper rifle systems to 1,500 yards (1,370 m), decrease wind deflection on bullets in flight and use Hodgdon H1000, a reduced muzzle flash propellant that remains temperature stable across an operational temperature range of −25 °F to +165 °F (−32 °C to 74 °C). The long MK 248 MOD 1 or alike ammunition is not offered commercially, since it exceeds SAAMI standards for overall length and maximum chamber pressure. However, the handloader can take advantage of modern advances in powder technology and actually exceed the velocity of the MK 248 MOD 1 cartridge while still loading to maximum SAAMI cartridge overall length, and maintaining safe pressure.
According to JBM Ballistics, using the 0.310 G7 ballistic coefficient provided by Bryan Litz, and a Weapon Employment Zone (WEZ) analysis of the XM2010 rifle with various .300 Winchester Magnum ammunition types by Bryan Litz, the MK 248 MOD 1 .300 Winchester Magnum cartridge, when fired at its nominal muzzle velocity of 869 m/s (2,850 ft/s), should have supersonic range under International Standard Atmosphere conditions at sea level (air density ρ = 1.225 kg/m3).
In January 2014, the U.S. Department of Defense annual testing report found that the older A191 or MK 248 Mod 0 .300 Winchester Magnum service round loaded with aerodynamically less efficient 190 gr (12.32 g) Sierra MatchKing Hollow Point Boat Tail (HPBT) bullets (0.270 G7 ballistic coefficient provided by Bryan Litz) fired from the XM2010 demonstrated adequate performance and lethality. Live fire tests were conducted in March 2013 against ballistics gelatin, light material barriers, and other targets to determine the projectile's ability to perforate targets. This was the first time the Pentagon's Director, Operational Test and Evaluation (DOT&E) tested the round, which can hit targets out to .
Several companies, among them HS precision, Kimber and Remington manufacture rifles chambered for the .300 Winchester Magnum specifically targeted at law enforcement agencies. The Chattanooga Police Department and Minot Police Department S.W.A.T units and the L.A. County Sheriffs Department's Special Enforcement Bureau which have adopted the .300 Winchester Magnum in some capacity. Due to the power and performance of the .300 Winchester Magnum cartridge the cartridge is more likely to be employed by specialist units within a police department rather than as a general service weapon issued to law enforcement agents.
Military and law enforcement firearms
: Sako TRG-42
: Bundeswehr G22
: Accuracy International AWM (Such as Mk 13 rifle)
: Mk 13 rifle
: M2010 Enhanced Sniper Rifle
: M86 sniper rifle
: Armalite Model AR-30
: Remington Model 700 Police Long Action tactical rifle
: Savage Model 110BA
: Weatherby TRR Threat Response Rifle
Criticism
The .300 Winchester Magnum was designed with a neck which is shorter than the diameter of its bullet. If Winchester had released the cartridge prior to 1960, the cartridge would have been similar to the .30-338 Winchester wildcat cartridge. However, by the time Winchester got around to designing their own .300, the .308 Norma Magnum and the .30-338 were already on the scene. To help differentiate it from the other .300 magnums, and to allow for the chambers of the standard length .300 magnums to be rebored to the .300 Winchester Magnum chamber dimensions, Winchester moved the shoulder forward and lengthened the cartridge slightly. This created the much criticized short neck of the .300 Winchester Magnum.
The short neck was thought to hinder accuracy because it would prevent the alignment of cartridge to the bore, but this is rarely an issue either today or when the cartridge was designed. The fact that the cartridge has gone to win many matches suggests that such a concern is unfounded.
See also
7 mm caliber
.30-06 Springfield
.300 Norma Magnum — similar non-belted Cartridge
.300 Winchester Short Magnum
List of crew-served weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces
List of rifle cartridges
Table of handgun and rifle cartridges
Sectional density
References
External links
300 Winchester Magnum: How Does Barrel Length Change Velocity- A 16″ 300 Win Mag?
Magnum rifle cartridges
Pistol and rifle cartridges
Winchester Magnum rifle cartridges
Military cartridges
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Todd%20Strasser
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Todd Strasser
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Todd Strasser (born May 5, 1950) is an American writer of more than 140 young-adult and middle grade novels and many short stories and works of non-fiction, some written under the pen names Morton Rhue and T.S. Rue.
Biography
Strasser was born in New York City. He studied literature and creative writing at New York University and Beloit College, then worked as a reporter for the Middletown Times Herald-Record newspaper, and as a copywriter for Compton Advertising in New York City.
His first novel was Angel Dust Blues (1978). He is the father of two children, and an avid tennis player and surfer. In Germany, under the pen name Morton Rhue, he is the best-selling author of such novels as Die Welle, Dschihad Online, Ich knall euch ab!, Boot Camp, No Place, No Home, Ghetto Kidz, Asphalt Tribe, and a number of other titles. In 2008, The Wave (the movie version of Die Welle) starring Jürgen Vogel, debuted at the Sundance Film Festival and went on to become a box office success in many European countries. In November 2019 Netflix released a world-wide series, We Are The Wave, inspired by Strasser's novel.
Strasser's newest novels are Price of Duty (In Germany, American Hero) and Summer of '69. Price of Duty shows how the military uses promises of heroics, teamwork, and excitement to entice young people to enlist despite the life and death risks. The book has received uniformly outstanding reviews and was named an Amazon Young Adult Book of the Month for July, 2018, as well as a 2018 New York Public Library Best Book for Teens.
Summer of '69 is Strasser's autobiographical novel/memoir about his life during the summer of Woodstock, the war in Vietnam, and the first man to set foot on the moon. It was written for adults and mature teens and explores the culture, drug use, sexual mores, and music of the 1960s, as well as his own problems with the military draft and the rupture to his family caused by a nearly forgotten tragedy many years before. Reviewing for Booklist, Ilene Cooper wrote:"Drugs, sex, and rock 'n' roll, those hallmarks of the summer of 1969, are all here, but there's so much more... The story captures the mood and spirit of the times …The best part transcends eras: Lucas' introspection as he contemplates his place in the world.”
Themes
Strasser often writes about timely themes like nuclear war, Nazism, bullying at schools, homelessness, and school shootings. His novel The Wave, written under the pen name Morton Rhue, is a novelization of the teleplay by Johnny Dawkins for the 1981 television movie The Wave. Both the novel and the television movie are fictionalized accounts of the "Third Wave" teaching experiment by Ron Jones in a Cubberley High School history class in Palo Alto, California. The novel has been translated into more than a dozen languages and is read in many schools around the world.
His 2014 novel, Fallout, is part memoir and part speculative fiction featuring nuclear war that results from the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. A review in The New York Times called it "Exciting, harrowing ... Superb entertainment ... It thrums along with finely wrought atmosphere and gripping suspense."
Strasser's works have sometimes proved to be controversial. Recently, his novel American Terrorist was withdrawn from publication in the United States after an uproar about it caused by a brief description of the book which appeared on Goodreads. The novel has been published in Germany under the title Dschihad Online, and in France with the title Djihad Online.
Strasser is the author of the Time Zone High trilogy, How I Changed My Life, How I Created My Perfect Prom Date, and How I Spent My Last Night on Earth. How I Created My Perfect Prom Date was adapted for the feature film Drive Me Crazy, starring Adrian Grenier and Melissa Joan Hart.
Other novels for young adults include The Accident, which became the television movie Over the Limit, as well as Angel Dust Blues, Friends Till the End, and A Very Touchy Subject. The latter also became a television movie, entitled Can a Guy Say No? Another novel, Workin' For Peanuts, was adapted to a television movie with the same title.
A trilogy of mystery thrillers for older young adult readers includes Wish You Were Dead, Blood on My Hands, and Kill You Last.
Strasser has also written a number of young adult series, including Impact Zone (about surfing), Drift X (about drift car competitions), and Here Comes Heavenly (about a punk nanny with magical powers).
His books for middle-graders include CON-fidence, The Diving Bell, and Abe Lincoln for Class President. His series for middle graders include the 17-book Help! I'm Trapped... collection, as well as the Don't Get Caught, Against the Odds, and Camp Run-A-Muck books. He wrote Is That a Dead Dog in Your Locker?, Is That a Sick Cat in Your Backpack?, Is That a Glow-In-The-Dark Bunny in Your Pillow Case?, Is That an Angry Penguin in Your Gym Bag?, and Is That an Unlucky Leprechaun In Your Lunch?
His Kids' Books series of E-books includes The Kids' Book of Gross Facts and Feats (two volumes), The Kids' Book of Weird Science, The Kids' Book of Stupendously Stupid Stunts, The Kids' Book of Really Dumb American Criminals, The Kids' Book of Amazing Sports Facts and Feats, The Kids' Book of Funny Animal Jokes, and others.
Strasser has published articles and short stories in The New Yorker, Esquire, and The New York Times.
Awards and honors
Fallout (2013)
2014 American Library Association Best Fiction for Young Adults
2014 American Library Association Quick Pick for Reluctant Young Adult Readers
2014 National Council for the Social Studies Notable Tradebook for Young People
2014 International Reading Association Young Adults' Choice
2014 Bank Street Teacher's College Best Children's Books of the Year
No Place (2014)
2015 National Council for the Social Studies Notable Tradebook for Young People
If I Grow Up (2009)
2010 National Council for the Social Studies Notable Tradebook for Young People
Boot Camp (2007)
2008 American Library Association Quick Pick for Reluctant Young Adult Readers
2015 American Library Association Popular Paperback for Young Adults
Can't Get There From Here (2004)
2005 American Library Association Best Fiction for Young Adults
2005 American Library Association Quick Pick for Reluctant Young Adult Readers
2006 International Reading Association Young Adults' Choice
2010 American Library Association Popular Paperback for Young Adults
Give A Boy A Gun (2001)
2002 International Reading Association Young Adults' Choice
2006 American Library Association Popular Paperback for Young Adults
Wish You Were Dead (2009)
2011 American Library Association Quick Pick for Reluctant Young Adult Readers
2011 Tayshas (Texas Library Association): Summer Reading List
2012 New York Public Library: Books for the Teen Age.
2012 Illinois: Abraham Lincoln H.S. Book Award
2012 Voice of Youth Advocates Summer Reading List
Bibliography
Help! I'm Trapped
Help! I'm Trapped in My Teacher's Body (1993)
Help! I'm Trapped in the First Day of School (1994)
Help! I'm Trapped in Obedience School (1995)
Help! I'm Trapped in My Gym Teacher's Body (1996)
Help! I'm Trapped in the President's Body (1997)
Help! I'm Trapped in My Sister's Body (1997)
Help, I'm Trapped in Obedience School Again (1997)
Help, I'm Trapped in Santa's Body (1997)
Help! I'm Trapped in My Principal's Body (1998)
Help! I'm Trapped in the First Day of Summer Camp (1998)
Help! I'm Trapped in My Camp Counselor's Body (1998)
Help! I'm Trapped in an Alien's Body (1998)
Help! I'm Trapped in a Movie Star's Body (1999)
Help! I'm Trapped in My Lunch Lady's Body (1999)
Help! I'm Trapped in a Professional Wrestler's Body (2000)
Help! I'm Trapped in a Vampire's Body (2000)
Help! I'm Trapped in a Supermodel's Body (2001)
Help! I'm Trapped in Summer Camp (2006)
Help! I'm Trapped in the First Day of Camp (2011)
Lifeguards
Summers Promise (1993)
Summer's End (1993)
Wordsworth
Wordsworth and the Cold Cut Catastrophe (1995)
Wordsworth and the Kibble Kidnapping (1995)
Wordsworth and the Roast Beef Romance (1995)
Wordsworth and the Mail-Order Meatloaf Mess (1995)
Wordsworth and the Tasty Treat Trick (1996)
Wordsworth and the Lip-Smacking Licorice Love Affair (1996)
How I...
How I Changed My Life (1995)
How I Created My Perfect Prom Date (1998)
How I Spent My Last Night on Earth (1998)
Rock 'n' Roll Summer
The Boys in the Band (1996)
Playing for Love (1996)
Camp Run-A-Muck
Greasy Grimy Gopher Guts (1997)
Mutilated Monkey Meat (1997)
Chopped-Up Birdy's Feet (1997)
Against the Odds
Grizzly Attack (1998)
Buzzard's Feast (1999)
Gator Prey (1999)
Shark Bite (1998)
Impact Zone
Take Off (2004)
Cut Back (2004)
Close Out (1999)
Here Comes Heavenly
Here Comes Heavenly (1999)
Dance Magic (1999)
Pastabilities (2000)
Spell Danger (2000)
Don't Get Caught
Driving the School Bus (2000)
Wearing the Lunch Lady's Hairnet (2001)
In the Girl's Locker Room (2001)
In the Teacher's Lounge (2001)
DriftX
Slide or Die (2006)
Battle Drift (2006)
Sidewayz Glory (2006)
Mob Princess
For Money and Love (2007)
Stolen Kisses, Secrets, and Lies (2007)
Count Your Blessings (2007)
Nighttime
Too Dark to See (2007)
Too Scared to Sleep (2007)
Too Afraid to Scream (2008)
Thrillogy
Wish You Were Dead (2009)
Blood on My Hands (2010)
Kill You Last (2011)
Crematory Mystery Romance
Young Hearts Aflame (2022)
Standalone books
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Title
! Publisher
! Publication date
! ISBN
! Notes
|-
| Angel Dust Blues || Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, Inc. || 1979 || / || Todd Strasser's first novel.
|-
| Friends Till the End || Delacorte Press || 1981 || / ||
|-
| The Wave || Dell || 1981 || || Novelization of the 1981 ABC television film The Wave; Todd Strasser's first novelization.
|-
| Rock 'N' Roll Nights || Delacorte Press || 1982 || / ||
|-
| Workin' for Peanuts || Delacorte Press || 1983 || / ||
|-
| Turn It Up! || Delacorte Press || 1984 || / || Sequel to Rock 'N' Roll Nights.
|-
| The Complete Computer Popularity Program || Delacorte Press || 1984 || / ||
|-
| A Very Touchy Subject || Delacorte Press || 1985 || / ||
|-
| Ferris Bueller's Day Off || Signet Books || June 1986 || / || Novelization of the 1986 Paramount Pictures film Ferris Bueller's Day Off.
|-
| Wildlife || Delacorte Press || 1987 || / || Sequel to Rock 'N' Roll Nights and Turn It Up!.
|-
| The Mall from Outer Space || Scholastic || October 1987 || / ||
|-
| The Family Man || St. Martin's Press || February 1988 || / || Strasser's first adult fiction.
|-
| The Accident || Delacorte Press || 1988 || / || Adapted for television as an installment of the series ABC Afterschool Special (Season 18, Episode 5 "Over the Limit") (1990).
|-
| Cookie || Signet Books || 1989 || / || Novelization of the 1989 Warner Bros. film Cookie.
|-
| Pink Cadillac || Signet Books || May 1989 || / || Novelization of the 1989 film Pink Cadillac.
|-
| Beyond the Reef || Delacorte Press || September 1989 || / || Illustrations by Debbe Heller.
|-
| Moving Target || Fawcett Juniper Books || September 1989 || / || Co-written with Dennis Freeland.
|-
| Home Alone || Scholastic || January 1991 || / || Novelization of the 1990 20th Century Fox film Home Alone.
|-
| The Diving Bell || Scholastic || May 1992 || / ||
|-
| Honey, I Blew Up the Kid || Scholastic || 1992 || / || Novelization of the 1992 Walt Disney Pictures film Honey, I Blew Up the Kid.
|-
| Home Alone 2: Lost in New York || Scholastic || November 1992 || / || Novelization of the 1992 20th Century Fox film Home Alone 2: Lost in New York.
|-
| The Good Son || Pocket Books || 1993 || / || Novelization of the 1993 20th Century Fox film The Good Son.
|-
| Hocus Pocus || Disney Press || 1993 || / || Novelization of the 1993 Walt Disney Pictures film Hocus Pocus.
|-
| Super Mario Bros. || Hyperion Books || 1993 || / || Novelization of the 1993 Hollywood Pictures film Super Mario Bros..
|-
| Free Willy || Scholastic || July 1993 || / || Novelization of the 1993 Warner Bros. film Free Willy.
|-
| Rookie of the Year || The Trumpet Club || September 1993 || / || Novelization of the 1993 20th Century Fox film Rookie of the Year.
|-
| The Three Musketeers || Disney Press || 1993 || / || Novelization of the 1993 Walt Disney Pictures film The Three Musketeers.
|-
| Freaked || The Trumpet Club || October 1993 || / || Novelization of the 1993 20th Century Fox film Freaked.
|-
| Addams Family Values || Pocket Books || December 1993 || / || Novelization of the 1993 Paramount Pictures film Addams Family Values.
|-
| The Beverly Hillbillies || HarperPaperbacks || 1993 || / || Novelization of the 1993 20th Century Fox film The Beverly Hillbillies.
|-
| Walt Disney's Lady and the Tramp || Disney Press || 1994 || / || Novelization of the 1955 Walt Disney Animation Studios film Lady and the Tramp.
|-
| 3 Ninjas Kick Back || Scholastic || March 1994 || / || Novelization of the 1994 film 3 Ninjas Kick Back.
|-
| Walt Disney's Peter Pan || Disney Press || 1994 || / || Novelization of the 1953 Walt Disney Animation Studios film Peter Pan.
|-
| The Pagemaster || Scholastic || November 1994 || / || Novelization of the 1994 film The Pagemaster.
|-
| Miracle on 34th Street || Scholastic || November 1994 || / || Novelization of the 1994 20th Century Fox film Miracle on 34th Street.
|-
| Richie Rich || Scholastic || December 1994 || / || Novelization of the 1994 Warner Bros. film Richie Rich.
|-
| Street Fighter || Newmarket Press || December 1994 || / || Novelization of the 1994 Universal Pictures film Street Fighter.
|-
| Please Don't Be Mine, Julie Valentine! || Scholastic || January 1995 || / ||
|-
| Man of the House || Disney Press || March 1995 || / || Novelization of the 1995 Walt Disney Pictures film Man of the House.
|-
| Tall Tale: The Unbelievable Adventures of Pecos Bill || Disney Press || April 1995 || / || Novelization of the 1995 Walt Disney Pictures film Tall Tale.
|-
| Free Willy 2: The Adventure Home || Scholastic || July 1995 || / || Novelization of the 1995 Warner Bros. film Free Willy 2: The Adventure Home.
|-
| The Amazing Panda Adventure || Scholastic || August 1995 || / || Novelization of the 1995 Warner Bros. film The Amazing Panda Adventure.
|-
| Jumanji || Scholastic || December 1995 || / || Novelization of the 1995 TriStar Pictures film Jumanji.
|-
| How I Created My Perfect Prom Date. || Simon & Schuster || September 1996 || / || Originally published as Girl Gives Birth to Own Prom Date; later adapted into the film Drive Me Crazy (1999).
|-
| Howl-A-Ween || || 1996 || ||
|-
| Hey Dad, Get a Life! || Holiday House || October 1996 || / ||
|-
| A Horse Called Farmer || || 1997 || ||
|-
| Abe Lincoln for Class President! || || 1997 || ||
|-
| Home Alone 3 || Scholastic || December 1997 || / || Novelization of the 1997 20th Century Fox film Home Alone 3.
|-
| Kidnap Kids || || 1998 || ||
|-
| Byte Barkley: Secret Agent K-9 || || 1999 || ||
|-
| Drive Me Crazy || || 1999 || ||
|-
| Give a Boy a Gun || Simon & Schuster || 2000 || ||
|-
| Con-Fidence || || 2002 || ||
|-
| Thief of Dreams || Putnam Juvenile || 2003 || ||
|-
| Can't Get There from Here || Simon & Schuster Children's Publishing || 2004 || ||
|-
| Slide or Die || Simon Pulse || 2006 || ||
|-
| Cheap Shot || || 2007 || ||
|-
| Boot Camp || || 2007 || ||
|-
| Is That A Glow-in-the-Dark Bunny In Your Pillowcase? || || 2007 || ||
|-
| Is That a Sick Cat in Your Backpack? || || 2007 || ||
|-
| Is That A Dead Dog In Your Locker? || || 2008 || ||
|-
| If I Grow Up || || 2009 || ||
|-
| Is That an Angry Penguin in Your Gym Bag? || || 2009 || ||
|-
| Is That an Unlucky Leprechaun in Your Lunch? || || 2009 || ||
|-
| Famous || || 2011 || ||
|-
| Trailer Girl || || 2013 || ||
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| Fallout || || 2013 || ||
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| No Place || || 2014 || ||
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| The Beast of Cretacea || || 2015 || ||
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| The Case of the Murderous Young Millionairess || || 2016 || ||
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| American Terrorist || || 2016 || / || Fictional story about two brothers divided against each other during an FBI sting operation. Removed from print.
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| Price of Duty || || 2018 || ||
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| Summer of '69 || || 2019 || ||
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| The Good War || || 2021 || ||
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Other works
"Young Adult Books: Stalking the Teen." Horn Book Magazine,'' vol. 62, no. 2 (1986, Mar.-Apr.), pp. 236–239.
References
External links
Living people
1950 births
American children's writers
American male journalists
Journalists from New York City
Novelists from New York City
American male novelists
20th-century American novelists
21st-century American novelists
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
Larchmont, New York
Beloit College alumni
20th-century pseudonymous writers
21st-century pseudonymous writers
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4683689
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprofit%20organization%20laws%20by%20jurisdiction
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Nonprofit organization laws by jurisdiction
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Laws regulating nonprofit organizations, nonprofit corporations, non-governmental organizations, and voluntary associations vary in different jurisdictions. They all play a critical role in addressing social, economic, and environmental issues. These organizations operate under specific legal frameworks that are regulated by the respective jurisdictions in which they operate.
Algeria
In Algeria, nonprofit organizations are regulated by Law No. 12-06 of 12 January 2012 on Associations. This law provides guidelines for the establishment, registration, and operation of nonprofit organizations. It sets out the requirements for formation, membership, governance, financial reporting, and dissolution of associations. Nonprofit organizations are required to register with the local authorities to obtain legal recognition and must comply with reporting obligations as stipulated by the law.
Algeria, during its third and fourth UN Human Rights Council universal periodic reviews, made a commitment to revoke Law No.12-06 of 2012 concerning associations and develop a new legislation. These reviews highlighted the significant limitations imposed by the existing law on the formation of associations, the registration procedures, funding, and the discretionary authority of the administration when it came to dissolving associations.
Australia
In Australia, nonprofit organizations include trade unions, charitable entities, co-operatives, universities and hospitals, mutual societies, grass-root and support groups, political parties, religious groups, incorporated associations, not-for-profit companies, trusts and more. Furthermore, they operate across a multitude of domains and industries, from health, employment, disability and other human services to local sporting clubs, credit unions, and research institutes. A nonprofit organization in Australia can choose from a number of legal forms depending on the needs and activities of the organization: co-operative, company limited by guarantee, unincorporated association, incorporated association (by the Associations Incorporation Act 1985) or incorporated association or council (by the Commonwealth Aboriginal Councils and Associations Act 1976). From an academic perspective, social enterprise is, for the most part, considered a sub-set of the nonprofit sector as typically they too are concerned with a purpose relating to a public good. However, these are not bound to adhere to a nonprofit legal structure, and many incorporate and operate as for-profit entities.
In Australia, nonprofit organizations are primarily established in one of three ways: companies limited by guarantee, trusts, and incorporated associations. However, the incorporated association form is typically used by organizations intending to operate only within one Australian state jurisdiction. Nonprofit organizations seeking to establish a presence across Australia typically consider incorporating as a company or as a trust.
Belgium
Under Belgian law, there are several kinds of nonprofit organization:
Non-profit associations by membership, called (abbreviated VZW) in Dutch, or (abbreviated ASBL) in French, or in German.
(Dutch, often abbreviated IVZW) or (French, often abbreviated AISBL) for international nonprofit organizations.
(Dutch, abbreviated SON) or (French, abbreviated FUP); a private non-membership organization for the common good.
(Dutch) or (French), an informal organization, often started for a short-term project, or managed alongside another NPO that does not have any status in law, and thus cannot purchase property, etc.
(Dutch, abbreviated VZW) or (French, abbreviated ASBL) or (German, abbreviated VoG) is the legal term for a basic non-profit organization in Belgium and Luxembourg. It is a formal designation under Belgian and Luxembourg law, and organisations are entered in a register and allocated numeric identifiers.
(Dutch, often abbreviated IVZW) or (French; often abbreviated AISBL) or (German; often abbreviated IVoG) is the legal term used in Belgium for an internationally acting non-profit organization based on Belgian law and located in Belgium.
Importance of the association without lucrative purpose in the Belgian economy
It is estimated that 497,400 employees work for associations without lucrative purpose in Belgium. The international associations without lucrative purpose employ an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 people in Belgium. Brussels is the second largest city in terms of housing of international associations after Washington, DC. The category includes among others professional associations, foundations and NGOs.
Legal reform of the associations without lucrative purpose rules
In 2019, Belgium adopted new legal rules for private companies which also cover associations without lucrative purpose. The new rules allow the association without lucrative purpose to exercise any commercial activity. They are, however, not allowed to distribute their profits.
Associations without lucrative purpose have been in the past criticized for their poor management practices. In response, the new rules also increase the liability for the administrators of an association without lucrative purpose with respect to the association.
Burundi
In January 2017, Burundi announced an entry-into-force of a new law governing foreign NGOs. This law introduced ethnic quotas on foreign NGOs, designating that local staff must remain 60 percent Hutu and 40 percent Tutsi. In October 2018, Burundi's National Security Council announced an immediate suspension of a large number of foreign NGOs, with the exemption of hospital and school-based organizations. The suspended NGOs were required to present four documents reinforcing the organizations' commitment to banking regulations and ethnic staffing quotas, among others; or face deregistration.
Canada
Canada allows nonprofit organizations to be incorporated or unincorporated. They may incorporate either federally, under Part II of the Canada Business Corporations Act, or under provincial legislation. Many of the governing Acts for Canadian nonprofits date to the early 1900s, meaning that nonprofit legislation has not kept pace with legislation that governs for-profit corporations, particularly with regards to corporate governance. Federal, and in some provinces (including Ontario), incorporation is by way of Letters Patent, and any change to the Letters Patent (even a simple name change) requires formal approval by the appropriate government, as do bylaw changes. Other provinces (including Alberta) permit incorporation as of right, by the filing of Articles of Incorporation or Articles of Association.
During 2009, the federal government enacted new legislation repealing the Canada Corporations Act, Part II – the Canada Not-for-Profit Corporations Act. This Act was last amended on 10 October 2011, and the act was current until 4 March 2013. It allows for incorporation as of right, by Articles of Incorporation; does away with the ultra vires doctrine for nonprofits; establishes them as legal persons; and substantially updates the governance provisions for nonprofits. Ontario also overhauled its legislation, adopting the Ontario Not-for-Profit Corporations Act during 2010; the new Act is expected to be in effect as of 1 July 2013.
Canada also permits a variety of charities (including public and private foundations). Charitable status is granted by the Canada Revenue Agency (CRA) upon application by a nonprofit; charities are allowed to issue income tax receipts to donors, must spend a certain percentage of their assets (including cash, investments, and fixed assets) and file annual reports in order to maintain their charitable status. In determining whether an organization can become a charity, CRA applies a common law test to its stated objects and activities. These must be:
The relief of poverty
The advancement of education
The advancement of religion, or
Certain other purposes that benefit the community in a way the courts have said is charitable
Charities are not permitted to engage in partisan political activity; doing so may result in the revocation of charitable status. However, a charity can carry out a small number of political activities that are non-partisan, help further the charities' purposes, and subordinate to the charity's charitable purposes.
Ethiopia
On March 12, 2019, the government of Ethiopia enacted a new law on civil society organizations (CSOs), the Organization of Civil Societies Proclamation No. 1113/2019 (CSO Proclamation). The CSO Proclamation replaces the Proclamation of Charities and Societies No. 621/2009 (2009 Proclamation). The 2009 Proclamation was criticized by many NGOs as extremely restrictive, requiring NGOs to report to the Charities and Societies Agency; NGOs were also required to follow a '70/30' rule in which organizations were to allocate 70 percent of their budget to operational costs and 30 percent to administrative costs.
France
In France, nonprofits are called . They are based on a law enacted 1 July 1901. As a consequence, the nonprofits are also called .
A nonprofit can be created by two people to accomplish a common goal. The can have industrial or commercial activities or both, but the members cannot make any profit from the activities. Thereby, worker's unions and political parties can be organized from this law.
In 2008, the National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies (INSEE) counted more than a million of these in the country, and about 16 million people older than 16 are members of a nonprofit in France (a third of the population over 16 years old). The nonprofits employ 1.6 million people, and 8 million are volunteers for them.
This law is also relevant in many former French colonies, particularly in Africa.
Hong Kong
The Hong Kong Company Registry provides a memorandum of procedure for applying to Registrar of Companies for a Licence under Section 21 of the Companies Ordinance (Cap.32) for a limited company for the purpose of promoting commerce, art, science, religion, charity, or any other useful object.
India
In India, non-governmental organizations are the most common type of societal institutions that do not have commercial interests. However, they are not the only category of non-commercial organizations that can gain official recognition. For example, memorial trusts, which honor renowned individuals through social work, may not be considered as NGOs.
They can be registered in four ways:
Trust
Society
Section-25 company (Section 8 as per the new Companies Act, 2013)
Special licensing
Registration can be with either the Registrar of Companies (RoC) or the Registrar of Societies (RoS).
The following laws or Constitutional Articles of the Republic of India are relevant to the NGOs:
Articles 19(1)(c) and 30 of the Constitution of India
Income Tax Act, 1961
Public Trusts Acts of various states
Societies Registration Act, 1860
Section 25 of the Indian Companies Act, 1956 (Section 8 as per the new Companies Act, 2013)
Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act, 1976.
Israel
In Israel nonprofit organizations (NPOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are usually established as registered nonprofit associations (, ; plural: , ) or public benefit companies (, or , , not to be confused with public benefit corporations). The structure of financial statements of nonprofit organizations is regulated Israel's Accounting Standard No. 5, and must include a balance sheet, a report on activities, the income and expenditure for the particular period, a report on changes in assets, a statement of cash flows, and notes to the financial statements. A report showing the level of restriction imposed on the assets and liabilities can be given, though this is not required.
are regulated by the . An is a body corporate, though not a company. The is successor to the which predated the State of Israel, and was established by the now-superseded 1909 Ottoman Law on Associations, based on the French law of 1901. Public benefit companies are governed solely by company law; if their regulations and objectives meet the two conditions specified in Section 345A of the Companies Act, they will in effect be in all but name.
An must register with the (, 'Registrar of Amutot'); a public benefit company must register with the (, 'Registrar of Companies'). Both are under the purview of the (, 'Corporations Authority') of the Ministry of Justice.
Japan
In Japan, an NPO is any citizen's group that serves the public interest and does not produce a profit for its members. NPOs are given corporate status to assist them in conducting business transactions. As at February 2011, there were 41,600 NPOs in Japan. Two hundred NPOs were given tax-deductible status by the government, which meant that only contributions to those organizations were tax deductible for the contributors.
Kenya
Since 1990, the rights and obligations of nonprofits in Kenya have been regulated by the NGO Coordination Act, which in the eyes of many CSOs and even some politicians contains arduous and complex conditions for the sector. In 2013, the Public Benefits Organizations (PBO) Act was drafted as a replacement, aiming for a more transparent and efficient legal framework. However, it did not enter into force due to the general elections in March 2013.
Government-NGO relations deteriorated after the elections, primarily due to the involvement of Kenyan human rights NGOs in providing evidence against the new president and vice president to the International Criminal Court (ICC) regarding the post-election violence in 2007-2008. Local NGOs formed a protest coalition under the Civil Society Organizations Reference Group (CSORG) and adopted a two-track approach of lobbying MPs and mobilizing the public. They highlighted the negative socioeconomic impacts of the amendments, emphasizing the importance of the NGO sector for the Kenyan economy and service delivery.
The lobbying activities aimed to convince MPs that the amendments would harm their constituencies, while the public mobilization campaign sought to activate public pressure. Social media campaigns, media statements, petitions, and personal meetings were used to mobilize public support. External actors, including international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) and development partners, criticized the amendments and supported the socioeconomic narrative presented by the Kenyan NGO alliance. The proposed amendments to the PBO Act were rejected by the majority of parliamentarians, including those from opposition parties and the governing parties. The resistance from local NGOs, along with external support, played a role in this outcome.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, nonprofit organizations usually are established as incorporated societies or charitable trusts. An incorporated society requires a membership of at least 15people.
Republic of Ireland
The Irish Nonprofits Database was created by Irish Nonprofits Knowledge Exchange (INKEx) to act as a repository for regulatory and voluntarily disclosed information about Irish public-benefit nonprofits. The database lists more than 10,000 nonprofit organizations in Ireland. In 2012 INKEx ceased to operate due to lack of funding.
Russia
Russian law contains many legal forms of non-commercial organization (NCO), resulting in a complex, often contradictory, and limiting regulatory framework. The primary requirements are that NCOs, whatever their type, do not have the generation of profit as their main objective and do not distribute any such profit among their participants (Article 50(1), Civil Code). Most commonly there are five forms of NCO:
Public associations – A public association is the form most comparable to an 'association' as used in international parlance. A public association is a membership-based organization of individuals who associate on the basis of common interests and goals stipulated in the organization's charter.
Foundations – Foundations are property-based, non-membership organizations created by individuals or legal persons (or both) to pursue social, charitable, cultural, educational, or other public benefit goals.
Institutions – The institution () is a form that exists in Russia and several other countries of the former Soviet Union. Like foundations, institutions do not have members. Unlike foundations, however, institutions do not acquire property rights in the property conveyed to them (Article 120, Civil Code, and Article 20, NCO Law). Moreover, the founders are liable for any obligations of the institution that it cannot meet on its own.
Non-commercial partnerships – A non-commercial partnership (NP) (Article 8, NCO Law) is a membership organization pursuing activities for the mutual benefit of members. Therefore, assets that have been transferred to an NP as donations can be used for purposes other than those having public benefit.
Autonomous non-commercial organizations – An autonomous non-commercial organization (ANO) (Article 10, NCO Law) is a non-membership organization undertaking services in the field of education, social policy, culture, etc., which in practice often generates income by providing its services for a fee.
South Africa
In South Africa, nongovernmental organizations are governed by the Nonprofit Organisations Act of 1997 (NPO Act). The NPO Act has been generally characterized as a "good" law, seeking to enable and assist civil society organizations in the country.
Certain types of charity may issue a tax certificate when requested, which donors can use to apply for a tax deduction. Charities/NGOs may be established as voluntary associations, trusts or nonprofit companies (NPCs). Voluntary associations are established by agreement under the common law, and trusts are registered by the Master of the High Court.
Nonprofit companies (NPCs) are registered by the Companies and Intellectual Property Commission. All of these may voluntarily register with The Directorate for Nonprofit Organisations and may apply for tax-exempt status to the South African Revenue Service (SARS).
Ukraine
In Ukraine, nonprofit organizations include non-governmental organizations, cooperatives (inc. housing cooperatives), charitable organizations, religious organizations, political parties, commodities exchanges (in Ukraine, commodities exchanges cannot be organized for profit) and more. Nonprofit organizations obtain their non-profit status from tax authorities. The state fiscal service is the main registration authority for nonprofit status.
United Kingdom
In the UK a nonprofit organization may take any of the following forms:
unincorporated association
charitable trust
charitable incorporated organisation (CIO)
company limited by guarantee
charter organization, including livery companies
charitable company
community interest company (CIC)
community benefit society
cooperative society
Of these, a charitable trust, charitable incorporated association, or charitable company is required to be charitable, while the others may be for a charitable purpose or not. Unincorporated associations may be for any non-profit purpose, but do not have legal personality and so cannot own property, enter into contracts, sue or be sued in their own name and the liability of their members and officers is unlimited. Charitable unincorporated associations are nonetheless common because they require no registration or other bureaucracy to set up and are not subject to stringent controls on the nature of their activities.
United States
After a nonprofit organization has been formed at the state level, the organization may seek recognition of tax-exempt status with respect to U.S. federal income tax. That is done typically by applying to the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), although statutory exemptions exist for limited types of nonprofit organization. The IRS, after reviewing the application to ensure the organization meets the conditions to be recognized as a tax-exempt organization (such as the purpose, limitations on spending, and internal safeguards for a charity), may issue an authorization letter to the nonprofit granting it tax-exempt status for income-tax payment, filing, and deductibility purposes. The exemption does not apply to other federal taxes such as employment taxes. Additionally, a tax-exempt organization must pay federal tax on income that is unrelated to their exempt purpose. Failure to maintain operations in conformity to the laws may result in the loss of tax-exempt status.
Individual states and localities offer nonprofits exemptions from other taxes such as sales tax or property tax. Federal tax-exempt status does not guarantee exemption from state and local taxes and vice versa. These exemptions generally have separate applications, and their requirements may differ from the IRS requirements. Furthermore, even a tax-exempt organization may be required to file annual financial reports (IRS Form 990) at the state and federal levels. A tax-exempt organization's 990 forms are required to be available for public scrutiny.
Governance
The board of directors has ultimate control over the organization, but typically an executive director is hired. In some cases, the board is elected by a membership, but commonly, the board of directors is self-perpetuating. In these 'board-only' organizations, board members nominate new members and vote on their fellow directors' nominations. Part VI Governance, Management, and Disclosure, section A, question 7a of the Form 990 asks "Did the organization have members, stockholders, or other persons who had the power to elect or appoint one or more members of the governing body?"; the IRS instructions added "(other than the organization's governing body itself, acting in such capacity)".
Zimbabwe
In February 2023, Zimbabwean President Emmerson Mnangagwa announced that he will sign into law the Private Voluntary Organization (PVO) Bill. The PVO Bill was introduced in 2021, seeking to restrict and supervise civil society in Zimbabwe.
References
Corporate law
Legal entities
Non-profit organizations
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4684066
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruan%20Ji
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Ruan Ji
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Ruan Ji (; 210–263), courtesy name Sizong (), was a Chinese musician and poet who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He was one of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove. The guqin melody Jiukuang (酒狂 "Drunken Ecstasy", or "Wine Mad") is believed to have been composed by him. At one time an infantry commander, he was also known as Ruan Bubing (阮步兵; pinyin: Ruǎn Bùbīng; literally "Ruan of the infantry").
Life
Ruan Ji's father was Ruan Yu, one of the famed Seven Scholars of Jian'an who were promoted by the Cao clan in the Jian'an poetry era. The Ruan family were loyal to the Cao Wei, as opposed to the Sima family; however their moral convictions and willingness to speak out generally outmatched their actual military or political power. It is fair to say that Ruan Ji was born into peril, his time period being the Period of Disunity. Ruan Ji was poetically part of both the poetry of the Jian'an period and the beginning of the Six Dynasties poetry developments. He would embrace the poetic side of what the times offered him, and even managed to avoid many political dangers, turmoils, and snares of his time. The safety of Ruan Ji during his life seems to have been underwritten by his willingness to be labeled a drunk and an eccentric.
Rise of the Sima
Born just before the end of the Han dynasty, the Ruan family fortune rose with the rise of Cao Cao and the rest of the Cao family. However, while Ji was still quite young, the fortune of the Ruan family became imperiled with the rise of the Sima family: originally the Sima had merely served as officials under the Cao; but, as time went by they managed to accrue more and more power into their own family's hands, particularly beginning with Sima Yi this process of growth of power would eventually culminate in the founding of the Jin dynasty (266–420) by Sima Yan. Furthermore, during the time of Ruan Ji, there was ongoing peril from the ongoing military struggles with the kingdom of Shu Han, together with other impending military and political changes.
Sociocultural background
Politics and the poet
The life and creative work of Ruan Ji took place within a crucial and dramatic period in China history, which was associated with large changes in various spheres of life. The Han dynasty had seen a period of virtuous rule in which the norm of ritual piety, philanthropic principles of legendary ancient rulers, aspiration to nurture officials – calm, reasonable, serving for consciousness, not of fear – became governmental norm. However this was followed by the so-called Period of Disunity.
Ruan Ji witnessed bloody wars, struggles for power in the court of Wei, and the Sima family's rise. Despite the dim times, this was a period of great achievements in spiritual culture. Bright peculiarity of that time was intellectual life: interests in metaphysics, which were discussed in the "pure talks" of open academic forums, profound interest in the problem of the highest purpose, the great popularity of Daoism and the spreading of foreign learning, such as Buddhism, a rapid expansion of lyrical poetry, a flourishing of all fine arts from painting to architecture; all these brought a spirit of "grace and freedom" (Feng Youlan) to the epoch.
The invention of cheap paper in the 2nd century spread literacy among a large population, which brought a sense of chivalry (shi 士) to a large number of educated people, with notions of good, truth, justice and virtue. Heroes of the day became irreproachable virtuous men, who relinquished politics and preferred a quiet life in the countryside or the life of a hermit to the glamour and fame of court life. These so-called sublime men (junzi 君子) brought into being ideas of protest against an iniquitous reign, hidden by exterior unconcern, and greatness in undemanding and pureness. The life of court officials was considered "the life of dust and dirt", while the real dirt of peasant labour was a symbol of purity.
The Bamboo Grove
As is traditionally depicted, a certain group of seven scholar/musician/poets wishing to escape the intrigues, corruption and stifling atmosphere of court life during the politically fraught Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history habitually gathered in the obscurity of a bamboo grove near the house of Xi Kang (aka Ji Kang) in Shanyang (now in Henan province). Here they enjoyed practicing their works, and enjoying the simple, rustic life, always with much Chinese alcoholic beverage (sometimes referred to as "wine").
Livia Kohn describes Ruan Ji's artistic expression,
His friends and fellow poets induced ecstatic experiences through music, wine, and drugs, especially the notorious Cold Food Powder which created psychedelic states and made the body feel very hot, causing people to take off their clothes and jump into pools. When back in their ordinary selves, they wrote poetry of freedom and escape, applying the Zhuangzi concept of free and easy wandering in the sense of getting away from it all and continuing the text's tradition in their desperate search for a better world within.
This was contrasted with the theoretically and Confucian certified honorable and joyful duty of serving ones country; but, which at this time would have actually meant living (at least briefly) a life of attempting to perform governmental service amid the deadly dangerous political quagmires of the seats of power and changes of government. Rather than attempt to stay loyal to Wei through the rise of Jin by their active, personal involvement, the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove instead stressed the enjoyment of ale, personal freedom, spontaneity and a celebration of nature—together with political avoidance.
Ruan Ji is usually mentioned first among the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove. The other sages were Xi Kang his lover, Shan Tao (山濤), Liu Ling (劉伶), Ruan Xian (阮咸), Xiang Xiu (向秀), Wang Rong (王戎). They created an image of wise men enjoying life rather uninhibitedly, realizing the old dream of a Daoist concord of free men who are gifted with hidden wisdom "to be together, not being together" and "act jointly, not acting jointly". The wine goblet, which became a symbol of being accustomed to "contemplating many wonders" pertaining to Daoism, united them even more than any principles. Ruan Ji talked in his works about "remote" things but about the "Bamboo Groove" he remained silent, although the group became the main focus of his searches for free and frank friendship.
Anecdotes
Ruan Ji was one of that kind of people, who themselves made their life a masterpiece. In the Chen Shou's History of Wei Dynasty the mentioning of Ruan Ji was more than modest: "... highly talented, having an ability to avoid the chains of court morality and traditions, but unbalanced and undisciplined; he was eager to banish his temptations. Ruan Ji honoured the ancient Daoist sage Zhuangzi." The History of Jin Dynasty describes Ruan Ji's appearance and personality: "Ji's appearance was uncommon, stubborn and self-willed, tempered, proud and independent. Following only the gusts of soul ... Sometimes he would wander away on the hills and forget to return, and at length come back crying bitterly; at other times he would shut himself up with his books and see no one for months. He read a lot, especially liking Laozi and Zhuangzi. He drank a lot, he possessed the skill of transcendental whistling and loved to play on the qin (琴). Once inspired by an idea, he forgot about everything in the world. Many considered him to be a madman."
Fu Yi, who describes Ruan Ji as a connoisseur of ancient essays, mentioned that the "poet was diligently engaged in sciences" and read books until nightfall. This quiet solitude and obsession in perceiving the knowledge of the ancients was his hidden source of inspiration. Ruan Ji widely opened the way to court honour but he never hid his despise of the careerist attitudes of officials. One of his biographers told: "initially Ji tried to improve the world, but lived on the Wei and Jin boundary. In China there were few Junzi who preserved themselves. Because of that Ji abandoned his affairs, and was intoxicated all the time."
One day at the court, on being told about a son who had killed his mother, Ruan Ji said: "Ha! If he has gone so far to kill his mother, he could allow himself to kill his father too." All, who heard this, "lost their gift of talking" and demanded him to explain himself, because "the killing of father is the worst crime in the Empire, how could you say that it is possible?" Ruan Ji replied: "Animals and birds know their mother, but are unaware of the father. Killing father – is becoming like animals and birds, but those who killed their own mother – are even worse than animals." Chronicler added: "No one could object his words."
Ruan Ji refused the rules not only in court. There is a story telling about him playing chess when he received news about the death of his mother. His chess partner asked him to end the game, but Ruan Ji cold-bloodedly finished the game, then drank two measures of wine and started to groan. On the funeral he wept so violently, that he brought up several pints of blood. He didn't mourn and, despite observing the decencies, ate meat and drank wine. Yet when people came to support him, he showed to all but a favored few only the whites of his eyes. When Ji Kang (嵇康, 223–262) came along carrying with him a jar of wine and the musical instrument known as a Qin, Ruan Ji welcomed him with his pupils and met him with happiness.
In Chinese traditional thinking there exists three opinions on Ruan Ji. The first opinion – wholly negative – claims him to be an inspirer of vicious "dissoluteness". The second considers him a wielder of "disturbance". Zhen Yu wrote: "Many consider Ruan Ji to be a dissolute, unrestrained man, but it is an insufficient opinion ... He was not talking about the imperfection of others, looked only with the whites of his eyes. Is this not an address to the world of mankind? In mourning he ate meat and drank wine, groaned and spat out blood – isn't it a care of man's Dao (way)? At that time reigning powers were cruel ... but Ruan Ji died a natural death – isn't it a wisdom of self preservation?" The third opinion sees Ruan Ji as a wise man, one who penetrated in the hidden "Dao Art". Cui ShuLiang wrote about him: "Ruan Ji stood up above all the mankind", was "out of validity and invalidity", none were able to "achieve his greatness, and measure the depth of his thoughts", he became "refined begin of all matters". The poet Wang Ji praised him as the first man, after legendary rulers of ancient times, who found the way to paradise of universal, careless intoxication.
One of Ruan Ji's poems expresses how he discarded the norms of Confucius, although they were followed by such virtuous men like Yan Yuan and Min Sun, who were students of Confucius. He obtains wisdom from the legendary Daoist Xian Menzi. Talking about the changes in the poet ideals, we can remember a statement, "Are there any rituals for man like I am?"
Work
Ruan Ji's work reveals different sides of his inner world.
Essays
"About Penetration into the Book of Changes" is a philosophical essay. "About Music" expresses ideas on the nature of a world order. Other works are "About Penetration into Laozi" and "About Understanding Zhuangzi". Ruan Ji achieved the most fame with his almanac Poems from My Heart, which contains 82 poems. His contemporaries said of Ruan Ji's work "The Life of a Great Man" that it revealed all his innermost thoughts. The main character of the work is a nameless hermit, whose characteristics are described at the beginning of the essay:
Ten thousands li (里) were for him as one step, thousands of years as one morning. He pursued nothing, stopped on nothing; he was in search of the Great Dao, and found shelter nowhere ... Egoists scold and abuse him, ignoramuses reproach him, but no one knew the refined wanderings of his spirit. But the old man didn't betray his pursuit, despite being the bewilderment of a society that abused him ...
By means of this wise man, Ruan Ji reveals his own innermost ideas. In his composition, Ruan Ji ridicules Confucian morals and rituals.
With the appearance of a ruler cruelty flourished instantaneously, vassals came into being and at once faithlessness and betrayal appeared. Rituals and laws are established but people are bound, not free. Cheating the ignorant, duping simple people, hiding knowledge to seem wise. The powerful ones are ruling and causing outrage, the weak ones are afraid and subservient to others. They seem disinterested, but in fact they are grasping. On the inside they are insidious, but on the outside they are amiable and polite. If made a crime – don't regret, if you got luck – don't enjoy ...
The world view of Ruan Ji mostly refers to Daoist tradition, but that doesn't mean that he was a Daoist. He took from the Daoist philosophers of old what he thought important; in essence, he looked for "truth inside himself". He concerned himself not merely with knowing the truth, but looking for good and truth inside a cruel and imperfect world, mainly looking for a connection between man and the world.
Poetry
Ruan Ji had a many-sided personality, but poetry brought him the glory and fame of being the greatest poet of his epoch. Liu Se gave a classical evaluation to the place of poetry in the life of Ruan Ji. Comparing two geniuses of the 3rd century, Ji Kang and Ruan Ji, he wrote: "Ji Kang expressed in his compositions the intellect of an outstanding thinker, Ruan Ji put all his spirit and all his life into his poems. Their voices are different, but they sound in full harmony! Their wings are not similar, but they are flying in absolute unity!" Zhong Rong in his work The Categories of Poems ascribes Ruan Ji's work to the highest rank of poetry: "... his poetry can strengthen one's temper and spirit, it can cast a deep thoughtful mood ... but the meaning of his poetry is hard for understanding." Mikuchi Fukanaga sees in Ruan Ji's poetry a unique attempt to explain the experience called satori in Japanese Buddhism.
The poetry of Ruan Ji has the same mood, what differs is his soul and his world view. In it we can find biting and angry criticism of Confucian dogmatists and rulers, a glorification of the gladness of "carefree wandering", and the anger and sorrow resulting from the conflict between Junzi (君子) and "times of chaos". It differs by a particular broad view of the world, being exceptionally lyric, in which he says only about himself. His poetry mixes thoughts, moods and feelings. Ruan Ji often uses contrast to underline the beauty of a moment that is always neighbouring the irresistible "emptiness" of death. For example, he often used an image of bright flowers that blossom on old graves.
Bushes of flowers
Leafy blooming on graves...
(translated by Aleksey Pashkovsky)
Ruan Ji preferred not to use concrete characters — a hero, a hermit, a Confucian, a saint man, a sage — using examples from ancestors. And for geographical references he used ancient names.
His poems confront illusory life and tensity of every day matters, glory of a hero and solitude of a hermit, love's passion and the inevitability of separation. All the lyrical poetry of Ruan Ji is penetrated by a thought of sorrow, which he accepted as an eternal and unavoidable friend, near him throughout life. He wrote: "Only with sorrow thoughts are occurring, without sorrow there is no thoughtful mood ..." The first poem of his almanac Singing My Cares (咏懷 Yǒnghuái) expresses such sad thoughts.
Being sleepless at midnight,
I rise to play lute.
The moon is visible through the curtains
And a gentle breeze sways the cords of my robe.
A lonely wild goose cries in the wilderness
And is echoed by birds in the woods.
As it circles, it gazes
At me, alone, imbued with sadness.
(translated by Jerome Ch'en & Michael Bullock)
Here the author recreated a particular background for his constant sorrow: the night's haze, moonlight, a slight gentle breeze, voices of invisible birds. Such a sad mood appears in almost all the poems in his almanac. He doesn't always hide his feelings behind nature; sometimes his voice breaks away to shout and one can hear confusion and fear: "I loose my way, what will be with me now?"
Music
The China of the 3rd century saw an overall interest in music. Music in China was a matter of national importance. The Qin ( 琴) and the flute received the same importance as the brush for writing or living language. For Ruan Ji music meant an ideal of harmony. Ruan Ji perceived music not in sounds but in the world, music that is inherent to the world. He linked music with the "natural way" (道). Ruan Ji didn't like music to cast non-constant feelings, even sorrow or joy, especially if man feels the pleasure of his emotional experience. Ruan Ji explained his understanding of music with the example of an episode from Confucius' life: "Once, Confucius, in a state of Qi, heard ancient music and then for three months he didn't know the taste of meat. That means", Ruan Ji explained, "that perfect music doesn't arouse desires. The heart is serene, the spirit is placid, and then the taste of meat is unknown." From this point of view the music of ancient, wise men is merely the expression of harmony.
Ruan Ji said about himself in the following words:
In a forest lives one rare bird.
She calls herself fairy bird feng.
At the bright morning she drinks from pure springs.
At the evening she flies away to the pikes of far mountains.
Her hoot reaches remote lands.
By straining neck, she sees all eight deserts.
She rushes together with autumn wind,
Strong wings putting together,
She will blow away to west to Kunlun Mountains,
When she will be back?
But she hates all kind of places and titles,
Her heart is tormented by sorrow and anguish.
(translated by Aleksey Pashkovsky)
And of his life he stated: "Only one moment – but how much sorrow is hidden!" At this "moment of sorrow" he found immortality.
Notes
References
Ch'en, Jerome and Michael Bullock (1960). Poems of Solitude. London: Abelard-Schuman.
Further reading
Owen, Stephen [translator], Swartz, Wendy [translator], Tian, Xiaofei [editor], Warner, Ding Xiang [editor] (2017). The Poetry of Ruan Ji and Xi Kang . De Gruyter Mouton.
External links
Please see: References section in the guqin article for a full list of references used in all qin related articles.
http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Division/personsruanji.html
210 births
263 deaths
3rd-century Chinese poets
Cao Wei musicians
Guqin players
Jian'an poetry
Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove
Han dynasty musicians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Pitchfork%20Disney
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The Pitchfork Disney
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The Pitchfork Disney is a 1991 stage play by Philip Ridley. It was his first professional stage work, having also produced work as a visual artist, novelist, filmmaker, and scriptwriter for film and radio. The play premiered at the Bush Theatre in London, UK in 1991 and was directed by Matthew Lloyd, who directed most of Ridley's subsequent early plays.
Although initially met with negative critical reviews for its script, the production was enthusiastically received by predominantly young audiences, making it something of a controversial hit. Over time, the play has come to be regarded as a seminal work in the confrontational 1990s style and sensibility of British drama termed in-yer-face theatre.
The play is the first entry in Ridley's unofficially titled "East End Gothic Trilogy", followed by The Fastest Clock in the Universe and Ghost from a Perfect Place.
In 2015 the script was republished as part of the Methuen Drama Modern Classics series, recognising the play's impact on modern British theatre.
Synopsis
The play opens with the characters of Presley and Haley, two adults living alone in the East End of London. They lead a childish fantasy existence, subsisting mostly on chocolate. Their parents died a decade before, although their exact fate is not described. They tell each other stories and discuss their dreams and fears.
From their window, they see two men, one of whom is apparently sick. Agitated, Haley sucks on a drugged dummy and goes to sleep. Despite their fear of outsiders, Presley brings the sick man in, who promptly vomits on the floor. The man introduces himself as Cosmo Disney, and explains that he and his partner are showmen. His sickness is caused by the fact that his particular talent consists of eating insects and small animals. Cosmo emotionally manipulates Presley who tells Cosmo about a recurring dream he has, involving a serial killer named 'The Pitchfork Disney'.
Almost immediately after Presley finishes his story, Cosmo's partner arrives—a huge, masked, apparently mute figure named Pitchfork Cavalier. His act is simply taking his mask off to reveal his hideously deformed face. He sings a wordless song, dances with the unconscious Haley and eats some chocolate. Cosmo convinces Presley to accompany Pitchfork to the shops, promising friendship. As soon as they leave, Cosmo performs a sexual assault on Haley by inserting one of his fingers soaked in medicine into her mouth. Presley unexpectedly returns and realises Cosmo's true motives, and breaks the finger with which be assaulted Haley. Cosmo flees. Pitchfork briefly returns, terrifies Presley and then leaves. Haley awakes, and the two express their fear.
Themes and interpretation
The play is a dreamlike piece with surreal elements. It primarily deals with fear, particularly childhood fears. Dreams and stories are also explored, and indeed, the entire play can be interpreted as a dream.
Another recurring theme is that of snakes, being described by Presley in two monologues. In the first he describes killing one in a frying pan; and in the second, seeing one kill a mouse in the reptile house of a zoo and then later coming home and watching a television programme about a Christian cult who worship snakes. Cosmo himself can be interpreted as being a manifestation of a snake as he eats insects and small animals, claims to have hatched from an egg, and that he got new skin from unzipping and throwing away the skin he had as a baby. In one monologues, Presley describes seeing a snake shed its skin to reveal bright red new skin. This description seems to echo Cosmo, who enters the play wearing a long black overcoat which he takes off to reveal a red-sequinned jacket.
Concerning interpretations of The Pitchfork Disney, Ridley said in 2016 that "Every time it’s revived it means something different. There’s a production of it on in Canada at the moment which in the present climate is being seen as a play about terrorism – about the fear of the outside coming in and the fear of change. A few years ago it was about the fear of sex, intimacy, of being touched... [my plays are] like tuning forks, they vibrate with whatever’s going on in the atmosphere at the time."
Development
Ridley began writing the play while as a student at St Martin's School of Art. As part of his studies he had created a series of performance art pieces, which Ridley performed in art galleries, consisting of long fast-paced monologues that depicted dream sequences and characters with shifting identities. Some of Ridley's friends, who were leaving art school to pursue acting, suggested that his monologues would make a good basis for a stage play. He began writing The Pitchfork Disney based on two of his monologues—about a character who was afraid of everything, and one who was afraid of nothing—imagining what would happen if the characters met.
Elements of the play might be based on events from Ridley's life. Describing his experience as a child visiting Brick Lane Market, Ridley said "I saw a snake charmer there once. And you could have your photograph taken with monkeys wearing red jackets. I've got a photo of me holding the two poor creatures. All three of us look terrified." In his semiautobiographical prose Introduction to his first collection of plays, Ridley describes how, when he was 18-years-old, he saw a man in a pub wearing a red sequined jacket eat a variety of insects onstage for entertainment.
One of Ridley's St Martins tutors advised him to send the play to a dramatic agent. He sent it to the agent Rod Hall, who Ridley says called him a few days later saying "I've just read your play. I don't know what it is. I don't know what to make of it. But all I do know is that I've never quite read anything like it before. So come in and we'll get it on somewhere."
Hall sent the script to The Hampstead Theatre where Matthew Lloyd was literary manager. Lloyd said of his experience reading the script for that first time that "it sort of blew my head off. It was so startling. There was just like nothing else that had this kind of febrile energy… I was sort of trembling with excitement." However, the theatre's artistic director, whilst appreciative of Lloyd's enthusiasm, did not want the play to be performed there. Lloyd said there was "caution about putting [the play] on" because it was "a strange play. This was unusual. It didn't fit into sort of tidy categories. And it was breaking all sorts of rules and kind of pushing the boundaries."
Despite this, Lloyd was adamant the play be staged, so arranged to have a meeting with Ridley. Lloyd says of their first meeting that they both "sort of clicked" and that Ridley "wasn't just enjoying my praise and my evident excitement. He was enjoying being challenged and being called on a lot of his writerly decisions." Lloyd says that he felt there were "all sorts of problems with [the initial draft of] The Pitchfork Disney" so he gave dramaturgical feedback to Ridley. Lloyd says he did this for each of Ridley's plays he directed, stating: "I've seen an early draft and given a lot of notes [to Ridley] and we've had a lot of conversations and we've interrogated the text really, really fiercely together. And then he's done another draft. And then we've done that again. And then he's done another draft. So by the time I get into rehearsal with actors I really feel that I've got strong authority over what this story is and why it's being told and how to tell it."
Lloyd directed The Pitchfork Disney himself by taking an unpaid sabbatical from his literary manager position and re-mortgaging his home, saying that "I felt like I was sticking my neck out. I'd set the whole thing out in such a way that I could go back to my literary-manager job if all of this was a terrible mistake."
The play had its premiere production at The Bush Theatre in January 1991. The theatre's artistic director Dominic Dromgoole wrote that he "stole The Pitchfork Disney in an entirely disgraceful manner off another theatre, The Old Red Lion. It was vital to me that we produced it." However, Lloyd said that the Bush Theatre instead "didn't want to produce [the play] themselves. I gave them the opportunity to be the producers of it but they said they just didn't sort of trust it. So they gave me a visiting company slot. So I kind of did it under my own aegis."
Reception and legacy
Initial reception
The play was considered shocking when it was produced, with reports of audience members walking out and even fainting. One fainting occurred when Ridley was in the audience, leading to discussions of whether a nurse should be present in the theatre for each performance.
Many reviewers praised the play's acting and direction, but were critical of Ridley's script. Some felt it was purposely trying to be repulsive. Critic Maureen Paton described it as "ludicrously bad" and a "repugnant tiresome story… Mr. Ridley’s Grimm obsessions are in the worst possible taste", concluding that "This pointless wallow makes Marat-Sade seem like Pontins Holiday Camp." Melanie McDonagh for The Evening Standard wrote, "Philip Ridley is simply the Fat Boy from the Pickwick Papers who sneaks up on old ladies and hisses 'I want to make your flesh creep'." For The Jewish Chronicle, David Nathan said, "To the Theatre of the Absurd, the Theatre of Comedy and the Operating Theatre, you can now add the Theatre of Yuk", and that "the arousal of disgust is as legitimate a dramatic objective as the arousal of any other strong emotion, but as an end in itself it seems pointless."
Some critics also felt that the play was derivative of other works, particular the early plays of Harold Pinter and the work of Jean Cocteau. City Limits critic Lyn Gardner wrote that the script was "derivative of some (more famous) playwrights' worst plays". Comparing the play's enigmatic quality to the work of Pinter, Maureen Paton wrote, "Where Pinter's ironic technique, like a two-way mirror, can give an intellectual patina to a mystery wrapped in an enigma, Ridley seems luridly self-indulgent… [He] drops various ominous hints that are never resolved, leaving the audience to wallow in the mire of pointless speculation."
Another recurring criticism was that the script was contrived and lacked explanations for its content. Lyn Gardner wrote that it had "no discernible internal logic, spewing imagery meaninglessly from nowhere… with long meandering monologues which… go nowhere and appear to have no dramatic impetus… [It has an] air of contrived weirdness when what is desperately needed is a sense of reality and some concrete explanations." Benedict Nightingale for The Times wrote that “the play's obscurities becom[e] irksome” but that "There is no obligation on a dramatist to explain his characters' behaviour. Perhaps it is enough for Ridley to cram his play with images of childhood guilt, confusion, self-hatred and dread, leaving the audience… to the dramatic Rorschach blot that emerges… Maybe Ridley will be more specific in his next play."
Despite these criticisms, the script received praise from some critics. An overwhelmingly positive review came from What's On's Catherine Wearing: "This is a world premiere you must rush to see… [Ridley] presents a world that is boldly dramatic, dead contemporary and sickeningly terrifying. At last, some new work for the theatre that has vision and bravery in its telling… There's a sinister and original mind at work here with lots to say… Dark powerful and choc a-bloc with shock tactics, this must be a must for anyone who wants dynamic, contemporary theatre."
Reacting to the reviews, Ian Herbert in Theatre Record wrote that there was "a most encouraging set of disagreements" amongst critics regarding The Pitchfork Disney. He defended the play, called it "a very important debut", compared Ridley's writing favourably to Harold Pinter's, and said that Ridley was a writer to watch out for: "He has a little to learn yet about dramatic structure and all the boring rules, but he can already create astonishingly original characters and give them lines that hold an audience spellbound."
Over its original run, it earned popularity with a predominantly young audience. Director Matthew Lloyd said that for its last two-and-a-half weeks, the theatre "was absolutely rammed by, kind of, young people who were sort of drawn to it like a magnet […] Suddenly there were people rocking up at the Bush Theatre […] on word of mouth. […] They weren't kind of customary theatregoers but there was a buzz about it." By the end of its run, the play had acquired something of a cult following, with a group of actors reportedly seeing the production several times and attending its final performance in T-shirts with lines from it in bold lettering. It was so successful that, for the first time in its history, the Bush Theatre had to schedule an extra matinee performance to meet audience demand.
For his performance as Presley, Rupert Graves won the Charrington Fringe Award for Best Actor.
Legacy
Matthew Lloyd who directed the first production of The Pitchfork Disney has cited the play as marking a turning point in his career as a director. He has credited the response from the young audiences who saw the production for giving him the confidence to quit his job as literary-manager of the Hampstead Theatre to instead concentrate on his career as a director: "I don't think I would be a director now, or I think it would have taken much, much longer to get a foothold without Phil[ip Ridley] and that particular play."
Years after its premiere The Pitchfork Disney gained in reputation, achieving recognition as a major work and highly influential in the development of in-yer-face theatre, which is a form of drama that characterised much new writing in British Theatre during the 1990s.
Bush Theatre artistic director Dominic Dromgoole wrote in 2000 that the play "took the expectations of a normal evening in the theatre, rolled them around a little, jollied them along, tickled their tummy, and then savagely, fucked them up the arse… Performed right at the beginning of 1990, this was one of the first plays to signal a new direction for new writing. No politics, no naturalism, no journalism, no issues. In its place, character, imagination, wit, sexuality, skin and the soul."
Critic and leading expert on In-yer-face theatre, Aleks Sierz, has cited the play as a pioneering work. In his introduction to the Methuen Classics edition of the play-text, Sierz wrote "The Pitchfork Disney is not only a key play of the 90s; it is the key play of that decade... Its legend grew and grew until it became the pivotal influence on the generation of playwrights that followed. It is a foundation text; it separates then from now." Sierz credits the play with introducing "a totally new sensibility into British theatre [that] signalled a fresh direction for contemporary playwrighting: one that eschewed realistic naturalism, political ideology and social commentary, and turned auditorium's into cauldron's of sensation", adding that the play was "an agenda setting work: the era of experiential theatre began here".
Despite the play being credited for instigating in-yer-face theatre, Ridley has spoken about how he feels that The Pitchfork Disney (along with his other plays in the so-called "East End Gothic Trilogy") were produced before in-yer-face theatre happened: "I had done my first three plays… by 1994 and that’s the year that most people say the ‘in your face’ thing started. All those seeds were laid before that, but it didn't feel that I was doing that and no one said I was doing that until many years after the event." "When in-yer-face was happening I was writing plays for young people."
Significant plays that critics believe have been influenced by or bear homage to the play include:
Penetrator by Anthony Neilson (1993)
Blasted by Sarah Kane (1995)
Mojo by Jez Butterworth (1995)
Shopping and Fucking by Mark Ravenhill (1996)
Been So Long by Ché Walker (1998)
Dirty Butterfly by debbie tucker green (2003)
Debris by Dennis Kelly (2003)
The Pillowman by Martin McDonagh (2003)
Three Birds by Janice Okoh (2013)
Monologues from the play have also become popular audition pieces, most notably Presley's speech about killing a snake in a frying pan and Hayley's speech about being chased into a church by savage dogs.
Notable productions
World Premiere (London, 1991)
2 January 1991 at The Bush Theatre, London.Directed by Matthew Lloyd.
Presly Stray - Rupert Graves
Haley Stray - Tilly Vosburgh
Cosmo Disney - Dominic Keating
Pitchfork Cavalier - Stuart Raynor
Glasgow Revival (1993)
Citizens' Theatre, Glasgow.Directed by Malcolm Sutherland.
Presly Stray - Michael Matus
Haley Stray - Helen Baxendale
Cosmo Disney - Matthew Wait
Pitchfork Cavalier - Ché Walker
American Premiere (Washington D.C., 1995)
5 February 1995 at the Woolly Mammoth Theatre Company, Washington D.C.Directed by Rob Bundy.
Presly Stray - Wallace Acton
Haley Stray - Mary Teresa Fortuna
Cosmo Disney - Michael Russotto
Pitchfork Cavalier - Bill Delaney
Winner of ‘Outstanding resident play’ and ‘Outstanding lead actor, resident play’ for Wallace Acton at the Helen Hayes Awards, with nominations also for ‘Outstanding Supporting actress, resident play’ for Mary Teresa Fortuna, ‘Outstanding Director, resident play’ for Rob Bundy, ‘Outstanding Set Design, resident play or musical’ for James Kronzer and ‘Outstanding Sound Design, resident play or musical’ for Daniel Schrader.
Bolton Revival (1997)
January 16, 1997 at the Octagon Theatre, Bolton.Directed by Lawrence Till.
Presley - Matthew Vaughan
Hayley - Andrea Ellis
Cosmo - Gideon Turner
Pitchfork – David Hollett
New York Premiere (1999)
8 April 1999 at Blue Light Theater Company, New York.Directed by Rob Bundy.
Presly Stray - Alex Drape
Haley Stray - Lynn Hawley
Cosmo Disney - Alex Kilgore
Pitchfork Cavalier - Brandt Johnson
London Revival 2012 (21st Anniversary Production)
25 January - 17 March 2012 at The Arcola Theatre, London.Directed by Edward Dick.
Presly Stray - Chris New
Haley Stray - Mariah Gale
Cosmo Disney - Nathan Stewart-Jarrett
Pitchfork Cavalier - Stefano Fregni AKA Steve Guadino
London Revival 2017
27 January - 18 March 2017 at Shoreditch Town Hall, London.Directed by Jamie Lloyd.
Presly Stray - George Blagden
Haley Stray - Hayley Squires
Cosmo Disney - Tom Rhys Harries
Pitchfork Cavalier - Seun Shotes
Winner of the 2018 Off West End Awards for 'Best Supporting Male in a Play', awarded to Tom Rhys Harries. Also nominated were George Blagden for ‘Best Male in a Play’ (longlisted) and Jamie Lloyd for ‘Best Director’ (longlisted).
Further reading
Urban, Ken (2007). Ghosts from an Imperfect Place: Philip Ridley's Nostalgia.
References
External links
Philip Ridley interviewed by Aleks Sierz for TheatreVoice about The Pitchfork Disney and its 2012 revival
Philip Ridley interviewed by Chelsey Burdon for A Younger Theatre about The Pitchfork Disney and its 2012 revival
Philip Ridley interviewed by Theo Bosanquet for WhatsOnStage about The Pitchfork Disney and its 2012 revival
1991 plays
Plays by Philip Ridley
1990s debut plays
One-act plays
Dreams in theatre
Plays set in London
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%20in%20the%20Quran
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Women in the Quran
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Women in the Quran are important characters and subjects of discussion included in the stories and morals taught in Islam. Most of the women in the Quran are represented as either mothers or wives of leaders or prophets. They retained a certain amount of autonomy from men in some respects; for example, the Quran describes women who converted to Islam before their husbands or women who took an independent oath of allegiance to Muhammad.
While the Quran does not name any woman except for Mary directly, women play a role in many of its stories. These stories have been subject to manipulation and rigid interpretation in both classical commentary and popular literature from patriarchal societies. The cultural norms existing within a patriarchy have shaped the way that these societies approached the text and created a pervading narrative that dictated the way future generations were set up to interpret these stories and the role of women within the Quran. Throughout history, different Islamic scriptural interpreters and lawmakers constantly reinterpreted the women presented in the Quran as a result of the dominating ideology and historical context of the time. In the wake of modernity and the rise of Islamic feminism, many scholars are looking back to the original text, reexamining the accepted classical interpretations of women, and reimagining women's role within the Quran.
Adam's spouse
Eve (Hawa), Adam's spouse, is mentioned in Q2:30-39; 7:11-25; 15:26–42; 17:61–65; 18:50–51; 20:110–124; and in verses 38:71–85, but the name "Eve" (Arabic: , Ḥawā') is never revealed or used in the Quran. Eve is mentioned by name only in hadith.
The Quranic narrative of Adam and Eve's creation and fall differs thematically from the more fleshed-out story in the Jewish and Christian traditions. Similar to the Christian and Jewish tale, Allah created Adam and Eve and a place for them to live, Paradise. However, in the Quran, Hawa's role is minimal, as she is the accomplice to human sin rather than the instigator. It is Adam who is forewarned by Allah that Iblis, Satan, is their natural enemy and the threat to their removal from heaven.
The literal Quranic text in many ways removes the blame that is often placed upon Eve. Instead of being portrayed as the cause of Adam's fall, Eve is merely presented as equally compliant in the sin and then later, equally compliant in the punishment and atonement. However early critical interpretation surrounding the creation and fall story was influenced heavily by the pervading Christian and Jewish notions of Eve. Therefore, early medieval interpretations focus on depicting Hawa as morally and mentally compromised. As in the Christian and Jewish tradition, Hawa is seen as the one who tempts the prophet Adam into sin. The early work of Hadith-based scholar al-Tabari in particular showcases many passages that claim women's menstruation and the affliction of bearing children are a direct result of Hawa's foolishness.
However, in modern times the explanation and general understanding of Hawa have shifted and are deeply debated. Her status as the first woman in the world is relevant since she is looked upon as the model for her sex and Allah's archetype of a woman. Today both traditional and modernist thinkers look to Hawa either to support or deny their argument regarding the equality of women in the religion. Specifically, those with a traditionalist view believe in the hadith and the interpretation that Hawa was created from one of Adam's crooked ribs. And therefore when the Prophet explained women were created from the crooked part of the rib, "He was not blaming the woman, but was defining women's natural disposition and the preponderance of emotions over rationality." In response, more liberal interpretations cite no direct and incontestable truth that Hawa was created from a "crooked rib"; they claim such suggestions do not stem from verifiable sources. Rather, they strive to emphasize the purpose of the creation and fall story itself. This was not to decry the human nature of either sex but act as an example of Allah's guidance, punishment and ultimate forgiveness.
Wives of Noah and Lot
Oftentimes the names of these women are confused, however, the general scholarly consensus is that Noah's wife was Amzura while Lot's wife was Wā'ila. This continual reversal of the two names underscores exactly how both women have ultimately served the same purpose in Islamic scriptural interpretation. In the case of Noah's wife many theorists surmise that she died in the flood and was not allowed on the ark because of her continual insinuation that her husband was crazy. In turn, Lot's wife is thought to have died alongside the people of Sodom since she betrayed her duty as a wife and conspired alongside the corrupt people. In both examples the wives of Allah's prophets were the only ones punished for their disbelief and betrayal of their husbands. This is an important distinction, since Islamic theorists highlight that this establishes the spiritual individuality of women. It is they who have the freedom to choose their religiosity, and it is they who in turn pay the price. Ultimately, the purpose of their mention in the Quran is to set an example of the consequence for active disbelief in Allah and his prophets.
The three verses in the Quran mentioning the wives of Noah and Lot, or Nuh and Lut in Arabic, are a conjoined entry depicting the consequences and response by Allah to non-believers.
Daughters of Lot
The role that Lot's daughters play in these interpretations is largely passive and an attempt to demonstrate his devotion to God. However, beyond that simple explanation, they also act as a foil to their mother who conspired with the people of Sodom by alerting them to Lot's guests. While their mother was therefore condemned to the same fate as the sinners in Sodom, Lot's daughters were spared and escaped owing to their personal atonement.
However, the people of Sodom reject Lot's offering and continue their sinful deeds. At next mention in Sura 15 (al-Hijr) Lot again offers his daughters. This time though, his actions were taken to prevent the people of Sodom from committing abominations against the guests in his house.
Sarah, Wife of Abraham
In contrast to the Old Testament and the Torah, Sarah, wife of the prophet Abraham, plays a decidedly smaller role in the Quran. In both the Christian and Jewish traditions she is the mother of the chosen son, Isaac, and therefore a more important person.
In the hadith Sarah is not mentioned directly but rather alluded to in Hagar's expanded story. Hagar's struggles, dealt with extensively in Sahih al-Bukhari, are important to the Islamic tradition since many Muslims paint her as the mother of all Arabs and one of the pre-Islamic pioneers. While this may seem to castigate Sarah as the villain in Hagar's story, she is not seen or depicted in Islamic writing as the impetus for Hagar's exile. Unlike the more traditional Jewish and Christian explanations that paint a contentious relationship between Hagar and Sarah, Islamic interpretations are largely devoid of commentary on Sarah, choosing rather to focus on the hardships and successes of Hagar.
At second time, Sarah is mentioned is Surah Al-Dhazariyat Verse#29.
Aziz's Wife (Zulaykha) and the Ladies
The story of Yusuf and Zulaykha, wife of Joseph's master the Aziz, is one of the most extensive depictions of women in the Quran. She appears in Surah 12 (Yusuf) as part of Joseph's chronological narrative shortly after he is sold into slavery in Egypt. In this narrative Zulaykha attempts to seduce Joseph, at first outright and then by using guile and wit.
After Joseph rebuffed her advances, the women of society began to gossip about Zulaykha's affection for him. She, in turn, prepared a banquet in these women's honor. At this banquet when Joseph appeared, the women extolled him and yelled out to God that he must be an angel. The story continues with Zulaykha attempting to trick Joseph into entering into an affair with her. The results of this lands Joseph in jail. When the King the women and Zulaykha of their role they respond:
Renditions of this story outside the Quran have focused historically on and sought to establish the natural duplicitous and cunning nature of women. Especially in the works of early interpreters, Zulaykha and the ladies are not portrayed as the multi-faceted characters the Quran suggests but rather are considered only for "their unbridled sexuality and guile." This depiction is used as yet another conservative example of the inherent threat the female sex poses to men and their piety. al-Baydawi's interpretation specifically highlights the inherent contrast between a prophet's devotion to God and the sly nature of women. Recently, however, the critical explanation surrounding Zulaykha has expanded to present different possible interpretations. In many instances this story is now used as an allegory depicting the ability of pious people, in this case, a prophet, to overcome the temptations of the world and adversity. In these cases, interpreters argue Zulaykha's presence in the Quran is not meant to imply the evil nature of all women, but rather the different possible distractions that society in general can present and the need to rebuff them.
Mother and sister of Moses
Moses's mother is the only woman in the Quran to receive divine inspiration. God inspired her to suckle the child until she feared for his life and then to cast him into the river without sadness or fear because God would eventually restore him to her and make him one of the messengers.
When the Pharaoh's wife discovered Moses on the shore, God had to strengthen Moses's mother's heart to make her a firm believer.
Then, after Moses's sister sees that he refuses to nurse with his new nurse, she suggests that Moses's mother become his nursemaid. In a sense, they were reunited.
Wife of Moses
Moses's wife called Safura was the daughter of a Midianite flockherder whom Moses met before he became a prophet. The Madyanite flockherder allowed Moses and his daughter to wed in exchange for Moses performing eight to ten years of work.
She is not mentioned by name in the Quran, but some qisas al-anbiya identify her as Zipporah. Many of the details surrounding Moses's wife have been filled in throughout history. Contemporary Muslims see her as a righteous Muslim female because of her respect for the different gender spheres. When she first met Moses, she was getting water in public, but was afraid because it is typically a male domain.
Asiyah, Wife of the Pharaoh
The wife of the Pharaoh, known in some traditions as Asiyah, played a large role in Moses's life because she became his foster mother. She saved his life when she took him in and raised Moses from infancy in a household of non-believers while God watched over him.
Of all the women in Moses's life, Pharaoh's wife is the subject of the greatest amount of interpretive literature. There is a large amount of emphasis on her as an example for the believers. Many think of her as a righteous woman because of her role in keeping Moses alive, as shown in Q 28:9.
Additionally, Asiyah is praised because in Q 66: 11, which is dated into the late Medinan period, she prayed to God to build her a house in paradise and save her from her wicked husband, Pharaoh.
Asiyah represents the ideal of virtue as one of the four most outstanding women of the world and one of the four "ladies of heaven" that include: Mary, the mother of Jesus; Khadija, Muhammad's wife; and Fatima, Muhammad's daughter. She married Pharaoh as a sacrifice for her people, but never consummated it. She died a martyr's death after the tyrannical Pharaoh had killed many of the believers in the palace and she tried to avenge their deaths.
Ibn Kathir, part of the medieval tradition speaks of Pharaoh's wife as one of the prophet's "celestial wives". This is a supreme honor shared with the prophet's earthly wives and Mary. Asiyah is celebrated in the Islamic faith because she remained faithful to God even though her own husband, Pharaoh, thought of himself as God. She demonstrates a woman has the ability to exercise faith and believe in God, even against the wishes of a harsh husband.
The Queen of Sheba (Bilqis)
The Quran speaks of the Queen of Sheba, also known as Bilqis. She was a sovereign ruler over her people who engaged in political negotiations set in the jahiliyya period. Her story takes place in Quran, surah 27 (Al-Naml): 22–44.
The hoopoe reported to Solomon of a Queen from Sheba who led her people in pagan rituals worshipping a Sun God instead of Allah.
Solomon wrote a letter to the Queen. The hoopoe delivered it to her palace leaving it on her chest while she was sleeping. Then Bilqis prepared presents for Solomon to test whether he was a "pious" or "worldly" prophet using a series of riddles. The queen set out to visit Solomon. Some say that Solomon magically moved her throne while others say that he wished for the throne and knew he had to acquire it before the Queen and her followers submitted to Allah.
"But I am going to send him a present, and (wait) to see with what (answer) return (my) ambassadors."
So when she arrived, she was asked, "Is this thy throne?" She said, "It was just like this, and knowledge was bestowed on us in advance of this, and we have submitted to God (in Islam)." }}
The Queen of Sheba submits to God with Solomon.
Legend says that Solomon married Bilqis who then bore him a son. Some say she returned to Yemen as a queen and Solomon would visit her there for three days a month; others say that Solomon married her off to the king of Hamadan.
Many historians have attempted to humiliate or downplay the Queen of Sheba. Historian Mas'udi (10th Century) was convinced Bilqis could not have been fully human because she had a throne and led people. He said she had a human father but a jinn mother because he felt the need to attack Bilqis and question her humanity as a way to cope with the fact that she was a woman in political power. Additionally, to traditional Islamic interpreters, the story of the Queen of Sheba is difficult to grasp because of the way that a woman in political power falls outside of the traditional gender role of women in society. Classical Islamic authors shy away from addressing the question concerning the Queen of Sheba and the potential implications that it could have on female rulers.
Bilqis remains one of the more mysterious women in the world of scholarly interpretation. Some of the main issues that arise are how she became ruler, her competence in the role and how this can impact Islamic society. The beautiful Sheba married a tyrannical Himyarite king, got him drunk, cut off his head and convinced his ministers to declare their loyalty to her. She gained her position through proximity to a male ruler and deceived him using her female characteristics. Against Solomon, the Queen of Sheba demonstrates the ability to hold her own and validates her intelligence and good judgment, qualities typically reserved for men. However, her big fault is mistaking the glass for a pool and revealing her (hairy) legs, an act that she cannot redeem.
In contemporary terms, the story of the Queen of Sheba represents the righteousness of incorruptibility, exemplified when Solomon refused to be bribed by her elaborate gifts. The lesson that contemporaries draw is the ultimate submission to no one but God. Only God sees all the true believers equally and the ultimate submission should be to Him and not to anyone else, whether He is a leader or a prophet.
Wife of Imran
In the Quran, the mother of the Virgin Mary (and thus Isa's grandmother) is not named in the Quran, but referred to in two passages of the narratives section as the wife of Imran, Imran being Joachim in Christianity. In Judeo-Christian tradition she is identified as Hannah. According to the Quran she invoked God for a child:
It is important to note that while the name Imran is attributed to both the father of Mary and the father of Moses and Aaron, interpreters explain that these two people are not to be confused. They are separated by a long time period—1,800 years according to some sources—and are called different names. The father of Mary is called Imran b. Mathhan/Matan while the father of Moses and Aaron is called Imran B. Yashar or Imran b. Qadith.
Maryam (Maryam)
Mary, the mother of Jesus, is the most important woman in the Quran, as she is the only one identified by name. She is described as the greatest woman of all time in the Quran as well. Her name not only appears far more in the Quran than in the New Testament, but it is also the title of Sura 19, which discusses the annunciation, Jesus's birth and Jesus's first words, spoken before birth and in the cradle—"most other personal names used as titles of Quranic chapters are those of prophets." A hadith claims that Mary was consecrated to God, thus "escaping the pricking of the devil" at birth; this is said "to have played a role in the formation of the later Islamic doctrine of prophetic isma" (innate quality of 'impeccability', 'immunity from sin and error' of prophets).
As a young girl and a virgin, Mary stayed in the Mihrab, where she received "glad tidings of a word (kalima) from God" about her giving birth to a "pure son". In Sura 19, the angel Gabriel, sent by God, says to Mary, "I am only your Lord's messenger, to give you a pure boy."
The Quran also states the conception of Jesus by Mary was miraculous:
Islamic scholars have long debated this happening, specifically the meaning of "spirit" (ruh) and the "word" (kalima) that Mary received from God. If she were informed of things to come by God's word, even through his angel, and infused with God's spirit, was Mary, then, a Quranic prophet? Scholars who focus on the literal meaning of the text have found proof of her prophethood, for "she differs from other Quranic women in nature and life experiences". Yet, perhaps because of her sex, Mary's prophethood is not widely accepted.
Nevertheless, Mary is still revered by many Muslims, mostly women, throughout the Islamic world. She is praised in the Quran: "Behold! the angels said: 'O Mary! God hath chosen thee and purified thee – chosen thee above the women of all nations.'"
In Sura 21:91 Mary is revealed as a sign (ayah) from God: "And she who guarded her chastity. Then We breathed into her of Our spirit, and We made her and her son a sign for the worlds."
Sura 66 establishes Mary as the "example for believers" because of her chastity, obedience, and faith; however, "religious authorities have attempted to define the social applicability of Mary's qualities, that is, the facets of her model status suited for emulation." When Gabriel informs her of God's plan, Mary wonders: “How can I have a son when no man has ever touched me, nor am I unchaste?” Later, "the pains of childbirth drove her to the trunk of a palm-tree. She said:“Alas! I wish I had died before this, and was a thing long forgotten!". But she was comforted by God.
Mary also appears in Quran 3, where she and her story are closely connected to that of her guardian, the prophet Zakariyya. The angel's words about the birth of John to Zakariyya (Sura 3:39) are almost identical to those on Jesus's (Sura 3:45). Similarly, both respond by questioning the message (Sura 3:40;47) and receive the same answer.
Wives of Muhammad
The wives of Muhammad are known to Muslims as the "Mother of the believers", or in Arabic, umm'ul mu'mineen, coming from a Sura 33:6:
While Sura 4:3 limits Muslim men to having four wives, hadith maintain "that the prophet's right to unrestricted polygamy was a prerogative that God's sunna had extended to all prophets: a 'natural right' of His spokesmen on earth." They are mentioned in several places in the Quran, but never by name, making the hadith as scripturalist interpretation most important, yet they "are not like any [other] women." Muhammad's wives play a prominent role in Islam and Muslim practices; "their reception of specific divine guidances, occasioned by their proximity to Muhammad, endows them with special dignity." They form the basis for the status of women in Islam and are thus important for gender debates and study.
Only a few "are consistently presented as key figures in the hadith accounts of contexts of specific revelations ('occasions of revelation', Asbab al-nuzul)". Stowasser states: "The Quranic legislation directed at the Prophet's wives, then, is entirely of Medinan provence and belongs into the last six or seven years of the prophet's life." Sura 33:50 outlines the lawful "categories of females" that are able to marry Muhammad: "wives with whom the Prophet contracted marriage involving a dower; female prisoners of war (slaves) who fell to him as part of his share of spoils; both paternal and also maternal cousins who had migrated with him to Medina; and "a believing woman, if she gives herself to the Prophet and [He] also wishes to marry her(Al-Quran 33:50)."
Except Aisha, Muhammad only married widows and divorced women. Aisha bint Abi Bakr is often thought of as the prophet's favorite wife. She is linked to the Quran's injunctions against slander in Sura 24:11–26, for her involvement in "the affair of the lie [or, slander]" (al-ifk), in which she was falsely accused of "being with" another man, Safwan ibn al-Mu'attal al-Sulami. She is considered to be the first woman to choose "God and His Prophet" over "the world and its adornment". In Sura 33:28–29, God ordered Muhammad's wives to make a decision as to their preference, after Muhammad was annoyed by the wives' growing desire for material possessions. Aisha is also important in mainstream Sunni Islam.
Muhammad's wives were the first women to follow the practice of veiling with a Hijab. Sura 33:53, commonly called the "hijab verse," states that if "believers" want something from Muhammad's wives, they must ask "from behind a hijab"; it also forbids "believers" from marrying Muhammad's wives after him.
Sura 33:32–34 declare that women of Muhammad are not like other women and so specifies special etiquette for them.
Daughters of Muhammad
Muhammad, had four daughters with his wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid: Zainab, Umm Kulthum, Ruqayyah, and Fatimah.
The Quran speaks of Muhammad's daughters in Sura 33:59.
The Quran refers to the daughters as a whole, banatika, never identifying them by name.
The woman who complained to God about her husband
The Quran speaks of The woman who complained to God about her husband in Sura 58 (Al-Mujadila), but not by name. Hadith provides her name, Khawlah bint Tha'labah.
The verses that follow are to restore her rights (as well as those of any other woman in her position), when a husband mistreats his wife. Muslims refer to this woman and her story to express the mercy of God.
The woman who untwisted her spun thread after it was strong
The Quran mentions the woman who untwisted her spun thread after it was strong in Sura 16 (an-Nahl), but not by name.
Tafsir al-Jalalayn claims she was "an imbecile Meccan woman who used to spin all day and then undo it".
Wife of Abu Lahab
The Quran mentions the wife of Abu Lahab in Sura 111 Al-Masad, but not by name. Hadith claims that her name is Umm Jamil bint Harb and the sister of Abu Sufyan. It is said that she interrupted Muhammad and Abu Bakr praying in the Ka'ba and, unaware that Muhammad was present, spoke badly of him and his religion. Therefore, the Quran describes how she will be punished, alongside her husband, in Hell for hurting Muhammad.
See also
Women in Islam
Mary in Islam
Houri
List of characters and names mentioned in the Quran
Sahaba in the Quran
Women as theological figures
Women in the Bible
Notes
References
External links
Women and Islam in Oxford Islamic Studies Online
People of the Quran
Women's rights in Islam
Islam and women
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Arab League–Iran relations
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Arab League–Iran relations refer to the political, economic, and cultural ties between the League of Arab States and the Islamic Republic of Iran. The former is a regional organization composed of 22 Arab states in MENA with a combined majority of Sunni Muslims, whereas the latter is a country in Western Asia with a majority of Shia Muslims.
Within the Middle East, historical conflicts have always coloured the perception of Iran by its neighbouring Arab countries, with the two sides' rotating between peaceful co-existence and open conflict from time to time. In the present day, the most prominent factor influencing the relationship between the Arab League and Iran is the ongoing Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict, which began shortly after the Iranian Revolution of 1979.
Bilateral relations with Iran
After the Iranian Revolution the foreign policy of Iran changed dramatically. In many cases diplomatically inimical Arab nations became more cooperative with Iran, while some formerly supportive nations decreased their support.
Ruhollah Khomeini, leader of the revolution, founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and its first Supreme Leader, declared that "The concept of monarchy totally contradicts Islam." Therefore, Arab leaders developed a hostile attitude towards the Islamic Republic of Iran. Khomeini's idea of supporting the mustazafeen (those who are wronged or oppressed) – as opposed to the mustakbareen (those who are arrogant) – led to many problems with neighboring countries due to some Arab regimes being judged by Iranian jurists to be among the mustakbareen. Ayatollah Khomeini was open about his intention to export the revolution to other parts of the Muslim world. Thus, during the early 1980s, Iran was isolated regionally and internationally. This diplomatic and economic isolation intensified during the Iran–Iraq War in which almost all neighboring Arab states, except Syria, supported Iraq logistically and economically. According to some observers, Saddam Hussein fought on behalf of other Arab states that viewed Iran as a potential threat to their stability.
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the revolutionary zeal cooled, and a degree of pragmatism was adopted by Iranian policy makers. During the presidency of Akbar Hashemi and Mohammad Khatami, Iranian foreign policy switched to reducing international tensions and Iran tried to normalize its relations with its Arab neighbors. When the United States attacked Iraq in the Gulf War of the early 1990s, it unintentionally promoted Iran's political influence in the Middle East.
Since the 2000s, the situation has changed completely. The most significant factor was the United States administration's decision to invade Iraq in 2003, which led to the fall of Saddam, a Ba'athist Leader with pan-Arab sympathies who was determined to balance Shi'a Iran's regional influence. With the deposition of Saddam, Iran found a major obstacle to its expansion removed. This gave Iran a good chance to emerge as a major player in the Middle East.
As Richard Haass stated in 2006, "Iran will be one of the two most powerful states in the region. ... The influence of Iran and groups associated with it has been reinforced." Iran could find allies in Arab world comprising Syria, Lebanon, Kuwait and Iraq. On the other hand, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and United Arab Emirates united against Iran, with support from the United States. Other Arab countries continued to have normal relations with Iran.
Another aspect of tension between Iran and Arab countries has been sectarianism. During the early days of the Iranian Revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini endeavored to bridge the gap between Shias and Sunnis by forbidding criticizing the Caliphs who preceded Ali. He also declared it permissible for Shiites to pray behind Sunni imams. However, the influence of Iran on Shiite communities outside its borders and the territorial disputes with Arab neighbors among other issues remain sources of tension in Arab-Iranian relations.
Diplomatic cables leaked in 2010 revealed Arab leaders singled out Iran as the greatest threat to regional stability, yet refuse to speak publicly, telling US diplomats in private, they would face domestic troubles if they were seen as siding with the West against a Muslim country. The cables showed that Saudi Arabia and Bahrain supported a military attack against Iran aimed to stop the Iranian nuclear program.
On 4 January 2016, Saudi Arabia and Bahrain severed diplomatic ties with Iran. Saudi Arabia cited attacks on the Saudi embassy in Tehran following predominantly Sunni Saudi Arabia's execution of a Shiite cleric. Bahrain cited Iran's "blatant and dangerous interference" in Bahrain and other Arab countries.
Algeria
Following the Iranian Revolution, in 1981 Algeria's role was instrumental in the release of the US diplomatic hostages held in Iran. In 1998, Iran became increasingly critical of Algeria's heavy handed security forces, especially during several massacres during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan and led efforts to pressure Algeria to act more humanely through the international community. Algeria in turn blamed Iran for the massacre.
After a decade, in early September 2000, diplomatic and trade relations between Algeria and Iran were re-established in a decision made by Iranian President Mohammad Khatami and his Algerian counterpart Abdelaziz Bouteflika on the sidelines of the United Nations Millennium Summit. The resumption of relations paved the way for number of agreements "on bilateral cooperation in the areas of judicial affairs, finance, industry, and air transport". Relations continued to strengthen rapidly after that to the extent that in 2002 Iranian Defense Minister Ali Shamkhani and Algerian Joint Chief of Staff Muhamed al-Imari Wednesday signed an agreement for military and technical cooperation in Iran. In the recent 2006 UN vote on Iran's nuclear program, Algeria abstained from voting.
Bahrain
Iran had a historic claim to Bahrain until March 1970 when Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi abandoned the claim as a result of secret Anglo-Iranian negotiations. Following this realignment of policy, the two countries signed a demarcation agreement in 1970.
Following the Iranian Revolution, Bahraini Shia fundamentalists in 1981 orchestrated a failed coup attempt under the auspices of a front organization, the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain. The coup would have installed a Shia cleric exiled in Iran, Hujjat al-Islam Hādī al-Mudarrisī, as supreme leader heading a theocratic government. The Bahraini Government unofficially regarded the coup as Iran attempting to overthrow their Sunni government. Iran denied all knowledge saying the fundamentalists were inspired by the Iranian revolution but had received no support from Iran. Fearful of a recurrence, the episode caused Bahrain to crack down on its Shia population putting thousands into jail and further souring relations with Shia Iran. Recently the countries are beginning to enjoy closer relations again and have engaged in many joint economic ventures. Iran has been severely critical of Bahrain hosting the US navy Fifth Fleet within the Persian Gulf.
In August 2015, Bahraini authorities announced arresting of five members of a terrorist group which was linked to at least one bombing attack in Bahrain and was believed to accept aid and training from Lebanese Hezbollah and Iran-based Revolutionary Guards.
On 4 January 2016, Bahrain severed diplomatic relations with Iran, citing Iran's "blatant and dangerous interference" in Bahrain and other Arab countries. This directly followed Saudi Arabia's dissolution of diplomatic ties with Iran.
Comoros
In 2014, AFP reported that the Libyan and Iranian embassies in Moroni, Comoros had problems with registering their claim to the property in the capital Moroni, because Comoros gave the same property to both countries for building their embassies. In January 2016, Comoros recalled their ambassador from Iran in an expression of cooperation and solidarity with Saudi Arabia.Ahmed Abdallah Mohamed Sambi, one of the former presidents of Comoros was a graduate from the Islamic seminaries at Qom, Iran. According to the Tehran-based Tabnak news agency, while Sambi was there, he studied under Ayatollah Mesbah Yazdi.
Djibouti
In November 2014, Iranian Parliament (Majlis) Speaker Ali Larijani inaugurated new building of Djibouti Parliament built by Iran. Djibouti cut its diplomatic ties with Iran out of solidarity with Saudi Arabia after Riyadh cut off diplomatic relations with Iran on 3 January 2016.
The countries had previously signed trade agreements to increase trade in 2005. In 2006, while on an official visit to Iran, Djiboutian president Ismaïl Omar Guelleh stated that Iran had expressed interest to expand cooperation on defense issues in the future. In the same year the President also supported Iran's right to use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes.
Egypt
In 1939, diplomatic relations between Egypt and Iran were upgraded to ambassadorial level, and Youssef Zulficar Pasha was appointed as Egypt's first ambassador in Tehran. In the same year, Princess Fawzia of Egypt, the sister of King Farouk I, married Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the then crown prince (later Shah) of Iran. The relationship between Iran and Egypt had fallen into open hostility under Gamal Abdel Nasser presidency. Following his death in 1970, President Sadat turned this around quickly into an open and cordial friendship. In 1971, Sadat addressed the Iranian parliament in Tehran in fluent Persian, describing the 2500-year-old historic connectivity between the two nations. Overnight, Egypt and Iran were turned from bitter enemies into fast friends. The relationship between Cairo and Tehran became so friendly that the Shah of Iran (Persia), Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, called Sadat his "dear brother." After the 1973 war with Israel, Iran assumed a leading role in cleaning up and reactivating the blocked Suez Canal with heavy investment. Iran also facilitated the withdrawal of Israel from the occupied Sinai Peninsula by promising to substitute with free Iranian oil the loss of the oil to the Israelis if they withdrew from the Egyptian oil wells in Western Sinai. All these added more to the personal friendship between Sadat and the Shah of Iran.
Once again, relations between the two countries collapsed with the sudden eruption of the Iranian Revolution in Iran in 1978–79. When the Shah fell, Egypt was bound to disapprove of his replacement, Ruhollah Khomeini, who returned the sentiment in full measure. Furthermore, in 1979, Anwar Sadat infuriated the new Iranian government by welcoming Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the exiled Shah of Iran, for a short, but indefinite, stay. In 1979, Iran officially cut all ties with Egypt. This move was a response to the 1978 Camp David Accords, as well as Egypt's support for Iraq in the Iran–Iraq War. In 1981, Iran symbolically dedicated a street to Khaled Islambouli, Sadat's assassin.
While trade relations slowly improved during the 1990s, Khaled al-Islambouli was honored for a second time in 2001 "with a huge new mural" in Tehran. Two years later, in late 2003, Iranian President Mohammad Khatami met with the Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak in Geneva. Khatami openly invited Mubarak to Iran, but Mubarak refused to make such a trip or normalize relations until all "public tributes" to Islambouli were "erased". In early 2004, Iran agreed to change the offending street name to Muhammad al-Durrah, a 12-year-old Palestinian boy.
In 2010, WikiLeaks leaked diplomatic cables which revealed that Mubarak expressed animosity toward Iran in private meetings, saying the Iranian leaders are "big, fat liars", and that Iran's backing of terrorism is "well-known". According to one American report, Mubarak views Iran as the primary long-term challenge facing Egypt, and an Egyptian official said that Iran is running agents inside Egypt in an effort to subvert the Egyptian regime.
Iraq
On 17 September 1980, after the Islamic Revolution in Iran settled down, Iraq under Saddam Hussein declared the previous settlement of border disputes with Iran null and void. Several days later on 22 September, Iraq invaded Iran in the Iran–Iraq War. Lasting until 1988, the brutal war killed over one million people and critically soured Arab–Iranian relations. In Iraq, the conflict was continually presented in a historical context as Arab versus Persian. The impact of the war was devastating to relations in the region; general Arab support for Iraq and a fear of Shia Muslims led to many disputes between Iran and the other Persian Gulf states. The war was a primary cause for the rise of anti-Arabism within Iran, which had until then been largely insignificant. The war ended with an UN-sponsored cease-fire.
Jordan
In 1980, Iran cut all ties with Jordan after the outbreak of Iran–Iraq War. Relations between the two nations resumed in 1991. In September 2000, King Abdullah met with Iranian President Mohammad Khatami on the sidelines of the Millennium Summit in New York. Shortly thereafter, trade between Jordan and Iran increased dramatically. According to figures from Jordan's Central Bank, "trade between Jordan and Iran reached $20 million in 2001, up some 46 percent on the previous year's $13.7 million."
On 2 and 3 September 2003, King Abdullah II visited Tehran, making him the first Jordanian king to visit "Tehran since the launching of the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1979".
Kuwait
Kuwait and Iran share close diplomatic, economic, and military ties, which is unusual for a Sunni Arab state and even more unusual for a U.S. ally even if it is sporadic. After the Iranian Revolution in 1979, Kuwaiti Prime Minister then Sabah Al-Sabah (the future Emir of Kuwait) visited Iran and congratulated the Iranian Revolution. However, this quickly turned sour when Kuwait supported Iraq on its war against Iran, and there had been no official relations between Kuwait and Iran for nearly 10 years after it started to fear about the threat from the legacy of Iranian Revolution.
In 1990, following the Gulf War, Iraqi–Kuwaiti relations suffered bitterly and consequently Kuwaiti–Iranian relations began to greatly improve and flourish. Bilateral relations were gradually strengthened, partly because Iran and Kuwait were both invaded by Iraq and with exchanges of Iranian and Kuwaiti political and economic delegations leading to the signing of several economic and trade agreements. In February 2006, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad visited Kuwait opening a new chapter in relations between the two countries. The well reported visit was the first to Kuwait by a high-ranking Iranian official in 27 years.
Lebanon
Iran has close ties with Lebanon and considers it an ally. Iran also has close ties with the Lebanese political party Hezbollah and its militia force to whom it reportedly provides as much as $100 million in supplies and weaponry per year. Iran has been a staunch supporter of both Lebanon and Hezbollah against Israel.
The official Lebanese government has several agreements with the Iranian government, which includes energy cooperation. The foreign ministers of Iraq, Lebanon and Syria supported Iran's nuclear work, calling for Israel to be stripped of its nuclear arsenal. Israel is believed to have the Middle East's only nuclear weapons arsenal. Like Lebanon, Iran refuses to recognize Israel.
Following American threats to cut off funding for the Lebanese Army should it not be verified that Hezbollah would be kept from getting access to it, Lebanon's then Defense Minister Elias Murr set up a fund to ask for donations to the armed forces. A few weeks later, Lebanese president Michel Suleiman asked Iran to consider selling advanced military equipment to the Lebanese Army. Hezbollah supported the president's call. The next day, Iran's then Defense Minister Ahmad Vahidi expressed readiness to offer military aid to Lebanon.
Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad planned to visit Lebanon in October 2010, amidst controversy and pressure from the United States, Israel, and a section of the March 14 alliance such as Samir Geagea to cancel the trip. However, his Lebanese counterpart, Michel Suleiman, who had invited him, and other opposition figures hailed the visit. The March 8 alliance's parliamentary leader Michel Aoun, Hezbollah's Deputy Secretary General Sheikh Naim Qassem and former Lebanese Prime Minister Salim Hoss supported his visit.
Libya
Libya broke rank with most of the Arab countries when it came out in support of Iran during the Iran–Iraq War.
Following the collapse of the Gaddafi government in the aftermath of the 2011 Libyan Civil War, Iran was also one of the countries to recognize the National Transitional Council government.
Mauritania
In June 1987, President Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya severed all diplomatic relations with Iran in protest of the nation's supposed refusal to negotiate an end to the Iran–Iraq War.
Morocco
In 1981, Iran cut off all diplomatic ties with Rabat in response to King Hassan II's decision to give asylum to the exiled Shah. A decade later, diplomatic relations between the two nations were renewed, but another decade would have to pass before Abderrahmane Youssoufi, the prime minister of Morocco, would lead the first Moroccan delegation to the Islamic Republic of Iran.
The posture of Iran about the Western Sahara dispute had been heavily influenced by its diplomatic relations with the neighbouring countries, Morocco and Algeria. Since late January 1979, the deposed Shah of Persia, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, had been granted asylum in Morocco by Hassan II, who refused to repatriate him back to Iran to be judged, causing finally the break of relations between Iran and Morocco in 1981. Previously, on 27 February 1980, Iran gave formal diplomatic recognition to the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as the legitimate government of the territory of Western Sahara. The support to the Polisario Front continued during the 1980s, allowing the Sahrawi national liberation movement to open a diplomatic representation in Tehran.
Oman
Oman and Iran share close diplomatic, economic, and military ties. According to Kenneth Katzman of the Congressional Research Service, "Oman has a tradition of cooperation with Iran dating back to the Shah of Iran's regime and Oman has always been less alarmed by the perceived threat from Iran than have the other Gulf states." Unlike the majority of its Gulf neighbors, Oman managed to uphold diplomatic relations with both sides during the Iran–Iraq War from 1980 to 1988 and strongly supported UN Security Council resolutions to end the conflict. Secret cease-fire talks between the two adversaries were held in Muscat during the war, and although an agreement was never reached during these talks, they did reduce distrust on both sides. Moreover, after the war, Oman mediated talks to restore diplomatic ties between Iran and Saudi Arabia and Iran and the United Kingdom.
During the Persian Gulf War, Iran–Oman relations were damaged after Iran began running attacks on tanker movements in the Persian Gulf and placed anti-ship missile launchers along the Strait of Hormuz. The Gulf neighbors have since restored their ties and have conducted joint military exercises as recently as February 2011. Oman's leader Sultan Qaboos traveled to Iran in 2009 for the first time since Iran's 1979 revolution. Though on two occasions the U.S. has dispatched high-level officials to discuss Iran with Oman, the fact that Oman has avoided publicly expressing any concerns regarding Iran's nuclear program is likely a reason why the two states have managed to maintain strong ties.
In addition to strong diplomatic and political ties, Iran and Oman cooperate economically on several fronts, including energy. Most recently, the Gulf neighbors signed an initial agreement to begin supplying large quantities of natural gas from Iran to Oman, a project that was earlier reported to be worth between $7–12 billion. In addition to these major economic projects, the two countries have opened a joint bank to facilitate their mutual financial dealings, agreed to develop the Kish and Hengam gas fields in the Gulf, and signed a memorandum of understanding for a potential joint petrochemical project valued at $800 million.
About Iran nuclear program, the Omani government official position on Iran's nuclear program is as follows: "The sultanate hopes Washington will engage in a 'direct dialogue' with Teheran to resolve the crisis over the Iranian nuclear program. The sultanate has no reason not to believe Iran's assurances that its program has purely civilian purposes. This region, no doubt, does not want to see any military confrontation or any tension".
From July 2012 to October 2013, all Iranian interests in the United Kingdom were maintained by the Omani embassy in London.
Palestine
Iran (after the 1979 Iranian Revolution) closed the Israeli embassy in Tehran and replaced it with a Palestinian embassy. Iran favors Palestinian national ambitions and officially endorses the replacement of Israel with a unitary Palestinian state or whatever choice the Palestinian people decide through a democratic vote.
Several Palestinian groups, including Hamas, are Iranian allies. The Iranian government also gives substantial assistance to the Hamas government in Gaza, which depends on outside sources for an estimated 90% of its budget. Iranian support has not been unconditional however, and in July and August 2011 Iran cut funding to show its displeasure at "Hamas's failure to hold public rallies in support" of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad during the 2011 Syrian uprising. In part for this reason, Hamas was unable to pay July salaries of its "40,000 civil service and security employees."
Iran does not recognize the state of Israel and instead regards it as 'Palestine under occupation'. During the era of the Iranian monarchy (1948–1979) under the Pahlavi dynasty, Iran enjoyed cordial relations with Israel. Israel regarded Iran, a non-Arab power on the periphery of the Arab world, as a natural ally and counterweight to Arab ambitions as part of David Ben-Gurion's alliance of the periphery. Even after the Iranian Revolution and Ayatollah Khomeini's public condemnations of the "Zionist entity". Iran suggests that all Israeli 'occupied territory' is either given back to their respective countries (ex. Golan Heights back to Syria) or is replaced with a Palestinian state. Iran also feels that Jerusalem should be given to the Palestinians.
Qatar
In 1969, Iran and Qatar signed a demarcation agreement.
Throughout the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), Qatar supported Saddam Hussein's Iraq financially by providing large loans and cash gifts. Iran's claim in May 1989 that one-third of Qatar's North Field gas reservoir lay under Iranian waters apparently was resolved by an agreement to exploit the field jointly.
Qatar has maintained cordial relations with Iran. In 1991, following the end of the Persian Gulf War, former emir of Qatar Hamad bin Khalifa welcomed Iranian participation in Persian Gulf security arrangements, however due to resistance from other Persian Gulf Arab States, these never came into fruition. However, Qatar maintains security cooperation with Iran through bilateral ties. Additionally, plans were being formulated in 1992 to pipe water from the Karun River in Iran to Qatar, but after local resistance in Iran this was laid to rest.
The Iranian community in Qatar, although large, is well integrated and has not posed a threat to the regime. As of 2012, relations between the two countries were cordial.
Saudi Arabia
Following the outbreak of the Iran–Iraq War, Iranian pilgrims held a political demonstration about Saudi moving in direction of United States and do not take any action against Israel during the Hajj in Mecca. In 1987, they succeeded; however, Saudi police crushed the demonstration violently causing the Iranian pilgrims to riot. Immediately following the riot, Ruhollah Khomeini called for Muslims to avenge the pilgrims' deaths by overthrowing the Saudi royal family. The Saudi government blamed the riot on the Iranian pilgrims and claimed that the pilgrim riot had been part of a plot to destabilize their rule. The following day mobs attacked the Saudi embassies in Tehran.
In 2001, Iran and Saudi Arabia signed a "major security accord to combat drug trafficking and organized crime".
In 2008, the Saudi King Abdullah invited former Iranian President Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani to visit Saudi Arabia for the purpose of attending an Islamic conference. Rafsanjani responded by saying that the opportunity was a way "Iran and Saudi Arabia can resolve differences in the Muslim world." In 2010, the website WikiLeaks disclosed various confidential documents pertaining to the United States and its allies which revealed that Saudi Arabian King Abdullah urged the US to attack Iran.
The crush took place in Mina On 24 September 2015, an event described as a "crush and stampede" caused deaths estimated at well over 2,000 pilgrims. Iran had the highest number of casualties with 464 casualties. Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran, declared three days of national mourning in Iran. The cause of the disaster remains in dispute. The Mina disaster inflamed tensions between regional rivals Saudi Arabia and Iran, which were already elevated due to the wider turmoil in the Middle East.
On 4 January 2016, Saudi Arabia severed diplomatic relations with Iran, following attacks on the Saudi embassy in Tehran after predominantly Sunni Saudi Arabia's execution of a Shiite cleric. This was directly followed by Bahrain's dissolution of diplomatic ties with Iran. Saudi Arabia influences the policies of the Arab countries.
Thus, Iran's relations with Arab countries are affected by its relations with Saudi Arabia;
On April 23, 2022, Regional rivals Iran and Saudi Arabia began negotiations in Baghdad on Saturday after they were interrupted in March, according to Iran's semi-official Nour News.
On 10 March 2023, both Iran and Saudi Arabia announced the restoration of relations after a deal brokered by China. The Iranian embassy reopened on 6 June while the Saudi embassy in Iran reopened in 9 August.
Somalia
In 2006, the Islamic Courts Union took over Mogadishu from CIA-backed ARPCT. Iran has been one of several nations backing the public uprising. According to Prime Minister Ali Mohammed Ghedi, Iran, Egypt, and Libya are helping the militia. The Somali prime minister accuses these countries of wanting more conflict in Somalia, which seems contradictory because of the transitional government's inability to extend authority beyond Baidoa, which is something the Islamic Republic sees.
Sudan
In 1991, "there was evidence of increasing economic and military links between Sudan and Iran... Some 2,000 Iranian Revolutionary Guards were allegedly dispatched to Sudan to assist with the training of the Sudanese army, and in December President Rafsanjani of Iran made an official visit to Sudan, during which a trade agreement between the two countries was concluded. In November 1993, Iran was reported to have financed Sudan's purchase of some 20 Chinese ground-attack aircraft. In April 1996, the Government was reported to be granting the Iranian navy the use of marine facilities in exchange for financial assistance for the purchase of arms although, in response to a Sudanese request for military aid in 1997, Iran provided assistance only with military maintenance."
During the last week of April 2006, Sudanese President Omar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir met with a number of Iranian public figures in Tehran, including the Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei and President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. In a joint news conference with al-Bashir on 24 April, Ahmadinejad explained to the public his belief that "expansion of ties between the two countries serves the interests of both nations, the region, and the Islamic world, particularly in terms of boosting peace and stability." Before the conference ended, al-Bashir congratulated Iran for its successful pursuit of "nuclear power for peaceful purposes," while Ahmadinejad restated his opposition to the participation of UN Peacekeepers in Darfur.
Syria
Syria and Iran are strategic allies. Syria is often called Iran's "closest ally", the Arab nationalism ideology of Syria's ruling Baath party notwithstanding. During the Iran–Iraq War, Syria sided with non-Arab Iran against its enemy Iraq and was isolated by Saudi Arabia and some of the Arab countries, with the exceptions of Libya, Lebanon, Algeria, Sudan and Oman. Iran and Syria have had a strategic alliance ever since, partially due to their common animosity towards Saddam Hussein and coordination against the United States and Israel. Syria and Iran cooperate on arms smuggling from Iran to Hezbollah in Lebanon, which borders Israel.
On 16 June 2006, the defence ministers of Iran and Syria signed an agreement for military cooperation against what they called the "common threats" presented by Israel and the United States. Details of the agreement were not specified, however Syrian defense minister Najjar said "Iran considers Syria's security its own security, and we consider our defense capabilities to be those of Syria." The visit also resulted in the sale of Iranian military hardware to Syria. In addition to receiving military hardware, Iran has consistently invested billions of dollars into the Syrian economy. The Syrian leadership, including President Assad himself, belongs predominantly to the Alawite branch of Shi'a Islam. Currently, Iran is involved in implementing several industrial projects in Syria, including cement factories, car assembly lines, power plants, and silo construction. Iran also plans to set up a joint Iranian–Syrian bank in the future.
In February 2007, Presidents Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Bashar al-Assad met in Tehran. Ahmadinejad afterwards declared that they would form an alliance to combat US and Israeli conspiracies against the Islamic world.
During the Syrian Civil War, Iran has aided the Syrian government. The Guardian has claimed that in 2011 the Iranian Revolutionary Guard increased its "level of technical support and personnel support" to strengthen Syria's "ability to deal with protesters," according to one diplomat in Damascus.
Iran reportedly assisted the Syrian government sending it riot control equipment, intelligence monitoring techniques and oil. It also agreed to fund a large military base at Latakia airport. The Daily Telegraph has claimed in 2011 that a former member of Syria's secret police reported "Iranian snipers" had been deployed in Syria to assist in the crackdown on protests. According to the US government, Mohsen Chizari, the Quds Force's third-in-command, has visited Syria to train security services to fight against the protestors. Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, stated in regards to the uprising: "In Syria, the hand of America and Israel is evident;" and in regards to the al-Assad government: "Wherever a movement is Islamic, populist, and anti-American, we support it."
Other Iranian officials have made similar pronouncements identifying the US government as the origin of the uprising. However, in late August, the Iranian government gave its "first public sign" of concern over Syrian's handling of its crisis when foreign minister Ali Akbar Salehi issued a statement including the Syrian government in the list of states he urged to "answer to the demands of its people."
Tunisia
Following labour unrest led by the Tunisian General Labour Union throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, in 1987 President Bourguiba instigated a massive purge of Tunisian politics under the pretext of a "terrorist conspiracy" sponsored by Iran. Iran protested and diplomatic relations were promptly broken. On 27 September 1987, a state security court found 76 defendants guilty of plotting against the government and planting bombs; seven (five in absentia) were sentenced to death.
In September 1990, Tunisia and Iran restored diplomatic relations once again. Relations remained unchanged until June 1999, when the speaker of the Tunisian Parliament, Fouad Mebazaa, became the first Tunisian official to visit Iran since the beginning of the Islamic Revolution in 1979. His visit was intended to reflect "the rapid improvement in bilateral relations since the setting up of the joint committee for cooperation on the level of the foreign ministers in the mid-1990s". By 2000, trade relations between the two nations reached USD 73 million. The following year, on 19 April 2001, Tunisian prime minister Muhammad al-Ghanoushe visited Tehran on "an official visit" to sign a new joint trade agreement with his counterpart.
United Arab Emirates
Iranian investors have a wide presence in the UAE and account for 10 percent of the Arab country's population. Based on recent statistics, nearly 400,000 Iranians live in the UAE running 10,000 small business firms. Trade between Dubai and Iran tripled to $12 billion from 2005 to 2009.
Following the 1979 Revolution in Iran, the UAE has been pushing for the return of the islands. The countries maintain very close economic ties and the UAE has a significant Iranian expatriate community.
Outstanding conflicts are:
UAE claims two islands in the Persian Gulf currently held by Iran: Lesser Tunb (called Tunb al Sughra in Arabic by UAE and Tonb-e Kuchak in Persian by Iran) and Greater Tunb (called Tunb al Kubra in Arabic by UAE and Tonb-e Bozorg in Persian by Iran);
UAE claims island in the Persian Gulf jointly administered with Iran (called Abu Musa in Arabic by UAE and Jazireh-ye Abu Musa in Persian by Iran) – over which Iran has taken steps to exert unilateral control since 1992, including access restrictions and a military build-up on the island.
However, Iran has criticized the UAE for allowing France to develop its first permanent base in the Persian Gulf region there.
Recently, despite the spread of false information by neighboring countries and outsider powers, UAE has been seeking to ease tensions with Iran, as they are two of the most strategic partners in terms of economy and politics.
Yemen
Yemen and Iran have full diplomatic and trade relations. Following the first two decades of the 1979 Revolution, ties between Tehran and Sana'a were never strong, but in recent years the two countries have attempted to settle their differences. One sign of this came on 2003-12-02, when the Yemeni foreign ministry announced that "Yemen welcomes Iran's request to participate in the Arab League as an observer member."
On 10 May 2006, "the Yemeni ambassador to Iran Jamal al-Salal met... with the Iranian deputy foreign minister for the Arab and North Africa Affairs Mohammad Baqiri and the deputy assistant of the foreign minister for educational affairs and research Mohammadi respectively. The meeting centered on boosting mutual cooperation between the two countries and means to reinforce them. The talks also dealt with issues of common interest at the regional and Islamic levels."
See also
Anti-Arabism in Iran
Anti-Iranian sentiment in the Arab world
Arab conquest of Persia
Arab–American relations
Iran-Iraq War
Arab–Iranian conflict
Arab states–Israeli alliance against Iran
Foreign relations of the Arab League
Foreign relations of Iran
Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict
Iran–Israel relations
Middle East
Persian Gulf naming dispute
Territorial disputes in the Persian Gulf
References
Sources
Kuwait Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 18 April 2006. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-93658.
Oman: A Unique Foreign Policy Produces a Key Player in Middle Eastern and Global Diplomacy RAND. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RB2501/index1.html
Henner Furtig and Anoushiravan Ehteshami. Iran's Rivalry With Saudi Arabia Between the Gulf Wars. 2006, Ithaca.
Further reading
External links
Iranian Foreign Ministry
Omani Ministry of Foreign Affairs
PBS NewsHour with Jim Lehrer: Governing Iran
Dr. Abdel-Fattah Mady, Iranian-Egyptian Relations
Foreign relations of Iran
Foreign relations of the Arab League
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20in%20aviation
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2006 in aviation
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This is a list of aviation-related events from 2006.
Deadliest crash
The deadliest crash of this year was Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise Flight 612, a Tupolev Tu-154 which crashed near Sukha Balka, Ukraine on 22 August, killing all 170 people on board.
Events
The national airline of Ecuador, Ecuatoriana de Aviación, goes out of business. It had flown from 1957 to 1993 and again since 1996.
January
1 January – The Government of Latvia reforms the Latvia Civil Aviation Administration to form the Civil Aviation Agency, which becomes Latvia's national civil aviation authority. It also creates the Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation Bureau of the Republic of Latvia, which later will become the country's Transport Accident and Incident Investigation Bureau.
5 January – Independence Air ceases operations after declaring bankruptcy.
6 January – Stunt pilot Eric Anthony Beard is killed when the Airpac Airlines Piper PA-34 Seneca crashes in a wooded area in approach to Burlington, Washington.
13 January – American Central Intelligence Agency RQ-1 Predator unmanned aerial vehicles fire several AGM-114 Hellfire missiles at a compound in Damadola, Pakistan, in an attempt to kill senior al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri. He is not present, and the airstrike instead kills at least 18 people, none of them al-Qaeda members.
19 January
A Slovak Air Force Antonov An-24V carrying Slovak peacekeepers home from Kosovo strays off course, begins its descent toward Košice International Airport in Košice, Slovakia, too early, and crashes in northern Hungary near Hejce and Telkibánya, killing 42 of the 43 people on board and injuring the lone survivor.
Jet Airways announces its purchase of Air Sahara, creating the largest domestic airline in India.
February
1 February
The Transportation Safety Bureau replaces the Civil Aviation Safety Bureau of Hungary as the agency responsible for the investigation of aviation accidents in Hungary.
UAL Corporation, United Airlines parent company, emerges from bankruptcy for the first time since 9 December 2002, the longest such filing in history.
8–11 February – The American adventurer Steve Fossett breaks the record for the absolute longest-distance flight without landing by taking off from the Kennedy Space Center at Cape Canaveral, Florida, on 8 February, circumnavigating the world eastbound, and, after passing over Florida, continuing across the Atlantic Ocean for a second time to land in Bournemouth, England, after a flight of 76 hours 43 minutes, covering .
16 February – Kobe Airport, a controversial offshore airport in Kobe, Japan, opens for airline service.
March
10 March – Northwest Airlines purchases the United States Department of Transportation operating certificate of bankrupt Independence Air, which had ceased operations in January. Northwest plans to use the certificate for a new subcontractor regional airline, which will begin flight operations in May 2007 as Compass Airlines.
13 March – American television personality Peter Tomarken and his wife are killed when the engine of the Beechcraft Bonanza A36 Tomarken is piloting fails due to improper maintenance just after takeoff from Santa Monica Airport in Santa Monica, California, and the plane crashes offshore in Santa Monica Bay as Tomarken attempts to return to the airport for an emergency landing.
14 March – The Cypriot airline Helios Airways is renamed Ajet.
16 March – New Kitakyushu Airport, a controversial offshore airport in Kitakyūshū in northeastern Kyūshū, Japan, opens for airline service. The Japanese discount airline Star Flyer makes the first flight to the new airport, arriving from Haneda, Japan.
25 March – The revolutionary scramjet engine Hyshot III, designed to fly at seven times the speed of sound is tested successfully at Woomera, Australia.
29 March
The Royal Navys Fleet Air Arm withdraws the Sea Harrier from service.
Aeroméxico announces the inauguration of direct flights to Japan from Mexico City via Tijuana, Mexico. Aeroméxico becomes only the third Latin American airline in history to offer service to Asia.
April
1 April – Swiss International Air Lines joins the Star Alliance.
10 April – South African Airways joins the Star Alliance.
19 April – Noted American test pilot and aircraft designer Scott Crossfield is killed when he flies his Cessna 210 into a severe thunderstorm and it breaks up in mid-air and crashes in mountainous terrain near Ellijay, Georgia.
24 April – Aeroflot joins the Skyteam airline alliance, making it the first Russian airline to join any airline alliance.
May
EgyptAir Express is founded as a subsidiary of EgyptAir to offer domestic service in Egypt and on regional routes using Embraer E-170 jets. It will begin fight operations in June.
1 May – The airline Song ceases operations and turns its fleet over to its owner, Delta Air Lines.
3 May – Armavia Flight 967, an Airbus A320-211, is advised to halt its final descent into Sochi International Airport in Sochi, Russia, and begins a go-around, during which it crashes into the Black Sea, killing all 113 people on board.
6 May – The United States Air Force retires the last Lockheed Martin C-141 Starlifter in its inventory, an aircraft named Hanoi Taxi. Hanoi Taxi lands for the last time and is received in a formal retirement ceremony at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Riverside, Ohio.
18 May – The worlds biggest passenger jet, the Airbus A380, lands at Heathrow Airport for the first time, making its debut in the United Kingdom.
23 May
During a mock dogfight between a Greek and a Turkish fighter over the southeastern Aegean Sea, the two aircraft collide, killing the Greek pilot.
Boeing delivers the last two Boeing 717 airliners produced; the customers receiving them are AirTran Airways and Midwest Airlines. Boeing had manufactured 156 Boeing 717s before ceasing production in April 2006 due to slow sales. The Boeing 717 is the last commercial airplane produced at Boeing's facility in Long Beach, California.
June
1 June – EgyptAir Express, a subsidiary of EgyptAir offering domestic service in Egypt and on regional routes using Embraer E-170 jets, begins flight operations.
3 June – A Chinese KJ-200 airborne warning and control system aircraft crashes in Anhui province in the People's Republic of China. All 40 people on board die.
7 June – A United States Air Force F-16C Fighting Falcon drops two guided bombs on a safehouse north of Baqubah, Iraq, killing the leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq, Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, and five other people.
8 June – Australians Heather Swan and Glenn Singleman set a world record for the highest wingsuit flying BASE jump, jumping off Meru Peak in India at an altitude of .
23 June – The Royal Air Force retires its last English Electric Canberra from service. Canberras had been in service for 55 years.
July
7 July – An Antonov An-12B operated by Mango Airlines of the Democratic Republic of the Congo suffers an engine failure after departure from Goma for a domestic flight to Kisangani. While attempting to return to Goma, it crashes into a hill and burns northwest of Sake, killing all six people aboard.
8 July – Scientists at the University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, conduct the first confirmed flight of a manned ornithopter operating under its own power.
9 July – S7 Airlines Flight 778, an Airbus A310-300, crashes on landing at Irkutsk International Airport in Irkutsk, Russia, killing 124 of the 203 people on board and injuring all 79 survivors.
10 July
The Korea Aviation Accident Investigation Board merges with the Railway Accident Investigation Board to form the Aviation and Railway Accident Investigation Board, which becomes the government agency responsible for aviation accident investigations in South Korea.
All 45 people aboard Pakistan International Airlines Flight 688, a Fokker F27 Friendship, die in a crash on takeoff in Multan, Pakistan. Following the crash, Pakistan International withdraws all of its Fokker aircraft from service and replaces them with ATR aircraft.
12 July – The 2006 Lebanon War begins when Hezbollah attacks against northern Israel prompt an Israeli response that includes air strikes against Hezbollah and transportation targets in Lebanon.
13 July – The Israeli Air Force bombs Beirut Rafic Hariri International Airport in Lebanon, forcing it to close and international flights bound for Beirut to divert to Cyprus; Israel claims that Hezbollah has used the airport to smuggle arms and declares an air blockade of Lebanon. Israeli aircraft also bomb the main highway between Beirut and Damascus, Syria, as well as Hezbollah long-range missile launch sites and stockpiles, destroying 59 missile launchers in 34 minutes.
14 July – Israeli aircraft bomb the offices of the Secretary General of Hezbollah, Hassan Nasrallah.
15 July – The Israeli Air Force destroys Hezbollahs headquarters in Haret Hreik, Lebanon, and several offices and residences of senior Hezbollah officials, and Israeli attack helicopters pound targets in central Beirut.
19 July – Israeli warplanes carry out airstrikes against over 200 Hezbollah targets in Lebanon, including buildings and command posts, vehicles, and rocket launchers.
20 July – Israel carries out 150 airstrikes on Lebanon, targeting Hezbollah structures, bases, headquarters, ammunition warehouses, vehicles, and rockets.
21 July – Israel continues its airstrikes on Lebanon while massing troops on the border. Two Israeli helicopters collide in mid-air over northern Israel, leaving one Israeli soldier dead and three injured.
21–26 July – The 17th FAI World Precision Flying Championship is held in Troyes, France. Individual winners are 1. Krzysztof Wieczorek (Poland) in a 3Xtrim, 2. Janusz Darocha (Poland) in a Cessna 152, 3. Krzysztof Skrętowicz (Poland) in a 3Xtrim. Team winners are 1. Poland, 2. Czech Republic, 3. France.
22 July – Israeli aircraft conduct over 90 airstrikes against targets in Lebanon, hitting Hezbollah headquarters and buildings, media facilities, rocket launching sites, and major roads.
24 July – An Israeli Apache attack helicopter on its way to support ground forces in Lebanon crashes in northern Israel, killing its two-man crew. Hezbollah claims to have shot it down, while Israel says that the helicopter may have been hit by friendly fire.
25 July – The Israeli Air Force conducts 100 airstrikes on southern Lebanon and Beirut.
26 July
Israeli warplanes and artillery attack and destroy a United Nations observer post in Lebanon, killing all four United Nations observers inside. Israel claims that it had been trying to hit Hezbollah fighters in the vicinity, and did not target United Nations personnel deliberately.
An Israeli airstrike scores a direct hit on Hezbollahs missile command center in Tyre, Lebanon.
26–31 July – The 15th FAI World Rally Flying Championship takes place in Troyes, France. Individual winners are Wacław Wieczorek/Michał Wieczorek (Poland), Jiří Filip/Michal Filip (Czech Republic), and Petr Opat/Tomas Rajdl (Czech Republic). Team winners are 1. Czech Republic, 2. Poland, and 3. France.
27 July – Israeli warplanes carry out 120 airstrikes in Lebanon, hitting suspected Hezbollah hideouts in hills and mountainous areas of the Bekaa Valley and targets in Beirut.
29 July – Israeli Air Force airstrikes in Lebanon hit targets in Beirut, destroy Hezbollah long-range rocket launchers which had been used to attack Afula, destroy two bridges on the Orontes River and a road on the Lebanon-Syria border, and destroy a house in the Old City of Bint Jbeil, killing three Hezbollah fighters including commanders Khalid Bazzi and Sayiid Abu Tam. One Israeli airstrike wounds two Indian peacekeepers in Lebanon.
30 July – An Israeli airstrike hits an apartment building in Qana, Lebanon, killing 28 civilians, more than half of them children. The airstrike is widely condemned.
31 July – Israel announces a 48-hour halt to airstrikes depending on "operational developments" in Lebanon. However, Israeli airstrikes hit targets in southern Lebanon later in the day after Hezbollah attacks an Israeli tank, wounding three Israeli soldiers.
August
2 August – Ferried by helicopter, commandos of the Israeli Air Forces Shaldag Unit storm a Hezbollah stronghold in Baalbek, Lebanon, from the border with Israel in Operation Sharp and Smooth. They kill 19 Hezbollah combatants and seize military equipment.
3 August – Hezbollah Secretary General Hassan Nasrallah warns Israel against further strikes against targets in Beirut and promises retaliation against Tel Aviv if such strikes continue. He also says that Hezbollah will stop its rocket campaign against Israel if Israel ceases aerial and artillery strikes against Lebanese towns and villages.
4 August – Israel aircraft attack the southern outskirts of Beirut, and an Israeli airstike against a building in the area of al-Qaa in Lebanons Bekaa Valley kills 33 farm workers. IDF aircraft also strike a number of Hezbollah targets throughout Lebanon and hit the office of Hamas in Beirut. Thirty of the airstrikes are meant to disrupt the firing of Hezbollah rockets into Israel.
5 August – The Israeli Air Force attacks over 80 Hezbollah targets in Lebanon.
6 August – The Israeli Air Force carries out airstrikes in Lebanon that kill at least 12 civilians, one Lebanese Army soldier, and a Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command militant.
7 August
The Israeli Air Force attacks over 150 targets in Lebanon. During the strikes, Israeli aircraft bomb the Shiyyah suburb in Beirut, destroying three apartment buildings and killing at least 50 people.
The Israeli Air Force shoots down a Hezbollah unmanned aerial vehicle.
9 August – The Metropolitan Police Service arrests approximately 24 people in and around London for conspiring to detonate liquid explosives aboard at least 10 airliners travelling from the United Kingdom to the United States and Canada.
10 August – British authorities announce that a plot to simultaneously detonate bombs smuggled in hand luggage aboard ten airliners bound for the United States over the Atlantic Ocean has been foiled. Tightened security measures in the United Kingdom and United States and flight cancellations which happen afterwards cause severe chaos at several London airports.
11 August – Hezbollah shoots down an Israeli CH-53 Yas'ur helicopter with an anti-tank missile, killing five aircrew members. Hezbollah claims it attacked the helicopter with a Waad missile.
13 August
The Israeli Air Force shoots down two Hezbollah unmanned aerial vehicles, one of which was carrying at least of explosives.
Air Algérie Flight 2208, a Lockheed L-100-30 Hercules cargo aircraft, suffers an autopilot malfunction that puts it into a very steep and rapid descent over northern Italy. It crashes, killing its entire crew of three.
14 August
The Israeli Air Force claims to have killed the head of Hezbollah's special forces, identified as Sajed Dewayer, in an airstrike. Hezbollah denies the claim. \
A ceasefire brings the 2006 Lebanon War to a close. During the 34-day war, the Israeli Air Force has flown more than 12,000 sorties, and 165 Israelis and more than 1,000 Lebanese have died.
18 August – Lebanese police sources report that Israeli Air Force planes had fired missiles at Baalbek, Lebanon. Lebanese officials later contradict the claim.
19 August – Airlifted by helicopters with two Humvees to a location near Baalbek, Lebanon, Israeli Sayeret Matkal commandos led by Lieutenant Colonel Emmanuel Moreno launch a raid in Lebanons Bekaa Valley to disrupt arms shipments to Hezbollah, attacking a Hezbollah base in the village of Bodei being used for weapons smuggling. Strikes by Israeli Air Force jets and attack helicopters prevent Hezbollah reinforcements from reaching the battle or encircling the commandos, who are eventually extracted after a gunfight with Hezbollah forces in which Moreno dies.
22 August – Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise Flight 612, a Tupolev Tu-154M carrying 160 passengers and 10 crew on a domestic flight from Anapa to Saint Petersburg, Russia, descends sharply from and crashes in eastern Ukraine, killing everyone on board. It would be the deadliest aviation disaster of 2006.
25 August – The first Block 20 RQ-4 Global Hawk is rolled out at Northrop Grummans Plant 42 manufacturing facility in Palmdale, California.
27 August
Comair Flight 5191, a Bombardier CRJ100 ER carrying 47 passengers and three crew members, attempts to take off from Blue Grass Airport in Lexington, Kentucky, using the wrong runway. The runway is too short, and the aircraft runs off the end of the runway and crashes without becoming airborne. The first officer survives in critical condition; the other 49 people on board die.
The Boeing 737-900ER/9GP is unveiled. Its first operator is Lion Air.
30 August – Steve Fossett and Einar Enevoldson pilot the Windward Performance Perlan sailplane to a new glider absolute world altitude record of over the Patagonia region of Argentina. The record will stand until September 2017.
September
One of five existing Aerocar flying cars is put up for sale for US$3.5 million
1 September – Iran Air Tours Flight 945, a Tupolev Tu-154M, crashes while attempting to land in Mashad, Iran, killing 28 of the 148 people on board.
2 September – The Royal Air Force Hawker Siddeley Nimrod XV230 catches fire in the air during a reconnaissance flight due to a fuel leak that occurs during aerial refueling and crashes in the Panjwaye District of Afghanistan, killing all 14 people on board. It is the United Kingdoms single deadliest military loss since the Falklands War of 1982.
3 September – South Ossetian forces fire at a Georgian Mil Mi-8 (NATO reporting name "Hip") helicopter carrying Georgian Minister of Defense Irakli Okruashvili and the deputy chief of staff of the Georgian armed forces as it flies over the separatist-held territory of South Ossetia. The helicopter is slightly damaged but lands safely in Georgian government-controlled territory.
6 September – Lynx Aviation begins operation as a feeder airline for Frontier Airlines.
7 September – Israel lifts the air blockade of Lebanon it had imposed on 13 July.
8 September – BWIA West Indies Airways announces that it will shut down at the end of the year.
10 September – Swedish aerobatic champion Gabor Varga is killed instantly during the Aero GP race when his Yakovlev Yak-55 collides in mid-air over Marsamxett Harbour off Valletta, Malta, with an Extra EA-200 flown by Irish pilot Eddie Groggins. Groggins survives with minor injuries.
11 September – A Russian Ground Forces Mil Mi-8 helicopter crashes near Vladikavkaz, Russia, killing all 12 people on board, including Lieutenant-General Pavel Yaroslavtsev, deputy chief for army logistics, Lieutenant-General Viktor Guliaev, deputy chief of army medical units, and Major-General Vladimir Sorokin. The Ossetian rebel group Kataib al-Khoul claims to have shot the helicopter down.
15 September – Mexican actor Pablo Santos is killed when he attempts an emergency landing at Toluca International Airport in Toluca, Mexico, after the Piper Malibu he is piloting runs low on fuel and crashes over a mile (1.6 km) short of the runway. One of his passengers is fatally injured and dies the following day, but his other five passengers survive. Also, on the same day, Easyjet Flight 6074 to the UK suffers serious problems in the air and is unable to contact ATC. It is very close to an America bound American Airlines plane and ATC is able to request the latter to descend, narrowly missing the other plane. Some things improve on the Easyjet plane and it is able to land safely.
19 September – A United States Air Force B-52H Stratofortress makes the first flight of a U.S. Air Force aircraft powered partially by a coal-based fuel, flying over Edwards Air Force Base, California, using a fuel made of a blend of conventional JP-8 jet fuel and Fischer–Tropsch fuel made from coal in two of its engines and JP-8 in its other six engines. The flight begins the final phase of U.S. Air Force test flights to achieve the certification of its B-52 fleet to operate on coal-based fuels.
22 September – Fighter Squadron 213 (VF-213) retires the last Grumman F-14 Tomcat fighter, an F-14D, from United States Navy service. During a U.S. Navy career of over 33 years, the F-14 has served as a long-range fleet air defense fighter, attack aircraft, and reconnaissance aircraft, and scored five air-to-air kills, shooting down four Libyan Air Force fighters and an Iraqi helicopter. The U.S. Navys retirement of the Tomcat means that the F-14 remains in service only with the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force.
29 September – Gol Transportes Aéreos Flight 1907, a Boeing 737-8EH, collides in mid-air with an Embraer Legacy 600 business jet and crashes in Mato Grosso, Brazil. The Embraer Legacy, with seven on board, lands safely with no reported injuries. All 154 people on board the Boeing 737 perish.
October
1 October – The Spanish low-cost airline Clickair begins operations, with a fleet of three Airbus A320 airliners flying five routes from the airline's Barcelona hub.
3 October
Hakan Ekinci hijacks Turkish Airlines Flight 1476, a Boeing 737-400, over Greece, demanding to be flown to Rome, Italy, to speak to Pope Benedict XVI. Greek and Italian F-16 Fighting Falcons escort the plane to a landing in Brindisi, Italy, where Ekinci is arrested. No one is injured in the incident.
An Israeli Air Force fighter penetrates the defense perimeter of the French Navy frigate Courbet in the Mediterranean Sea off Lebanon without answering radio calls, triggering a diplomatic incident.
10 October – Atlantic Airways Flight 670, a BAe 146, slides off the runway at Stord, Norway, killing four of the 16 people on board.
11 October – New York Yankees baseball pitcher Cory Lidle's Cirrus SR20 aircraft stalls during a tight turn and crashes into the 20th story of a 50-story Manhattan residential building in New York City, killing Lidle and his flight instructor.
24 October – Six Israeli Air Force F-16 Fighting Falcons fly over a German Navy vessel patrolling in the Mediterranean Sea off Israels coast just south of the Lebanese border as part of a United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) effort to enforce an arms embargo against Hezbollah. The German Defense Ministry says that the planes launched infrared decoy flares and that one of them had fired two shots into the air. The Israeli military says that a German helicopter took off from the vessel without having coordinated its flight with Israel, and denies that its planes fired any shots at the vessel or launched flares over it.
25 October – Oasis Hong Kong Airlines begins service with a departure for London Gatwick Airport scheduled. Due to problems with rights to fly over Russia, the initial flight is delayed to 26 October.
26 October – The left wing of a Swedish Coast Guard CASA C-212 Aviocar detaches in flight due to metal fatigue while the plane is making a low-level pass over the Skanör-Falsterbo Coast Guard Station in Sweden. The C-212 crashes in the Falsterbo Canal, killing all four people on board. The crash prompts the Swedish Coast Guard to ground its two surviving C-212s, which it sells to Uruguay.
28 October – Continental Airlines Flight 1883, a Boeing 757-224 with 154 people on board, mistakenly lands on a taxiway instead of a runway at Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark, New Jersey, United States. It rolls to a stop without incident.
29 October – ADC Airlines Flight 53, a Boeing 737-2B7, crashes just after takeoff from Nnamdi Azikiwe International Airport in Abuja, Nigeria, killing 96 of the 105 people on board and injuring all nine survivors. One person on the ground also dies.
30 October – An airstrike kills 70 to 80 people in Chenagai, Pakistan. Eyewitnesses claim that American unmanned aerial vehicles conducted the strikes, with three Pakistani Army helicopter gunships arriving later to fire rockets into neighboring hillsides. The United States denies involvement and Pakistan claims that it conducted the airstrike, but Pakistan later denies involvement, saying it was an American strike and that Pakistan had only claimed involvement to cover for the United States.
31 October – The Cypriot airline Ajet, formerly known as Helios Airways, ceases operations.
November
1 November – The airline Emirates cancels its order for 10 Airbus A340-600HGW aircraft.
3 November – Qantas announces an order for eight more Airbus A380s and an order for four Airbus A330-200s.
7 November
The Royal Australian Air Forces first C-17 Globemaster III makes its maiden flight.
FedEx announces the first cancellation of an order for the Airbus A380. Instead, it orders 15 Boeing 777 Freighters.
14 November – EasyJet announces an order for 52 Airbus A319s.
20 November – Six Muslim imams are removed from USAirways Flight 300 at Minneapolis-St. Paul International Airport in Hennepin County, Minnesota, after crew members and other passengers aboard the plane become alarmed by what they claim is suspicious behavior by the imams. After the imams seek damages, USAirways will settle with them out of court in 2009.
26 November – United Airlines Flight 814, a Boeing 737, returns safely to Denver International Airport in Denver, Colorado, after striking a coyote on takeoff.
December
1 December
Hong Kong-based CR Airways changes its name to Hong Kong Airlines.
Air Berlin orders 60 Boeing 737s, with their delivery scheduled for November 2007.
The United States Air Force inactivates the Sixteenth Air Force, simultaneously reconstituting it as the 16th Air Expeditionary Task Force.
5 December – Lufthansa becomes the first airline to order the Boeing 747-8. It orders 20 of the planes, with options for an additional 20.
8 December – A National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) F/A-18 Hornet modified with Active Aeroelastic Wing (AAW) Technology is designated the X-53.
10 December – A Bell 412SP medevac helicopter crashes in mountainous terrain near Hesperia, California, killing all three people – the pilot and two medical crew members – on board. A fire resulting from the crash burns two acres (8,100 square meters) of the mountainside.
19 December – A United States Air Force B-52H Stratofortress makes the first flight of a U.S. Air Force aircraft powered entirely by a coal-based fuel, flying over Edwards Air Force Base, California, using a fuel made by Syntroleum of a blend of conventional JP-8 jet fuel and Fischer–Tropsch fuel made from coal in all eight of its engines.
27 December – A Eurocopter AS365 Dauphin crashes approximately 24 miles from the shoreline of Morecambe Bay, Lancashire, England, while transporting gas platform crews. Six of the seven people aboard die, with the seventh missing and never recovered.
29 December – FlyersRights.org is founded as an American not-for-profit organization that supports legislation protecting the rights of airline passengers, improving visibility in the reporting of flight delays by commercial airlines, and increasing the distance between rows of airline seats.
30 December – A U.S. Air Force Boeing VC-25A transports the body of former U.S. President Gerald R. Ford from Palm Springs International Airport in Palm Springs, California, to Washington, D.C., for memorial services.
31 December – BWIA West Indies Airways shuts down after 66 years of operations. It is replaced by a new entity, Caribbean Airlines, the next day.
First flights
January
7 January - Spectrum S-33 Independence
31 January – Lockheed Martin P-791
March
3 March - Arion Lightning
13 March - Hongdu JL-10
April
7 April – First free-flight of Boeing X-37
18 April - Diamond D-Jet
May
13 May - Excel-Jet Sport Jet
June
8 June – Bell 417
19 June – Lockheed C-5M Super Galaxy
23 June – Cessna NGP
July
6 July - Dean-Wilson Whitney Boomerang
8 July - UTIAS Ornithopter No.1
29 July - Kestrel K-350
August
9 August – BAE Skylynx II UAV
15 August – EA-18 Growler First production aircraft
September
5 September – Boeing 737-900ER.
12 September – Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter.
15 September - DAC RangeR
October
6 October - US Aircraft A-67 Dragon
13 October – Cessna 162 Skycatcher concept aircraft N158CS
16 October - Nexaer LS1
23 October – Production CH-47F Chinook
November
9 November - Van's Aircraft RV-12
December
15 December – Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II
Entered service
February – Boeing 777-200LR Worldliner with PIA
Retirements
22 September – Grumman F-14 Tomcat from United States Navy service by Fighter Squadron (VF-213)
References
Aviation by year
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20alumni%20of%20Trinity%20College%2C%20Cambridge
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List of alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
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This is a list of notable alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge. Some of the alumni noted are connected to Trinity through honorary degrees; not all studied at the college.
Politicians
Prime Ministers
Stanley Baldwin, 1st Earl Baldwin of Bewdley (1867–1947), Prime Minister 1923–24, 1924–29, 1935–37 (Conservative)
Arthur Balfour, 1st Earl of Balfour (1848–1930), Prime Minister 1902–1905 (Conservative)
Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1836–1908), Prime Minister 1905–1908 (Liberal)
Rajiv Gandhi (1944–1991), Prime Minister of India, 1984–1989
Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey (1764–1845), Prime Minister 1830–1834 (Whig); Great Reform Act (1832)
William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne (1779–1848), Prime Minister 1834, 1835–1841 (Whig)
Lee Hsien Loong (born 1952), Prime Minister of Singapore, 2004–present
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964), first Prime Minister of India, 1949–1964
Anand Panyarachun (born 1932), Prime Minister of Thailand, 1991–1992 and again in 1992
Spencer Perceval (1762–1812), Prime Minister 1809–1812 (Tory); assassinated
William Waddington (1826–1894), French Prime Minister 1879; archaeologist
United Kingdom
Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626), lawyer, philosopher; Lord Chancellor
Gavin Barwell (born 1972), Downing Street Chief of Staff under Theresa May
Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire (also known as Marquess of Hartington) (1833–1908), politician
Hugh Childers (1827–1896), Australian statesman, then British Chancellor of the Exchequer
Sir Edward Coke (1552–1634), lawyer, politician; Chief Justice of the King's Bench
Sir John Coke (1563–1644), politician
John Donaldson, Baron Donaldson of Lymington (1920–2005), Master of the Rolls
Hugh Elliott, UK Ambassador to Spain and Andorra
Frederick James Erroll, 1st Baron Erroll of Hale (1914–2000), British Minister
Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine (1750–1823), Lord Chancellor, jurist
Vicky Ford, Conservative MP for Chelmsford
Sir Michael Foster (1836–1907), physiologist; MP (London University)
Henry Goulburn (1784–1856), Chancellor of the Exchequer
Roland Gwynne (1882–1971), politician and lover of suspected serial killer John Bodkin Adams
Sir William Vernon Harcourt (1827–1904), Liberal statesman; home secretary, Chancellor of the Exchequer
Douglas Hurd (born 1930), Conservative politician, Home Secretary, Foreign Secretary
George Jellicoe, 2nd Earl Jellicoe (1918–2007), statesman
Kwasi Kwarteng (born 1975), Conservative politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer, Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy
James Mackay, Baron Mackay of Clashfern (born 1927), Lord Chancellor 1987–1997
John Manners, 7th Duke of Rutland (also known as Lord John Manners) (1818–1906), Conservative statesman
Sir Philip Miles (1825–1888), politician
Richard Monckton Milnes, 1st Baron Houghton (1809–1885), politician, man of letters
Charles Montagu, 1st Duke of Manchester (1656–1722), Whig statesman
Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax (1661–1715), founder of Bank of England, 1694; Chancellor of Exchequer
John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich (1718–1792), First Lord of the Admiralty; is claimed to have invented the sandwich
George Montague-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax (1716–1771), Secretary of State
Helen Morgan, Liberal Democrat MP for North Shropshire
Ernest Noel (1831–1931), MP for Dumfries Burghs, 1874–1886
Anthony Nutting (1920–1999), politician and diplomat; Arabist
Charles Pepys, 1st Earl of Cottenham (1781–1851), lawyer, Lord Chancellor, 1846–1850
Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne (1780–1863), Whig statesman
Constantine Henry Phipps, 1st Marquess of Normanby (1797–1863), politician
Enoch Powell (1912–1998), statesman; Minister of Health, 1960–3
Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford (1765–1802), Whig aristocrat
Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset (1662–1748), politician and Whig Grandee
John Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl Spencer (1782–1845), known as Lord Althorp; Chancellor of the Exchequer
Edward Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby (1826–1893), Foreign Secretary
William Whitelaw, 1st Viscount Whitelaw (1918–1999), statesman; Home Secretary, 1979–83
International
Richard Blumenthal (born 1946), Senior U.S. Senator from Connecticut
Puran Singh Bundela (born 1950), Indian politician
Erskine Hamilton Childers (1905–1974), 4th President of Ireland, 1973–74
Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon (1866–1941), administrator; Viceroy of India
Rahul Gandhi (born 1970), Member of Parliament (Lok Sabha) for Wayanad and Former President of the Indian National Congress
Albert Grey, 4th Earl Grey (1851–1917), Governor-General of Canada, 1904–1911
Charles Hawker (1894–1938), Australian politician
Thomas Nelson (1738–1789), signatory of the American Declaration of Independence
James Peter Obeyesekere (1915–2007), aviator and Sri Lankan minister
John Winthrop (1587/8–1649), founder and first governor of Massachusetts
Royalty
King Charles III (born 1948)
King Edward VII (1841–1910), reigned 1901–1910
King George VI (1895–1952), reigned 1936–1952
Prince Ranjitsinhji (1872–1933), cricketer; Indian prince
Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester (1900-1974), British prince
Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale (1864-1892), British prince
Prince William Frederick, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh (1776-1834), British prince
Clergy
Alfred Barry (1826–1920), Principal of King's College London (1868–1883), educationalist, and former Bishop of Sydney
Edward White Benson (1829–1896), Archbishop of Canterbury, 1883–1896
A. C. Bouquet (1884-1976), theologian, academic and writer
Arthur Buxton (1882–1958), Chaplain to the Forces and Rector of All Souls Church, Langham Place
Matthew Blagden Hale, first Bishop of Perth; later Bishop of Brisbane, social and educational pioneer
Joseph Barber Lightfoot (1828–1889), Bishop of Durham; theologian
Adam Loftus (1533–1605), Archbishop of Armargh and Dublin, Lord Chancellor of Ireland
Handley Moule (1841–1920), Bishop of Durham; theologian
Charles Perry (1807–1891), first Bishop of Melbourne
John A. T. Robinson(1919–1983) theologian; Bishop of Woolwich, Dean of Trinity
John Sanderson (c.1540–1602), priest and writer on logic
The Reverend Canon Henry Spencer Stephenson, M.A. (1871–1957), chaplain to King George VI and Queen Elizabeth II
John Stott (1921–2011), Evangelical Church Leader
John Tiarks (1903–1974), Bishop of Chelmsford
Richard Chenevix Trench (1807–1888), poet, Archbishop of Dublin; theorist of English Language
Brooke Foss Westcott (1825–1901), Canon of Westminster, Bishop of Durham
Robin Woods (1914–1997), Dean of Windsor and Bishop of Worcester
Justin Welby (born 1956), Archbishop of Canterbury
Law and justice
Maurice Amos, friend of Bertrand Russell and Quain Professor of Jurisprudence at University College London
Robert Benson (1797–1844), barrister and judge
Robert Carnwath, Lord Carnwath of Notting Hill (born 1945), Justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
Sue Carr (born 1965), Lady Justice of Appeal
Charles Sargent (1821 - 1900) Chief Justice of the Bombay High Court
Nicholas Conyngham Tindal (1776–1786), celebrated lawyer and judge
John Copley, 1st Baron Lyndhurst (1772–1863), lawyer; Lord Chancellor 1827–1830; 1834–1835; 1841–1846
Kenelm George Digby (1890–1944), High Court judge in India
Sir Robert Filmer (1588–1653), barrister, political philosopher
Sir Christopher Floyd (born 1951), Lord Justice Floyd, appointed Lord Justice of Appeal in 2013
Sir Travers Humphreys (1867–1956), judge
George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys (1645–1689), judge; Bloody Assizes; Lord Chancellor
Frederic William Maitland (1850–1906), legal historian
Sir Frederick Pollock (1845–1937), jurist
Sir David Richards (born 1951), judge in the High Court
Paul Sandlands (1878-1962), judge, Recorder of Birmingham
James Scarlett, 1st Baron Abinger (1769–1844), judge, Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer
Edward Vernon Utterson (c. 1776–1856), lawyer; one of the Six Clerks in Chancery; literary antiquary, collector and editor
Lord Walker of Gestingthorpe, Lord of Appeal in Ordinary; Justice of the Supreme Court
Humphrey Weld (of Lulworth) (1612-1685), lawyer; JP; MP; Gentleman of the Privy Chamber; landowner and recusant
Media and journalists
Alexander Armstrong (born 1970), actor, television presenter and comedian, known for The Armstrong and Miller Show and hosting Pointless with Richard Osman
John Drummond (1934–2006), broadcaster, arts administrator, writer, director of BBC Proms and Radio 3
Ian Fells, energy adviser and broadcaster
Vanessa Feltz (born 1962), journalist and broadcaster
Stephen Frears (born 1941), film director
Mel Giedroyc (born 1968), comedian and television presenter; The Great British Bake Off
James Harding (born 1969), editor of The Times
Jonathan King (born 1944), pop impresario jailed for sexually abusing boys
India Knight (born 1965), author and journalist
John Lloyd (born 1951), comedy writer and television producer, known for the likes of the Blackadder series, Spitting Image, Not the Nine O'Clock News, The News Quiz and QI
Richard Osman (born 1970), television presenter and producer, co-host of Pointless
Eddie Redmayne (born 1982), Oscar-winning actor
Herbert Vivian (born 1865), writer, journalist and newspaper proprietor
Academics and scientists
John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton (1834–1902), historian
Joseph Arthur Arkwright (1864–1944), bacteriologist, FRS
Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay (1800–1859), historian, politician, and essayist
John Haden Badley (1865–1967), educationalist, founder (1893) and headmaster (1893–1935) of Bedales School
John Bell, Professor of Law, Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge
Selig Brodetsky, President of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
James Challis (1803–1882), astronomer; twice observed Neptune without noting it, before its discovery
Jared Diamond (born 1937), US physiologist and biogeographer, Pulitzer Prize winner
Simon Digby (1932–2010), Oriental scholar
Sir Arthur Eddington (1882–1944), astronomer
Sir James Frazer (1854–1941), anthropologist; writer, The Golden Bough
Donald M. Friedman (1929–2019), scholar of Renaissance literature at University of California, Berkeley
Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911), scientist; meteorology, heredity
Tudor Morley Griffith (1951-2011), radiologist
Christopher Grigson (1926–2001), electrical engineer and naval architect
George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon (1866–1923), Egyptologist; funded the discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb
Christopher Hinton, Baron Hinton of Bankside (1901–1983), nuclear engineer; constructed Calder Hall, the first large scale reactor
Tristram Hunt (born 1974), historian and former politician
Henry Jackson (1839–1921), classicist and reformer, Vice Master, 1914
Ian Jacobs (born 1957), gynaecologist and academic
David Gwilym James (1905–1968), Vice-Chancellor of the University of Southampton, 1952–1968
Sir Richard Jebb (1841–1905), Greek scholar
Lawrence Lessig (born 1961), leading US cyberlaw expert, founder of the Creative Commons movement, and free software advocate
Ling Wang (1917–1994), historian of science
George Campbell Macaulay (1852–1915), classical scholar
Thant Myint-U (1966-), historian
Sir Bernard Pares (1867–1956), historian in Russian history
Nicholas Patrick (born 1964), NASA astronaut
Richard Porson (1759–1808), classical scholar
Alfred Radcliffe-Brown (1881–1955), social anthropologist
Vilayanur Ramachandran (born 1947), psychologist, neuroscientist
John Ray (1627–1705), naturalist; created the principles of plant classification
Charles Rolls (1877–1910), co-founder of Rolls-Royce; aviator
Hugh James Rose (1795–1838), Principal of King's College London (1836–1833)
Victor Rothschild, 3rd Baron Rothschild (1910–1990), zoologist, suspected Soviet sympathizer
J. F. Roxburgh (1888–1954), classicist, first head master of Stowe School
W.A.H. Rushton (1901–1980), physiologist, one time president of the Society for Psychical Research
Adam Sedgwick (1785–1873), geologist
Cedric Smith (1917–2002), statistician and geneticist
John Maynard Smith (1920–2004), evolutionary biologist and geneticist
James Spedding (1808–1881), scholar; editor of Bacon's Works
William Fox Talbot (1800–1877), inventor of photography
John Arthur Todd (1908–1994), geometer
Sir George Otto Trevelyan (1838–1928), historian; MP; father of G. M. Trevelyan
William Thomas Tutte (1917–2002), Bletchley Park codebreaker and graph theorist
John Waterlow (1913–2010), physiologist specialising in childhood malnutrition
Tim Westoll (1919–1999), ornithologist
George Michael Wickens (1918–2006), linguist and humanities scholar
Francis Willughby (1635–1672), naturalist
Mathematicians
Sir Michael Atiyah (1929-2019), mathematician, Fields Medal and Abel Prize winner
Charles Babbage (1791–1871), mathematician, inventor of the automated programmable computer (transferred to Peterhouse college before graduating)
Martin Beale (1928–1985), applied mathematician and statistician, FRS
Hermann Bondi (1919–2005), mathematician and cosmologist
Richard Borcherds (born 1959), mathematician, Fields Medallist
Selig Brodetsky (1888–1954), mathematician, President of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Arthur Cayley (1821–1895), mathematician; non-Euclidean geometry, invented matrices
Sydney Chapman (1888–1970), mathematician, geophysicist; kinetic theory, geomagnetism
W. R. Dean (1896–1973), mathematician and fluid dynamicist
Sir Timothy Gowers (born 1963), mathematician, Fields Medal winner
G. H. Hardy (1877–1947), mathematician; A Mathematician's Apology
Sir James Jeans (1877–1946), astronomer, mathematician; stellar evolution
John Edensor Littlewood (1885–1977), mathematician; Fourier Series, Zeta Function
Edward Arthur Milne (1896–1950), mathematician
Henry Wilbraham (25 July 1825 – 13 February 1883) periodic function.
Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871), mathematician; symbolic logic
Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727), mathematician, physicist; MP (Cambridge University)
John Pell (1610–1685), mathematician
Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920), mathematician; analytic number theory, elliptic integrals
John Frankland Rigby (1933–2014), a specialist in complex analysis
James H. Wilkinson (1919–1986), mathematician
John William Strutt (1842-1919), The Lord Rayleigh, mathematician
Philosophers
Simon Blackburn (born 1944), philosopher
C. D. Broad (1887–1971), philosopher
Ian Hacking (1936–2023), Canadian philosopher
J. M. E. McTaggart (1866-1925)
G. E. Moore (1873–1958), philosopher
Frank Plumpton Ramsey (1903–1930), philosopher, mathematician, economist
Bertrand Russell (1872–1970), philosopher
Henry Sidgwick (1838–1900), philosopher, major proponent of women's colleges
A. N. Whitehead (1861–1947), philosopher, mathematician
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951), philosopher
Physicists
Sir George Airy (1801–1895), astronomer, geophysicist
Niels Bohr (1885–1962), quantum physicist
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910–1995), astrophysicist who was awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physics
Freeman Dyson (1923–2020), physicist, proponent of the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence, Templeton Prize winner
Thomas Eckersley (1886–1959), theoretical physicist and expert on radio waves
Otto Frisch (1904–1979), nuclear physicist; first used the term 'nuclear fission'
Louis Harold Gray (1905–1965), invented the field of radiobiology; namesake of unit of absorbed dose Gray
J. B. Gunn (1928–2008), physicist; inventor of the Gunn diode
Thomas Gold (1920–2004), astrophysicist
Brian Josephson (born 1940), physicist; predicted the Josephson effect
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), physicist; electromagnetism
William George Penney (1909–1991), nuclear physicist
John Polkinghorne (1930–2021), physicist, religious thinker, Templeton Prize winner
Rajendran Raja (1948-2014), high-energy particle physicist who played a key role in the discovery of the top quark
Martin Ryle (1918–1984), radio astronomer; invented aperture synthesis
Dennis William Sciama (1926–1999), physicist; played a major role in developing British physics after the Second World War
Sir Geoffrey Ingram Taylor (1886–1975), physicist, mathematician; fluid dynamics, crystals
Sir George Paget Thomson (1892–1975), physicist; electron diffraction
Sir Peter Williams, physicist
Writers
Clive Bell (1881–1964), art and literary critic; husband of Vanessa
Charles Astor Bristed (1820–1874), American author and scholar
George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (1788–1824), poet; "She Walks in Beauty", Don Juan
Edward Hallet Carr (1892–1982), writer and international relations theorist
Erskine Childers (1870–1922), writer, Irish Nationalist; The Riddle of the Sands
Abraham Cowley (1618–1667), poet, dramatist – The Mistress
George Crabbe (1754–1832), poet; did not matriculate
Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), writer, poet, occultist, and 'Magician'; Magick in Theory and Practice
Richard Cumberland (1732–1811), playwright; The Brothers, The West Indian
Warwick Deeping (1877–1950), novelist
Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex (1566–1601), soldier, courtier to Elizabeth I; executed for rebellion
John Dryden (1631–1700), Poet Laureate; "Absalom and Achitophel"; translator of Virgil
Edward FitzGerald (1809–1883), poet; Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám
Giles Fletcher (1588–1623), poet; "Christ's Victory" and "Triumph"
George Gascoigne (1525–1577), poet, dramatist; "Jocasta", "The Glasse of Government"
Edmund Gosse (1845–1928), poet, critic; On Viol and Flute
Thom Gunn (1929–2004), Modernist poet
George Herbert (1593–1633), poet
Thomas Kibble Hervey (1799–1859), poet, critic
A. E. Housman (1859–1936), poet, classical scholar
Henry Hyndman (1842–1921), English writer and politician
Muhammad Iqbal (1875–1938), Islamic poet and philosopher
Stanley Mordaunt Leathes (1861–1938), poet, historian and senior civil servant
Nathaniel Lee (1649–1692), dramatist; The Rival Queens
John Lehmann (1907–1987), poet, man of letters; inaugurated The London Magazine
Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton (1803–1873), novelist; The Last Days of Pompeii; politician
Andrew Marvell (1621–1678), poet; "Horatian Ode", "The Rehearsal Transpros'd"; MP (Hull)
Frederick Maurice (1805–1872), theologian, writer, Christian Socialist
A. A. Milne (1882–1956), writer; Winnie-the-Pooh
Nicholas Monsarrat (1910–1979), novelist; The Cruel Sea, Three Corvettes
Vladimir Nabokov (1899–1977), Russian and English novelist; Lolita
Lenrie Peters (1932–2009), Gambian novelist, poet and educationist
Thomas Randolph (1605–1635), poet, dramatist
T. J. Cobden Sanderson (1840–1922), bookbinder; Arts and Crafts Movement pioneer
Sir Henry Spelman (1562–1641), antiquary; Reliquiae Spelmannianae
Lytton Strachey (1880–1932), biographer; Eminent Victorians; Bloomsbury Group
Sir John Suckling (1609–1642), poet, dramatist
Tom Taylor (1817–1880), Scottish dramatist; editor of Punch
Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson (1809–1892), poet – "Maud", "In Memoriam"
William M. Thackeray (1811–1863), novelist; Vanity Fair, Henry Esmond (dropped out after second year)
Sir George Trevelyan, 4th Baronet (1906–1996), educator, new age thinker and writer
George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham (1628–1687), wit, politician, dramatist; The Rehearsal; member of the 'Cabal'
Raymond Williams (1921–1988), Marxist critic, novelist; The Country and the City
Leonard Woolf (1880–1969), writer; husband of Virginia Woolf; Bloomsbury Group
Geoffrey Winthrop Young (1876–1958), mountaineer and author
Sports
George 'Gubby' Allen (1902–1989), cricketer – captained England; played in Bodyline series
Sir George Branson (1871–1951), Cambridge rowing blue and High Court judge
Wing Commander Alan Cassidy MBE, born 1949. Trinity, 1967. National Aerobatic Champion, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2003.
Harry Chester Goodhart (1858–1895), twice FA Cup winner and England international footballer; Professor of Humanities at Edinburgh University
Geoffrey Hopley, cricketer
Dar Lyon (1898–1964), first class cricketer; Chief Justice of the Seychelles
Philip Morton (1857–1925), cricketer and schoolmaster
Sir Peter Scott (1909–1989), artist, ornithologist; Olympic sailor (1936)
Rev. Henry Holmes Stewart (1847–1937), FA Cup winner in 1873
Charles Plumpton Wilson (1859–1938), England footballer and Rugby player
H. de Winton, created the first formal set of rules for Association football (The Cambridge Rules)
Maxwell Woosnam (1892–1965), Olympic and Wimbledon lawn tennis champion and England national football team captain
Andy Whittall, Zimbabwe cricketer
Spies
Anthony Blunt (1907–1983), Soviet spy; art historian
Guy Burgess (1910–1963), Soviet spy and traitor
John Cairncross (1913-1995), double agent; communist
Donald Maclean (1913-1983), double agent; communist
Michael Greenberg (1914–1992), Foreign Affairs Economist U.S. Foreign Economic Administration; Soviet spy
Kim Philby (1911–1988), double agent; communist
Nicholas Elliott (1916-1994), British spy
Michael Whitney Straight (1916–2004), US magazine publisher, presidential speechwriter, Soviet spy
Business
Norman Blackwell, Baron Blackwell, (born 1952), businessman and politician
Sir Andrew Thomas Cahn (born 1951), Vice Chairman for Public Policy of Nomura Group; former CEO of UK Trade & Investment
Alfred Clayton Cole (1854–1920), Governor of the Bank of England
Sanjeev Gupta (born 1971), businessman
Sir Robin Ibbs (1926–2014), banker
David Layton (1914–2009), National Coal Board economist and industrial relations advisor
Francis Martineau Lupton (1848-1921), businessman, landowner, politician and great-great-grandfather of Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge
Sir Michael Adrian Richards (born 1951), former UK National Cancer Director; Chief Inspector of Hospitals, Care Quality Commission, from May 2013
Rod Smallwood (born 1950), co-manager of Iron Maiden and co-founder of Sanctuary Records
Andy Taylor (born 1951), co-manager of Iron Maiden and co-founder of Sanctuary Records
John Tusa (born 1936), managing director of BBC World Service
Neville Wadia (1911–1996), Bombay industrialist and philanthropist
Simon Wolfson, Baron Wolfson of Aspley Guise (born 1967), CEO of Next plc
Military
Brigadier-General Charles Strathavon Heathcote-Drummond-Willoughby (1870–1949), soldier
James Yorke Scarlett (1799–1871), British general and hero of the Crimean War
David Stirling (1915–1990), founder of the Special Air Service
Others
Christopher Alexander (1936–2022), architect, author of The Timeless Way of Building and father of the design patterns movement
Edward Chancellor, investment strategist and financial historian
Hubert Chesshyre, retired British officer of arms found to have committed child sexual abuse
Terry Eagleton (born 1943), literary critic
Nathaniel Eaton (1609–1674), first schoolmaster at Harvard
James Clerk Maxwell Garnett CBE (1880–1958), educationist, barrister, and peace campaigner
Sir Sarat Kumar Ghosh (1878–1962), Indian Civil Service officer
Antony Gormley (born 1950), sculptor, best known for Angel of the North 1968–71
Stephen Greenhalgh (born 1967), Deputy Mayor for Policing and Crime in London
Michael Gurstein (1944–2017), Canadian community informatician
Peter Llewellyn Gwynn-Jones (1940–2010), Garter Principal King of Arms, 1995–2010
Sir Stuart Milner-Barry (1906–1995), chess player, World War II codebreaker and civil servant
William Smith O'Brien (1803–1864), Irish Nationalist
Baron Kishichiro Okura (1882–1963), Japanese playboy and motor racing enthusiast
St. John Philby (1885–1960), explorer of Arabia; father of Kim
Alexander Ramsay of Mar (1919–2001), great-grandson of Queen Victoria
Sir Benegal Narsing Rau (1887–1952), Indian Civil Service officer
Robert Vane Russell (1873-1915), Indian Civil Service officer and writer
Anthony and Peter Shaffer (born 1926; Anthony died 2001, Peter died 2016), dramatists
John Sowerby (1823-1902), botanist, writer and early member of the Alpine Club
Sir Charles Villiers Stanford (1852–1924), composer, organist
Thomas Francis Wade (1818–1895), diplomat; developed a romanization system for Mandarin Chinese that formed the basis for the Wade–Giles system
Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1958), composer; Sea Symphony, Pilgrim's Progress
References
List
Trinity College
Trinity College, Cambridge
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annot
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Annot
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Annot (; ) is a commune in the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France.
The inhabitants of the commune are known as Annotains or Annotaines
The commune has been awarded one flower by the National Council of Towns and Villages in Bloom in the Competition of cities and villages in Bloom.
Geography
Annot is located some 80 km north-west of Nice, 15 km east of Saint-Andre-les-Alpes, and 13 km west of Puget-Theniers. Access to the commune is by National Road N202 from Saint-Andre-les-Alpes to Puget-Theniers which passes through the south of the commune. Access to the village is by road D908 running north off the N202 and continuing north to Le Fugeret. There are two railway stations in the commune: Scaffarels station, an optional stop built on a masonry embankment; and Annot Railway Station near the village. They are both served by the line from Nice to Digne.
The hamlet of Les Scaffarels is south-east of the village and there is also the hamlet of Rouaine on the N202 in the south. The commune is mountainous and heavily forested. The forests occupy 2,712 hectares of the commune.
The Galange river forms most of the southern border of the commune while the Vaire flows from north to south past the village gathering many tributaries through the commune. The Beite river joins the Vaire at the village while the Canal des Gastres flows south-east near the village then curves north to join the Coulomp just north-east of the commune.
Geology
The village is located within a resurgence of sandstone amidst limestone mountains at 680 m altitude. This resurgence is up to 250m thick. The rocky ridge overlooking the village is formed of sandstone. The debris that has formed below in picturesque shapes with names such as: the Dent du Diable (Tooth of the Devil), the Chambre du Roi (King's Chamber), the défilé des Garambes (Defile of Garambes), the Chameau des lumières (Camelback of lights), and the rocks of the Cent-Marches (Hundred Steps). It has been classed as a natural site since 1920. Certain houses have been built directly against a rock fallen from the crag: the rock is bigger than a house. The acidic soils on the left bank of the Vaïre allow for chestnut growing.
The centre of the town (Saint-Jean-Baptiste Church, formerly Saint-Pons) has been built on a rocky outcrop between the Vaïre and Beïte rivers.
High points
Pelloussis Rock (1,340 m)
Col de L'Iscle (1,384 m)
on the same ridge west of the village: Le Roncheret (1,617 m), Le Puel (1,532 m), La Colle Durand (1,638 m), the Rocks of Rouaine (1,438 m)
Natural and technological risks
None of the 200 communes of the department is in a no seismic risk zone. The Canton of Annot is in zone 1b (low risk) according to the deterministic classification of 1991 based on the historical seismic data and in zone 4 (medium risk) according to the probabilistic classification EC8 of 2011. The town of Annot is also exposed to three other natural hazards:
forest fire
flooding (in the valley of the Vaïre)
landslide
The commune of Annot is also exposed to a risk of technological origin: the transport of dangerous goods by road. The N202 national road can be traveled by carriers of dangerous goods.
The foreseeable natural risk prevention plan (PPR) of the commune was approved in 1990 for flood risk, landslide, and earthquake but a new one was requested in 2003 and a DICRIM has existed since 2011.
The town has had several natural disasters from flooding and mudslides in 1994 and an earthquake powerfully felt in the town on 17 February 1947 whose epicentre was located in the Piedmont.
Neighbouring communes and villages
Toponymy
The locality appears for the first time in charters of 1042 as Anoth when its Lord, Ermerincus of Anoth, gave it to the Abbey of Saint Victor, Marseille. The name perhaps comes from the Gallic ana plus the Latin suffix ottum designating a small marsh. Charles Rostaing thought that the name Ana designated it as an older town which preceded the upper town called Sigumanna. According to Daniel Thiery, the name Sigumanna, cited in the same document as Annot, means the territory rather than a place or a specific village and this name of the territory is probably derived from the name of pre-Roman people who occupied the valley.
The commune name is Anòt in Provençal.
The name of the hamlet of Rouaine comes from the Roman name *Rugius with the suffix -ane indicating the domain of Rugius.
History
Antiquity
The name of the people settled in the valley on the arrival of the Romans is not certain, but it may be the Nemeturii. An oppidum was located at a place called Vers-la-Ville.
Middle Ages
The original village was probably in the middle of "Grès d'Annot" (Annot sandstone). The houses were mostly wooden (locations for beams are visible in the rocks that the houses backed on to) and more than one floor. The path called "Vers-la-Ville" leading to a chapel is certainly a testimony to its past existence. On this path there is a large sandstone rock ("the rock of 100 steps") on which a staircase is carved. Around the rock's summit there are holes dug to accommodate wooden beams.
Subsequently, the village was built between the Vaïre and Beite rivers and was fortified around the church of Saint-Pons in 1042. The Lord was the Abbey of Saint Victor, Marseille, who received very many gifts. The Abbey shared some rights with the Order of the Temple. After the dissolution of the Order of the Temple, its property at Fugeret and Annot passed to the Abbey Saint-Pons of Nice.
The lordship then passed to the counts of Provence. The death of Queen Joanna I created a succession crisis for the head of the County of Provence. The towns of the Union of Aix (1382-1387) supported Charles de Duras against Louis I of Anjou. The Annot community supported Duras until 1386 then switched sides to join the Angevins through patient negotiations by Marie de Blois, widow of Louis I and regent for their son Louis II. The surrender of Aix could also have played a role in the turnaround of the community.
A Fair was established in 1388 by Marie de Blois which was maintained until the end of the Ancien Régime. She also authorised a weekly market. Finally in the 15th and 16th centuries it was the Saint-Pons family who were the Lords.
Modern Times
During the Wars of religion the city was attacked by the Protestants in 1574 commanded by the Baron of l'Isle. Annot was spared the plague epidemics of 1626 and 1670 which nevertheless affected Castellane and Entrevaux.
In May 1672 the entire population of the village, led by the notaries and the apothecary, repulsed the new vicar who had been imposed by the diocese and not from the country.
At the end of the 17th century the village was gradually emerging from isolation: the Bishop of Entrevaux, Ithier, established a fortnightly postal service between Entrevaux and Aix by mules, which also served Annot and Guillaumes. The culture of Roman law, which requires frequent use of a notary, was very much alive: thus four notaries were established in Annot in 1680. In the 18th century a viguerie was installed at Annot which also served the communities of Braux, La Colle, Fugeret, Méailles, Argenton, Peyresc, and Saint-Benoît.
In June 1704, as part of the War of the Spanish Succession, a communal militia was raised at Ubraye and Annot. They were repulsed by the Savoyards in the Valley of Marguery, and many residents of both communities were taken prisoner. The ransom for those from Annot amounted to 1,200 livres.
The French Revolution
The community was fully part of the movement of the French Revolution. After sending their complaints in 1789, they planted a tree of liberty in the Place Revelly. The patriotic society of the commune was created during the summer of 1792: it was called the Club of Friends of the Revolution.
19th and 20th centuries
In the 19th century the commune was experiencing some industrial development through the spinning and weaving of wool on the model of the Honnorat factory in Saint-André-de-Méouilles. The Moulard factory opened in the early 1830s and the Roux factory in 1836 (but it disappeared before 1843). In 1856 two factories employed 40 workers.
The railway arrived at Annot in 1908 with the opening of the penultimate section of the line from Nice to Digne. The Colle tunnel was completed in 1903 and the entire line between Nice and Digne was opened from 5 to 7 August 1911 in the presence of Victor Augagneur, Minister of Public Works.
During the First World War soldiers were assigned to Annot to defend the railway lines for Railways of Provence.
The doctor from Annot belonged to the Milice. His father was shot on 6 August 1944 by the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans from the 11th company.
Until the middle of the 20th century there was a vineyard in Annot whose production was consumed locally and was exported. There remains nothing now.
21st century
On 9 February 2014, a rock tumbled down a mountainside and derailed a train on the Chemins de Fer de Provence near Annot, killing two passengers.
Heraldry
The town of Annot used at least two different shields, both making reference to chestnuts. The current arms of Annot are the second described below without picture.
Administration
List of Successive Mayors
Inter-communality
Annot is part of:
Since 2017: the Community of communes Alpes Provence Verdon - Sources de Lumière
Education
The commune has a computerized library (catalogue online).
The town has two educational institutions:
a primary school;
The Émile-Honnoraty College.
Population
Economy
In 2017, the active population amounted to 438 people, including 57 unemployed (13%). These workers are in majority employees (81%), and are in majority employed in the commune (71%). Most of the workers are employed in industry and construction (56% in 2015). Agriculture does not provide any employment. Services and administration, with 134 jobs, takes up the remaining 44% of the working population.
At the end of 2015 establishments active in the town were mainly shops and services (87 out of 142 establishments) followed by firms in the secondary sector (27), the government, health, the social sector, and education (25 establishments).
At the end of 2015 the primary sector (agriculture, forestry, fisheries) had 3 different establishments. A cheese bears the appellation Fromage d'Annot or Tomme d'Annot.
At the end of 2015 the secondary sector (industry and construction) had 27 establishments and employed 169 employees.
The main employer in the town is the Faissole biscuit factory which has produced biscuits and toasted buns since the 1960s and employs 118 employees with an annual turnover of €11 million. The agri-food sector also has the Rigault and Co. factory for cured meats with 18 employees.
A small central hydroelectric plant is installed on the Vaïre near Scaffarels. The water chute is 46 m high and drives a turbine of 820 kW. Production is currently halted from July to October. The plant is equipped with a fish slide.
At the end of 2015 the tertiary sector (trades and services) had 87 establishments with 48 employees plus another 25 administrative establishments employing 86 people.
According to Departmental Observatory of Tourism, the tourist function is important for the town, with between 1 and 5 tourists welcomed per year per inhabitant. Most of the accommodation capacity is non-market. Several tourist accommodation structures exist in the commune:
several hotels (1 classified 1-star and 2 classified 2-star). These three hotels have a total capacity of 33 rooms;
a 2-star camping site with 64 places; *several furnished units;
collective accommodation is provided by a vacation village managed by the commune and a cottage (The Roncharels).
Overall, second homes add a significant extra accommodation capacity in the commune with 334 homes (35% of the houses in the town).
In summer, the passage of the steam train on the line from Nice to Digne between Puget-Théniers and Annot adds significant tourist activity to the commune. In 2006-2007 this increased the patronage on the line by 50 to 60%.
An Equestrian Centre is located in the commune.
Tourism
Annot is well regarded for bouldering and is particularly popular among climbers, as the second biggest developed area of that kind in France.
Culture and heritage
Civil heritage
The Pont de la Donne (Bridge over the Donne) (1709). is registered as an historical monument. It is partly in the commune of Saint-Benoît.
The Old town and medieval alleys. A lintel bears the date of 1377 which is apocryphal according to Raymond Collier as it is contrary to other lintels dated 1455 and 1533
The Bridge over the Beite and its surroundings
The Arcade Houses in the arcade on the Rue Notre Dame
A Fortified Gate in the old town;
The Place of plane trees along the Vaïre
A Coaching Inn in Rouaine which is still used as a hotel-restaurant.
A Fountain with the inscription RF 1894
The Hôtel-Dieu from the 17th century
The Town hall from the 17th century
Views of Annot town.
The Bridge over the Vaïre is 34 metres long and 3.5 metres wide. It succeeded another bridge built in 1676. The community of Annot first built it with stone piers by the master masons François Richard, Louis Borrely, and Louis Fabre. These piers are protected by strong front and rear Starlings with handrails provided on top of the starlings. On these piles a wooden deck was built which allowed rapid commissioning in 1682. The wooden deck was replaced by a stone deck at the beginning of the 18th century. It was the object of repair works in 1777. In 1932 the square in the village was enlarged and the two main arches were sealed.
Religious heritage
The commune has several religious buildings and structures that are registered as historical monuments:
The Parish Church of Saint John the Baptist (12th century) (formerly Saint-Pons) is in the old town. Initially a simple priory, it took on the function of a parish church at the time of the constitution of castrum in the late 12th century. It was built with a semi-circular apse, a semi-circular vault which is the only part of the church which is entirely Romanesque. It is extended by a hemispherical tower. An aisle was added or rebuilt in the 15th or 16th centuries in the Gothic style. The nave was rebuilt in the 17th century. The church has a very large number of items which have been registered as historical objects. Some of these objects are:
A Monstrance (19th century)
A Chalice (19th century)
A Ciborium (19th century)
A Statue: Saint Antoine (18th century)
A Bust-Reliquary: Saint Peter (18th century)
A Framed Painting: Baptism of Christ (18th century)
A Statue: Saint Joseph (1863)
A Statue: Saint John the Baptist (1862)
A Statue: Saint Fortunat (1861)
A Celebrant Chair (19th century)
A Covered Wayside Cross (10th century) or oratory near Route nationale N202.
The Chapel of Notre-Dame-de-Vers-la-Ville (12th century) was built on a small platform in front of a sandstone pile of rocks. Probably installed in the centre of a Carolingian field, it served as a parish church until the end of the 12th century. It contains many items that are registered as historical objects:
2 Statuettes: Cherubs holding candles (18th century)
A Monstrance (19th century)
A Painting: Portrait of Christ (19th century)
A Retable and Painting: Virgin and child (18th century)
A Painting: Virgin of Suffering (18th century)
A Painting: Ecce homo (18th century)
A Painting: Ecce homo (2) (19th century)
A Statue: Virgin and child (18th century)
A Painting: Ex-voto (18th century)
All furniture in the Church (19th-20th century)
A Painting Ex-voto: Virgin and child (18th century)
A Painting: Christ between two thieves (1859)
2 Statuettes: Angels with torches (18th century)
A Statue-Reliquary: Virgin and child (18th century)
A Walnut Frame (17th century)
A Painting: Annunciation (1656)
The Parish Church of Saint Peter (17th century) The Church has a very large number of items that are registered as historical objects.
The Chapel of Notre-Dame-de-Vérimande (17th century) The Chapel existed before the 13th century. It was then probably rebuilt in the second half of the 17th century and restored significantly in the mid-18th century then again at the end of the 19th century. It has a canopy, and Lunettes over the Bays. The Chapel contains many items that are registered as historical objects:
A Statue: Saint Mary-Magdalene (18th century)
A Statue: Saint Anne (18th century)
A Bust-Reliquary: Saint Fortunat (18th century)
A Painting: Saints Martin and Pons with the Virgin (17th century)
A Painting: Saints Prosper, Fortunat, Innocent, and Sécure (1677)
A Bronze Bell (1652)
The Furniture in the Chapel (20th century)
The Chapel of White Penitents contains several items that are registered as historical objects:
A Painting: Placing in the Tomb (17th century)
A Painting: Saint Famille (17th century)
A Bust-Reliquary: Saint Clair (18th century)
A Bust-Reliquary: Saint Blaise (18th century)
A Painting: Virgin and child (18th century)
A Retable and Painting: Descent from the Cross with the white penitents and Louis XIII (1641)
A Statue: Virgin and child (18th century)
A Statue: Virgin and child (18th century)
The Church of Saint-Pierre-aux-Liens (17th century) at Rouaine was the parish church there.
The Chapel of Sainte-Anne at Rouaine.
Environmental heritage
The Grès d'Annot (Annot Sandstone), a chaos of sandstone blocks nationally known by climbers who practice climbing. They are a listed site in the Regional Directorate of the Environment and protected since 1946. They cover an area of 137 hectares in total.
The Gorge of the Galange is crossed by Route nationale N202 on the vertiginous bridge of Saint-Joseph (753 m high)
The Defile of Garambes
Military heritage
The Medieval Ramparts are still partly visible, doors have been conserved and provide access to the old village. Tall houses surrounding the town formed the outer wall and marked the outline of the medieval city. At Vérimande there is Templar Chapel and a house said to be from the Templars: a large structure with a tower Dovecote.
Notable people linked to the commune
Jacques Verdollin (born 29 November 1738 in Annot and died on 16 April 1793 in Paris), deputy in the States General of 1789 and the National Convention in September 1792.
Paul Rabiers du Villars (born 2 June 1837 in Annot and died 11 May 1898 at Castellane) was elected in 1877, he saw his election invalidated.
Marsi Paribatra (born 25 August 1931 in Bangkok, Thailand and died on 9 July 2013 at her house in Annot), was the only daughter of Prince Chumbhot Paripatra, Prince of Nakhon Sawan (Thailand). Her style was Mom Chao Ying (HSH). She was also an artist who exhibited regularly in Paris at the Musée d’Art Moderne between 1964 and 1972.
Bibliography
Raymond Collier, Upper-Provence Monumental and Artistic, Digne, Imprimerie Louis Jean, 1986, 559 p.
Under the direction of Édouard Baratier, Georges Duby, and Ernest Hildesheimer, Historical Atlas of Provence, Comtat Venaissin, Principality of Orange, County of Nice, Principality of Monaco, Librairie Armand Colin, Paris, 1969
Jean-Louis Damon, Au pied du Baou Sublime. Nouvelles historiques et récits du pays d'Annot, Serre éditeur (collection les régionales), Nice, 1990 ; p. 180
See also
Communes of the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence department
References
External links
Local Historical website by Jean-Louis Damon
Annot Official website
Old Postcards of Annot website
Annot on the National Geographic Institute website
Annot on the 1750 Cassini Map
Communes of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustang%20%28military%20officer%29
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Mustang (military officer)
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Mustang is a military slang term used in the United States Armed Forces to refer to a commissioned officer who began their career as an enlisted service member. A mustang officer is not a temporary or brevet promotion but is a commissioned officer that receives the same pay and command responsibilities as all other commissioned officers.
Mustang officers are generally older than their peers-in-grade who have been commissioned from one of the service academies (such as the United States Merchant Marine Academy, United States Military Academy, United States Air Force Academy, United States Naval Academy, or United States Coast Guard Academy), Officer Candidate School, or the Reserve Officer Training Corps.
History
The term "mustang" refers to the mustang horse, a feral animal and not a thoroughbred, which is captured and tamed.
The original definition of mustang was a military officer who had earned a battlefield commission; they were especially prevalent during World War II and the Korean War. Notable examples include Audie Murphy (World War II) and David Hackworth (Korean War). During the Vietnam War, some army warrant officer pilots were offered a direct commission to 2nd or 1st Lieutenant, while usually being younger than 25 at the time of commission. Department of Defense military pay tables authorize approximately ten percent pay premiums for officers in grades O-1, O-2 and O-3 who have credit for over four years of enlisted or warrant officer service before commissioning (Grades O-1E, O-2E, O-3E).
A mustang is characterized by former enlisted service before transitioning to officer rank. As a slang term, there is no official U.S. Government definition or set of criteria to determine which officers can properly be called a mustang. By the end of World War II, it was understood across the armed forces that a Mustang was an officer with service in the enlisted ranks before commissioning.
By Branch
A United States Navy or United States Marine Corps mustang officer can be a chief warrant officer, a limited duty officer, a staff corps officer, a restricted line officer or an unrestricted line officer, depending on the particular situation.
Notable mustangs
American mustang officers
19th century
Samuel Chamberlain (1829–1908) – Dragoon sergeant of the Mexican War who re-enlisted in 1861 and eventually became a brevet general.
Patrick Cleburne (1828–1864) – British army corporal who later became a Confederate general.
Johnny Clem (1851–1937) – Enlisted in the US Civil War as a drummer boy in the Union Army and retired as a US Army general in 1917.
Nathan Bedford Forrest (1821–1877) – He began his career in the Confederate States Army as a private in the cavalry and was commissioned colonel in 1861, eventually becoming a lieutenant general.
Christian Fleetwood (1840–1915) – USCT sergeant and Medal of Honor recipient, later became a major in the District of Columbia National Guard.
Galusha Pennypacker (1841/1844–1916). Initially a Union Army quartermaster sergeant in 1861. Promoted to major general in 1865.
Mirabeau B. Lamar (1798–1859) – Enlisted as a private during the Texas Revolution and received a battlefield commission as a colonel and command of the Texian cavalry immediately before the Battle of San Jacinto. Lamar would later serve as the Texas Secretary of War and be elected president.
William McKinley (1843–1901) – Enlisted as a private in the Union Army in 1861; promoted to the rank of sergeant. Received a battlefield commission for bravery under fire at the Battle of Antietam; mustered out of the army as a major. Subsequently, they became the 25th president of the United States.
John Murphy (born c.1820, date of death unknown) – Irish sergeant who deserted the US army during the Mexican War and received a commission in the San Patricios Battalion of the Mexican Army.
Winfield Scott (1786–1865) – Enlisted as a militia cavalry corporal in 1807 and commissioned as a captain in the Regular Army in 1808. He was promoted to brigadier general in 1814, aged 27, and eventually became a major general (and brevet lieutenant general).
20th and 21st centuries
Ellis E. Austin Joined the U.S. Navy in 1941 as an aviation electronics technician. Promoted to Chief Warrant Officer 1956 (Mustang) and advanced to Commander as a Bombardier/Navigator on the A6-A Intruder (Attack Squadron VA-42) flying off the Kitty Hawk in 1966. Shot down over North Vietnam on April 21, 1966. Still Missing in Action. Awarded the Purple Heart in 1966, The Distinguished Flying Cross, The Bronze Star, and Navy Commendation Medal with "V" for heroic achievement. He joined the Caterpillar Club when he was ejected from his disabled AJ Savage aircraft in 1956.
John F. Aiso (1909–1987) - Already a practicing lawyer, he was drafted in the Army in 1941 and assigned to menial jobs. Recruited by Army Intelligence to teach Japanese, but due to a prohibition of Japanese Americans being commissioned, was discharged and hired as a War Department Civilian at the Military Intelligence Service Language School. It took the intervention of Gen Clayton Bissell to demand a direct commission for Aiso to Major, the highest-ranking Japanese-American during the war.
Jeremy Boorda (1939–1996) – Rose from the USN enlisted ranks to become a four-star admiral and Chief of Naval Operations. He committed suicide in 1996 while serving as CNO.
Ernest C. Brace (1931–2014) – Enlisted in the United States Marine Corps as a radio/radar technician in 1947, earned a commission as a Marine pilot, and flew more than 100 missions during the Korean War before being court-martialed.
Gregory R. Bryant (Born 1950) - Enlisted in the United States Navy in 1970 and was selected for the Naval Enlisted Scientific Education Program. Following the selection, Gregory studied at the University of New Mexico, earning a Bachelor of Science degree in electrical engineering magna cum laude with distinction. Gregory's first position was Engineering staff for Admiral Hyman G. Rickover at the Division of Naval Reactors. Subsequently, he served many positions at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, including Senior Nuclear Ship Superintendent, Non-Nuclear Ship Superintendent, and Assistant Nuclear Repair Officer. He would then travel to Mare Island Naval Shipyard to serve as Type Desk Officer, Planning and Estimating Superintendent, Nuclear Repair Officer, and Nuclear Production Manager for his tour there. Gregory would then serve on the as Repair Officer at Apra Harbor, Guam. In 1994, Gregory transferred to Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard, where he served as the Engineering and Planning Officer and would later hold the position of Operations Officer. Following such a tour, in 1998 became commander of the Engineering Duty Officer School in Port Hueneme, California. In 1999, Gregory became the commander of Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. Following that position, in 2002, Gregory was selected for promotion to Flag Officer. RDML Bryant would then report to Chief of Naval Operations office as Deputy Director Fleet Readiness Division (N43B). Following his position, his final position would become Deputy Chief of Staff for Fleet Maintenance the U.S. Pacific Fleet. In 2005, Gregory retired after 35 years of military service. His awards include but are not limited to the Legion of Merit and four Meritorious Service Medals.
John Francis Burnes (birth name: Martin Maher) (1883–1918) – Enlisted in the United States Marine Corps in 1904, achieved the rank of Sgt. Major by 1916, appointed a Marine Gunner on 24 March 1917, was promoted to Captain (temporary service) on 3 June 1917, wounded in WWI during the Battle of Belleau Wood, and died soon after. Awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, the Navy Cross, and the Silver Star citation. The destroyer was named for him. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
Dale Dye (born 1944) – Retired USMC captain. Awarded Bronze Star and three Purple Hearts during the Vietnam War.
John William Finn (1909–2010) – Enlisted in the Navy in July 1926, shortly before his seventeenth birthday. Promoted to chief petty officer in 1935 after only nine years of active duty. Awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions at Naval Air Station Kaneohe Bay during the attack on Pearl Harbor. In 1942 Finn was commissioned and served as a limited-duty officer with the rank of ensign. In 1947 he reverted to his enlisted rank of chief petty officer, eventually becoming a lieutenant with Bombing Squadron VB-102 and aboard the USS Hancock (CV-19). Retired from the Navy as a lieutenant in September 1956.
Robin Fontes – Enlisted in the United States Army Reserve in 1981, earned a commission from West Point in 1986, and was promoted to major general in 2017.
John W. Foss (born 1933) – Enlisted in Minnesota National Guard at 16 and then Regular Army upon graduation from high school. Served as an infantry private. Accepted to United States Military Academy Preparatory School and then United States Military Academy, graduating in 1956. Served two combat tours in the Vietnam War and eventually became commanding general United States Army Training and Doctrine Command. Retired as a four-star general in 1991.
Wesley L. Fox (1931–2017) – Retired USMC colonel who rose from the ranks of private to first sergeant to colonel. Awarded Medal of Honor, Bronze Star (with Combat V), and four Purple Hearts during the Vietnam War.
Tommy Franks (born 1945) – Enlisted in 1965 as a cryptologic analyst; selected to attend the Artillery and Missile Officer Candidate School, Fort Sill, Oklahoma, and was commissioned a second lieutenant in 1967, rising to four-star general. Franks was the U.S. general leading the attack on the Taliban in Afghanistan in response to the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center and The Pentagon in 2001.
Harry K. Fukuhara (1920–2015) - Sent to a internment camp at the outbreak of WWII. Enlisted with the Military Intelligence Service in the Pacific, earning a battlefield commission for his bravery. Inducted into the Military Intelligence Hall of Fame and honored by the naming of the 500th Military Intelligence Brigade HQ at Schofield Barracks as "Fukuhara Hall."
Tulsi Gabbard (born 1981) – Currently, a lieutenant colonel in a California unit of the U.S. Army Reserves, previously a major in the Hawaii Army National Guard and a member of Congress representing Hawaii's 2nd congressional district in the United States House of Representatives. Enlisted as a Medical Specialist with the 29th Infantry Brigade Support Battalion of the Hawaii Army National Guard, serving a 12-month deployment in Iraq in 2004. Commissioned as an officer in March 2007, deploying to Iraq for a second tour of duty with the 29th Brigade Special Troops Battalion of the Hawaii Army National Guard as the Military Police Platoon Leader. In January 2019, she began a campaign for U.S. President.
Jim Gant (born c.1965) - US Army sergeant during the First Gulf War and captain during the American Afghan War.
Alfred M. Gray, Jr. (born 1928) – Retired United States Marine Corps general who served as the 29th Commandant of the Marine Corps from 1987 to 1991. Served as an enlisted Marine sergeant before becoming a Mustang.
David Hackworth (1930–2005) – Korean War and Vietnam War veteran. Retired in 1971 with the rank of colonel.
Courtney Hodges (1887–1966) – Enlisted as a private in the US Army in 1906, was commissioned and served in both World War I and World War II, during which he commanded First US Army, retired in 1949 as a general.
Daniel Inouye (1924–2012) - Enlisted in the segregated Japanese-American 442nd RCT in WWII, earning a battlefield commission for his bravery. Elected to the US Senate in 1962, he served for almost 50 years as a strong supporter of the military with chairmanships in the influential Senate Intelligence & Appropriations committees. Countless military assets & installations have since been named in his honor. After reviewing military records in the 1990s, Inouye was decorated with the Medal of Honor for his actions in the Italian Campaign. The original MOH recommendation had been lost but was discovered during a search of military records of ethnic minorities who had served in World War II.
Young-Oak Kim (1919–2005) - Drafted into the Army in 1941, served a year as an enlisted engineer before being selected for the Infantry Officer Candidate School. Served as a staff officer with the 442nd RCT in WWII. He became the first minority officer to command an Army battalion in combat in Korea and an instructor at the Army Command and General Staff College.
Jonny Kim (born 1984) - After enlisting with the United States Navy in 2002 as a seaman recruit, Kim graduated BUD/S class 247 and was assigned to SEAL Team 3 with the rating Special Warfare Operator. He deployed twice to the Middle East and participated in over 100 combat missions as a combat medic, sniper, navigator, and point man. Kim served with PO2s Marc Alan Lee and Michael A. Monsoor during his SEAL tenure. Kim was accepted for commissioning in 2009; when he graduated from the University of San Diego in 2012 and left the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps, Kim entered the Medical Corps. Jonny Kim then received a Doctor of Medicine from Harvard Medical School and completed astronaut flight training in 2020 as part of the Artemis program. Kim is a recipient of a Silver Star, Bronze Star Medal (with Combat "V"), the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal (with Combat "V"), and Combat Action Ribbon. As of January 2020, he was on active duty with the Navy Reserve as a lieutenant. According to Jocko Willink, Kim's Silver Star was awarded for rescuing multiple wounded Iraqi soldiers in the face of enemy fire.
George E. R. Kinnear II (1928–2015) – Enlisted as a Seaman Recruit in the US Navy in 1945, was commissioned as an Ensign in 1948, served as a Naval Aviator in Korea and Vietnam and as commander of NAS Miramar ("Top Gun"), and retired as a four-star admiral in 1982.
Carwood Lipton (1920–2001) – World War II veteran who was a member of Easy Company, 2nd Battalion, 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, in the 101st Airborne Division. He enlisted as a private and eventually received a battlefield commission to second lieutenant. His story was featured in the Band of Brothers and was portrayed in the miniseries adaptation by Donnie Wahlberg.
James Mattis (born 1950) – Retired USMC general, a former Secretary of Defense. Enlisted in the USMC in 1969 and was commissioned a second lieutenant through Naval ROTC on January 1, 1972.
Audie Murphy (1925–1971) – The most decorated US soldier of World War II, Staff Sergeant Murphy received a battlefield commission in France in 1944; subsequently became an actor. Received the Medal of Honor and later held a major's commission in the US National Guard.
Peter J. Ortiz (1913–1988) – Enlisted in the French Foreign Legion, receiving a field commission. Enlisted commissioned a second lieutenant in the United States Marine Corps in 1942. Retired as a colonel in the USMCR.
Lewis Burwell "Chesty" Puller (1898–1971) – Enlisted in the Marine Corps in 1918 and received a commission in 1924. Retired as a lieutenant general. He was awarded the Navy Cross five times, the second person in history to be awarded as much.
John Shalikashvili (1936–2011) – Drafted in the Army in 1958; applied to and accepted in Officer Candidate School the following year. He went on to become a four-star general and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (1993–1997) and retired in 1997.
Clarence A. Shoop (1907–1968) – Enlisted in the Pennsylvania Army National Guard in 1927, earned a commission in the Army Air Corps as a pilot, and retired from the United States Air Force as a major general.
Larry O. Spencer (born 1954)– Enlisted in the United States Air Force in 1971, subsequently earned a commission as a second lieutenant in 1980 through the Officer Training School and later became the 37th Vice Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force. Retired as a four-star general in 2015.
Jeff Struecker (born 1969) – Retired US Army major. He served as an enlisted man in Panama and Somalia before attending and graduating from seminary and being commissioned as a pastor in the army. Portrayed by Brian Van Holt in the film Black Hawk Down (2001).
John William Vessey, Jr. (1922–2016) – Enlisted in the Minnesota National Guard in 1939 at the age of 16; received a battlefield commission at the WWII battle of Anzio and fought in the Korean and Vietnam wars, rising to a four-star general in 1976 and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1982.
Larry D. Welch (born 1934) – Enlisted in the Kansas National Guard in 1951; later enlisted in the USAF and rose to become Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force. Retired as a four-star general in 1990.
Chuck Yeager (1923–2020) – Enlisted in the U.S. Army Air Forces in 1941 and began as an aircraft mechanic. He soon entered pilot training and served as a flight officer upon receiving his wings. He later earned a commission as a second lieutenant. He was a noted combat pilot during World War II and as a test pilot during the postwar era, including being the first to successfully exceed the speed of sound. Retired from the U.S. Air Force as a brigadier general in 1975.
Richard J. Tallman (born 1925-1972) - Enlisted in 1943 as a Private first class in the 42nd Infantry Division. After the Battle of the Bulge, was field commissioned to 2nd Lieutenant. After the war, he went to West Point and became a 1st Lieutenant. He got company commander in the Korean War and had four tours in Vietnam before he got killed in 1972 as a brigadier commander.
Non-American mustang officers
British Empire
Idi Amin – British army cook during the 1940s, later one of the first native commissioned officers in the Ugandan army.
Adrian Carton de Wiart – Joined British cavalry as an enlisted man during the Second Boer War. Commissioned as a lieutenant in 1901 and later served as a general during World War I and II.
John Crocker – Enlisted as a private soldier in the British Army in 1915; temporary second lieutenant in the Machine Gun Corps on 26 January 1917; left army, but rejoined the Middlesex Regiment 1920. Rose to General in WWII.
George Croil – Joined the Gordon Highlanders as a pvt in 1914. Air Marshal with the Canadian Air Force during World War II.
Moshe Dayan – Enlisted in British Army during World War II and served as an Israeli general in all three of the Arab Israeli Wars.
Henry Kelly VC – Promoted from sergeant major to lieutenant in 1915, later fought in the Irish Civil War and Spanish Civil War.
Enoch Powell – Joined the British Army in 1939 as a private in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment, ending the war as a brigadier.
John Quilliam was conscripted into the Royal Navy in 1794, promoted to midshipman in 1797, and retired in 1817 with the rank of captain.
Arnold Ridley, best known for playing Private Godfrey in Dad's Army, rose from private to captain during World War I and also served with the British Army and Home Guard during World War II.
William "Wully" Robertson. Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS – the professional head of the British Army) during the First World War. The first, and to date only, British soldier to rise from private to field marshal.
Jan Smuts, a South African World War I and World War II general, began his military career as a corporal in a commando before the Boer War.
Israel Tal enlisted in the British army during World War II and became an Israeli general in the Six Day War and Yom Kippur War.
Charles Upham -NZEF soldier that started World War II as a private, rose to the rank of Captain, and went on to become the only combat soldier awarded a Bar to the Victoria Cross.
France
Pierre Augereau – Served as an enlisted man in numerous European armies, including the French, before the French Revolution; became a Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon.
Jean-Baptiste Jules Bernadotte (aka King Charles XIV John) – Served in the Régiment Royal–La Marine for a decade; became a Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon, and later was elected Crown Prince of Sweden, he died as the King of Sweden and King of Norway.
Jean-Baptiste Bessières – Enlisted in the Constitutional Guard and served in the army during the French Revolutionary Wars; became a Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon.
Jean-Baptiste Jourdan – Enlisted in the French Army when he was 15 years old and fought in the American War of Independence; became a Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon.
Jean Lannes – Served as Sergeant-Major of a volunteer battalion during the French Revolutionary Wars; became a Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon.
Jacques MacDonald – Served as an enlisted man in the Irish Legion and Dutch service before receiving a commission in the French Army; became a Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon.
André Masséna – Served as an enlisted soldier in the Royal Italian Regiment of the French Army for 14 years; became a Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon.
Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey – Enlisted twice as a kid but was quickly dismissed when his father intervened; became a Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon.
Michel Ney – Served 5 years as an enlisted cavalryman; became a Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon.
Nicolas Oudinot – Had served 3 years as an enlisted soldier; became a Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon.
Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr – Briefly served as an enlisted soldier before being elected as an officer in a volunteer unit during the French Revolutionary Wars; became a Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon.
Nicholas Savin – Cavalry NCO during the French Revolutionary Wars, promoted to lieutenant under Napoleon. Died in 1894 at the claimed age of 126.
Jean-de-Dieu Soult – Enlisted in the French Army as a teenager and served for several years before receiving a commission; became a Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon.
Louis-Gabriel Suchet – Served as cavalryman in the National Guard before receiving a commission; became a Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon.
Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno – Had already retired after ten years of enlisted service; became a Marshal of the Empire under Napoleon.
Marcel Bigeard – Incorporated in 1936, came back sergeant in 1940, participated in World War II, the First Indochina War, and the Algerian War; ended his career as Lieutenant General
Russia
Pavel Ivanovich Batov – Russian Imperial Guard during World War I, Red Army commander during the Russian Civil War, Spanish Civil War, Winter War, and Great Patriotic War.
Ivan Bogdanov – NCO in the Tsarist Army and Red Army commander during the Russian Civil War and Great Patriotic War. Killed in action in 1942.
Semyon Budyonny – NCO in the Tsarist army, decorated multiple times during World War I, commander of the 1st Cavalry Army of the Red Army in the Civil War, Marshal of the Soviet Union from 1935 to his death in 1973.
Vasily Chapaev – NCO in the Tsarist army and three times decorated with the Order of St. George in World War I, joined the Bolsheviks in 1917 to become one of the first "Red Commanders." Noted for his bravery, he was killed in action in the Ural River in 1919 and has been since immortalized as a hero in both the Soviet Union and Russian Federation.
Pavel Dybenko – Promoted to naval NCO in the Baltic Fleet in 1912. He participated in the October Revolution in Petrograd, fought in the Civil War, and reached the rank of Army General and military district commander in the Red Army. He was executed in Stalin's purges in 1938.
Vasily Gordov – Junior sergeant in 1915–17. He commanded the Stalingrad Front in 1942 during the early stages of the Battle of Stalingrad. Took part in the Battle of Berlin and the Prague Offensive in 1945.
Andrei Grechko - Enlisted as a cavalryman in the Red Army during the Russian Civil War, rose from divisional to army commander during the Great Patriotic War, promoted to Marshal of the Soviet Union in 1955, and served as Minister of Defense of the Soviet Union during the Brezhnev era until he died in 1976.
Grigory Kulik – Promoted to senior Feuerwerker (artillery NCO) in 1915 and decorated many times for bravery in World War I, joined the Red Army after the Revolution and became a Marshal of the Soviet Union in 1940, taking part in the Great Patriotic War.
Mikhail Lashevich – Senior NCO in the Imperial Army, was wounded twice in World War I. In the Civil War, he held command positions in various Red armies, then went to Harbin to serve as deputy chairman of the Chinese Eastern Railway (1926–1928).
Rodion Malinovsky - Corporal of the Russian Expeditionary Force in France during World War I and a Red Army drill instructor during the Russian Civil War, republican staff officer during the Spanish Civil War, rose from major-general to Marshal of the Soviet Union during course of the Great Patriotic War, and finally serving as Minister of Defense of the Soviet Union from 1957 until he died in 1967.
Lev Mekhlis – Bombardier in the 2nd Grenadier Artillery Regiment (1911), Feuerwerker (Senior Artillery NCO) in 1917, joined the Red Army in 1918, Colonel-General from 1939, member of the Stavka and head of the Main Political Directorate of the Red Army during the Great Patriotic War.
Romuald Muklevich – Petty officer in the Baltic Fleet from 1912, took part in the Storming of the Winter Palace in October 1917, rose to become an admiral and the commander-in-chief of the Soviet Navy 1926–31, commissar for shipbuilding industry 1934–36, deputy minister for the defense industries 1936–37. They were killed in Stalin's purges in 1938.
Konstantin Rokossovsky – Tsarist cavalry NCO until 1917, then served in the Red Army until arrested and imprisoned during Stalin's purge. Reinstated as a major general in the Red Army in 1940, they rose to Marshal of the Soviet Union in 1944 during the Great Patriotic War. Transferred to the Polish People's Army as a Marshal of Poland and Minister of National Defense after the war in 1949, dismissed by Władysław Gomułka and sent back to the Soviet Union in October 1956, and finally retiring in 1962.
Prokofy Romanenko was promoted from sergeant to praporschik before the October Revolution, and later joined the Red Army.
Andrey Yeryomenko – In 1914, he took part in the capture of Przemysl and was promoted to NCO. Joined the Bolsheviks in the Civil War, he was a proponent of mechanized warfare and earned the nickname "Russian Guderian". In 1941–45 he commanded many fronts, including the Stalingrad Front, during the main phase of the Battle of Stalingrad.
Matvei Zakharov - Volunteered in the Bolshevik Red Guards and participated in the storming of the Winter Palace during the October Revolution, commanded an artillery battery in the Red Army during the Russian Civil War, rose from army-level to front-level staff officer during the Great Patriotic War, promoted to Marshal of the Soviet Union in 1955 and served as Chief of the General Staff of the Soviet Armed Forces and principal of the K.E. Voroshilov General Staff Academy from 1960 to 1971.
Georgy Zhukov – NCO in the Tsarist army in World War, Order of St. George, Marshal of the Soviet Union from 1941, and Defence Minister during and after the Great Patriotic War.
Andrei Zhdanov – NCO in the 139th Infantry Regiment (1916–1917), member of the Central Committee of the CPSU and Stalin's inner circle in the 1930s, Colonel-General of the Red Army and head of the defense of Leningrad in the Great Patriotic War.
Dmitry Zhloba – Studied as a military engineer and became a Tsarist NCO in 1917. Joined the Bolsheviks in Moscow and took part in storming the Kremlin. In 1918 he led the famous "Steel Division" of 15,000 men to a legendary 800-kilometer march in sixteen days from Nevinnomysskaya to Tsaritsyn, falling on the rear of Pyotr Krasnov's besieging White Army to relieve the Bolshevik garrison during the Battle of Tsaritsyn.
Germany
Nazi panzer ace Franz Bake was a lance corporal during the First World War. At the outbreak of World War II, he was a lieutenant colonel.
Oskar Dirlewanger, an infamous war criminal, rapist, and pedophile, was an enlisted machine gunner during World War I and a colonel with the Waffen SS during World War II.
Sepp Dietrich was a sergeant during World War I and a general in the SS during World War II.
Hugo Gutmann, the commanding officer of Adolf Hitler during World War I, was promoted from Feldwebel to lieutenant in 1915.
Adolf Heusinger enlisted in 1914, was promoted to lieutenant in 1917, and later became a general in the Nazi Wehrmacht and West German Bundeswehr.
Ernst Jünger was promoted from private to lieutenant during World War I and became a Wehrmacht captain during World War II.
Erich Kastner, the last German World War I veteran, enlisted as a private in 1918 and was promoted to major during World War II.
Günther Rall began his career as a sergeant in the Nazi Luftwaffe, and became a general in the West German Air Force after the war.
Hans Sommer was promoted from staff sergeant to lieutenant in the Waffen SS, and after the war, became a Stasi officer.
Willi Stoph was an unteroffizier in the Wehrmacht, and a general in the East German Army.
Poland
Menachem Begin was a corporal in Wladyslaw Anders' Free Polish Army during World War II, and an Irgun commander during the 1947–1949 Palestine war.
David Ben-Gurion joined the British Jewish Legion during World War I, and led the Israeli Defence Force during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.
Wladyslaw Bortnowski was an NCO in the Polish legion during World War I, and a Polish Army general during the September Campaign.
Yitzhak Sadeh enlisted in the Tsarist army during World War I and was an Israeli general during the First Arab-Israeli War.
Karol Świerczewski enlisted in the Soviet Red Army as rank-and-file soldier fighting in the Russian Civil War, served as a brigadier in the International Brigades under the nom de guerre General Walter during the Spanish Civil War, returned to the Soviet Union as a major-general in 1940, and finally promoted to general of the department in 1943 with his transfer to the Polish People's Army during World War II.
Samuel Willenberg enlisted in the Polish army at the age of 16, became a sergeant in the Resistance and was promoted to lieutenant in the Polish People's Army after the war.
Netherlands
Wiebbe Hayes – Promoted from sergeant to lieutenant for defeating the Batavia mutiny.
See also
Seaman to Admiral - 21
Major (France)
References
External links
Official US NAVY CWO/LDO Community Manager Page
Air Force Officer Accession & Training Schools (AFOATS), enlisted commissioning Opportunities
U.S. Naval Academy Admissions Steps
USAF Academy admissions website
Nurse Corps Force Management, USAF NECP
Marine Corps Mustang Association
American military personnel
Military slang and jargon
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lou%20Carpenter
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Lou Carpenter
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Lou Carpenter is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Tom Oliver. He made his first screen appearance on 30 March 1988. Oliver appeared for a brief time, having been initially contracted for six months, before leaving and returning in January 1992 as a regular cast member. In 1996, Lou was written out of Neighbours, a move that shocked Oliver as his character had become popular with fans. Neighbours viewers created petitions calling for his return and the strength of their reaction caused the producers to reconsider their decision and reinstate Oliver. Lou became one of the longest-serving continuous characters in the serial's history, having played the role for 24 years.
From March 2009, Lou became a part-time regular character, with Oliver alternating between two-month blocks of filming and two-month breaks. In 2015, it was announced that Oliver had cut back his filming commitments even more, and would no longer be appearing as regularly as he once had. Lou made a temporary departure on 1 May 2015, but a spokesperson confirmed that Oliver would return to film guest appearances, which he did until the end of 2016.
Casting
Oliver joined the cast of Neighbours as Lou in 1988. He was initially contracted for six months. The character was written out in 1996 after the Neighbours producers decided to employ an "out with the old and in with the new" policy. Oliver was shocked and angry over the decision to axe his character and he said he was not offered an explanation as to why his contract was not going to be renewed. He told Inside Soap "I don't understand it at all, Lou is very popular with everyone, especially the kids, who even come up to me in the street and say: I wish my dad was more like Lou." Oliver agreed to stay with the show past his original departure date, so the writers could have enough time to give Lou a respectable send-off rather than have him killed in a car accident or explosion.
When the news of Oliver's sacking was revealed, Neighbours viewers called for his return and created petitions asking for him to be reinstated. The strength of the public's reaction took the producers by surprise, as they were not aware of how popular he was in Australia and the UK. A writer for Inside Soap said "So they began to reconsider the situation, especially when Caroline Gillmer, who plays Cheryl, chose to leave. And soon the decision was made - Lou was returning to Ramsay Street full time." Oliver commented that he was "totally overwhelmed" by the public support for him.
In April 2009, it was announced that Oliver would cut back on filming with Neighbours. Oliver reduced his hours and appeared part-time, like his former co-star Ian Smith. His new contract meant he alternated between four months of filming and four-month breaks. This later became two months on and two months off. By 2012, Oliver was the show's longest-serving male cast member.
Development
Characterisation
Lou is often a positive person, even when things fail. He is loyal and enthusiastic about each new challenge. Tony Johnston, author of Neighbours: 20 years of Ramsay Street, said Oliver has pulled off the remarkable task of imbuing a "dodgy character with some irresistibly likable qualities." He described Lou as being a ready confidant and an eternal dreamer. Oliver described Lou as "Mischievous, humorous and honest" and told a writer for the BBC's Neighbours website that he does share some similarities with him. The actor revealed that he initially played Lou as an older version of Jack Sellars, a character he portrayed in the television series Number 96. He also explained that he stole Lou's distinctive "dirty laugh" from Sid James, saying "The script said: 'Gives big dirty laugh.' I thought, who's got the dirtiest laugh I can think of? Sid James! I used to love his Carry On movies." A writer for television website, Throng, branded Lou a "lovable rogue" and they said he has charmed the viewers over the years. David Balls of Digital Spy said Lou is "one of Erinsborough's most distinguished residents." A writer for Inside Soap said Lou has become known for his scams and quick one-liners.
Friendship with Harold Bishop
Lou's friendship with Harold Bishop (Ian Smith) has been an important element to his characterisation. They attended the same school and Lou was Harold's "nemesis" and rival for Madge Ramsay's (Anne Charleston) affections. Oliver told David Balls of Digital Spy that Lou had always had a huge crush on Madge and he decides to go to Ramsay Street to steal her from Harold on their wedding day. However, Lou fails to stop the wedding and he leaves. Lou returns four years later, after Harold has disappeared and ends up living with Madge. Harold returns and he and Lou become friends. Oliver said some reviewers had likened Lou and Harold's relationship to Laurel and Hardy and The Odd Couple. Erica Thompson of The Courier-Mail said Harold and Lou's friendship was one of her favourite "bromances" on television. She said their most bromantic moment was "When Harold returned to Erinsborough, after being feared drowned for many years, he had no memory of his old life. But when Lou served him jelly one night Harold suddenly remembered how Lou used to tease him at school by calling him "Jelly Belly" and, presto, his memory was restored."
Lou raises money for Harold's bail, when he is imprisoned after a case of mistaken identity. Harold later donates a kidney to Lou and they go into business together, founding the General Store. Harold and Lou both fall for Rosie Hoyland (Maggie Millar), which leads to some arguments and Harold destroying a love letter from Lou to Rosie. Peter Mattessi of The Age said the writers decided to tweak the "standard love triangle story" when Gino Esposito (Shane McNamara) moves in with Harold. Lou becomes jealous of Gino and Harold's friendship. Of this, Mattessi said "The tension this created between Lou and Harold ("same-sex platonic life-partners", according to Toadie) was a wonderful storytelling twist." After Smith announced his departure in 2008, Oliver was asked if Lou would be sad about his best friend's exit and he said "Oh yes, definitely, but the old rascals keep in touch all the time. It was a sad farewell. Not just in character, but for me and Ian [Smith] too". Smith returned in May 2011 and Harold and Lou were reunited. Harold reveals he is engaged to Carolyn Johnstone (Paula Duncan) and while most of his friends are happy for him, Lou is not quite so pleased that Harold has a new lady in his life.
Painkiller addiction
Lou starts taking painkillers to ease his chronic back pain and he slowly becomes addicted to them. When Madge dies, Lou comes to rely on painkillers and sleeping tablets to numb his despair. A writer for Inside Soap said Lou goes to extreme lengths to maintain a supply of pills, including lying to his friends. Lou's attitude becomes "darker" and in his desperation for more pills he lies to Karl Kennedy (Alan Fletcher) that he lost his previous prescription. Lou also begs Harold for any pills he might have, and he also visits a late night pharmacy for more medication. When Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) expresses his concern over Lou's actions, Lou snaps and fires him from the pub. Lou eventually realises he needs help and begins attending Narcotics Anonymous.
Reintroduction of family
During an October 2012 interview with a What's on TV reporter, Oliver was asked if would like some of Lou's family to return. Oliver then revealed that there was a possibility that Lou's daughter, Lauren, would be coming back. He also expressed his desire to see Lou's adopted daughter, Louise "Lolly" Allen, return as an adult. The following month it was announced that Lauren would be returning to the serial, now played by Kate Kendall. Lauren returns to Erinsborough with her husband Matt (Josef Brown), and their three children – Mason (Taylor Glockner), Amber (Jenna Rosenow) and Bailey (Calen Mackenzie). However, when Lauren initially arrives, only Amber and Bailey are with her and she tells Lou that Mason is busy with work. An Inside Soap columnist noted that there was more to his absence than meets the eye. Lou becomes worried about how Lauren will react when she learns about "his fall from grace", especially how he embezzled from his business partner and worked as a male escort. When "shamefaced" Lou confesses to Lauren that he is unemployed and broke, she tells him that she understands and is still proud of him. When Lauren and her family are invited to stay at Number 32, Lou is delighted to be surrounded by his family again.
Shortly after his family's arrival, Lou was attacked by a masked intruder in his house and knocked to the floor. Inside Soap's Sarah Ellis said it was "a horrifying ordeal" for Lou. Oliver explained that Lou reacts first and thinks later, so he does not have time to be frightened of the intruder. He continued "Before he knows it, he's struggling with the guy and ends up in a heap on the floor." Nothing is taken during the incident, so Lou believes that he has interrupted the guy just in time. When Lauren finds out what has happened, she is concerned for her father and insists that he gets his head looked at. Lou's only concern is how something like this could happen in the "close-knit" neighbourhood and Ellis wondered if the culprit could be closer to home. Oliver stated that Lou is not aware that anything untoward has happened with his family, but he would be upset if they had something to do with the incident. Oliver expressed his delight at having Lou's on-screen family back, saying "Lou's like a new man – for the first time in ages, he really belongs somewhere. He's not the 'stand-in' father or grandfather anymore – this is his real family." Oliver told Ellis that there would be lots coming up for Lou as he spends time working out what his family are trying to cover up, noting that they were full of secrets.
Following all the trouble with Mason, Lou is reminded that nothing is more important than family. He is then persuaded to get in contact with his estranged daughter, Ling Mai Chan (Khym Lam) by Sheila Canning (Colette Mann). He sends Ling Mai an email, which she replies to, asking him to visit her. Lou then takes a couple months off to go to Cambodia. The storyline was inspired by Oliver's real life trip to the country, where he is an ambassador for the Elephant Nature Park. Louise (played by Jiordan Tolli) was reintroduced to Neighbours for one episode in October 2013 to help celebrate Lou's 70th birthday. As his family organise a birthday party, Lou becomes concerned that three generations of Carpenter men have died the week they turned 70. Oliver commented Lou was taking that very seriously and decides to get a check-up at the hospital. Lou is given a clean bill of health and he is delighted to find his family have gathered to celebrate his birthday when he returns home. Oliver said "At first Lou is a bit concerned about the party, but then he sees his daughter Lolly and everything changes. He's delighted, as he's been quite absent from her life in recent years." Oliver revealed that he was "thrilled" when the producers told him Tolli was going to reprise the role of Louise. The actor added that Lou is also happy to learn that he actually turned 70 the previous year, thus breaking the family curse.
Reduced role and departure
In May 2015, it was announced that Oliver had cut back further on his filming commitments and would not appear as regularly as he had. Lou departed on 1 May 2015 after he was seen moving to Queensland with his grandson Bailey. Following his exit, Lou was removed from the show's opening titles. A spokesperson confirmed that Oliver would continue to film guest appearances. They added that he would be returning later in the year to shoot "a significant storyline." On 26 October 2016, David Knox of TV Tonight reported that Oliver would be officially leaving the cast after 28 years, following his latest guest stint, which began from 4 November. Producers refused to rule out future return appearances, and executive producer Jason Herbison stated, "Tom Oliver is one of our all-time favourites and in Lou Carpenter has created one of Australian TV's most iconic characters. And, as with all things Ramsay Street, we try to keep our storylines unpredictable and surprising. Watch this space."
Storylines
While he was in high school, Lou met and fell in love with Madge Ramsay; however, he had a rival for her affections in the form of Harold Bishop. Madge eventually chose to marry Fred Mitchell (Nick Waters) and moved away with him. Lou became a wealthy man due to his various businesses and he went on to marry Kathy (Tina Bursill). The couple had two children, Guy (Andrew Williams) and Lauren (Sarah Vandenbergh), but they later divorced. Madge eventually rekindles her relationship with Harold and the two become engaged, but after a disagreement Madge goes on a number of dates with Lou during a trip to Brisbane. Lou follows Madge back to Erinsborough and appears at her house while she is telling Harold of her infidelity. Lou continues to try to stop the wedding and asks Madge to marry him instead. Madge eventually turns Lou down and he returns to Brisbane, where he marries a younger woman named Linda (Gina Gaigalas). The marriage does not last.
After Harold is swept out to sea and presumed dead, Lou comforts Madge. He follows her to Erinsborough, on the pretence of visiting his sister, Brenda Riley (Genevieve Lemon). Lou decides to stay in Erinsborough and he opens a used car business. He also begins dating Madge and they get engaged. They break up when Lou realises Madge does not trust him around other women. Lou rents out some rooms in his home to Beth Brennan (Natalie Imbruglia), Cameron Hudson (Benjamin Grant Mitchell) and Annalise Hartman (Kimberley Davies). Lou and Annalise begin dating and they become engaged, but Lou ends the relationship when he learns Annalise is only seventeen. Benito Alessi (George Spartels) becomes Lou's partner at the car yard, but he sells his shares to Jim Robinson (Alan Dale). Following Jim's death, Lou is displeased to discover Julie Martin (Julie Mullins) is his new partner. However, Julie increases sales and Lou is grateful. Lauren comes to stay and Rick Alessi (Dan Falzon) also moves in, becoming a surrogate son to Lou. Lou meets Cheryl Stark (Caroline Gillmer) and they eventually begin a relationship. They move in together and Cheryl becomes pregnant. She gives birth to a daughter, who she and Lou name Louise (Jiordan Anna Tolli). Not long after, Lou learns he has another daughter, Ling Mai Chan (Khym Lam), from a previous relationship. Lou gets a radio show on a local station and becomes Mayor of Erinsborough. Lou and Cheryl get into debt and they sell the car yard, but retain The Waterhole pub.
Lou and Cheryl break up when he learns she had an affair. Lou moves away, but when Cheryl writes to him, he returns to Erinsborough to try to mend the relationship. However, he is devastated to learn Cheryl has died after being hit by a car. Lou moves back to Ramsay Street to care for Louise and run the pub. Harold turns up alive and Madge decides to return to Ramsay Street. Lou opens a restaurant and goes into partnership with Ben Atkins (Brett Cousins) at a garage, which is named Carpenters Mechanics. Ben leaves and Lou hires Drew Kirk (Dan Paris). Lou decides to sell up and retire when he has a heart attack, but he changes his mind. Lou briefly dates Carol Maitland (Helen Trenos), but realises he is not over Cheryl. Lou buys Number 30 as an investment, but angers the tenants – Toadfish Rebecchi, Sarah Beaumont (Nicola Charles) and Joel Samuels (Daniel MacPherson) – by putting up the rent. Lou falls in love with Merridy Jackson (Suzi Cato) and becomes addicted to painkillers, following back surgery. Madge dies from cancer and Lou turns to the painkillers to numb his grief. He later gets help for his addiction and attends Narcotics Anonymous.
Lou is shocked when John Allen (Adrian Mulraney) claims to have had an affair with Cheryl and fathered Louise. Lou has a DNA test done, but the results confirmed John is Louise's father, devastating Lou. Following a custody hearing, John is given full custody of Louise, with Lou getting visitation rights. Lou and Harold compete for the affections of Rosie Hoyland and move in together. Rosie admits she would like to pursue a relationship with Lou and they begin dating. Lou and Rosie later break up and decide to remain friends. Lou develops kidney failure and Harold offers to donate one of his kidneys to him. Lou initially rejects the offer, but later changes his mind. Lou becomes friends with Valda Sheergold (Joan Sydney) and employs her at the pub. Lou develops feeling for Valda, but nothing happens as Valda leaves town. Max Hoyland (Stephen Lovatt) becomes a partner in the pub and Lou meets and marries Trixie Tucker (Wendy Stapleton). Lou invests in a production of Hello Dolly for Trixie, but the show is cancelled due to poor ticket sales and Lou loses his money and his wife. Lou gets into debt to Rocco Cammeniti (Robert Forza) and decides to flee town. His car breaks down in the bush and he almost dies after slipping down a slope, but he is rescued.
Lou sells his properties and begins fixing horse races for Rocco. He is arrested and sent to prison, but is later released following an appeal led by Toadie. Lou goes into business with Harold and they open the General Store. He also meets Mishka Schneiderova (Deborah Kennedy) online and when she comes to Australia, they enter into a relationship. Mishka is later forced to leave the country by immigration officers. Louise (now played by Adelaide Kane) comes to stay with Lou and admits her stepmother has been abusing her. The situation is sorted out and Louise returns to John. Harold decides to leave and invites Lou to go travelling with him; Lou declines and he moves in with the Parker family, becoming a grandfather figure to Mickey Gannon. Lou sells the General Store to Marco Silvani (Jesse Rosenfeld) and Frazer Yeats (Ben Lawson), who keep him on as an employee. Frazer goes to Italy and Marco dies, leaving the store in the hands of Carmella Cammeniti (Natalie Blair) and Lou. Harold returns and is diagnosed with cancer; he also suffers a heart attack. Lou helps his friend through the recovery process and joins him on his journey to Queensland.
A few months later, Lou returns and becomes the guardian of Kate Ramsay (Ashleigh Brewer) and her siblings, Harry (Will Moore) and Sophie (Kaiya Jones). Lou tries internet dating and almost goes on a date with Lyn Scully (Janet Andrewartha). Kate tries to get Lou and Terry Kearney (Peter Moon) to be friends, but when they meet, they instantly dislike each other. Lou plays mediator when a feud occurs between the Kennedy and Scully families. He decides to purchase the car yard next to Carpenter's Mechanics and uses Karl Kennedy's pet galah, Dahl, in his advertisements. Karl and Lou then begin competing with each other for Dahl and Karl wins his pet back. Lou, Kate and Sophie invite Lucas Fitzgerald (Scott Major) to move in. Lou wins the Citizen of the Year Award after competing against Karl and Susan (Jackie Woodburne). Lou hires Kyle Canning (Chris Milligan) at the car yard, but when Kyle realises Lou does not trust him to close a sale, he quits. Lou apologises and gives Kyle a pay rise. Harold returns with his fiancée, Carolyn (Paula Duncan). Lou initially thinks Carolyn is stuck up, especially when she disagrees with his idea for Harold's buck's night. Harold manages to get them to compromise on a joint party and Lou tells Susan he would like to meet someone.
After losing out to Lou during a car selling competition, Kyle quits his job again. Harold and Carolyn become concerned with Lou's workload, but he assures them he is fine. Lou collapses and is told that he suffered an electrolyte imbalance. Harold tells Lou to start taking his health seriously and Lou confesses that he cannot give up work as he is broke. Lou decides to sell the car yard stock and invests in Kyle's handyman business. Lou leaves for East Timor to help build schools for children. On his return, Lou notices there is tension between Kate and Sophie. Kate tells him Sophie has a crush on an older boy and has been acting out. When Toadie reveals a development company wants to buy out Dial-A-Kyle, Lou decides to accept the offer. Lucas tells Lou he will not be accepting the offer for his garage and Lou urges him to change his mind, as he has just purchased a cruise. Lou asks Rhys Lawson (Ben Barber) to give him a check-up to see if he has a medical condition that will get him out of the contract for the cruise. However, Rhys cannot find anything wrong and refuses to lie. A few weeks later, Lou returns from his cruise and reveals he hurt his neck playing shuffleboard, However, Lucas learns he is lying to claim compensation. Lou tries to convince an insurance assessor that his injury is real, but Toadie ruins his scam.
Lou decides to help Kyle out with the business accounts and he takes $8000 from Kyle. Kate discovers what Lou has done and she decides to keep the truth from Kyle, while Lou looks for a part-time job to pay him back. Lou meets Vera Munro (Marie-Therese Byrne), a rich widow, who invites him to accompany her to a wedding. Lou later tells Vera that he lost his wallet and his rent money, so she offers to replace it. However, Sheila Canning (Colette Mann) reveals that Lou still has his wallet and he is forced to give the money back. Vera then explains that she would have been happy to pay for his company. Lou then decides to become a male escort and accompanies Dawn Ballantyne (Marita Wilcox) to England for two months. Upon his return, Lou finds the Kapoor family have moved into Number 24. Feeling guilty, Lou tells Kyle about taking his money. Kyle forgives Lou, but Sheila has a go at him for ripping off her grandson. Vanessa Villante (Alin Sumarwata) offers Lou a room at Number 32 and he decides to sell his share of Dial-A-Kyle. He tries to find himself a hobby and takes up painting. He submits a piece to an exhibition at the community centre, but is disappointed when he does not win a prize.
Lou's daughter, Lauren, and her family move to Erinsborough. Lou tries to keep his poor financial situation from them, but Sheila tells Lauren, who forgives Lou for keeping it from her. Lou interrupts a break in at Number 32 and the robber pushes Lou to the ground during his escape. Lou learns that his grandson, Mason, was in juvenile detention for breaking and entering and is unhappy that his family have been trying to keep it from him. Lou continues to support his family when things get worse for them and Mason is arrested. When Lou injures his back, Sheila takes care of him and encourages him to get in contact with Ling Mai. Lou is delighted to learn that his daughter wants to see him and he goes to Cambodia. When he returns he reveals that Sheila has been sending him messages on his blog and believes she fancies him. He prepares to let her down gently, but Bailey admits to sending the messages. As Lou approaches his 70th birthday, he realises that none of his male relatives have lived over 70 and believes that he may die. He panics and asks Karl for a check-up. During his birthday party, Lou is delighted to see Lolly. He also learns that his 70th birthday actually occurred the year before. Lou briefly leaves to spend sometime with Lolly.
On his return, Lou starts working with Lauren at Harold's. Lou is surprised when his ex-wife, Kathy, comes to visit Lauren. After they clash, Bailey gets Lou and Kathy to sit down and clear the air. Soon after, Lou learns that Lauren gave birth to Brad Willis's (Kip Gamblin) daughter twenty years ago, but Kathy adopted her out behind her back. Lou is shocked and tries to force Kathy out of Erinsborough for what she has done. Lauren and Brad decide to search for their long-lost daughter and Lou supports Lauren, who struggles with the emotional strain of the search. Lou is delighted when his old friend Doug Willis (Terence Donovan) returns to Erinsborough and they make ginger beer together and run Dial-A-Kyle, while Kyle is away. When Doug, who is suffering from the early stages of Alzheimer's, mixes up an order costing the business money, he blames Lou, but the mistake is later rectified. After returning home from Cambodia, Lou learns that Lauren found her daughter, Paige (Olympia Valance), and he introduces himself to her. Lou agrees to say that he wrote Karl's erotic novel, to take the pressure off him, and he is interviewed by a journalist.
When a tornado hits Erinsborough, Lou waits it out in Harold's Store with Susan. When the roof collapses, Lou is trapped by a beam and he chokes on a piece of food. Susan is forced to perform an emergency tracheotomy on Lou when he falls unconscious. Lou begins breathing again and he is rushed to hospital. Lou spends time with Bailey's girlfriend Alice's (Vivienne Awosoga) grandmother, Leyla (Carolyn Shakespeare-Allen), as a result of his success with Karl's erotic novel. When their relationship gets too intense, he goes to Cambodia ahead of schedule. When Lou returns he begins a feud with Sheila after he poaches her new barman. They try to sabotage each other's businesses until Lauren intervenes and tells them Harold's Store and The Waterhole will team up for the upcoming Erinsborough Festival. Harold returns for Amber and Daniel's (Tim Phillipps) wedding, and he suspects Lou has feelings for Sheila, which Lou denies. Lou's stepdaughter Nina Tucker (Delta Goodrem) also returns to Erinsborough and Lou encourages her to sing at the festival's closing concert. Lou supports Lauren and the children when Matt is killed in a hit-and-run accident. Karl, Toadie, Lou, Kyle and Nate (Meyne Wyatt) form a cycling group, but Lou slows the others down and they ask him to drop out. Bailey starts drinking and when Lou tries to confront him, he pushes him into the kitchen counter. He later tells Lou that he wants to get away from the sadness in the house and Lou asks him to move to Queensland with him, so they can be closer to Kathy and Guy. Lou tells Lauren that he will be back to visit her, and he and Bailey leave after a farewell party.
A few months later, Lou returns after going on the run from drug dealers in Cambodia. He hides out at Number 32, while Stanley Neve (Alex Pinder) follows him to Erinsborough. After Lou receives a smashed Buddha statue in the post, he believes his life is under threat. He decides to fake his own death, but when Sheila delivers an unflattering eulogy, Lou reveals himself. Stanley then explains that Lou had an affair with his wife, so he planted baking powder in his bag in the hope that he would get stopped at customs. Stanley also explains that there is no drug cartel and that his wife, Rochelle (Carmen Warrington), is on her way to Erinsborough to be with Lou. Lou is horrified, as he did not intend his affair with Rochelle to lead to a fully-fledged relationship, and tries to trick her into thinking he is also involved with Sheila. Rochelle sees through this and breaks up with him. When Amber and her daughter Matilda (Eloise Simbert) move to Queensland, Lou returns with them. Lou helps Doug complete a bucket list with Karl's help. He also considers trekking the Kokoda Track, but his family talk him out of it. He then decides to return to Cambodia.
Lou returns to Erinsborough shortly after Kathy. They are initially hostile towards one another and Kathy reveals that they had a one-night stand. Lou explains to Brad that they had been getting on well, so he was surprised when Kathy ordered him to leave the room straight after. They soon learn that they have their wires crossed and Kathy was speaking to the cat. Kathy decides that they should not get back together and returns to Brisbane. Lou begins looking for a date to Lauren's wedding and he manages to scare off Lauren's wedding caterer with his advances. Lou begins thinking about his past relationships, and he meets with Trixie to see if there is a chance of a reconciliation, but she leaves when Sheila tells her Lou is on the rebound. At Lauren and Brad's wedding, Lou and Kathy realise that they still have feelings for each other and they hold a small ceremonial vow renewal. They then leave Erinsborough in Lauren and Brad's wedding camper van.
Reception
In 2007, Oliver was nominated for "Funniest Performance" at the Inside Soap Awards. Oliver was nominated for the same award the following year. In 2009, Lou came third in a poll by British men's magazine Loaded for "Top Soap Bloke". The BBC said Lou's most notable moment was "Looking after Lolly after the death of Cheryl, then losing her after discovering that he wasn't her natural father." While Holy Soap said Lou's relationship with Annalise Hartman (Kimberley Davies) was his most memorable moment. Diana Hollingsworth of Soaplife included Lou in her feature on wide boys and she said "Not so much a wideboy as a widepensioner, 'Honest' Lou has tried many ways to earn a crust, including selling cars and running his own radio show. He's got more fingers in more pies than Little Jack Horner."
In 2010, to celebrate Neighbours' 25th anniversary British satellite broadcasting company Sky profiled twenty-five characters who they believed were the most memorable in the show's history. Lou is included in the list and Sky said "Lou and Paul are the last remaining links back to proper old school Neighbours (unless Rosemary Daniels, the Belinda Slater of Ramsay Street, makes another appearance), and strangely are both most memorable for working in 'business'. Whether running Chez Chez with awesome wife Cheryl or bickering at the Coffee Shop with fellow soap elder statesman Harold, you can count on Lou to cast his twinkly eye over proceedings and let out a dirty laugh." They also describe his most memorable moments over his duration as being: "Chasing childhood sweetheart Madge; his brief yet oft-referred-to time as mayor; discovering Lolly wasn't his daughter." Lou was placed at number seventeen on the Huffpost's "35 greatest Neighbours characters of all time" feature. Journalist Adam Beresford described him as a "loveable rogue" with "twinkly eyes and that dirty laugh" and he was never "averse to a dodgy deal". Beresford was fond of his "most enduring" partnership with Harold, adding "their odd couple double act gave us plenty of laughs."
References
External links
Lou Carpenter at the Official AU Neighbours website
Lou Carpenter at the Official UK Neighbours website
Lou Carpenter at the BBC
Neighbours characters
Fictional bartenders
Fictional mayors
Fictional people from Victoria (state)
Fictional chefs
Male characters in television
Television characters introduced in 1988
Fictional waiting staff
Fictional salespeople
Fictional prisoners and detainees
Carpenter family (Neighbours)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoopoe%20starling
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Hoopoe starling
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The hoopoe starling (Fregilupus varius), also known as the Réunion starling or Bourbon crested starling, is a species of starling that lived on the Mascarene island of Réunion and became extinct in the 1850s. Its closest relatives were the also-extinct Rodrigues starling and Mauritius starling from nearby islands, and the three apparently originated in south-east Asia. The bird was first mentioned during the 17th century and was long thought to be related to the hoopoe, from which its name is derived. Some affinities have been proposed, but it was confirmed as a starling in a DNA study.
The hoopoe starling was in length. Its plumage was primarily white and grey, with its back, wings and tail a darker brown and grey. It had a light, mobile crest, which curled forwards. The bird is thought to have been sexually dimorphic, with males larger and having more curved beaks. The juveniles were more brown than the adults. Little is known about hoopoe starling behaviour. Reportedly living in large flocks, it inhabited humid areas and marshes. The hoopoe starling was omnivorous, feeding on plant matter and insects. Its pelvis was robust, its feet and claws large, and its jaws strong, indicating that it foraged near the ground.
The birds were hunted by settlers on Réunion, who also kept them as pets. Nineteen specimens exist in museums around the world. The hoopoe starling was reported to be in decline by the early 19th century and was probably extinct before the 1860s. Several factors have been proposed, including competition and predation by introduced species, disease, deforestation, and persecution by humans, who hunted it for food and as an alleged crop pest.
Taxonomy
The first account thought to mention the hoopoe starling is a 1658 list of birds of Madagascar written by French governor Étienne de Flacourt. He mentioned a black-and-grey "tivouch" or hoopoe; later authors have wondered whether this referred to the hoopoe starling or the Madagascan subspecies of hoopoe (Upupa epops marginata), which resembles the Eurasian subspecies. The hoopoe starling was first noted on the Mascarene island of Réunion (then called "Bourbon") by Père Vachet in 1669, and first described in detail by French traveller Sieur Dubois's in 1674:
Early settlers on Réunion referred to the bird as "huppe", because of the similarity of its crest and curved bill with that of the hoopoe. Little was recorded about the hoopoe starling during the next 100 years, but specimens began to be brought to Europe during the 18th century. The species was first scientifically described by Philippe Guéneau de Montbeillard in the 1779 edition of Comte de Buffon's Histoire Naturelle, and received its scientific name from Dutch naturalist Pieter Boddaert for the book's 1783 edition. Boddaert named the bird Upupa varia; its genus name is that of the hoopoe, and its specific name means "variegated", describing its black-and-white colour.
Boddaert provided Linnean binomial names for plates in Buffon's works, so the accompanying 1770s plate of the hoopoe starling by French engraver François-Nicolas Martinet is considered the holotype or type illustration. Though the plate may have been based on a specimen in the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, this is impossible to determine today; the Paris museum originally had five hoopoe starling skins, some of which only arrived during the 19th century. The possibly female specimen MNHN 2000-756, one of the most-illustrated skins, has an artificially trimmed crest resulting in an unnaturally semi-circular shape, unlike its appearance in life; the type illustration has a similarly shaped crest.
De Flacourt's "tivouch" led early writers to believe that variants of the bird were found on Madagascar and the Cape of Africa; they were thought to be hoopoes of the genus Upupa, which received names such as Upupa capensis and Upupa madagascariensis. Some authors also allied the bird with groups such as birds-of-paradise, bee-eaters, cowbirds, Icteridae, and choughs, resulting in its reassignment to other genera with new names, such as Coracia cristata and Pastor upupa. In 1831, French naturalist René-Primevère Lesson placed the bird in its own monotypic genus, Fregilipus, a composite of Upupa and Fregilus, the latter a defunct genus name of the chough. French naturalist Auguste Vinson established in 1868 that the bird was restricted to the island of Réunion and proposed a new binomial, Fregilupus borbonicus, referring to the former name of the island.
German ornithologist Hermann Schlegel first proposed in 1857 that the species belonged to the starling family, (Sturnidae), reclassifying it as part of the genus Sturnus, S. capensis. This reclassification was observed by other authors; Swedish zoologist Carl Jakob Sundevall proposed the new genus name Lophopsarus ("crested starling") in 1872, yet Fregilupus varius—the oldest name—remains the bird's binomial, and all other scientific names are synonyms. In 1874, after a detailed analysis of the only known skeleton (held at the Cambridge University Museum of Zoology), British zoologist James Murie agreed that it was a starling. English zoologist Richard Bowdler Sharpe said in 1890 that the hoopoe starling was similar to the starling genus Basilornis, but did not note any similarities other than their crests.
In 1941, American ornithologist Malcolm R. Miller found the bird's musculature similar to that of the common starling (Sturnus vulgaris) after he dissected a specimen preserved in spirits at the Cambridge Museum, but noted that the tissue was very degraded and the similarity did not necessarily confirm a relationship with starlings. In 1957, American ornithologist Andrew John Berger cast doubt on the bird's affinity with starlings because of subtle anatomical differences, after dissecting a spirit specimen at the American Museum of Natural History. Some authors proposed a relationship with vangas (Vangidae), but Japanese ornithologist Hiroyuki Morioka rejected this in 1996, after a comparative study of skulls.
In 1875, British ornithologist Alfred Newton attempted to identify a black-and-white bird mentioned in an 18th-century manuscript describing a marooned sailor's stay on the Mascarene island of Rodrigues in 1726–27, hypothesising that it was related to the hoopoe starling. Subfossil bones later found on Rodrigues were correlated with the bird in the manuscript; in 1879, these bones became the basis for a new species, Necropsar rodericanus (the Rodrigues starling), named by British ornithologists Albert Günther and Edward Newton. Günther and Newton found the Rodrigues bird closely related to the hoopoe starling, but kept it in a separate genus owing to "present ornithological practice". American ornithologist James Greenway suggested in 1967 that the Rodrigues starling belonged in the same genus as the hoopoe starling, owing to their close similarity. Subfossils found in 1974 confirmed that the Rodrigues bird was a distinct genus of starling; primarily, its stouter bill warrants generic separation from Fregilupus. In 2014, British palaeontologist Julian P. Hume described a new extinct species, the Mauritius starling (Cryptopsar ischyrhynchus), based on subfossils from Mauritius, which was closer to the Rodrigues starling than to the hoopoe starling in its skull, sternal, and humeral features.
Evolution
In 1943, American ornithologist Dean Amadon suggested that Sturnus-like species could have arrived in Africa and given rise to the wattled starling (Creatophora cinerea) and the Mascarene starlings. According to Amadon, the Rodrigues and hoopoe starlings were related to Asiatic starlings—such as some Sturnus species—rather than to the glossy starlings (Lamprotornis) of Africa and the Madagascar starling (Saroglossa aurata), based on their colouration. A 2008 study by Italian zoologist Dario Zuccon and colleagues analysing the DNA of a variety of starlings confirmed that the hoopoe starling belonged in a clade of Southeast Asian starlings as an isolated lineage, with no close relatives. The following cladogram shows its position:
An earlier attempt by another team could not extract viable hoopoe starling DNA. Zuccon and colleagues suggested that ancestors of the hoopoe starling reached Réunion from Southeast Asia by using island chains as "stepping stones" across the Indian Ocean, a scenario also suggested for other Mascarene birds. Its lineage diverged from that of other starlings four million years ago (about two million years before Réunion emerged from the sea), so it may have first evolved on landmasses now partially submerged.
Extant relations, such as the Bali myna (Leucopsar rothschildi) and the white-headed starling (Sturnia erythropygia), have similarities in colouration and other features with the extinct Mascarene species. According to Hume, since the Rodrigues and Mauritius starlings seem morphologically closer to each other than to the hoopoe starling—which appears closer to Southeast Asian starlings—there may have been two separate migrations of starlings from Asia to the Mascarenes, with the hoopoe starling the latest arrival. Except for Madagascar, the Mascarenes were the only islands in the southwestern Indian Ocean with native starlings, probably because of their isolation, varied topography, and vegetation.
Description
The hoopoe starling was in length. The bird's culmen was long, its wing , its tail , and its tarsus about long. It was the largest of the three Mascarene starlings. A presumed adult male (NHMUK 1889.5.30.15) in the Paris museum has a light ash-grey head and back of the neck (lighter on the hind-neck), with a long crest the same colour with white shafts. Its back and tail are ash-brown, its wings darker with a greyish wash, and its uppertail covert feathers and rump have a rufous wash. Its primary coverts are white with brown tips; the bases (instead of the tips) are brown in other specimens. The superciliary stripe, lore, and most of the specimen's underside is white, with a pale rufous wash on the flanks and undertail coverts. The extent of light rufous on the underside varies by specimen. The beak and legs are lemon-yellow, with yellow-brown claws. It has a bare, triangular area of skin around the eye, which may have been yellow in life. Though the species' iris was described as bluish-brown, it has been depicted as brown, yellow, or orange.
There has been confusion about which characteristics were sexually dimorphic in the species. Only three specimens were sexed (all males), with age and individual variation not considered. The male is thought to have been largest with a longer, curvier beak. In 1911, Réunion resident Eugène Jacob de Cordemoy recalled his observations of the bird about 50 years before, suggesting that only males had a white crest, but this is thought to be incorrect. A presumed female (MNHN 2000-756) in the Paris museum appears to have a smaller crest, a smaller and less-curved beak, and smaller primary coverts. A juvenile specimen (MHNT O2650) has a smaller crest and primary coverts, with a brown wash instead of ash grey on the crest, lore, and superciliary stripe, and a light-brown (instead of ash-brown) back. The juveniles of some southeast Asian starlings are also browner than adults.
Vinson, who observed live hoopoe starlings when he lived on Réunion, described the crest as flexible, disunited and forward-curled barbs of various lengths, highest in the centre, and able to be erected at will. He compared the bird's crest to that of a cockatoo and to the tail feathers of a bird-of-paradise. Most mounted specimens have an erect crest, indicating its natural position. The only illustration of the hoopoe starling now thought to have been made from life was drawn by French artist Paul Philippe Sauguin de Jossigny during the early 1770s. Jossigny instructed engravers under the drawing that for accuracy, they should depict the crest angled forward from the head (not straight up). Hume believes that Martinet did this when he made the type illustration, and it was derivative of Jossigny's image rather than a life drawing. Jossigny also made the only known life drawing of the now-extinct Newton's parakeet (Psittacula exsul) after a specimen sent to him from Rodrigues to Mauritius, so this is perhaps also where he drew the hoopoe starling. Murie suggested that only the illustrations by Martinet and Jacques Barraband were "original", since he was unaware of Jossigny's drawing, but noted a crudeness and stiffness in them which made neither appear lifelike.
The hoopoe starling can be distinguished skeletally from other Mascarene starlings by its cranium being rounded when seen from above, bulbous towards the back. The frontal bone was narrow, and the foramen magnum (the opening for the spinal cord) was large. The rostrum was long and narrow, with narrow, oval narial-openings (bony nostrils). The upper beak was narrow and strongly decurved, and the lower beak was narrow and sharply pointed. The mandible had a distinct retroarticular process (which connected with the skull), and there was a single large mandibular fenestra (opening). The sternum (breast-bone) was short and wide, particularly at the hind end. The coracoid was relatively reduced in length, and its shaft was robust. The humerus (upper arm bone) was robust with a straight shaft, with the upper and lower ends flattened from front to back. The radius of the lower arm was robust. The pelvis was extremely robust. The femur (thigh bone) was robust, especially at the upper and lower ends, and the shaft was straight. The tibiotarsus (lower leg bone) was long and robust, with a broad and expanded shaft, especially near the lower end. The tarsometatarsus (ankle bone) was long and robust, with a relatively straight shaft.
Behaviour and ecology
Little is known about the behaviour of the hoopoe starling. According to François Levaillant's 1807 account of the bird (which included observations from a Réunion resident) it was abundant, with large flocks inhabiting humid areas and marshes. In 1831, Lesson, without explanation, described its habits as similar to those of a crow. Its song was described as a "bright and cheerful whistle" and "clear notes", indicating a similarity to the songs of other starlings. Vinson's 1877 account relates his experiences with the bird more than 50 years earlier:
Like most other starlings, the hoopoe starling was omnivorous, feeding on fruits, seeds, and insects. Its tongue—long, slender, sharp, and frayed—may have been able to move rapidly, helpful when feeding on fruit, nectar, pollen, and invertebrates. Its pelvic elements were robust and its feet and claws large, indicating that it foraged near the ground. Its jaws were strong; Morioka compared its skull to that of the hoopoe, and it may have foraged in a similar way, probing and opening holes in substrate by inserting and opening its beak.
De Montbeillard was informed of the stomach contents of a dissected specimen, consisting of seeds and the berries of "Pseudobuxus" (possibly Eugenia buxifolia, a bush with sweet, orange berries). He noted that the bird weighed , and was fatter around June and July. Several accounts suggest that the hoopoe starling migrated on Réunion, spending six months in the lowlands and six months in the mountains. Food may have been easier to obtain in the lowlands during winter, with the birds breeding in the mountain forests during summer. The hoopoe starling probably nested in tree cavities. The Belgian biologist Michaël P. J. Nicolaï and colleagues pointed out in 2020 that the hoopoe starling had black skin combined with light plumage and lived in high irradiation zones, which may have evolved for protection against ultraviolet irradiation in this and other black-skinned birds.
Many other endemic species on Réunion became extinct after the arrival of humans and the resulting disruption of the island's ecosystem. The Hoopoe starling lived with other now-extinct birds, such as the Réunion ibis, the Mascarene parrot, the Réunion parakeet, the Réunion swamphen, the Réunion scops owl, the Réunion night heron, and the Réunion pink pigeon. Extinct Réunion reptiles include the Réunion giant tortoise and an undescribed Leiolopisma skink. The small Mauritian flying fox and the snail Tropidophora carinata lived on Réunion and Mauritius before vanishing from both islands.
Relationship with humans
The hoopoe starling was described as tame and easily hunted. In 1704, French pilot engineer Jean Feuilley explained how the birds were caught by humans and cats:
The hoopoe starling was kept as a pet on Réunion and Mauritius, and although the bird was becoming scarcer, some specimens were obtained during the early 19th century. It is unknown whether any live specimens were ever transported from the Mascarenes. Cordemoy recalled that captive birds could be fed a wide variety of food, such as bananas, potatoes, and chayote, and wild birds would never enter inhabited areas. Many individuals survived on Mauritius after escaping there, and it was thought that a feral population could be established. The Mauritian population lasted less than a decade; the final specimen on the island (the last definite record of a live specimen anywhere) was taken in 1836. Specimens could still be collected on Réunion during the 1830s and, possibly, the early 1840s.
There are nineteen surviving hoopoe starling specimens in museums around the world (including one skeleton and two specimens preserved in spirit), with two in the Paris museum and four in Troyes. Additional skins in Turin, Livorno, and Caen were destroyed during World War II, and four skins have disappeared from Réunion and Mauritius (which now have one each). Specimens were sent to Europe beginning in the second half of the 18th century, with most collected during the first half of the 19th century. It is unclear when each specimen was acquired, and specimens were frequently moved between collections. It is also unclear which specimens were the basis for which descriptions and illustrations. The only known subfossil hoopoe starling specimen is a femur, discovered in 1993 in a Réunion grotto.
Extinction
Several causes for the decline and sudden extinction of the hoopoe starling have been proposed, all connected to the activities of humans on Réunion, who it survived alongside for two centuries. An oft-repeated suggestion is that the introduction of the common myna (Acridotheres tristis) led to competition between these two starling species. The myna was introduced to Réunion in 1759 to combat locusts, and became a pest itself, but the hoopoe starling coexisted with the myna for nearly 100 years and they may not have shared habitat. The black rat (Rattus rattus) arrived on Reunion in the 1670s, and the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) in 1735, multiplying rapidly and threatening agriculture and native species. Like the hoopoe starling, the rats inhabited tree cavities and would have preyed on eggs, juveniles, and nesting birds. During the mid-19th century the Réunion slit-eared skink (Gongylomorphus borbonicus) became extinct because of predation by the introduced wolf snake (Lycodon aulicum), which may have deprived the bird of a significant food source. Hoopoe starlings may have contracted diseases from introduced birds, a factor known to have triggered declines and extinctions in endemic Hawaiian birds. According to British ecologist Anthony S. Cheke, this was the chief cause of the hoopoe starling's extinction; the species had survived for generations despite other threats.
Beginning in the 1830s, Réunion was deforested for plantations. Former slaves joined white peasants in cultivating pristine areas after slavery was abolished in 1848, and the hoopoe starling was pushed to the edges of its former habitat. According to Hume, over-hunting was the final blow to the species; with forests more accessible, hunting by the rapidly growing human population may have driven the remaining birds to extinction. In 1821, a law mandating the extermination of grain-damaging birds was implemented, and the hoopoe starling had a reputation for damaging crops. During the 1860s, various writers noted that the bird had almost disappeared, but it was probably already extinct by this time; in 1877, Vinson lamented that the last individuals might have been killed by recent forest fires. No attempts to preserve the species in captivity seem to have been made.
The hoopoe starling survived longer than many other extinct Mascarene species, and was the last of the Mascarene starling species to face extinction. The Rodrigues and Mauritius species probably disappeared with the arrival of rats; at least five species of Aplonis starlings have disappeared from the Pacific Islands, with rats contributing to their extinction. The hoopoe starling may have survived longer because of Réunion's rugged topography and highlands, where it spent much of the year.
References
Works cited
External links
Sturnidae
Birds of Réunion
Endemic fauna of Réunion
Extinct birds of Indian Ocean islands
hoopoe starling
Bird extinctions since 1500
Articles containing video clips
Taxa named by Pieter Boddaert
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Karnataka
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North Karnataka
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North Karnataka is a geographical region in Deccan plateau from elevation that constitutes the region of the Karnataka state in India and the region consists of 13 districts. It is drained by the Krishna River and its tributaries the Bhima, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha, and Tungabhadra. North Karnataka lies within the Deccan thorn scrub forests ecoregion, which extends north into eastern Maharashtra.
North Karnataka consists of total 13 districts and comprises the regions known as (Hyderabad-Karnataka) - Kalaburagi division and (Bombay-Karnataka) - Belagavi division. It includes districts of Bagalkote, Bijapur, Gadag, Dharwad, Haveri, Belagavi, Bellary, Bidar, Kalaburagi, Koppal, Raichur, Vijayanagara and Yadgir.
Transport
Bus
North Western Karnataka Road Transport Corporation NWKRTC, serves the north western part of Karnataka.
Kalyana Karnataka Road Transport Corporation KKRTC, serves the north eastern part of Karnataka
Air
Airports in the region are
Belgaum Airport
Hubli Airport
Jindal Vijaynagar Airport
Bidar Airport
Gulbarga Airport
Airlines and destinations
Belgaum Airport is an airport in Belgaum, a city in the Indian state of Karnataka. Built in 1942 by the Royal Air Force (RAF), Belgaum Airport is the oldest airport in North Karnataka. The RAF used the airport as a training site during World War II, providing support to the South East Asia Command. Because of its location in the village of Sambra, east of Belgaum, the airport is also known as the Sambra airport. The new terminal building was inaugurated by Civil aviation minister Ashok Gajapathi Raju on 14 September 2017. The airport is also home to an Indian Air Force station at which new recruits to the military receive basic training.
Hubli Airport ] is a domestic airport serving the twin cities of Hubli and Dharwad in the state of Karnataka, India. It is situated on Gokul Road, 8 kilometres from Hubli and from Dharwad.The airline from Hubli is well connected with Bangalore, Mumbai, Ahmedabad and Hyderabad. Hubli airport will be upgraded to international airport. Around 700 acres of land acquisition is under process and 245 crores have been already released for acquisition.
History of North Karnataka
Prehistoric period
North Karnataka's history and culture date back to prehistoric times. The earliest Stone Age find in India was a hand ax at Lingasugur, in Raichur district. Sangankal Hills in the Bellary district, which is known as the earliest village settlement of South India, dates back to the Neolithic period. Iron weapons from 1200 BC, found at Hallur in Dharwad district, demonstrate that North Karnataka used iron earlier than northern India.
Prehistoric sites in North Karnataka include rock shelters in Bellary, Raichur and Koppal districts with red paintings which include figures of wild animals. The paintings are done in such a way that the walls of caves are not facing northwest, so the northwest monsoon does not affect them. These rock shelters are found at Kurgod, Hampi in Bellary district and Hire Benakal, near Gangavati in the Koppal district. Burial chambers using granite slabs (known as dolmens) are also found; the best examples are the dolmens of Hire Benakal and Kumati in Hadagali Taluk.
Vibhuthihalli at Shahapur Taluk in the Yadgir district, an Archaeological Survey of India ancient astronomy site, was created with megalithic stones. The stones, arranged in a square pattern with astronomical significance, cover an area of . Ashoka's stone edicts, found in the state, indicate that major parts of Northern Karnataka were under the Mauryas. Many dynasties left their imprint upon the development of North Karnatakan art, among them the Chalukyas, the Vijayanagara Empire and the Western Chalukyas. The inscriptions related to Chutu dynasty are the oldest documents found in North Karnataka.
Ancient
Karnata Kingdom
Mauryas
Shatavahana dynasty (until early third century CE)
Chutus of Banavasi (vassal to the Satavahanas)
Kurus of Belgaum of 30 BC-65/70 AD.
Chalukyas
Chalukya rule is important in the development of architecture known as Karnata Dravida. Hundreds of monuments built by the Chalukyas are found in the Malaprabha river basin (mainly in Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Mahakuta, in Karnataka). They ruled an empire extending from the Kaveri in the south to the Narmada in the north. The Badami Chalukya dynasty was established by Pulakeshin I in 543; Vatapi (Badami) was the capital. Pulakeshin II was a popular emperor of the Badami Chalukya dynasty. He defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada river, and defeated Vishnukundins in the south. Vikramaditya I, known as Rajamalla and for building temples, engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple. Kirtivarman II was the last Badami Chalukya king, overthrown in 753 by the Rashtrakuta King Dantidurga.
The Western Chalukya dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukyas, after its regal capital at Kalyani (today's Basavakalyan in Karnataka) or the Later Chalukya from its theoretical relationship to the sixth-century Badami Chalukyas. The Western Chalukyas () developed an architectural style (also called Gadag style) known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the early Chalukya Dynasty and the later Hoysala empire. The Chalukyas built some of the earliest Hindu temples in India. The best-known examples are the Mahadeva Temple (Itagi) in the Koppal District; the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi in the Gadag District and the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti and the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali, both in the Davangere District. Monuments notable for craftsmanship are the Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri in the Haveri District, the Amrutesvara Temple at Annigeri in the Dharwad District, the Sarasvati Temple in Gadag, and the Dodda Basappa Temple at Dambal (both in the Gadag district). Aihole was an experimental base for architectural creation.
Badami Chalukyas and Kalyana chalukyas also known as (Kuntaleshvaras).
Kadambas
The Kadambas () were an ancient dynasty of South India who primarily ruled the region which is the present-day Goa state and the nearby Konkan region (part of modern Maharashtra and Karnataka state). The early rulers of this dynasty
established themselves at Vaijayanti (or Banavasi) in 345 AD and ruled for more than two centuries. In 607, the Chalukyas of Vatapi sacked Banavasi, and the Kadamba kingdom was incorporated into the expanding Chalukyan empire. In the eighth century, the Chalukyas were overthrown by the Rashtrakutas, who ruled until the 10th century. In 980, descendants of the Chalukyas and Kadambas revolted against the Rashtrakutas; the Rashtrakuta empire fell, resulting in the establishment of a second Chalukyan dynasty (known as the Western Chalukyas). Chatta Deva, a member of the Kadamba family who helped the Western Chalukyas in this coup, re-established the Kadamba dynasty. He was primarily a vassal of the Western Chalukyas, but his successors enjoyed considerable independence and were well-placed in Goa and Konkan until the 14th century. The successors of Chatta Deva occupied both Banavasi and Hangal, and are known as the Kadambas of Hangal. Later, the Kadambas paid nominal allegiance to the other major powers of the Deccan Plateau (such as the Yadavas and Hoysalas of Dorasamudra) and maintained their independence. Four families of Kadambas ruled in southern India: the Kadamba of Hangal, Goa, Belur and Banvasi.
Rashtrakutas
During the rule of Dantidurga, an empire was built with the Gulbarga region in modern Karnataka as its base. This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (Kannada: ರಾಷ್ಟ್ರಕೂಟ), who rose to power in 753. During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in Kannada and Sanskrit. Amoghavarsha I was the best-known king of this dynasty and wrote Kavirajamarga, a landmark Kannada work. Architecture reached a high-water mark in the Dravidian style, the best examples of which are seen in the Kailash Temple at Ellora, the sculptures of Elephanta Caves in modern-day Maharashtra and the Kashivishvanatha and the Jain Narayana Temples at Pattadakal in modern North Karnataka (all of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites). Scholars agree that the kings of the imperial dynasty in the eighth to tenth century made the Kannada language as important as Sanskrit. Rashtrakuta inscriptions appear in both Kannada and Sanskrit, and the kings encouraged literature in both languages. The earliest existing Kannada literary writings are credited to their court poets and royalty. Kailash Temple is an example of Dravidian art. This project was started by Krishna I (757–773) of the Rashtrakuta dynasty which ruled from Manyakheta in modern Karnataka. It is located 40 km from the city of Manyakheta (modern Malkhed), on the banks of the Kagini River in Kalaburagi district.
Carnatic expansion
Vijayanagara empire
Vijayanagara (Karnata Empire, or Karnataka Empire) is considered the greatest medieval Hindu empire and one of the greatest in the world at that time. It fostered the development of intellectual pursuits and the fine arts. Abdur Razzaq (the Persian ambassador) said, "The eye of the pupil has never seen a place like it and the ear of intelligence has never been informed that there existed anything to equal it in the world".
Deccan Sultanates
The Vijayanagara Empire, with its capital at Hampi, lost to the army of the Deccan Sultanates in 1565. As a consequence of this, Bijapur became the most important city of the region. It is a land of monuments; perhaps no other city except Delhi has as many monuments as Bijapur.
Maratha Empire
The region of North Karnataka, especially Belgaum, Dharwad and parts of Bagalkot, Bijapur and Gulbarga districts came under the influence of Shivaji and subsequently the Peshwas. As early as 1680s, many Marathi communities including Marathas and Marathi Brahmin started settling in the region. Most of these came down as soldiers and administrators and were awarded large grants of land. The Patwardhan family of Jamkhandi and Bijapur, Desai of Nuggikeri and Kundgol and Deshpande families in Dharwad, Belgaum and neighboring districts are some of the prominent Brahmin families which trace their ancestry to these migrations . While many of these families adopted to Kannada language, most people remain bilingual and marry into Marathi Brahmin families. The Ghorpade dynasty in Sandur State and Mudhol State are some of the prominent Maratha families who trace their ancestry to similar migrations.
Minor dynasties
Rattas of Saundatti (of Belgaum)
Guttas of Guttal (Dharwad region)
Sendrakas of Nagarkhanda (Banavasi province)
Sindas of Yalaburga (Bijapur-Gulbarga)
Kadamba of Hangal
Naiks of Kanakagiri
Shilahara
Other kingdoms
Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, 9th–14th century
Ratta dynasty
Kalachuris of Kalyani, 12th century
Kampili, 13th century
Sangama Dynasty
Saluva Dynasty
Inscriptions
Mahakuta Inscriptions, Mahakuta Mahakutesvara temple Pillar inscription
Aihole inscription
Badami inscriptions
Kappe Arabhatta inscription
Itagi Mahadeva Temple Inscription
Lakkundi inscriptions
Gadag inscription
Halasi inscriptions
North Karnataka historical sites
Princely states
The following are the princely states of British India:
Mudhol State
Sandur State
Savanur State
Ramdurg State
Jamkhandi State
Kittur
Shorapur
Gurgunta
Gajendragad shivaji fort
Kannada-speaking Hyderabad State
South Kannada-speaking Bombay state
Battles
Chalukya Pallava Wars
Battle of Talikota
Battle of Gajendragad
Battle of Raichur
Chola-Chalukya wars
Historic capitals
Palashika (Halasi, or Halsi, or Halshi in Belgaum district) - Kadamba of Halasi
Hanungal, or Panungal (Hangal in Haveri district) - Kadambas of Hangal
Aihole in Bagalkot district - First capital of Badami Chalukyas
Vatapi (Badami in Bagalkot district) - Badami Chalukyas
Pattadakal in Bagalkot district - Briefly third capital of Badami Chalukyas
Mayurkhandi in Bidar district - First capital of Rashtrakuta dynasty
Manyakheta (Malkhed in Kalaburagi district) - Rashtrakuta dynasty
Kalyani (Basava Kalyana in Bidar district) - Western Chalukyas
Kundal (Kundal village near sangli in Sangli district) - Western Chalukyas
Annigeri in Dharwad district - Western Chalukyas (last capital of the Chalukyas)
Sudi in Gadag district - Coin mint and capital of Western Chalukyas
Lakkundi in Gadag district - Coin mint of Western Chalukyas
Vijayanagara (Hampi in Bellary district) - Vijayanagara Empire
Gulbarga - Bahamani Sultanate
Bidar - Bahamani Sultanate
Bijapur - Adil Shahi dynasty (Bijapur Sultanate)
Architectural styles
North Karnataka has contributed to various styles of Indian Architecture during the rule of the Kadamba, Badami Chalukyas, Western Chalukya, Rashtrakuta and Vijayanagara empires:
Vesara style
Badami Chalukya architecture
Gadag style of architecture
Rashtrakutas style of architecture
Vijayanagara Architecture
Kadamba architecture
Bijapur style
Keladi Nayaka style
History of Kannada language
Kannada is one of the oldest Dravidian languages, with an age of at least 2,000 years. The spoken language is said to have separated from its proto-Dravidian source later than Tamil, and at about the same time as Tulu. However, the archaeological evidence indicates a written tradition for this language of around 1,500–1,600 years. The initial development of Kannada is similar to that of other Dravidian languages and independent of Sanskrit. In later centuries, Kannada has been greatly influenced by Sanskrit in vocabulary, grammar and literary style.
As for the Dravidian race, the Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary lists for the Sanskrit word draviḍa a meaning of a "collective name for Karnatakas, Gurjaras, Kannadigas and Mahārāstras". North Karnataka has its own dialect of Kannada.
Old Kannada literature
Kadamba script, Halegannada
Chalukya Literature
Kannada literature in the Western Chalukya Empire
Rashtrakuta literature, Asaga, Amoghavarsha I, Kavirajamarga
Extinct Kannada literature
Kappe Arabhatta inscription at Badami
Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna, Ranna
Medieval Kannada literature
Kannada literature in Vijayanagara empire
Vachana sahitya, Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi
Kumaravyasa, Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari (Mahabharata in Kannada)
Unification of Karnataka
The role of North Karnataka in Unification of Karnataka
Unification of Karnataka and Vidyavardhaka Sangha
Unification of Karnataka and Aluru Venkata Rao
The Belgaum Conference of 1924
Liberation of Kalyana Karnataka (Hyderabad-Karnataka)
Festivals
In Kannada utsava means "festival".
The following are festivals celebrated in North Karnataka sponsored by Govt of Karnataka
Gadag Utsava
Chalukya Utsava
Pattadakal Utsava
Hampi Utsava
Lakkundi Utsava
Kittur Utsava
Bidar Utsava
Dharwad Utsava
Kanakagiri Utsava
Navaraspur Utsava at (Bijapur)
Sawai Gandharva Festival at Kundgol
Vishwa Kannada Sammelana held at Belgaum
Tourism
Temples of North Karnataka
The temples of North Karnataka may be categorised as historical or modern.
World Heritage Sites
Hampi: Near Hospet in Bellary district
Pattadakal: Near Badami in Bagalkot district
world's 2nd Largest Dome Golagumatta Vijayapur
Ibrahim Rosaa also called Black Tajamahal,VIJAYAPUR
National park and sanctuaries in North Karnataka
Ranibennur Blackbuck Sanctuary
Daroji Sloth Bear Sanctuary
Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary
Bonal Bird Sanctuary
Ghataprabha Bird Sanctuary
Attiveri Bird Sanctuary
Magadi Bird Sanctuary
Gudavi Bird Sanctuary
Yedahalli Chinkara Wildlife Sanctuary, Mudhol- Bilagi
Utsav Rock Garden is a sculptural Garden located near NH-4 Pune-Bangalore road, Gotagodi Village, Shiggaon Taluk, Haveri District, Karnataka. Utsav Rock Garden is an sculptural garden representing contemporary art and rural culture. A typical village is created where men and women are involved in their daily household activities. A unique picnic spot which delights common people, educated and intellectuals. There are more than 1000 sculptures in the garden of different sizes. It is an anthropological museum. It represents traditional farming, crafts, folklore, cattle herding and sheep rearing.
Notable people of North Karnataka
Universities and other educational institutions
Sri Taralabalu Jagadguru Institute of Technology, Ranebennur
Karnataka State Rural Development and Panchayat Raj University, Gadag
Indian Institute of Technology, Dharwad
Indian Institute of Information Technology, Dharwad
Karnataka University, Dharwad
University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad
SDM college of Dental Sciences, Dharwad
S.D.M College of Engineering & Technology, Dharwad
Karnatak Science College, Dharwad
Karnataka State Law University, Hubli
KLE Technological University, Hubli
Karnataka Institute of Medical Sciences, Hubli
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belgaum
Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College, Belgaum
Central University of Karnataka, Gulbarga
Kannada University, Hampi
Gulbarga University, Gulbarga
Karnataka State Women University, Bijapur
Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries Sciences University, Bidar
Basaveshwar Engineering College, Bagalkot
Vijayanagara Institute of Medical Sciences, Bellary
Sainik School, Bijapur
S Nijalingappa Medical College, HSK (Hanagal Shree Kumareshwar) Hospital and Research Centre, Bagalkot
Karnataka Folklore University, Shiggaon
Arts and crafts
Kasuti embroidery: putting stitches by hand on dresswear like Ilkal sarees. Lambanis of Bellary district have their own embroidery style.
Bidriware: metal handicraft originated in Bidar during the rule of the Bahamani Sultans
Kinhal Crafts: originated in Kinhal (Kinnal) in Koppal district. Crafts are mainly toys, wood carvings and mural paintings.
Gokak toys: originated in Gokak in Belgaum district.
Natural resources
The Hutti Gold Mine is the only gold-extraction company in India. It operates in Hatti, an ancient gold- mining area about 70 km from Raichur. Tourism is also permitted inside the mine. The Gadag, Koppal and Bellary districts are rich in manganese, gold and iron ore. Kalaburagi district is rich in lime
Religion
Hinduism
Lingayatism
The followers of Basavanna and Panchacharyas who worship god through "istalinga". Lingayatism is a sect of Hinduism and worship Shiva in the form of Linga.
Brahmins
Varna (class) in Hinduism specialising as priests, teachers (Acharyaru) and protectors of sacred learning across generations are known as Brahmanaru.
Buddhism
Buddhism in North Karnataka dates from the third to the first centuries BC. Sannati and Kanaganahalli are two important excavation sites, and there is a Tibetan Buddhist colony at Mundgod.
Jainism
Banjara
Banjara's are the followers of Shaktism and Sevalal]
See also
Temples of North Karnataka
List of North Karnataka historical sites
Chalukya
Western Chalukya Architecture
Western Chalukya
Vijayanagar Architecture
Dravidian architecture
Badami Chalukya Architecture
Tourism in North Karnataka
Bayaluseemae
Siddis of Karnataka
Family names in North Karnataka
Timeline of Maharashtra history
Deccan States Agency
Shilahara used Kannada as official language
South Western Railway zone
External links
Discovering Deccan - Badami, Aihole, Pattadakal, Bijapur Gulbarga, Bidar and Hampi
Celebrating our heritage
Early Chalukyas - Maharashtra Gazetteer
The Kadamba Kula: A History of Ancient and Mediaeval Karnataka
References
Culture of Karnataka
Regions of Karnataka
History of Karnataka
Regions of India
Karu Nadu
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky%20Mangel
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Sky Mangel
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Sky Mangel (also Bishop) is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours. She made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 1 February 1989. The character was originally played by Miranda Fryer until 1991. When Sky was reintroduced on 13 August 2003, Stephanie McIntosh took over the role. She departed on 3 August 2007. McIntosh reprised her role as part of the show's 30th anniversary celebrations on 20 March 2015. She returned for a longer stint as part of the 35th anniversary on 13 March 2020, and made an unannounced cameo appearance in the final episode on 28 July 2022, though her appearance was only broadcast in the Australian cut of the episode.
Casting
Miranda Fryer was cast in the role of an infant Sky after being spotted in a supermarket. She was 18 months old when she began playing the role and was the first child actor to be contracted to the show. When the character was brought back in 2003, Stephanie McIntosh was cast in the role. McIntosh told Heather Gallagher from The Age that she had completed a term of Year 12 when she was offered the part of Sky. She made the decision to leave school because the role was "just too good to refuse." McIntosh made her first screen appearance as Sky on 13 August 2003.
Development
Characterisation
McIntosh described Sky as being "a lot of fun, intrigued about life and very positive." She said that her character likes to shock people, and they find it hard to see past her "tough exterior", but she is "quite a nice girl". She also called Sky "pretty out there", more than herself, but said she could not ask for a better character to portray. The actress also thought that a lot of viewers would be able to relate to Sky, who had endured the tragedy of her mother's death and bullying at school. McIntosh stated, "She's shown you can stand up for yourself and that's OK." For the role, McIntosh, who is a natural blonde, had to cut her hair short and dye it black and blue. The actress told Gallagher that she hated Sky's hair and it made things difficult for her in real-life, saying "A couple of times I walked into a shop and people watched me, waiting to see if I was going to steal anything." At McIntosh's suggestion, Sky's hairstyle later became long and blonde, which was also in keeping with the character's evolution.
Reintroduction
The character was reintroduced to the serial in 2003. A now teenage Sky returns to Erinsborough to visit her grandfather Harold Bishop (Ian Smith). McIntosh commented that Sky is now a "sophisticated young woman with an alternative streak." She explained that off-screen Sky's father and step-mother divorced when she was five, so she has struggled without a female influence in her life. After growing tired of living in the country, Sky comes to see her grandfather and find out more about her mother, who died when she was very young. Harold is "quite shocked" by her arrival and "outrageous appearance". He later thinks she is smoking marijuana when he smells incense coming from her room. He accuses Sky of taking drugs, which leads to a big argument between them. McIntosh stated that Sky just wants her grandfather's respect and she is hurt that he has judged her already.
Relationship with Boyd Hoyland
Producers soon established a relationship between Sky and fellow teen Boyd Hoyland (Kyal Marsh). Boyd is attracted to Sky, but her "fiery" personality and appearance leads him to keep his distance. Sky is seen as "the school freak" by some of the other students, and Boyd worries about his reputation if they date. Marsh explained that they have a great time together outside of school, but Sky is not mainstream and "rubs people up the wrong way", which could see him labelled uncool if they are seen together. Harold worries that Sky is being bullied and asks Principal Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne) to keep an eye on her, which makes the situation worse, as Sky decides to "get up people's noses" and earns the nickname "Freak" from the other students. Marsh said that Boyd tries to avoid being seen in public with her, which Sky notices and is hurt, as she feels that Boyd is ashamed of her. Boyd later sides with some students over Sky, and she drags him into a shed to demand that he stands by her if he really is her friend. The students soon bang on the door and demand to know who is inside with Sky, which leads Boyd to kiss her in front of them. This incident prompts the pair to begin a relationship. Marsh thought Sky was a good match for his character, as Boyd is not very experienced with girls and he thought Sky would lead the way.
Friendship with Lana Crawford
In 2004, producers introduced the soap's first lesbian character Lana Crawford (Bridget Neval). Sky and Lana are initially hostile to one another and they get into a physical fight, which lands them both in detention. There, the characters bond over their mutual interest in art. Neval said, "it soon becomes harder for the two of them to maintain the façade of not liking each other, especially when they are so similar. Lana reveals her true self to Sky, and Sky begins to forget that she actually hates Lana. But neither of them admit it!" The pair begin a friendship after Sky draws a caricature of Lana and calls her "The Enigma". Neval admitted that Lana is "intrigued" by Sky, as she is the type of person she is attracted to.
McIntosh explained that Sky is initially oblivious to Lana's sexuality, so when Lana spontaneously kisses her, it comes as a shock and Sky does not know how to handle it. McIntosh also stated that when Lana tries to laugh it off, Sky is understanding and just worries that Lana is hurt. The kiss leads to the outing of Lana and the break up of Sky's relationship with Boyd. McIntosh told Inside Soaps Jason Herbison that Sky tells Boyd about the kiss, thinking that he has a right to know, but expects him to keep it quiet. However, he then tells Stingray Timmins (Ben Nicholas), who spreads the news around the school, leading to students calling Sky and Lana "lesbian lovers". Of Lana's reaction, McIntosh said "Lana accuses Sky of breaking her confidence, and runs off. Sky feels terrible because all this is due to her. She's angry with Boyd too, because she confided in him and he's let her down." Sky ends her relationship with Boyd, and tries to stop Lana from proving her heterosexuality by having sex with a boy from their class.
Neval attributed Sky's support and friendship to the reasons why Lana gains the confidence to come out. Following this, Sky is shown questioning her own sexuality as she works on a project with Lana. Neval told another Inside Soap columnist that Lana is unaware that Sky's attitude could be changing, but the viewers would get that sense. As the storyline progresses, Lana receives mixed signals from Sky, who is starting to wonder is her connection with Lana could also be physical. Neval said that Sky was going on a journey of her own, which her character thought she understood. When Lana informs Sky that her family are moving back to Canada, they carry out some late night "guerilla gardening" around Lassiters Hotel, which Neval thought was "a very Sky and Lana thing to do". As they enjoy the reaction to their efforts, Sky kisses Lana.
The second kiss between the characters attracted attention from the press, who named it the serial's first on-screen lesbian kiss. As it was shown during a G-rated timeslot, it provoked a strong reaction from radio callers and conservative groups, who accused Neighbours of "making homosexuality look cool". Peter Stokes, the chief executive of Christian group Salt Shakers, commented "It just saddens me that we give our young people the message that these relationships are OK". The show's executive producer Ric Pellizzeri's response was that Neighbours was reflecting reality by becoming more contemporary. He said, "We are not condoning or promoting homosexuality...ultimately, we're telling a story about tolerance". Pellizzeri also added that the kiss was as far as the show would go, but it would not be "dissuaded from telling stories about homosexuality". Neval added that the storyline was not sensationalist and she thought the writers had explored all the emotions involved, so viewers understood where the characters involved were coming from.
Departure and returns
On 24 December 2006, Fiona Byrne from the Herald Sun reported that McIntosh was to leave Neighbours. McIntosh told the show's producers that she wanted to move on when her contract expired in early 2007. She decided to leave the show to concentrate on her musical career. McIntosh commented that she was sad about leaving, but added "I kind of feel it's been a really great four years, but I'm ready for new challenges." She asked producers to give Sky a happy ending, instead of killing her off, saying "I think Sky's been through enough." McIntosh did not rule out a return to Neighbours. McIntosh's departure coincided with Marsh's (Boyd) own exit and their characters left together. Sky, her daughter and Boyd left Erinsborough for Port Douglas. Marsh commented "I think Boyd does have a lot of regret that things didn't work out on a romantic level between him and Sky. But in the end, there's a mutual understanding between them – and they'll always have that bond."
On 28 November 2014, it was announced that McIntosh had reprised her role for [[Neighbours 30th Anniversary|Neighbours''' 30th anniversary]] celebrations in March 2015. Sky appeared on-screen via a Skype call on 20 March.
On 21 November 2019, David Knox of TV Tonight reported that McIntosh would reprise the role again, after she confirmed that she was in Melbourne, where Neighbours is filmed, on her Instagram account. McIntosh returns as part of the serial's 35th anniversary in March 2020. She expressed her delight at being asked to return to Neighbours for the milestone, and stated: "I can't wait for fans of the show to see what Sky has been up to and to have the opportunity to reconnect with her, as will I! It's all very special and the storyline is awesome, remaining true and authentic to who Sky has been and is!" Shortly after, it was confirmed that Bridget Neval was reprising her role as Lana Crawford, and that Sky and Lana were to be married in the show's second same-sex wedding. Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy reported that the couple reconnected off-screen. Sky returns to Erinsborough seeking Toadfish Rebecchi's (Ryan Moloney) help in telling her former partner Dylan Timmins of her news. Dylan also returns to Erinsborough hoping to reconcile with Sky, but he ultimately gives her and Lana his blessing.
The character continues to appear after the anniversary episodes, and it emerges that she is now a police detective. Sky leads the investigation into Finn Kelly's (Rob Mills) death and Elly Conway's (Jodi Anasta) involvement. Kilkelly reported that Sky is "under pressure" to make sure everything is done properly due to all the public attention. She urges Elly to cooperate and admit to murder, bringing Sky into conflict with fellow detective Mark Brennan (Scott McGregor). The storyline also sees Sky go up against Toadie, who decides to represent Elly. McIntosh's final appearance aired on 20 April 2020. McIntosh makes a cameo appearance as Sky in the show's finale, which aired on 28 July 2022. However, her appearance was cut from the UK broadcast by Channel 5.
Storylines
1989–1991
When Sky is two years old, her mother Kerry Bishop (Linda Hartley-Clark) takes her to Erinsborough to meet her grandfather, Harold Bishop. Kerry had been estranged from her father for a number of years. Harold is shocked to see Kerry and Sky, but is happy to have a granddaughter. He invites Kerry and Sky to move in with him and his wife Madge (Anne Charleston).
A few months after moving into Ramsay Street, Kerry marries Joe Mangel (Mark Little) and Sky gains a brother, Toby (Finn Greentree-Keane; Ben Guerens), when Joe and Kerry officially adopt each other's children. During a picnic with Harold and Kerry, Sky is bitten by a Redback spider. She is rushed to hospital and recovers. A few months later, Madge is knocked unconscious while she is looking after Sky, and a chip pan catches fire. Sky and Madge are saved by the family's pet dog, Bouncer, who answers the telephone and barks for help. A pregnant Kerry is killed by a stray bullet while protesting against duck hunters. Sky is too young to know exactly what happened to her mother.
Shortly after Kerry's death, Sky's father Eric Jensen (John Ley) shows up wanting custody of Sky. Joe fights Eric for Sky, but the court awards custody to Eric. Joe takes Sky and Toby, but realises that he cannot live his life on the run and returns Sky to Eric. Eric later allows Sky to live with Joe. Sky gains a mother figure in the form of Joe's new wife, Melanie Pearson (Lucinda Cowden). Joe, Melanie and Sky move to the countryside. Joe and Melanie later divorce.
2003–2007
After Joe gets engaged to his pregnant girlfriend, Sky has difficulty coping with the new additions to the family. She decides to visit Harold. Harold initially mistakes Sky for a burglar, after she lets herself in through his back door. He barely recognises her as she is now a teenager. However, once Sky reveals her true identity, Harold invites her to stay. He grows concerned when he believes Sky has been smoking cannabis, but Sky assures him it was only incense. Sky is hurt that Harold suspects her of taking drugs. Harold introduces Sky to Boyd Hoyland and they become good friends. Sky has a hard time settling in at Erinsborough High School as her blue hair and dress sense make her stand out. Erin Perry (Talia Zucker) bullies Sky about her appearance. Erin and her friends later knock over a portable toilet that Sky is in at the school formal. Sky and Boyd's friendship causes embarrassment for him at school and he denies he is friends with her. Sky is hurt, but Boyd later kisses her in front of their peers. Sky and Boyd eventually lose their virginity to each other.
Sky's uncle David Bishop (Kevin Harrington), his wife Liljana Bishop (Marcella Russo) and their daughter Serena Bishop (Lara Sacher) move in with Sky and Harold, while their new house is being built. Sky tries to stop Serena sneaking out to a night club, but ends up going with her. Sky and Serena argue and Sky is followed by a guy who makes advances towards her. Sky runs home and is caught and grounded by Harold, while Serena watches. Sky comes face to face with John Swan (David Murray), the duck hunter who shot her mother. She follows him to the wetlands to confront him. David goes with her and she attacks John. John explains that he does not hunt anymore and returns to the wetlands to remember Kerry. Sky decides to change her image and reverts to her blonde hair. Sky fights with new student Lana Crawford and they are placed in detention together. Sky and Lana gradually get to know each other better and they become friends. During a sleepover, Lana, having read too much into Sky's friendly feelings for her, kisses Sky. Sky is shocked and Lana runs away. Lana later admits to Sky that she is a lesbian.
Sky and Lana create a cartoon strip together and sell it to an underground gay magazine. When Lana tells her she is leaving, Sky impulsively kisses her. Boyd finds out about the kiss and breaks up with Sky. They get back together with the help of Serena. Lana leaves for Canada, but stays in touch with Sky. Sky and Boyd's relationship breaks down when Sky finds out that Boyd kissed Serena. Sky then begins dating Dylan Timmins. Sky and Dylan work together to stop corporate giant Affirmacon from turning Erinsborough into a giant shopping mall. Sky joins Dylan, David, Liljana and Serena in a joy flight to celebrate twenty years of Lassiter's. While the plane is crossing the Bass Strait, a bomb goes off and the plane goes down. Sky and Dylan survive, but David, Liljana and Serena are killed. Sky attends art classes at Eden Hills University and is attracted to her teacher, Jean-Pierre Valasco (Steven Cabral). She has sex with him and when Dylan finds out, he ends their relationship.
A depressed Sky has a one-night stand with Stingray Timmins (Ben Nicholas). Shortly after, she discovers that she is pregnant. Sky realises that the baby could be Stingray's. Sky asks Dylan if they can get back together and he tells his girlfriend, Elle Robinson (Pippa Black), that he is thinking of reconciling with Sky. Elle then fakes an illness, so Dylan stays with her until he discovers the truth. Sky makes herself ill with worry about the baby's paternity. Dylan proposes to Sky and she accepts. She later faints and tells Dylan the truth about the baby, causing Dylan to end their engagement. Dylan then gets back together with Elle. While Sky is in hospital, she shares a room with Teresa Cammeniti (Hannah Greenwood), who plots to steal her baby. Sky gives birth to a daughter, who she names Kerry after her mother. Teresa sets fire to the hospital and while Sky is moved to another wing, Kerry goes missing. It soon emerges that Stingray took Kerry and passed out because he was drunk. Dylan finds them and he takes Kerry, but Elle returns her to Sky anonymously.
A DNA test later proves Dylan is Kerry's father. Sky begins a relationship with Stingray and when Kerry is diagnosed with leukaemia, Stingray donates his bone marrow to her. Sky has visions that Stingray is going to die and she organises a commitment ceremony for them. Stingray later dies from an aneurysm. Sky starts seeing spiritualist, Terrence Chesterton (Scott Johnson), but when she suspects he is scamming her, she tells him a fictional story about Stingray. Terrence responds as if it really happened and Sky confronts him. When he grabs her, she hits him over the head with a sugar dispenser. He falls unconscious and Sky runs off. Terrence's partner Charlotte Stone (Rachel Gordon) kills him, framing Sky. Sky is jailed for murder, but is freed after Boyd tricks Charlotte into confessing. Sky meets the recipient of Stingray's heart, Caleb Maloney (Nick Russell) and grows close to him. She decides to move to Port Douglas, so that Kerry can be closer to Dylan and Boyd decides to go with her. Harold later mentions that Sky is pregnant and she gives birth to a son, Scotty.
2015–2022
A few years later, Sky, pregnant with her third child, contacts Harold via Skype to ask if he will move to Port Douglas to help her out with her children and provide support. After Sky mentions Madge came to her in a dream, Harold agrees to give up his nomadic lifestyle for her.
Sky returns to Erinsborough five years later to take part in the Lassiters Wedding Expo. She asks her cousin Jane Harris (Annie Jones) to keep her engagement a secret, as she tries to meet with Toadie Rebecchi. Jane accidentally tells Shane Rebecchi (Nicholas Coghlan) and Dipi Rebecchi (Sharon Johal) that Sky is marrying Lana Crawford, whom she reconnected with six months ago. Sky admits that she has not told Dylan and wanted Toadie's help, but as he is away, Shane offers his help instead. Dylan arrives and hopes to reconcile with Sky, but she finally tells him about Lana. When Sky and Lana's wedding venue is destroyed, Sky wants to cancel the wedding, but Terese Willis (Rebekah Elmaloglou) arranges for them to marry at The 82, a former tram turned restaurant. Dylan gives them his blessing and Sky and Lana are married by Jack Callahan (Andrew Morley). Now a senior detective, Sky remains in Erinsborough to investigate the death of Finn Kelly (Rob Mills), insisting upon the arrest of Elly Conway (Jodi Anasta) for his murder. Sky reveals to Mark Brennan (Scott McGregor) that her own false imprisonment previously caused her to believe in the innocence of a guilty woman, leaving her determined not to discount the evidence against Elly. Sky also investigates a break in at Number 28.
After speaking with the OPP, Sky tells Elly that she is being offered a plea deal, whereby she pleads guilty to downgraded charges of voluntary manslaughter and receives a suspended sentence, which Elly accepts. Sky leads a police raid on an apartment where Mannix Foster (Sam Webb) has been living, but only succeeds in scaring Harlow Robinson (Jemma Donovan) and Mackenzie Hargreaves (Georgie Stone). As they are questioned, Sky goes to track Mannix's phone. At Elly's hearing Judge Joseph Vagg (Rick Burchall) gives her a three-year custodial sentence. Sky apologises to Elly for how things have turned out, but she is confident an appeal will lead to a suspended sentence. Elly asks Sky's advice about taking her young daughter Aster Conway (Isla Goulas) inside with her. Sky tells her that it is her decision, but not to let Aster out of her sight. Before leaving, Sky asks Toadie to keep an eye on Finn's mother Claudia Watkins (Kate Raison), who she suspects had a hand in the custodial sentence. Sky's theory is later proven correct when it emerges Claudia blackmailed the judge, as part of her bid to get custody of Aster. Two years later, Sky appears in a video message congratulating Toadie and Melanie Pearson on their wedding.
Reception
For her portrayal of Sky, McIntosh received a nomination for the Logie Award for Most Popular New Female Talent at the 2004 ceremony. The following year, Boyd and Sky were nominated for Best Couple at the Inside Soap Awards. In 2006, she received the Fave Female Hottie award at the Nickelodeon Australian Kids' Choice Awards.
Upon Sky's 2003 return, Robin Oliver from The Sydney Morning Herald quipped "Watching Neighbours since way back? You may recall Sky, the cheeky young daughter of the greenie martyr Kerry Bishop (who was killed during a duck hunt). Sky is now a rebellious teen (Stephanie McIntosh) and drops in on her grandfather, Harold (Ian Smith), and Lou (Tom Oliver)." Larissa Dubecki from The Age praised McIntoshs performance, and said "I also love that her alter ego Sky accessorises her 1980s-wear with miscellaneous bits of material, wears coloured hair extensions in her knotty blonde locks and is a bit of a proto-feminist in the Erinsborough High yard, the kind of forthright suburban bogan with a heart of gold who is destined to break the heart of new bad boy Dylan." Dubecki thought Sky was the "perfect antidote" to Delta Goodrem and added that "the fabulous Sky" would probably get to the bottom of Paul's latest plot.
A columnist for Inside Soap enjoyed the scenes in which Sky and Libby joined forces, writing "Gutsy girls are rare in Neighbours – most of Ramsay Street's female residents are too wrapped up in their love lives to make a stand for anything serious. So I'm glad to see two girls with gumption – Libby Kennedy and Sky Mangel – buddying up." The columnist also thought Sky's mother would be proud of her.
A BBC Online writer stated that Sky's most notable moment was "Coming face to face with John Swan – the man who killed her mother." Describing Sky, a writer for media company Virgin Media said "As Harold's eccentric granddaughter, Sky Mangel spent her time on Ramsay Street dating Boyd Hoyland, becoming an artist and having a baby with Stingray Timmins. Phew." In a separate feature, Sky's 2003 return to the show was placed at number Ten on Virgin's "Soap Comebacks" list. In 2007, readers from the Herald Sun placed Lana and Sky's kiss at number nine on the list of Neighbours Top Ten moments. A reporter said "It's rare that Neighbours attracts the attention of the shock jocks around the country, but that's what happened when Sky Bishop, played by Stephanie McIntosh, gave Lana, played by Bridge Neval, a kiss. Sky was exploring her sexuality and the scene was one of the most talked about ever in the press. Lana left Erinsborough and Sky has gone on to be an unmarried mum".
In 2010, to celebrate the 25th anniversary of Neighbours, a reporter for Sky profiled 25 characters of which they believed were the most memorable in the show's history. Sky was included on the list and the reporter commented "Sky was a classic soap child who left for a few years and came back far more attractive. It's little wonder that she became the focus of a teen brigade including Dylan, Stingray, Boyd and Serena, not to mention that brief lesbian period with Lana. With her beloved Grandpa Harold on hand to dispense advice when she variously lost her family, got pregnant, and lost the father of her baby, Stingray, she brought sunny confidence to her regular visits to the funeral home". To celebrate Neighbours 6000th episode in August 2010, TV Week put together a list of the top 25 Neighbours characters. Sky was included in the list and a writer for the magazine commented "With a teenage pregnancy, a penchant for activism and a same-sex affair, Sky was never boring".
Following her brief 2022 return, Laura Denby from Radio Times praised Sky's return, saying "With Sky's dad Joe (Mark Little) making a second cameo too, it wouldn't have felt right without a few words from Sky – and it was great to see McIntosh in her memorable role one last time".
References
External links
Sky Mangel at the Official AU Neighbours'' website
Sky Mangel at BBC Online
Neighbours characters
Television characters introduced in 1989
Fictional waiting staff
Fictional artists
Female characters in television
Fictional bisexual women
Fictional LGBT characters in television
Fictional DJs
Fictional cartoonists
Fictional prisoners and detainees
Fictional Australian police detectives
Bishop family (Neighbours)
Fictional teenage parents
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt%20Fraction
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Matt Fraction
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Matt Fritchman (born December 1, 1975), better known by the pen name Matt Fraction, is an Eisner Award-winning American comic book writer, known for his work as the writer of The Invincible Iron Man, FF, The Immortal Iron Fist, Uncanny X-Men, and Hawkeye for Marvel Comics; Casanova and Sex Criminals for Image Comics; and Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen for DC Comics.
Early life
Matt Fraction was born December 1, 1975, in Chicago Heights, Illinois. As a child, he developed an affinity for telling stories, and he enjoyed reading comic books and strips. The first comic he remembers buying was Batman #316 (Oct. 1979), and he liked newspaper comics Peanuts and Doonesbury. He became a regular weekly comic-book reader around the time that the 1985–86 DC Comics storyline "Crisis on Infinite Earths" ended, but he found that storyline bizarre and impenetrable and gravitated toward Marvel Comics instead. Spider-Man became his favorite character, and he read other Marvel publications such as Star Wars and G.I. Joe.
In the late 1990s Fraction worked as an employee at the Charlotte, North Carolina-based comics retailer Heroes Aren't Hard to Find, and participated in the Warren Ellis Forum under the username "Matt Fraction".
Career
Fraction started in the comics industry by working for smaller publishers including AiT/Planet Lar and IDW Publishing, many of which employed people that he had met on the Warren Ellis Forum; as such, he continued using the "Fraction" name as it was the one under which he had built a reputation. He became known early in his career for his creator-owned work on The Five Fists of Science and Casanova, before taking on a number of assignments for Marvel Comics.
Fraction wrote two columns for Comic Book Resources: "Poplife" and "The Basement Tapes", the latter with Joe Casey.
Fraction teamed with Ed Brubaker for a run on Marvel's The Immortal Iron Fist. The pair re-teamed on Uncanny X-Men for a short time, after which Fraction wrote the series solo until leaving it in 2011.
He wrote The Mighty Thor and The Invincible Iron Man, the latter of which led to his consulting work on the set of the film Iron Man 2 and writing the Iron Man 2 video game that tied into that film sequel.
In 2011, Fraction wrote the Fear Itself limited series, which was the central part of the crossover storyline of the same name. In December 2011, he revived the series The Defenders with artist Terry Dodson and, in August 2012, he started a new Hawkeye series with David Aja.
As part of Marvel NOW!, Fantastic Four was relaunched in November 2012 with the creative team of Fraction and artist Mark Bagley. Its spinoff series FF was produced by Fraction and artist Mike Allred. Fraction left both series due to other work commitments.
In February 2013, he was named on IGN's list of "The Best Tweeters in Comics", which described him as "the premier comics Twitter personality."
In 2013, Fraction and Chip Zdarsky co-created the Sex Criminals series for Image Comics. He and illustrator Christian Ward created the ODY-C series in 2014, a science-fiction retelling of the Odyssey with the characters' genders changed to female.
In 2015, Fraction and Fabio Moon returned to Casanova with a new eight-issue mini-series, Acedia. The series featured backup stories written by Michael Chabon with art by Casanova co-creator Gabriel Bá. Also in 2015, Fraction and Kelly Sue DeConnick's company, Milkfed Criminal Masterminds, signed a two-year deal with Universal Television to adapt some of their comic books, as well as original TV series concepts. They also planned to use Milkfed Criminal Masterminds as a TV launchpad for other comic creators' properites.
In 2018, Milkfed Criminal Masterminds signed another two-year overall deal, this time with Legendary TV to adapt several of their creator-owned comics, as well as produce exclusive, original projects developed by the duo for television across traditional and non-traditional platforms.
In 2019, Fraction and Elsa Charretier co-created the graphic novella crime series, November for Image Comics, meanwhile Fraction wrote his first series for DC Comics, the twelve-issue series Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen which was drawn by Steve Lieber.
In 2020, Sex Criminals concluded with issue #69, volumes 2 and 3 of November were released, and Adventureman, the long-anticipated series from Fraction and Terry Dodson and Rachel Dodson began releasing from Image Comics, and his and Lieber's run on Superman's Pal, Jimmy Olsen concluded, with a collected trade paperback entitled Who Killed Jimmy Olsen? being released in October.
Fraction served as a consultant for the Hawkeye television miniseries, which was heavily inspired by his 2012 comic run. He also planned to make a cameo appearance as a member of the Tracksuit Mafia, but was unable to commit to this, due to complications stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic.
Personal life
Fraction is married to Kelly Sue DeConnick, a comic book writer and adapter of manga into English, whom he met when they were both participants on the Warren Ellis Forum. They have two children, Henry and Tallulah.
Awards
2008 Eagle Award for Favourite Newcomer Writer
2009 Eisner Award for "Best New Series" for The Invincible Iron Man (shared with Salvador Larroca)
2010 PEN Center USA Literary Award for "Outstanding Body of Work"
2014 Harvey Award
"Best Single Issue or Story" for Hawkeye #11, "Pizza Is My Business" (shared with David Aja and others).
"Best New Series" for Sex Criminals (shared with Chip Zdarsky).
2014 Eisner Award
"Best Single Issue (or One-Shot)" for Hawkeye #11, "Pizza Is My Business" (shared with David Aja).
"Best New Series" for Sex Criminals (shared with Chip Zdarsky).
2016 Inkpot Award
Nominations
2008 Eisner Award
Best Single Issue (or One-Shot) for The Sensational Spider-Man Annual (shared with Salvador Larroca).
Eisner Award for Best New Series for The Immortal Iron Fist (shared with Ed Brubaker, David Aja and others)
2013 Harvey Award
Best Writer for Hawkeye
Best New Series for Hawkeye (shared with David Aja and others)
Best Continuing or Limited Series for Hawkeye (shared with David Aja and others)
Best Single Issue or Story for Hawkeye #1, "Lucky" (shared with David Aja and others)
2013 Eisner Award
Best Continuing Series for Hawkeye (shared with David Aja and others)
Best Writer for Hawkeye and Casanova: Avarita
2014 Harvey Award
Best Writer for Hawkeye
Best Continuing or Limited Series for Hawkeye (shared with David Aja and others)
2014 Eisner Award
Best Continuing Series for Hawkeye (shared with David Aja)
Best Continuing Series for Sex Criminals (shared with Chip Zdarsky)
Best Writer for Sex Criminals, Hawkeye, Fantastic Four, and FF
2014 Angoulême Sélection Officielle for Hawkeye, Vol 1 (shared with David Aja)
Bibliography
Early work
Double Take #6–8: "Rex Mantooth" (with Andy Kuhn, anthology, Funk-O-Tron, 2001–2002) collected as The Annotated Mantooth! (tpb, 96 pages, AiT/Planet Lar, 2002, )
Last of the Independents (with Kieron Dwyer, graphic novel, sc, 104 pages, AiT/Planet Lar, 2003, ; hc, 112 pages, Image, 2020, )
IDW Publishing:
30 Days of Night: Bloodsucker Tales #1–8: "Juarez, or Lex Nova and the Case of the 400 Dead Mexican Girls" (with Ben Templesmith, co-feature, 2004–2005)
Collected, along with the leading feature, in 30 Days of Night: Bloodsucker Tales (hc, 200 pages, 2005, ; tpb, 2005, )
Collected in a separate volume as 30 Days of Night: Juarez (tpb, 104 pages, 2009, )
Metal Gear Solid: Sons of Liberty #0 (untitled five-page story with Ashley Wood, 2005)
Collected in Metal Gear Solid Omnibus (tpb, 552 pages, 2010, )
Collected in Metal Gear Solid: Deluxe Edition (hc, 608 pages, 2014, )
Image Comics
Four Letter Worlds: "Fate" (with Kieron Dwyer, anthology graphic novel, 144 pages, 2005, )
24Seven Volume 1: "Static" (with Frazer Irving, anthology graphic novel, 224 pages, 2006, )
The Five Fists of Science (with Steven Sanders, graphic novel, 112 pages, 2006, )
Casanova (with Gabriel Bá and Fábio Moon):
Casanova #1–14 (2006–2008)
Issues #1–7 are collected as Album 1: Luxuria (hc, 144 pages, 2007, ; tpb, 2008, )
A colorized and relettered version of these fourteen issues was published as two 4-issue limited series under Marvel's Icon imprint.
Casanova: Acedia (with the Metanauts back-up feature, written by Michael Chabon and drawn by Gabriel Bá, 2015–2017) collected as:
Volume 1 (collects #1–4, tpb, 136 pages, 2015, )
Volume 2 (collects #5–8, tpb, 136 pages, 2017, )
Sex Criminals (with Chip Zdarsky, 2013–2020) collected as:
Big Hard Sex Criminals Volume 1 (collects #1–10, hc, 256 pages, 2015, )
Big Hard Sex Criminals Volume 2 (collects #11–20, hc, 256 pages, 2018, )
Big Hard Sex Criminals Volume 3 (collects #21–30 and 69, hc, 320 pages, 2021, )
Includes Sex Criminals: Sexual Gary Special (written by Fraction, art by Rachael Stott, 2020)
Satellite Sam (with Howard Chaykin, 2013–2015) collected as Satellite Sam (hc, 400 pages, 2015, )
ODY-C #1–12 (with Christian Ward, 2014–2016) collected as ODY-C: Cycle One (hc, 400 pages, 2016, )
Solid State (script by Fraction based on the concept by Jonathan Coulton, art by Albert Monteys, graphic novel, sc, 128 pages, 2017, ; hc, 2018, )
Bitch Planet: Triple Feature #5: "Everyone's Grandma is a Little Bit Feminist" (with Elsa Charretier, anthology, 2017) collected in Bitch Planet: Triple Feature (tpb, 144 pages, 2017, )
November (with Elsa Charretier, series of graphic novels):
Volume 1 (hc, 80 pages, 2019, )
Volume 2 (hc, 80 pages, 2020, )
Volume 3 (hc, 80 pages, 2020, )
Volume 4 (hc, 80 pages, 2021, )
Adventureman (with Terry Dodson, 2020–ongoing) collected as:
The End and Everything After (collects #1–4, hc, 168 pages, 2020, )
A Fairy Tale of New York (collects #5–9, hc, 168 pages, 2022, )
The Old Guard: Tales Through Time #4: "How to Make a Ghost Town" (with Steve Lieber, anthology, 2021) collected in The Old Guard: Tales Through Time (tpb, 176 pages, 2021, )
Marvel Comics
X-Men:
X-Men Unlimited vol. 2 #9: "Dead Man Walking" (with Sam Kieth, anthology, 2005) collected in Astonishing X-Men Companion (tpb, 168 pages, 2020, )
Uncanny X-Men (with Terry Dodson, Greg Land, Yanick Paquette (#512), Whilce Portacio, Phil Jimenez (#522), Leonard Kirk (#527) and Harvey Tolibao (#529), 2008–2011) collected as:
Uncanny X-Men by Matt Fraction: The Complete Collection Volume 1 (collects #500–511 and Annual #2, tpb, 384 pages, 2013, )
Includes the "Migas" short story (art by Jamie McKelvie) from X-Men: Divided We Stand #1 (anthology, 2008)
Issues #500–503 are co-written by Fraction and Ed Brubaker.
Uncanny X-Men by Matt Fraction: The Complete Collection Volume 2 (collects #512–519, tpb, 368 pages, 2013, )
Includes the "How I Survived Apocalyptic Fire" short story (art by Daniel Acuña) from Dark Reign: The Cabal (anthology one-shot, 2009)
Includes the Dark Avengers/Uncanny X-Men: Utopia one-shot (written by Fraction, art by Marc Silvestri, 2009)
Includes Dark Avengers #7–8 (written by Fraction, art by Luke Ross, 2009) as part of Utopia inter-title crossover.
Includes the Dark Avengers/Uncanny X-Men: Exodus one-shot (written by Fraction, art by Mike Deodato, Jr., 2009)
Includes the Dark Reign: The List—X-Men one-shot (written by Fraction, art by Alan Davis, 2009)
Uncanny X-Men by Matt Fraction: The Complete Collection Volume 3 (collects #520–522 and 526–534, tpb, 336 pages, 2013, )
Includes the Uncanny X-Men: The Heroic Age one-shot (written by Fraction, art by Whilce Portacio, Steven Sanders and Jamie McKelvie, 2010)
Issues #531–534 are co-written by Fraction and Kieron Gillen.
X-Men: Second Coming (includes #523–525, hc, 392 pages, 2010, ; tpb, 2011, )
Includes Fraction's chapter of the epilogue from X-Men: Second Coming #2 (art by Terry Dodson, 2010)
The Immortal Iron Fist (co-written by Fraction and Ed Brubaker):
The Last Iron Fist Story (hc, 160 pages, 2007, ; tpb, 2007, ) collects:
Civil War: Choosing Sides: "The Immortal Iron Fist" (with David Aja, anthology one-shot, 2006)
"The Last Iron Fist Story" (with David Aja, Travel Foreman, John Severin, Russ Heath and Sal Buscema, in #1–6, 2007)
The Seven Capital Cities of Heaven (hc, 216 pages, 2008, ; tpb, 2008, ) collects:
"Men of a Certain Deadly Persuasion" (with Howard Chaykin, Dan Brereton and Jelena Kevic-Djurdjević, in Annual, 2007)
"The Seven Capital Cities of Heaven" (with David Aja, Roy Martinez, Scott Koblish, Kano, Javier Pulido, Tonči Zonjić and Clay Mann, in #8–14, 2007–2008)
The Book of Iron Fist (hc, 160 pages, 2008, ; tpb, 2009, ) collects:
"The Pirate Queen of Pinghai Bay" (with Travel Foreman, Leandro Fernández and Khari Evans, in #7, 2007)
Orson Randall and the Green Mist of Death (with Russ Heath, Mitch Breitweiser, Nick Dragotta and Lewis LaRosa, one-shot, 2008)
The Origin of Danny Rand (with Kano, two-page framing sequence for a reprint of Marvel Premiere #15–16, one-shot, 2008)
"The Story of the Iron Fist Bei Bang-Wen (1827–1860)" (with Khari Evans, in #15, 2008)
"Happy Birthday Danny" (with David Aja, in #16, 2008)
Omnibus (collects #1–16, Annual, Civil War: Choosing Sides, Orson Randall and the Green Mist of Death and The Origin of Danny Rand, hc, 560 pages, 2009, )
The Complete Collection Volume 1 (collects #1–16, Annual, Civil War: Choosing Sides, Orson Randall and the Green Mist of Death and The Origin of Danny Rand, tpb, 496 pages, 2013, )
Punisher War Journal vol. 2 (with Ariel Olivetti, Mike Deodato, Jr. (#4), Leandro Fernández (#11), Cory Walker (#13), Scott Wegener (#14–15), Howard Chaykin and Andy MacDonald (#26), 2007–2009) collected as:
Issues #19–25 are co-written by Fraction and Rick Remender.
Civil War (collects #1–4, hc, 144 pages, 2007, ; tpb, 2007, )
Goin' Out West (collects #5–11, hc, 168 pages, 2007, ; tpb, 2008, )
Hunter/Hunted (collects #12–17, hc, 152 pages, 2008, ; tpb, 2008, )
Jigsaw (collects #18–23, hc, 144 pages, 2008, ; tpb, 2009, )
Secret Invasion (collects #24–26, hc, 120 pages, 2009, ; tpb, 2009, )
Spider-Man:
The Sensational Spider-Man vol. 2 Annual: "To Have and to Hold" (with Salvador Larocca, 2007) collected in Peter Parker, Spider-Man: Back in Black (hc, 336 pages, 2007, ; tpb, 2008, )
The Amazing Spider-Man: Presidents' Day Celebration (with Andy MacDonald, digital one-shot, 2009) collected in The Amazing Spider-Man: Election Day (hc, 184 pages, 2009, ; tpb, 2010, )
The Order (with Barry Kitson, Khari Evans (#5) and Javier Saltares (#9–10), 2007–2008) collected as:
The Next Right Thing (collects #1–5, tpb, 128 pages, 2008, )
California Dreaming (collects #6–10, tpb, 120 pages, 2008, )
The Invincible Iron Man (with Salvador Larroca, Jamie McKelvie (co-features in #32–33), Kano + Nathan Fox + Carmine Di Giandomenico (#500) and Howard Chaykin (co-feature in #503), 2008–2012) collected as:
The Five Nightmares (collects #1–7, hc, 184 pages, 2008, ; tpb, 2009, )
World's Most Wanted Volume 1 (collects #8–13, hc, 152 pages, 2009, ; tpb, 2010, )
World's Most Wanted Volume 2 (collects #14–19, hc, 160 pages, 2010, ; tpb, 2010, )
Stark Disassembled (collects #20–24, hc, 136 pages, 2010, ; tpb, 2011, )
Stark Resilient Volume 1 (collects #25–28, hc, 128 pages, 2010, ; tpb, 2011, )
Stark Resilient Volume 2 (collects #29–33, hc, 136 pages, 2011, ; tpb, 2011, )
My Monsters (collects #500, 500.1, Annual and the co-feature from #503, hc, 168 pages, 2011, ; tpb, 2011, )
Unfixable (includes #501–503, hc, 120 pages, 2011, ; tpb, 2012, )
Includes the Free Comic Book Day 2010: Iron Man/Thor special (written by Fraction, art by John Romita, Jr., 2010)
Fear Itself (collects #504–509 and Fear Itself #7.3, hc, 168 pages, 2012, ; tpb, 2012, )
Demon (collects #510–515, hc, 144 pages, 2012, ; tpb, 2013, )
Long Way Down (collects #516–520, hc, 112 pages, 2012, ; tpb, 2013, )
The Future (collects #521–527, hc, 152 pages, 2013, ; tpb, 2013, )
Thor:
Thor: Ages of Thunder (hc, 160 pages, 2009, ; tpb, 2009, ) collects:
Thor: Ages of Thunder (with Patrick Zircher and Khari Evans, one-shot, 2008)
Thor: Reign of Blood (with Patrick Zircher and Khari Evans, one-shot, 2008)
Thor: Man of War (with Patrick Zircher and Clay Mann, one-shot, 2009)
Thor God-Sized Special (with Dan Brereton, Doug Braithwaite, Mike Allred and Miguel Sepulveda, one-shot, 2009)
Secret Invasion: Thor #1–3 (with Doug Braithwaite, 2008) collected as Secret Invasion: Thor (tpb, 96 pages, 2009, )
Thor #615–621 (with Pasqual Ferry, 2010–2011) collected as Thor: The World Eaters (hc, 216 pages, 2011, ; tpb, 2011, )
The Mighty Thor (with Olivier Coipel, Pasqual Ferry, Pepe Larraz, Giuseppe Camuncoli (#12), Barry Kitson (#12.1 and 22), Alan Davis (#18) and Carmine Di Giandomenico, 2011–2012) collected as:
Volume 1 (collects #1–6, hc, 144 pages, 2011, ; tpb, 2012, )
Volume 2 (collects #7–12 and Fear Itself #7.2, hc, 168 pages, 2012, ; tpb, 2012, )
Volume 3 (collects #12.1 and 13–17, hc, 136 pages, 2012, ; tpb, 2013, )
The Mighty Thor/Journey into Mystery: Everything Burns (includes #18–22, hc, 216 pages, 2013, ; tpb, 2013, )
Issues #18–21 are co-written by Fraction and Kieron Gillen.
Captain America: Who Won't Wield the Shield?: "Doctor America" (with Howard Hallis and Brendan McCarthy, anthology one-shot, 2010) collected in Secret Wars Too (tpb, 208 pages, 2016, )
Casanova (Luxuria and Gula reprint the original Image series in colorized and relettered form with new short stories in Luxuria #1 (art by Fábio Moon) and Gula #4 (art by Gabriel Bá); published under the Icon imprint):
Casanova: Luxuria #1–4 (with Gabriel Bá, 2010) collected as Casanova: Luxuria (tpb, 160 pages, 2011, ; hc, 168 pages, Image, 2014, )
Casanova: Gula #1–4 (with Fábio Moon, 2011) collected as Casanova: Gula (tpb, 136 pages, 2012, ; hc, 168 pages, Image, 2015, )
Casanova: Avaritia #1–4 (with Gabriel Bá, 2011–2012) collected as Casanova: Avaritia (tpb, 152 pages, 2012, ; hc, 176 pages, Image, 2015, )
Fear Itself #1–7 (with Stuart Immonen, 2011) collected as Fear Itself (hc, 240 pages, 2012, ; tpb, 2012, )
Shattered Heroes (co-written by Fraction, Christopher Yost and Cullen Bunn):
Battle Scars (with Scot Eaton, 2011–2012) collected as Battle Scars (tpb, 136 pages, 2012, )
Fear Itself: The Fearless #1–12 (with Mark Bagley and Paul Pelletier, 2012) collected as Fear Itself: The Fearless (hc, 272 pages, 2012, ; tpb, 2013, )
The Defenders vol. 4 (with Terry Dodson, Michael Lark (#4), Mitch Breiweiser (#5), Víctor Ibáñez (#6), Jamie McKelvie (#8–10) and Mirco Pierfederici (#11–12), 2011–2012) collected as:
Volume 1 (collects #1–6, tpb, 136 pages, 2012, )
Includes the "Shaman of Greenwich Village" short story (art by Terry Dodson) from Marvel Point One (anthology one-shot, 2012)
Volume 2 (collects #7–12, tpb, 136 pages, 2013, )
Avengers vs. X-Men (hc, 568 pages, 2012, ; tpb, 384 pages, 2013, ) includes:
"Chapter Five" (with John Romita, Jr., in #5, 2012)
"Chapter Seven" (with Olivier Coipel, in #7, 2012)
AvX: VS #5: "Hawkeye vs. Angel" (with Leinil Francis Yu, anthology, 2012) also collected in Avengers vs. X-Men: VS (tpb, 160 pages, 2013, )
Hawkeye vol. 4 (with David Aja, Javier Pulido (#4–5), Steve Lieber + Jesse Hamm (#7), Annie Wu and Francesco Francavilla (#10 and 12), 2012–2015) collected as:
Volume 1 (collects #1–11, hc, 272 pages, 2013, )
Includes Young Avengers Presents #6 (written by Fraction, art by Alan Davis, 2008)
Volume 2 (collects #12–22 and Annual, hc, 280 pages, 2015, )
Omnibus (collects #1–22, Annual and Young Avengers Presents #6, hc, 552 pages, 2015, )
Fantastic Four:
Fantastic Four vol. 4 (with Mark Bagley and André Lima Araújo (#5.AU), 2013–2014) collected as:
New Departure, New Arrivals (collects #1–3 and FF vol. 2 #1–3, tpb, 144 pages, 2013, )
Includes the Ant-Man short story (art by Mike Allred) from Marvel NOW! Point One (anthology one-shot, 2012)
Road Trip (collects #4–8 and 5.AU, tpb, 136 pages, 2013, )
Doomed (collects #9–16, tpb, 184 pages, 2014, )
Issues #11–12 are co-written by Fraction and Christopher Sebela.
Issues #13–16 are scripted by Karl Kesel from Fraction's plots.
FF vol. 2 (with Mike Allred and Joe Quinones (#6 and 9), 2013–2014) collected as:
Fantastic Faux (collects #4–8, tpb, 112 pages, 2013, )
Family Freakout (collects #9–16, tpb, 184 pages, 2014, )
Issues #12–16 are scripted by Lee Allred from Fraction's plots.
Both series along with the short story from the Marvel NOW! Point One one-shot are collected into a single volume as Fantastic Four by Matt Fraction Omnibus (hc, 760 pages, 2015, )
Inhumanity #1–2 (with Olivier Coipel, Leinil Francis Yu, Dustin Weaver, Nick Bradshaw and Todd Nauck, 2014) collected in Inhumanity (hc, 448 pages, 2014, ; tpb, 2015, )
Following these issues, Fraction was supposed to launch an ongoing Inhuman series with artist Joe Madureira but due to "creative differences" the title was handed over to Charles Soule.
Other publishers
For God and Country: An Illustrated Account of the Raid on Osama bin Laden (with Nathan Fox, a webcomic commissioned by GQ, 2011)
Dark Horse Presents vol. 2 #25: "The Time Ben Fell in Love" (with Christian Ward, anthology, Dark Horse, 2013)
Spitball: A CCAD Comics Anthology #1: "Three Stories" (with Chris Passabet, Columbus College of Art and Design, 2015)
DC Comics:
Superman: The Truth Revealed (hc, 192 pages, 2020, ; tpb, 2021, ) includes:
Superman: Heroes (co-written by Fraction, Brian Michael Bendis and Greg Rucka, art by various artists, one-shot, 2020)
Superman: Villains (co-written by Fraction, Brian Michael Bendis and Jody Houser, art by various artists, one-shot, 2020)
Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen: Who Killed Jimmy Olsen? (tpb, 320 pages, 2020, ) collects:
Superman: Leviathan Rising: "One Wild Night in Gorilla City" (with Steve Lieber, co-feature in one-shot, 2019)
Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen vol. 2 #1–12 (with Steve Lieber, 2019–2020)
Detective Comics #1027: "Many Happy Returns" (with Chip Zdarsky, co-feature, 2020)
Other work
Fraction served as a consulting producer for the Disney+ series Hawkeye, which is heavily influenced by his stint writing for the Hawkeye comic. Fraction also serves as the co-creator, writer, and executive producer of Monarch: Legacy of Monsters alongside Chris Black.
References
External links
1975 births
American comics writers
Eisner Award winners
Inkpot Award winners
Living people
Marvel Comics writers
DC Comics people
People from Chicago Heights, Illinois
Pseudonymous writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toadie%20Rebecchi
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Toadie Rebecchi
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Jarrod Vincenzo Rebecchi, commonly known as "Toadfish" or "Toadie", is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Ryan Moloney. He made his first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 23 January 1995. Toadie was created by writer Elizabeth Packett. Moloney had previously auditioned for another role in the show and had played a minor character before being cast as Toadie. The actor was originally scheduled to play Toadie in one scene, but he went on to become a recurring cast member. When Toadie became popular with viewers, Moloney was promoted to the regular cast. In 2015, Moloney celebrated his 20th anniversary with Neighbours. The finale of the serial in 2022 focused on his character's wedding to Melanie Pearson (Lucinda Cowden), while the 2023 premiere of the revival focused on the character's wedding to Terese Willis (Rebekah Elmaloglou).
Toadie was initially portrayed as a troubled teenager and a "class clown". After qualifying as a lawyer, Toadie matured and became a responsible member of the community. Despite being labelled "unlucky in love", Toadie has had several love interests and has been married five times. Toadie has received mostly positive attention from television critics and viewers. For his portrayal of Toadie, Moloney earned a nomination for Best Actor in a Soap at the 2004 Rose d'Or Awards. In 2010, Moloney won the first Best Daytime Star award at the Inside Soap Awards. He has since won it three more times in 2011, 2012 and 2019. He has also been nominated for the Logie Award for Most Popular Actor.
Creation and casting
The character of Toadfish was created by writer Elizabeth Packett. Actor Ryan Moloney was cast in the role after previously auditioning for the role of Brett Stark and appearing as a minor character called Cyborg, who vandalised the Willis family's property. Moloney made his first appearance as Toadie during the episode broadcast on 23 January 1995. He recalled that his first scene lasted for ten minutes and that it featured Toadie begging his brother, Stonefish (Anthony Engelman), to take him to the beach. Moloney was originally contracted to play Toadie in that one scene, but he went on to become a recurring character. He thought the producers kept him on as he looked similar to Engelman when he was younger and they wanted to see more of the Rebecchi family. Toadie proved to be popular with the Neighbours viewers and he was asked to continue on the show full-time.
By 2003 Moloney said he had remained grounded and surpassed the "big-headed stuff" that comes with being in a soap opera. Moloney celebrated his 15th year on Neighbours in 2010. Moloney said: "Fifteen years on the show is quite an achievement in my eyes." During an interview with entertainment website, Digital Spy, Moloney said "Like Toadie, I've literally grown up with Neighbours. Since I started out as a tearaway teenager in the series, I've experienced many transformations." Moloney told What's on TV that he plans to stay in Neighbours until the producers decide that they no longer require his service. He also added "It's just the best job in the world. I turn up, I muck around, tell a few jokes and then go home." In 2015, Moloney celebrated his 20th anniversary with Neighbours. Series producer Jason Herbison told Inside Soap that a major storyline was planned for Toadie, featuring returning characters connected to him.
Development
Characterisation
Toadie's nickname was derived from the toadfishes of Australia. The serial's official website described a young Toadie as "fun-loving, mischievous and the class clown." TV Week branded Toadie "another troubled-teen-turned-good" who was "fond of a practical joke". Soap opera reporting website, Holy Soap, said he was "initially a bit of a layabout" that "got his act together and qualified as a lawyer." He also observed him as coming in "as a rough bloke and now he's a nancy." Toadie is portrayed as an "unlucky in love character". He would often be played as the "third-wheel" alongside Billy Kennedy (Jesse Spencer), who was more popular with female characters. In 2003, Moloney said: "Billy always got the chicks and it annoyed me because I wanted a chance at pashing someone... and now it's all making up for lost time." Moloney said when Toadie is "not in love and when he's not heartbroken" he has the ability to do anything he wants.
Toadie's persona is similar to Moloney's in the sense that they both "mess around". He further added, "In fact he is me, seeing how much fun and frivolity I can get away with." Molony documented Toadie changing from "a bit of a bad boy" into a "lawyer who’s supposedly a responsible member of the community." He felt that, to begin with, Toadie was not a good lawyer, because many of his clients would receive prison sentences. On Toadie's professionalism, Moloney said he is the type of lawyer that "probably likes to take his pants off behind the desk."
Toadie's image has changed repeatedly during his tenure. When he first appeared in 1995, he had long hair. He used to style a mullet similar to Scott Robinson's (Jason Donovan) hairstyle. Moloney jested that it appeared as though a possum was on his head. The character later sported a ponytail. When Moloney wanted to cut his hair, the writers chose to incorporate his decision into a storyline in which a "reluctant" Toadie offers to have his hair cut for charity.
Relationships
In one storyline Toadie and Connor O'Neill (Patrick Harvey) decide to take part in local wrestling, where he meets Genevieve Doyle (Lulu McClatchy). Moloney was required to train and learn wrestling routines in preparation for his scenes. He found it "physical and hard" to perform the stunts, without bringing any harm to himself or colleagues.
Toadie begins a relationship with old friend Steph Scully (Carla Bonner). Their relationship develops after Steph's marriage to Max Hoyland (Stephen Lovatt) falls apart. During an interview with What's on TV, Bonner said they have been friends for years, "but it’s never extended beyond friendship until now." Bonner thought it was "inevitable" because they spent so much time together and he fitted into her life. She concluded "Toadie’s been a fantastic support to Steph, there every step of the way." They later become engaged. Describing the developments in Toadie and Steph's relationship during 2008, Dan Bennet speaking for Network Ten stated: "Steph has already agreed to a long engagement with Toadie, but she's not ready to marry. This relationship will reach a massive fork in the road early in the new year. Toadie will force Steph to decide what she wants from this relationship." Moloney said that considering Toadie's ill-fated association with weddings, he "should stay single forever. It's safer that way." Executive Producer Susan Bower said Toadie and Steph would always be "soul mates." Although she opined they did not have real love between them and there were other characters more suited to Steph.
In 2008, viewers saw Toadie trying to adopt an East Timorese orphan, after claiming that he had lived in Indonesia for 12 months. Producers decided to stop the storyline at the last minute and they introduced Callum Jones (Morgan Baker) for Toadie instead. Of the axed storyline, Moloney said "I thought was just ridiculous. And it was just to spite Steph! I was like, 'What are we doing?'" To begin with Toadie is more of a brother figure to Callum. Moloney said this was because Toadie "has no idea what he is doing with kids and constantly gets angry and shouts at him first. He then thinks about his actions and tries to think how he can get through to him better." Bower was pleased with their progression. She said Toadie was "working incredibly well with Mini Me" Callum. Toadie becomes close to Callum's teacher, Kelly Katsis (Katrina Milosevic). Though they date and kiss, nothing more happens between the pair. Moloney said that Toadie's newfound parental role had to come foremost to his own feelings. Moloney added "He's new to fatherhood and it's like baptism of fire." Though he did feel that Kelly would have been a good character to keep in Toadie's life. Callum started emulating certain characteristics of Toadie, Moloney said that he was like a young version of his character.
Sonya Mitchell
Toadie meets Sonya Mitchell (Eve Morey) and they begin a relationship. Moloney told Holy Soap that Sonya is Toadie's "someone special" and that she is perfect for him. Of Sonya, Moloney said "She's funny and a little bit zany and really accepting and loving as well." However, their relationship ends when Toadie reveals that he is back together with Steph. Toadie leaves Sonya "heartbroken", though he keeps the fact it is a sham a secret. Toadie becomes torn when Sonya tells him she loves him, but he carries on the lie. Of the situation, Moloney said "Toadie is in love with Sonya, but he's had to give up the chance to follow his heart. Now we see that he really wants nothing more than to be able to tell her he loves her and that he wants to be with her – but he just can't." Toadie realises that Sonya still loves him when he notices she is still wearing the bracelet he gave her. Toadie becomes jealous of Sonya's new boyfriend David Foster (Ben Ridgwell). Sonya discovers that the wedding is a sham and the baby is not Toadie's. She agrees to wait for Toadie, but Steph's secret is revealed early and Sonya and Toadie decide to start their relationship over.
Callum wins tickets for a tropical cruise and he decides to give them to Toadie and Sonya. Toadie meets Eli Baker (P.J. Lane), Sonya's ex-boyfriend, on the trip. Eli brings "out an inferiority complex" in Toadie and he feels challenged by him. Toadie and Eli compete in a karaoke competition. The scenes for the cruise storyline were filmed in late August 2010, around Darling Harbour and on board the Pacific Jewel. The episodes marked only the second time Neighbours had filmed outside of Victoria. The actors and crew took five hours to shoot on and around the Pacific Jewel's running track and circus arena on the top deck. In February 2011, Morey revealed that she would like to see Toadie and Sonya have children together in the future. Toadie discovers that Sonya is Callum's mother and Morey explained that Toadie's reaction is one of devastation. Toadie has to ask Sonya if she ever loved him or was only with him to get Callum. Dieter Brummer joined the cast as Sonya's ex-boyfriend, Troy Miller in March 2011. Brummer told TV Week that Troy will cause waves between Sonya and Toadie.
Character reflection
In 2022, it was announced that Neighbours would be airing its final scenes on 28 July 2022. While talking to Shivani Dubey of Digital Spy, Moloney revealed that he had considered quitting the serial in the past. He admitted that he did not expect to be on the serial for 27 years and called each contract a "blessing". He continued, "There were times I thought about leaving, especially when I was growing up. My friends on the show came in, had a great time and then left for their adventure, either in the UK, US or Australia. I actually feel as though now I'm about to go on my adventure, and I get to see what else is going to happen from this point on. I'm really excited about it." When asked about his time on the serial, Moloney recalled of his casting, "I was just happy to have a job! I was a 15 year old kid and didn't really grasp the concept of it being anything more than that. I was just ready to turn up, have fun and go home."
Storylines
Toadfish is a practical joker at school and he soon becomes close friends with Billy Kennedy. Toadie comes into conflict with Billy's father, Karl (Alan Fletcher) because of his behaviour and his mother Angie (Lesley Baker) later sends him to live with his aunt Coral (Denise Scott). A few months later, Toadie is sent back to Erinsborough and he decides to try to make a go of things at school. Toadie discovers that he has an above average IQ and is put into an accelerated learning class, but he keeps up his mischievous ways. Toadie becomes good friends with Hannah Martin (Rebecca Ritters) and Lance Wilkinson (Andrew Bibby). Toadie is horrified to learn that his mother and father plan to leave Erinsborough, so he and Billy convince Karl and Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne) to let Toadie move in. Toadie passes his exams and studies law at Eden Hills University. He becomes a popular DJ on Uni FM, moves in with Lou Carpenter (Tom Oliver) and takes a job at Lou's Place. Toadie moves into Number 30 with Sarah Beaumont (Nicola Charles) and Joel Samuels (Daniel MacPherson). Toadie briefly becomes a guardian to his cousin, Tad (Jonathon Dutton). Toadie and Joel meet Dee Bliss (Madeleine West) and Vanessa Bradshaw (Julieanne Tait) on a night out. Dee later moves in with them.
Toadie is not happy when Geri Hallett (Isabella Dunwill) becomes his new Uni FM co-host and he plots to get her fired. His new co-host is Steph and Toadie develops feelings for her, but they decide to just be friends. Toadie is sacked from Uni FM, when he gives out some illegal advice. He is charged with inciting a crime and he decides to defend himself. Toadie becomes friends with law student Maggie Hancock (Sally Cooper) and she helps Toadie win his case. A romance develops between Toadie and Sheena Wilson (Zoe Stark), but when he tells her that her mother keeps coming onto him, Sheena breaks up with him. Toadie gets a job with a corporate law firm and becomes involved in Karl and Susan's divorce. He later works for Tim Collins (Ben Anderson). Toadie falls in love with Dee and the couple get engaged. Shortly after they wed, Toadie drives their car off a cliff into the sea and Dee goes missing, devastating Toadie. A while later, Toadie falls for Sindi Watts (Marisa Warrington) and they start dating. With his friend, Connor, Toadie becomes a wrestler. He meets Genevieve and they begin a relationship, but it ends when she goes on tour.
Toadie is left a bikini store by client and he runs it with Connor. When Connor goes missing, Toadie believes he has been killed by Robert Robinson (Adam Hunter). Connor later sends Toadie some gifts and proves he is still alive. Toadie is shot in the back by Guy Sykes (Fletcher Humphrys) and he almost dies. Steph tells Toadie that she loves him, but she goes back to her husband. Toadie dates Abby Stafford (Louise Crawford), but their relationship ends when he realises that he is still in love with Steph. Toadie and Steph become a couple and they get engaged. However, on their wedding day, Toadie realises that Steph does not love him and he leaves her to go travelling. Toadie becomes Callum Jones's guardian after his grandmother is taken to hospital. Toadie briefly dates Callum's teacher, Kelly. Guy Sykes returns and holds Toadie and Callum hostage. Toadie helps Callum escape and wrestles Guy to the ground, before the police arrive. Toadie discovers that his dog Bob has cancer and he has him put to sleep. Bob's ashes are scattered at the lake.
Toadie gets Callum a new dog called Rocky and they train him to be a guide dog. During Rocky's training, Toadie and Callum are visited by Sonya Mitchell. Toadie asks her out, but she initially turns him down. Toadie and Elle Robinson (Pippa Black) believe Sonya and Lucas Fitzgerald (Scott Major) are seeing each other, but Sonya reveals she is his Gamblers Anonymous sponsor. Sonya and Toadie begin a relationship. Toadie agrees to help Steph cover up the fact she is pregnant with Daniel Fitzgerald's (Brett Tucker) baby. They tell their family and friends that they are back together and they decide to get married. Toadie eventually tells Sonya the truth and asks her to wait for him. Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis) starts blackmailing Toadie and later reveals Steph's secret during a public event, devastating Dan's wife Libby Kennedy (Kym Valentine). Toadie falls out with Libby, while Karl and Susan tell Toadie that he is no longer part of the family. Callum also becomes angry with Toadie, but Sonya gets them talking again.
Toadie defends Steph when she is charged with the accidental death of Ringo Brown (Sam Clark), but she is sent to prison. Sonya moves in, as does her sister, Jade (Gemma Pranita), who clashes with Toadie. Callum tries to find his mother and realises that she is Sonya. Toadie asks her to leave and cuts off contact with her. Toadie calls Harold Bishop (Ian Smith) for help, while Lucas convinces Toadie that Sonya loves him. Callum's father, Troy Miller (Dieter Brummer), arrives and Toadie allows Callum and Troy to spend time together. Sonya and Toadie get back together. Troy turns nasty and punches Toadie, before Callum tells him to leave. Toadie takes a job with law firm Simmons & Colbert, so he and Sonya can get a loan to purchase the community gardens. Toadie begins representing The Hamilton Group, who want to build a new shopping complex in Erinsborough. Toadie is forced into relocating the development's car park or risk being fired by Peter Noonan (James Saunders).
Toadie offers Lucas, Lou and Kyle Canning (Chris Milligan) money for their businesses, so the car park can be built in their place. Lou accepts the offer on Kyle's behalf, while Lucas declines it. Peter start putting pressure on Toadie to get Lucas to sell. Lucas declines all of Toadie's offers and he blames the law firm for sabotaging his garage. When Lucas's apprentice, Chris Pappas (James Mason), is attacked, Toadie is questioned by the police and he realises that Peter is setting him up. Paul gives him an alibi, but the wrench Chris was attacked with is found in Toadie's car. Lewis Walton (Andy McPhee) is later arrested for attacking Chris, but he states that Toadie hired him. Toadie poses as Lewis' lawyer and when Lewis does not recognise him, the charges against him are dropped. Charlotte McKemmie (Meredith Penman) takes over Peter's job and informs Toadie that he is being let go from the law firm. However, after Toadie decides to sue for wrongful dismissal, he is given his job back.
Sonya and Toadie struggle to conceive a child and a fertility test shows that Toadie has a low sperm count. Toadie starts a health kick in a bid to increase his chances of conception, but test results indicate his count is still low. Toadie suggests they try IVF or a sperm donor, but Sonya tells him that she knows that it is not what he wants. Before donating blood at the hospital, Sonya takes a pregnancy test and learns that she is pregnant. Troy purchases Number 32 and makes it clear that he wants to be a part of Callum's life. He hires Toadie's friend Ajay Kapoor (Sachin Joab) to help him gain access. When Troy goads Toadie about Sonya and the baby, Toadie punches him and is later served with an intervention order. He is forced to leave the street. Sonya collapses from the stress, but she and the baby are fine. Troy drops the custody case when Callum agrees to spend time with him.
Troy holds Sonya and Jade hostage, but is injured during their escape. Toadie finds Troy unconscious on the floor, but when he returns with the paramedics, Troy is gone. He is later admitted to hospital, but he leaves early to go to the school to get Callum. Toadie finds them and tries to reason with Troy. When Callum tells him to go, Troy tries to drive away, but dies from a head injury. Toadie and Callum attend his funeral together. Toadie starts a Twitter account for the baby and tries to be Sonya's birthing coach as he feels left out of the pregnancy. When they learn they are having a daughter, Toadie and Sonya decide to name her Nell. Toadie's cousin, Georgia Brooks (Saskia Hampele), moves in and Connor turns up after six years. He and Toadie soon revert to their House of Trouser ways. Toadie proposes to Sonya and she accepts. Sonya gives birth to Nell (Scarlett Anderson) via caesarean section. She falls unconscious and has to undergo surgery, leaving Toadie and Callum to care for Nell on their own for a few days.
Despite believing his wedding is jinxed, Toadie and Sonya marry. However, during the reception a gas bottle explodes, causing the marquee to collapse and injure Sonya, who suffers amnesia. Her memories return when Toadie organises a vow renewal ceremony for them. Steph returns to Erinsborough following her release from prison. She refuses to forgive Toadie for botching her case, but later apologises to him when she is arrested again. Ajay and Toadie go into partnership together. When Sonya is threatened by Robbo Slade (Aaron Jakubenko), as she is the witness in his court case, Toadie tries to protect his wife. After Robbo spikes Toadie's drink, he wakes up the next morning with no memory of the night before. Robbo dies after being involved in a hit-and-run and Toadie is convinced he did it. However, Hudson Walsh (Remy Hii) admits that he was responsible for Robbo's death. Toadie and Sonya's marriage becomes strained when she starts spending less time at home with her family to help out other people, including single father Jacob Holmes (Clayton Watson), who kisses her.
Toadie hires Naomi Canning (Morgana O'Reilly) as his executive assistant. He is impressed when she brings in new business and offers her comfort when she reveals that she is being stalked. Callum gets a scholarship to a school in the United States and Toadie convinces Sonya to let him go. Naomi admits she has feelings for Toadie and kisses him. He realises that she has been manipulating him and Sonya, and fires her. Sonya and Toadie agree to cut back on their work, so that they can spend more time together as a couple. Toadie is hit by a car driven by Kathy Carpenter (Tina Bursill) and he suffers a fractured coccyx. Toadie receives a poison pen letter detailing Sonya's addictions. After he and the neighbours receive more letters, Toadie asks Mark Brennan (Scott McGregor) for his help in identifying the sender. It later emerges that Sonya's former best friend Erin Rogers (Adrienne Pickering) sent the letters, as she blames Sonya for introducing her to drugs. Sonya invites Erin to stay and her daughter Cat (Maleeka Gasbarri) visits. Cat bonds with Toadie and later asks to live with him and Sonya, but they help her to reconcile with her foster mother. Toadie helps Kyle out for the day, but accidentally causes a power outage.
While attending an open day for the new childcare centre, Toadie is injured when he tries to rescue Nell from a bouncy castle that is not anchored to the ground. He is unable to feel his legs and undergoes surgery to stabilise a T5 vertebra fracture. Karl informs Sonya that the surgeon was unable to remove the bullet that is still there and that Toadie may be paralysed. Angie returns to help out. Toadie struggles to accept his condition and the fact that he will have to use a wheelchair. After learning that his clients are leaving him, Toadie considers suing Naomi for compensation, but decides against it. On his return home, Toadie's confidence is knocked when Nell refuses to hug him, as she is scared of his wheelchair. In a bid to prove to Sonya that he can cope without her, Toadie looks after Nell alone, but he is unable to go after her when she runs outside and is almost hit by Sonya's car. Toadie's brother Stonefish visits to offer his support, and he encourages Toadie to attend a benefit in his honour. Steph returns, trying to rebuild her life, and she and Toadie make a pact to support each other. Toadie has surgery to remove the bullet from his spine, which he hopes will enable him to walk again. Belinda Bell (Nikki Shiels) threatens Toadie, as she believes he reported her relationship with Steph to the hospital board. Sonya interrupts Toadie's operation, fearing Belinda will sabotage it, causing a complication that leaves Toadie unable to have more children.
After he is discharged, Sonya asks Belinda to assist Toadie's rehabilitation, and he begins walking again. Sonya tells Toadie that she hired Belinda because she was worried about his bond with Steph, causing a brief rift in their marriage. Toadie is trapped inside Lassiter's following a boiler explosion, but is later rescued. Toadie tries to keep Sonya's uncle Walter (Greg Stone) from meeting her, as he is not yet sober. However, Walter arrives in town and they are reunited. Steph tries to persuade Toadie to represent Paul in his trial for the Lassiter's explosion, but he only agrees to do it if Paul pleads guilty. Toadie is shocked when Sonya suggests that she act as a surrogate for Steph and Mark, as Steph cannot cope with a pregnancy on account of her mental health problems. He agrees to talk to the couple about the idea, but is relieved when they reject it. He starts looking into ways of him and Sonya having another baby, but his plans are thrown when Steph and Mark change their mind. Toadie gets back on board with the plan again, realising Nell is enough for him and Sonya. Stonie sends Toadie a photo he took of a woman that looks like Dee, leaving Toadie to wonder if she is still alive. He contemplates hiring a private investigator to look into her disappearance. Sonya announces she is pregnant with Mark's child.
Dee shows up at Number 30, and explains how she survived the car crash. Toadie helps Dee with her claim on her family's estate. She later reveals that she was pregnant at the time of the car accident and introduces Toadie to their daughter Willow (Mieke Billing-Smith). Toadie bonds with Willow and helps her gain entry to a private school. He struggles with his feelings for Dee, and Sonya's closeness with Mark. Toadie hands over a bankers draft for $100,000 to Dee, and he later finds that she and Willow have left town for London. With Sonya's blessing, Toadie goes to London to find them. When Toadie calls home, Nell answers the phone and tells him Sonya is in bed with Mark. He assumes that Sonya has cheated on him and confronts her during a video call. He fails to close the call properly, and when Dee comes to his room to talk, Sonya sees him and Dee have sex. While Dee is in the shower, Toadie finds her passport with the name Andrea Somers (West) on it. She soon admits that she is not Dee, but she does love him. Toadie rejects her and quickly leaves the hotel. Willow tries to talk to him, but he walks into the road and is hit by a taxi. At the hospital, Karl visits him and reveals that Sonya has had a miscarriage and that she saw him have sex with Andrea.
Upon his return to Erinsborough, he misses the memorial for Caitlin and rushes to see Sonya. Consumed by her grief, Sonya resolves to end their marriage and Toadie moves in with Shane and his family. Toadie vows to salvage his marriage and is devastated when a broken Sonya relapses. Angie urges him to fight Sonya for custody of Nell, but he refuses and brings Callum back to Australia in an attempt to pull Sonya back on track. She eventually agrees to return home and things improve between her and Toadie. Willow briefly returns to Erinsborough and Toadie forgives her for her part in Andrea's scheme. He helps her reconnect with her biological father and she moves away. Sonya urges Toadie to work through his grief for Dee and he begins seeing a psychologist, Sam Feldman (Alex Tsitsopoulos). He later learns Sam is a former boyfriend of Sonya and becomes jealous of their rekindled friendship. The situation makes Sonya realise she loves Toadie and they finally reconcile; he moves back into No.30 and they renew their wedding vows. Months after their reunion, Sonya convinces Toadie to hire a private detective to find Andrea and reclaim their missing $100,000. Willow urges them to stay away from Andrea; it later transpires that Toadie's one-night stand with Andrea resulted in her falling pregnant. Sindi Watts arrives in Erinsborough with Toadie and Andrea's six-month-old son, Hugo Somers (John Turner). While Toadie is quickly smitten with Hugo, Sonya struggles with the idea of raising Andrea's child, and she later tracks Andrea to a psychiatric facility in Hobart. Toadie visits Andrea, who is delusional and believes she is Dee. Sonya commits to raising Hugo and the Rebecchis agree to pay for Andrea's care on the condition she has no contact with them.
Toadie and Sonya struggle to raise Nell and Hugo alongside running their businesses and hire Alice Wells (Kerry Armstrong) as their live-in nanny. Sonya begins behaving strangely and Toadie worries that she may have relapsed. She later disappears, but it conspires that Alice – whose real name is Heather Schilling and is Andrea's biological mother – has been drugging Sonya with strong painkillers and has poisoned her. With the help of Willow, Toadie finds Sonya at the roadside and rushes her to hospital. Sonya is discharged but remains in pain for several weeks. She collapses and tests reveal she has stage four ovarian cancer. Toadie is devastated and supports his wife as she begins intensive chemotherapy. Sonya visits Andrea and convinces her to give Toadie full custody of Hugo. Sonya's cancer becomes public knowledge and both Callum and Jade return to Erinsborough to support the family. However, Sonya's health deteriorates rapidly and she dies in Toadie's arms during a visit to the beach. After Sonya's memorial, Toadie decides to take Nell and Hugo overseas, staying close to Callum as they work through their grief.
When Toadie returns, he is unhappy to learn that Finn Kelly (Rob Mills), who had poisoned Nell two years earlier, is now living with the Kennedys, and that Imogen Willis (Ariel Kaplan) has been defending him. He initially distances himself from the Kennedys, but they later reconcile. Toadie later defends Finn when he is accused of assaulting an obsessed fan. A few months later, he discovers that Andrea believes that Dee may still be alive. After reluctantly accepting offers from Karl to put Andrea and Heather under hypnosis, he decides to try and track down a "Karen" whom they claim to be Dee. Dee later returns to Ramsay Street after Andrea attempts to kill her and she is rescued by Heather. She reveals to Toadie that she has been living in Byron Bay and had been targeted by a criminal group called the Zantucks who mistook her for Andrea and tampered with their wedding car. It is later revealed that Dee was adopted, and is Andrea's twin and Heather's daughter. After realising it is too soon to move on from Sonya, he and Dee say their goodbyes.
Toadie later helps his niece Kirsha Rebecchi (Vani Dhir) as she applies to attend a special school in Sydney. This angers Shane and his wife Dipi (Sharon Johal) but they later reconcile. The following year, Toadie struggles as Sonya's first anniversary is approaching, unsure of how to commemorate her. When Roxy Willis (Zima Anderson) inadvertently wears Sonya's wedding dress to the Lassiter's Wedding Expo, he lashes out at her though later apologises. Sometime later, he agrees to accompany Finn to Pierce Greyson's (Tim Robards) island for Elly Conway's (Jodi Anasta) birthday celebrations. Toadie is stunned when Finn tells her that Elly's sister Bea Nilsson (Bonnie Anderson) has returned to Sydney on the islanders' dinghy. As he prepares to leave, he discovers the dinghy hidden in some bushes. He informs Finn, who attacks him, reveals that he attempted to kill Bea as he did not want a relationship with her anymore, and pushes Toadie out to sea after puncturing the bottom of the dinghy and placing his body in it. Paul later rescues Toadie, and they are briefly held hostage by Harry Sinclair (Paul Dawber). After learning what Finn did to Toadie and spotting the island on fire, Harry allows him and Paul to go to the island and rescue the others on the island.
Dee later returns to Ramsay Street after Andrea insists on meeting with her again. She and Toadie decide to recommence their relationship. However, Elly, who has been wrongly imprisoned for killing Finn and is Andrea's cellmate, warns them that Andrea is attempting to gain custody of Hugo by connecting with Dee. Dee supports Toadie as he attempts to appeal Elly's sentence. However, their relationship falls apart after Dee decides to connect with Heather despite Toadie's warnings and Toadie refusing to allow it. They later break up. On another visit to the prison, Andrea and Owen Campbell (Johnny Ruffo) drug and attack Dee, allowing for Andrea to escape and kidnap Hugo pretending to be Dee. Heather later traps Andrea at Erinsborough High, and she is arrested. Although grateful towards Heather for helping him, Toadie remains angry at her and Dee for being part of the reason Andrea escaped and, despite Shane and Dipi attempting to convince him to talk to her, he refuses to see Dee. A private investigator tracks down Dee's biological father Peter Wilson, who is living in Alaska, and Toadie informs Dee of Peter's whereabouts and that he has lung cancer. With Heather having a prison transfer due to Toadie and Andrea's anger at her, Dee decides to leave and meet Peter in Alaska after reconciling with Toadie.
Toadie begins a casual relationship with his personal assistant, Melanie Pearson, which later becomes serious, they married in 2022, but Melanie soon realises that step-motherhood is not for her. Toadie marries Terese Willis in September 2023.
Reception
For his portrayal of Toadie, Moloney was nominated for a Rose d'Or award for Best Actor in a Soap in 2004. In 2010, Moloney won the very first Best Daytime Star award at the Inside Soap Awards. Moloney won the award for a second and third time in 2011 and 2012 respectively. He was nominated in the same category at the 2017 Inside Soap Awards. He progressed to the viewer-voted shortlist, but lost out to Lorna Laidlaw, who portrays Mrs Tembe on Doctors. In 2019, Moloney received a nomination for the Logie Award for Most Popular Actor, and he won the Inside Soap Best Daytime Star Award for a fourth time.
In 2008, men's magazine Zoo Weekly placed Toadie on their annual Top 50 People We Hate List. Zoo editor Paul Merrill said "Toadie has just been on the show for too long, he's not a great character and we wish he wasn't on the show." Though, in a survey carried out by Yahoo! to find viewers favourite Neighbours character of all time, Toadie came joint second with Harold Bishop with 15 per cent of the votes. Stephen Moynihan writing for The Age said Toadie is one of the "most enduring and popular characters" in Neighbours.
The Herald Sun's Siobhan Duck included Toadie and Dee's wedding day tragedy on a list of "Top 6 Neighbours moments". Whilst Duck's colleague Darren Devlyn said it was one of Neighbours' most memorable weddings. Herald Sun readers also voted the wedding as the third "most memorable" moment in Neighbours history. Daniel Kilkelly and Ryan Love of Digital Spy also shared Devlyn's sentiment. They said the wedding caused "a whole flood" of tears to the eye and said the ceremony was like a "fairytale". They concluded "as for Toadie, his luck when it came to weddings never did get any better…"
In 2010, to celebrate Neighbours' 25th anniversary Sky, a British satellite broadcasting company profiled 25 characters of which they believed were the most memorable in the series' history. Toadie is in the list and describing him they state: "Toadie – or Jarrod, to his bogan mother – has taken the mantle from Harold of looking after the Ramsay Street flock, ending his time as the errant child of the Street. After all, he entered the show as a bad influence on pretty boy Billy Kennedy, and there was that weird period when he ran a bikini store, Bounce, with House of Trouser co-member Connor. There's something a little Ian Beale about the character – he's slightly annoying, it's difficult to care about his plots and you dread the day he's going to attempt a sex scene, but the show just wouldn't work without him." They also describe his most memorable scenes as the death of his wife Dee; looking after Callum; on-off relationship with Steph. Holy Soap also described Dee's death scenes as his most memorable. Roz Laws of the Sunday Mercury said Toadie and Callum shared an "unlikely love" for wrestling. She also wondered if he was actually up to the challenge of looking after Callum full-time.
Natalie Craig writing for The Sydney Morning Herald said Toadie was always destined for greatness. She said as a teenager he was a "major ratbag with a major mullet to match", but a genius at the same time. Craig opined many "memorable Toadie moments" occurred when he shared his home. She cited her favourite ever scene as being one in which Toadie, Joel and Lance had a stand-off over the washing up. Toadie was placed at number six on the Huffpost's "35 greatest Neighbours characters of all time" feature. Journalist Adam Beresford described him as an "Aussie everyman" with a "disastrous" love life; adding he is a "prime example" of the joy long-term featured characters give viewers. Beresford described his transformation from "class clown" to lawyer after he "ditched the Hawaiian shirts and the greasy ponytail." The critic concluded that Toadie "earned his place among the Neighbours greats." In 2022, Kate Randall from Heat included Toadie in the magazine's top ten Neighbours characters of all time feature. Randall opined that Toadie had "come a long way" to become a lawyer. She described him as once being a "ratbag with long hair and loud Hawaiian shirts." She added that Toadie and Stonefish "wreaked havoc" on Ramsay Street. Toadie was placed first in a poll ran via soap fansite "Back To The Bay", which asked readers to determine the top ten most popular Neighbours characters. In response the Daily Mirror's Susan Knox assessed that Toadie "has faced endless trials and tribulations". In an Irish Independent feature profiling "the top 12 Neighbours icons", Sheena McGinley titled Toadie as the most iconic. McGinley assessed that "Toadie's been many things — cheeky, caring, seemingly gifted in the bedroom department, a lawyer, and a dad." She continued to list his many stories but noted his comic persona. McGinley concluded that his comedy "is why he's the most multi-faceted, relatable character to ever grace the street." Lorna White from Yours profiled the magazine's "favourite Neighbours characters of all time". Toadie was included in the list and White stated that he had "become a hugely popular character in the series." A reporter from The Scotsman included Toadie and Sonya's wedding day explosion as one of the show's top five moments in its entire history. Toadie and Dee's wedding was placed at number five in a feature compiled for The Guardian, celebrating the show's most memorable moments. Critic Sam Strutt also likened Dee and Toadie's romance to the tale of the Beauty and the Beast.
References
External links
Toadfish Rebecchi at the Official Neighbours AU website
Toadfish Rebecchi at the Official Neighbours UK website
Neighbours characters
Fictional bartenders
Fictional lawyers
Fictional professional wrestlers
Fictional radio personalities
Television characters introduced in 1995
Male characters in television
Rebecchi family (Neighbours)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004%20NASCAR%20Busch%20Series
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2004 NASCAR Busch Series
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The 2004 NASCAR Busch Series began on February 14 and ended on November 20. Martin Truex Jr. of Chance 2 Motorsports won the championship.
2004 teams and drivers
Full schedule
Limited schedule
Henderson Motorsports (the No. 75 car, driven by Jay Sauter) and Henderson Racing (the No. 63 car, driven by Jimmy Henderson) are two different teams.
Schedule
Races
Hershey's Kisses 300
The Hershey's Kisses 300 started on February 14 but was postponed to February 16 due to rain. The race was held at Daytona International Speedway. Martin Truex Jr. won the pole. This was the first of NASCAR's top national touring series races to be broadcast in high definition.
Top ten results
8-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
27-Johnny Sauter
55-Robby Gordon
21-Kevin Harvick
17-Matt Kenseth
32-David Stremme
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
00-Jason Leffler
22-Jason Keller
37-David Green
Failed to qualify: Mike Harmon (#24), David Keith (#95), Stanton Barrett (#91), Kevin Conway (#51), Stan Boyd (#57), Regan Smith (#56), Kim Crosby (#28), Robby Benton (#39), Mark Martin (#9), Brian Conz (#05), Norm Benning (#84)
Goody's Headache Powder 200
The Goody's Headache Powder 200 was held on February 21 at North Carolina Speedway. Johnny Benson won the pole.
Top ten results
30-Jamie McMurray
8-Martin Truex Jr.
21-Kevin Harvick
99-Michael Waltrip
37-David Green
27-Johnny Sauter
5-Kyle Busch
25-Bobby Hamilton Jr.
1-Johnny Benson
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
Failed to qualify: Kenny Wallace (#23)*, Shane Sieg (#51), Eddie Beahr (#94), Paul Wolfe (#6), Jerry Reary (#41)
This was McMurray's 4th consecutive Busch series victory at North Carolina Speedway.
Kenny Wallace drove Stanton Barrett's #91 car for the race after failing to qualify.
Sam's Town 300
The Sam's Town 300 was held on March 6 at Las Vegas Motor Speedway. Mike Bliss won the pole. Johnny Sauter, who finished in 16th suffered a 25-point penalty after the race for cursing in his on-air interview.
Top ten results
21-Kevin Harvick
38-Kasey Kahne
32-David Stremme
99-Michael Waltrip
25-Bobby Hamilton Jr.
9-Matt Kenseth
12-Tim Fedewa
22-Jason Keller
87-Joe Nemechek
60-Greg Biffle
Failed to qualify: Andy Ponstein (#39), David Starr (#50), Larry Gunselman (#72), Damon Lusk (#74), Bruce Bechtel (#52), Randy Briggs (#85)
Diamond Hill Plywood 200
The Diamond Hill Plywood 200 was held on March 20 at Darlington Raceway. Kyle Busch won the pole.
Top ten results
60-Greg Biffle
9-Jeff Burton
37-David Green
8-Martin Truex Jr.
32-David Stremme
1-Johnny Benson
55-Robby Gordon
99-Michael Waltrip
14-Casey Atwood
20-Mike Bliss
Failed to qualify: Eddie Beahr (#94), Norm Benning (#84)
Sharpie Professional 250
The Sharpie Professional 250 was held on March 27 at Bristol Motor Speedway. Greg Biffle won the pole.
Top ten results
8-Martin Truex Jr.
21-Kevin Harvick
5-Kyle Busch
60-Greg Biffle
37-David Green
74-Tony Raines
99-Michael Waltrip
22-Jason Keller
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
4-Mike Wallace
This was Truex's first career victory.
Failed to qualify: Justin Ashburn (#16), Butch Jarvis (#53), Mike Potter (#0)
O'Reilly 300
The O'Reilly 300 was held on April 3 at Texas Motor Speedway. Kyle Busch won the pole.
Top ten results
17-Matt Kenseth
5-Kyle Busch
55-Robby Gordon
1-Johnny Benson
25-Bobby Hamilton Jr.
00-Jason Leffler
87-Joe Nemechek
37-David Green
9-Jeff Burton
8-Martin Truex Jr.
Failed to qualify: Stan Boyd (#51), Brad Teague (#39), Blake Mallory (#0), Donnie Neuenberger (#77), Justin Ashburn (#16), Bruce Bechtel (#52)
Pepsi 300
The Pepsi 300 was held on April 10 at Nashville Superspeedway. Martin Truex Jr. won the pole. Michael Waltrip won the race after Robby Gordon, Johnny Benson, Clint Bowyer, and Kyle Busch tangled on the backstretch while battling for the lead.
Top ten results
99-Michael Waltrip
27-Johnny Sauter
38-Kasey Kahne
21-Clint Bowyer
55-Robby Gordon
5-Kyle Busch
1-Johnny Benson
20-Mike Bliss
22-Jason Leffler
37-David Green
Failed to qualify: Shane Wallace (#63), Stan Boyd (#51), Justin Ashburn (#16), Chad Chaffin (#77), Mike Harmon (#24), Greg Sacks (#0), Morgan Shepherd (#89), Jimmy Kitchens (#97), Eddie Beahr (#94), Norm Benning (#84), Brad Baker (#85)
Aaron's 312 (Talladega)
The Aaron's 312 was held on April 24 at Talladega Superspeedway. Clint Bowyer won the pole.
Top ten results
8-Martin Truex Jr.
81-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
5-Kyle Busch
00-Jason Leffler
23-Kenny Wallace
55-Robby Gordon
99-Michael Waltrip
37-David Green
87-Joe Nemechek
Failed to qualify: Gus Wasson (#0), Robby Benton (#03)
Stater Brothers 300 presented by Gatorade
The Stater Brothers 300 presented by Gatorade was held on May 1 at California Speedway. Jason Leffler won the pole.
Top ten results
60-Greg Biffle
29-Tony Stewart
59-Stacy Compton
17-Matt Kenseth
38-Kasey Kahne
99-Michael Waltrip
5-Kyle Busch
21-Kevin Harvick
23-Kenny Wallace
25-Bobby Hamilton Jr.
Failed to qualify: Johnny Borneman III (#35), David Starr (#50), Bruce Bechtel (#57), Stanton Barrett (#91)
Charter 250
The Charter 250 was held on May 8 at Gateway International Raceway. Martin Truex Jr. won the pole.
Top ten results
8-Martin Truex Jr.
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
22-Jason Keller
25-Bobby Hamilton Jr.
5-Kyle Busch
00-Jason Leffler
60-Greg Biffle
32-David Stremme
12-Tim Fedewa
55-Robby Gordon
Failed to qualify: Clint Vahsholtz (#90), Brad Teague (#53), Shane Wallace (#63), Dion Ciccarelli (#84), Randy Briggs (#85)
Funai 250
The Funai 250 was held on May 14 at Richmond International Raceway. Kyle Busch won the pole.
Top ten results
5-Kyle Busch
60-Greg Biffle
21-Kevin Harvick
25-Bobby Hamilton Jr.
22-Jason Keller
37-David Green
8-Martin Truex Jr.
20-Mike Bliss
23-Kenny Wallace
38-Kasey Kahne
This was Busch's first career victory.
Failed to qualify: Eddie Beahr (#94), Chad Beahr (#90)
Goulds Pumps/ITT Industries 200
The Goulds Pumps/ITT Industries 200 was held on May 23 at Nazareth Speedway. Kyle Busch won the pole. This was the last race at Nazareth. Jason Rudd, who finished 42nd, suffered a 25-point penalty for unknown reasons.
Top ten results
8-Martin Truex Jr.
25-Bobby Hamilton Jr.
37-David Green
22-Jason Keller
32-David Stremme
14-Casey Atwood
00-Jason Leffler
99-Michael Waltrip
23-Kenny Wallace
5-Kyle Busch
Failed to qualify: none
Carquest Auto Parts 300
The Carquest Auto Parts 300 was held on May 29 at Lowe's Motor Speedway. Greg Biffle won the pole.
Top ten results
5-Kyle Busch
1-Jamie McMurray
21-Kevin Harvick
00-Jason Leffler
29-Tony Stewart
60-Greg Biffle
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
32-David Stremme
23-Kenny Wallace
46-Ashton Lewis
Failed to qualify: Regan Smith (#56), J. J. Yeley (#18)
MBNA America 200
The MBNA America 200 was held on June 5–7 at Dover International Speedway. David Green won the pole. Ron Hornaday Jr., who finished 29th, suffered a 25-point penalty for cursing in a radio interview during the race
Top ten results
60-Greg Biffle
8-Martin Truex Jr.
37-David Green
25-Bobby Hamilton Jr.
5-Kyle Busch
21-Kevin Harvick
38-Kasey Kahne
1-Jamie McMurray
12-Tim Fedewa
27-Johnny Sauter
Failed to qualify: Dion Ciccarelli (#84)
Federated Auto Parts 300
The Federated Auto Parts 300 was held on June 12 at Nashville Superspeedway. Martin Truex Jr. won the pole.
Top ten results
00-Jason Leffler
8-Martin Truex Jr.
21-Clint Bowyer
20-Mike Bliss
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
38-Kasey Kahne
14-Casey Atwood
18-J. J. Yeley
46-Ashton Lewis
59-Stacy Compton
This was Leffler's first career victory.
Failed to qualify: Justin Ashburn (#16), Joe Buford (#53), Steven Christian (#34), Eddie Beahr (#94), David Keith (#0)
Meijer 300 presented by Oreo
The Meijer 300 presented by Oreo was held on June 19 at Kentucky Speedway. Martin Truex Jr. won the pole.
Top ten results
5-Kyle Busch
60-Greg Biffle
20-Mike Bliss
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
22-Jason Keller
8-Martin Truex Jr.
00-Jason Leffler
46-Ashton Lewis
32-David Stremme
21-Clint Bowyer
Failed to qualify: Brad Teague (#52), Shawna Robinson (#91), Stuart Kirby (#65), Justin Ashburn (#16), Chris Horn (#58)
Alan Kulwicki 250
The Alan Kulwicki 250 was held on June 26 at The Milwaukee Mile. David Stremme won the pole.
Top ten results
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
32-David Stremme
22-Jason Keller
38-Shane Hmiel
25-Bobby Hamilton Jr.
20-Mike Bliss
60-Greg Biffle
37-David Green
8-Martin Truex Jr.
21-Clint Bowyer
Failed to qualify: none
Winn-Dixie 250 presented by PepsiCo
The Winn-Dixie 250 presented by PepsiCo was held on July 2 at Daytona International Speedway. Mike Bliss won the pole.
Top ten results
4-Mike Wallace*
60-Greg Biffle
8-Martin Truex Jr.
47-Robert Pressley
20-Mike Bliss
38-Kasey Kahne
1-Casey Mears
21-Kevin Harvick
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
12-Tim Fedewa
This was Wallace's first victory since IRP in 1994. It was an emotional victory for Wallace, who was publicly thanked by Tony Stewart in victory lane for giving Tony, "some of the best advice I've ever got in my life."
Failed to qualify: Mike Harmon (#24), Brad Teague (#0)
Tropicana Twister 300
The Twister 300 was held on July 10 at Chicagoland Speedway. Bobby Hamilton Jr. won the pole. Justin Labonte won his first (and only) race, and this win is one of the biggest upsets in the Grand National Series history. With the win, there are three Labonte's with wins in NASCAR.
Top ten results
44-Justin Labonte
22-Jason Keller
9-Jeff Burton
38-Kasey Kahne
46-Ashton Lewis
55-Robby Gordon
00-Jason Leffler
37-David Green
18-J. J. Yeley
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
Failed to qualify: Jeff Fuller (#88), Blake Mallory (#51), Jimmy Kitchens (#77), Carl Long (#07), Larry Hollenbeck (#62), Stanton Barrett (#91), Kevin Conway (#56)
During qualifying, the trademark Tropicana orange was blown off its stand by severe wind, and driver Todd Szegedy narrowly avoided the wayward fruit. He was later granted an opportunity to re-qualify. This accident caused the sponsor of the Nextel and Busch races to change from Tropicana to various sponsors in 2005.
Siemens 200
The Siemens 200 was held on July 24 at New Hampshire International Speedway. Jamie McMurray won the pole.
Top ten results
17-Matt Kenseth
12-Tim Fedewa
00-Jason Leffler
38-Kasey Kahne
21-Kevin Harvick
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
23-Kenny Wallace
59-Stacy Compton
25-Bobby Hamilton Jr.
4-Mike Wallace
Failed to qualify: David Keith (#0), Dion Ciccarelli (#84), Randy MacDonald (#71), Bill Hoff (#93), Stuart Kirby (#65)
ITT Industries & Goulds Pumps Salute to the Troops 250
The ITT Industries & Goulds Pumps Salute to the Troops 250 was held on July 31 at Pikes Peak International Raceway. Martin Truex Jr. won the pole.
Top ten results
60-Greg Biffle
59-Stacy Compton
00-Jason Leffler
2-Clint Bowyer
8-Martin Truex Jr.
20-Mike Bliss
32-David Stremme
37-David Green
14-Casey Atwood
25-Bobby Hamilton Jr.
Failed to qualify: Mike Harmon (#08), Ron Barfield Jr. (#97), Ryck Sanders (#07), Tim Edwards (#73)
Kroger 200 presented by Tom Raper RVs
The Kroger 200 presented by Tom Raper RVs was held on August 7 at Indianapolis Raceway Park. Johnny Sauter won the pole.
Top ten results
5-Kyle Busch
27-Johnny Sauter
00-Jason Leffler
8-Martin Truex Jr.
60-Greg Biffle
25-Bobby Hamilton Jr.
20-Mike Bliss
14-Casey Atwood
23-Kenny Wallace
37-David Green
Failed to qualify: John Hayden (#16), Brad Teague (#52), Kenny Hendrick (#35), Roland Isaacs (#71), Jimmy Kitchens (#77), Butch Jarvis (#53), Dana White (#51)
Cabela's 250
The Cabela's 250 was held on August 21 at Michigan International Speedway. Martin Truex Jr. won the pole.
Top ten results
5-Kyle Busch
9-Mark Martin
8-Martin Truex Jr.
1-Casey Mears
38-Kasey Kahne
66-Rusty Wallace
00-Jason Leffler
60-Greg Biffle
4-Mike Wallace
20-Mike Bliss
Failed to qualify: Kevin Lepage (#71), Tony Stewart (#81), Paul Menard (#11), Skip Smith (#67), Shelby Howard (#35), Todd Szegedy (#7)
Food City 250
The Food City 250 was held on August 27 at Bristol Motor Speedway. Dale Earnhardt Jr. won the pole.
Top ten results
81-Dale Earnhardt Jr.
17-Matt Kenseth
5-Kyle Busch
21-Kevin Harvick
37-David Green
32-David Stremme
8-Martin Truex Jr.
22-Jason Keller
47-Robert Pressley
14-Casey Atwood
Failed to qualify: Brad Teague (#52), Joe Buford (#53), Mike Potter (#0), Cam Strader (#06), Morgan Shepherd (#51), Rick Markle (#68), Caleb Holman (#96), John Hayden (#16)
Target House 300
The Target House 300 was held on September 4 at California Speedway. Casey Mears won the pole.
Top ten results
60-Greg Biffle
1-Casey Mears
21-Kevin Harvick
38-Kasey Kahne
66-Jamie McMurray
8-Martin Truex Jr.
18-Bobby Labonte
87-Joe Nemechek
5-Kyle Busch
00-Jason Leffler
Failed to qualify: Morgan Shepherd (#57)
Emerson Radio 250
The Emerson Radio 250 was held on September 10 at Richmond International Raceway. Kasey Kahne won the pole.
Top ten results
55-Robby Gordon *
14-Casey Atwood
8-Martin Truex Jr.
00-Jason Leffler
5-Kyle Busch
20-Mike Bliss
21-Kevin Harvick
32-David Stremme
38-Kasey Kahne
27-Johnny Sauter
Failed to qualify: Mike Potter (#0), Todd Bodine (#31), Justin Labonte (#44), Eric McClure (#04), Jay Sauter (#75), Kevin Lepage (#71), Tim Sauter (#56), Eddie Beahr (#94), Wayne Edwards (#70), Jimmy Kitchens (#77), Tina Gordon (#39)
This was the only Busch Series (now Xfinity Series) victory for Robby Gordon, as well as his only NASCAR win for his own NASCAR team.
Stacker 200 presented by YJ Stinger
The Stacker 200 presented by YJ Stinger was on held September 25 at Dover International Speedway. Kasey Kahne won the pole.
Top ten results
8-Martin Truex Jr.
25-Mike McLaughlin
38-Kasey Kahne
00-Jason Leffler
27-Johnny Sauter
21-Kevin Harvick
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
9-Mark Martin
5-Kyle Busch
37-David Green
Failed to qualify: Morgan Shepherd (#71), Dion Ciccarelli (#84), Matt Kobyluck (#40), Bill Hoff (#93), Stan Boyd (#65)
Mr. Goodcents 300
The Mr. Goodcents 300 was held on October 9 at Kansas Speedway. Paul Menard won the pole.
Top ten results
87-Joe Nemechek
60-Greg Biffle
32-David Stremme
46-Ashton Lewis
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
18-J. J. Yeley
22-Jason Keller
1-Casey Mears
59-Stacy Compton
35-Wally Dallenbach Jr.
Failed to qualify: John Hayden (#16), Brad Teague (#52), Stan Boyd (#71), Shane Hall (#28), Morgan Shepherd (#0), Chris Horn (#58), Kenny Hendrick (#51), Jimmy Kitchens (#77), Bill Eversole (#56), Randy Briggs (#85), Clint Vahsholtz (#90)
Lowe's presents the SpongeBob SquarePants Movie 300
The Lowe's presents the SpongeBob SquarePants Movie 300 was held on October 15 at Lowe's Motor Speedway. Casey Mears won the pole.
Top ten results
20-Mike Bliss
17-Matt Kenseth
48-Jimmie Johnson
60-Greg Biffle
5-Kyle Busch
8-Martin Truex Jr.
1-Casey Mears
66-Jamie McMurray
23-Kenny Wallace
21-Clint Bowyer
This was Bliss' first NASCAR Busch Series win.
Failed to qualify: Paul Menard (#11), Eric McClure (#04), Kertus Davis (#0), Kenny Hendrick (#51), Brad Teague (#52), Gus Wasson (#10), Jimmy Kitchens (#77), Scott Lynch (#6), Jimmy Henderson (#63), Tina Gordon (#39), Travis Geisler (#36), Brian Sockwell (#41), Robby Benton (#03), Larry Hollenbeck (#62)
Sam's Town 250 benefitting St. Jude
The Sam's Town 250 benefitting St. Jude was held on October 23 at Memphis Motorsports Park. Martin Truex Jr. won the pole.
Top ten results
8-Martin Truex Jr.
60-Greg Biffle
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
21-Clint Bowyer
20-Mike Bliss
22-Jason Keller
32-David Stremme
27-Johnny Sauter
46-Ashton Lewis
1-Reed Sorenson
Failed to qualify: Joe Buford (#53), Kertus Davis (#0), Jason White (#71), Shane Hall (#28), Bruce Bechtel (#52), Kenny Hendrick (#51), Jimmy Kitchens (#77), Tina Gordon (#39), Todd Shafer (#40), Stan Boyd (#70), David Ragan (#95)
Aaron's 312 (Atlanta)
The Aaron's 312 was held on October 30 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. Mike Bliss won the pole.
Top ten results
17-Matt Kenseth
5-Kyle Busch
38-Kasey Kahne
55-Robby Gordon
60-Greg Biffle
9-Mark Martin
23-Kenny Wallace
32-David Stremme
8-Martin Truex Jr.
18-J. J. Yeley
Failed to qualify: John Hayden (#16), Blake Mallory (#51), Kevin Conway (#67), Todd Bodine (#31), Tina Gordon (#39), Mark Gibson (#34), Jimmy Kitchens (#77)
Bashas' Supermarkets 200
The Bashas' Supermarkets 200 was held on November 6 at Phoenix International Raceway. Kyle Busch won the pole.
Top ten results
41-Jamie McMurray
5-Kyle Busch
8-Martin Truex Jr.
55-Robby Gordon
60-Greg Biffle
9-Mark Martin
66-Rusty Wallace
17-Matt Kenseth
46-Ashton Lewis
00-Tony Raines
Failed to qualify: Eric Jones (#73), Charlie Bradberry (#35), Kevin Lepage (#71), Brad Teague (#52), John Borneman III (#83), Kertus Davis (#0), Joey Miller (#98), Mike Harmon (#54), Clint Vahsholtz (#90), Tina Gordon (#39), Kenny Hendrick (#51)
BI-LO 200
The final BI-LO 200 was held on November 13 at Darlington Raceway. Martin Truex Jr. won the pole.
Top ten results
66-Jamie McMurray
46-Ashton Lewis
20-Mike Bliss
8-Martin Truex Jr.
17-Matt Kenseth
1-Casey Mears
23-Kenny Wallace
18-Denny Hamlin
41-Reed Sorenson
99-Michael Waltrip
Failed to qualify: Aaron Fike (#43), Kevin Lepage (#71), Dion Ciccarelli (#84), Randy Briggs (#85), Norm Benning (#84), Mike Harmon (#54), Jimmy Spencer (#98), Carl Long (#83)
Truex won the NASCAR Busch Series championship at this race, marking the first time in the track's 55-year history a NASCAR champion had been crowned at the track.
This is Denny Hamlin’s first career Busch Series start.
Ford 300
The Ford 300 was held on November 20 at Homestead-Miami Speedway. Casey Mears won the pole.
Top ten results
29-Kevin Harvick
66-Jamie McMurray
5-Kyle Busch
41-Reed Sorenson
31-Todd Bodine
17-Matt Kenseth
2-Ron Hornaday Jr.
87-Joe Nemechek
8-Martin Truex Jr.
60-Greg Biffle
Failed to qualify: Kertus Davis (#0), Mark Green (#26), Eric McClure (#04), Kevin Lepage (#71), Gus Wasson (#10), Tina Gordon (#39), Dion Ciccarelli (#84), Jimmy Kitchens (#77), Jeff Fuller (#88), Blake Mallory (#28)
Results and standings
Races
Drivers' Championship
(key) Bold – Pole position awarded by time. Italics – Pole position set by 2004 Owner's points. * – Led most laps.
Rookie of the Year
19-year-old Kyle Busch easily won Rookie of the Year honors in 2004, as he won five races and finished second in points. Runner-up Paul Menard started the year with Andy Petree Racing, then finished the season at Dale Earnhardt, Inc. Clint Bowyer and J. J. Yeley ran partial schedules and had seven and four top-tens, respectively, while Travis Geisler and Stan Boyd ran with teams on limited budgets. Last-place-finisher Billy Parker, younger brother of Hank Parker Jr., started the season with the new Rusty Wallace, Inc. team, but was released during the season.
See also
2004 NASCAR Nextel Cup Series
2004 NASCAR Craftsman Truck Series
External links
Busch Series Standings and Statistics for 2004
NASCAR Xfinity Series seasons
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four%20Seasons%20Arena
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Four Seasons Arena
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The Four Seasons Arena is a multi-purpose indoor sports and exhibition arena located in the city of Great Falls, Montana, in the United States. Constructed in 1979, it served primarily as an ice rink until 2005. The failure of the practice rink's refrigeration system in 2003 and the management's decision to close the main rink in 2006 led to the facility's reconfiguration as an indoor sports and exhibition space. In November 2018, the Cascade County Commission, in conjunction with the Great Falls TIBD, and the Great Falls Lodging Association began to develop a plan to replace the arena. At a cost of 86 million dollars, the proposed arena will seat between 10,000 and 12,000 people. The bond is expected to go before voters in November 2019. As of May 2011 it is the largest exhibition, music, and sports venue in the city.
Conception and construction
Prior to the construction of the Four Seasons Arena, the city of Great Falls had no large indoor sports arena. The gymnasium at Great Falls High School, built in 1930, sat about 1,200 on wooden benches in an area designed for use primarily as a basketball court. The Great Falls Civic Center, built in 1939, contained an ice rink but no other sports facilities. The College of Great Falls built the McLaughlin Center in 1966, which contained an Olympic-size swimming pool and 1,800-seat gym designed for use as a basketball court. The city's largest sports venue was the gymnasium at Charles M. Russell High School. The gym, constructed in 1963, sat 4,000 in a basketball court.
The lack of a large indoor sports center inhibited the growth of professional sports in the city, as well as the city's ability to host major high school athletic tournaments. In 1975, the city of Billings constructed the Montana's Entertainment, Trade and Recreation Arena (or METRA), a 12,000 seat multi-purpose arena. In 1977, an organization known as Leadership Great Falls (a program of the Great Falls Area Chamber of Commerce) undertook a process to provide city civic and business leaders with a vision for the city of Great Falls. Out of this year-long process came the request for the city to construct a large, multi-purpose, indoor sports arena. Great Falls City Commissioner John St. Jermain championed the effort to build an arena, and fought for a ballot initiative in 1977 that would have used city tax dollars to build it. But voters rejected the proposal. St. Jermain then sought and won in 1978 a federal grant to pay for the majority of the cost of constructing the facility. St. Jermain lost reelection in November 1978.
The Four Seasons Arena was built in 1979 on the grounds of the Montana State Fairgrounds (now known as Montana ExpoPark). Because it was built primarily with the federal grant and few other funds, the arena was half the size initially proposed. Indeed, Four Seasons Arena was built primarily as an ice rink. It also lacked air conditioning. The arena originally housed two ice rinks: A main rink and a "side" or practice rink. With four days' notice, the main ice rink could be thawed and flooring laid down to transform the main section of the arena from an ice rink into a basketball court, rodeo arena, or exhibition hall. Removal and restoration of the ice took another four days. As initially constructed, Four Seasons Arena had a seating capacity in the main arena of 6,314.
In 1994, Great Falls city voters approved a $7.9 million bond initiative to build a new exhibition hall on the fairgrounds, renovate the fair's historic buildings and Four Seasons Arena, and generally improve landscaping, lighting, and walkways at the fair. The Exhibition Hall (capable of seating up to 1,500 people) was constructed in 1995.
Operating history
Cascade County owned the Montana State Fairgrounds, and built the Four Seasons Arena. Although not designed to be a multi-purpose arena, Four Seasons began to be put to a wide variety of uses. The facility quickly began to show excessive wear due to these pressures. The facility's management also began to suffer. By 1987, the Fairgrounds were more than $600,000 in debt and the county's management of the Fairgrounds and Four Seasons Arena was heavily criticized. In 1988, Cascade County signed an agreement under which the city of Great Falls took over management of the fairgrounds and Four Seasons Arena. But the facility was already deteriorating. In 1988, the Montana High School Association (which schedules high school athletic tournaments) refused to allow the city to host any basketball tournaments at the Four Seasons Arena after 1989 because it was in such poor shape. In March 1989, the Montana Class B boys' high school basketball tournament was scheduled for the Four Seasons. But a major leak in the roof, which occurred just two weeks before the tournament, forced the event to be held at nearby C.M. Russell High School instead.
In early 2001, the heating and ventilation at Four Seasons Arena was upgraded for the first time since its construction at a cost of $124,100. Concerned about the stability of the ice at Four Seasons, the city also commissioned a study of both rinks. The study concluded that both rinks needed $1.5 million in repairs and upgrades. But this study was not acted on. The city's management of the facility had also not gone smoothly. Nearly 20 groups which used the facility frequently (hockey teams, exhibitors, rodeo promoters, etc.), but relations between the groups were very poor and various groups accused city managers of playing politics in order to favor one group over another. In June 2001, city managers held an extraordinary day-long meeting of the arena's users in an attempt mediate these differences. This meeting led to a major proposal to upgrade the arena. In August 2001, the various user groups proposed that the city spend $99,000 to purchase a new floor covering for the main ice rink that would reduce the lead-time for transformation of the main arena to just four hours. But this proposal was not acted on. Instead, city managers said the most urgent needs at Four Seasons involved wooded dashers (waist-high walls) around the rink, a new cover for the ice (to keep it cold when not in use), portable bleachers to expand seating, upgrading and replacement of power lines and poles, a new scoreboard, and improvements to make the facility comply with the Americans With Disabilities Act.
The city's management agreement came to an end in 2003. City managers argued that they should be allowed to renew the contract. The city proposed using its own funds to renovate the arena, and to begin the process of planning for a new, greatly expanded multi-purpose convention center and sports arena. As a gesture of good faith, Great Falls city commissioners said they had spent $6,000 to study the ice rink covering issue and $2,000 on a handicapped-accessibility study, and had agreed to spend $200,000 to purchase the ice rink covering. The purchased was designed to meet the needs of local youth hockey organizations, which in 2002 were the arena's largest tenant (paying $65,000 in fees in 2002 and an anticipated $85,000 in fees in 2003). But it was also designed to expand the facility's use, and reduce the city's subsidy to the fairgrounds. Four Seasons managers noted that the arena had to turn away bands, comedians, and other entertainers because the venue could not be turned around fast enough. Cascade County managers, however, argued that although the county did not have the credit rating or tax revenues of the city, they could obtain grants to make the improvements the city was to pay for. They also said that their lack of management expertise did not matter, as they were considering contracting with SMG World, an arena management firm, to run Four Seasons. In October 2002, SMG said it needed more time to assess the fairgrounds in order to make a firm offer. With Cascade County apparently committed to taking over the fairgrounds and Four Seasons Arena again, the city of Great Falls demanded that the county to pay $1 million to reimburse the city for improvements made there (a figure which included $142,250 renovating the heating, air conditioning, and carpeting at the arena). The county refused, and offered to pay less than 20% of that figure. After extensive negotiations, Cascade County agreed to pay $384,370 over 10 years at 4% interest (a total which included all of the improvements to the arena). On November 12, 2002, Cascade County signed a formal agreement to allow SMG World to take over management of the fairgrounds and arena.
SMG's management of the Four Seasons Arena and Montana State Fairgrounds lasted just five years. Although the city had already studied capital needs at the fair, Cascade County paid SMG another $57,750 to do so itself. SMG discovered severe problems with both ice rinks. In February 2003, it reported that the practice ice rink had leaked and the ice was at a slant, which created a legal liability issue for the county. SMG proposed immediately closing the practice rink, and said that fixing the leaks would cost $600,000 to $750,000. Another $150,000 needed to be spent to replace the dashers on the main rink to prevent them from collapsing and injuring players and/or fans.
The ice rink problem highlighted a major issue confronting Four Seasons Arena. The cost of running an average four-day basketball tournament was about $16,000, and the arena lost about $3,000 per tournament. But basketball tournaments generated more than $1 million in additional spending to the city, far more than the revenues generated by ice hockey and more than enough to cover the losses on the tournament. Permanently losing some or all of the ice at Four Seasons would greatly expand the arena's ability to host money-making events.
The ice rink issue was never adequately resolved. In March 2003, the county's insurance carrier said it would allow the arena to keep the practice rink open for another 60 days. Two weeks later, the county proposed keeping the main rink open only from mid-May to mid-June and from mid-August to mid-September, and closing the practice ice permanently. The cooling system under the practice ice failed the first week of April 2003, and the county hired a refrigeration specialist from Canada to determine whether it could be repaired. The consultant estimated the cost of repairs at $450,000, money the county did not have. The practice ice closed permanently. The loss of the practice ice and limited hours of use given for the main ice led the Great Falls Americans junior league hockey team to move to Fargo, North Dakota in April 2003. With the semi-closure of the main ice, Four Seasons Arena began seeking other events to make money. In May 2003, it signed an agreement with the Class C Northern Division high school athletic league to "permanently" host District 7, 8, 9, and 10 boys' and girls' basketball tournaments. In December 2003, Four Seasons Arena spent $9,000 remodeling the old practice ice space (now known as "Side 2"). The space was made handicapped-accessible, the floor was fixed, electrical improvements made, the dashers removed, a concessions stand built, and large-screen video monitors installed. The space was turned into a viewing area, and rented out to a local rodeo organization so that fans could watch live rodeo broadcasts (an event which quickly sold out). "Sparky," a mechanical bull used for riding and roping training, was also placed in Side 2. In January 2005, SMG announced it would provide ice in the main rink only in September and October. Although this was later expanded to include November, blocks of ice-time were so discontinuous that no hockey or figure skating events were scheduled for Four Seasons Arena that year. When the All-American Professional Basketball League announced it was forming and intended to award Great Falls a franchise, SMG said it would stop offering ice events in the main arena permanently. But the league collapsed just days after it began operations in September 2005, SMG said it would offer more ice time. SMG managers estimated they would lose $30,000 in revenues by adding more ice time.
Cascade County renewed its contract with SMG in 2007. The new two-year contract paid SMG $84,413 a year (about $4,000 less than the 2002 contract), and included a payment of 15% of operating revenues of all income over $2.5 million. SMG also received 7.5% of all concessions sales (down from 10% in the old contract). Cascade County also agreed to subsidize the fairgrounds and Four Seasons Arena by $750,000 a year, and pay the wages of all SMG employees operating the facilities. But in 2009, Cascade County declined to renew SMG's contract, concluding it had learned enough to manage the fairgrounds and arena on its own.
In 2009, Four Seasons installed air conditioning for the first time in its history. The following year, the county loaned $400,000 to the arena to pay for the replacement of about a quarter of the permanent bleachers, upgrading and refurbishment of the remaining permanent bleachers, and replacement of the two sets of temporary bleachers. The same year, the flooring in the concessions area was cleaned and sealed and the carpeting replaced, and the "green room" in the arena refurbished.
Possible renovations
A major study by Cascade County and Montana ExpoPark in 2010 proposed making significant changes to the fairgrounds and Four Seasons Arena. The study, conducted by Markin Consulting, disclosed that the race track grandstand's concrete foundation was crumbling, the livestock pavilion's sheet metal walls were rusting, the horse barns were poorly ventilated and lit, and Four Seasons Arena suffered from poor acoustics and limited seating. The report outlined a number of options, including spending $7 million to $9 million to replace the grandstand, spending another $35 million to build a larger arena, and paying $12.6 million to demolish all existing horse barns and service facilities and build a 2,000-to-3,000 seat track just for horse racing.
Less radical solutions also existed. Four Seasons Arena could be converted into an exhibition hall, and the current Exhibition Hall transformed into a banquet hall, at a cost of $2 million. The report said an alternative to the demolition of all existing equestrian facilities would be to construct a new 300-stall horse barn.
The study did not advocate construction of a large facility like Rimrock Auto Arena at MetraPark in Billings.
The same month, however, a private group announced it intended to build a new $40 million 6,000-seat indoor sports arena south of the city. The first phase of the project would be a two-story, training facility that would include two side-by-side indoor soccer fields (configurable as an indoor softball field) with retractable seating for 500, a hardwood indoor basketball/volleyball court with mezzanine seating for 240, a wrestling area with three full-size mats and seating for 240, an indoor sprint track, two locker rooms, a classroom, a concessions area, and an urgent care area. The second story would contain space which would leased by Mountain View Physical Therapy (a for-profit health care provider). The second phase of the project would be a multi-purpose arena capable of seating 6,000 and hosting a full-size football field (reconfigurable for rodeos and soccer). The plan also envisions two outdoor practice soccer fields, an outdoor practice softball/baseball field, and a small hotel (to be built by another, future investor). The architect for the project is L'Heureux Page Werner. Organizers said they had already secured a site two blocks south of the Montana State University College of Technology – Great Falls, and intended to begin construction on the $10 million "phase one" building in the summer of 2011. In April 2011, the backers of the proposed facility received a favorable reception from Montana Governor Brian Schweitzer (although no funds were allocated or appropriate yet). The Internal Revenue Service approved Mountain View Sports Complex's application for nonprofit status in early June 2011.
Events at Four Seasons
Professional sports
The arena housed the Great Falls Americans of the Western Hockey League during that professional team's only season (1979). The team folded in mid-season in December 1979. From 1979 to 2003, the Four Seasons Arena was the home rink of the Great Falls Americans junior league hockey team. Four Seasons also was the home court of the Montana Golden Nuggets of the Continental Basketball Association (CBA) from 1981 to 1983. The CBA awarded the Great Falls Explorers franchise to the city in 2006, and the team played at Four Seasons Arena until it folded in 2008. (The arena was forced to sue to collect $12,000 in back rent.)
"Firsts" and special events at Four Seasons
Over the years, the Four Seasons Arena has hosted a number of special events. In January 1989, Great Falls native and Olympic boxer Todd Foster made his professional boxing debut at the arena. Foster fought again there in October 1991. Rock music legend Bob Dylan played there on July 26, 2005. The first MayFaire, an annual arts and music event benefitting the Benefis Health System, held its first-ever concert at Four Seasons Arena in 2006 (featuring country-western singer Trisha Yearwood). In 2007, for the first time in its history, the city of Great Falls consolidated all its polling places into a single site: The Four Seasons Arena Exhibition Hall. In March 2011, the arena hosted the city's first-ever mixed martial arts event, featuring Great Falls natives Leo Bercier, Frank Ramsey, and Tim Welch.
Three times the President of the United States or a future President has spoken at Four Seasons Arena. On February 3, 2005, President George W. Bush spoke there the day after his State of the Union address to promote his plan to privatize Social Security. On May 30, 2008, presidential candidate Barack Obama spoke at the Four Seasons Arena. President Donald Trump spoke at the arena on July 5, 2018.
High school basketball play
Four Seasons Arena has been the site of a number of high school athletic events. It hosted the Montana Class AA boys' basketball tournament in 2001 and 2003, and the Class AA boys' and girls' combined basketball tournament in 2006 and 2008. It will host the Class AA boys' and girls' combined basketball tournament again in 2013. It also played host to the Class A boys' basketball tournament in 2010. Four Seasons Arena was the site for the Montana Class B boys' basketball tournament in 1989, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2006. and 2010.
Four Seasons has also held a number of Class C basketball tourneys. In Montana, Class C athletics have a complex structure due to the large number of schools and the extensive geographic distances involved. Class C play is organized into divisions, with each division having two or more districts: Eastern Division (districts 2 and 3), Southern Division (districts 4 and 6), Northern Division (districts 7, 8, 9, and 10), and Western Division (districts 11/12, 13, and 14). Each district (which contains six to 11 schools) holds a district tournament, sending two or four winners (depending on the number of schools in the district) to the divisional tournament. Each division holds a divisional tournament, sending two teams to the state tourney. Great Falls is located geographically in the Class C Northern Division. Four Seasons Arena hosted the Class C state boys' basketball tournament in 1999. In 2005, it hosted the first-ever combined Northern Division Class C boys' basketball tournament in Montana history (in which all four Northern Division district tourneys were held simultaneously). It hosted the combined Northern Class C boys' and girls' basketball tournaments in 2008 and again in 2009. In 2010, Four Seasons was the site of the Class C girls' state basketball tournament—the first time the Class C state tourney had been held in the city. The arena will host the Class C girls' state tournament again in 2012, as well as the Class C boys' Northern Division combined district basketball playoffs.
Other notable sporting events
Rodeo events are often held at Four Seasons. The Montana Pro Rodeo Finals have been held there every year since 1980. The arena also hosted the first-ever World Professional Bull Riding Finals in 1999, and again in 2000.
The arena hosted the annual Terry Casey Memorial Cup national high school hockey tournament in 2000 and 2006. It did so again in 2008, restoring ice in the main rink for the first time in several years after the city's new ice hockey venue, the Central Montana IcePlex, did not open in time.
In 2006, for the first time ever, Four Seasons hosted the Northern Native American Classic, an annual basketball tournament for high schools in the northern U.S. with a Native American-majority student body. In 2008, the National Cutting Horse Association held an eight-day cutting horse competition (where riders guide horses orally, rather than with bit and bridle, in order to corral cattle) at the arena.
Other annual events
A number of other large events are also held at Four Seasons Arena on an annual basis.
The Montana Agricultural Industrial Exhibit (MAGIE) is also held at Four Seasons. The farm and ranch trade show draws exhibitors and attendees from Montana, Idaho, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Washington, Wyoming, and Canada, and is Montana's largest trade show. It began holding its annual event in the arena in 2000, and as of 2011 has held it there every year since (with the exception of 2006). In 2000, the arena hosted the first-ever joint meeting of the Montana Grain Growers Association and Montana Stockgrowers Association.
Beginning in 1999, the arena also hosted portions of Western Art Week. Beginning in 2002, the Great Falls Gun and Antique Show was also held annually at the arena. The same year, the Electric City Kennel Club began holding its annual dog show at Four Seasons.
In 2005, the What Women Want Expo moved to the Four Seasons as well. Founded in 2003, the event proved so popular that only the Four Seasons Arena could accommodate the exhibitors and crowds.
Facilities
Four Seasons Arena is a concrete and steel structure. The exterior is painted unfinished concrete. The interior walls are unfinished concrete, to which sound-absorbent acoustical panels (made of fabric-covered wood) are attached. The floor is finished, polished concrete. The interior ceiling consists of exposed painted steel beams.
The main hall at Four Seasons Arena is a rectangular space , for a total area of . The Side 2 room is a rectangular space , for a total area of . In both rooms, clearance is . The arena has nine dressing rooms with showers, several hospitality/service rooms, and an office (available for client use). The Exhibition Hall is a rectangular space , for a total area of . It is at a right-angle to the arena itself, and is connected to it by a hallway, dressing rooms, offices, and restroom facilities. With offices, restrooms, and other space, the Four Seasons Arena has a total of . The wall between the main room and Side 2 is often removed to achieve a larger space.
Four Seasons has permanent banks of bleachers in front of the east and west walls, and in a balcony above the north wall. The permanent configuration leaves about of space between the west bleachers and the wall, and about of space between the east bleachers and the wall. Temporary bleachers can be set up behind the east and west permanent bleachers, in front of the north side balcony, and against the south wall to expand the seating. Additionally, chairs may be set theater-style on the floor of the arena during concerts to achieve seating capacity.
Foundation
The Four Seasons Arena is supported by the Four Seasons Sports Foundation. The nonprofit, private foundation raises money to help pay for the cost of bidding on sporting events at the Four Seasons Arena. Roughly half the cost of the bid is paid for by the arena, with the other half paid for by the foundation. In September 2011, the foundation selected George Geise as chairman of its newly formed outreach committee. For 33 years the sports writer for the local Great Falls Tribune newspaper, Geise said he was charged with working more closely with local businesses, the foundation, the Tourism Business Improvement District, and sports groups around the state to find ways to make bids by the Four Seasons Arena even more attractive to organizations seeking a sporting venue.
Footnotes
Bibliography
Merrill-Maker, Andrea. Montana Almanac. Guilford, Conn.: Insiders' Guide, 2006.
External links
Four Seasons Arena Web site
Basketball venues in Montana
Boxing venues in the United States
Music venues in Montana
Convention centers in Montana
Landmarks in Montana
Western Hockey League arenas
Buildings and structures in Great Falls, Montana
Tourist attractions in Great Falls, Montana
1979 establishments in Montana
Boxing in Montana
Sports venues completed in 1979
Sports in Great Falls, Montana
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican%20Rite
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Dominican Rite
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The Dominican Rite is the unique liturgical rite of the Dominican Order in the Catholic Church. It has been classified differently by different sources – some consider it a usage of the Roman Rite, others a variant of the Gallican Rite, and still others a form of the Roman Rite into which Gallican elements were inserted.
The Dominican Order composed and adopted this rite in the mid-thirteenth century as its specific rite. In 1968, it decided to adopt the revised Roman Rite of Mass and of the Divine Office, as soon as the texts revised after the Second Vatican Council appeared, but it has kept other elements of its proper rite, such as the Rite of Profession.
As a result, the Dominican Rite of the Mass ceased being celebrated as often after the revised Roman Rite was promulgated. However, in recent decades it has been offered occasionally in some provinces of the Dominican Order, and regularly in others. In addition, it is used by the Traditionalist Catholic Fraternity of St. Vincent Ferrer.
Origin and development
The question of a special unified rite for the order received no official attention in the time of St. Dominic, each province sharing in the general liturgical diversities prevalent throughout the Church at the order's confirmation in 1216. Hence, each province and often each convent had certain peculiarities in the text and in the ceremonies of the Mass and the recitation of the Divine Office. The successors of St. Dominic were quick to recognize the impracticability of such conditions, and soon busied themselves in an effort to eliminate the distinctions. They maintained that the safety of a basic principle of community life—unity of prayer and worship—was endangered by this conformity with different local diocesan conditions. This belief was impressed upon them more forcibly by the confusion that these liturgical diversities occasioned at the general chapters of the order, where brothers from every province were assembled.
The first indication of an effort to regulate liturgical conditions was manifested by Jordan of Saxony, the successor of St. Dominic. In the Constitutions of 1228 ascribed to him are found several rubrics for the recitation of the Divine Office. These insist more on the attention with which the Liturgy should be said than on the qualifications of the liturgical books. However, it is said that Jordan took some steps in the latter direction and compiled one Office for universal use. Though this is doubtful, it is certain that his efforts were of little practical value, for the Chapters of Bologna (1240) and Paris (1241) allowed each convent to conform with the local rites. The first systematic attempt at reform was made under the direction of John of Wildeshausen, the fourth master general of the order. At his suggestion the Chapter of Bologna (1244) asked the delegates to bring to the next chapter (Cologne, 1245) their special rubrics for the recitation of the Divine Office, their Missals, Graduals and Antiphonaries, "pro concordando officio". To bring some kind of order out of chaos a commission was appointed consisting of four members, one each from the Provinces of France, England, Lombardy, and Germany, to carry out the revision at Angers. They brought the result of their labours to the Chapter of Paris (1246), which approved the compilation and ordered its exclusive use by the whole Order and approved the "Lectionary" which had been entrusted to Humbert of Romains for revision. The work of the commission was again approved by the Chapters of Montpellier (1247) and Paris (1248).
But dissatisfaction with the work of the commission was felt on all sides, especially with their interpretation of the rubrics. They had been hurried in their work, and had left too much latitude for local customs. The question was reopened and the Chapter of London (1250) asked the commission to reassemble at Metz and revise their work in the light of the criticisms that had been made; the result of this revision was approved at the Chapters of Metz (1251) and Bologna (1252) and its use made obligatory for the whole order. It was also ordained that one copy of the liturgical books should be placed at Paris and one at Bologna, from which the books for the other convents should be faithfully copied. However, it was recognized that these books were not entirely perfect, leaving room for further revision. Though this work was done under the direction of John the Teuton, the brunt of the revision fell to the lot of Humbert of Romains, then provincial of the Paris Province. Humbert was elected Master General of the Chapter of Buda (1254) and was asked to direct his attention to the question of the order's liturgical books. He subjected each of them to a most thorough revision, and after two years submitted his work to the Chapter of Paris (1256). This and several subsequent chapters endorsed the work, effected legislation guarding against corruption, constitutionally recognized the authorship of Humbert, and thus once and for all settled a common rite for the Order of Preachers throughout the world.
Conservation until the twentieth century
Pope Clement IV, through the Dominican general, John of Vercelli, issued a Papal Bull in 1267 in which he lauded the ability and zeal of Humbert and forbade the making of any changes without the proper authorization. Subsequent papal regulation went much further towards preserving the integrity of the rite. Pope Innocent XI and Pope Clement XII prohibited the printing of the books without the permission of the master general and ordained that no member of the order should presume to use in his fulfilment of the choral obligation any book not bearing the seal of the general and a reprint of the pontifical Decrees. Another force preservative of the special Dominican Rite was the Decree of Pope Pius V (1570), imposing a common rite on the Western Church but excepting those rites which had been approved for two hundred years. This exception gave to the Order of Friars Preachers the privilege of maintaining its old rite, a privilege which the chapters of the order sanctioned and the members of the order gratefully accepted.
There were changes. Some slight corruptions crept in spite of the rigid legislation to the contrary. New feasts were added with the permission of the Roman Pontiffs and many new editions of the liturgical books were printed. Changes in the text, when made, were always effected with the idea of eliminating arbitrary mutilations and restoring the books to a perfect conformity with the old exemplars at Paris and Bologna. Such were the reforms of the Chapters of Salamanca (1551), Rome (1777) and Ghent (1871).
Several times movements were started with the idea of conforming with the Roman Rite, but were always defeated until after the Second Vatican Council, when the Order finally decided to adopt the Roman Rite, supplementing it with certain texts of the Dominican tradition (e.g. that for the blessing of palms on Palm Sunday, or that for the adoration of the Cross on Good Friday) and, of course, rituals for various moments in religious life, such as professions and anniversaries, such as every religious order uses without thereby setting up a distinct liturgical rite. The General Chapter of River Forest (1968) made this decision, which was applied first to the Mass and later to the Divine Office, in conformity to the spirit and letter of the Constitution Sacrosanctum Concilium. The permission to adopt the Roman liturgy, however, came with the stipulation that the master of the order, for all friars, and the provincials, for those subject to them, could grant permission to celebrate the traditional Dominican Rite Mass and Office. This faculty continues in force today.
Sources of the rite
To determine the sources of the Dominican Rite is to come face to face with the haze and uncertainty that seems to shroud most liturgical history. The thirteenth century knew no unified Roman Rite. While the basis of the usages of north-western Europe was a Gallicanized-Gregorian Sacramentary sent by Pope Adrian I to Charlemagne, each little locality had its own peculiar distinctions. At the time of the unification of the Dominican Rite most of the convents of the order were embraced within the territory in which the old Gallican Rite had once obtained and in which the Gallico-Roman Rite then prevailed. Blessed Jordan of Saxony, the pioneer in liturgical reform within the order, greatly admired the Rite of the Church in Paris and frequently assisted at the recitations of the Office at Notre-Dame. Humbert of Romains, who played so important a part in the unification, was the provincial superior of the French Province. These facts justify the opinion that the basis of the Dominican Rite was the typical Gallican Rite of the thirteenth century, but documentary evidence that the rite was adapted from any one locality is lacking. The chronicles of the order state merely that the rite is neither the pure Roman nor the pure Gallican, but based on the Roman usage of the thirteenth century, with additions from the Rites of Paris and other places where the order existed. Just from where these additions were obtained and exactly what they were cannot be determined, except in a general way, from an examination of each distinctive feature.
The Dominican Rite is not an arbitrary elaboration of the Roman Rite made against the spirit of the Church or to give the order an air of exclusiveness, nor can it be said to be more gallicanized than any use of the Gallico-Roman Rite of that period. It was an honest and sincere attempt to harmonize and simplify the widely divergent usages of the early half of the thirteenth century.
The Dominican Rite, formulated by Humbert, saw no radical development after its confirmation by Pope Clement IV. When Pope Pius V made his reform, the Dominican Rite had been fixed and stable for over three hundred years, while a constant liturgical change had been taking place in other communities. Furthermore, the comparative simplicity of the Dominican Rite, as manifested in the different liturgical books, gives evidence of its antiquity.
Liturgical books
The rite compiled by Humbert contained fourteen books: (1) the Ordinary, a sort of an index to the Divine Office, the Psalms, Lessons, Antiphons and Chapters being indicated by their first words. (2) The Martyrology, an amplified calendar of martyrs and other saints. (3) The Collectarium, a book for the use of the hebdomidarian, which contained the texts and the notes for the prayers, chapters, and blessings. (4) The Processional, containing the hymns (text and music) for the processions. (5) The Psalterium, containing merely the Psalter. (6) The Lectionary, which contained the Sunday homilies, the lessons from Sacred Scripture and the lives of the saints. (7) The Antiphonary, giving the text and music for the parts of the Office sung outside of the Mass. (8) The Gradual, which contained the words and the music for the parts of the Mass sung by the choir. (9) The Conventual Missal, for the celebration of solemn Mass. (10) The Epistolary, containing the Epistles for the Mass and the Office. (11) The Book of Gospels. (12) The Pulpitary containing the musical notation for the Gloria Patri, the Invitatory, Litanies, Tracts and the Alleluia. (13) The Missal for a private Mass. (14) The Breviary, a compilation from all the books used in the choral recitation of the Office, very much reduced in size for the convenience of travellers.
By a process of elimination and synthesis undergone with the books of the Roman Rite many of the books of Humbert became superfluous, while several others were formed. These added nothing to the original text, but merely provided for the addition of feasts and the more convenient recitation of the office. The collection of the liturgical books then contained: (1) Martyrology; (2) Collectarium; (3) Processional; (4) Antiphonary; (5) Gradual; (6) Missal for the conventual Mass; (7) Missal for the private Mass; (8) Breviary; (9) Vesperal; (10) Horæ Diurnæ; (11) Ceremonial. The contents of these books followed closely the books of the same name issued by Humbert described above. The new ones were: (1) the Horæ Diurnæ (2) the Vesperal (with notes), adaptations from the Breviary and the Antiphonary respectively (3) the Collectarium, a compilation from all the rubrics scattered throughout the other books. With the exception of the Breviary, these books were similar in arrangement to the correspondingly named books of the Roman Rite. The Dominican Breviary was divided into Part I, Advent to Trinity, and Part II, Trinity to Advent. Also, unlike the Tridentine usage of the Roman rite and similar to the Sarum rite and other Northern European usages of the Roman rite, the Dominican Missal and Breviary counted Sundays after Trinity rather than Pentecost.
Distinctive marks of the Dominican Rite
Only the most striking differences between the Dominican Rite and the Roman are mentioned here. The most important is in the manner of celebrating a low Mass. The celebrant in the Dominican Rite wears the amice over his head until the beginning of Mass, and prepares the chalice as soon as he reaches the altar. He says neither the "Introibo ad altare Dei" nor the Psalm "Judica me Deus", instead saying "Confitemini Domino quoniam bonus", with the server responding "Quoniam in saeculum misericordia ejus" ("Praise the Lord for He is good; For His mercy endureth forever."). The Confiteor, much shorter than the Roman, contains the name of St. Dominic.
The Gloria and the Credo are begun at the centre of the altar and finished at the Missal or the presider's sedilia. At the Offertory there is a simultaneous oblation of the Host and the chalice and only one prayer, the "Suscipe Sancta Trinitas". The Canon of the Mass is the same as the Canon of the Roman Rite, but the priest holds his hands and arms differently—for some parts of the Canon, his hands are folded, and immediately after the consecration, for the "Unde et Memores", he holds his arms in a cruciform position. The words of Consecration, however, is different to that of the Roman counterpart.
The Dominican celebrant also says the "Agnus Dei" immediately after the "Pax Domini" and then recites the prayers "Hæc sacrosancta commixtio", "Domine Iesu Christe" and "Corpus et sanguis", after which follows the Communion, the priest receiving the Host from his left hand. No prayers are said at the consumption of the Precious Blood, the first prayer after the "Corpus et Sanguis" being the Communion.
In a solemn Mass the chalice is brought in procession to the altar during the Gloria, and the corporal is unfolded by the deacon during the singing of the Epistle. The chalice is prepared just after the subdeacon had sung the Epistle, with the ministers seated at the Epistle side of the sanctuary. The chalice is brought from the altar to the place where the celebrant is seated by the subdeacon, who poured the wine and water into it and replaced it on the altar. During important feasts, a procession occurs to offer the gifts to the deacon during the offertory—a gesture not found in the Tridentine Missal, but was done by early liturgies, and was restored in the most recent reforms of the Roman Rite by Pope Paul VI. The incensing of the ministers occurs during the singing of the Preface. Throughout the rite the ministers also stand or move into various patterns rather different from those of the old Roman Liturgy.
The Dominican Breviary differs somewhat from the Roman. The Offices celebrated are of seven classes: of the season (de tempore), of saints (de sanctis), of vigils, of octaves, votive offices, Office of the Blessed Virgin, and Office of the Dead. The order of the psalms is different from the Roman use in the canonical hours, having a different selection of psalms at Prime, and in Paschal time providing only three psalms and three lessons instead of the customary nine psalms and nine lessons. The Office of the Blessed Virgin is said on all days on which feasts of the rank of duplex or "totum duplex" were not celebrated. The Gradual Psalms are said on all Saturdays on which the votive Office of the Blessed Virgin is said and were added to the psalms of Prime during Lent. The Office of the Dead is said once a week except during the week following Easter and the week following Pentecost. Other minor points of difference are the manner of making the commemorations, the text of the hymns, the Antiphons, the lessons of the common Offices and the insertions of special feasts of the order.
There are some differences between the musical notation of the Dominican Gradual, Vesperal and Antiphonary and the corresponding books of the Roman Rite as reformed by Pope Pius X. The Dominican chant was faithfully copied from the thirteenth-century manuscripts, which were in turn derived indirectly from the Gregorian Sacramentary. There is therefore remarkable similarity between the Dominican chant and the restored Roman chant, although the Dominican books generally do not use some of the modern notation pioneered by the Abbey of Solesmes (for example, dotted neumes to indicate the lengthening of a note are not found in the Dominican books).
References
External links
The Ordinary and Canon of the Dominican Mass (in Latin)
The Ordinary and Canon of the Dominican Mass (in Latin, with English translation and commentary)
Further reading
King, Archdale A. (2015), The Dominican Rite: History and Liturgy; Edition: Mediatrix Press, ISBN 9780692508756
Liturgy of the Hours
Latin liturgical rites
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20Touhy
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Roger Touhy
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Roger Touhy (September 18, 1898 – December 16, 1959) was an Irish American mob boss and prohibition-era bootlegger from Chicago, Illinois, in the United States. He is best remembered for having been framed by his rivals in Chicago organized crime for the fake 1933 kidnapping of Jewish-American organized crime figure and Chicago Outfit associate John "Jake the Barber" Factor, a brother of cosmetics manufacturer Max Factor Sr.. Despite numerous appeals and at least one Federal court ruling freeing him, Touhy spent 26 years in prison until he was finally exonerated and released in November 1959. In retaliation for filing a lawsuit against acting boss Tony Accardo and other senior Mafiosi, Touhy murdered in an alleged contract killing by the Chicago Outfit less than a month after his release.
Early life and career
Early years
Roger Touhy was born on September 18, 1898, at 822 S. Robey Street in Chicago, Illinois, to James A. Touhy and his wife, Mary ( Mordan). James was an immigrant from County Sligo, Ireland. Roger was one of eight children, the youngest of six boys, with an older sister and a younger sister. Rarely for the Chicago Police Department at that time, Patrolman James Touhy was known to be fiercely honest and incorruptible, but he was also a strict disciplinarian who beat his children so severely that his neighbors complained. Mary Touhy was a devout Catholic who required her children to attend Mass with her.
The Touhy family lived near Polk Street and South Damen Avenue on Chicago's Near West Side. Roger initially attended local public school in Chicago. In 1908, Mary Touhy died after a stove in the kitchen exploded and caused a fire, after which James Touhy moved his family to Downers Grove, Illinois. The family was Roman Catholic, and Touhy was an altar boy at their church. He attended St. Joseph Catholic School in Downers Grove, graduating from the sixth grade as valedictorian of his class.
All but one of Roger's brothers were engaged in criminal activity. James Touhy Jr. was shot and killed by a police officer during an armed robbery in 1917. John Touhy was killed by members of the Chicago Outfit, then led by Al Capone, in 1927 while engaged in bootlegging. Joe Touhy was killed by Victor Willert, a roadhouse owner, in 1929 after Touhy threatened his life for refusing to buy moonshine from the gang. Tommy "The Terrible" Touhy served six of a 12-year sentence at Indiana State Prison for robbing the L.S. Ayres & Co. department store in Indianapolis, Indiana, in 1924. Paroled in 1930, he served 11 of a 23-year sentence for stealing $78,000 ($ in dollars) from a U.S. Mail shipment at a Milwaukee, Wisconsin train station on January 3, 1933. Only Eddie Touhy, a bartender, seemed to steer clear of crime.
Legitimate employment
Roger began working full-time for a living at the age of 13. His ham radio hobby enabled him to get a job as a
telegrapher with Western Union, and he proved so adept that he was soon made manager of the small office where he worked. He was fired in 1915 for expressing support for unionization efforts. Touhy says he spent some time as a union organizer for the Commercial Telegraphers Union of America, but felt the job had no security. He joined the Order of Railroad Telegraphers, which qualified him for a well-paying railroad job. He obtained a position with the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad and moved to Colorado.
The United States entered World War I on April 6, 1917, and Touhy enlisted in the United States Navy in 1918. Touhy did not see combat; rather, the Navy assigned him to a teaching post at Harvard University near Boston, Massachusetts. The college had lent the Navy classroom space, and Touhy taught officers Morse code. For the rest of his life, Touhy tried to impress people by claiming he was at Harvard.
After leaving the Navy, Touhy traveled to Oklahoma with a friend from the Navy. He paid a petroleum engineer a bottle of bootleg corn whiskey to spend a few hours teaching him the fundamentals of petroleum engineering. Touhy bluffed his way into a petroleum engineering job, paying the drilling rig and well mechanics in corn whiskey to do his job. Saving $1,000 ($ in dollars), he began speculating in oil leases with his Navy friend.
After about a year in Oklahoma, Touhy had made $25,000 ($ in dollars). He returned to Chicago, and on April 22, 1922, he married 23-year-old Clara Morgan, an Irish American woman he'd met seven years earlier while working for Western Union.
Criminal involvement
Touhy's initial employment after his marriage was legitimate, and included being a successful automobile salesman by day and a taxicab driver by night. He made $50,000 ($ in dollars) a year selling cars. In 1927, Touhy formed a legitimate trucking firm with his brothers Eddie and Tommy. Touhy's first son, Roger Scott Touhy, was born in 1927 as well. The same year, Touhy moved his family to Des Plaines, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. Des Plaines was still quite a rural area, and the family lived in a large home on a farm on River Road just north of Maryville Academy.
The Touhy-Kolb bootleg empire
According to Touhy, he began to bootleg immediately after founding his trucking firm. Shortly thereafter, bootlegger Matt Kolb allowed Touhy to buy into his business. Kolb owned a saloon near Tuohy's automobile dealership, and Touhy says he once sold Kolb a vehicle. Kolb had once been part of Al Capone's Chicago Outfit, supplying as much as a third of the beer it sold, but quit as the Outfit became more violent. For an investment of $10,000 ($ in dollars), Touhy became a partner with Kolb.
Touhy's bootlegging business expanded dramatically. Touhy and Kolb built 10 illegal beer and liquor breweries northwest of Chicago, and built a wooden barrel manufacturing plant in Schiller Park for transporting the goods. Touhy purchased oil trucks and had them painted to look like Texaco vehicles to hide the delivery of his alcohol. He even hired off-duty police officers to drive the trucks to help avoid arrests. Unlike other bootleggers, Touhy and Kolb consulted a chemist, and brewed a high-quality beer.
Demand for Touhy's beer was extremely high. Touhy and Kolb sold their bootleg alcohol to a network of 200 bars, nightclubs, and roadhouses west and northwest of Chicago. They regularly sold 18,000 bottles of beer a week. During summer (the peak season for beer drinking), they could sell an enormous 1,000 barrels of beer a week, making a profit of $50.50 ($ in dollars) on a $55 barrel.
Touhy and Kolb also got into the slot machine racket in 1926. Although illegal, slot machines were highly popular, and Touhy and Kolb were able to put hundreds of them in drug stores, gas stations, grocery stores, and taverns throughout the area they controlled. The two men grossed $1 million ($ in dollars) from slot machines alone that first year.
For several years, Touhy avoided problems with law enforcement by becoming one of the best fixers in the Chicago area. Like nearly all bootleggers, he paid extensive bribes to judges, police, and prosecutors, and he supplemented his payments with free shipments of his high-quality beer (which often was more prized than the cash). Touhy also aided law enforcement by keeping bottom-rung gangsters (who were more likely to cause problems for a community) out of Des Plaines, and refused to allow brothels to operate in the northwest and west suburbs of Chicago. He won the grudging respect of the local community for regularly donating large amounts of beer to local civic, fraternal, and social fundraising events, and for buying ice cream for hundreds of children each Sunday.
Rivalry with Capone
By the late 1920s, the Chicago Outfit was ordering hundreds of barrels of beer a week from Touhy and Kolb. At one point, Touhy was selling Capone 800 barrels of beer a week at a discounted price of $37.50 per barrel ($ in dollars) (making a profit of 488 percent on each barrel).
Capone first tested Touhy's toughness by sending Outfit members Willie Heeney and Frank Rio to meet with Touhy. The men told Touhy that Capone felt the northwestern suburbs were "virgin territory" for brothels, illegal gambling, and taxi dance halls. Touhy's gang was small, so he chose to intimidate Heeney and Rio: he lined his office walls with handguns and rifles, and borrowed submachine guns from the local police. Touhy hired off-duty police officers and local farmers to lounge around the building while armed. While Touhy talked with Humphreys, men would occasionally enter the office, grab a weapon, and casually tell Touhy they were going to kill someone. Touhy would nod in agreement or mumble his approval. Touhy also arranged for a man to call his office every few minutes. Touhy would answer the phone, pretend to listen, and then order someone intimidated or killed. Touhy told Humphreys that he didn't want anything Capone was offering, and to stay out of his territory. Humphreys and Fawcett left convinced that the Touhy gang was large, well-armed, and ruthless and that a gang war would be devastating to the Chicago Outfit. Capone backed down. Word of the meeting spread, and Touhy gained the unlikely nickname "Touhy the Terrible".
A short time later, Capone sent Louis "Little New York" Campagna and Jack "Machine Gun" McGurn to Touhy. They advised Touhy to turn over part of his business to the Chicago Outfit, but Touhy refused. Once more, Touhy "playacted" for the men, who left convinced Touhy was more powerful than he really was.
According to Touhy, he now approached local law enforcement and retailers and told them about Capone's interest in the western suburbs. He asked them to resist Capone's attempt to get them to sell punchboards or buy low-quality beer, and in turn Touhy said he would resist Capone. The appeal worked.
Capone now attempted to lure Touhy into a trap. He sent Francis "Frank Diamond" Maritote, Sam "Golf Bag" Hunt, and Frank Rio to see Touhy again. The playacting did not impress Rio this time, even after Touhy claimed to have 200 prison-toughened thugs in his gang. Touhy, sensing trouble, told the trio that he was hosting a party for all his men that night at The Arch, his Schiller Park roadhouse. Touhy invited Capone, Nitti, and all the other top leaders of the Chicago Outfit to the party. Touhy had no intention of hosting a party; instead, he closed the roadhouse early in the evening and removed all liquor from the premises. Chicago police and Cook County sheriff's men raided the premises that evening, sent there on a tip by Capone.
Capone then laid a second trap. He sent Murray "The Camel" Humphreys to Touhy to suggest an alliance. Humphreys and his driver/bodyguard, James "Red" Fawcett, met with Touhy and asked him to come to Capone's headquarters in Cicero, Illinois, to meet with underboss Frank Nitti and hammer out a deal. Warned by a Capone insider that the Outfit intended to kill him, Touhy told Humphreys that Nitti should come to Schiller Park. When Humphreys threatened Touhy, Touhy pointed a shotgun at him. Humphreys was visibly intimidated, and Touhy sent him back to Nitti, humiliated.
Capone's last attempt to intimidate Touhy came on March 4, 1931, when an Outfit member named Summers visited Touhy and once again proposed bringing brothels, gambling, and taxi dance halls to the northwestern suburbs. Touhy bribed two of his men to take Summers out drinking. They ended up at Capone's Cotton Club in Cicero, where the two men successfully urged Summers to pick a fight with Ralph Capone, who ran the club (and whom Summers did not know). Two federal law enforcement officers drinking at the club came to Ralph's defense, and were disarmed. Touhy's men kept their firearms. Capone desperately needed to return the federally-owned firearms to the Treasury agents, and contacted Touhy. Touhy feigned ignorance of the two men's identity and suggested that Summers knew who they were, but Capone had already had Summers killed. Federal officials raided the Cotton Club on March 12 and again on March 13 looking for the guns, and shut it down.
Capone also began to apply pressure in other ways. Chicago Outfit men began to occasionally travel to the western and northwestern suburbs and engage in short gun fights with Touhy's men.
On April 8, 1931, Anton Cermak was sworn in as mayor of Chicago. As chair of the Cook County Board of Commissioners from 1923 to 1931, Cermak had gotten along very well with Touhy. Cermak had pledged to "clean up" Chicago and get rid of violent gangs. Cermak was allegedly advised that strict enforcement of Prohibition was impossible. A better option was to have a "good gang" like Touhy's take over from the Chicago Outfit, which was not only more violent but also promoting gambling, prostitution, and a wide range of other vices. Cermak then met Touhy and urged him to take over Capone's territory. Touhy, whose gang was relatively small and nonviolent, balked. Cermak then suggested that the Chicago Police Department would assist in putting pressure on the Outfit through raids, arrests, prosecutions, and even killings. Cermak allegedly offered to allow Touhy to take over bootlegging in Chicago if the war was successful. Touhy's men now began engaging in gun battles with Chicago Outfit members within the Chicago city limits.
The alleged alliance between Cermak and Touhy alarmed Al Capone. Some time in the first three months of 1931, while Touhy was vacationing in Florida, Capone's men threatened Matt Kolb with death if he did not pay them $25,000 ($ in dollars). Kolb did so. Capone then had Kolb kidnapped. Touhy paid a $50,000 ($ in dollars) ransom to free him. Sensing Kolb was the weak link in the Touhy-Kolb partnership, Capone sent several capos into the northwestern suburbs and seized 40 of Kolb's bars, clubs, and resorts in early May 1931. Kolb's liquor was poured out, his gambling machines destroyed, and the managers told to buy alcohol from Capone in the future. Capone then ordered Matt Kolb killed. Just before 2 A.M. on October 18, 1931, two Capone hitmen murdered Kolb inside Kolb's Club Morton in Morton Grove, Illinois.
After Kolb's death, Touhy lived in fear and surrounded himself with armed guards.
Battle for control of the Chicago labor movement
Touhy's involvement with the labor movement began again in 1929 when Capone approached Touhy with a proposal to take over several Chicago-area locals of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT). Marcus "Studdy" Looney of Chicago Outfit met with Touhy and showed him a list of various American Federation of Labor (AFL) unions in the area and how much money each of them had in their treasury. The Teamsters were a particular focus of the Outfit. Touhy declined to participate in the scheme. Capone went ahead with the takeovers of the local unions anyway.
The Outfit's attempt to take control of the Teamsters District Council and other local unions began in the fall of 1930. At first, the presidents of the independent Teamsters and other union officials sought help from Touhy and other non-Outfit gangsters. They purchased homes close to Touhy's in Des Plaines in the hope that proximity would discourage assassination attempts. These labor officials began hiring bodyguards, many of whom were ex-gangsters. As Touhy told a federal court in 1952, William Rooney, president of Sheet Metal Workers union; Patrick J. "Paddy" Berrell, vice president of the IBT; and Art Wallace, secretary-treasurer of the Painters union met with Touhy in 1931 and asked him to hold on to $125,000 ($ in dollars) which they had raised as a fund to fight Outfit takeovers. Touhy claims he retained the money until Berrell and Jerry Horan, president of the Building Service Employees International Union, retrieved it some time later.
Thomas J. Courtney, who became Cook County State's Attorney in 1933, was ostensibly a reformer who professed a desire to root out organized crime influence in the labor movement. Courtney had little interest in doing so, intending to use his defense of collective bargaining as a means of seeking higher office. Modern historians agree that, behind the scenes, Courtney engaged in collusion with gang leaders. The Chicago District Council of Teamsters (an umbrella group for Teamster locals in the area) had broken away from the IBT in 1905, and now Courtney colluded with the AFL and IBT to force the independent District Council back into the IBT. Courtney's chief investigator, Chicago Police captain Daniel Gilbert, became the point-man for Courtney's efforts. Under the agreement, Courtney had to approve of the leaders of IBT locals in the area, and was permitted to bar certain individuals from membership.
Courtney faced a Chicago Outfit in disarray. When Al Capone was imprisoned on October 24, 1931, only two of the Chicago Outfit's top 16 leaders remained out of prison. Lower-level mobsters now fought for control of the Chicago Outfit. Irish gangster and Outfit member George "Red" Barker had been in control of a number of union locals in Chicago since 1928, and now began using this base of power to put pressure on the Sicilian mobsters who had dominated the Outfit under Capone. Barker was murdered in June 1932. The press reported at the time that the Sicilian faction was responsible, although labor historian David Scott Witwer says someone from Touhy's gang was the likely culprit. After Barker's death, Capt. Gilbert began putting Courtney-approved leaders in charge of the "liberated" local unions. In retaliation for the Barker murder, the Outfit killed Berrell in July 1932.
Touhy was aware of the collusion between Courtney and the IBT to dominate the District Council. After the death of Barker, Courtney installed a pro-IBT president as president of the Coal Haulers, and removed Looney as president of the Excavating, Grading, and Dump Drivers. On February 2, 1933, Tommy Touhy and other members of the Touhy gang attacked James "Fur" Sammons, a hitman for the O'Donnell Gang, and several others involved in labor racketeering, but managed to neither kill nor wound anyone. Worried that Touhy's attack might embolden union leaders to resist the Outfit, Frank Nitti ordered a series of vandalisms and bombings that intimidated business owners and unions alike into remaining under the Outfit's control.
The Cullen–Harrison Act, which legalized the sale in the United States of beer and wine with an alcohol content of 3.2% (by weight), went into effect on April 7, 1933. Organized crime sought to retain its profits by imposing a protection racket on now-legal brewers. On April 8, the Prima Brewing Company plant in Chicago was bombed, and there was some suggestion that Touhy (not the Chicago Outfit) had planted the explosive device.
Touhy's last known involvement with the labor movement came in April 1933. Early that month, Horan and Arthur Wallace (secretary-treasurer of the Chicago District Council of the Painters Union) met with Touhy and told him they were giving in to the Chicago Outfit's demands. Horan asked Capt. Gilbert to set up a meeting with the Outfit, and turned his union over to the mob. Wallace did the same. On Friday, April 28, 1933, a group of men wielding machine guns entered the Teamsters District Council headquarters building at 637 S. Ashland Avenue in Chicago at about 8:30 A.M. and held about 80 people hostage for three hours. The leader of the gunmen declared their purpose was to break the hold of Murray "The Camel" Humphreys, William "Klondike" O'Donnell, and "Three Finger" Jack White on the Teamster unions. When the three gangsters did not appear as expected after three hours, the gunmen kidnapped Fred Sass, business agent of the Ash Wagon Drivers Union, and Morris Goldberg, clerk for the Moving Van Drivers Union. Someone later communicated with Frank Goldberg, Morris' brother, and assured him Morris was uninjured. The gunmen held the two men over the weekend, apparently in the belief that Sass and Goldberg (who was O'Donnell's brother-in-law) knew where the three Outfit members were. Sass and Goldberg repeatedly said they did not know. The duo was told to quit their union jobs or face assassination, and were released around dawn on Monday, May 1. The Chicago Tribune initially declared that Roger Touhy himself led the kidnappers, but a few days later reported only that "members of the Touhy gang" had committed the kidnapping. According to one theory, the Touhy gang had seen revenues dry up with the repeal of Prohibition, and were seeking to take over unions themselves as a way of generating income. Another theory was that the Touhy gang had been hired by the IBT, which was seeking to wrest back control of the District Council. A third theory held that Roger Touhy was seeking to take over unions in an attempt to raise money to pay for the medical care of his brother Tommy, who had recently been partially paralyzed.
Hamm kidnapping charge
Conceiving the Hamm kidnapping
Alvin Karpis, Fred Barker, and Fred's mother took up residence in St. Paul, Minnesota, in late December 1931. There, Alvin and Fred formed a new incarnation of the Barker–Karpis gang. Local gangster and casino owner Jack Peifer put the Barker-Karpis gang up in a rented cottage in White Bear Lake, Minnesota, on the outskirts of St. Paul. Kidnapping had become a lucrative enterprise for American gangsters in the past year. The number of high-profile kidnappings reached 27 in 1933, more than double the number in 1932. It was safer than bank robbery but just as lucrative. In early June 1933, Peifer met with Barker-Karpis gang leaders and persuaded them to kidnap William Hamm Jr., president of the Hamm's Brewing Company and heir to the Hamm family fortune.
The rationale for kidnapping Hamm, Peifer said, was the $100,000 ransom ($ in dollars) the gang could expect to collect.
In fact, the Barker-Karpis gang was being manipulated into kidnapping Hamm so that Roger Touhy could be framed for the crime and eliminated as competition for the Chicago Outfit. Sources vary widely as to who conceived of framing Touhy. It may have been Outfit head Frank Nitti, but the idea may have come from Murray "The Camel" Humphreys, the Outfit's chief fixer and labor racketeer. Tom Brown, the corrupt ex-chief of police of St. Paul, or Chicago Police captain Daniel Gilbert may also have conceived of the plot. Crime historian Jay Nash says the idea came jointly from Peifer, Harry Sawyer, and Fred Goetz ( George "Shotgun" Ziegler), a Chicago Outfit assassin. Historian Julie A. Thompson, however, attributes it only to Peifer.
Hamm and Factor kidnappings
The Barker–Karpis gang kidnapped Hamm shortly after 12:15 PM on June 15, 1933, as he walked from the brewery to his home in St. Paul. Four men assisted Karpis and Barker in kidnapping Hamm: Arthur "Doc" Barker (Fred's brother), Byron Bolton, Charles "Old Fitz" Fitzgerald, and Fred Goetz. Brown, still a detective with the St. Paul police, kept the Barker-Karpis gang apprised of the FBI and St. Paul police investigations into the kidnapping. The Hamm family paid the $100,000 ransom on June 17, and Hamm was freed at dawn on June 19.
Melvin Purvis was the FBI Special Agent in Charge of the investigation into the Hamm kidnapping. From the beginning, Purvis believed that the Touhy gang committed the kidnapping. Purvis may have convinced himself of this, but it is also documented that Capt. Daniel Gilbert told Purvis that the Chicago police had information that Touhy was responsible.
On June 30, gangster and stock manipulator John "Jake the Barber" Factor disappeared. Factor was facing extradition to the United Kingdom for trial on charges of stock fraud. Factor conceived of the kidnapping as a way to avoid extradition, as American law enforcement and prosecutors would need to keep him in the U.S. as legal proceedings against the kidnappers went forward. The British consul in the United States declared the kidnapping a farce.
Factor's disappearance was convenient for the Outfit: Not only could police blame the Factor "kidnapping" on Touhy, but Factor (himself an affiliate of The Outfit) could accuse Touhy as well. Capt. Gilbert told Purvis that he was convinced Touhy was responsible. Gilbert publicly accused Touhy of engineering Factor's abduction on July 3, and repeated the claim several times to the press. Gilbert later claimed that he had 25 law enforcement officers trying to find Touhy in the days after Factor's kidnapping, but could not find him. Factor reappeared on July 12, allegedly after payment of a $70,000 ransom ($ in dollars). The same day, Gilbert's men arrested two members of the Touhy gang for kidnapping Factor.
Arrest and indictment
Unconcerned about Gilbert's public statements, Touhy decided to go on a mid-July fishing trip in southern Wisconsin with fellow gangsters Edward "Father Tom" McFadden, Gustave "Gloomy Gus" Schaefer, and Willie Sharkey. While returning to Chicago on July 19, Tuohy's car skidded off the road in misty, rainy weather and struck a utility pole. Touhy reported the accident and attempted to pay for the pole. Police discovered some weapons in Touhy's vehicle, and arrested the four on concealed weapons charges. Purvis drove to Wisconsin, and took Touhy and his three associates to Minnesota without an extradition order.
The FBI falsely claimed to have an "ironclad case" against Touhy. Taxicab driver Leo J. Allison failed to identify any of the four men as the person who paid him $2 to take a ransom note to the Hamm family. The four men were taken to Hamm's brewery office in secret, and Hamm failed to identify them as his kidnappers. Unable to link Touhy to the Factor kidnapping, the four men were sent back to Elkhorn to face weapons charges. Only then did Purvis claim he had four eyewitnesses connecting Touhy and his men to the Hamm kidnapping. Touhy could have sought a writ of habeas corpus, as Purvis decline to provide the names of his eyewitnesses to a federal court. To discourage this, Purvis added a charge of conspiracy to kidnap, and indicated he would keep adding charges to prevent any release of Touhy. With little evidence on which to hold Touhy, FBI agents beat Touhy brutally and did not let him sleep in an attempt to wring a confession from him.
The federal court scheduled a hearing on Touhy's motion for summary judgment on August 14. Federal agents made a series of wild and inaccurate claims which bolstered their case in public. The FBI said it had been investigating Touhy for two years already, and had intensified their focus on him after enactment of the Federal Kidnapping Act on June 22, 1932. Federal law enforcement officials now claimed that Touhy had kidnapped people in Kansas City, Missouri; Denver, Colorado; and Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota, and had operated a vast kidnap ring operating across the entire Midwestern United States. The United States Department of Justice reiterated its claim that the case against Touhy was "ironclad". FBI agents told the press that Touhy was a "callous killer; cruel by nature and devoid of any human attributes; driven by an insane desire for gangland power, which makes him absolutely ruthless and more deadly than a viper". They claimed he had a gang of more than 100 killers, "a loosely knit band of the most notorious desperadoes in the country, most of them fugitives from justice". Touhy, they said, led "a reign of terror" and "boasted that the law could not touch him" FBI agents also claimed that Touhy was so vicious that even other gangsters called him "America's Menace".
On August 8, the Justice Department convened a federal grand jury to hear evidence regarding an indictment against Touhy and the other three men on charges of kidnapping, conspiracy to kidnap, and interstate transportation of a person held for ransom. Testifying before the grand jury were the arresting officers from Elkhorn, the Walworth County sheriff, three Chicago police officers, and William Hamm, among others. On August 12, 1933, all four men were indicted by grand jury on charges of kidnapping, conpsiracy, and interstate transportation. A grand jury indictment did not require that any accusatory evidence be revealed to the defendants or the court, quashing Touhy's habeas corpus effort.
Pre-trial activities in the Hamm kidnapping
Roger Touhy and his co-defendants were among the first people to be prosecuted under Federal Kidnapping Act. L.L. Drill, the United States District Attorney for St. Paul, now admitted the case against Touhy was thin at first, but he was "fairly confident" that now it had "nothing lacking". Dissatisfied with Drill's preparation and handling of the case, United States Attorney General Homer Cummings replaced him with Special Assistant to the Attorney General Joseph B. Keenan. Keenan had successfully convicted George "Machine Gun" Kelly and three others for the kidnapping of oil man Charles F. Urschel, and his experience was believed to be critical to convicting Touhy.
The FBI now developed evidence of Touhy's innocence. Alvin Karpis, "Doc" Barker, and George Fitzgerald had left their fingerprints on the ransom notes given to the Hamm family. The FBI Technical and Research Laboratory, established in the fall of 1932, had only just developed a technique to lift fingerprints from paper. This technique was now used to lift the Karpis gang's prints from the ransom notes on September 6, 1933.
Despite evidence of the involvement of the Barker-Karpis gang, law enforcement continued to press their case against Touhy, McFadden, Schaefer, and Sharkey. Touhy was indicted for leading a $234,000 ($ in dollars) mail robbery in Sacramento, California, in February 1933. Police in Nebraska believed Touhy and Sharkey led a $51,000 ($ in dollars) bank robbery in Grand Island in 1932. Schaefer and Sharkey, along with Frank "Blackie" McKee and "Silent Jim" Ryan (two other alleged members of the Touhy gang), were indicted for a mail robbery in Minneapolis in January 1933. Alleged Touhy associates Gene Thomas ( Frank McGee) and George W. "Red" Kerr were indicted for participating in a $100,000 ($ in dollars) mail robbery in Milwaukee in January 1933.
Hamm trial
Judge Matthew M. Joyce of the United States District Court for the District of Minnesota presided over the Touhy trial. The lead prosecutor was Joseph B. Keenan. The nine jurors were seated on November 9, 1933.
Keenan's star witness was William Hamm. Hamm identified McFadden as one of his kidnappers on the trial's first day, and then recanted his testimony the next day. When asked by the prosecution to identify Willie Sharkey as one of his kidnappers, Hamm could not do so. He was able to testify about a Wisconsin road sign he saw, which the prosecution said put the place of his imprisonment in Wisconsin. Keenan also called Daniel Rush to the stand, but Rush, who had seen the kidnapping from his home, was not able to identify any of the kidnappers. When pressed, Rush could only say that Sharkey "resembled" the driver of the kidnap car. Taxicab driver Leo Allison proved so reluctant to testify that Keenan had to ask the court for permission to treat Allison as a hostile witness. Only after extensive questioning did Allison admit that the man who'd given him the ransom note resembled McFadden. Two other prosecution eyewitnesses, dentist Dr. Horace C. La Bissoniere and drug store owner Clarence J. Thomas, also testified that Touhy "resembled" the man who left ransom note in Thomas' drug store. Neither could not positively identify him, however.
The prosecution had better luck from two other eyewitnesses, however. Printer Walter Bowick, who was in the drug store when one of the Hamm ransom notes was delivered, positively identified Touhy as the man who delivered the ransom note. Farm hand Charles Carlson positively identified Touhy, McFadden, and Schaefer as the men he saw loitering near the spot where the ransom money was left. Carlson stuck to his testimony despite strong defense cross-examination. Toward the end of the government's case, various law enforcement officers testified about the weapons found in the Touhy car, although none mentioned a pistol converted into a machine gun. Elkhorn police also testified about the "kidnapping gear" they found in the car, which included a sash, a pair of rubber boots, and some bandages. The prosecution rested on November 16.
Jake Factor arrived in Minneapolis during the trial at the request of federal prosecutors. He never took the witness stand. Factor did, however, give almost daily interviews with the press on the courthouse steps in which he accused Touhy of kidnapping and torturing him.
The defense opened its case on November 17. Three and a half days were spent reading into the record depositions from a wide range of individuals who claimed to have seen Touhy, McFadden, Schaefer, and Sharkey nowhere near Minneapolis during the Hamm kidnapping. Defense attorney Thomas McMeekin attempted to introduce extensive evidence that Walter Bowick was an inveterate liar who had fled town after his prosecution testimony. Judge Joyce disallowed the evidence, arguing that it should have been raised during cross-examination. A defense effort to discredit Carlson on the grounds of witness coaching was rejected on the same grounds.
Touhy's defense relied on an alibi for June 15 and 16. The alibi was provided in part by Des Plaines lawyer Vincent Connor and his client Gus A. Palmquist. Both men said they met with Touhy on the night of June 16 when drug store ransom note was delivered, and Connor said he'd telephoned Touhy at Touhy's home on June 15. Telephone records supported Connor's testimony. Connor and Edward J. Meany, a Des Plaines realtor and insurance broker, also testified that they had met with Touhy in Des Plaines on June 15. Local police arrested both Connor and Meany as they left the courtroom, claiming they had violated a local ordinance against registering in a hotel under an assumed name. Judge Joyce was outraged when he learned of it, and freed both men. Touhy's co-defense attorney, William Scott Stewart, called the two men's imprisonment an "old trick" to intimidate defense witnesses.
Gus Schaefer's defense also rested on an alibi. He claimed he was at a motel in King City, California, the week of the Hamm kidnapping. In addition to depositions from the motel clerks, postcards postmarked sent by Schaefer to his wife from California and Wyoming on June 21 and 22 were introduced as evidence as well. Two handwriting experts testified that Schaefer had written the postcards. A prosecution attempt to impugn their testimony by comparing prison letters to the postcards failed when the experts pointed out the different writing instruments used.
Touhy's wife, Clara testified for the defense regarding certain "kidnapping" items found in Touhy's car. The "sash cord" was a clothes line rope her children used to play with, she said. The "bandages" were rags used to clean up the car when her children became carsick, and the rubber boots were hers.
The defense rested on November 25, declining to provide alibis for McFadden or Sharkey.
The government had intended to recall William Hamm to the stand as part of its rebuttal and have him identify his kidnappers by their voices alone, but never did so. The prosecution attempted to call Jake Factor to the stand, claiming Factor would identify the four men as his kidnappers. It also attempted to bring in a new witness, Richard Gustafson, to testify that he had seen Touhy and his men loitering about the Hamm brewery for three days prior to kidnapping. Judge Joyce denied both requests on the grounds that these witnesses should have been called during the prosecution's original case. The government then rested on November 25.
The jury was out for just six and a half hours. On November 28, the jury acquitted all four men of William Hamm's kidnapping.
Factor kidnapping trial
On July 21, 1933, shortly after Touhy's arrest in Elkhorn, police secretly arranged for a lineup of Touhy, McFadden, Schaeffer, and Sharkey and brought Jake Factor in to identify them as his kidnappers. He failed to recognize any of the men.
Factor now told police that his kidnappers were demanding even more money or they would kidnap him again. Factor agreed to allow FBI agent Melvin Purvis to tap his telephone, and Purvis listened in on a number of the demands for more cash. Purvis told Factor to arrange for a new payment, and the FBI decided to set a trap for anyone who showed up at the ransom drop site. The ransom was delivered by two undercover police officers in St. Paul on August 15. Basil "The Owl" Banghart and Martin "Ice Wagon" O'Connor ( Charles Conners) showed up at the location. The two gangsters realized it was a trap, and shot their way clear even though more than 300 FBI and local law enforcement officers surrounded them and two law enforcement spotter planes circled overhead to track their getaway vehicle.
Law enforcement continued to build their case against Touhy as the Hamm kidnapping trial went forward. On September 15, Chicago Police Capt. Dan Gilbert claimed several eyewitnesses saw three members of the Touhy gang loitering about the Dells Roadhouse where Factor was kidnapped. On November 9, a grand jury indicted Hugh Basil Banghart ( Larry Green), Charles "Ice Wagon" Conners ( Eugene Crotty), and August John Lamar ( Albert J. Kator, Louis La Mar) for participating in the Factor kidnapping. Banghart was captured in Baltimore, Maryland, on February 11. Arrested with him was Isaac "Ike" Costner.
Immediately after Touhy's acquittal for the Hamm kidnapping, federal authorities arrested Touhy, McFadden, Schaefer, and Sharkey on charges of kidnapping Factor. Schaefer and Sharkey were also arrested for robbing the mail in Milwaukee in January 1933. Willie Sharkey, who had twice exhibited irrational behavior during the Hamm trial, committed suicide by hanging on November 30.
Touhy's trial in the kidnapping of Jake Factor opened on January 16, 1934. Thomas Courtney, Minnesota state's attorney prosecuting the case, convinced President Franklin D. Roosevelt to not deport Factor in the interest of law enforcement. The prosecution called six eyewitnesses who claimed they saw Touhy and his co-defendants kidnap Factor. Factor himself testified at the trial. Now claiming that his blindfold had slipped one day, he accused Touhy of being his kidnapper. Under cross-examination, Factor was confronted with the fact that he'd failed to identify any of the four co-defendants in July 1933. Factor now claimed that he'd been told not to by Capt. Daniel Gilbert. Touhy was able to provide an alibi for the night of Factor's kidnapping, with several neighbors testifying that he had sat on his front porch conversing. The jury deadlocked, and a mistrial was declared on February 2, 1934.
A second trial began on February 13, 1934. Charges were inexplicably dropped against Connors, and charges against McFadden dropped as nol pressed. Banghart and Costner were brought to Chicago to testify in the case. Costner turned state's evidence and completely corroborated Factor's accusations. Banghart testified for the defense. Banghart claimed that Jake Factor had recruited him and others to fake Factor's kidnapping as a way of helping Factor avoid deportation, and Banghart was paid $50,000 for his trouble. Factor and others then began framing Touhy and his gang for the kidnapping. A police officer who saw Factor minutes after he claimed to be freed claimed Factor was clean-shaven and his clothes in good appearance (even though Factor said he'd slept in his clothes for nearly two weeks and not been allowed to shower or shave). The press reported that the judge and jury giggled at Banghart's testimony, and that even Touhy's defense attorney hid a smile at how ridiculous it seemed. The jury convicted Touhy and his co-defendants in just four hours, and deliberated the penalty for another six. Deciding against death, the jury imposed a life sentence on all three men. They would be eligible for parole in 33 years.
Basil Banghart was tried separately in the kidnapping of Jake Factor. He was convicted on March 13, 1934, and sentenced to 99 years in prison as well. The day he was convicted, Charles Connors was found murdered (allegedly by gangland thugs) in the Forest Preserve area of Cook County, Illinois.
Incarceration
Appeals
Touhy was incarcerated at Stateville Correctional Center in Illinois. Touhy immediately filed an appeal. Over the next eight years, he spent most of his bootlegger's fortune on legal fees.
On October 9, 1942, Touhy and six other men escaped from Stateville prison. After a month, Touhy and the others were discovered living in a Chicago boarding house. Touhy and three others surrendered peacefully. The remaining two escapees tried to fight their way out and were killed. Touhy re-entered Stateville on December 31, 1942, and was sentenced to an additional 199 years in prison for the escape.
In 1944, 20th Century Fox released a semi-biographical and highly fictionalized film based on Touhy's life, title Roger Touhy, Gangster. Touhy successfully sued the studio for defamation of character (after six years, he won a judgment of $15,000), but Fox was able to distribute the film overseas without legal repercussions.
On August 9, 1954, Federal District Court Judge John Barnes set Touhy free. The ruling was the culmination of an appeal Touhy began in 1948. The Court found that Capt. Gilbert had induced Costner to perjur himself, that Gilbert had held back critical evidence of Touhy's innocence, that Courtney (now a state circuit judge) had presumably had knowledge of Costner's perjury, that multiple Illinois state attorneys had engaged in other prosecutorial misconduct, and that it was now widely known that Factor's kidnapping had been faked. The State of Minnesota appealed the ruling, arguing that Touhy had not exhausted his state appeals before filing his federal appeal. Touhy was released on August 10, 1954, but the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit ordered him returned to prison after just 48 hours of freedom while the appeal was pending. On August 30, the Seventh Circuit declined Touhy's bid for habeas corpus, ruling he should remain in prison until the state's appeal was fully heard. The U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear Touhy's appeal on February 14, 1955, and did not accept his writ of habeas corpus.
Release
While the state's appeal was still pending, Governor William Stratton commuted Touhy's two sentences on July 31, 1957. Stratton reduced the 99-year sentence to 72 years, and reduced the 199-year sentence to three years. Touhy won parole on the kidnapping charge on February 20, 1958. Touhy's three-year sentence for escape began running after his kidnapping parole. He was eligible for parole after serving a third of the sentence, and was granted parole on November 12, 1959. Touhy left Statesville Prison on November 24, 1959, having served exactly 25 years and nine months. He lived with his sister, Ethel Alesia, at 125 N. Lotus Avenue in Chicago.
Touhy's autobiography, The Stolen Years, was published in the fall of 1959. John Factor sued Touhy for libel for the statements published in the book.
Death
At 10:30 P.M. on December 16, 1959, Touhy and Walter Miller, a retired Chicago police detective who served as his bodyguard, were gunned down as they entered the Alesia house. Two or three men stepped out of shadows as Touhy and Miller mounted the steps to the front door. Miller identified himself as a police officer, and the men pulled 12 gauge shotguns from beneath their overcoats. Touhy was struck in the left leg above the knee, and in the right leg below the knee. Miller was shot three times in the arms and legs. Miller was able to pull his revolver and fire five shots. Miller was taken to Loretto Hospital in critical condition. Touhy was taken to St. Anne's Hospital, where he died an hour later on the operating table from loss of blood. He received last rites a few minutes before he died.
As Touhy was moved into an oxygen tent, he told medical and police bystanders, "I've been expecting it. The bastards never forget."
Clara Touhy and her son Thomas buried Roger Touhy in a quiet, secret graveside service at Mount Carmel Cemetery in Hillside, Illinois, on Friday, December 18. No clergy or police were present.
Personal life
Roger Touhy claimed he ran afoul of the law only twice before the Hamm kidnapping case. The first time was when he received a traffic ticket for speeding in Chicago, and the second was when a court in Florida found him guilty for discharging a firearm on his property.
On April 22, 1922, Roger married 23-year-old Clara Morgan, an Irish American telegrapher. The couple had two children: Roger Scott Jr. (born about 1925) and Thomas (born about 1927). Touhy claimed to have sent his children to college while in prison, one attending the University of Florida and the other Stetson University. Both worked in the construction industry for a time, but by 1959 Thomas was working as a police officer and going to law school.
All three family members lived under assumed names in Forest Park, Illinois, at the time of Touhy's release.
At one time, Touhy owned a small farm and home in Des Plaines, Illinois, as well as a home on a large piece of property in Florida. While in prison, Touhy sued 20th Century Fox for libeling him in the motion picture Roger Touhy, Gangster. The parties settled out of court, with Touhy receiving $15,000 in damages. At the time of his death, however, Touhy had no property, and only $35,000 in cash and some furniture in storage. His wife and children relied solely on the potential royalties from his autobiography for income.
Post-death legal cases
Jake Factor's libel suit against Touhy was dismissed on account of Touhy's death. Factor then sued autobiography co-author Ray Brennan, KCOP-TV, KCOP reporter Tom Duggan, and the two publishers of Touhy's book for a combined $4 million for libel in January 1960. The outcome of that case is not known.
In August 1961, Clara and Thomas Touhy filed a $2 million defamation and libel suit against CBS for airing a program about Roger Touhy that included their names. The outcome of that case is not known.
In 1979, Roger Touhy Jr. filed suit against 20th Century Fox for breaching the 1949 agreement between the studio and Roger Touhy. The son claimed the agreement barred Fox from distributing the motion picture Roger Touhy, Gangster in the United States. A court found in favor of 20th Century Fox.
Legal legacy
Touhy filed a habeas corpus proceeding in federal District Court against Ragen, the warden of Stateville Prison, alleging he was restrained in violation of the Due Process Clause. As part of this proceeding, in 1949 he subpoenaed FBI agent George McSwain to provide documents showing his kidnapping conviction was based on conspiracy and fraud. McSwain refused, citing Justice Department policy. While the District Court held McSwain in contempt for defying the subpoena, the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals and the US Supreme Court disagreed, both holding that McSwain's refusal was legal.
Thereafter, the proper protocols for subpoenaing a federal agent to appear in court have variously been known as Touhy regulations, ''Touhy letters, Touhy requests or the Touhy'' process.
See also
List of organized crime killings in Illinois
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Hunt for Roger "The Terrible" Touhy and his gang at FBI.gov
1898 births
1959 deaths
American crime bosses
American gangsters
American gangsters of Irish descent
Burials at the Bishop's Mausoleum, Mount Carmel Cemetery (Hillside)
Deaths by firearm in Illinois
Federal Bureau of Investigation misconduct
Gangsters from Chicago
Murdered American gangsters of Irish descent
Organized crime memoirists
Prohibition-era gangsters
People murdered by the Chicago Outfit
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Wrongful convictions
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death%20of%20Dianne%20Brimble
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Death of Dianne Brimble
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Dianne Elizabeth Brimble (10 April 1960 – 24 September 2002) died aboard a P&O Cruises cruise ship of a drug overdose. She is alleged to have been neglected and received callous treatment at the hands of passengers, and to have been given the drug without her knowledge or consent. The investigation into her death has resulted in widespread media coverage in Australia, and criticism of both party culture aboard cruise ships and of the investigation immediately following Brimble's death.
Brimble's death
Brimble, a 42-year-old mother of three from Brisbane, died within 24 hours of boarding the P&O Cruises cruise ship Pacific Sky on 23 September 2002, apparently due to ingesting a combination of alcohol and an overdose of the drug gamma-hydroxybutyrate, otherwise known as "GHB" or "fantasy". According to news reports, security staff on the cruise ship were initially told Brimble had died of a heart attack, but there were suspicious circumstances.
Toxicology reports later revealed that the amount of the sedative drug in her system was three times the amount that a recreational user would have used. Her body was found on the floor of cabin D182, which belonged to four of the men whom she had met at the ship's disco the previous night. Newspaper reports initially gave differing accounts as to whether Brimble was partially clothed or unclothed when she was found dead.
Inquest
Eight men from Adelaide, South Australia, who were travelling companions on the ship had been named by police investigators as "persons of interest" in the case. An inquest was ordered and the eight men, Dragan Losic, Mark Wilhelm, Petar Pantic, Letterio "Leo" Silvestri, Luigi Vitale, Matthew Slade, Ryan Kuchel and Sakelarios "Charlie" Kambouris were subpoenaed to appear.
The inquest began in March 2006. An attempt by Wilhelm's attorney to challenge the inquest was rejected, and Wilhelm was ordered by Deputy State Coroner Jacqueline Milledge to appear when called. Mark Brimble, the ex-husband of Dianne Brimble, represented the family at the inquest and asked questions of witnesses. Other Pacific Sky passengers and personnel had already made statements.
The memory stick from a camera owned by one of the men, "Charlie" Kambouris, which was handed in as lost property, had been stolen by a P&O employee who later turned it over to police once he realised that pictures of Brimble and the men of interest were on it. The camera's memory stick had been reformatted but computer forensic experts were able to retrieve more than 150 deleted pictures from it, and consequently found evidence important to the case. The photographs have not been released to the media because they depict sexual activity and are considered too graphic. Wilhelm claimed that the sex was consensual, and several photographs appear to support this. Other photographs allegedly showed Brimble later, lying naked on the floor of the cabin, having lost control of her bodily functions.
According to several witnesses' testimonies, the men had spent most of the time on the cruise allegedly propositioning a number of female passengers of varying ages. Among numerous acts of alleged sexual harassment were: asking a 15-year-old to do an erotic dance in their cabin for cash, entering the cabin of four girls uninvited, asking if they were going to the disco where they 'could go down on them' and in a later encounter, Silvestri asking one woman if he could perform oral sex on her, among others.
The inquest heard the initial interview that Silvestri had given police in New Caledonia. The interview was conducted two days after Brimble's death. At that time, Silvestri denied any involvement with Brimble. During the interview, however, Silvestri spoke of Brimble in disparaging terms, saying "she smelt, she was black and she was ugly." Silvestri also described her as "desperate", "a yuck-ugly dog" and a "fat thing." Silvestri told the police interviewers that he was angry because Brimble "fucked up his holiday" by dying in his cabin. According to police witness statements, Silvestri allegedly said to another cruise passenger, Allison McKain, that "The bitch is dead, the fucking bitch is dead. Some shit went down last night, some top secret shit," and that a woman had died, naked on the floor of their cabin. Several passengers related how Silvestri had told them that the group had considered throwing Brimble overboard. At least ten passengers saw Brimble, having lost control of her bodily functions, lying unconscious and naked on the cabin floor, including several women Wilhelm specifically invited into the cabin to see her in that state. When the group realised something was wrong they washed and dressed Brimble before calling for help. Later, when medical officers attempted to resuscitate Brimble, Silvestri told the ship's purser to "get the bitch out of my room."
Silvestri told the coronial court that Kuchel told him that Wilhelm had given Brimble the drug, and that she took it willingly with full informed consent. However, Wilhelm had written in a signed statement given to a P&O security chief that he had not given any drugs to anyone. In previous testimony given in March, Counsel assisting the coroner, Ron Hoenig, described Brimble as being "preyed upon" and asserted that she was impaired in such a way that she could not have given informed consent. At the first inquest in March, Hoenig read statements from family and friends of Brimble, citing that she was a "very moral woman" who did not approve of taking drugs or of casual sex. Both Mark Brimble and David Mitchell, her partner of 14 years, gave evidence to the court pertaining to Dianne Brimble's character. However, evidence was tendered by Brimble's doctor that she had recently been prescribed the morning-after pill and had previously had an HIV test following an indiscretion. In addition, the recovered photographs showed Brimble fully conscious having sex with Wilhelm.
Police tapped the telephones of the eight named "men of interest" for six months. Investigators heard nothing incriminating and came to the conclusion that the men did not have the "mongrel instinct" to stick to a fabricated story. However, the men frequently spoke of themselves being the victims, boasted about the media coverage and discussed how to make money from the case, ideas put forward included selling the story to the media, setting up a fee-for-access website and offering to tell police the truth in return for payment.
State Coroner Jacqueline Milledge handed down the findings of the inquest on 30 November 2010. She ruled that Dianne Brimble had been 'unknowingly drugged' for the sexual gratification of others. Milledge said there was evidence to suggest that the drug had been supplied to Wilhelm by Silvestri. She criticised Wilhelm for failing to tell medical staff that Brimble had consumed a drug, denying her the best possible chance of survival. She also said that New South Wales Police withheld material from the inquest, resulting in 'an impasse that was crippling to the inquest'.
Criminal charges
In September 2008, the NSW Director of Public Prosecutions announced that Mark Wilhelm, Letterio Silvestri and Ryan Kuchel would face charges over the circumstances of Brimble's death. Wilhelm was to be charged with manslaughter and supplying a prohibited drug, and Silvestri and Kuchel with perverting the course of justice or, alternatively, to the lesser charge of hindering the investigation.
In October 2009, a Supreme Court trial of Wilhelm ended with the jury unable to reach a verdict.
On 21 April 2010, as a second trial began, Wilhelm pleaded guilty to an alternative charge to manslaughter, saying that he had caused Brimble to take the drug. However, in an unusual move, Justice Howie refused to accept the plea saying, "I cannot allow him to plead guilty to a matter he did not commit, and he did not commit this." Shortly after, Crown Prosecutor Terry Thorpe withdrew the charge of manslaughter against Wilhelm.
Justice Howie said he wholly supported the decision to drop the charges because there was no evidence to support the charge. The judge said that the majority of the public believed that Wilhelm should be held responsible for Brimble's death, but that their view had been coloured by prejudice and hysteria. He said that the coronial inquest had been unfortunate because it allowed a great deal of irrelevant material to be exposed to the media. "Mr Wilhelm had no basis to believe that he was in any way putting Ms Brimble's life at risk," he said. "She was an adult who, on the evidence, voluntarily took the drug knowing what it was. She didn't think it would harm her, neither did Mr Wilhelm." Wilhelm pleaded guilty to the far lesser charge of supplying a prohibited drug.
The judge then recorded a "no conviction" and applied no penalty, for the charge of supplying, stating "It's a significant punishment he has already suffered. ... I am entitled to take into account not only the years of public humiliation of the offender but also the consequences of that on him and his mental health." For hindering the investigation, Kuchel was given an 18-month good behaviour bond while Silvestri was given a 15-month bond.
Aftermath
The Brimble family was able to reach a settlement with P&O for, "a reasonable amount of money".
Brimble's family revealed the anguish of Brimble's drug-induced death aboard the Pacific Sky in interviews aired on Australian Story on ABC TV.
The case has prompted stricter security measures for Australian cruises with the introduction of security sniffer dogs and closed-circuit surveillance cameras throughout ships in the fleet.
The case also allegedly inspired the 2008 play Cruising.
Wilhelm, Slade and Kuchel are believed to have distanced themselves from the other five men who have remained close friends. On 8 October 2010, Losic, Kambouris, Vitale, Pantic, and their partners and friends met for dinner at an Adelaide restaurant. The gathering was photographed by the media and a story ran the next day claiming that the dinner was being held to mark the eighth anniversary of Brimble's death (21 September 2002). The men were criticized by the media, who reported the event in a three-page editorial. A separate opinion piece condemned the men's insensitivity in holding a dinner on the anniversary and questioned their lack of shame over the events of 2002. Losic's wife insisted the dinner was for a friend's birthday but she declined to name the friend. Brimble's family declined to comment on the dinner, stating they would "leave it up to the public to make up their minds who and what they are."
Timeline
Monday, 23 September 2002 — at approximately 1700 in Sydney, Australia, Dianne Brimble boards the Pacific Sky cruise ship for a 10-day/9-night cruise to Nouméa, New Caledonia, and Vanuatu. She is accompanied by her sister, her daughter, and her niece. The eight "persons of interest" arrive and are photographed together before they board the ship. This photo was widely published by the media after Brimble was identified in the background boarding the ship. A total of 1500 passengers are on board.
Tuesday, 24 September 2002 — at about 0400, Brimble is seen leaving the ship's disco with four of the eight "men of interest." At approximately 0830, the ship's emergency paramedics are called to cabin D182 when attempts by two of the men to revive Brimble fail. At 0903 she is pronounced dead.
Thursday, 26 September 2002 — Detectives board the ship while in port in Nouméa and begin questioning various witnesses. While Brimble's cabin was sealed for further investigation. the cabin where she was found was not. The four occupants, Wilhelm, Slade, Kuchel and Silvestri, are moved to another cabin and are allowed to remove their belongings. The cabin is then cleaned. Brimble's body is removed from the ship and transported back to Australia. Her family members also disembark.
Friday, 4 October 2002 — Brimble's funeral is held in Brisbane. More than 250 people attend, including her former husband, Mark Brimble, and her partner, David Mitchell.
9 March 2006 — The inquest into her death opens at Glebe Coroners Court in Sydney. Statements are given by friends and family of Brimble, and by Pacific Sky passengers and crew.
16 June 2006 — Letterio "Leo" Silvestri is the first of the "persons of interest" to take the stand at Glebe Coroners Court.
25 June 2006 — Mark Brimble, Brimble's former husband, becomes the Australian representative for the US-based group International Cruise Victims Organization.
28 July 2006 — Ryan Kuchel, the second "person of interest", testifies before the coroner.
11 September 2006 — The inquest resumes. Betty Wood and Alma Wood, Brimble's mother and sister, fly in from Brisbane to attend the inquest. Ryan Kuchel continues to give evidence, as do several members of P&O's security staff. During the week, Petar Pantic and Dragan Losic also testify. Upon finishing his testimony, Pantic formally apologises to Brimble's family.
6 November 2006 — The inquest resumes. Evidence is given by Dragan Losic, crew members and other witnesses. Brimble's family accuse police of covering up evidence.
16 February 2007 — The counsel assisting the inquest, Ron Hoenig, suggests to the coroner that Leo Silvestri and Mark Wilhelm could be charged with murder over Brimble's death.
22 February 2007 — P&O's chief executive, Peter Ratcliffe, apologises to the Brimble family for the company's failure to handle the situation properly following the Brimble's death. P&O offers a substantial payment to the family.
9 July 2007 — The inquest resumes.
10 July 2007 — Testimony is given by Luigi Vitale. He says he had never met Brimble, and does not believe her death was suspicious. He says he has no memory of the events leading up to her death.
13 July 2007 — Testimony is given by Matthew Slade. He sets himself apart from the other seven persons of interest, referring to them as "wankers" and "idiots." He says he had received death threats regarding the case, as had another of the persons of interest, Mark Wilhelm.
26 July 2007 — The coroner ends the inquest, saying there is enough evidence capable of satisfying a jury that "known persons" had committed indictable offences. Counsel assisting the inquest, Ron Hoenig, said there was enough evidence to conclude that two unnamed people had committed an indictable offence. Hoenig said that possible charges could relate to supplying a person with a drug and to not rendering a person assistance. The case is referred to the Director of Public Prosecutions. In previous days, the inquest heard secretly recorded telephone conversations in which several of the men of interest joke and make derogatory statements about Brimble, including claims that she "was no angel". Some discussed the possibility of selling their stories to the police and the media for millions of dollars. The last of the men of interest to take the stand, Mark Wilhelm, elects to exercise the right to remain silent during the inquest.
6 December 2007 — Petar Pantic, one of the persons of interest in Dianne Brimble's murder, flees Australia with a one-way ticket to Serbia. He was discovered to have fled when police tried to serve an arrest warrant on him in relation to the importation of prohibited zoophilia pornography. He returned to Australia in 2009 and was fined $5,000 for the offence.
11 September 2008 — The NSW Director of Public Prosecutions recommends that Mark Wilhelm be charged with manslaughter and supplying fantasy, and that Letterio "Leo" Silvestri and Ryan Kuchel be charged with perverting the course of justice.
19 February 2009 — A date is set for the trial of three of the persons of interest.
23 June 2009 — Ryan Kuchel pleads guilty in court to one count of concealing a serious offence. His lawyers ask for the matter to be dealt with immediately because Kuchel is now living in Dubai. Kuchel is sentenced to be of good behaviour for 18 months.
29 June 2009 — Letterio "Leo" Silvestri pleads guilty to concealing a serious indictable offence. He is later sentenced to 15 months in jail, with the sentence suspended due to his guilty plea and because he had agreed to give evidence at the trial of the man alleged to have given Brimble the drug.
21 April 2010 — The manslaughter charge against Mark Wilhelm is dropped and he pleads guilty to supplying Ms Brimble with the drug GHB. Supreme Court Justice Roderick Howie says that if Wilhelm was responsible for Mrs Brimble's death, it was only in a moral or "technical" way, and that there is doubt whether he is criminally responsible. The judge later recorded a conviction against Wilhelm, but did not impose any punishment on the basis that Wilhlem had suffered years of public humiliation and severe mental illness since Dianne Brimble's death, and that no punishment the judge could give would be anything like the punishment Wilhelm had suffered since the incident.
References
External links
Account of Dianne Brimble's death and the culture of cruise ships Cruising: Life and Death on the High Seas, published in The Monthly, September 2006, won a Walkley Award in 2007.
Transcript of Australian Story Monday, 8 May 2006, The Mourning After interviewing Dianne Brimble's family.
Dianne Brimble at International Cruise Victims Organization website.
Excerpt of news story from the Daily Shipping News for 8 October 2002
Dianne Brimble story from Cruise Bruise
Iconic photograph of the "eight men of interest" posing together before boarding the cruise ship. Dianne Brimble can be seen in the background.
2002 deaths
Deaths by person in Australia
Women deaths
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20Village%20of%20the%20Illinois
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Grand Village of the Illinois
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The Grand Village of the Illinois, also called Old Kaskaskia Village, is a site significant for being the best documented historic Native American village in the Illinois River valley. It was a large agricultural and trading village of Native Americans of the Illinois confederacy, located on the north bank of the Illinois River near the present town of Utica, Illinois.
French explorers Louis Joliet and Father Jacques Marquette came across it in 1673. The Kaskaskia, a tribe of the Illiniwek people (and later, other Illiniwek tribes) lived in the village. It grew rapidly after a French mission and fur trading post (see, Illinois Country) were established there in 1675, to a population of about 6,000 people in about 460 houses. Around 1691 the Kaskaskia and other Illiniwek moved further south, abandoning the site due to pressure from an Iroquois invasion from the northeast.
The historic site is now owned by the U.S. state of Illinois. In the 1940s, historian Sarah Tucker of the University of Chicago was able to pinpoint the probable location of the village based on the historical record. The university and the Illinois State Museum conducted archaeological excavations and confirmed Tucker's research, finding substantial evidence of the village. The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1964.
A prominent local landmark, Starved Rock, stands on the south bank of the river directly opposite the Grand Village site. Explorer La Salle founded a fort there to be near this village. Starved Rock is also a National Historic Landmark and is included in Starved Rock State Park.
History
Archeological evidence indicates that the Illini of the Grand Village were well adapted to their environment. They grew corn, beans, and squash in the rich alluvial soil. In 1673, Father Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet visited the village, which at that time contained approximately 1,000 people. The French were returning from their expedition to chart the Mississippi River. Although terminally ill, Marquette returned to the Grand Village in early 1675 to celebrate Mass, and founded the mission of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin. The French called the village both the Grand Village du Kaskaskia and La Vantum.
Around this time the town grew to perhaps the most populous Native American settlement north of Mexico. According to a theory by historian, Robert Morrissey, the Illinois Confederation Indians were adept at exploiting their location in the ecotone between the forests of the east and the prairies of the west – a controlling point for trade between east and west, as well as, rich with diverse hunting, farming, and resource habitats.
The Native Americans of the Eastern Woodland culture were severely affected by epidemic infectious diseases brought to North America from Europe, as they had no natural immunity. In addition, the introduction of guns increased the fatalities in intertribal conflicts. The fur trade became a source of competition and conflict between tribes. Members of the Illini Confederacy appear to have responded to increasing pressures by banding together. Reports from La Salle and others in the 1680s indicate that the Grand Village of the Illini temporarily increased in size during that decade to 400 cabins housing as many as 6,000 people. This village proved to be unsustainable in size. La Salle and Henri de Tonti also established Fort Saint Louis on the butte now called Starved Rock across the river, where a village near the rock's base called Hotel Plaza developed.
The inhabitants of the Grand Village largely dispersed under pressure from invading Iroquois bands (see, Beaver Wars). Many likely moved to the regions around Peoria (see, Fort Pimiteoui), Cahokia, and Kaskaskia, Illinois. These three towns were named after constituent tribes of the Illinois Confederacy.
Alternative Site
A 2022 article argues the site of the Grand Village of the Illinois, as referred to by the early European explorers, was on the north side of the Sangamon River about 3 miles east of Chandlerville and that the site near Starved Rock was a seasonal farming village. (It also argues the lake referred to as Pimiteoui was not Peoria Lake but instead that near Beardstown and places Fort Crevecoeur near there as well.) References are made to the journals and maps of the explorers and to the original plats of Illinois drawn in the early 1800s, before the rivers had been altered. (The Sangamon has since been channeled.)
Included was La Salle's description of the Grand Village. It was nearly 3 miles long and sited between the river and its bluff, about 3/4 mile in depth, and "consists of nothing but huts roofed with mats... without any enclosure or entrenchment." Based on two original sources, the village had several hundred huts and thousands of inhabitants.
Folklore
Later English speaking European pioneers did not have a clear idea what had happened to the people of the Grand Village. After the villagers dispersed, a tale was repeated in local folklore that members of the Illini Confederacy had been pinned by tribal enemies to a last stand atop Starved Rock. Hopelessly surrounded, the brave villagers refused to surrender and supposedly perished of starvation. It was said that this was how "Starved Rock" got its name.
Tonti
In one tale, attributed to the French and Indians, the explorer Henri de Tonti cached a hoard of gold on or near the canyons and bluffs of Starved Rock to secrete it from a French Canadian governor who had dismissed him. Later in 1704 when he was dying of yellow fever, Tonti described the treasure's location to the priest who was giving him last rites. As the story goes, the priest mentioned this revelation to third parties, but did not describe the secret location, and this key piece of information was lost when the priest died in an Illinois River canoe accident.
Pontiac
Another narrative centers on the death, in 1769, of Pontiac at the hands of an unnamed member of the Illini Confederacy. According to this story, the Pottawatomi, who were closely allied to Pontiac's kinfolk, made war on the Illini, forcing many of them to take refuge on the bluff that would become known as "Starved Rock." The Illini supposedly starved as their blufftop refuge was besieged.
Today
The site of the Grand Village of the Illinois was acquired by the state of Illinois in 1991 as a non-operating site of the Illinois Historic Preservation Agency. As of 2023, it is not open to the public.
Zimmerman site
The Zimmerman site (Ls-13) is an archaeological site located on the Illinois River across from Starved Rock, in the spot where the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia (aka Grand Village of the Illinois) once stood. It is a multi-component site representing prehistoric and early historic periods.
The environment around the Zimmerman site was predominantly prairie in the prehistoric period. The bluff extending along both sides of the Illinois River was an oak forest and the bottomlands supported vegetation tolerant of wetlands such as willow, maple, ash and cottonwood.
Early French explorers Joliet, Marquette, Allouez and Tonti were present at the Grand Village of Kaskaskia between 1673 and 1680. The Kaskaskia were a subdivision of the Illiniwek Confederacy. Other Illiniwek groups also had a presence at the site, most notably the Peoria, Tapouaro and Coiracoentanon. Later, other tribes such as the Miami and Shawnee were present at the site. In the fall of 1680 the village was burned down by an Iroquois war party and abandoned.
In the 1940s, Sara Jones Tucker of the University of Chicago initiated a project to determine the exact location of the Kaskaskia village site by reviewing the early French records. As a result of these efforts, the Zimmerman site was located.
History of archaeological investigations
In 1947 the site was excavated under the auspices of the Illinois State Museum and the University of Chicago. Four grids were established: A, B, C and D. From 1970-1972 further excavations were conducted under the auspices of the LaSalle County Historical Society in Utica, Illinois. The later excavations focused on revisiting Grids A and B to obtain clarifications on some of the research problems identified in the initial project.
Results of data analysis
Excavations at the site yielded Prehistoric and historic artifacts, house structures, pit features, burials, animal bone and plant remains.
Components
Several Prehistoric and Historic components were identified at the site:
Heally Complex - Prehistoric Upper Mississippian
Swanson Complex - Prehistoric Late Woodland
Danner Complex - Historic Fort Ancient
Huber Component - Prehistoric to early Historic Upper Mississippian; called “Zimmerman Component” in the 1947 excavations
The 1947 excavations also reported a tentative “Historic Heally” Complex that represented an extension of the Heally Complex into the early Historic period. However the 1970-72 investigations revealed that there was not enough evidence for a separate complex and that most of the Historic Heally was in fact part of the Danner Complex.
Structures
Two structures was defined in Grid C, both affiliated with the Heally Complex. The first is House C-3, a double-walled, roughly rectangular structure measuring 20x25 feet. It had 2 outer rows of posts and an inner row presumably supporting a bench. It contained 2 fire pits and 3 storage/refuse pits.
Houses C-8 and C-13 are overlapping, wall-trench rectangular pit houses, each measuring approximately 20x20 feet. These structures also apparently had a bench structure based on the post mold pattern. The excavators felt that these structures were semi-subterranean and perhaps covered with sod, Charcoal in some of the post molds implies that both structures were burned.
A large number of post molds present in Grid C implied the existence of additional houses, but none could be successfully delineated.
The houses at Zimmerman resemble houses observed at the nearby Fisher site. They contrast with the houses found at two Huber sites, Oak Forest and Anker, which were elongated oval in shape.
Several rock piles were noted in the Danner Complex that the excavators felt could have been sweat lodge areas.
Features
In 1947, 43 storage/refuse features and 15 roasting pit features were excavated. Each type was subdivided into variants based on depth and shape. It was felt that the storage/refuse pits started out as storage pits to keep foods fresh longer; as the food in them soured, they then were used as refuse pits while fresh storage pits were dug elsewhere. They contained culturally rich fill with potsherds, stone tool debris, animal bone, plant remains, etc.
Some of the roasting pits related to the Danner Complex appear to correspond to what has ethnographically been described as “macopin roasting pits” by the early French explorers Deliette and LaSalle. The macopins are apparently tubers from a species of water lily, perhaps the American Lotus (Nelumbo lutea). Tubers of Nelumbo lutea have been recovered from similar roasting pits at the Elam and Schwerdt sites on the Kalamazoo River in western Michigan; and tubers of the white water lily (Nymphaea tuberosa) have been recovered from roasting pits at the Griesmer site in northwestern Indiana. This particular cooking technique may have been used prehistorically for several species of similar water lilies, or other similar root plants. No tubers were specifically recovered from the Zimmerman site, however.
Burials
20 burials were excavated in 1947, of which few had any grave goods and only 4 were prehistoric. An additional 30 burials were excavated in 1970–72, including an infant burial with a spiked tomahawk and a bundle burial with a complete compass. Both of these artifacts were of European manufacture.
Two different burial patterns were noted; a primary interment with extended burials, and secondary reburials or bundle burials (aka ossuaries). The historic Illiniwek were observed to use both burial methods.
Animal remains
Remains from several species were recovered from the site. The main species present were deer, elk and bison; also present were beaver, raccoon, dog, black bear, river otter, fish (esp. freshwater drum), turtle and fresh water mussels (especially Amblema costata). These remains were not modified into tools like the bone tools described in the Artifacts section below, and may be considered food remains or, in the case of the dog, the remains of ceremonial activities. Dog sacrifice and dog meat consumption was observed to have ceremonial and religious implications in early Native American tribes.
Plant remains
Plant remains were recovered from both periods of excavation. The 1970-72 excavations utilized flotation sampling techniques to recover more small-scale plant remains such as seeds, which are generally missed during traditional excavation methods.
The plant remains recovered consisted of cultivated plants (maize, beans, squash and watermelon), nutshell (black walnut, shagbark hickory, pecan and hazelnut) and seeds (hackberry, hawthorn, plum, wild cherry, grape, and cattail or rush).
Artifacts
Pottery artifacts
Archaeologists often find pottery to be a very useful tool in analyzing a prehistoric culture. It is usually very plentiful at a site and the details of manufacture and decoration are very sensitive indicators of time, space and culture.
9,747 sherds were recovered in the 1947 excavations, with the pottery analysis based on 395 rim sherds and decorated body sherds. In 1970–72, 3,746 sherds were recovered representing at least 64 vessels.
Based on analysis of the pottery collected in the 1948 and 1970-72 excavations, 4 distinct components were identified. They are presented below along with their associated pottery types:
Heally complex
Langford plain - grit-tempered, globular vessels with plain surface, rim profile vertical to outflaring, typically not decorated except for rim notching. First reported from the Fisher site, Periods B and C. Time period: Prehistoric. Cultural affiliation: Upper Mississippian.
Langford trailed - same as Langford plain, but decorated from neck to shoulder with fine to wide incised lines or curvilinear patterns made using a stick or antler tine. Decorations take the form of meandering parallel lines, nested arches and reed punctates. Lip sometimes notched or scalloped. First reported from the Fisher site, Period B. Related to Grand River trailed in the Oneota Tradition. Time period: Prehistoric. Cultural affiliation: Upper Mississippian.
Langford cordmarked - same as Langford plain, but with cordmarked surface. Sometimes collared and lip sometimes pinched or scalloped. First reported from the Fisher site, Period B. Time period: Prehistoric. Cultural affiliation: Upper Mississippian.
Langford trailed (Cordmarked) - grit-tempered, globular vessels with cordmarked surface, rim profile vertical to outflaring, decorated from neck to shoulder with shallow wide trailed lines and reed punctates. Decorations take the form of curvilinear parallel undulating lines in a meander pattern. Lips rounded and notched. First reported from the Fisher site, Period B. Time period: Prehistoric. Cultural affiliation: Upper Mississippian.
Heally trailed - shell-tempered, cordmarked vessels decorated between the neck and the shoulder with shallow trailed lines and reed punctates. Decoration takes the form of meander patterns of parallel curvilinear lines. Related to the type Fisher trailed. Defined on the basis of 118 sherds analyzed from the Zimmerman site. Time period: Prehistoric. Cultural affiliation: Upper Mississippian.
Swanson complex
Swanson Smooth - grit-tempered vessels with smoothed surfaces and slightly outflaring rim profile and rounded and notched lips. Has relationships with pottery from Moccasin Bluff, Starved Rock and Hotel Plaza, the last two of which are Protohistoric to early historic. Defined on the basis of 133 sherds analyzed from the Zimmerman site. Time period: prehistoric. Cultural affiliation: Late Woodland.
Swanson cordmarked - grit-tempered, globular vessels with slightly elongated, semi-conoidal bases, cordmarked surface, slightly outflaring rim profile, rounded and notched lips, and fingernail impressions at the base of neck. Similar pottery has been found at Starved Rock and Hotel Plaza sites in Protohistoric and early Historic contexts. Also similar pottery has been recovered from the Fisher and Moccasin Bluff sites. Defined on the basis of 308 sherds analyzed from the Zimmerman site. Time period: Prehistoric. Cultural affiliation: Late Woodland.
Swanson check-stamped - grit-tempered globular vessels with check-stamped and/or cordmarked surface finish, slightly flaring rim profile, and flat lip. Lips often decorated with stick impressions or punctates. Defined on the basis of 3 rim sherds and 64 body sherds analyzed from the Zimmerman site. Time period: Prehistoric. Cultural affiliation: Early Late Woodland.
Danner complex
Danner grooved paddle - shell-tempered globular vessels with outflaring rim profile, “hourglass” strap handles and rounded, notched lips. Surface finish is grooved-paddle finish applied below the shoulder and smoothed finish above the shoulder; with punctate decoration where the two zones meet. Related to the type Madisonville grooved paddle. Defined on the basis of 64 sherds and one restored vessel from the Zimmerman site. Time period: prehistoric to early historic. Prehistoric Cultural Affiliation: Fort Ancient. Historic Cultural Affiliation: Unknown, possibly Shawnee.
Danner cordmarked - shell-tempered vessels with cordmarked surface finish below the shoulder and smoothed surface finish above, outflaring rim profile, angular lips and “hourglass” strap handles. Related to the type Madisonville cordmarked. Similar to the type LaSalle filleted at the Starved Rock and Hotel Plaza sites. Defined on the basis of over 100 sherds analyzed from the Zimmerman site. Time period: Prehistoric to early Historic. Prehistoric Cultural Affiliation: Fort Ancient. Historic Cultural Affiliation: Unknown, possibly Shawnee.
Keating cordmarked - shell-tempered globular vessels with slightly elongated semi-conoidal bases, flared rim profile, cordmarked surface finish, finger impressions on lip, and lug handles. Defined on the basis of 2 vessels, 9 rims and 133 sherds recovered in 1970-1972 and 70 sherds from the 1947 excavations. Closely related to Madisonville cordmarked. Time period: Prehistoric to early Historic. Prehistoric Cultural Affiliation: Fort Ancient. Historic Cultural Affiliation: Unknown, possibly Shawnee.
Huber component
Huber plain - shell-tempered globular vessels with outflaring rim profile. Sometimes strap handles and/or lip notching occurs. Known from several sites in the lower Lake Michigan region, centering on the Chicago area. Type defined from the Griesmer site in northwestern Indiana. Time period: Prehistoric to Protohistoric/Early Historic. Prehistoric Cultural Affiliation: Upper Mississippian. Protohistoric/Early Historic Cultural Affiliation: Unknown, possibly Miami, Illiniwek, Potawatomi or Chiwere Sioux.
Huber trailed - like Huber plain except decorated with narrow to wide trailed lines from the neck to the shoulder. Known from several sites in the lower Lake Michigan region, centering on the Chicago area. Type defined from the Griesmer site in northwestern Indiana. Time period: Prehistoric to Protohistoric/Early Historic. Prehistoric Cultural Affiliation: Upper Mississippian. Protohistoric/Early Historic Cultural Affiliation: Unknown, possibly Miami, Illiniwek, Potawatomi or Chiwere Sioux.
Other types present
Zimmerman filleted - shell-tempered, globular vessels with slightly outflaring rim profile, rounded lip and applied rim strip at transition between neck and shoulder. Surface finish is plain or cordmarked, Similar fillets have been reported from the Moccasin Bluff (Moccasin Bluff Notched Applique Strip, a grit-tempered type) and Palos sites. Time period: Protohistoric to historic. Cultural affiliation: Unknown.
LaSalle filleted - shell-tempered, globular vessels with flared rims, round to flat lips, and a notched fillet on the neck portion. Vessels of this type have been recovered from the Hotel Plaza site and the Rock Island II site in Green Bay, northern Lake Michigan. Like the Danner Series, this pottery type is also related to the Madisonville focus. Time period: Protohistoric to Historic. Cultural affiliation: Fort Ancient.
Other artifacts
Non-pottery artifacts recovered from the site included:
Stone artifacts - including projectile points, scrapers (subdivided into variants based on manufacturing technique), knives, drills and scraper-knives. Of the projectile points, the most numerous category was the small triangular Madison point.
Ground stone artifacts - including arrow shaft straighteners, manos, hammerstones, celts, sandstone abraders, a milling stone, whetstones, pendants, a gorget, gunflints, stone balls, a stone cup, a paint stone, worked slate pieces, red ochre fragments, and a piece of hematite.
Bone and antler artifacts - including awls, pins, perforators, mat needles, a bone projectile point, beamers, bison scapula hoes, an elk scapula spade, a styliform deer bone ornament, a deer rib spatulate instrument, a bird bone tube, a bone ring, a smoothed/polished bone disc, a ball made from a deer femur head, bone pendants, a fragmentary turtle carapace bowl, bone or antler game counters, an antler spearpoint, antler projectile points, antler tines, a small rib pottery decorating tool, a shaft wrench, antler flakers, bone tubes, an antler harpoon and antler digging tools. Many of these are described further below.
Shell artifacts - including spoons, a hoe and a pendant.
Pipes - an elbow pipe was recovered in 1947, and a polished granite pipe was recovered in the 1970-1972 excavations.
European trade goods - including beads, glass bottle fragments, kaolin pipe bowl fragments, brass coil and brass fragments, brass wire ornaments, copper or brass janglers or tinkling cones, copper or brass rolled tubular beads, sheet copper or brass fragments, a tomahawk, a compass, a brass serpent effigy, iron knife blades and fragments, iron nails, iron axe heads, an iron awl, and unidentifiable iron fragments.
The non-pottery artifacts found at an archaeological site can provide useful cultural context as well as a glimpse into the domestic tasks performed at a site; ceremonial or religious activities; recreational activities; and clothing or personal adornment.
Some of the most prominent and diagnostic non-pottery artifacts are presented here in more detail:
Summary of occupations
Heally complex
The Prehistoric Heally complex is represented by two house structures and the grit-tempered Langford Series and shell-tempered Heally trailed pottery types. The economy of the Heally complex was agricultural based with hunting (especially for deer and elk) also of importance. Based on the pottery types, Heally is closely related to the Upper Mississippian Fisher culture as noted at the Fisher site (Periods B and C), along with other sites in the area such as Plum Island and Gentleman Farm.
The time range of Heally is thought to be about A.D. 1300 to just before European contact or about A.D. 1600. A radiocarbon date of A.D. 1490 was obtained off collagen from a burial associated with a Langford pot.
There is some stratification in the areas of the site with Heally remains, and the pottery has been observed to change through time. Shell-tempered pottery is most common at the beginning of the sequence, while at the end almost all pottery is grit-tempered.
Swanson complex
This complex is represented by the Swanson Series pottery, a Late Woodland ware similar to that found in other sites ranging from Moccasin Bluff in Michigan to Hotel Plaza in Illinois. The type Swanson Check Stamped is similar to Early Late Woodland pottery types and indicates this complex is very ancient. The probable timeframe of Swanson is approximately A.D. 800 to just before European contact or about A.D. 1600. The Swanson people cultivated maize but a large part of their diet was supplied by hunting a wide variety of game, and gathering nuts (particularly hazelnut) and berries.
Danner complex
This complex is the only one that has been securely associated with early European trade goods so is fully post-European contact in age. The economy of the Danner complex is characterized by a heavier dependence on maize/beans/squash agriculture and hunting focused on the bison. Danner is represented by shell-tempered Fort Ancient pottery closely related to the Madisonville focus in Ohio.
Based on 1. The Danner pottery is unlike other Late Prehistoric pottery in Illinois and looks like Madisonville focus pottery from Ohio; 2. The Fort Ancient Madisonville focus pottery has been attributed by some archaeologists to represent the pottery of the Shawnee tribe; and 3. The Shawnee are recorded as being one of the tribes present at the Grand Village of the Kaskaskia; therefore it's been proposed that the Danner Complex represents the Shawnee tribe. However, this is still a matter of sharp debate among archaeologists.
Huber component
Huber is an Upper Mississippian culture closely related to Fisher and often Fisher and Huber pottery occur on the same sites. The Huber people also cultivated maize/beans/squash and other crops. They have been noted to have cultivated the Eastern Agricultural Complex (EAC) of small seed plants such as knotweed, little barley and goosefoot, among others. Hunting of deer, elk and bison also contributed to their diet. Huber pottery is a distinctive shell-tempered ware that occurs on a series of sites centered in the Chicago area, but also ranging to northwestern Indiana and southwestern Michigan. The Anker site near Chicago has produced a number of artifacts that seem to come from outside the area, especially from the Middle Mississippian cultures of Arkansas; indicating a wide-ranging trade network.
Huber pottery has been found at sites with European trade goods, indicating this culture lasted until after European contact. However, the specific tribe that produced the Huber pottery is still a matter of debate among archaeologists. The Miami seem to be the most likely, since they occupied the area around the south shore of Lake Michigan during early Historic times. However, the Illiniwek, Potawatomi and Chiwere Sioux are also considered possibilities.
Seasonality, subsistence, and settlement patterns
Based on the plant and animal remains collected at the site, along with large numbers of bison scapula hoes, archaeologists believe the Zimmerman site was an agricultural village that was occupied for most if not all of the year. This is also supported by the presence of two houses in the Heally Complex (Grid C), which were fairly substantial and implied a more or less permanent occupation.
There is a contrast in subsistence strategies between the historic Danner Complex and the prehistoric occupations at the site. The earlier subsistence patterns were more geared on exploiting multiple resources. The Danner Complex aimed for a more focused adaptation by relying on a few high-yield resources such as agriculture and bison hunting. Archaeologists also believe that the bison did not range into Illinois until after A.D. 1600, just before European contact, which is when the Danner Complex developed.
With regards to settlement patterns, the permanent houses of the Heally Complex seem to have given way to less permanent wigwam-type structures in the early Historic period. This may be why no houses related to the Danner Complex have been found. With a greater reliance on bison hunting, it may have been advantageous to have a more mobile settlement pattern in order to move with the herds. They would still have their primary village where they planted their crops but it would not be occupied continually.
See also
List of archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
Kolmer Site, another Illiniwek village
References
Further reading
Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Illinois
Pre-statehood history of Illinois
National Register of Historic Places in LaSalle County, Illinois
National Historic Landmarks in Illinois
Illinois State Historic Sites
Illinois River
Mississippian culture
Cook County, Illinois
Miami tribe
Illinois Confederation
Shawnee history
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20newspaper%20publishing
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History of newspaper publishing
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The modern newspaper is a European invention. The oldest direct handwritten news sheets circulated widely in Venice as early as 1566. These weekly news sheets were full of information on wars and politics in Italy and Europe. The first printed newspapers were published weekly in Germany from 1605. Typically, they were censored by the government, especially in France, and reported mostly foreign news and current prices. After the English government relaxed censorship in 1695, newspapers flourished in London and a few other cities including Boston and Philadelphia. By the 1830s, high-speed presses could print thousands of papers cheaply, allowing low daily costs.
16th century to 1800
Avvisi, or , were a mid-16th-century Venice phenomenon. They were issued weekly on single sheets and folded to form four pages. These publications reached a larger audience than handwritten news had in early Rome. Their format and appearance at regular intervals were two huge influences on the newspaper as we know it today. The idea of a weekly, handwritten newssheet went from Italy to Germany and then to Holland.
First newspapers
The term newspaper became common in the 17th century. However, in Germany, publications that we would today consider to be newspaper publications, were appearing as early as the 16th century. They were discernibly newspapers for the following reasons: they were printed, dated, appeared at regular and frequent publication intervals, and included a variety of news items (unlike single item news mentioned above). Early forms of news periodicals were the so-called Messrelationen ("trade fair reports") which were compiled twice a year for the large annual book fairs in Frankfurt and Leipzig, starting in the 1580s. Nevertheless, the German-language Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien, printed from 1605 onwards by Johann Carolus in Strasbourg, is commonly accepted to have been the first newspaper. The emergence of the new media branch was based on the spread of the printing press from which the publishing press derives its name. Historian Johannes Weber says, "At the same time, then, as the printing press in the physical, technological sense was invented, 'the press' in the extended sense of the word also entered the historical stage."
Other early papers include the Dutch Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, &c., founded by Caspar van Hilten in 1618. This Amsterdam newspaper was the first periodical to appear in folio- rather than quarto-size. As a center of world trade, Amsterdam quickly became home to many foreign newspapers as well, that were originally styled in much the same way as Van Hilten's publication, sometimes even having a similar name.
In 1618, the Wöchentliche Zeitung aus mancherley Orten (Weekly news from many places) began to appear in Gdańsk (the oldest newspaper in Poland and the region of the Baltic Sea). Despite the title, it appeared irregularly, sometimes even three times a week.
The first English-language newspaper, Corrant out of Italy, Germany, etc., was published in Amsterdam in 1620. A year and a half later, was published in England by an "N.B." (generally thought to be either Nathaniel Butter or Nicholas Bourne) and Thomas Archer.
The first newspaper in France was published in 1631, La Gazette (originally published as Gazette de France).
The first newspaper in Portugal, A Gazeta da Restauração, was published in 1641 in Lisbon. The first Spanish newspaper, Gaceta de Madrid, was published in 1661.
Post- och Inrikes Tidningar (founded as Ordinari Post Tijdender) was first published in Sweden in 1645, and is the oldest newspaper still in existence, though it now publishes solely online.
Merkuriusz Polski Ordynaryjny was published in Kraków, Poland in 1661.
The first successful English daily, The Daily Courant, was published from 1702 to 1735. The first editor, for 10 days in March 1702, was Elizabeth Mallet, who for years had operated her late husband's printing business.
News was highly selective and often propagandistic. Readers were eager for sensationalism, such as accounts of magic, public executions and disasters; this material did not pose a threat to the state, because it did not pose criticism of the state.
German states
Although moveable type printing was invented in China, Germany (at the time the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation) was the first European country to independently invent it, and the world's first newspapers were produced in the German states.
The 16th-century German financialist, Fugger, not only received business news from his correspondents, but also sensationalist and gossip news as well; it is evident in the correspondence of Fugger with his network that fiction and fact were both significant parts of early news publications. 16th century Germany also saw subscription-based, handwritten news. Those who subscribed to these publications were generally low-level government officials and also merchants. They could not afford other types of news publications, but had enough money to pay for a subscription, which was still expensive for the time.
In the 16th and 17th century, there appeared numerous printed news sheets summarizing accounts of battles, treaties, the king, epidemics, and special events. In 1605, Johann Carolus published the first regular newspaper in Straßburg, comprising brief news bulletins. The world's first daily newspaper appeared in 1650 in Leipzig. Later, Prussia increasingly became the largest and most dominant of the German states, but their newspapers were kept under tight control. Advertising was forbidden, and budgets were very small.
Dutch Republic
One of the most distinctive features of Dutch 'corantos' is their format. It was in corantos that the highly illustrated German title page was replaced with a heading on the upper first page of the publication: the masthead, common in today's periodicals. In line with this more sober page layout, corantos show an optimal use of space for text. Dutch corantos had two text columns, which covered almost the whole page, unlike the previous German papers, which adopted a single text column with book-like margins. The more economical use of space is also reflected in the minimal indications of paragraphs and the absence of completely blank lines. Different messages were only highlighted with a heading in a slightly bigger type, which usually included the city or country from which the news had come down to the publisher. Another feature of the format of corantos was their size: they were the first newspapers to be issued in folio, instead of halfsheet. Another example of a coranto in this format, besides the Courante uyt Italien, Duytslandt, &c., is the Opregte Haarlemsche Courant. This Haarlem-based newspaper was first published in 1656 by Abraham Casteleyn and his wife Margaretha van Bancken, and still exists today, albeit in a tabloid format, rather than in the original folio.
British newspapers
On 7 November 1665, The London Gazette (at first called The Oxford Gazette) began publication. It decisively changed the look of English news printing, echoing the coranto format of two columns, a clear title, and a clear date. It was published twice a week. Other English papers started to publish three times a week, and later the first daily papers emerged.
The newspapers typically included short articles, ephemeral topics, some illustrations and service articles (classifieds). They were often written by multiple authors, although the authors' identities were often obscured. They began to contain some advertisements, and they did not yet include sections. Mass market papers emerged, including Sunday papers for workers to read in their leisure time. The Times adopted new technologies and set the standards for other newspapers. This newspaper covered major wars, among other major events.
North America
In Boston in 1690, Benjamin Harris published Publick Occurrences Both Forreign and Domestick. This is considered the first newspaper in the American colonies even though only one edition was published before the paper was suppressed by the colonial officials, possibly due to censorship and control issues. It followed the two-column format and was a single sheet, printed on both sides.
In 1704, the governor allowed The Boston News-Letter, a weekly, to be published, and it became the first continuously published newspaper in the colonies. Soon after, weekly papers began publishing in New York and Philadelphia. The second English-language newspaper in the Americas was the Weekly Jamaica Courant. These early newspapers followed the British format and were usually four pages long. They mostly carried news from Britain and content depended on the editor's interests. In 1783, the Pennsylvania Evening Post became the first American daily.
In 1751, John Bushell published the Halifax Gazette, the first Canadian newspaper.
India
In 1766, a Dutch adventurer, William Bolts, proposed starting a newspaper for the English audience in Calcutta. He was deported by the East India Company, before his plans could come to fruition.
In January 1780, James Augustus Hicky published Hicky's Bengal Gazette, the first newspaper in India. The size of that four-page newspaper was 12"x8". Hicky accused the members of the East India Company, including Governor General Warren Hastings of corruption. In retaliation Hastings prohibited the post office from carrying Hicky's Bengal Gazette, and later sued Hicky for libel. In November 1780, the India Gazette appeared; it supported the Company government.
Modern newspapers since 1800
Technology
In 1814 The Times acquired a printing press capable of making 1,100 impressions per hour. It was soon adapted to print on both sides of a page at once. This innovation made newspapers cheaper and thus available to a larger part of the population. In 1830, the first penny press newspaper came to the market: Lynde M. Walter's Boston Transcript. Penny press papers cost about one-sixth the price of other newspapers and appealed to a wider audience. Newspaper editors exchanged copies and freely reprinted material. By the late 1840s, telegraph networks linked major and minor cities and permitted overnight news reporting. The invention of wood pulp papermaking in the 1840s significantly reduced the cost of newsprint, having previously been made from rags. Increasing literacy in the 19th century also increased the size of newspapers' audiences.
News agencies
Only a few large newspapers could afford bureaus outside their home city. They relied instead on news agencies, founded around 1859, especially Havas in France, the Associated Press in the United States, while Agenzia Stefani covered Italy. Former Havas employees founded Reuters in Britain and Wolff in Germany. Havas is now Agence France-Presse (AFP). For international news, the agencies pooled their resources, so that Havas, for example, covered the French Empire, South America and the Balkans and shared the news with the other national agencies. In France the typical contract with Havas provided a provincial newspaper with 1800 lines of telegraphed text daily, for an annual subscription rate of 10,000 francs. Other agencies provided features and fiction for their subscribers. The major news agencies have always operated on a basic philosophy of providing a single objective news feed to all subscribers. For example, they do not provide separate feeds for conservative or liberal newspapers. Fenby explains the philosophy:
Britain
With literacy rising sharply, the rapidly growing demand for news, led to changes in the physical size, visual appeal, heavy use of war reporting, brisk writing style, and an omnipresent emphasis on speedy reporting thanks to the telegraph. London set the pace before 1870 but by the 1880s critics noted how London was echoing the emerging New York style of journalism. The new news writing style first spread to the provincial press through the Midland Daily Telegraph around 1900.
By the early 19th century, there were 52 London papers and over 100 other titles. In 1802, and 1815 the tax on newspapers was increased to three pence and then four pence. Unable or unwilling to pay this fee, between 1831 and 1835 hundreds of untaxed newspapers made their appearance. The political tone of most of them was fiercely revolutionary. Their publishers were prosecuted but this failed to get rid of them. It was chiefly Milner Gibson and Richard Cobden who advocated the case in parliament to first reduce in 1836 and in 1855 totally repeal of the tax on newspapers. After the reduction of the stamp tax in 1836 from four pence to one penny, the circulation of English newspapers rose from 39,000,000 to 122,000,000 by 1854; a trend further exacerbated by technological improvements in rail transportation and telegraphic communication combined with growing literacy.
The Times
The paper began in 1785 and in 1788 was renamed The Times. In 1817, Thomas Barnes was appointed general editor; he was a political radical, a sharp critic of parliamentary hypocrisy and a champion of freedom of the press. Under Barnes and his successor in 1841, John Thadeus Delane, the influence of The Times rose to great heights, especially in politics and amongst the City of London. It spoke for reform. Peter Fraser and Edward Sterling were two noted journalists, and gained for The Times the pompous/satirical nickname 'The Thunderer' (from "We thundered out the other day an article on social and political reform.") The paper was the first in the world to reach mass circulation due to its early adoption of the steam-driven rotary printing press. It was also the first properly national newspaper, as it was distributed via the new steam railways to rapidly growing concentrations of urban populations across the country. This helped ensure the profitability of the paper and its growing influence.<ref>Stanley Morison, The History of the Times: Volume 1: The Thunderer" in the Making 1785–1841. Volume 2: The Tradition Established 1841–1884. Volume 3: The Twentieth Century Test 1884–1912. Volume 4: The 150th Anniversary and Beyond 1912–1948. (1952)</ref>
The Times was the first newspaper to send war correspondents to cover wars. W. H. Russell, the paper's correspondent with the army in the Crimean War of the mid-1850s, wrote immensely influential dispatches; for the first time the public could read about the reality of warfare. In particular, on September 20, 1854, Russell wrote a missive about one battle that highlighted the surgeons' "humane barbarity" and the lack of ambulance care for wounded troops. Shocked and outraged, the public's backlash led to major reforms. The Times became famous for its influential leaders (editorials). For example, Robert Lowe wrote them between 1851 and 1868 on a wide range of economic topics such as free trade (which he favored).
Allan Nevins, the historian of journalism, in 1959 analyzed the importance of The Times in shaping views:
Other main papers
The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by a group of non-conformist businessmen. Its most famous editor, Charles Prestwich Scott, made the Guardian into a world-famous newspaper in the 1890s.The Daily Telegraph began on June 29, 1855, and was bought by Joseph Moses Levy the next year. Levy produced it as the first penny newspaper in London. His son, Edward Lawson soon became editor, a post he held until 1885. It became a gauge of middle class opinion and could claim the largest circulation in the world in 1890. It backed the Liberal Party's mainstream views until opposing what became the party's decades-long Gladstonian, largely consensual foreign policy in 1878. It turned Unionist.
New Journalism of the 1890s
The New Journalism reached out not to the elite but to a popular audience. Especially influential was William Thomas Stead, a controversial journalist and editor who pioneered the art of investigative journalism. Stead's 'new journalism' paved the way for the modern tabloid. He was influential in demonstrating how the press could be used to influence public opinion and government policy, and advocated "government by journalism". He was also well known for his reportage on child welfare, social legislation and reformation of England's criminal codes.
Stead became assistant editor of the Liberal Pall Mall Gazette in 1880 where he set about revolutionizing a traditionally conservative newspaper "written by gentlemen for gentlemen". Over the next seven years Stead would develop what Matthew Arnold dubbed 'The New Journalism'. His innovations as editor of the Gazette included incorporating maps and diagrams into a newspaper for the first time, breaking up longer articles with eye-catching subheadings and blending his own opinions with those of the people he interviewed. He made a feature of the Pall Mall extras, and his enterprise and originality exercised a potent influence on contemporary journalism and politics. Stead introduced the interview, creating a new dimension in British journalism when he interviewed General Gordon in 1884. He originated the modern journalistic technique of creating a news event rather than just reporting it, with his most famous 'investigation', the Eliza Armstrong case.
Arnold, a leading critic, declared in 1887 that the New Journalism, "is full of ability, novelty, variety, sensation, sympathy, generous instincts". However, he added, its "one great fault is that it is feather-brained".
Northcliffe's revolution
The turn of the century saw the rise of popular journalism. These are papers aimed at the lower to lower-middle income earners demoting minutely reasoned news and analysis, which remain the focus of party- or ideology-oriented newspapers. Instead the papers are inclusive by emphasis on sports, crime, sensationalism and gossip about celebrities. Alfred Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe (1865–1922) was the chief innovator. He used his Daily Mail and the Daily Mirror to transform the media along the American model of "Yellow Journalism". Lord Beaverbrook said he was "the greatest figure who ever strode down Fleet Street". P. P. Catterall and Colin Seymour-Ure conclude that:
Interwar Britain
After the war, the major newspapers engaged in a large-scale circulation race. The political parties, which long had sponsored their own papers, could not keep up, and one after another their outlets were sold or closed down. Sales in the millions depended on popular stories, with a strong human interesting theme, as well as detailed sports reports with the latest scores. Serious news was a niche market and added very little to the circulation base. The niche was dominated by The Times and, to a lesser extent, The Daily Telegraph. Consolidation was rampant, as local dailies were bought up and added to chains based in London. James Curran and Jean Seaton report: The Times of London was long the most influential prestige newspaper, although far from having the largest circulation. It gave far more attention to serious political and cultural news. In 1922, John Jacob Astor (1886–1971), son of the 1st Viscount Astor (1849–1919), bought The Times from the Northcliffe estate. The paper advocated appeasement of Hitler's demands. Its editor Geoffrey Dawson was closely allied with Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, and pushed hard for the Munich Agreement in 1938. Candid news reports by Norman Ebbut from Berlin that warned of warmongering were rewritten in London to support the appeasement policy. In March 1939, however, it reversed course and called for urgent war preparations.Frank McDonough, "The Times, Norman Ebbut and the Nazis, 1927–37". Journal of Contemporary History 27#3 (1992): 407–424. online
Denmark
Danish news media date back to the 1540s, when handwritten fly sheets reported on the news. In 1666, Anders Bording, the father of Danish journalism, began a state paper. The royal privilege to bring out a newspaper was issued to Joachim Wielandt in 1720. University officials handled the censorship, but in 1770 Denmark became one of the first nations of the world to provide for press freedom; it ended in 1799. In 1834, the first liberal newspaper appeared, one that gave much more emphasis to actual news content rather than opinions. The newspapers championed the Revolution of 1848 in Denmark. The new constitution of 1849 liberated the Danish press.
Newspapers flourished in the second half of the 19th century, usually tied to one or another political party or labor union. Modernization, bringing in new features and mechanical techniques, appeared after 1900. The total circulation was 500,000 daily in 1901, more than doubling to 1.2 million in 1925. The German occupation brought informal censorship; some offending newspaper buildings were simply blown up by the Nazis. During the war, the underground produced 550 newspapers—small, surreptitiously printed sheets that encouraged sabotage and resistance.
Today Danish mass media and news programming are dominated by a few large corporations. In printed media JP/Politikens Hus and Berlingske Media, between them, control the largest newspapers Politiken, Berlingske Tidende and Jyllands-Posten and major tabloids B.T. and Ekstra Bladet.
In the early 21st century, the 32 daily newspapers had a combined circulation of over 1 million. The largest was Jyllands-Posten (JP) with a circulation of 120,000. It gained international attention in 2005 by publishing cartoons critical of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Militant Muslims protested around the world, burning Denmark's embassies in Beirut and Damascus. There have been threats and attempted terrorist plots against the newspaper and its employees ever since.
France
In the Ancien Régime there were a small number of heavily censored newspapers that needed a royal license to operate. The first newspaper was the Gazette de France, established in 1632 by the king's physician Theophrastus Renaudot (1586–1653), with the patronage of Louis XIII. All newspapers were subject to prepublication censorship, and served as instruments of propaganda for the monarchy. Dissidents used satire and hidden meanings to spread their political criticism.Kenneth E. Olson, The history makers: The press of Europe from its beginnings through 1965 (LSU Press, 1966), pp 167–193, 438–439
Newspapers and pamphlets played role in The Enlightenment
in France and they played a central role in stimulating and defining the Revolution. The meetings of the Estates-General in 1789 created an enormous demand for news, and over 130 newspapers appeared by the end of the year. The next decade saw 2000 newspapers founded, with 500 in Paris alone. Most lasted only a matter of weeks. Together they became the main communication medium, combined with the very large pamphlet literature. Newspapers were read aloud in taverns and clubs, and circulated hand to hand. The press saw its lofty role to be the advancement of civic republicanism based on public service, and downplayed the liberal, individualistic goal of making a profit.H. Gough, The Newspaper Press in the French Revolution (1988)Jeremy D. Popkin, "The Press and the French revolution after two hundred years". French Historical Studies (1990): 664–683 in JSTOR . In the Revolution the radicals were most active but the royalists flooded the country with their press the "Ami du Roi" (Friends of the King) until they were suppressed. Napoleon only allowed one newspaper in each department and four in Paris, all under tight control.
In the revolutionary days of 1848, former Saint-Simoniennes founded a Club for the Emancipation of Women; in 1848, it changed its name to (Society for Women's Voice) in line with its new newspaper, La Voix des Femmes. It was France's first feminist daily and proclaimed itself "a socialist and political journal, the organ of the interests of all women". It lasted for only a few weeks as did two other feminist newspapers; women occasionally contributed articles to the magazines, often under a pseudonym.
The democratic political structure of France in 1870–1914 was supported by the proliferation of newspapers. The circulation of the daily press in Paris went from 1 million in 1870 to 5 million in 1910; it then leveled off and reached 6 million in 1939. Advertising grew rapidly, providing a steady financial basis. A new liberal press law of 1881 abandoned the restrictive practices that had been typical for a century. High-speed rotary Hoe presses, introduced in the 1860s, facilitated quick turnaround time and cheaper publication. New types of popular newspapers, especially Le Petit Journal reached an audience more interested in diverse entertainment and gossip rather than hard news. It captured a quarter of the Parisian market, and forced the rest to lower their prices. The main dailies employed their own journalists who competed for news flashes. All newspapers relied upon the Agence Havas (now Agence France-Presse), a telegraphic news service with a network of reporters and contracts with Reuters to provide world service. The staid old papers retained their loyal clientele because of their concentration on serious political issues.
The Roman Catholic Assumptionist order revolutionized pressure group media by its national newspaper La Croix. It vigorously advocated for traditional Catholicism while at the same time innovating with the most modern technology and distribution systems, with regional editions tailored to local taste. Secularists and Republicans recognize the newspaper as their greatest enemy, especially when it took the lead in attacking Dreyfus as a traitor and stirred up anti-Semitism. When Dreyfus was pardoned, the Radical government in 1900 closed down the entire Assumptionist order and its newspaper.
Corruption
Businesses and banks secretly paid certain newspapers to promote particular financial interests, and hide or cover up possible misbehavior. Publishers took payments for favorable notices in news articles of commercial products. Sometimes, a newspaper would blackmail a business by threatening to publish unfavorable information unless the business immediately started advertising in the paper. Foreign governments, especially Russia and Turkey, secretly paid the press hundreds of thousands of francs a year to guarantee favorable coverage of the bonds it was selling in Paris. When the real news was bad about Russia, as during its 1905 Revolution or during its war with Japan, it raised the bribes it paid to millions of francs. Each ministry in Paris had a group of journalists whom it secretly paid and fed stories. During the World War, newspapers became more of a propaganda agency on behalf of the war effort; there was little critical commentary. The press seldom reported the achievements of the Allies; instead they credited all the good news to the French army. In a word, the newspapers were not independent champions of the truth, but secretly paid advertisements for special interests and foreign governments.
First World War
The World War ended a golden era for the press. Their younger staff members were drafted and male replacements could not be found (women were not considered available) Rail transportation was rationed and less paper and ink came in, and fewer copies could be shipped out. Inflation raised the price of newsprint, which was always in short supply. The cover price went up, circulation fell and many of the 242 dailies published outside Paris closed down. The government set up the Interministerial Press Commission to closely supervise the press. A separate agency imposed tight censorship that led to blank spaces where news reports or editorials were disallowed. The dailies sometimes were limited to only two pages instead of the usual four, leading one satirical paper to try to report the war news in the same spirit:
Postwar stagnation
The Parisian newspapers were largely stagnant after 1914. The major postwar success story was Paris Soir; which lacked any political agenda and was dedicated to providing a mix of sensational reporting to aid circulation, and serious articles to build prestige. By 1939, its circulation was over 1.7 million, double that of its nearest rival the tabloid Le Petit Parisien. In addition to its daily paper Paris Soir sponsored a highly successful women's magazine Marie-Claire. Another magazine Match was modeled after the photojournalism of the American magazine Life.France was a democratic society in the 1930s, but the people were kept in the dark about critical issues of foreign policy. The government tightly controlled all of the media to promulgate propaganda to support the government's foreign policy of appeasement to the aggressions of Italy and especially Nazi Germany. There were 253 daily newspapers, all owned separately. The five major national papers based in Paris were all under the control of special interests, especially right-wing political and business interests that supported appeasement. They were all venal, taking large secret subsidies to promote the policies of various special interests. Many leading journalists were secretly on the government payroll. The regional and local newspapers were heavily dependent on government advertising and published news and editorials to suit Paris. Most of the international news was distributed through the Havas agency, which was largely controlled by the government. The goal was to tranquilize public opinion, to give it little or nothing to work with, so as not to interfere with the policies of the national government. When serious crises emerged such as the Munich crisis of 1938, people were puzzled and mystified by what was going on. When war came in 1939, the French people had little understanding of the issues, and little correct information. They suspiciously distrusted the government, with the result that French morale in the face of the war with Germany was badly prepared.
In 1942, the occupying German forces took control of all of the Parisian newspapers and operated them with collaborators. In 1944, the Free French liberated Paris, and seized control of all of the collaborationist newspapers. They turned the presses and operations over to new teams of editors and publishers, and provided financial support. Thus for example The previously high-prestige Le Temps was replaced by the new daily Le Monde.Valerie Holman, "The Impact of War: British Publishers and French Publications 1940–1944", Publishing History (2000), Issue 48, pp 41–65
In the early 21st century, the best-selling daily was the regional Ouest-France in 47 local editions, followed by Le Progres of Lyon, La Voix du Nord in Lille, and Provençal in Marseille. In Paris the Communists published l'Humanite, while Le Monde and Figaro had local rivals in Le Parisien and the leftist Libération.
Germany
The Germans read more newspapers than anyone else. The most dramatic advance in quality came in 1780, with the Neue Zürcher Zeitung in Zürich, Switzerland. It set a new standard in objective, in-depth treatment of serious news stories, combined with high-level editorials, and in-depth coverage of music in the theater, as well as an advertising section. Its standards were emulated by the Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung (1861–1945) and the Frankfurter Zeitung (1856–1943), among others.
Napoleon shut down existing German newspapers when he marched through, replacing them with his own, which echoed the official Parisian press. The upsurge of German nationalism after 1809 stimulated underground newspapers, calling for resistance to Napoleon. Johann Palm took the lead in Augsburg, but he was caught and executed. With the downfall of Napoleon, reactionaries came to power across Germany who had no tolerance for a free press. A repressive police system guaranteed that newspapers would not be criticizing the government.
The revolution of 1848 saw the overnight emergence of a liberal press demanding new freedoms, new constitutions and a free press. Multiple parties formed, and each had its own newspaper network. Neue Rheinische Zeitung was the first socialist newspaper; it appeared in 1848–49, with Karl Marx as editor. The Revolution of 1848 failed in Germany, the reactionaries returned to power, and many liberal and radical journalists fled the country. The Neue Preussische Zeitung (or Kreuz-Zeitung) became the organ of the Junker East Elbian landowners, the Lutheran clergy, and influential civil and military officials who upheld the King of Prussia. It became the leading Prussian conservative newspaper. Its slogan was "With God for king and fatherland."
Berlin, the capital of Prussia, had the reputation of being "the newspaper city" ("Zeitungstadt"); it published 32 dailies in 1862, along with 58 weekly newspapers. The main emphasis was not on news are reporting, but among commentary and political analysis. None of the newspapers, however, and none of their editors or journalists, was especially influential. However some were using their newspaper experience as a stepping stone to a political career. The audience was limited to about 5% of the adult men, chiefly from the upper and middle classes, who followed politics. Liberal papers outnumbered conservative ones by a wide margin.Alexandra Richie, Faust's Metropolis: A History of Berlin (1998) pp. 125–126, 145–146
Bismarck's leadership in Prussia in the 1860s, and after 1871 in the German Empire, was highly controversial. His position on domestic policies was conservative or reactionary, and newspapers were mostly liberal; they attacked his defiance of the elected assembly. However, his success in wars against Denmark, Austria, and France made him highly popular, and his establishment of the German Empire was a dream come true for German nationalists. Bismarck kept a tight rein on the press. Bismarck never listened to public opinion, but he did try to shape it. He secretly subsidized newspapers, and the government gave financial help to small local papers, guaranteeing an overall favorable view. The press law of 1874 guaranteed press freedom, of a sort, but allowed for suppression if an issue contained "provocation to treason, incitement to violence, offense to the sovereign, or encouraged assistance of the government". Bismarck often used the code to threaten editors. The press law of 1878 suspended any newspaper advocating socialism – a club Bismarck used to suppress the rapidly growing socialist political movement. He also set up several official propaganda bureaus that distributed foreign and national news to local newspapers.
The newspapers primarily featured lengthy discussions and editorials regarding political conditions. They also included a "Unter dem Strich" ("Below the line") section that featured short stories, poetry, critical reviews of new books, evaluations of art exhibits, and reports on musical concerts and new plays. An especially popular feature was a novel, serialized with a new chapter every week. In many ways more influential than the newspapers were the magazines, which proliferated after 1870. Eminent intellectuals favored this medium. By 1890, Berlin published over 600 weeklies, biweeklies, monthlies, and quarterlies, including scholarly journals that were essential reading for scientists everywhere.
20th century
When high-speed rotary presses became available, together with typesetting machinery, it became possible to have press runs in the hundreds of thousands, with frequent updates throughout the day. By 1912, there were 4000 newspapers, printing 5 to 6,000,000,000 copies of the year. New technology made illustrations more feasible, and photographs began appearing. Advertising was now an important feature. Nevertheless, all newspapers focused on their own city, and there was no national newspaper of the sort that flourished in Britain, nor chains owned by one company such as those becoming common in the United States. All the political parties relied heavily on their own newspapers to inform and rally their supporters. For example, there were 870 papers in 1912 pitched to conservative readers, 580 aimed at liberal elements, 480 aimed at the Roman Catholics of the Centre party, and 90 affiliated with the Socialist party.Corey Ross, Mass Communications, Society, and Politics from the Empire to the Third Reich (Oxford University press 2010)
The first German newspaper aimed at a mass audience was the Berliner Morgenpost, founded in 1898 by publisher Hermann Ullstein. It focused on local news, with very thorough coverage of its home city, ranging from the palaces to the tenements, along with lists of sporting events, streetcar schedules and shopping tips. By 1900, it reached 200,000 subscribers. A rival appeared in 1904, the BZ am Mittag, with a flair for the spectacular and sensational in city life, especially fires, crime and criminals.
During the First World War (1914–1918), Germany published several newspapers and magazines for the enemy areas it occupied. The Gazette des Ardennes was designed for French readers in Belgium and France, Francophone prisoners of war, and generally as a propaganda vehicle in neutral and even enemy countries. Editor Fritz H. Schnitzer had a relatively free hand, and he tried to enhance his credibility by factual information. He realized until the closing days of the war that it was necessary to produce an increasingly optimistic report to hide the weakening position of the Central Powers in the summer and fall of 1918.
The Nazis (in power 1933–1945) exercised total control over the press under the direction of Joseph Goebbels. He took control of the wire services and shut down 1000 of the 3000 newspapers, including all those operated by the socialist, communist, and Roman Catholic movements. The survivors received about two dozen press directives every week, which typically were followed very closely.Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power (2006) pp. 142–149
In 1945, the occupying powers took over all newspapers in Germany and purged them of Nazi influence. Each of the four zones had one newspaper: Die Welt in Hamburg, the British zone; Die Neue Zeitung in Munich in the American zone; and Tägliche Rundschau (1945–1955) in East Berlin in the Soviet zone. By 1949, there were 170 licensed newspapers, but newsprint was strictly rationed, and circulation remains small. The American occupation headquarters, the Office of Military Government, United States (OMGUS) began its own newspaper based in Munich, Die Neue Zeitung. It was edited by German and Jewish émigrés who fled to the United States before the war, and reached a circulation of 1.6 million in 1946. Its mission was to encourage democracy by exposing Germans to how American culture operated. The paper was filled with details on American sports, politics, business, Hollywood, and fashions, as well as international affairs.
In the early 21st century, 78% of the population regularly read one of Germany's 1200 newspapers, most of which are now online. The heavily illustrated tabloid Bild had the largest circulation in Europe, at 2.5 million copies a day. It is published by Axel Springer AG, which has a chain of newspapers. Today, the conservative leaning Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (FAZ) has the highest reputation; its main competitors are the left-wing Süddeutsche Zeitung (Munich) and liberal-conservative Die Welt. Influential weekly opinion papers include Die Zeit, and until it closed in 2010, Rheinischer Merkur.
Italy
Between oppressive rulers, and a low rate of literacy, Italy had little in the way of a serious newspaper press for the 1840s. Gazzetta del Popolo (1848–1983) based in turn was the leading voice for an Italian unification. La Stampa (1867–present) in Turin competes with Corriere della Sera of Milan for primacy in Italian journalism, in terms of circulation numbers and depth of coverage. It was a strong supporter of Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti, who was denounced daily by Corriere della Sera.
The major newspapers were served by Agenzia Stefani (1853–1945). It was a News agency that collected news and feature items, and distributed them to subscribing newspapers by telegraph or by mail. It had exchange agreements with Reuters in London and Havas in Paris, and provided a steady flow of domestic and international news and features.Frank J. Coppa, ed., Dictionary of Modern Italian History (1995), pp. 292–293, 398
The series of crises and confrontations between the papacy and the kingdom of Italy in the 1870s focused especially on the question of who would control Rome, and what place the pope would have in the new Kingdom. A network of pro-papal newspapers in Italy vigorously supported papal rights and help mobilize the Catholic element.
20th century
In 1901, Alberto Bergamini, editor of Rome's Il Giornale d'Italia created the "la Terza Pagina" ("Third Page"), featuring essays in literature, philosophy, criticism, the arts, and politics. It was quickly emulated by the upscale press. The most important newspaper was the liberal Corriere della Sera, founded in Milan in 1876. It reached a circulation of over 1 million under editor and co-owner Luigi Albertini (1900–1925). Albertini deliberately modeled his paper after the Times of London, where he had worked briefly. He commissioned leading liberal intellectuals to write essays. Albertini was a strong opponent of Socialism, of clericalism, and of Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti who was willing to compromise with those forces and corrupt Italian politics. Albertini's opposition to the Fascist regime forced the other co-owners to oust him in 1925.Paul Devendittis, "Luigi Albertini: Conservative Liberalism in Thought and Practice", European History Quarterly (1976) 6#1 pp. 139–146 online
Mussolini was a former editor; his Fascist regime (1922–1943) took full control of the media in 1925. Opposition Journalists were physically maltreated; two thirds of the dailies were shut down. An underground press was developed, using smuggled material. All the major papers had been mouthpieces for a political party; now all parties save one were abolished, and the newspapers all became its mouthpiece. In 1924, the fascists took control of Agenzia Stefani, and enlarged its scope and mission to make it their tool to control the news content in all of Italy's newspapers. By 1939, it operated 32 bureaus inside Italy and 16 abroad, with 261 correspondents in Italy and 65 abroad. Every day they processed over 1200 dispatches, from which Italian newspapers made up their news pages.Bob Lumley and Philip Schlesinger. "The press, the state and its enemies: the Italian case". Sociological Review (1982) 30#4 pp. 603–626.
Latin America
British influence extended globally through its colonies and its informal business relationships with merchants in major cities. They needed up-to-date market and political information. El Seminario Republicano was the first non-official newspaper; it appeared in Chile in 1813. El Mercurio was founded in Valparaiso, Chile, in 1827. The most influential newspaper in Peru, El Comercio, first appeared in 1839. The Jornal do Commercio was established in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1827. Much later Argentina founded its newspapers in Buenos Aires: La Prensa in 1869 and La Nación in 1870.
United States
Asia
China
In China, early government-produced news sheets, called tipao, were commonly used among court officials during the late Han dynasty (2nd and 3rd centuries AD). Between 713 and 734, the Kaiyuan Za Bao ("Bulletin of the Court") of the Tang dynasty published government news; it was handwritten on silk and read by government officials. In 1582, privately published news sheets appeared in Beijing, during the late Ming dynasty.
From the late 19th century until 1949 the international community at Shanghai and Hong Kong sponsored a lively foreign language press that covered business and political news. Leaders included North China Daily News, Shanghai Evening Post and Mercury, and for Germans, Der Ostasiatischer Lloyd, and Deutsche Shanghai Zeitung.
Before 1872, government gazettes printed occasional announcements by officials. In Shanghai English businessman Ernest Major (1841–1908) established the first Chinese language newspaper in 1872. His Shen Bao employed Chinese editors and journalists and purchased stories by Chinese writers; it also published letters from readers. Serialized novels were popular with readers and kept them loyal; to the paper. Shanghai's large and powerful International Settlement stimulated the growth of a public sphere of Chinese men of affairs who paid close attention to political and economic developments. Shanghai became China's media capital. Shen Bao was the most important Chinese-language newspaper until 1905 and was still important until the communists came to power 1949.Shen bao and other major newspapers saw public opinion as the driving force of historical change, of the sort that would bring progress reason and modernity to China. The editors portrayed public opinion as the final arbiter of justice for government officials. Thereby they broadened the public sphere to include the readership. The encouragement of the formation of public opinion stimulated activism and form the basis for popular support for the 1911 revolution.
Chinese newspaper journalism was modernized in the 1920s according to international standards, thanks to the influence of the New Culture Movement. The roles of journalist and editor were professionalized and became prestigious careers. The Ta Kung Pao expanded audiences with its impartial reporting on public affairs. The business side gained importance and with a greater emphasis on advertising and commercial news, the main papers, especially in Shanghai, moved away from the advocacy journalism that characterized the 1911 revolutionary period. Outside the main centers the nationalism promoted in metropolitan dailies was not as distinctive as localism and culturalism.
Today China has two news agencies, the Xinhua News Agency and the China News Service (Zhongguo Xinwenshe). Xinhua was the major source of news and photographs for central and local newspapers. In 2002, there were 2100 newspapers, compared to only 400 in 1980. The party's newspapers People's Daily and Guangming Daily, along with the Army's PLA Daily, had the largest circulation. Local papers focused on local news are popular. In 1981, the English-language China Daily began publication. It printed international news and sports from the major foreign wire services as well as interesting domestic news and feature articles.
India
Robert Knight (1825–1890), founded two English language daily papers, The Statesman in Calcutta, and The Times of India in Bombay. In 1860, he bought out the Indian shareholders, merged with rival Bombay Standard, and started India's first news agency. It wired news dispatches to papers across India and became the Indian agent for Reuters news service. In 1861, he changed the name from the Bombay Times and Standard to The Times of India. Knight fought for a press free of prior restraint or intimidation, frequently resisting the attempts by governments, business interests, and cultural spokesmen and led the paper to national prominence. Knight's papers promoted Indian self-rule and often criticized the policies of the British Raj. By 1890, the company employed more than 800 people and had a sizeable circulation in India and the British Empire.Edwin Hirschmann, "An Editor Speaks for the Natives: Robert Knight in 19th Century India", Journalism Quarterly (1986) 63#2 pp 260–267
Japan
Japanese newspapers began in the 17th century as yomiuri (読売、literally "to read and sell") or kawaraban (瓦版, literally "tile-block printing" referring to the use of clay printing blocks), which were printed handbills sold in major cities to commemorate major social gatherings or events.
The first modern newspaper was the Japan Herald published bi-weekly in Yokohama by the Englishman A. W. Hansard from 1861. In 1862, the Tokugawa shogunate began publishing the Kampan batabiya shinbun, a translated edition of a widely distributed Dutch newspaper. These two papers were published for foreigners, and contained only foreign news.
The first Japanese daily newspaper that covered foreign and domestic news was the Yokohama Mainichi Shinbun (横浜市毎日新聞), first published in 1871. The papers became organs of the political parties. The early readers of these newspapers mostly came from the ranks of the samurai class.Koshinbun were more plebeian, popular newspapers that contained local news, human interest stories, and light fiction. Examples of koshinbun were the Tokyo nichinichi shinbun, the predecessor of the present day Mainichi shinbun, which began in 1872; the Yomiuri shinbun, which began in 1874; and the Asahi shinbun, which began in 1879. They soon became the dominant form.
In the democratic era of the 1910s to the 1920s, the government tried to suppress newspapers such as the Asahi shinbun for their critical stance against government bureaucracy that favored protecting citizens' rights and constitutional democracy. In the period of growing militarism in the 1930s to 1945, newspapers faced intense government censorship and control. After Japan's defeat, strict censorship of the press continued as the American occupiers used government control in order to inculcate democratic and anti-communist values. In 1951, the American occupiers finally returned freedom of the press to Japan, which is the situation today.
Korea
See also
Decline of newspapers
Newspaper hawker and newsboys who sold or delivered papers
History of American journalism
History of British newspapers
History of French journalism
History of German journalism
History of journalism
Notes and references
Further reading
Merrill, John Calhoun and Harold A. Fisher. The world's great dailies: profiles of fifty newspapers (1980) 400 pages; Updated edition of Merrill, The elite press; great newspapers of the world (1968), which profiled 40 newspapers
Pettegree, Andrew. The Invention of News: How the World Came to Know about Itself (Yale University Press, 2014), covers Europe 1400 to 1800
Smith, Anthony. The Newspaper: An International History (1979), 192pp; well illustrated
Starr, Paul. The Creation of the Media: Political origins of Modern Communications (2004), far ranging history of all forms of media in 19th and 20th century US and Europe; Pulitzer prize excerpt and text search
Stephens, Mitchell. A History of News (3rd ed. 2006)
Sterling, Christopher H., ed. Encyclopedia of Journalism (6 vol. 2009) table of contents
Asia
Hill, David T. Journalism and Politics in Indonesia: A Critical Biography of Mochtar Lubis (1922–2004) as Editor and Author (2010)
Hopkinson, Belinda, ed. Information technologies for newspaper publishing in Asia and the Pacific (UNESCO No. 46. 1997)
Jeffrey, Robin. "India's Newspaper Revolution: Capitalism, Politics and the Indian." Language Press (2000) 1#9 pp: 77–9.
Mittler, Barbara. A newspaper for China?: power, identity, and change in Shanghai's news media, 1872–1912 (Harvard Univ Asia Center, Vol. 226, 2004)
Reed, Christopher A. Gutenberg in Shanghai: Chinese Print Capitalism, 1876–1937 (2004)
Yu, Haiqing. Media and cultural transformation in China (Routledge, 2009)
Europe
Bösch, Frank. Mass Media and Historical Change: Germany in International Perspective, 1400 and till today that is Present (Berghahn, 2015). 212 pp. online review
McReynolds, Louise. The News under Russia's Old Regime: The Development of a Mass-Circulation Press (1991)
Olson, Kenneth E. The history makers: The press of Europe from its beginnings through 1965 (LSU Press, 1966), Covers 24 countries; detailed bibliography
Schulte, Henry F. The Spanish Press 1470–1966 (1968)
France
Blackburn, George M. "Paris Newspapers and the American Civil War." Illinois Historical Journal (1991): 177–193. in JSTOR
Botein Stephen, Jack R. Censer and Ritvo Harriet. "The Periodical Press in Eighteenth-Century English and French Society: A Cross-Cultural Approach", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 23 (1981), 464–90.
Censer, Jack Richard. Press and politics in pre-revolutionary France (Univ of California Press, 1987)
Chalaby, Jean K. "Twenty years of contrast: The French and British press during the inter-war period." European Journal of Sociology 37.01 (1996): 143–159. 1919–39
Chalaby, Jean K. "Journalism as an Anglo-American Invention A Comparison of the Development of French and Anglo-American Journalism, 1830s–1920s." European Journal of Communication (1996) 11#3 pp: 303–326.
Collins, Irene. The government and the newspaper press in France, 1814–1881 (Oxford University Press, 1959)
Collins, Ross F., and E. M. Palmegiano, eds. The Rise of Western Journalism 1815–1914: Essays on the Press in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Great Britain and the United States (2007), Chapter on France by Ross Collins
Cragin, Thomas J. "The Failings of Popular News Censorship in Nineteenth-Century France." Book History 4.1 (2001): 49–80. online
Edelstein, Melvin. "La Feuille villageoise, the Revolutionary Press, and the Question of Rural Political Participation." French Historical Studies (1971): 175–203. in JSTOR
Eisenstein, Elizabeth L. Grub Street Abroad: Aspects of the French Cosmopolitan Press from the Age of Louis XIV to the French Revolution (1992)
Eisendrath, Charles R. "Politics and Journalism—French Connection." Columbia Journalism Review 18.1 (1979): 58–61
Freiberg, J. W. The French press: class, state, and ideology (Praeger Publishers, 1981)
Goldstein, Robert Justin. "Fighting French Censorship, 1815–1881." French Review (1998): 785–796. in JSTOR
Gough, Hugh. The newspaper press in the French Revolution (Taylor & Francis, 1988)
Isser, Natalie. The Second Empire and the Press: A Study of Government-Inspired Brochures on French Foreign Policy in Their Propaganda Milieu (Springer, 1974)
Kerr, David S. Caricature and French Political Culture 1830–1848: Charles Philipon and the Illustrated Press (Oxford University Press, 2000)
Thogmartin, Clyde. The national daily press of France (Birmingham Alabama: Summa Publications, Inc., 1998), 370pp
Trinkle, Dennis A. The Napoleonic press: the public sphere and oppositionary journalism (Edwin Mellen Pr, 2002)
Weigle, Clifford. "The Paris Press from 1920 to 1940" Journalism Quarterly (1941) 18: 376–84.
Weigle, Clifford. "The Rise and Fall of the Havas News Agency" Journalism Quarterly (1942) 19:277–86
Williams, Roger Lawrence. Henri Rochefort, prince of the gutter press (Scribner, 1966)
Zeldin, Theodore France: 1848–1945 (1977) vol 2. ch 11, "Newspapers and corruption" pp 492–573
Zerner, Elisabeth H. "Rumors in Paris Newspapers," Public Opinion Quarterly (1946) 10#3 pp. 382–391 in JSTOR In summer 1945
Britain
Andrews, Alexander. A History of British journalism(2011)
Barker, Hannah. Newspapers and English Society 1695–1855 (2000) excerpt
Brake, Laurel, and Marysa Demoor, eds. Dictionary of nineteenth-century journalism in Great Britain and Ireland (Academia Press, 2009)
Clarke, Bob. From Grub Street to Fleet Street: An Illustrated History of English Newspapers to 1899 (2004) excerpt and text search
Conboy, Martin. Journalism in Britain: A Historical Introduction (2010)
George, Curran. Newspaper History from the Seventeenth Century to the Present (1978)
Herd, Harold. The March of Journalism: The Story of the British Press from 1622 to the Present Day 1952. online
O'Malley, Tom. "History, Historians and of the Writing of Print and Newspaper History in the UK c. 1945–1962," Media History (Special Issue: The Historiography of the Media in the United Kingdom) (2012) 18#3–4, DOI: 10.1080/13688804.2012.723492
Sommerville, C. John. The News Revolution in England: Cultural Dynamics of Daily Information (1996)
Williams, Keith. The English Newspaper: An Illustrated History to 1900 (1977)
Williams, Kevin. Read All About it: a History of the British Newspaper (2010)
Canada
Kesterton, W.H. A History of Journalism in Canada (1979)
United States
Daly, Christopher B. Covering America: A Narrative History of a Nation's Journalism (2012) excerpt and text search
Emery, Michael, Edwin Emery, and Nancy L. Roberts. The Press and America: An Interpretive History of the Mass Media (9th ed. 1999.), standard textbook;
Mott, Frank Luther. American Journalism A History: 1690–1960 (1962)
Nord, David Paul. Communities of Journalism: A History of American Newspapers and Their Readers (2006) excerpt and text search
Schudson, Michael. Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers. (1978). excerpt and text search
Sloan, W. David, James G. Stovall, and James D. Startt. The Media in America: A History, 4th ed. (1999)
Streitmatter, Rodger. Mightier Than the Sword: How the News Media Have Shaped American History (1997)online edition
Vaughn, Stephen L., ed. Encyclopedia of American Journalism (2007) 636 pages excerpt and text search
Readership
Heyd, Uriel. Reading Newspapers: Press and Public in Eighteenth-Century Britain and America (Oxford, 2012)
Schoenbach, Klaus, et al. "Research Note: Distinction and Integration Sociodemographic Determinants of Newspaper Reading in the USA and Germany, 1974–96." European Journal of Communication (1999) 14#2 pp: 225–239.
Historiography
Buxton, William J., and Catherine McKercher. "Newspapers, magazines and journalism in Canada: Towards a critical historiography." Acadiensis (1988) 28#1 pp. 103–126 in JSTOR; also online
Daly, Chris. "The Historiography of Journalism History: Part 1:'An Overview.'." American Journalism 26 (2009): 141–147; "The Historiography of Journalism History: Part 2: 'Toward a New Theory,'" American Journalism, (2009) 26#1 pp 148–155, stresses the tension between the imperative form of business model and the dominating culture of news
Dooley, Brendan. "From Literary Criticism to Systems Theory in Early Modern Journalism History," Journal of the History of Ideas (1990) 51#3 pp 461–86.
Espejo, Carmen. "European Communication Networks in the Early Modern Age: A new framework of interpretation for the birth of journalism," Media History (2011) 17#2 pp 189–202
Griffen-Foley, Bridget, "Australian press, radio and television historiography: an update." Media International Australia, Incorporating Culture & Policy 119 (2006) pp: 21+
Nevins, Allan. "American Journalism and Its Historical Treatment," Journalism Quarterly (1959) 36#4 pp 411–22 online
Wilke, Jürgen: Journalism, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2013, retrieved: January 28, 2013.
Primary sources
Brennen,Bonnie S. and Hanno Hardt, eds. The American Journalism History Reader'' (2010), 512pp
External links
Newspapers
Magazine publishing
Newspaper publishing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States%20and%20territories%20of%20Australia
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States and territories of Australia
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The states and territories are administrative divisions in Australia, ruled by regional governments that constitute the level of governance between the federal government and local governments. States are self-governing polities with incomplete sovereignty (having ceded some sovereign rights to federation) and their own constitutions, legislatures, departments, and certain civil authorities (e.g. judiciary and law enforcement) that administer and deliver most public policies and programs. Territories can be autonomous and administer local policies and programs much like the states in practice, but are still legally subordinate to the federal government.
The Commonwealth of Australia constitutionally consists of six federated states (New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania (including Macquarie Island), Victoria, and Western Australia) and ten federal territories, out of which three are internal territories (the Australian Capital Territory, the Jervis Bay Territory, and the Northern Territory) on the Australian mainland and seven are external territories (Ashmore and Cartier Islands, the Australian Antarctic Territory, Christmas Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, the Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, and Norfolk Island) that are offshore dependent territories. Every state and internal territory (except the Jervis Bay Territory) is self-governing with its own independent executive government, legislative branch, and judicial system, while the rest only have local government status overseen by federal departments.
State and territory governments have executive authority to legislate on matters concerning their citizens, subject to the limits of the federal constitution (notably section 51 and section 109). Each state and internal territory (except Jervis Bay Territory) has its own legislature, although the Federal Parliament can override territorial legislation. The federal High Court of Australia acts as a final court of appeal for all matters, and has the authority to override any state judiciary. While all states and internal territories have their own judicial system (subject to appeal to the High Court), most external territories are subject to the judiciary and legislature of either a state or internal territory. Excluding the Heard Island and McDonald Islands and the Australian Antarctic Territory (which are governed by the Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water), the external territories are governed by the federal Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development, Communications and the Arts. Norfolk Island had its own legislature from 1979 to 2015.
Each state of Australia is a successor to historical British colonies, and each has its own constitution. The Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and Northern Territory for the most part operate indistinguishably from the states, even though they do not have constitutional status as states and territorial legislation can be overridden.
Geography
Surrounded by the Indian, Pacific, and Southern oceans, Australia is separated from Maritime Southeast Asia and New Guinea by the Arafura Sea, Timor Sea, and Torres Strait, from the Melanesian islands by the Coral Sea, and from New Zealand by the Tasman Sea. The world's smallest continent, Australia is also the sixth largest country by land area and sometimes considered the world's largest island. Australia has a mainland coastline of and claims an Exclusive Economic Zone of .
Borders
Australian Capital Territory borders
New South Wales borders
Northern Territory borders
Queensland borders
South Australian borders
Tasmanian borders
Victorian borders
Western Australian borders
States and territories
At Federation in 1901, what is now the Northern Territory was within South Australia, what are now the Australian Capital Territory and Jervis Bay Territory were within New South Wales, and Coral Sea Islands was part of Queensland. Ashmore and Cartier Islands was accepted by Australia in 1934 and was annexed to the Northern Territory prior to adoption of the Statute of Westminster in 1942, deemed effective from 1939; it has thus become part of Australia.
States
Territories
Internal territories
External territories
Each external territory is regulated by an Act of the federal Parliament. These Acts contain the majority of provisions determining the legal and political structure applying in that external territory. Under s 122 of the Australian Constitution the federal Parliament has plenary power to make laws for all territories including all external territories.
The Cocos (Keeling) Islands voted for integration in 1984. Together with Christmas Island, these two territories comprise the Australian Indian Ocean Territories. Commonwealth laws apply automatically to the territories unless expressly stated otherwise and residents of both external territories are associated with Northern Territory for federal elections. They are, thus, constitutionally part of Australia.
The Heard Island and McDonald Islands, although uninhabited, are treated as constitutionally part of Australia by the central government.
Norfolk Island's status is controversial, with the present () government taking measures to integrate the territory into Australia proper (including representation in parliament and compulsory voting). The Norfolk Islanders have not formally consented to this change in constitutional status and assert that they are not Australian.
Notes
Former territories
Internal
Two internal territories established by the Australian federal government under Section 122 of the Constitution of Australia no longer exist:
Central Australia (1926–1931), consisting of the area of the current Northern Territory south of the 20th parallel south
North Australia (1926–1931), consisting of the area of the current Northern Territory north of the 20th parallel south
External
Two present-day Oceanic countries, Papua New Guinea (PNG) and Nauru, were administered by the federal government of Australia as de facto or de jure external territories for differing periods between 1902 and 1975.
Papua and New Guinea (1883–1949)
Territory of Papua:
1883–1902: A de facto part of Queensland (de jure British territory in 1888–1900)
1902–1949: An external territory of Australia
Territory of New Guinea: 1920–1949, under a League of Nations mandate. The territory was previously known as German New Guinea between 1884 and 1914; it was formally under Australian military occupation in 1914–1920).
Following World War II, the Papua and New Guinea Act 1949 placed the Territory of New Guinea in an "administrative union" with the Territory of Papua, and the combined Territory of Papua and New Guinea was created. However, both territories remained technically distinct for some administrative and legal purposes, until 1975, when the combined entity eventually was given independence as Papua New Guinea.
Nauru (1920–1968)
Nauru was previously under the German colonial empire as part of the German New Guinea. Following World War I, the Australian government received a League of Nations mandate for Nauru. After World War II, the Territory of Papua, Territory of New Guinea and Nauru were all controlled by the Australian government as United Nations trust territories. Nauru was granted independence in 1968.
Statistics
The majority of Australians live in the eastern coastal mainland states of New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, and the Australian Capital Territory, which collectively forms 79% of the entire population of Australia (more than three-quarters of all Australians). Most of the major population centres are located east and south of the Great Dividing Range on the coastal plains and their associated hinterland regions.
Statistical divisions
The Australian Bureau of Statistics' (ABS) Australian Statistical Geography Standard describes several main statistical divisions of Australia:
Mesh Block (MB) – the smallest area of division, MBs are rarely used for statistics and represent 3060 dwellings, though some have no population or development. They are conventionally used as a way to ensure confidentiality of responses.
Statistical Area Level 1 (SA1) – SA1s are small areas of 200800 people and are used to balance spatial detail and cross comparison in the Census of Population and Housing.
Statistical Area Level 2 (SA2) – SA2s are designed to represent financial and social interactions, such as a suburb or neighbourhood of 3,00025,000 people (averaging at 10,000) and is often the smallest division used in statistical releases.
Statistical Area Level 3 (SA3) – SA3s are regional representations of local communities, generally containing similar characteristics, administrative boundaries, and labour markets, each having 30,000130,000 people.
Statistical Area Level 4 (SA4) – SA4s are broader representations of labour forces in population centres, with 100,000300,000 people in regional areas and 300,000500,000 in metropolitan areas.
States and Territories
The ABS also defines other divisions such as the Greater Capital City Statistical Area Structure, Significant Urban Area Structure, Remoteness Structure, and Indigenous Structure. Other non-ABS divisions include Local Government Areas, Postal Areas, electoral divisions, and tourism regions.
Background and overview
The states originated as separate British colonies prior to Federation in 1901. The Colony of New South Wales was founded in 1788 and originally comprised much of the Australian mainland, as well as Lord Howe Island, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Van Diemen's Land, in addition to the area currently referred to as the state of New South Wales. During the 19th century, large areas were successively separated to form the Colony of Tasmania (initially established as a separate colony named Van Diemen's Land in 1825), the Colony of Western Australia (initially established as the smaller Swan River Colony in 1829), the Province of South Australia (1836), the Colony of New Zealand (1840), the Victoria Colony (1851) and the Colony of Queensland (1859). Upon federation, the six colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania became the founding states of the new Commonwealth of Australia.
The legislative powers of the states are protected by the Australian constitution, section 107, and under the principle of federalism, Commonwealth legislation only applies to the states where permitted by the constitution. The territories, by contrast, are from a constitutional perspective directly subject to the Commonwealth government; laws for territories are determined by the Australian Parliament.
Most of the territories are directly administered by the Commonwealth government, while two (the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory) have some degree of self-government although less than that of the states. In the self-governing territories, the Australian Parliament retains the full power to legislate, and can override laws made by the territorial institutions, which it has done on rare occasions. For the purposes of Australian (and joint Australia-New Zealand) intergovernmental bodies, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory are treated as if they were states.
Each state has a governor, appointed by the monarch (currently King Charles III), which by convention he does on the advice of the state premier. The Administrator of the Northern Territory, by contrast, is appointed by the governor-general. The Australian Capital Territory has neither a governor nor an administrator, but the governor-general exercises some powers that in other jurisdictions are exercised by the governor of a state or administrator of a territory, such as the power to dissolve the Legislative Assembly.
Jervis Bay Territory is the only non-self-governing internal territory. Until 1989, it was administered as if it were a part of the ACT, although it has always been a separate territory. Under the terms of the Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915, the laws of the ACT apply to the Jervis Bay Territory insofar as they are applicable and providing they are not inconsistent with an ordinance. Although residents of the Jervis Bay Territory are generally subject to laws made by the ACT Legislative Assembly, they are not represented in the assembly. They are represented in the Parliament of Australia as part of the Electoral Division of Fenner (named the Division of Fraser until 2016) in the ACT and by the ACT's two senators. In other respects, the territory is administered directly by the Federal Government through the Territories portfolio.
The external territory of Norfolk Island possessed a degree of self-government from 1979 until 2015.
Each state has a bicameral parliament, except Queensland, which abolished its upper house in 1922. The lower house is called the "legislative assembly", except in South Australia and Tasmania, where it is called the "house of assembly". Tasmania is the only state to use proportional representation for elections to its lower house; all others elect members from single member constituencies, using preferential voting. The upper house is called the "legislative council" and is generally elected from multi-member constituencies using proportional representation. The three self-governing territories, the ACT, the Northern Territory, and Norfolk Island, each have unicameral legislative assemblies.
The head of government of each state is called the "premier", appointed by the state's governor. In normal circumstances, the governor will appoint as premier whoever leads the party or coalition which exercises control of the lower house (in the case of Queensland, the only house) of the state parliament. However, in times of constitutional crisis, the governor can appoint someone else as premier. The head of government of the self-governing internal territories is called the "chief minister". The Northern Territory's chief minister, in normal circumstances whoever controls the legislative assembly, is appointed by the administrator.
The term interstate is used within Australia to refer to a number of events, transactions, registrations, travel, etc. which occurs across borders or outside of the particular state or territory of the user of the term. Examples of use include motor vehicle registration, travel, applications to educational institutions out of one's home state.
There are very few urban areas bifurcated by state or territory borders. The Queensland-New South Wales border runs through Coolangatta (Queensland) and Tweed Heads (New South Wales) and splits Gold Coast Airport. Oaks Estate, a contiguous residential of Queanbeyan, was excised out of New South Wales when the Australian Capital Territory was established in 1909. Some Urban Centres and Localities reported by the Australian Bureau of Statistics include some agglomerations of cities spreading across state borders, including Gold Coast–Tweed Heads, Canberra–Queanbeyan, Albury–Wodonga (New South Wales-Victoria) and Mildura–Wentworth (Victoria-New South Wales)
Timeline
1788 – British Empire establishes the Colony of New South Wales across central and eastern mainland Australia, the island of Tasmania, both islands of New Zealand and Norfolk Island.
1803 – The Coral Sea Islands are claimed by New South Wales.
1825 – The island of Tasmania becomes the independent colony of Van Diemen's Land. New South Wales extends its borders further west in mainland Australia.
1829 – The British Empire establishes the Swan River Colony in western mainland Australia.
1832 – Swan River Colony is renamed the "colony of Western Australia".
1836 – The Colony of South Australia is established.
1841 – The islands of New Zealand become the independent colony of New Zealand. Much of eastern Antarctica is annexed by Britain as Victoria Land.
1844 – New South Wales transfers Norfolk Island to Van Diemen's Land.
1846 – Northern central and eastern Australia briefly become the independent Colony of North Australia, then are returned to New South Wales.
1851 – Southeastern mainland Australia becomes the independent colony of Victoria.
1856 – Van Diemen's Land is renamed the colony of Tasmania. Norfolk Island becomes the independent colony of Norfolk Island, however it is to be administered by the same governor as New South Wales.
1857 – Much of southern central mainland Australia becomes the independent colony of South Australia. The Cocos (Keeling) Islands are annexed by Britain.
1859 – Northeastern mainland Australia and Coral Sea Islands become the independent colony of Queensland.
1860 – A pocket of New South Wales territory remaining in southern central mainland Australia is transferred to South Australia.
1862 – Some of New South Wales' northern central mainland Australian territory is transferred to Queensland.
1863 – New South Wales' remaining northern central mainland Australian territory is transferred to South Australia.
1878 – Britain annexes Ashmore Island.
1883 – Queensland annexes southeastern New Guinea.
1884 – Southeastern New Guinea becomes the independent Territory of Papua.
1886 – The Cocos (Keeling) Islands are to be administered by the same governor as the Straits Settlements.
1888 – Christmas Island is annexed by Britain and incorporated into the Straits Settlements.
1897 – Norfolk Island is officially reintegrated into New South Wales.
1901 – New South Wales, Queensland, Tasmania, Western Australia, Victoria and South Australia federate into the Commonwealth of Australia. Queensland transfers the Coral Sea Islands to the federal government, creating a federal external territory.
1902 – Britain transfers Papua to Australia as an external territory.
1903 – The Cocos (Keeling) Islands are incorporated into the Straits Settlements.
1909 – Britain annexes Cartier Island.
1910 – Britain claims Heard Island and the McDonald Islands.
1911 – The state of South Australia transfers control of northern central mainland Australia to the federal government, creating the Northern Territory. A small pocket of New South Wales around the city of Canberra is transferred to the federal government (who are seated within it), creating the Federal Capital Territory.
1913 – New South Wales transfers Norfolk Island to the federal government, making it a federal external territory.
1915 – A small pocket of New South Wales around Jervis Bay is transferred to the federal government and incorporated into the Federal Capital Territory.
1920 – Following the defeat of the German Empire in World War I, the League of Nations establishes an Australian mandate in northeastern New Guinea, it becomes the external Territory of New Guinea.
1923 – Another conquered German territory, the island of Nauru, is established as an Australian mandate and external territory by the League of Nations, this time as a co-mandate with Britain and New Zealand.
1927 – The Northern Territory is split into two territories – North Australia and Central Australia.
1930 – The remaining territory in eastern Antarctica is annexed by Britain as Enderby Land.
1931 – North Australia and Central Australia are reincorporated as the Northern Territory. Britain recognises Australia as possessors of the uninhabited Ashmore and Cartier Islands, making them an external federal territory.
1933 – Britain transfers Victoria Land and Enderby Land to Australia, creating the Australian Antarctic Territory, with ongoing limited international recognition.
1938 – The Federal Capital Territory is renamed the "Australian Capital Territory".
1942 – The Japanese Empire conquers Nauru from Australia, Britain and New Zealand as part of World War II. Japan also conquers much of the Straits Settlements, including Christmas Island. The Cocos (Keeling) Islands are not conquered and are transferred to the Colony of Ceylon.
1946 – The United Nations, the successor to the League of Nations, renews its mandate of New Guinea to Australia.
1947 – Following the defeat of Japan in World War II, the United Nations returns Nauru to Australia, Britain and New Zealand as a joint mandate. Christmas Island returns to Britain and is incorporated into the Colony of Singapore. The Cocos (Keeling) Islands are also transferred to Singapore.
1949 – Papua and New Guinea are incorporated into the singular Territory of Papua and New Guinea. Britain transfers Heard Island and the McDonald Islands to Australia, creating a federal external territory.
1955 – Britain transfers the Cocos (Keeling) Islands to Australia, they become an external territory.
1958 – Britain transfers Christmas Island to Australia, it becomes an external territory.
1966 – The Republic of Nauru is established, ending Australian-British-New Zealander control of the island.
1975 – Papua and New Guinea becomes the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, ending British-Australian control.
1978 – Northern Territory gains self-government with certain Commonwealth control.
1979 – Norfolk Island gains self-government with certain Commonwealth control.
1989 – The Australian Capital Territory gains self-government with certain Commonwealth control. Jervis Bay becomes independent of the ACT, becoming the Jervis Bay Territory.
2015 – Norfolk Island loses self-government with full Commonwealth control.
Comparative terminology
Politics
Governors and administrators
Premiers and chief ministers
Parliaments
Parliament of New South Wales
Parliament of Victoria
Parliament of Queensland
Parliament of Western Australia
Parliament of South Australia
Parliament of Tasmania
Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly
Northern Territory Legislative Assembly
Supreme courts
Supreme Court of New South Wales
Supreme Court of Victoria
Supreme Court of Queensland
Supreme Court of Western Australia
Supreme Court of South Australia
Supreme Court of Tasmania
Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory
Supreme Court of the Northern Territory
Supreme Court of Norfolk Island
Police forces
New South Wales Police Force
Victoria Police
Queensland Police Service
Western Australia Police Force
South Australia Police
Tasmania Police
Australian Capital Territory Policing (performed by Australian Federal Police)
Northern Territory Police Force
Law enforcement in Norfolk Island, also provided by Australian Federal Police
State and territory codes
See also
Australian regional rivalries
ISO 3166-2:AU, the ISO codes for the states and territories of Australia.
List of Australian demonyms
List of Australian states by Human Development Index
List of proposed states of Australia
Notes
References
Australia geography-related lists
Australia 1
States, Australia
States and territories
Subdivisions of Australia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20rules%20football%20in%20England
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Australian rules football in England
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Australian rules football in England is a team sport and spectator sport with a long history. It is home to the longest running Australian rules fixture outside Australia, the match between Oxford and Cambridge Universities which has been contested annually since 1923. The current competitions originated in 1989 and have grown to a number of local and regional leagues coordinated by AFL England. In 2018, these regional divisions were the AFL London, AFL Central & Northern England and Southern England AFL.
The sport's origins are said to be in England, specifically public school football games. Several of the sport's founders were born and educated there including J. B. Thompson, William Hammersley and James Bryant while Tom Wills held by many as the sport's founder, was educated at and played rugby with the Rugby School. The sport however struggled for decades to establish roots given the dominance of traditional football codes in rugby football and the growing popularity of soccer. Nevertheless, it was one of the first countries outside of Australia where the game was played in the 1880s and to host regular competition.
Australian Football League (AFL) exhibition matches were held in London semi-annually between 1986 and 2006 (the last standalone event was held in 2012) and were well attended with attendances ranging from 4,500 to a record of 18,884 in 2005.
England rarely competes in a standalone team, and is typically represented along with Scotland and Wales as the Great Britain team at the Australian Football International Cup (best result 6th) and AFL Europe Championship (2 titles). However, an English side has competed in several standalone tests and has been successful at the Euro Cup with 5 titles. Nevertheless, London has hosted several internationals, including the 2001 Atlantic Alliance Cup, 2005 and 2015 EU Cups and the 2016 and 2019 AFL Europe Championships.
In the AFL Bill Eason and Clive Waterhouse hold the record for the most games and goals with 220 and 386 respectively while current AFL Women's player Sabrina Frederick holds both records with 59 and 26.
History of Australian rules football in England
English involvement in the game's establishment in Australia
According to the AFL, the sport's origins were in England with public school football games being adopted by Australians in the 1850s leading to the creation of what is now known as Australian Football in Melbourne in the British Colony of Victoria in 1859. Several of the sport's founders were English including J. B. Thompson, William Hammersley and James Bryant, with Tom Wills having been educated at and played rugby football with the Rugby School.
Writing to Wills in 1871, Thompson recalled that "the Rugby, Eton, Harrow, and Winchester rules at that time (I think in 1859) came under our consideration, ... we all but unanimously agreed that regulations which suited schoolboys ... would not be patiently tolerated by grown men." The hardness of the playing fields around Melbourne also influenced their thinking. Even Wills, who favoured many rules of Rugby School football, saw the need for compromise. He wrote to his brother Horace: "Rugby was not a game for us, we wanted a winter pastime but men could be harmed if thrown on the ground so we thought differently."
While the game found its way to Ireland in the 1870s and there was also some awareness in England of the popularity of the game in Australia, it was not established locally until much later. This is primarily due to the growing popularity of locally developing football codes including rugby football and later British Association (soccer) which, like Australian Football, were also developing from public school football games.
The English were also heavily involved in the development of the code in the 1860s and 1870s. George Metcalfe was instrumental in introducing the code to Colony of New South Wales in 1867, the 2nd Battalion of Fourteen Foot (Buckinghamshire) played in the first known match in the Colony of Western Australia in 1868. James Henry Gardiner founded the North Melbourne Football Club in 1869 which was later instrumental to unifying football rules in the Colony of Tasmania. John Acraman and Richard Twopeny were the key players in establishing it in the Colony of South Australia.
Early efforts to introduce the sport
Between 1870 and World War I many overseas students studied medicine in Scotland, and some went down to England to play the Australian Rules teams in that country.
A Lancashire paper from 1881 mentions a local initiative to introduce "Victorian Rules Football" to England as an alternative to rugby and Association football.
In 1883, during a visit to Australia, English journalist and rugby player Richard Twopeny wrote of the game:
A good football match in Melbourne is one of the sights of the world... The quality of the play... is much superior to anything the best English clubs can produce... there is much more 'style' about the play.
In 1884 H C A Harrison then known as the "father of Australian Football" visited London where he proposed unifying Australian rules with Rugby under a set of hybrid rules and suggested that rugby clubs adopt some of the Victorian Rules. English football officials expressed their insult at the suggestion that they "abandon their rules to oblige an Antipodean game".
Nevertheless when first proposing a football tour of Australia and New Zealand in March 1887, James Lillywhite, Alfred Shaw and Arthur Shrewsbury posited that the best way to ensure the success of the venture would be to play under the Australian rules where the sport was most popular.
Australians studying at Edinburgh University and London University formed teams and competed in London in 1888.
Spurred on by the upcoming English football team's tour of Australia, a scratch match between Edinburgh Australians and London Australians was planned to be held at Balham on 14 April 1888. However the match was postponed citing lack of player numbers and suitability of the venue. It was finally played on 26 May 1888 at Balham, London won 4 goals to 2. There was little interest in the match outside of the Australian expat community. However the game was poorly organised and the selected ground was so out of the way that most spectators failed to find it, proving to be lost opportunity to promote the game. A return match was played on the same ground on the 30th May resulting in a draw. The match drew considerable praise in UK newspapers such as the Times and the Scotsman.
British tours to Australia (1888–1914)
Australian rules football was played by a British representative rugby team which toured Australia in 1888. The team arrived in Hobart, Tasmania on 18 April. They attended a social function with the Southern Tasmanian Football Association, before going to New Zealand for a series of rugby matches.
After they returned to Australia they again trained in Australian rules in Sydney, before leaving for Victoria in mid-June. The tour included 19 matches. They played against several of the stronger football clubs from Melbourne including the Carlton Football Club, South Melbourne Football Club, Essendon Football Club, Fitzroy Football Club and Port Melbourne Football Club. Additionally, they played against some strong regional Victorian clubs including two teams from the city of Ballarat: Ballarat Football Club and Ballarat Imperial Football Club, as well as two teams from the city of Bendigo: Bendigo Football Club and Sandhurst Football Club as well as playing against clubs from other regional towns including the Castlemaine Football Club, Maryborough Football Club, Horsham Football Club and Kyneton Football Club.
The team also played against several of the stronger South Australian teams including South Adelaide Football Club, Port Adelaide Football Club, Adelaide Football Club (no connection to the later Adelaide club), Norwood Football Club. The only club from outside of Victoria or South Australia which played against them was the Maitland Football Club (from the Hunter Valley in New South Wales). The British team won six matches, including a win over Port Adelaide at Adelaide Oval on 10 July 1888, and drew one.
The reigning Victorian premiers, Carlton defeated Great Britain at the MCG 14.17 to 3.8. At this stage goals and points were recorded but only goals counted in the score; for example, when Great Britain played Castlemaine under very heavy conditions they kicked 1 goal 2 points and the locals kicked 1 goal 4 points, but the match was declared a draw. Great Britain also played 35 games of rugby, making a total of 54 games in 21 weeks. A star of the team's Australian rules games was Andrew Stoddart, who captained the team for part of its tour and also captained England in cricket.
The 1888 tour had been organised by the English cricketer Arthur Shrewsbury but his involvement with Australian Rules football did not end there. He planned to have an Australian team sent to the United Kingdom to play a series of demonstration matches and to that end he looked to Scotland where he had identified possible opponents. Shrewsbury's plans are outlined in his correspondence with Alfred Shaw and Turner, the Nottingham Cricket Club Secretary.
First Competitions
Shrewsbury suggested that the 'Edinburgh Australians' team at Edinburgh University should travel down to England to meet the Australian team in a series of demonstration matches in Lancashire and Yorkshire. Unfortunately his bold plan did not eventuate as the authorities in Australia aborted the venture and a possible expansion of Australian Rules in the UK was lost.
In 1894, a dramatic costume football match was played at the East Melbourne Cricket Ground involving prominent English celebrities Jennie Lee, Wallace Brownlow and Harry Musgrove.
There were reports from Australia that the game was being played in England between two clubs in 1903 and in 1904. By 1906 there were three clubs holding regular competition two of which were in London. The Oxford University Australian Rules Football Club was founded in 1906.
As early as 1911 the game was being played regularly at Oxford. The Cambridge University Australian Rules Football Club is believed to have been founded around 1911. In 1911 Oxford University captained by Alfred Clemens defeated Cambridge University captained by Ron Larking 13.9 (87) to 5.12 (42). In 1914, H C A Harrison reported that the game was being played regularly at both Oxford and Cambridge universities though few records exist of contests between 1911 and 1921.
World War I
In 1915 a Victoria vs South Australia match was played at Portland Canteen ground at Weymouth, Dorset.
In 1916, one of the highest profile matches in the history of the game outside of Australia occurred when a match was held at the Queen's Club in London between Australian Army teams, representing the Combined Training Units and the 3rd Division, in which many senior Australian rules footballers from all over Australia took part. The match drew a large crowd and significant press coverage.
In 1917 HMAS Australia's Australian Football team played against a team of soldiers in London which drew significant attendance and interest. In November 1917, the Australian army and navy played a rugby match against each other in London, however the seconds played a match under Australian rules.
As a celebration of Australia Day January 1918, a match was held at Cambridge between London Headquarters and Australian Cadets, with London winning 80 to 63.
However, the end of World War I saw the game outside of the universities go into hiatus.
Varsity matches between Oxford and Cambridge
After the war, in 1921, the Oxford University–Cambridge University Varsity match between expatriate Australian students became an annual contest. This game is still played, and is the longest running Australian rules fixture outside Australia. The match is an official Varsity competition. Over the years, some distinguished Australians to have played in the match include Mike Fitzpatrick, Chris Maxwell, Joe Santamaria, Sir Rod Eddington and Andrew Michelmore.
Second World War matches
The AIF played a match in 1940 between the "Impossibles" and the "Improbables".
When the RMS Moreton Bay returned to England after 1941 it played in advertised matches at Portsmouth.
RAAF (Sunderland) vs RAF Mount Batten was played in 1943 in Plymouth. In November of the same year, a game was played in Sussex between No.11 Personnel despatch and Reception centre team based in Brighton vs RAAF Headquarters from London.
Teams representing RAAF, Headquarters vs Sunderland, met in Hyde Park in 1944 in front of a sizeable crowd. Headquarters defeated Sunderland 12.7 (79) to 5.4 (34).
In 1945 HMAS Australia defeated RAAF at Dulwich 11.12 to 10.5.
In 1948 Australia's champion axemen team announced its plans to introduce Australian rules football into England.
In 1952 a match was played at Rosslyn Park F.C. in South West London between HMAS Vengeance and English-Australians ("the Wombats"). The Wombats also organised a match at Cambridge.
The first local league
In 1967, Australian expatriates including Michael Cyril Hall and Ted Ford attempted to organise Australian Football in London. Ted engaged high-profile expatriate Australians including Rolf Harris, Alan Freeman, Barry Humphries, Neil Hawke, Keith Miller and former Australian prime minister Sir Robert Menzies to support the venture and raise publicity for it. Ford organised a charity match was played in Regent's Park in London, between local club Kensington Demons and established out of town club Oxford University. Athol Guy (who had played VFL reserves with St Kilda) also made a special appearance as a player. The match also featured England's first all-women's match between Aussie Girls and Wild Colonial Girls as a curtain raiser. The match attracted a crowd of 1,000 spectators. A follow-up match between Earl's Court Magpies and Australian Dentists attracted 700 spectators. By May 7 established local teams were ready to form a local league these teams included: Australian Dentists, Australian Navy, Oxford University, Cambridge University, Kensington Demons, Earls Court Magpies and London House. In July, Royal Australian Navy (RAN) personnel played against a combined side drawn from the Earls Court Magpies; Kensington Demons and Australian Dentists in front of a crowd of 1,200 at Regent's Park. RAN personnel would go on to play against local school sides and local rugby clubs.
After some time finding its roots, the Australian National Football League (UK) was formed which by 1970 had six teams, Victorians; Rest of Australia; Portsmouth Naval Base; Plymouth Naval Base; London Gaelic Football Club and Hampstead Rugby Club with matches played in the summer.
The later inclusion of two English rugby sides was helping them keep fit in the off-season. Later clubs to play in the league included the Kensington Demons, Earls Court Magpies, Oxford University Blues, Australian Dentists and Australian Navy (based in Portsmouth).
In 1972, the first exhibition match of the VFL was played at The Oval in London as part of the Carlton Football Club 1972 preseason World Tour. The match attracted 9,000 in a carnival like atmosphere. However the arrival of the spectacle of elite level VFL also saw the end of the game at the grassroots in England with no further organised competition.
The VFL/AFL annual exhibition
Between 1987 and 2006, VFL/AFL exhibition matches had become an almost annual event, but the only game since then being in 2012.
With a large number of ex-patriate Australians, interest in the game grew and small crowds of up to 10,000 were in attendance for the event in some years.
Interest and crowds grew further with the change of the VFL to the Australian Football League.
Highlights during this time included large crowds for the Australian Football League's West Coast Eagles v. Collingwood in 1997 with an attendance of 14,000 and the match between Richmond and Essendon in 2002 which drew 13,000.
The British Australian Rules Football League: 1989-Present
In 1989 the British Australian rules football League (BARFL) was formed. Serious competition began. A schools program was launched in 1991. One of the key people in the establishment of the competition was former professional Australian player Darren Ogier who helped introduce a rule that at least half of the club's players onfield must be non-Australian. As the competition became more popular, results were reported in Australia. From 1992, the AFL began contributing AUD $6,000 a year to the league, however withdrew its financial contributions in 1994, expressing a preference for grants to be spent on junior programs and school projects instead of the senior competition. Despite the lack of AFL support, local BARFL Grand Finals become a large event attracting attendances in the thousands, including a record crowd of 1,500 in 1999.
In 2002 a national team represented Great Britain at the Australian Football International Cup for the first time, finishing the tournament in 6th place. 2005 saw the British Bulldogs again compete in the International Cup, again finishing 6th overall.
Following the 2005 International Cup, promising 22-year-old British Bulldog Luke Matias began playing with the Port Melbourne Football Club in the Victorian Football League.
Also in 2005, the first Western Derby to be played outside of Australia, the West Coast Eagles v. Fremantle game was played as a pre-season test at The Oval in London, drawing a record crowd of 18,884.
Junior Development programs
In 2005 the first junior development program, Aussie Rules Schools, commenced. The program, co-ordinated by the new development body Aussie Rules UK, part of Aussie Rules International was kicked off. This project has seen up to 10 English schools adopt Aussie Rules as part of the school curriculum to combat obesity. Juniors teams have competed at the London Youth Games.
2006 was a big year for Aussie Rules in England, with the admission of new clubs in Manchester, Middlesbrough and Thanet.
On 17 September 2006 history was made in Denmark when the England Dragonslayers took on the Denmark Vikings in Europe's first fully-fledged international junior Aussie Rules match. England claimed the King Canute Cup, with England 6.10(46) defeating Denmark 0.6(6).
In July 2007, the AFL announced that the annual London exhibition match was likely to be abandoned for the year, after only the Western Bulldogs had expressed interest.
In a first in 2007, the GB Bulldogs including several past and future England players, soundly defeated Ireland in Dublin 11.15(81) to 2.9(21).
AFL Britain
In 2008, a resolution to the divide between the two competing leagues saw a single national body, AFL Britain form, which formally affiliated to the AFL. The BARFL was dissolved and became AFL London, while regional leagues including the Scottish Australian Rules Football League and the Welsh Australian Rules Football League affiliated with the new national body.
AFL England
In 2012, AFL England was formed as the national governing body for Australian rules football in England, separate to AFL Scotland and AFL Wales.
Participation
In 2004, there were a total of around 435 senior players across 18 clubs in England. The local league has a higher number of ex-patriate Australians compared to other countries that participate in the sport, however the league recently put in place caps on the number of expatriate players in certain divisions to improve the mix and encourage more local players.
By the end of 2007, the game had experienced substantial growth due to the placement of permanent development officers. AFL International Census figures indicate over 3,600 participants
Audience
Television
Australian rules football is regularly shown on BT Sport.
Attendance records
Local competitions
1,500 (1999). BARFL Grand Final. West London Wildcats vs Wandsworth Demons. London
Exhibition match
18,884 (2005). West Coast v. Fremantle (The Oval, London)
National teams
AFL England currently manages four national teams. The Great Britain Bulldogs and Great Britain Swans compete every three years at the International Cup in Melbourne. The squad is made up of players mainly from the London clubs, however they are often joined by players competing in Australia. In 2017 the Bulldogs finished sixth, their joint-highest finish, while in their maiden year the Swans finished third, defeating the United States 5.2 (32) to 4.1 (25)
The English teams are known as the England Dragonslayers and the England Vixens. Both teams won the AFL Europe Euro Cup in 2017. In 2018, the Vixens finished runners-up
Clubs
Open
London
Regional England
Juniors
Clapham Cubs
Players
Men's
Women's
as of 2019 AFLW season
See also
1916 Pioneer Exhibition Game
Australian rules football in the United Kingdom
Sport in England
External links
Surrey Cricket AFL annual exhibition match at 'The Oval'
AFL Britain website
BARFL website
ARUK National League
Aussie Rules UK
Cambridge University Australian Rules Football Club
Oxford University Australian Rules Football Club
Video of Aussie Rules from YouTube
The Birmingham Bears
sports on ESPN UK link.
subscribe to ESPN UK link.
Books
References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soccer%20in%20Australia
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Soccer in Australia
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Soccer, also known as football, is the most played outdoor club sport in Australia, and ranked in the top ten for television audience as of 2015. The national governing body of the sport is Football Australia (FA), which until 2019, organised the A-League Men, A-League Women, and still organises the Australia Cup, as well as the men's and women's national teams (known as the Socceroos and the Matildas, respectively). The FA comprises nine state and territory member federations, which oversee the sport within their respective region.
Modern soccer was introduced in Australia in the late 19th century by mostly British immigrants. The first club formed in the country, Wanderers, was founded on 3 August 1880 in Sydney, while the oldest club in Australia currently in existence is Balgownie Rangers, formed in 1883 in Wollongong. Wanderers were also the first known recorded team to play under the Laws of the Game.
A semi-professional national league, the National Soccer League, was introduced in 1977. The NSL was replaced by professional A-League, in 2004, which has contributed to a rise in popularity in the sport. Australia was a founding member of the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) before moving to the Asian Football Confederation (AFC) in 2006.
History
19th century
An early match took place at the Woogaroo Lunatic Asylum, located in Wacol, on 7 August 1875, when a team of inmates and wards men from the asylum played against the visiting Brisbane Australian rules football club; the rules of the match which clearly stated that the "ball should not be handled nor carried" was a direct reference to British Association Rules.
A match was recorded to be played in Hobart on 10 May 1879, when members of the Cricketer's Club played a scratch match under English Association Rules, which were adopted by the club. The game was a return match to one played on 24 May by the clubs, under a variant of the Victorian rules; to prevent the disadvantage faced by the Cricketers, the clubs agreed that that Association rules would be adopted in the return match.
The first recorded match in Sydney under the Laws of the Game was contested between Wanderers and members of the Kings School rugby team at Parramatta Common on 14 August 1880. The Wanderers, considered the first soccer club in Australia, was established on 3 August 1880, by English-émigré John Walter Fletcher. Later, in 1882, Fletcher formed the New South Wales English Football Association (also referred to as the South British Football Soccer Association), the very first administrative governing body of soccer within Australia and one of the first to be established outside the United Kingdom.
In 1883, Balgownie Rangers, the oldest existing club in Australia was founded; the club currently competes in the Illawarra regional league. Later that year, the first inter-colonial game was played at the East Melbourne Cricket Ground, between a representative Victorian team and one from the neighbouring colony of New South Wales.
As soccer continued to grow throughout Australia, John Fletcher's New South Wales soccer association gave inspiration to other states to establish their own governing bodies for the sport. In 1884, Victoria formed its own association, the Anglo-Australian Football Association (now Football Victoria), as did Queensland, in the Anglo-Queensland Football Association (now, Football Queensland), and Northern New South Wales, in the Northern District British Football Association (now, Northern New South Wales Football). In 1896, the Western Australian Soccer Football Association was formed. In 1900, a Tasmanian association was formed, and later, the South Australian British Football Association was formed in 1902.
20th century
It was not until 1911 that a governing body was formed to oversee soccer activities in the whole of Australia. The first such organisation was called the Commonwealth Football Association. However, this body was superseded by the Australian Soccer Association, which was formed in 1921.
Australia is regarded as the first country where squad numbers in soccer were used for the first time when Sydney Leichardt and HMS Powerful players displayed numbers on their backs, in 1911. One year later, numbering in soccer would be ruled as mandatory in New South Wales.
On 17 June 1922, the first Australian national representative soccer team was constituted by the Australian Soccer Association to represent Australia for a tour of New Zealand. During the tour the Australia men's national team lost two out of the three matches against the newly formed New Zealand side.
With British and Southern Europeans settlers it was immensely popular and this led to establishing soccer as a major sport in the country.
A distinct rise in popularity in New South Wales and Victoria, among other states, was linked to the post-war immigration. Migrant players and supporters were prominent, providing the sport with a new but distinct profile. Soccer served as a cultural gateway for many emigrants, acting as a social lubricant. Soccer transcended cultural and language barriers in communities which bridged the gap between minority communities and other classes within the country, thus bringing about a unique unity. The most prominent soccer clubs in Australian cities during the 1950s and 1960s were based around migrant-ethnic groups, all of which expanded rapidly at that time: Croatian, Greek, Macedonian and Italian communities gave rise to most of the largest clubs, the most notable being South Melbourne (Greek-based), Sydney Olympic (Greek-based), Marconi Stallions (Italian-based), Adelaide City (Italian-based), Melbourne Knights (Croatian-based), Sydney United (Croatian-based) and Preston Lions (Macedonian-based).
In 1956, Australia became a FIFA member through the Australian Soccer Association. Though Australia's membership was soon suspended in 1960 after disobeying FIFA mandate on recruiting foreign players without a transfer fee. In 1961, the Australian Soccer Federation was formed and later admitted to FIFA in 1963, after outstanding fines had been paid. In 1966, Australia became founding members of the Oceania Football Federation (now Oceania Football Confederation).
Pre-1960s, competitive soccer in Australia was state-based. In 1962, the Australia Cup was established, but its ambition of becoming an FA Cup style knockout competition went unfulfilled with its demise in 1968. In 1977, the first national soccer competition, the National Soccer League, was founded.
Migrants continued to boost interest in and player for the sport in the 1970s and 1980s, especially from the Middle East and from the former Yugoslavia.
In 1984, the National Soccer Youth League was founded as a reserve and academy league to run in parallel to the National Soccer League. In 1996, the first national women's soccer competition, the Women's National Soccer League was founded. The National Soccer League and those for women and youth flourished through the 1980s and early 1990s, though with the increasing departure of Australian players to overseas leagues.
Soccer reached notable popularity among Australian people during the second half of the 20th century. Johnny Warren, a prominent advocate for the sport, who was a member of the Australia national team at their first FIFA World Cup appearance in 1974, entitled his memoir Sheilas, Wogs, and Poofters (a reference to the Australian slang: sheila, wog, poofter), giving an indication of how Warren considered the wider Australian community viewed "wogball".
In the mid-1990s, Soccer Australia (the governing body for the sport) attempted under the Chairmanship of David Hill to shift soccer into the Australian mainstream and away from direct club-level association with migrant roots. Many clubs across the country were required to change their names and badges to represent a more inclusive community.
21st century
The sport experienced major change in the country in 2003, after the then Minister for Sport, Rod Kemp, and the Australian Parliament commissioned a report by the Independent Soccer Review Committee. Its findings in the structure, governance and management of soccer in Australia led the restructure of Football Federation Australia (previously Australian Soccer Federation, Soccer Australia, Australia Soccer Association) and later in 2005, the succeeding relaunched national competition, the A-League. The restructuring of the sport in Australia also saw the adoption of "football" by administrators, in preference to "soccer", to align with the general international name of the sport. Although the use of "football" was largely cultural, as part of an attempt to reposition the sport within Australia, there were also "practical and corporate reasons for the change", including a need for the sport to break away from the baggage left over from previous competitions. However, the move created problems within the wider community, engendering confusion due to the naming conflict with other football codes, and creating conflict with other sporting bodies.
Australia ended a 32-year absent streak when the nation team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup. The team's qualification and success in the tournament helped increase the profile and popularity of the sport in the country.
The national team qualified for second and third consecutive FIFA World Cups in 2010 and 2014; and placed second in the 2011 AFC Asian Cup. The joining of Western Sydney Wanderers to the A-League in 2012 saw a rise in interest for the league within Australia, particularly increasing mainstream interest and re-engagement with disaffected Western Sydney soccer fans. Also, the formation of the National Premier Leagues in 2013 and subsequent restructuring of state leagues as part of the National Competition Review and Elite Player Pathway Review has paved the way for the development of the sport throughout the country. The launch of the Australia Cup (then known as FFA Cup) in 2014 has also similarly increased mainstream interest and grassroots development.
In the 21st century, a major migrant group furnishing new players in the A-League has been the African Australian community, with 34 players making an appearance in the 2020-2021 A-League season, up on 26 the previous year. These include Kusini Yengi and his brother, Tete Yengi, from South Sudan, and their friends, brothers Mohamed and Al Hassan Toure.
In 2020, Football Federation Australia officially unveiled a plan called "XI Principles for the future of Australian Football", shortened as Vision 2035, with the aim to restructure and expand football across the country, with the rebranding of the domestic league, establishment of a national second division, alignment with FIFA Domestic Match Calendar, restart and rebuilding of Australian football products, reducing costs of football in the country, possibility of establishing promotion and relegation system, and expansion of women's football, with the aim to achieve the Vision 2035 for football in the country.
In summer 2021, Football Australia officials announced series of major reforms: the shift in calendar by aligning with Domestic Match Calendar and to avoid clashing with FIFA days so it could help the Socceroos to compete; establishment of a second-tier professional league; club licensing framework; domestic transfer system; as well a potential adoption of promotion-relegation system, expected to be implemented by 2022–23.
Organisation
Soccer in Australia is governed by Football Australia (FA) which is currently a member of the Asian Football Confederation (AFC) and the regional ASEAN Football Federation (AFF), since leaving the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) in 2006. FA is underpinned by nine member federations which oversee all aspects of the sport within their respective region, including the organisation of state league and cup tournaments as opposed to national tournaments which are organised by FA. Member federations are state-based, although New South Wales is divided into a northern and southern federation.
Former and current Australian professional soccer players are represented by the Professional Footballers Australia (PFA), a trade union affiliated with the Australian Council of Trade Unions and a member of FIFPro, the global representative organisation for professional soccer players. The association tends to soccer players' pay and conditions, and also protects soccer players from unfair dismissal.
League system
A-League Men
The A-League Men was founded in 2005 after Australia's former top-flight national league National Soccer League was replaced. The A-League Men is contested between 12 clubs. The league covers the only competition controlled by the Australian Professional Leagues and the only professional league in Australia.
National Second Division
The National Second Division is the upcoming Australian second-tier professional division, and is expected to begin from 2024.
National Premier Leagues
The National Premier Leagues has 90 clubs, divided into eight divisions by state. Despite the organisational split, promotion and relegation does not take place between the A-League and NPL.
State-league soccer
Below the NPL, is what is commonly known as "state-league". This refers to clubs outside of NPL, although they still play in organised league competitions for each state in the Australian system.
District soccer
There are many district leagues and soccer clubs in Australia, examples include NSW districts Bankstown, Blacktown, Eastern Suburbs with their own semi-professional leagues with clubs from that district below state-league soccer
Youth leagues
Many club sides have youth teams. The top level of youth soccer in Australia is the A-League Youth, founded for all A-League Men clubs that have Youth sides. The league, which currently has 10 teams, is divided into two groups each with five teams. The winners of both groups contest the end-of-season Grand Final to decide the league champions.
Cup competitions
There are several cup competitions for clubs at different levels of the soccer pyramid. The only major cup competitions are the Australia Cup.
The Australia Cup, first held in 2014, is the only major cup competition in Australia. It is open to around 700 clubs in levels 1–9 of the soccer pyramid.
The Federation Cup, first held in 1962, is a Capital Football cup played through all levels of Capital Football teams.
The Waratah Cup, first held in 1991, is a New South Wales cup played through all levels of teams from the NSW league system.
The Canale Cup, first held in 1894, is the oldest knockout competition in Australia and is played through Brisbane teams below the National Premier Leagues.
The Dockerty Cup, first held in 1909, is a Victorian cup open to all clubs from Victoria in the Victorian league system.
There have also been other cup competitions which are no longer run:
Australia Cup (1962–1968) was for all teams from state leagues.
NSL Cup (1977–1997) was for all teams that participated in a season of the National Soccer League.
Participation
According to FIFA's Big Count in 2006, a total of 970,728 people in Australia participated in the sport, with 435,728 registered players, and 535,000 unregistered players. These numbers were higher than the equivalents for other sports such as cricket, Australian rules football, rugby league and rugby union. In 2013, an audit on the sport by Gemba found that 1.96 million Australians were actively involved in the game as a player. When coaches, referees and fans are included it is estimated that involvement with the sport is around 3.1 million.
Men's national teams
National Men's soccer teams of various age groups represent Australia in international competition. Australian national teams historically competed in the OFC, though since FFA's move in 2006, Australian teams have competed in AFC competitions.
The Australia national soccer team, nicknamed the "Socceroos", represents Australia in international soccer. Australia is a four-time OFC champion, one time Asian champion and AFC National Team of the Year for 2006. The Men's team has represented Australia at the FIFA World Cup tournaments in 1974, 2006, 2010, 2014, 2018 and 2022.
In the Olympic arena, Australia first fielded a men's team at the 1956 Olympics in Melbourne. Australia did not compete again in the Olympic arena, until the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games. Apart from London 2012, where it failed to qualify a team, Australia has competed in all Olympic Men's Football competitions since 1988.
There are also a number of national youth teams: Under-17 team, nicknamed the "Joeys"; Under-20 team, nicknamed the "Young Socceroos"; and the Under-23 team, nicknamed the "Olyroos". The latter is considered to be a feeder team for the national team.
In addition there is a beach team, nicknamed the "Beach Socceroos", which represents Australia in international beach soccer and a Paralympic team, nicknamed the "Pararoos", which competes in international Paralympic association football.
Women's soccer
The participation of Australian women in soccer was first recorded in the early 1920s. It has since become one of the country's most popular women's team sports. As with the men's game, the women's game in Australia saw a large expansion following the post-war immigration, though it is only in recent years that women's soccer has gained momentum, with such factors as the creation of the W-League and the success of the Australia women's national soccer team nicknamed the "Matildas" aiding the increasing popularity of the game.
Women's soccer was added to the Olympic program in 1996, with Australia first fielding a Women's team at Sydney 2000. Australia fielded a team at the Athens 2004 Olympics, but did not qualify for the final Olympic tournament again until Rio 2016.
Stadiums in Australia
The Melbourne Cricket Ground is the largest stadium in the country with a capacity of 100,000. It is owned by the Government of Victoria and stages some of Australia's home matches. Docklands Stadium with a capacity of 56,347 is the largest club stadium, with Lang Park holding 52,500 and Kardinia Park holding 36,000. All A-League clubs play in all-seater stadiums.
Variations
Futsal, an indoor variant of soccer, was introduced in Australia in the early 1970s and soon gained popularity after a wet period during the winter football season forced players indoors where they took up the new sport.
Media coverage
Pay television is the predominant outlet for both domestic and international soccer in Australia. Some games can also be heard on local radio stations. The anti-siphoning list which controls what must be kept on free to air television in Australia includes only the FA Cup games. The A-League will be added to the anti-siphoning list, but not until 2014 in order to prevent a breach of contract on the part of FFA.
A A$120 million, seven-year broadcasting deal between FFA and Fox Sports gave the Australian sports channel group exclusive rights from 2007 to all Australia internationals, all A-League and AFC Asian Cup fixtures, FIFA World Cup qualifiers through the AFC, and all AFC Champions League matches. In 2013, FFA signed a joint A$160 million, four-year deal with Fox Sports and SBS for the A-League.
Since 1986, SBS has been the official Australian broadcast rights holder for the FIFA World Cup, and the television network will continue to hold the rights to the competition until 2022.
Seasons in Australian soccer
The following articles are an incomplete list of Seasons in Soccer in Australia since 1884. Each article covers the leagues and competitions played that season, as well as games played by all national teams during that period. National soccer in Australia was not played until the 1962 season as the first 78 seasons only played regional soccer.
Seasons in Top Flight
There are 52 teams that have taken part in 46 National Soccer League and A-League seasons that have been played from the 1977 season until the 2022–23 season. The teams in bold compete in the A-League Men currently.
29 seasons: Brisbane Roar
28 seasons: Marconi Stallions, South Melbourne
27 seasons: Adelaide City, Sydney Olympic
26 seasons: Perth Glory
23 seasons: Wollongong Wolves
22 seasons: Newcastle United Jets
21 seasons: Melbourne Knights, Sydney United
19 seasons: Adelaide United, West Adelaide
18 seasons: Central Coast Mariners, Melbourne Victory, Sydney FC
17 seasons: Heidelberg United
16 seasons: Wellington Phoenix
14 seasons: APIA Leichhardt, St George FC
13 seasons: Melbourne City, Brisbane Strikers, Footscray JUST, Preston Lions
11 seasons: Western Sydney Wanderers, Hakoah Sydney City East
10 seasons: Brisbane City, Canberra City
9 seasons: Newcastle Breakers
8 seasons: Sunshine George Cross
7 seasons: Blacktown City, Brunswick Juventus, Newcastle KB United, Parramatta FC
6 seasons: Canberra Cosmos, Northern Spirit
5 seasons: Football Kingz, Parramatta Power
4 seasons: Western United, Carlton SC
3 seasons: Green Gully, Newcastle Rosebud, Gold Coast United, Macarthur FC
2 seasons: Inter Monaro, Penrith City, Western Suburbs, New Zealand Knights, North Queensland Fury
1 seasons: Canterbury Marrickville, Collingwood Warriors, Mooroolbark SC, Wollongong Macedonia
Largest Australian soccer stadiums by capacity
See also
Australian soccer league system
Soccer records and statistics in Australia
List of Australian soccer champions
Football Federation Australia Hall of Fame
Australian rules football in Australia
References
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Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. Australia is the largest country by area in Oceania and the world's sixth-largest country. Australia is the oldest, flattest, and driest inhabited continent, with the least fertile soils. It is a megadiverse country, and its size gives it a wide variety of landscapes and climates, with deserts in the centre, tropical rainforests in the north-east, tropical savannas in the north, and mountain ranges in the south-east.
The ancestors of Aboriginal Australians began arriving from south-east Asia 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, during the last ice age. Arriving by sea, they settled the continent and had formed approximately 250 distinct language groups by the time of European settlement, maintaining some of the longest known continuing artistic and religious traditions in the world. Australia's written history commenced with the European maritime exploration of Australia. The Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon was the first known European to reach Australia, in 1606. In 1770, the British explorer James Cook mapped and claimed the east coast of Australia for Great Britain, and the First Fleet of British ships arrived at Sydney in 1788 to establish the penal colony of New South Wales. The European population grew in subsequent decades, and by the end of the 1850s gold rush, most of the continent had been explored by European settlers and an additional five self-governing British colonies established. Democratic parliaments were gradually established through the 19th century, culminating with a vote for the federation of the six colonies and foundation of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901. This began a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and culminating in the Australia Act 1986.
Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy, comprising six states and ten territories. Australia's population of nearly million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard. Canberra is the nation's capital, while its most populous city and financial centre is Sydney. The next four largest cities are Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, and Adelaide. It is ethnically diverse and multicultural, the product of large-scale immigration, with almost half of the population having at least one parent born overseas. Australia's abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade relations are crucial to the country's economy, which generates its income from various sources including services, mining exports, banking, manufacturing, agriculture and international education. Australia ranks highly for quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, civil liberties and political rights.
Australia has a highly developed market economy and one of the highest per capita incomes globally. Australia is a regional power, and has the world's thirteenth-highest military expenditure. It is a member of international groupings including the United Nations; the G20; the OECD; the World Trade Organization; Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation; the Pacific Islands Forum; the Pacific Community; the Commonwealth of Nations; and the defence/security organisations ANZUS, AUKUS, and the Five Eyes. It is a major non-NATO ally of the United States.
Etymology
The name Australia (pronounced in Australian English) is derived from the Latin ("southern land"), a name used for a hypothetical continent in the Southern Hemisphere since ancient times. Several sixteenth century cartographers used the word Australia on maps, but not to identify modern Australia. When Europeans began visiting and mapping Australia in the 17th century, the name was naturally applied to the new territories.
Until the early 19th century, Australia was best known as New Holland, a name first applied by the Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1644 (as ) and subsequently anglicised. still saw occasional usage, such as in scientific texts. The name Australia was popularised by the explorer Matthew Flinders, who said it was "more agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other great portions of the Earth". The first time that Australia appears to have been officially used was in April 1817, when Governor Lachlan Macquarie acknowledged the receipt of Flinders' charts of Australia from Lord Bathurst. In December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted. In 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially by that name. The first official published use of the new name came with the publication in 1830 of The Australia Directory by the Hydrographic Office.
Colloquial names for Australia include "Oz" and "the Land Down Under" (usually shortened to just "Down Under"). Other epithets include "the Great Southern Land", "the Lucky Country", "the Sunburnt Country", and "the Wide Brown Land". The latter two both derive from Dorothea Mackellar's 1908 poem "My Country".
History
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous Australians comprise two broad groups: the Aboriginal peoples of the Australian mainland (and surrounding islands including Tasmania), and the Torres Strait Islanders, who are a distinct Melanesian people. Human habitation of the Australian continent is estimated to have begun 50,000 to 65,000 years ago, with the migration of people by land bridges and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia. It is uncertain how many waves of immigration may have contributed to these ancestors of modern Aboriginal Australians. The Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land is recognised as the oldest site showing the presence of humans in Australia. The oldest human remains found are the Lake Mungo remains, which have been dated to around 41,000 years ago.
Aboriginal Australian culture is one of the oldest continuous cultures on Earth. At the time of first European contact, Aboriginal Australians were complex hunter-gatherers with diverse economies and societies and about 250 different language groups. Recent archaeological finds suggest that a population of 750,000 could have been sustained. Aboriginal Australians have an oral culture with spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the Dreamtime.
The Torres Strait Islander people first settled their islands around 4000 years ago. Culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples, they were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas.
European exploration and colonisation
The northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically for trade by Makassan fishermen from what is now Indonesia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken, captained by Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, and made landfall on 26 February 1606 at the Pennefather River near the modern town of Weipa on Cape York. Later that year, Spanish explorer Luís Vaz de Torres sailed through and navigated the Torres Strait Islands. The Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent "New Holland" during the 17th century, and although no attempt at settlement was made, a number of shipwrecks left men either stranded or, as in the case of the Batavia in 1629, marooned for mutiny and murder, thus becoming the first Europeans to permanently inhabit the continent. In 1770, Captain James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named "New South Wales" and claimed for Great Britain.
Following the loss of its American colonies in 1783, the British Government sent a fleet of ships, the First Fleet, under the command of Captain Arthur Phillip, to establish a new penal colony in New South Wales. A camp was set up and the Union Flag raised at Sydney Cove, Port Jackson, on 26 January 1788, a date which later became Australia's national day. Most early convicts were transported for petty crimes and assigned as labourers or servants to "free settlers" (non-convict immigrants). While the majority of convicts settled into colonial society once emancipated, convict rebellions and uprisings were also staged, but invariably suppressed under martial law. The 1808 Rum Rebellion, the only successful armed takeover of government in Australia, instigated a two-year period of military rule. The following decade, social and economic reforms initiated by Governor Lachlan Macquarie saw New South Wales transition from a penal colony to a civil society.
The indigenous population declined for 150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious disease. Thousands more died as a result of frontier conflict with settlers.
Colonial expansion
The British continued to push into other areas of the continent in the early 19th century, initially along the coast. In 1803, a settlement was established in Van Diemen's Land (present-day Tasmania), and in 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Wentworth crossed the Blue Mountains west of Sydney, opening the interior to European settlement. The British claim extended to the whole Australian continent in 1827 when Major Edmund Lockyer established a settlement on King George Sound (modern-day Albany). The Swan River Colony (present-day Perth) was established in 1829, evolving into the largest Australian colony by area, Western Australia. In accordance with population growth, separate colonies were carved from New South Wales: Tasmania in 1825, South Australia in 1836, New Zealand in 1841, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859. South Australia was founded as a "free province"—it was never a penal colony. Western Australia was also founded "free" but later accepted transported convicts, the last of which arrived in 1868, decades after transportation had ceased to the other colonies.
In 1823, a Legislative Council nominated by the governor of New South Wales was established, together with a new Supreme Court, thus limiting the powers of colonial governors. Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained responsible government, thus becoming elective democracies managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the British Empire. The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs and defence.
In the mid-19th century, explorers such as Burke and Wills went further inland to determine its agricultural potential and answer scientific questions. A series of gold rushes beginning in the early 1850s led to an influx of new migrants from China, North America and continental Europe, as well as outbreaks of bushranging and civil unrest; the latter peaked in 1854 when Ballarat miners launched the Eureka Rebellion against gold license fees.
From 1886, Australian colonial governments began introducing policies resulting in the removal of many Aboriginal children from their families and communities (referred to as the Stolen Generations).
Federation to the World Wars
On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, constitutional conventions and referendums, resulting in the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia as a nation and the entering into force of the Australian Constitution.
After the 1907 Imperial Conference, Australia and several other self-governing British settler colonies were given the status of self-governing "dominions" within the British Empire. Australia was one of the founding members of the League of Nations in 1920, and subsequently of the United Nations in 1945. Britain's Statute of Westminster 1931 formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the United Kingdom. Australia adopted it in 1942, but it was backdated to 1939 to confirm the validity of legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World War II.
The Federal Capital Territory (later renamed the Australian Capital Territory) was formed in 1911 as the location for the future federal capital of Canberra. Melbourne was the temporary seat of government from 1901 to 1927 while Canberra was being constructed. The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the federal parliament in 1911. Australia became the colonial ruler of the Territory of Papua (which had initially been annexed by Queensland in 1883) in 1902 and of the Territory of New Guinea (formerly German New Guinea) in 1920. The two were unified as the Territory of Papua and New Guinea in 1949 and gained independence from Australia in 1975.
In 1914, Australia joined the Allies in fighting the First World War, and took part in many of the major battles fought on the Western Front. Of about 416,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 152,000 were wounded. Many Australians regard the defeat of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) at Gallipoli in 1915 as the nation's "baptism of fire"—its first major military action, with the anniversary of the landing at Anzac Cove commemorated each year on Anzac Day.
From 1939 to 1945, Australia joined the Allies in fighting the Second World War. Australia's armed forces fought in the Pacific, European and Mediterranean and Middle East theatres. The shock of Britain's defeat in Asia in 1942, followed soon after by the bombing of Darwin and other Japanese attacks on Australian soil, led to a widespread belief in Australia that a Japanese invasion was imminent, and a shift from the United Kingdom to the United States as Australia's principal ally and security partner. Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the United States, under the ANZUS treaty.
Post-war and contemporary eras
In the decades following World War II, Australia enjoyed significant increases in living standards, leisure time and suburban development. Using the slogan "populate or perish", the nation encouraged a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with such immigrants referred to as "New Australians".
A member of the Western Bloc during the Cold War, Australia participated in the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency during the 1950s and the Vietnam War from 1962 to 1972. During this time, tensions over communist influence in society led to unsuccessful attempts by the Menzies Government to ban the Communist Party of Australia, and a bitter splitting of the Labor Party in 1955.
As a result of a 1967 referendum, the Federal Government received a mandate to implement policies to benefit Aboriginal people, and all Indigenous Australians were included in the Census. Traditional ownership of land ("native title") was recognised in law for the first time when the High Court of Australia held in Mabo v Queensland (No 2) that the legal doctrine of terra nullius ("land belonging to no one") did not apply to Australia at the time of European settlement.
Following the final abolition of the White Australia policy in 1973, Australia's demography and culture transformed as a result of a large and ongoing wave of non-European immigration, mostly from Asia. The late 20th century also saw an increasing focus on foreign policy ties with other Pacific Rim nations. While the Australia Act 1986 severed the remaining vestigial constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom, a 1999 referendum resulted in 55% of voters rejecting a proposal to abolish the Monarchy of Australia and become a republic.
Following the September 11 attacks on the United States, Australia joined the United States in fighting the Afghanistan War from 2001 to 2021 and the Iraq War from 2003 to 2009. The nation's trade relations also became increasingly oriented towards East Asia in the 21st century, with China becoming the nation's largest trading partner by a large margin.
During the COVID-19 pandemic which commenced in Australia in 2020, several of Australia's largest cities were locked down for extended periods of time, and free movement across state borders was restricted in an attempt to slow the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus.
Geography
General characteristics
Surrounded by the Indian and Pacific oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the Arafura and Timor seas, with the Coral Sea lying off the Queensland coast, and the Tasman Sea lying between Australia and New Zealand. The world's smallest continent and sixth largest country by total area, Australia—owing to its size and isolation—is often dubbed the "island continent" and is sometimes considered the world's largest island. Australia has of coastline (excluding all offshore islands), and claims an extensive Exclusive Economic Zone of . This exclusive economic zone does not include the Australian Antarctic Territory.
Mainland Australia lies between latitudes 9° and 44° South, and longitudes 112° and 154° East. Australia's size gives it a wide variety of landscapes, with tropical rainforests in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and desert in the centre. The desert or semi-arid land commonly known as the outback makes up by far the largest portion of land. Australia is the driest inhabited continent; its annual rainfall averaged over continental area is less than 500 mm. The population density is 3.4 inhabitants per square kilometre, although the large majority of the population lives along the temperate south-eastern coastline. The population density exceeds 19,500 inhabitants per square kilometre in central Melbourne.
The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over . Mount Augustus, claimed to be the world's largest monolith, is located in Western Australia. At , Mount Kosciuszko is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland. Even taller are Mawson Peak (at ), on the remote Australian external territory of Heard Island, and, in the Australian Antarctic Territory, Mount McClintock and Mount Menzies, at and respectively.
Eastern Australia is marked by the Great Dividing Range, which runs parallel to the coast of Queensland, New South Wales and much of Victoria. The name is not strictly accurate, because parts of the range consist of low hills, and the highlands are typically no more than in height. The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland and shrubland. These include the western plains of New South Wales, and the Mitchell Grass Downs and Mulga Lands of inland Queensland. The northernmost point of the mainland is the tropical Cape York Peninsula.
The landscapes of the Top End and the Gulf Country—with their tropical climate—include forest, woodland, wetland, grassland, rainforest and desert. At the north-west corner of the continent are the sandstone cliffs and gorges of The Kimberley, and below that the Pilbara. The Victoria Plains tropical savanna lies south of the Kimberley and Arnhem Land savannas, forming a transition between the coastal savannas and the interior deserts. At the heart of the country are the uplands of central Australia. Prominent features of the centre and south include Uluru (also known as Ayers Rock), the famous sandstone monolith, and the inland Simpson, Tirari and Sturt Stony, Gibson, Great Sandy, Tanami, and Great Victoria deserts, with the famous Nullarbor Plain on the southern coast. The Western Australian mulga shrublands lie between the interior deserts and Mediterranean-climate Southwest Australia.
Geology
Lying on the Indo-Australian Plate, the mainland of Australia is the lowest and most primordial landmass on Earth with a relatively stable geological history. The landmass includes virtually all known rock types and from all geological time periods spanning over 3.8 billion years of the Earth's history. The Pilbara Craton is one of only two pristine Archaean 3.6–2.7 Ga (billion years ago) crusts identified on the Earth.
Having been part of all major supercontinents, the Australian continent began to form after the breakup of Gondwana in the Permian, with the separation of the continental landmass from the African continent and Indian subcontinent. It separated from Antarctica over a prolonged period beginning in the Permian and continuing through to the Cretaceous. When the last glacial period ended in about 10,000 BC, rising sea levels formed Bass Strait, separating Tasmania from the mainland. Then between about 8,000 and 6,500 BC, the lowlands in the north were flooded by the sea, separating New Guinea, the Aru Islands, and the mainland of Australia. The Australian continent is moving toward Eurasia at the rate of 6 to 7 centimetres a year.
The Australian mainland's continental crust, excluding the thinned margins, has an average thickness of 38km, with a range in thickness from 24 km to 59 km. Australia's geology can be divided into several main sections, showcasing that the continent grew from west to east: the Archaean cratonic shields found mostly in the west, Proterozoic fold belts in the centre and Phanerozoic sedimentary basins, metamorphic and igneous rocks in the east.
The Australian mainland and Tasmania are situated in the middle of the tectonic plate and have no active volcanoes, but due to passing over the East Australia hotspot, recent volcanism has occurred during the Holocene, in the Newer Volcanics Province of western Victoria and southeastern South Australia. Volcanism also occurs in the island of New Guinea (considered geologically as part of the Australian continent), and in the Australian external territory of Heard Island and McDonald Islands. Seismic activity in the Australian mainland and Tasmania is also low, with the greatest number of fatalities having occurred in the 1989 Newcastle earthquake.
Climate
The climate of Australia is significantly influenced by ocean currents, including the Indian Ocean Dipole and the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low-pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia. These factors cause rainfall to vary markedly from year to year. Much of the northern part of the country has a tropical, predominantly summer-rainfall (monsoon). The south-west corner of the country has a Mediterranean climate. The south-east ranges from oceanic (Tasmania and coastal Victoria) to humid subtropical (upper half of New South Wales), with the highlands featuring alpine and subpolar oceanic climates. The interior is arid to semi-arid.
Driven by climate change, average temperatures have risen more than 1°C since 1960. Associated changes in rainfall patterns and climate extremes exacerbate existing issues such as drought and bushfires. 2019 was Australia's warmest recorded year, and the 2019–2020 bushfire season was the country's worst on record. Australia's greenhouse gas emissions per capita are among the highest in the world.
Water restrictions are frequently in place in many regions and cities of Australia in response to chronic shortages due to urban population increases and localised drought. Throughout much of the continent, major flooding regularly follows extended periods of drought, flushing out inland river systems, overflowing dams and inundating large inland flood plains, as occurred throughout Eastern Australia in the early 2010s after the 2000s Australian drought.
Biodiversity
Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, the continent includes a diverse range of habitats from alpine heaths to tropical rainforests. Fungi typify that diversity—an estimated 250,000 species—of which only 5% have been described—occur in Australia. Because of the continent's great age, extremely variable weather patterns, and long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's biota is unique. About 85% of flowering plants, 84% of mammals, more than 45% of birds, and 89% of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are endemic. Australia has at least 755 species of reptile, more than any other country in the world. Besides Antarctica, Australia is the only continent that developed without feline species. Feral cats may have been introduced in the 17th century by Dutch shipwrecks, and later in the 18th century by European settlers. They are now considered a major factor in the decline and extinction of many vulnerable and endangered native species. Seafaring immigrants from Asia are believed to have brought the dingo to Australia sometime after the end of the last ice ageperhaps 4000 years agoand Aboriginal people helped disperse them across the continent as pets, contributing to the demise of thylacines on the mainland. Australia is also one of 17 megadiverse countries.
Australian forests are mostly made up of evergreen species, particularly eucalyptus trees in the less arid regions; wattles replace them as the dominant species in drier regions and deserts. Among well-known Australian animals are the monotremes (the platypus and echidna); a host of marsupials, including the kangaroo, koala, and wombat, and birds such as the emu and the kookaburra. Australia is home to many dangerous animals including some of the most venomous snakes in the world. The dingo was introduced by Austronesian people who traded with Indigenous Australians around 3000 BCE. Many animal and plant species became extinct soon after first human settlement, including the Australian megafauna; others have disappeared since European settlement, among them the thylacine.
Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and introduced animal, chromistan, fungal and plant species. All these factors have led to Australia's having the highest mammal extinction rate of any country in the world. The federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 is the legal framework for the protection of threatened species. Numerous protected areas have been created under the National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia's Biological Diversity to protect and preserve unique ecosystems; 65 wetlands are listed under the Ramsar Convention, and 16 natural World Heritage Sites have been established. Australia was ranked 21st out of 178 countries in the world on the 2018 Environmental Performance Index. There are more than 1,800 animals and plants on Australia's threatened species list, including more than 500 animals.
Paleontologists discovered a fossil site of a prehistoric rainforest in McGraths Flat, in South Australia, that presents evidence that this now arid desert and dry shrubland/grassland was once home to an abundance of life.
Government and politics
Australia is a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The country has maintained a stable liberal democratic political system under its constitution, which is one of the world's oldest, since Federation in 1901. It is also one of the world's oldest federations, in which power is divided between the federal and state and territorial governments. The Australian system of government combines elements derived from the political systems of the United Kingdom (a fused executive, constitutional monarchy and strong party discipline) and the United States (federalism, a written constitution and strong bicameralism with an elected upper house), along with distinctive indigenous features.
The federal government is separated into three branches:
Legislature: the bicameral Parliament, comprising the monarch (represented by the governor-general), the Senate, and the House of Representatives;
Executive: the Federal Executive Council, which in practice gives legal effect to the decisions of the cabinet, comprising the prime minister and other ministers of state appointed by the governor-general on the advice of Parliament;
Judiciary: the High Court of Australia and other federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the governor-general on advice of Parliament
Charles III reigns as King of Australia and is represented in Australia by the governor-general at the federal level and by the governors at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of his ministers. Thus, in practice the governor-general acts as a legal figurehead for the actions of the prime minister and the Federal Executive Council. The governor-general, however, does have reserve powers which, in some situations, may be exercised outside the prime minister's request. These powers are held by convention and their scope is unclear. The most notable exercise of these powers was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the constitutional crisis of 1975.
In the Senate (the upper house), there are 76 senators: twelve each from the states and two each from the mainland territories (the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory). The House of Representatives (the lower house) has 151 members elected from single-member electoral divisions, commonly known as "electorates" or "seats", allocated to states on the basis of population, with each original state guaranteed a minimum of five seats. Elections for both chambers are normally held every three years simultaneously; senators have overlapping six-year terms except for those from the territories, whose terms are not fixed but are tied to the electoral cycle for the lower house; thus only 40 of the 76 places in the Senate are put to each election unless the cycle is interrupted by a double dissolution.
Australia's electoral system uses preferential voting for all lower house elections with the exception of Tasmania and the ACT which, along with the Senate and most state upper houses, combine it with proportional representation in a system known as the single transferable vote. Voting is compulsory for all enrolled citizens 18 years and over in every jurisdiction, as is enrolment. The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms the government and its leader becomes Prime Minister. In cases where no party has majority support, the Governor-General has the constitutional power to appoint the Prime Minister and, if necessary, dismiss one that has lost the confidence of Parliament. Due to the relatively unique position of Australia operating as a Westminster parliamentary democracy with an elected upper house, the system has sometimes been referred to as having a "Washminster mutation", or as a semi-parliamentary system.
There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition, which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party. The Liberal National Party and the Country Liberal Party are merged state branches in Queensland and the Northern Territory that function as separate parties at a federal level. Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left. Independent members and several minor parties have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses. The Australian Greens are often considered the "third force" in politics, being the third largest party by both vote and membership.
The most recent federal election was held on 21 May 2022 and resulted in the Australian Labor Party, led by Anthony Albanese, being elected to government.
States and territories
Australia has six states—New South Wales (NSW), Queensland (Qld), South Australia (SA), Tasmania (Tas), Victoria (Vic) and Western Australia (WA)—and three mainland territories—the Australian Capital Territory (ACT), the Northern Territory (NT), and the Jervis Bay Territory (JBT). The ACT and NT are mostly self-governing, except that the Commonwealth Parliament has the power to modify or repeal any legislation passed by the territory parliaments.
Under the constitution, the states essentially have plenary legislative power to legislate on any subject, whereas the Commonwealth (federal) Parliament may legislate only within the subject areas enumerated under section 51. For example, state parliaments have the power to legislate with respect to education, criminal law and state police, health, transport, and local government, but the Commonwealth Parliament does not have any specific power to legislate in these areas. However, Commonwealth laws prevail over state laws to the extent of the inconsistency.
Each state and major mainland territory has its own parliament—unicameral in the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the other states. The states are sovereign entities, although subject to certain powers of the Commonwealth as defined by the Constitution. The lower houses are known as the Legislative Assembly (the House of Assembly in South Australia and Tasmania); the upper houses are known as the Legislative Council. The head of the government in each state is the Premier and in each territory the Chief Minister. The King is represented in each state by a governor. In the Commonwealth, the King's representative is the governor-general.
The Commonwealth Parliament also directly administers the external territories of Ashmore and Cartier Islands, Christmas Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, the Coral Sea Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands, and the claimed region of Australian Antarctic Territory, as well as the internal Jervis Bay Territory, a naval base and sea port for the national capital in land that was formerly part of New South Wales. The external territory of Norfolk Island previously exercised considerable autonomy under the Norfolk Island Act 1979 through its own legislative assembly and an Administrator to represent the monarch. In 2015, the Commonwealth Parliament abolished self-government, integrating Norfolk Island into the Australian tax and welfare systems and replacing its legislative assembly with a council. Macquarie Island is part of Tasmania, and Lord Howe Island of New South Wales.
Foreign relations
Over recent decades, Australia's foreign relations have been driven by a focus on relationships within the Asia-Pacific region and a continued close association with the United States through the ANZUS pact and its status as a major non-NATO ally of that country. A regional power, Australia is a member of regional and cultural groupings including the Pacific Islands Forum, the Pacific Community and the Commonwealth of Nations, and is a participant in the ASEAN+6 mechanism and the East Asia Summit.
Australia is a member of several defence, intelligence and security groupings including the Five Eyes intelligence alliance with the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand; the ANZUS alliance with the United States and New Zealand; the AUKUS security treaty with the United States and United Kingdom; the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue with the United States, India and Japan; the Five Power Defence Arrangements with New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia and Singapore; and the Reciprocal Access defence and security agreement with Japan.
Australia has pursued the cause of international trade liberalisation. It led the formation of the Cairns Group and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, and is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). In recent decades, Australia has entered into the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership multilateral free trade agreements as well as bilateral free trade agreements with the United States, China, Japan, South Korea, Indonesia, the United Kingdom and New Zealand.
Australia maintains a deeply integrated relationship with neighbouring New Zealand, with free mobility of citizens between the two countries under the Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement and free trade under the Closer Economic Relations agreement. The most favourably viewed countries by the Australian people in 2021 include New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, Taiwan, Thailand, the United States and South Korea. A founding member country of the United Nations, Australia is strongly committed to multilateralism, and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance. Australia ranked fourth in the Center for Global Development's 2021 Commitment to Development Index.
Military
Australia's armed forces—the Australian Defence Force (ADF)—comprise the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), the Australian Army and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), in total numbering 81,214 personnel (including 57,982 regulars and 23,232 reservists) . The titular role of Commander-in-Chief is vested in the Governor-General, who appoints a Chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services on the advice of the government. In a diarchy, the Chief of the Defence Force serves as co-chairman of the Defence Committee, conjointly with the Secretary of Defence, in the command and control of the Australian Defence Organisation.
In the 2016–2017 budget, defence spending comprised 2% of GDP, representing the world's 12th largest defence budget. Australia has been involved in United Nations and regional peacekeeping, disaster relief, as well as armed conflicts from the First World War onwards.
Human rights
Legal and social rights in Australia are regarded as among the most developed in the world. Attitudes towards LGBT people are generally positive within Australia, and same-sex marriage has been legal in the nation since 2017. Australia has had anti-discrimination laws regarding disability since 1992.
Economy
Australia's high-income mixed-market economy is rich in natural resources. It is the world's thirteenth-largest by nominal terms, and the 18th-largest by PPP. , it has the second-highest amount of wealth per adult, after Luxembourg, and has the thirteenth-highest financial assets per capita. Australia has a labour force of some 13.5 million, with an unemployment rate of 3.5% as of June 2022. According to the Australian Council of Social Service, the poverty rate of Australia exceeds 13.6% of the population, encompassing 3.2 million. It also estimated that there were 774,000 (17.7%) children under the age of 15 living in relative poverty. The Australian dollar is the national currency, which is also shared with three Island states in the Pacific: Kiribati, Nauru, and Tuvalu.
Australian government debt, about $963 billion, exceeds 45.1% of the country's total GDP, and is the world's eighth-highest. Australia had the second-highest level of household debt in the world in 2020, after Switzerland. Its house prices are among the highest in the world, especially in the large urban areas. The large service sector accounts for about 71.2% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (25.3%), while the agriculture sector is by far the smallest, making up only 3.6% of total GDP. Australia is the world's 21st-largest exporter and 24th-largest importer. China is Australia's largest trading partner by a wide margin, accounting for roughly 40% of the country's exports and 17.6% of its imports. Other major export markets include Japan, the United States, and South Korea.
Australia has high levels of competitiveness and economic freedom, and was ranked fifth in the Human Development Index in 2021. , it is ranked twelfth in the Index of Economic Freedom and nineteenth in the Global Competitiveness Report. It attracted 9.5 million international tourists in 2019, and was ranked thirteenth among the countries of Asia-Pacific in 2019 for inbound tourism. The 2021 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Australia seventh-highest in the world out of 117 countries. Its international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $45.7 billion.
Energy
In 2003, Australia's energy sources were coal (58.4%), hydropower (19.1%), natural gas (13.5%), liquid/gas fossil fuel-switching plants (5.4%), oil (2.9%), and other renewable resources like wind power, solar energy, and bioenergy (0.7%). During the 21st century, Australia has been trending to generate more energy using renewable resources and less energy using fossil fuels. In 2020, Australia used coal for 62% of all energy (3.6% increase compared to 2013), wind power for 9.9% (9.5% increase), natural gas for 9.9% (3.6% decrease), solar power for 9.9% (9.8% increase), hydropower for 6.4% (12.7% decrease), bioenergy for 1.4% (1.2% increase), and other sources like oil and waste coal mine gas for 0.5%.
In August 2009, Australia's government set a goal to achieve 20% of all energy in the country from renewable sources by 2020. They achieved this goal, as renewable resources accounted for 27.7% of Australia's energy in 2020.
Science and technology
In 2019, Australia spent A$35.6 billion on research and development, allocating about 1.79% of GDP. A recent study by Accenture for the Tech Council shows that the Australian tech sector combined contributes $167 billion a year to the economy and employs 861,000 people. The country's most recognized and important sector of this type is mining, where Australia continues to have the highest penetration of technologies, especially drones, autonomous and remote-controlled vehicles and mine management software. In addition, recent startup ecosystems in Sydney and Melbourne are already valued at $34 billion combined. Australia ranked 24th in the Global Innovation Index 2023.
With only 0.3% of the world's population, Australia contributed 4.1% of the world's published research in 2020, making it one of the top 10 research contributors in the world. CSIRO, Australia's national science agency, contributes 10% of all research in the country, while the rest is carried out by universities. Its most notable contributions include the invention of atomic absorption spectroscopy, the essential components of Wi-Fi technology, and the development of the first commercially successful polymer banknote.
Australia is a key player in supporting space exploration. Facilities such as the Square Kilometre Array and Australia Telescope Compact Array radio telescopes, telescopes such as the Siding Spring Observatory, and ground stations such as the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex are of great assistance in deep space exploration missions, primarily by NASA.
Demographics
Australia has an average population density of persons per square kilometre of total land area, which makes it one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world. The population is heavily concentrated on the east coast, and in particular in the south-eastern region between South East Queensland to the north-east and Adelaide to the south-west.
Australia is highly urbanised, with 67% of the population living in the Greater Capital City Statistical Areas (metropolitan areas of the state and mainland territorial capital cities) in 2018. Metropolitan areas with more than one million inhabitants are Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide.
In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2018 the average age of the Australian population was 38.8 years. In 2015, 2.15% of the Australian population lived overseas, one of the lowest proportions worldwide.
Ancestry and immigration
Between 1788 and the Second World War, the vast majority of settlers and immigrants came from the British Isles (principally England, Ireland and Scotland), although there was significant immigration from China and Germany during the 19th century. In the decades immediately following the Second World War, Australia received a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with many more immigrants arriving from Southern and Eastern Europe than in previous decades. Since the end of the White Australia policy in 1973, Australia has pursued an official policy of multiculturalism, and there has been a large and continuing wave of immigration from across the world, with Asia being the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century.
Today, Australia has the world's eighth-largest immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 30% of the population, the highest proportion among major Western nations. 160,323 permanent immigrants were admitted to Australia in 2018–2019 (excluding refugees), whilst there was a net population gain of 239,600 people from all permanent and temporary immigration in that year. The majority of immigrants are skilled, but the immigration program includes categories for family members and refugees. In 2020, the largest foreign-born populations were those born in England (3.8%), India (2.8%), Mainland China (2.5%), New Zealand (2.2%), the Philippines (1.2%) and Vietnam (1.1%).
The Australian Bureau of Statistics does not collect data on race, but asks each Australian resident to nominate up to two ancestries each census. These ancestry responses are classified into broad standardised ancestry groups. At the 2021 census, the number of ancestry responses within each standardised group as a proportion of the total population was as follows: 57.2% European (including 46% North-West European and 11.2% Southern and Eastern European), 33.8% Oceanian, 17.4% Asian (including 6.5% Southern and Central Asian, 6.4% North-East Asian, and 4.5% South-East Asian), 3.2% North African and Middle Eastern, 1.4% Peoples of the Americas, and 1.3% Sub-Saharan African. At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated individual ancestries as a proportion of the total population were:
At the 2021 census, 3.8% of the Australian population identified as being Indigenous—Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders.<ref name="auto2"
Language
Although English is not the official language of Australia in law, it is the de facto official and national language. Australian English is a major variety of the language with a distinctive accent and lexicon, and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling. General Australian serves as the standard dialect.
At the 2021 census, English was the only language spoken in the home for 72% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home were Mandarin (2.7%), Arabic (1.4%), Vietnamese (1.3%), Cantonese (1.2%) and Punjabi (0.9%).
Over 250 Australian Aboriginal languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact. The National Indigenous Languages Survey (NILS) for 2018–19 found that more than 120 Indigenous language varieties were in use or being revived, although 70 of those in use were endangered. The 2021 census found that 167 Indigenous languages were spoken at home by 76,978 Indigenous Australians. NILS and the Australian Bureau of Statistics use different classifications for Indigenous Australian languages.
The Australian sign language known as Auslan was used at home by 16,242 people at the time of the 2021 census.
Religion
Australia has no state religion; Section 116 of the Australian Constitution prohibits the federal government from making any law to establish any religion, impose any religious observance, or prohibit the free exercise of any religion. As of 2023, a plurality of Australians are irreligious.
At the 2021 Census, 38.9% of the population identified as having "no religion", up from 15.5% in 2001. The largest religion is Christianity (43.9% of the population). The largest Christian denominations are the Roman Catholic Church (20% of the population) and the Anglican Church of Australia (9.8%). Multicultural immigration since the Second World War has led to the growth of non-Christian religions, the largest of which are Islam (3.2%), Hinduism (2.7%), Buddhism (2.4%), Sikhism (0.8%), and Judaism (0.4%).
In 2021, just under 8,000 people declared an affiliation with traditional Aboriginal religions. In Australian Aboriginal mythology and the animist framework developed in Aboriginal Australia, the Dreaming is a sacred era in which ancestral totemic spirit beings formed The Creation. The Dreaming established the laws and structures of society and the ceremonies performed to ensure continuity of life and land.
Health
Australia's life expectancy of 83 years (81 years for males and 85 years for females), is the fifth-highest in the world. It has the highest rate of skin cancer in the world, while cigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease, responsible for 7.8% of the total mortality and disease. Ranked second in preventable causes is hypertension at 7.6%, with obesity third at 7.5%. Australia ranked 35th in the world in 2012 for its proportion of obese women and near the top of developed nations for its proportion of obese adults; 63% of its adult population is either overweight or obese.
Australia spent around 9.91% of its total GDP to health care in 2021. It introduced universal health care in 1975. Known as Medicare, it is now nominally funded by an income tax surcharge known as the Medicare levy, currently at 2%. The states manage hospitals and attached outpatient services, while the Commonwealth funds the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (subsidising the costs of medicines) and general practice.
During the COVID-19 pandemic Australia had one of the most restrictive quarantine policies, resulting in one of the lowest death rates worldwide.
Education
School attendance, or registration for home schooling, is compulsory throughout Australia. Education is the responsibility of the individual states and territories so the rules vary between states, but in general children are required to attend school from the age of about 5 until about 16. In some states (Western Australia, Northern Territory and New South Wales), children aged 16–17 are required to either attend school or participate in vocational training, such as an apprenticeship.
Australia has an adult literacy rate that was estimated to be 99% in 2003. However, a 2011–2012 report for the Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that Tasmania has a literacy and numeracy rate of only 50%.
Australia has 37 government-funded universities and three private universities, as well as a number of other specialist institutions that provide approved courses at the higher education level. The OECD places Australia among the most expensive nations to attend university. There is a state-based system of vocational training, known as TAFE, and many trades conduct apprenticeships for training new tradespeople. About 58% of Australians aged from 25 to 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications and the tertiary graduation rate of 49% is the highest among OECD countries. 30.9% of Australia's population has attained a higher education qualification, which is among the highest percentages in the world.
Australia has the highest ratio of international students per head of population in the world by a large margin, with 812,000 international students enrolled in the nation's universities and vocational institutions in 2019. Accordingly, in 2019, international students represented on average 26.7% of the student bodies of Australian universities. International education therefore represents one of the country's largest exports and has a pronounced influence on the country's demographics, with a significant proportion of international students remaining in Australia after graduation on various skill and employment visas. Education is Australia's third-largest export, after iron ore and coal, and contributed over $28 billion to the economy in 2016–17.
Culture
The country is home to a diversity of cultures, a result of its history of immigration. Prior to 1850, Australia was dominated by Indigenous cultures. Since then, Australian culture has primarily been a Western culture, strongly influenced by Anglo-Celtic settlers. Other influences include Australian Aboriginal culture, the traditions brought to the country by waves of immigration from around the world, and the culture of the United States. The cultural divergence and evolution that has occurred over the centuries since European settlement has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture.
Arts
Australia has over 100,000 Aboriginal rock art sites, and traditional designs, patterns and stories infuse contemporary Indigenous Australian art, "the last great art movement of the 20th century" according to critic Robert Hughes; its exponents include Emily Kame Kngwarreye. Early colonial artists showed a fascination with the unfamiliar land. The impressionistic works of Arthur Streeton, Tom Roberts and other members of the 19th-century Heidelberg School—the first "distinctively Australian" movement in Western art—gave expression to nationalist sentiments in the lead-up to Federation. While the school remained influential into the 1900s, modernists such as Margaret Preston, and, later, Sidney Nolan, explored new artistic trends. The landscape remained central to the work of Aboriginal watercolourist Albert Namatjira, as well as Fred Williams, Brett Whiteley and other post-war artists whose works, eclectic in style yet uniquely Australian, moved between the figurative and the abstract.
Australian literature grew slowly in the decades following European settlement though Indigenous oral traditions, many of which have since been recorded in writing, are much older. In the 19th-century, Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson captured the experience of the bush using a distinctive Australian vocabulary. Their works are still popular; Paterson's bush poem "Waltzing Matilda" (1895) is regarded as Australia's unofficial national anthem. Miles Franklin is the namesake of Australia's most prestigious literary prize, awarded annually to the best novel about Australian life. Its first recipient, Patrick White, went on to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1973. Australian Booker Prize winners include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and Richard Flanagan. Australian public intellectuals have also written seminal works in their respective fields, including feminist Germaine Greer and philosopher Peter Singer.
Many of Australia's performing arts companies receive funding through the federal government's Australia Council. There is a symphony orchestra in each state, and a national opera company, Opera Australia, well known for its famous soprano Joan Sutherland. At the beginning of the 20th century, Nellie Melba was one of the world's leading opera singers. Ballet and dance are represented by The Australian Ballet and various state companies. Each state has a publicly funded theatre company.
Media
The Story of the Kelly Gang (1906), the world's first feature-length narrative film, spurred a boom in Australian cinema during the silent film era. After World War I, Hollywood monopolised the industry, and by the 1960s Australian film production had effectively ceased. With the benefit of government support, the Australian New Wave of the 1970s brought provocative and successful films, many exploring themes of national identity, such as Wake in Fright and Gallipoli, while Crocodile Dundee and the Ozploitation movement's Mad Max series became international blockbusters. In a film market flooded with foreign content, Australian films delivered a 7.7% share of the local box office in 2015. The AACTAs are Australia's premier film and television awards, and notable Academy Award winners from Australia include Geoffrey Rush, Nicole Kidman, Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger.
Australia has two public broadcasters (the Australian Broadcasting Corporation and the multicultural Special Broadcasting Service), three commercial television networks, several pay-TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has at least one daily newspaper, and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review. In 2020, Reporters Without Borders placed Australia 25th on a list of 180 countries ranked by press freedom, behind New Zealand (8th) but ahead of the United Kingdom (33rd) and United States (44th). This relatively low ranking is primarily because of the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia; most print media are under the control of News Corporation and Nine Entertainment Co.
Cuisine
Most Indigenous Australian groups subsisted on a simple hunter-gatherer diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called bush tucker. The first settlers introduced British and Irish cuisine to the continent. This influence is seen in the enduring popularity of several British dishes such as fish and chips, and in quintessential Australian dishes such as the Australian meat pie, which is related to the British steak pie. Post-war immigration transformed Australian cuisine. For instance, Southern European migrants helped to build a thriving Australian coffee culture which gave rise to Australian coffee drinks such as the flat white, while East Asian migration led to dishes such as the Cantonese-influenced dim sim and Chiko Roll, as well as a distinct Australian Chinese cuisine. Sausage sizzles, pavlovas, lamingtons, meat pies, Vegemite and Anzac biscuits are regarded as iconic Australian foods.
Australia is a leading exporter and consumer of wine. Australian wine is produced mainly in the southern, cooler parts of the country. The nation also ranks highly in beer consumption, with each state and territory hosting numerous breweries. Australia is also known for its cafe and coffee culture in urban centres.
Sport and recreation
Cricket and football are the predominant sports in Australia during the summer and winter months, respectively. Australia is unique in that it has professional leagues for four football codes. Originating in Melbourne in the 1850s, Australian rules football is the most popular code in all states except New South Wales and Queensland, where rugby league holds sway, followed by rugby union. Soccer, while ranked fourth in popularity and resources, has the highest overall participation rates. Cricket is popular across all borders and has been regarded by many Australians as the national sport. The Australian national cricket team competed against England in the first Test match (1877) and the first One Day International (1971), and against New Zealand in the first Twenty20 International (2004), winning all three games. It has also participated in every edition of the Cricket World Cup, winning the tournament a record five times.
Australia is one of five nations to have participated in every Summer Olympics of the modern era, and has hosted the Games twice: 1956 in Melbourne and 2000 in Sydney. It is also set to host the 2032 Games in Brisbane. Australia has also participated in every Commonwealth Games, hosting the event in 1938, 1962, 1982, 2006 and 2018. As well as being a regular FIFA World Cup participant, Australia has won the OFC Nations Cup four times and the AFC Asian Cup once—the only country to have won championships in two different FIFA confederations.
Other major international events held in Australia include the Australian Open tennis grand slam tournament and the Australian Formula One Grand Prix. The annual Melbourne Cup horse race and the Sydney to Hobart yacht race also attract intense interest. Australia is also notable for water-based sports, such as swimming and surfing. The surf lifesaving movement originated in Australia, and the volunteer lifesaver is one of the country's icons. Snow sports take place primarily in the Australian Alps and Tasmania.
See also
Outline of Australia
Index of Australia-related articles
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Denoon, Donald, et al. (2000). A History of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific. Oxford: Blackwell. .
Goad, Philip and Julie Willis (eds.) (2011). The Encyclopedia of Australian Architecture. Port Melbourne, Victoria: Cambridge University Press. .
Hughes, Robert (1986). The Fatal Shore: The Epic of Australia's Founding. Knopf. .
Powell, J.M. (1988). An Historical Geography of Modern Australia: The Restive Fringe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Robinson, G.M., Loughran, R.J., and Tranter, P.J. (2000). Australia and New Zealand: Economy, Society and Environment. London: Arnold; New York: Oxford University Press. paperback, hardback.
External links
About Australia from the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade website
Governments of Australia website (federal, states and territories)
Australian Government website
Australian Bureau of Statistics
Tourism Australia
English-speaking countries and territories
States and territories established in 1901
G20 members
Member states of the United Nations
Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations
Countries in Oceania
Countries in Australasia
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Transcontinental countries
OECD members
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20New%20York%20Giants
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History of the New York Giants
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The New York Giants, an American football team which currently plays in the National Football League (NFL)'s National Football Conference (NFC), has a history dating back more than 80 seasons, with 4 Super Bowl victories. The Giants were founded in 1925 by Tim Mara in the then five-year-old NFL. Mara owned the team until his death in 1959, when it was passed on to his sons, Wellington and Jack. During their history, the Giants have won eight NFL championships, four of which came in Super Bowls.
In just its third season, the team finished with the best record in the league at 11–1–1 and was awarded the NFL title. In a 14-year span beginning in 1933, New York qualified to play in the NFL championship game eight times, winning twice (1934 and 1938). They did not win another championship until 1956, aided by several future Hall of Fame players such as running back Frank Gifford, linebacker Sam Huff, and offensive tackle Roosevelt Brown. From 1958 to 1963, the Giants played in the NFL championship game five times, but failed to win. The 1958 NFL Championship game, in which they lost 23–17 in overtime to the Baltimore Colts, is credited with increasing the popularity of the NFL in the United States.
The Giants registered just two winning seasons from 1964 to 1980 and were unable to advance to the playoffs. From 1981 to 1990, the team qualified for the postseason seven times and won Super Bowls XXI and XXV. The team's success during the 1980s was aided by head coach Bill Parcells, quarterback Phil Simms and Hall of Fame linebackers Lawrence Taylor and Harry Carson. New York struggled throughout much of the 1990s as Parcells left the team, and players such as Simms and Taylor declined and eventually retired. They returned to the Super Bowl in 2000, but lost to the Baltimore Ravens in Super Bowl XXXV. The Giants then won against New England Patriots in Super Bowls XLII and XLVI.
Birth and success: 1925–1930
The Giants were founded in 1925 by original owner Tim Mara with an investment of $500. Legally named "New York Football Giants" (which they still are to this day) to distinguish themselves from the baseball team of the same name, they became one of the first teams in the then five-year-old National Football League. In 1919, Charles Stoneham, the owner of the New York Giants baseball team, had organized and promoted a professional football team to be called the New York Giants. The team folded before its first game, a casualty of a dispute over the city's blue laws. This early Giants football team would eventually make it to play as the Brooklyn Giants in 1921, playing two games in the NFL before dropping out, and eventually folded in 1923 after two years as an independent. When the NFL sought to return to New York City, it approached one of the Brooklyn Giants' owners, promoter Billy Gibson, about reviving the team; he instead referred the league to Mara, who paid a $500 franchise fee and accepted a place in the NFL, keeping the Giants name.
The New York Football Giants played their first game against All New Britain in New Britain, Connecticut on October 5, 1925.
Although the Giants were successful on the field in their first season, going 8–4, their financial status was a different story. Overshadowed by baseball, boxing, and college football, professional football was not a popular sport in 1925. They were in dire financial straits until the 11th game of the season, when Red Grange and the Chicago Bears came to town, attracting over 73,000 fans. This gave the Giants a much-needed influx of revenue, and perhaps altered the history of the franchise. From 1925 to 1927, former two-time First Team All Pro Doc Alexander played for the team.
New York finished 11–1–1 in 1927. Their league-best defense posted 10 shutouts in 13 games. New coach Earl Potteiger led the team into a late-season game against Chicago with first place on the line. New York won 13–7 in what lineman Steve Owen called "the toughest, roughest football game I ever played." Then they won their final two regular season games to secure their first championship.
Following a disappointing 4–7–2 season the next year, Potteiger was replaced by LeRoy Andrews. Before the 1929 season, Mara purchased the entire squad of the Detroit Wolverines, including star quarterback Benny Friedman. The Wolverines had finished in third place the year before. Led by Friedman, New York's record soared to 13–1–1. However, their lone loss was a 20–6 setback in November to the Green Bay Packers, and by virtue of this win, and their 12–0–1 record, won the NFL title. Following the season, Mara transferred ownership over to his two sons to insulate the team from creditors. At the time, Jack was just 22, and Wellington only 14.
In 1930, the quality of the professional game was still in question, with many claiming the college "amateurs" played with more intensity. In December 1930, the Giants played a team of Notre Dame All-Stars at the Polo Grounds to raise money for the unemployed of New York City. It was also an opportunity to establish the superiority of the pro game. Knute Rockne reassembled his Four Horsemen along with other Notre Dame legends, and told them to score early, then defend. But from the beginning, it was a one-sided contest, with Benny Friedman running for two Giants touchdowns and Hap Moran passing for another. Notre Dame failed to score. When it was over, Rockne told his team, '"[t]hat was the greatest football machine I ever saw. I am glad none of you got hurt." The game raised $115,183 for the homeless, and is often credited with establishing the legitimacy of the professional game.
Steve Owen era: 1931–1953
The Giants hired All-Pro offensive tackle Steve Owen to be their new player-head coach prior to the 1931 season. He coached the team for the next 23 years, including two NFL championships, and was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1966. Owen never had a contract with the Mara family; he coached his entire tenure on a handshake basis.
Before the 1931 season, New York acquired center Mel Hein, who also played the linebacker position. He would go on to a fifteen-year NFL career in which, as a center, he became an All-NFL First Team selection eight times, and the only offensive lineman ever named league MVP. Friedman quit the team following the season when Mara denied him an ownership stake, telling him "I'm sorry...but the Giants are for my sons." New York struggled in 1931 and 1932, finishing with a combined record of 11–12–3.
The Giants acquired University of Michigan All-American quarterback Harry Newman and versatile free agent halfback Ken Strong before the 1933 season. New York finished 11–3, first in the new Eastern Division. Newman led the NFL in passes completed (53), passing yards (973), touchdown passes (11), and longest pass completion (78 yards), with his passing yardage total setting an NFL record. New York's resurgence was led by some of the league's best linemen, such as Ray Flaherty and future Hall of Famers Red Badgro, and Hein. They advanced to play in the league's first official championship game in Chicago's Wrigley Field versus the Bears, where they lost 23–21 in a game which had six lead changes.
In the 1934 NFL Championship Game, the Giants defeated previously unbeaten Chicago 30–13 at the Polo Grounds on an icy field with temperatures peaking at 25 degrees. Before the game, team treasurer John Mara talked with Owen and team captain Flaherty about the field conditions. Flaherty suggested the Giants wear sneakers on the frozen field, as he had played in a game under similar circumstances at Gonzaga, and the sneakers proved to be effective. Mara dispatched equipment manager Abe Cohen to get as many sneakers as he could get. Due to traffic and the inability to find any athletic goods stores open on Sunday, Cohen was unable to return before the game started, and the Giants, wearing conventional footwear, trailed 10–3 at the end of the first half. Realizing time was short, Cohen went to Manhattan College — where he had a key to the equipment and locker rooms — and returned to the Polo Grounds at halftime with nine pairs of basketball sneakers, saying that "nine pairs was all I could get." Players donned the sneakers and New York, after allowing Chicago another field goal late in the 3rd quarter, responded with 27 unanswered points in the 4th quarter to win their first NFL Championship game. The game would come to be known as "The Sneakers Game", and the 27 points the Giants scored in the 4th quarter set a single–quarter championship game scoring record that stood for decades. After the game, offensive tackle Len Grant expressed his sincere gratitude by stating "God bless Abe Cohen."
The Giants were unable to repeat as champions in 1935, as they fell to the Detroit Lions 26–7 in the NFL Championship game. The Lion staked a 13–0 lead before the Giants were able to cut the lead to 13–7 in the 3rd quarter. However, the Lions defense helped their team score two late touchdowns with a blocked punt and an interception.
The Giants were so successful from the latter half of the 1930s until the United States' entry into World War II, that according to one publication, "[f]rom 1936 to 1941 the New York Giants annually fielded a collection of NFL all-stars." They added their third NFL championship in 1938 with a 23–17 win over Green Bay. The Giants blocked two Green Bay punts to establish an early advantage before the Packers came back to take a 17–16 lead. However, in the 4th quarter, Ed Danowski threw a 23-yard touchdown pass to Hank Soar, and the Giants defense held the Packers scoreless.
The Giants made the championship game again the next year, but lost in a rematch to the Packers, 27-0 They also advanced to the championship game in 1941, losing to the Bears, 37–9. Both games were close early before their respective opponents went on an offensive surge to break the game open late. In 1944, the Giants reached the championship game, where they faced the Green Bay Packers for the third time in ten seasons. This 1944 Giants team is considered to have been the best defensive team in NFL history in terms of points per game allowed, "...a truly awesome unit". They gave up only 7.5 points per game (a record that still stands) and shut out five of their ten opponents. Nonetheless, they lost again in the championship game, this time 14–7 as Ted Fritsch scored two touchdowns. The Packers defense held on to the lead despite a fourth-quarter touchdown by the Giants. Giants quarterback Arnie Herber (who previously had played for the Packers) threw no less than four interceptions in the game. The 1944 Giants were a mere No. 5 in scoring offense in the 10-team NFL. By 1946, Mara had given over complete control of the team to his two sons. Jack controlled the business aspects, while Wellington controlled the on-field operations. In 1946, the Giants again reached the Championship game, for the eighth time in 14 seasons. However, they were beaten by the Sid Luckman-led Bears, 24–14.
Before the 1948 season, the Giants signed defensive back Emlen Tunnell, the first African American player in team history, and later the first African American inducted into the Hall of Fame. From 1947 to 1949, they never finished above .500, but came back with a 10–2 record in 1950. However, they lost to the Cleveland Browns, whom they had beaten twice in the regular season, 8–3, in the 1950 divisional playoff game. In 1949, halfback Gene "Choo-Choo" Roberts scored a league-high 17 touchdowns, and in 1950, he set a team record that would stand for over 50 years, when he rushed for 218 yards on November 12.
Jim Lee Howell and the Hall of Famers: 1954–1958
Following the 1953 season, an important transition in Giants history occurred. After being the team's coach for 23 years, Steve Owen was fired by Wellington and Jack Mara, and replaced by Jim Lee Howell. Wellington later described the move by calling it "the hardest decision I'd ever made". New York went 7–5 in 1954 under Howell. In their 31st and final season playing their home games at the Polo Grounds in 1955, they went 5–1–1 over their final seven games to finish 6–5–1. They were led by rejuvenated running back Frank Gifford, who played the entire season solely on offense for the first time in several years.
The Giants won their fourth NFL Championship in 1956. Playing their home games at Yankee Stadium for the first time, New York won the Eastern Division with an 8–3–1 record. In the NFL Championship Game on an icy field against the Chicago Bears, the Giants wore sneakers as they had 22 years previous. They dominated the Bears, winning 47–7. The 1956 Giants featured a number of future Hall of Fame players, including Gifford, Sam Huff, and Roosevelt Brown. Equally notable, the team featured as its coordinators future Hall of Fame head coaches Tom Landry (defense) and Vince Lombardi (offense).
The Greatest Game Ever Played: 1958
The Giants had another successful year in 1958. They tied for the Eastern Division regular season title with a 9–3 record by defeating the Cleveland Browns 13–10 on the last day of the regular season. They beat the Browns again a week later in a one-game playoff to determine the division winner. They advanced to play the Baltimore Colts in the NFL Championship Game. This game, which would become known as "The Greatest Game Ever Played", is considered a watershed moment in league history, and marked the beginning of the rise of professional football into the dominant sport in the American market.
The game was competitive. The Giants got off to an early 3–0 lead, then the Colts scored two touchdowns to take a 14–3 halftime lead.
In the 3rd quarter, New York's defense made a goal line stand, which became a turning point in the game. New York, who had trouble mounting drives to that point, then had a 95-yard drive which culminated in a touchdown, making the score 14–10. They drove again in the 4th quarter, with quarterback Charlie Conerly throwing a 15-yard touchdown pass to Frank Gifford to take the lead, 17–14.
The Colts put together one last drive with less than two minutes left. The standout player was receiver Raymond Berry, who caught three passes for 62 yards, the last one for 22 yards to the New York 13-yard line. With seven seconds left in regulation, Steve Myhra kicked a 20-yard field goal to tie the score 17–17, sending a game to overtime for the first time in NFL history.
After winning the coin toss and receiving the ball, the Giants offense stalled and was forced to punt. From their own 20, the Colts drove the ball to the New York 1-yard line, where Alan Ameche ran for a touchdown to give the Colts the championship, 23–17.
More success: 1959–1963
New York's success continued in the 1960s. They finished 9–3 in 1959 and faced the Colts in a championship game rematch. They lost again, this time in a far less dramatic game, 31–16. Led by quarterback Y. A. Tittle and head coach Allie Sherman, the Giants won three consecutive Eastern Division titles from 1961 to 1963. In 1961, they were beaten 37–0 by the Packers. In 1962, they went into the championship game with a 12–2 record and a nine–game winning streak, but they lost to the Packers again, 16–7.
The Giants finished with an 11–3 record in 1963 and faced the Bears in the NFL championship game. On an icy field in Chicago, the Giants' defense played well, but the Bears newly invented zone defense intercepted Tittle five times and battered him throughout the game. Sherman resisted calls from players such as linebacker Sam Huff to replace the struggling Tittle. The Giants defense held the Bears in check, but they lost 14–10, their third straight NFL Championship Game defeat.
The Giants' run of championship game appearances combined with their large market location translated into financial success. By the early 1960s, the Giants were receiving $175,000 a game under the NFL's television contract with CBS — four times as much as small-market Green Bay, which was one of the most successful teams of the era. However, in the league's new contract, the Maras convinced the other owners that it would be in the best interest of the NFL to share television revenue equally, a practice which is still current, and is credited with strengthening the league.
Wilderness years begin: 1964–1972
After the 1963 season, the team fell apart. A roster filled with mostly older veterans plus some bad personnel moves (e.g. the dispatching of Rosey Grier, Sam Huff, and Don Chandler) lead to a quick exit from the top of the standings. The Giants finished 2–10–2 in 1964, beginning an 18-season playoff drought.
The seasons of 1964 through 1980 in team history have often been referred to as "the wilderness years" for several reasons: 1) The franchise lost its status as an elite NFL team by posting only two winning seasons, against twelve losing and three .500 seasons during this span; 2) The Giants became a "team of nomads," calling four different stadiums home in the 1970s (Yankee Stadium, the Yale Bowl, Shea Stadium, and finally Giants Stadium in 1976); 3) New York tried several head coach and quarterback combinations during this period, but with almost no success (from 1964 to 1983, no coach or starting quarterback could boast even a .500 record). The team rebounded with a 7–7 record in 1965, (mostly due to the acquisition of quarterback Earl Morrall during the offseason) before compiling a league-worst 1–12–1 record and allowing over 500 points on defense in 1966. This season also included a 72–41 loss to the rival Washington Redskins at D.C. Stadium in the highest-scoring game in league history. Interest in the team was waning, especially with the rapid rise of the New York Jets, with their wide-open style of play and charismatic quarterback Joe Namath.
The Giants acquired quarterback Fran Tarkenton from the Minnesota Vikings before the 1967 season in exchange for their 1st- and 2nd-round draft picks, and showed improvement. They finished 7–7 in 1967 and were 7–3 through ten games in 1968. Leaving them one game behind Capitol Division leader Dallas. However, New York dropped its final four games to again finish 7–7. Notably, in 1968, one of Tarkenton's favorite targets, wide receiver Homer Jones made the Pro Bowl; it wasn't until 2010 that another Giants receiver, (Steve Smith), would make the Pro Bowl. Since Smith, Victor Cruz (2012) and Odell Beckham Jr. (2014–16) have made it to the Pro Bowl. Jones' average of 22.3 yards per reception for his career is still an NFL record.
During the 1969 preseason, the Giants lost their first meeting with the Jets, 37–14 at the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut. Following the game, Wellington Mara fired coach Allie Sherman and replaced him with former Giants fullback Alex Webster. On opening day of the 1969 regular season, Tarkenton led New York to a 24–23 victory over his former team, the Vikings, by throwing two touchdown passes in the 4th quarter. The Giants went 6–8 that season. They showed marked improvement in 1970; after an 0–3 start, they rebounded to finish 9–5, narrowly missing the playoffs by losing their final game to the Los Angeles Rams. Tarkenton had one of his best seasons as a Giant and made his fourth straight Pro Bowl. Running back Ron Johnson was also selected to the Pro Bowl; the halfback ran for 1,027 yards, becoming the first Giant to gain 1,000 yards rushing in a season.
In 1971, Johnson missed most of the season with a knee injury, and New York dropped to 4–10, resulting in Tarkenton being traded back to the Vikings. The Giants rallied somewhat in 1972 to finish 8–6. Journeyman quarterback Norm Snead (acquired in the trade for Tarkenton) led the league in completion percentage and had his best season. Other standouts and Pro Bowl selections that year were running back Johnson, who rushed for 1,182 yards (breaking his own team record) and caught 45 passes, tight end Bob Tucker, who followed up his 1971 NFC-leading 59-catch season with 55 in 1972, and defensive stars Jack Gregory and John Mendenhall. The Giants boasted the top offense in the NFC and after a season-finishing 23–3 win at Dallas to secure their second winning campaign in three years, the future looked bright. However, after the 1972 season, New York would endure one of the worst periods in its history.
Leaving New York: 1973–1978
Desiring their own home stadium, in 1973, the Giants reached an agreement with the New Jersey Sports and Exposition Authority to play their home games at a new, state-of-the-art, dedicated football stadium. Later named Giants Stadium, it was to be built at a new sports complex in East Rutherford, New Jersey.
As the complex was being built, and their current home at Yankee Stadium was being renovated, they would be without a home for three years, and dubbed "the orphans of the NFL." Their final full season at Yankee Stadium was 1972. After playing their first two games there in 1973, the Giants played the rest of their home games in 1973, as well as all of their home games in 1974, at the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut. This was done out of a desire to have their own home field, as opposed to having to share Shea Stadium with the Jets. However, between access problems, neighborhood issues, the fact that the Yale Bowl was not ideally suited for pro football (the stadium, then as now, did not have permanent lights), the age of the stadium (built in 1914), and the lack of modern amenities (the stadium lacks locker rooms, forcing teams to walk 200 yards between Smilow Field Center to the stadium), the Giants reconsidered their decision and agreed to share Shea Stadium with the Jets in 1975. New York left the Yale Bowl after losing all seven home games played there in 1974 and compiling a home record of 1–11 over that two-year stretch.
One of the bright spots in this era was tight end Bob Tucker. From 1970 through 1977, Tucker was one of the top tight ends in the NFL. He amassed 327 receptions, 4,376 yards, and 22 touchdowns during his years as a Giant.
Despite their new home and heightened fan interest, New York still played subpar football in 1976 and 1977. In 1978, the Giants started the year 5–6 and on November 19, 1978, played the Philadelphia Eagles at home with a chance to solidify their playoff prospects. However, the season imploded in one of the most improbable finishes in NFL history. The Giants led 17–12 and had possession of the ball with only 30 seconds left. They had to just kneel the ball to end the game, as the Eagles had no time outs. However, instead of kneeling the ball, offensive coordinator Bob Gibson ordered New York quarterback Joe Pisarcik to hand the ball off to fullback Larry Csonka. Csonka was unprepared to receive the handoff, and the ball rolled off his hip and bounced free. Eagles safety Herman Edwards picked up the loose ball and ran, untouched, for a score, giving the Eagles an improbable 19–17 victory. This play is referred to as "The Miracle in the Meadowlands" among Eagles fans, and "The Fumble" among Giants fans.
In the aftermath of the defeat, Gibson was fired, and the Giants lost three out of their last four games to finish out of the playoffs for the 15th straight season, leading them to let coach John McVay go as well. However, following the 1978 season came the steps that would, in time, return New York to the pinnacle of the NFL.
Building a champion: 1979–1985
New York decided to hire a general manager for the first time in franchise history following the 1978 season. The search grew contentious and fractured the relationship between owners Wellington and Tim Mara. Finally, the Maras asked NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle to step in with a recommendation. Rozelle recommended George Young, who worked in personnel for the Miami Dolphins and had been an assistant coach for the Baltimore Colts. Young was hired, but the rift between the Maras lasted for several years.
Young hired San Diego Chargers assistant Ray Perkins as head coach and drafted unknown quarterback Phil Simms from Morehead State to the surprise of many. New York continued to struggle, finishing 6–10 in 1979 and 4–12 in 1980. With the 2nd overall pick in the 1981 draft, the Giants selected linebacker Lawrence Taylor. The impact that Taylor had on the Giants' defense was immediate. He was named the NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year and NFL Defensive Player of the Year, becoming, to date, the only rookie to ever win the NFL Defensive Player of the Year award. His arrival raised the Giants linebacking corps — which already included future Hall of Famer Harry Carson and Pro Bowler Brad Van Pelt — into one of the NFL's best. It also predicated New York's transformation from allowing 425 points in 1980 to 257 in 1981. Another bright spot was the rushing game; keyed by the acquisition (via trade from the Houston Oilers) of running back Rob Carpenter in early October. Carpenter rushed for 748 yards and scored five touchdowns thru the balance of the season and the Giants went 9–7. They defeated the Eagles in the first round of the playoffs, 27–21, then lost to the eventual Super Bowl champion San Francisco 49ers 38–24 in the divisional playoffs.
In the strike-shortened 1982 season, the Giants lost their first two games before the strike, and their first game upon returning. They won their next three games to even their record at 3–3. Perkins then announced that he was leaving to take the head coaching job at Alabama after the season (replacing the legendary Bear Bryant in that capacity), and the team lost the next two games, effectively eliminating them from the playoffs (despite defeating the Eagles in the season finale to go 4–5). Taylor remained a bright spot, repeating as the league's Defensive Player of the Year. Young chose Bill Parcells, the Giants' defensive coordinator, as the team's new head coach.
Parcells first year proved difficult. In his first major decision, he named Scott Brunner as his starting quarterback over Phil Simms. At first, it appeared his decision was justified, especially after a 27–3 Monday night victory over Green Bay gave New York a 2–2 record. But then they lost 10 of their final 12 games. Parcells ignored fans' protests and stuck with Brunner for most of the year, although Jeff Rutledge saw considerable late-season action. Simms finally played in a week six game against the Eagles, only to suffer a season–ending thumb injury.
Simms won the starting job back in 1984, and Brunner was traded. The Giants had a resurgent season, highlighted by a second-half stretch where they won five of six games. Despite losing their last two to finish 9–7, they still made the playoffs. In the first round, they defeated the highly favored Los Angeles Rams 16–13 on the road before losing 21–10 to the eventual Super Bowl champion San Francisco 49ers. Simms threw for 4,044 yards, making him the first Giant to pass for 4,000 yards in a season.
The Giants success continued in 1985 by going 10–6. The defense carried the team and led the NFL in sacks with 68. They won their first-round playoff game, 17–3 over the defending champion 49ers. It was New York's first postseason win at home since 1958, and their first ever at Giants Stadium. In the divisional playoffs, they lost 21–0 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Chicago Bears. Many of the players that would play key roles on New York's Super Bowl teams emerged in 1985. Joe Morris became the feature back, running for 1,338 yards, scoring 21 touchdowns, and making the Pro Bowl. Second-year receiver Lionel Manuel led the Giants with 49 receptions, and rookie tight end Mark Bavaro had 37 catches. Simms threw every pass for New York for the second consecutive season, and passed for over 3,800 yards. Defensive end Leonard Marshall recorded 15.5 sacks, and Taylor added 13.
Back on top: 1986–1990
1986: Super Bowl Champions
New York entered the 1986 season as one of the favorites to win the Super Bowl. They had their first test in a Monday Night game against the defending NFC East champion Dallas Cowboys. They lost at Texas Stadium, 31–28. However, they won their next five in a row and 14 of their last 15, to finish the season with a 14–2 record. One of the signature plays of the season occurred during a Monday Night game in December. Here is a description of the play taken from a Monday Night Football broadcast in 2005: "On December 1st, 1986...with the Giants trailing, (Mark) Bavaro catches an innocent pass from Phil Simms over the middle. It takes nearly seven 49ers defenders to finally drag him down, some of which are carried for almost 20 yards, including future Hall of Famer Ronnie Lott. Bavaro’s inspiring play jump starts the Giants, who win the game and eventually the Super Bowl." New York's defense allowed 236 points during the season, second fewest in the NFL, and Taylor set a team record with 20.5 sacks. He won a record third Defensive Player of the Year Award, and was named league MVP.
The Giants defeated San Francisco 49–3 in the NFC Divisional Playoffs, then Washington 17–0 in the NFC Championship Game. The Giants advanced to play the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl XXI in front of 101,063 fans at the Rose Bowl. After falling behind 10–9 at halftime, they came back to beat the Broncos 39–20. Simms was named the game's MVP after completing 22 of 25 (88%) of his passes—a Super Bowl record.
1987–1989
In 1987, the Giants lost their first two games before the players strike. Unlike the players strike five years previous, NFL owners made a decision to use replacement players, but still lost all three replacement games, putting them at 0–5 when the strike ended. Though the Giants went 6–4 over their final 10 games, they finished out of the playoffs at 6–9. Bright spots for the season included tight end Mark Bavaro, who led the team in catches with 55, and three New York's linebackers making the Pro Bowl—Taylor, Carson, and Carl Banks.
New York's 1988 season got off to a turbulent start due an offseason scandal involving Taylor. Taylor had abused cocaine, violating the NFL's substance abuse policy and was suspended for the first four games of the season. Taylor's over-the-edge lifestyle was becoming an increasing concern for fans and team officials. After his return, however, Taylor recorded 15.5 sacks in 12 games. The intense worry and scrutiny would prove to be for naught as for the rest of his career Taylor would pass his drug tests.
Predictably, the Giants struggled to start the season. They were 2–2 when Taylor returned from his suspension. With Taylor back and playing well, however, they won six out of their next eight games. After two straight losses, the Giants won their next three contests to set up a win-or-go-home game against the Jets in the season finale. The Jets upset the Giants 27–21. When the Eagles beat the Cowboys, and the 49ers lost to the Rams later that night, the Eagles won the NFC East and the Rams clinched the final Wild Card berth. The Giants finished on the outside looking in despite a 10–6 record, because in the tiebreakers, they were swept in the season series by Philadelphia and had a worse conference record than the Rams.
The Giants' 12–4 record in 1989 was the NFC's second-best (only to San Francisco's 14–2 record) They lost their divisional playoff game in overtime to the Rams, 19–13. The highlight of the game was wide receiver Flipper Anderson's catch of the game-winning touchdown pass. After catching the ball, Anderson made a long run to the end zone, silencing the crowd in attendance. In 1989, free-agent acquisition Ottis Anderson ran for 1,023 yards and caught 28 passes. Rookie Dave Meggett also emerged as a threat on third downs and special teams, catching 34 passes for 531 yards, and making the Pro Bowl.
1990: Champions again
The Giants won their first 10 games of the 1990 season, setting a record for the best start in the team's history. The San Francisco 49ers also got off to a strong start, matching New York with their own 10–0 start. Although both teams lost their next game, their Week 13 matchup was still eagerly anticipated. The Giants held the 49ers' vaunted offense to seven points, but scored just three themselves.
New York won the following week against Minnesota before facing the Buffalo Bills in their regular season home finale. Despite holding a significant advantage in time of possession, they lost 17–13, for their third loss in four games. To compound New York's problems, Phil Simms went down with an injury that would sideline him for the rest of the year. His replacement, Jeff Hostetler, was an unproven career backup, who had thrown a mere 68 passes coming into the season.
The Giants won their final two games to secure a 13–3 record and a first-round playoff bye as the NFC's #2 seed. They defeated Chicago 31–3 in the Divisional Playoffs, setting up a rematch with the 49ers in San Francisco for the NFC Championship. As they had in Week 13, the Giants' defense held San Francisco's offense in check. In the game's waning moments, nose tackle Erik Howard caused a Roger Craig fumble, and Taylor recovered it. New York drove downfield into San Francisco territory, and on the game's last play, kicker Matt Bahr hit a 42-yard field goal to defeat the 49ers, 15–13.
The win set up another rematch, this time in the Super Bowl against the Buffalo Bills.
Super Bowl XXV
Super Bowl XXV took place amidst a background of war and patriotism. The Persian Gulf War had begun less than two weeks previous, and the nation rallied around the Super Bowl as a symbol of America. The Giants got off to a quick 3–0 lead; however, the Bills scored the next 12 points. The Giants responded by running a nearly eight-minute drive, which culminated in a 14-yard touchdown pass from Hostetler to Stephen Baker.
The Giants received the second-half kickoff and mounted a record-setting drive. The opening drive ran for over nine minutes (a Super Bowl record) and culminated in a 1-yard touchdown run by Ottis Anderson, giving the Giants a 17–12 lead. On the first play of the 4th quarter, the Bills' Thurman Thomas ran for a 31-yard touchdown that put Buffalo back in front, 19–17. On the ensuing possession, the Giants drove down to the Buffalo 4-yard line, and Bahr made a 21-yard field goal, which gave the Giants a 20–19 lead. Both teams exchanged possessions before the Bills began one final drive, driving down to the Giants 29-yard line to set up what would be a potential game-winning 47-yard field goal attempt by Scott Norwood. In what would become the game's signature moment, Norwood's attempt missed wide right, and the Giants won their second Super Bowl, 20–19.
The Giants set a Super Bowl record for time of possession with a mark of 40:33, and Ottis Anderson was named MVP of the game after rushing for 102 yards and a touchdown.
End of an era
The 1990 season marked the end of an era. After the Super Bowl, defensive coordinator Bill Belichick left to become head coach of the Cleveland Browns. Parcells also decided to leave the Giants in the spring of 1991 to pursue a career in broadcasting. In addition, there was an ownership change in what had been one of the most stable front offices in professional sports. In February 1991, Tim Mara was diagnosed with cancer, and he sold his 50% interest in the team to Bob Tisch for a reported $80 million. This marked the first time since their inception in 1925 that the Giants had not been wholly owned and controlled by the Mara family.
After Parcells – the Handley era: 1991–1992
Following the departure of Parcells and Belichick — who many people saw as the likely successor to Parcells — the surprise choice as head coach was running backs coach Ray Handley. Handley, however, was a somewhat reluctant coach, whose approach stood in stark contrast to the passionate and emotional style employed by Parcells.
As with Parcells eight years previous, one of Handley's first major decisions involved replacing Phil Simms as starting quarterback. Jeff Hostetler was named the team's starter. Though the Giants won their opening game in an NFC Championship Game rematch against the 49ers, 16–14, they lost three out of their next four games to drop to 2–3. Though they rallied to finish the season 8–8, and Simms reclaimed his starting job later in the year, the excitement that surrounded the Giants the previous year was gone. One of the few promising young players to emerge on the team was second–year running back Rodney Hampton, who led the Giants in rushing with 1,059 yards.
Through the 1991 season, it was clear that the team's core players on defense had aged quickly. This deterioration continued in 1992, when Lawrence Taylor ruptured his Achilles tendon in the team's tenth game, and the Giants promptly lost six out of their last seven games to finish the year 6–10. The defense continued its descent, finishing 26th in the league in points allowed after leading the league in that category in 1990. Handley, who had become unpopular with both players and fans, was fired after the end of the regular season.
Dan Reeves takes over: 1993–1996
Handley was replaced by former Denver Broncos head coach Dan Reeves, who led the Broncos to three Super Bowls in four years, one against the Giants. After his dismissal from the Broncos, Reeves took the unusual step of lobbying for the job. After being rebuffed by a number of candidates, George Young was pleased that someone with Reeves's credentials wanted the job.
Reeves' impact was immediate. As Parcells had done in 1984, Reeves named Simms his starting quarterback. The defense returned to form, and allowed more than 20 points once all season. With two regular season games left, the Giants were 11–3 and appeared poised for a first-round playoff bye. They were upset by a Phoenix Cardinals team, who came into the game with just five wins, 17–6, in the next-to-last week of the season, setting up a winner–take–all contest against Dallas in the final regular season game. Though the Giants played well, it was Emmitt Smith's memorable performance with a separated shoulder that led the Cowboys to a 16–13 overtime win, giving the Cowboys a sweep of the season series and home-field advantage throughout the NFC Playoffs. Despite the loss, the Giants made the playoffs as a Wild Card and won their first-round game, 17–10 over the Vikings. However, they were defeated by the San Francisco 49ers 44–3 in the divisional playoffs. Simms played in all 16 games, completing nearly 62% of his passes, and threw for over 3,000 yards and 15 touchdowns. Simms, Hampton, offensive linemen Jumbo Elliot and center Bart Oates made the Pro Bowl, and Reeves was named Coach of the Year by the Associated Press. After the season, Lawrence Taylor and Phil Simms, the two biggest figures of the late 1980s and early 1990s Giants teams, retired.
Before the 1994 season, Reeves named Dave Brown, who had been a #1 supplemental draft choice in 1992, the Giants starting quarterback. Though Brown led the Giants to wins in their first three games, they lost their next seven. The Giants recovered to win their last six games of the season, but missed the playoffs. During the winning streak, they never allowed more than 20 points in a game.
The Giants regressed to a 5–11 record in 1995. Much of the blame for the Giants' poor performance was placed on Brown. He put up lackluster numbers for the second straight year. Though the Giants defense still played well, and young players like Michael Strahan and Jessie Armstead began to emerge, the Giants inspired tepid interest league-wide and sent no players to the Pro Bowl for the second straight year.
The Giants had another losing season in 1996, finishing 6–10. Though Brown again started every game for the Giants, he turned in one of the worst seasons of any starting quarterback in the NFL, throwing for just 12 touchdowns against 20 interceptions. The Giants' offense was one of the worst in the NFL and, unlike in previous years, the defense was unable to carry the team. After missing the playoffs for three consecutive seasons, Reeves was fired.
Jim Fassel era
1997–1999
The Giants hired former Arizona Cardinals offensive coordinator Jim Fassel as their head coach before the 1997 season. With the team's offense floundering once again and a 2–3 record after five games, Fassel turned to inexperienced Danny Kanell as the starting quarterback over Dave Brown. The Giants experienced a resurgent season, finishing 10–5–1 and winning the NFC East. They hosted a first–round playoff game against the Minnesota Vikings. The Giants led the Vikings for most of the game, including 22–13 in the 4th quarter, but following a muffed onside kick, the Vikings booted a last-second field goal to win 23–22. Following the season, George Young left the Giants. He was replaced by Ernie Accorsi, a veteran general manager who had successful stints building the Baltimore Colts and Cleveland Browns.
The Giants regressed to an 8–8 record in 1998. The strength of the team during the season was their defense, which featured two Pro Bowlers in Armstead and Strahan. However, the offense continued to struggle. Dave Brown had been released before the season and replaced by Kanell and Kent Graham. However, neither quarterback provided Pro Bowl-caliber play. Before the 1999 season, the Giants signed quarterback Kerry Collins. Collins had been the first–ever draft choice of the Carolina Panthers, and in his second season, led them to the NFC Championship game. However, problems with alcohol abuse, conflicts with his teammates, and questions about his character led to his release from the Panthers. Although many people questioned the wisdom of Accorsi and the Giants giving Collins a $16.9 million contract, Accorsi was confident in Collins' abilities.
In 1999, Tiki Barber emerged as a solid pass–catching running back, catching 66 passes. Wide receiver Amani Toomer also had a breakout season, accumulating over 1,100 yards receiving and six touchdowns, and Ike Hilliard finished just shy of 1,000 yards receiving. The defense rebounded, ranking 11th in the league, and Armstead and Strahan again were selected to the Pro Bowl. Though the Giants stood at 7–6 and poised for a playoff berth, they lost their final three games to miss the playoffs.
2000: Super Bowl season
The 2000 season was considered a make-or-break year for Fassel. The conventional wisdom was that Fassel needed to have a strong year and a playoff appearance to save his job. After back-to-back losses at home against the St. Louis Rams and Detroit Lions, the Giants fell to 7–4, and their playoff prospects were in question. At a press conference following the loss to Detroit, Fassel guaranteed that "[t]his team is going to the playoffs." The Giants responded, winning the next week's game against Arizona and the rest of their regular season games to finish the season 12–4 and earn a bye and home-field advantage as the NFC's top seed.
The Giants won their first playoff game against the Eagles, 20–10, and then defeated the Vikings 41–0 in the NFC Championship game. They advanced to play the Baltimore Ravens in Super Bowl XXXV. Though the Giants kept the game close early and went into halftime down only 10–0, the Ravens dominated the second half. The Ravens' defense harassed Kerry Collins all game long, and he had one of the worst games in Super Bowl history. Collins completed only 15 of 39 passes for 112 yards and four interceptions, and the Ravens won the game, 34–7. The Giants' only score came on a Ron Dixon 97-yard kickoff return for a touchdown late in the 3rd quarter. On the ensuing kickoff, the Ravens' Jermaine Lewis scored a touchdown on an 84-yard return.
2001–2003
The Giants were unable to build on their Super Bowl appearance. They ended the 2001 season 7–9 and out of the playoffs for the third time in four seasons. Collins continued his success as the team's quarterback, throwing for over 3,700 yards and 19 touchdowns, and Strahan broke the NFL record by recording 22.5 sacks In 2002, Collins had one of the best seasons of his career, throwing for over 4,000 yards, and Barber rushed for 1,386 yards and caught 69 passes for 597 yards. Rookie tight end Jeremy Shockey caught 74 passes for a total of 894 yards. The team started 6–6, but made the playoffs as a wild card by winning their last four regular season games.
In the wild card playoffs, the Giants built a 38–14 3rd-quarter lead against San Francisco. However, the 49ers rallied, scoring a field goal, and three touchdowns to take a 39–38 lead with a minute left in the game. Collins then drove the Giants down to the 49ers 23-yard line with six seconds left, setting up a potential game winning 41-yard field goal attempt for Matt Bryant. On the final play of the game, 40-year-old long snapper Trey Junkin — who had just been signed for this playoff game — snapped the ball low, and punter Matt Allen could not spot the ball properly for the attempt. Allen picked the ball up and threw an unsuccessful pass downfield to offensive lineman Rich Seubert as time expired, and the Giants lost 39–38.
The Giants started the 2003 season 4–4, but lost their final eight games. With two games remaining in the season, Jim Fassel requested a meeting with team management, and asked, if he was to be fired, that they do so now rather than wait until the end of the season. Management complied with his request, formally firing Fassel on (or around) December 17, 2003, but allowing him to coach the team's final two games.
Eli Manning era: 2004–2019
2004–2006
After a brief search, Ernie Accorsi hired former Jacksonville Jaguars coach Tom Coughlin to be the Giants' head coach. Coughlin was considered a disciplinarian, in contrast to the departed Fassel, whose lenient style was criticized in his final years with the club. Accorsi coveted quarterback Eli Manning, brother of Peyton and son of Archie, in the 2004 NFL Draft. Manning had indicated before the draft that he did not want to play for the San Diego Chargers, who held the top pick. The Chargers drafted him nonetheless, and then traded him to the Giants for their first round picks in 2004 and 2005. The Giants released Kerry Collins, who was unhappy with a backup role, and signed veteran quarterback Kurt Warner. The plan was for Warner to be the starter, while the team groomed Manning to ultimately take over the job. After losing to the Eagles in the 2004 season opener, the Giants, with Warner at quarterback, won five of their next six games, making them 5–2. After losing two close games, to the Bears and Cardinals, to drop to 5–4, Coughlin announced that Manning would start the rest of the season. Manning struggled, and the Giants did not score more than 14 points in their next four games. He performed better later in the season, but the Giants finished the season 6–10. Barber established a career-high in rushing with 1,518 yards. He also had 52 catches and a total of 15 touchdowns.
The Giants started 4–2 in 2005. Then, on October 25, patriarch Wellington Mara died after a brief illness at the age of 89. Mara had been involved with the Giants since he was nine years old, when he worked for them as a ball boy. Except a tour of duty in the military during World War II, Mara spent his entire adult life with the team. He was beloved by many of the players, and was noted for making an effort to get to know each of them. The Giants dedicated their next game to Mara, and defeated the Redskins 36–0. Just twenty days after Mara's death, on November 15, the other Giants Executive Officer, Bob Tisch, died at the age of 79. The Giants honored Tisch by defeating the Eagles 27–17 in their next game. Barber set a new team single-game rushing record with 220 yards, and the team's single-season record with 1,860 yards in a victory over the Kansas City Chiefs . The Giants finished 11–5 and hosted the Carolina Panthers in the wild card playoffs, but lost 23–0.
The Giants regressed to an 8–8 record in 2006. The season was characterized by inconsistent play, criticism of the coaching by the media and players, and Manning's struggles. They won five straight following a 1–2 start, giving them a two-game lead in the NFC East, but they lost six of their last seven games, and the players publicly clashed with Coughlin. One of the team's worst losses was a 24–21 defeat to Tennessee, in which the team surrendered a 21-point 4th-quarter lead. Following a season-ending win at Washington, the Giants made the playoffs as a wild card in spite of their record, but were defeated 23–20 by Philadelphia.
Barber led the Giants with 1,662 yards rushing and over 2,000 yards from scrimmage, Manning threw for 3,244 yards and 24 touchdowns, and Jeremy Shockey led the team in receptions. Defensively, the team struggled against the pass (28th in the league) and gaining a consistent pass rush (tied for 23rd in the league in sacks).
2007: Third Super Bowl Championship
In 2007, the Giants made the playoffs for the third consecutive season. In a September game against the Eagles, they tied the NFL record for most sacks in a game by sacking Philadelphia quarterback Donovan McNabb 12 times, with Osi Umenyiora recording six of those sacks. They became the third NFL franchise to win 600 games when they defeated the Atlanta Falcons 31–10 in October. That same month, they also played in the NFL's first regular season game outside of North America, in London's Wembley Stadium, where they beat Miami 13–10. They ended the regular season 10–6 and defeated Tampa Bay 24–14 in the first round of the playoffs, earning Manning and Coughlin their first playoff victories with the Giants. The next week, the Giants won their ninth consecutive road game by beating the top-seeded Dallas Cowboys 21–17. In the NFC championship game, Lawrence Tynes kicked an overtime field goal to give them a 23–20 road victory over the Green Bay Packers.
In Super Bowl XLII, the Giants defeated the previously unbeaten New England Patriots 17–14. The signature play of the game came on a 3rd-and-5, with the Giants on their own 44-yard line, down 14–10, and 1:15 remaining in the 4th quarter. Manning dropped back to pass, but was surrounded by New England pass rushers. Escaping three tackles, he threw a long pass to David Tyree, who caught the ball against his own helmet, while being covered by Patriots safety Rodney Harrison. Four plays later, Manning threw the game-winning touchdown pass to Plaxico Burress with 35 seconds left. Manning won the game's MVP award by completing 19 of 34 passes for 255 yards and two touchdowns. The Giants' win is considered one of the biggest upsets in Super Bowl history.
Michael Strahan retired after the game as the team's all-time leader in sacks.
2008–2016
The Giants' 12–4 record in 2008 earned them a first-round bye in the playoffs. They won 11 of their first 12 games before stumbling to lose four of their last five, including a 23–11 loss to the Eagles in the NFC Divisional Playoffs. Manning threw for 3,238 yards, 21 touchdowns, and 10 interceptions, and was named to the Pro Bowl after the season. Other standouts included Brandon Jacobs and Derrick Ward who both rushed for 1,000 yards (who helped the Giants lead the NFL in rushing yards); Justin Tuck, who led the team with 12 sacks; and Antonio Pierce, who was the team's leading tackler. The Giants featured a balanced offense with no receiver topping 600 receiving yards.
The Giants won their first five games in 2009, but lost their next four. After beating the Atlanta Falcons in overtime, they lost badly to Denver on Thanksgiving. They defeated Dallas 31–24 in Week 13, then lost 45–38 to Philadelphia the next week. At 8–6, they still had a chance to make the playoffs, but losses to Carolina and Minnesota to finish the season left them out of the playoffs at 8–8.
In the spring of 2010, construction on the New Meadowlands Stadium (now MetLife Stadium) was completed, and the Giants and Jets opened it in August with their annual preseason game. In the regular season, they won their home opener against Carolina, 31–18, avenging their late-season loss from the previous year. They went on the road to play Indianapolis in the second "Manning Bowl" in Week 2. Peyton outplayed Eli (who threw for just 161 yards) in a 38–14 Colts victory. Discipline became a growing problem for the Giants during the season. In the Colts game, Jacobs threw his helmet into the stands, and in the next game, offensive tackle David Diehl ripped off the helmet of Tennessee Titans cornerback Cortland Finnegan.
During the 2011 preseason, the Giants lost tight end Kevin Boss, wide receiver Steve Smith, guard Rich Seubert, linebacker Keith Bulluck, wide receiver Derek Hagan, and Pro Bowl center Shaun O'Hara to free agency. However, the 2011 season also saw the emerging of second-year wide receiver Victor Cruz and second-year tight end Jake Ballard. The Giants opened the season against the Washington Redskins on the 10th anniversary of the September 11th attacks, with both New York City and Washington being a target of the attacks. The Redskins beat the Giants 28–14, but the Giants won their next three games, against the Rams, Eagles, and Cardinals. After a loss against the Seattle Seahawks, they went on another three-game winning streak. A key victory was an upset of the New England Patriots 24–20 at Gillette Stadium. The victory ended the Patriots' NFL record home-game winning streak, after a touchdown pass from Manning to Ballard with 15 seconds left. However, the Giants lost their next three games, before regaining their position atop the NFC East with a tightly contested 37–34 win over the Dallas Cowboys on December 11. After splitting their next two games against the Redskins and New York Jets, a victory over the Cowboys in the last game of the regular season clinched a postseason appearance for the Giants.
In the first round of the playoffs, the Giants defeated the Atlanta Falcons 24–2. After giving up an early safety in the first half, Eli Manning threw three consecutive touchdowns. Running backs Ahmad Bradshaw and Brandon Jacobs combined for 172 yards rushing, a season-high for the Giants. With the victory, the Giants advanced to the second round against the top-seeded Green Bay Packers.
The following week, the Giants defeated the Packers 37–20. Manning threw for 330 yards and three touchdowns, two of them to wide receiver Hakeem Nicks. This earned the Giants a spot in the NFC Championship Game against the San Francisco 49ers. They won that game in overtime, 20–17 with Lawrence Tynes scoring the game-winning field goal as he did four years earlier in the same game against the Green Bay Packers.
The New York Giants won Super Bowl XLVI against the New England Patriots by a score of 21–17. The winning touchdown drive began with a 38-yard reception by wide receiver Mario Manningham. As in Super Bowl XLII, Eli Manning was the game's MVP, defeating Tom Brady for a second time in the Super Bowl.
Despite winning 2 Super Bowl championships in 5 years, the 2012 (9-7), 2013 (7-9), and 2014 (6-10) seasons saw the Giants missing the playoffs 3 years in a row. A bright spot of the 2014 season was rookie Odell Beckham Jr., who burst onto the scene catching 91 passes on 132 targets, for 1,305 yards and 12 touchdowns, and in doing so winning Offensive Rookie of the Year.
The Giants struggled in 2015, finishing 6-10 again and third in the NFC East due to the Giants defense blowing the lead in the final minutes in 6 of their 10 games. Despite their defensive struggles, quarterback Eli Manning threw for a career-high 35 touchdown passes and also set career highs in attempts and completions. After the season, head coach Tom Coughlin resigned after 12 seasons.
With new head coach Ben McAdoo, the Giants began a rocky 2–3 start after starting 2–0. The Giants rebounded their rocky start and went on a 6-game winning streak for the first time since 2010 which lasted from Week 6 to Week 13. In that span, the Giants improved from their last two season. The Giants clinched a 10 win season for the first time since 2010 with their Week 15 win over the Detroit Lions. Despite losing to the Philadelphia Eagles in Week 16, the Giants clinched a playoff trip when the Tampa Bay Buccaneers lost to the New Orleans Saints on Christmas Eve ending the Giants' 5 year playoff drought. They eventually finished 11-5 and second in the NFC East, but lost to the Green Bay Packers in the Wild Card round.
2017–2018: Major Struggles
Going into the 2017 season the Giants had high expectations to challenge for the NFC East title against the Dallas Cowboys. The Giants however would get to an awful start going 0–5 with major injuries to the team on both sides of the team including losing Odell Beckham Jr. for the rest of the season with an ankle injury. The Giants would get their first win of the season in week 6 against the Denver Broncos. However, the Giants would proceed to lose five of their next six games and after a loss to the Oakland Raiders in week 13, head coach Ben McAdoo along with general manager Jerry Reese were fired. Steve Spagnuolo would be named interim head coach for the remainder of the season. The Giants would end up finishing the season 3–13 which is their worst record since 2003 (4–12).
For the 2018 season the Giants hired Pat Shurmur as their next head coach who was the offensive coordinator for the Minnesota Vikings and last head coached for the Cleveland Browns in 2012. The Giants would draft with their second overall pick in the 2018 NFL Draft running back Saquon Barkley from Penn State. The Giants would struggle throughout the season starting 1–7 before their bye week, but would rally to win four of their next five games. They would end up finishing the season 5–11 and miss the playoffs for the second consecutive season. Despite the losing season, Barkley was seen as a bright spot for their offense and was named 2018 NFC Offensive Rookie of the Year.
Daniel Jones era: 2019–present
2019: Daniel Jones' rookie season
During the 2019 off-season the Giants would trade Odell Beckham Jr. to the Cleveland Browns for a first-round pick, a third-round pick, and safety Jabrill Peppers. The Giants would draft with their sixth overall pick in the 2019 NFL Draft quarterback Daniel Jones from Duke. Eli Manning would start the first two games of the season, losing both. Head coach Pat Shurmur made the decision to bench Manning and replaced him with Jones as quarterback. In his first career start in week 3, Jones would rally the team in a comeback win against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers for his first win. Jones would also win his first divisional game against the Washington Redskins evening the team's record at 2-2. Despite the promising start, the Giants would then lose their next nine games, and finished the season with a record of 4-12. Shurmur was fired after the season.
Joe Judge era (2020-2021)
2020
2020 was the first year since 2003 that Eli Manning wasn't on the roster, as he retired following the 2019 season. For the 2020 season, the Giants hired former Patriots special teams coordinator Joe Judge to be their new head coach. The Giants, however, lost their first five games, three of which were decided by one score. Their first win came at the hands of the Washington Football Team, as the Giants held off a late rally by Washington to win 20–19. They would lose their next two games against the Eagles and the Buccaneers by one and two points, respectively. They would then win four straight games, including a 17–12 upset over the Seattle Seahawks, and sat at 5–7, tied with the Washington Football Team for best with the division, but the Giants owned the tiebreaker due to a head-to-head sweep. The Giants proceeded to lose their next three games by two or more scores. A 23-19 Week 17 victory over the Dallas Cowboys put the Giants at 6-10 and in contention for the NFC East title. All they needed to happen was for the 6-9 Washington Football Team to lose to the 4-10-1 Philadelphia Eagles that night, and the Giants would be in. However, the Eagles would end up being criticized for tanking, allowing Washington to get away with a 20–14 victory, eliminating the Giants from the playoffs and from contention of claiming the worst record in NFL history for a team that qualified for the playoffs (the worst record was 7-9 by the 2010 Seattle Seahawks and the aforementioned Washington Football Team).
2021
The Giants tanked during the 2021 season. The Giants started 0-3, with the last two games against the Washington Football Team and the Atlanta Falcons being lost due to game-winning kicks. They were unable to improve on their record, and despite three midseason wins which allowed the Giants a chance to comeback at 3-6, they won only one of their next 8 games, and fell to 4-13, causing them to miss the playoffs and fail to meet their record from the previous year. Following the season, Dave Gettleman announced his retirement and Joe Judge was fired.
Brian Daboll era
In the offseason, the Giants hired Bills front office assistant Joe Schoen to become their general manager, who in turn hired Bills offensive coordinator Brian Daboll to become the 22nd head coach in franchise history.
The Giants started 2–0 for the first time since 2016 and had their best start since 2008. The Giants surpassed their 2021 win total after a Week 6 win over the Baltimore Ravens. With a win over the Washington Commanders in Week 15, they guaranteed their first non-losing season since 2016, and their first season since 2009 in which they never had a losing record at any stage. Despite struggling in the second half of the season, the Giants clinched a playoff spot and a winning record for the first time since 2016 with a Week 17 win over the Indianapolis Colts and finished 9–7–1.
As the sixth seed in the NFC, the Giants beat the Minnesota Vikings 31–24 in the Wild Card round, getting their first playoff win since Super Bowl XLVI in 2012. However, the Giants' season would end the following week with a 38–7 loss to their arch-rival and eventual NFC champion Philadelphia Eagles in the Divisional Round.
Timeline
See also
List of New York Giants seasons
Logos and Uniforms of the New York Giants
List of New York Giants players
Notes
Sources
Axthelm, Pete. "The Giants go to Jersey, or, Father Mara knows best." New York, New York Media, LLC Vol. 4, No. 44 November 1, 1971 issue, ISSN 0028-7369 (available online)
Buckley, James Jr. Great Moments in Football. Milwaukee: Gareth Stevens, 2000
Carroll, John Martin. Grange and the Rise of Modern Football. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999
Cavanaugh, Jack. Giants Among Men: How Robustelli, Huff, Gifford, and the Giants Made New York a Football Town and Changed the NFL. New York: Random House, 2008
Eskenazi, Gerald. There Were Giants in Those Days. New York: Grosset & Dunlap 1976
Gottehrer, Barry. The Giants of New York, the history of professional football's most fabulous dynasty. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1963 OCLC 1356301
Neft, David S., Cohen, Richard M., and Korch, Rick. The Complete History of Professional Football from 1892 to the Present. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994
Pellowski, Steve. The Little Giant Book of Football Facts. New York: Sterling Publishing, 2005
Pervin, Lawrence A. Football's New York Giants: A History. McFarland 2009
Schwartz, John. Tales from the New York Giants Sideline. Champaign: Sports Publishing LLC, 2004
Sprechman, Jordan and Shannon, Bill. This Day in New York Sports. Illinois: Sports Publishing LLC. 1998
Walsh, Chris. New York Giants Football: Guide and Record Book. Illinois: Triumph Books 2009
External links
Team history
New York First Game & First Home Game Program
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria%20%28state%29
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Victoria (state)
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Victoria (commonly abbreviated as Vic) is a state in southeastern Australia. It is the second-smallest state, with a land area of ; the second-most-populated state (after New South Wales), with a population of over 6.7 million; and the most densely populated state in Australia (29 per km2). Victoria is bordered by New South Wales to the north and South Australia to the west, and is bounded by the Bass Strait to the south (with the exception of a small land border with Tasmania located along Boundary Islet), the Great Australian Bight portion of the Southern Ocean to the southwest, and the Tasman Sea (a marginal sea of the South Pacific Ocean) to the southeast. The state encompasses a range of climates and geographical features from its temperate coastal and central regions to the Victorian Alps in the northeast and the semi-arid north-west.
The majority of the Victorian population is concentrated in the central-south area surrounding Port Phillip, and in particular within the metropolitan area of Greater Melbourne, Victoria's state capital and largest city and also Australia's second-largest city, where over three quarters of the Victorian population live. The state is home to four of Australia's 20 largest cities: Melbourne, Geelong, Ballarat and Bendigo. The population is culturally diverse, with 35.1% of inhabitants being immigrants.
Victoria is home to numerous Aboriginal groups, including the Boonwurrung, the Bratauolung, the Djadjawurrung, the Gunai, the Gunditjmara, the Taungurung, the Wathaurong, the Wurundjeri, and the Yorta Yorta. There were more than 30 Aboriginal languages spoken in the area prior to European colonisation. In 1770 James Cook claimed the east coast of the Australian continent for the Kingdom of Great Britain, and from 1788 the area that is now Victoria was a part of the colony of New South Wales. The first European settlement in the area occurred in 1803 at Sullivan Bay. Much of what is now Victoria was included in 1836 in the Port Phillip District of New South Wales. Named in honour of Queen Victoria, Victoria was separated from New South Wales and established as a separate Crown colony in 1851, achieving responsible government in 1855. The Victorian gold rush in the 1850s and 1860s significantly increased Victoria's population and wealth. By the time of Australian Federation in 1901, Melbourne had become the largest city in Australasia, and served as the federal capital of Australia until Canberra was opened in 1927. The state continued to grow strongly through various periods of the 20th and early 21st centuries as a result of high levels of international and interstate migration.
Victoria has 38 seats in the Australian House of Representatives and 12 seats in the Australian Senate. At state level, the Parliament of Victoria consists of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council. The Labor Party, led by Jacinta Allan as premier, has governed Victoria since 2014. The Governor of Victoria, the representative of the Monarchy of Australia in the state, is currently Margaret Gardner. Victoria is divided into 79 local government areas, as well as several unincorporated areas which the state administers directly.
Victoria's economy is the second-largest among Australian states and is highly diversified, with service sectors predominating. Culturally, Melbourne hosts a number of museums, art galleries, and theatres, and is also described as the world's sporting capital, and the spiritual home of Australian cricket and Australian rules football.
History
Indigenous Victorians
The state of Victoria was originally home to many Aboriginal Australian nations that had occupied the land for tens of thousands of years before European settlement. According to Gary Presland, Aboriginal people have lived in Victoria for about 40,000 years, living a semi-nomadic existence of fishing, hunting and gathering, and farming eels.
At the Keilor Archaeological Site a human hearth excavated in 1971 was radiocarbon-dated to about 31,000 years BP, making Keilor one of the earliest sites of human habitation in Australia. A cranium found at the site has been dated at between 12,000 and 14,700 years BP.
Archaeological sites in Tasmania and on the Bass Strait Islands have been dated to between 20,000 – 35,000 years ago, when sea levels were 130 metres below present level allowing First Nations Peoples to move across the region of southern Victoria and on to the land bridge of the Bassian plain to Tasmania by at least 35,000 years ago.
During the Ice Age about 20,000 years BP, the area now the bay of Port Phillip would have been dry land, and the Yarra and Werribee river would have joined to flow through the heads then south and south west through the Bassian plain before meeting the ocean to the west. Tasmania and the Bass Strait islands became separated from mainland Australia around 12,000 BP, when the sea level was approximately 50m below present levels. Port Phillip was flooded by post-glacial rising sea levels between 8000 and 6000 years ago.
Oral history and creation stories from the Wada wurrung, Woiwurrung and Bun wurrung languages describe the flooding of the bay. Hobsons Bay was once a kangaroo hunting ground. Creation stories describe how Bunjil was responsible for the formation of the bay, or the bay was flooded when the Yarra river was created.
British colonisation
Victoria, like Queensland, was named after Queen Victoria, who had been on the British throne for 14 years when the colony was established in 1851.
After the founding of the colony of New South Wales in 1788, Australia was divided into an eastern half named New South Wales and a western half named New Holland, under the administration of the colonial government in Sydney. The first British settlement in the area later known as Victoria was established in October 1803 under Lieutenant-Governor David Collins at Sullivan Bay on Port Phillip. It consisted of 402 people (five government officials, nine officers of marines, two drummers, and 39 privates, five soldiers' wives and a child, 307 convicts, 17 convicts' wives, and seven children). They had been sent from England in under the command of Captain Daniel Woodriff, principally out of fear that the French, who had been exploring the area, might establish their own settlement and thereby challenge British rights to the continent.
In 1826, Colonel Stewart, Captain Samuel Wright, and Lieutenant Burchell were sent in (Captain Wetherall) and the brigs Dragon and Amity, took a number of convicts and a small force composed of detachments of the 3rd and 93rd regiments. The expedition landed at Settlement Point (now Corinella), on the eastern side of Western Port Bay, which was the headquarters until the abandonment of Western Port at the insistence of Governor Darling about 12 months afterwards.
Victoria's next settlement was at Portland, on the south west coast of what is now Victoria. Edward Henty settled Portland Bay in 1834.
Batman's treaty
Melbourne was founded in 1835 by John Batman, who set up a base in Indented Head, and John Pascoe Fawkner. From settlement, the region around Melbourne was known as the Port Phillip District, a separately administered part of New South Wales. Shortly after, the site now known as Geelong was surveyed by Assistant Surveyor W. H. Smythe, three weeks after Melbourne. And in 1838, Geelong was officially declared a town, despite earlier European settlements dating back to 1826.
On 6 June 1835, just under two years before Melbourne was officially recognised as a settlement, John Batman, the leader of the Port Phillip Association presented Wurundjeri Elders with a land use agreement. This document, now referred to as the Batman treaty, was later given to the British government to claim that local Aboriginal people had given Batman access to their land in exchange for goods and rations. Today, the meaning and interpretation of this treaty is contested. Some argue it was pretence for taking Aboriginal land in exchange for trinkets, while others argue it was significant in that it sought to recognise Aboriginal land rights.
The exact location of the meeting between Batman and the Kulin Ngurungaeta (head clan-men) with whom he made the treaty is unknown, although it is believed to have been by the Merri Creek. According to historian Meyer Eidelson, it is generally believed to have occurred on the Merri near modern-day Rushall Station.
Colonial Victoria
On 1 July 1851, writs were issued for the election of the first Victorian Legislative Council, and the absolute independence of Victoria from New South Wales was established proclaiming a new Colony of Victoria. Days later, still in 1851 gold was discovered near Ballarat, and subsequently at Bendigo. Later discoveries occurred at many sites across Victoria. This triggered one of the largest gold rushes the world has ever seen. The colony grew rapidly in both population and economic power. In 10 years, the population of Victoria increased sevenfold from 76,000 to 540,000. All sorts of gold records were produced, including the "richest shallow alluvial goldfield in the world" and the largest gold nugget. In the decade 1851–1860 Victoria produced 20 million ounces of gold, one-third of the world's output.
In 1855 the Geological Survey collected and determined the major ion chemistry for groundwater in Victoria.
Immigrants arrived from all over the world to search for gold, especially from Ireland and China. By 1857, 26,000 Chinese miners worked in Victoria, and their legacy is particularly strong in Bendigo and its environs.
In 1854 at Ballarat, an armed rebellion against the government of Victoria was made by miners protesting against mining taxes (the "Eureka Stockade"). This was crushed by British troops, but the confrontation persuaded the colonial authorities to reform the administration of mining concessions (reducing the hated mining licence fees) and extend the electoral franchise. The following year, the Imperial Parliament granted Victoria responsible government with the passage of the Colony of Victoria Act 1855. Some of the leaders of the Eureka rebellion went on to become members of the Victorian Parliament.
In 1857, reflecting the growing presence of Irish Catholic immigrants, John O'Shanassy became the colony's second Premier with the former Young Irelander, Charles Gavan Duffy as his deputy. Melbourne's Protestant establishment was ill-prepared "to countenance so startling a novelty". In 1858–59, Melbourne Punch cartoons linked Duffy and O'Shanassy to the terrors of the French Revolution.
In 1862 Duffy's Land Act attempted, but failed, through a system of extended pastoral licences, to break the land-holding monopoly of the so-called "squatter" class. In 1871, having led, on behalf of small farmers, opposition to Premier Sir James McCulloch's land tax, Duffy, himself, was briefly Premier.
In 1893 widespread bank failures brought to an end a sustained period of prosperity and of increasingly wild speculation in land and construction. Melbourne nonetheless retained, as the legacy of the gold rush, its status as Australia's primary financial centre and largest city.
In 1901, Victoria became a state in the Commonwealth of Australia. While Canberra was being built, Melbourne served until 1927 as country's first federal capital.
Geography
Victoria's northern border follows a straight line from Cape Howe to the start of the Murray River and then follows the Murray River as the remainder of the northern border. On the Murray River, the border is the southern bank of the river. This precise definition was not established until 1980, when a ruling by Justice Ninian Stephen of the High Court of Australia settled the question as to which state had jurisdiction in the unlawful death of a man on an island in the middle of the river. The ruling clarified that no part of the watercourse is in Victoria. The border also rests at the southern end of the Great Dividing Range, which stretches along the east coast and terminates west of Ballarat. It is bordered by South Australia to the west and shares Australia's shortest land border with Tasmania. The official border between Victoria and Tasmania is at 39°12' S, which passes through Boundary Islet in the Bass Strait for 85 metres.
Victoria contains many topographically, geologically and climatically diverse areas, ranging from the wet, temperate climate of Gippsland in the southeast to the snow-covered Victorian alpine areas which rise to almost , with Mount Bogong the highest peak at . There are extensive semi-arid plains to the west and northwest. There is an extensive series of river systems in Victoria. Most notable is the Murray River system. Other rivers include: Ovens River, Goulburn River, Patterson River, King River, Campaspe River, Loddon River, Wimmera River, Elgin River, Barwon River, Thomson River, Snowy River, Latrobe River, Yarra River, Maribyrnong River, Mitta River, Hopkins River, Merri River and Kiewa River. The state symbols include the pink heath (state flower), Leadbeater's possum (state animal) and the helmeted honeyeater (state bird). Ecological communities include Victorian Volcanic Plain grasslands, Northern Plains Grassland and Gippsland Plains Grassy Woodland, all of which are critically endangered.
According to Geoscience Australia, the geographic centre of Victoria is located in Mandurang at 36° 51' 15"S, 144° 16' 52" E. The small rural locality is located 10 km (6 mi) south of Bendigo. Due to its central location and the region's historical ties to the gold rush, the town is widely regarded as the "Heart of Gold".
The state's capital, Melbourne, contains about 70% of the state's population and dominates its economy, media, and culture. For other cities and towns, see list of localities (Victoria) and local government areas of Victoria.
Regions
Victoria is divided into distinct geographic regions, most commonly for the purposes of economic development, while others for land management (e.g. agriculture or conservation) and for censusing (such as statistical or meteorological) or electoral purposes. Many regions have similar names and extents according to the different regionalisations, and the boundaries of regions can overlap even in popular usage.
In addition to Greater Melbourne, the Victoria State Government has divided Victoria into five regions covering all parts of the state. The five regional Victoria divisions are:
Barwon South West
Gippsland
Grampians
Hume
Loddon Mallee
The Australian Bureau of Meteorology defines regions for its own purposes, some of which share names with the economic regions, even though the exact boundaries may not correlate. As of November 2014, they are:
Mallee
Wimmera
Northern Country
North East Victoria
East Gippsland
West & South Gippsland
Central Victoria
North Central Victoria
South West Victoria
Alpine Victoria
Melbourne
Cities and towns
This is a list of places in the Australian state of Victoria by population.
Urban centres are defined by the Australian Bureau of Statistics as being a population cluster of 1,000 or more people. The below figures broadly represent the populations of the contiguous built-up areas of each city.
Climate
Victoria has a varied climate despite its small size. It ranges from semi-arid temperate with hot summers in the north-west, to temperate and cool along the coast. Victoria's main land feature, the Great Dividing Range, produces a cooler, mountain climate in the centre of the state. Winters along the coast of the state, particularly around Melbourne, are relatively mild (see chart at right).
The coastal plain south of the Great Dividing Range has Victoria's mildest climate. Air from the Southern Ocean helps reduce the heat of summer and the cold of winter. Melbourne and other large cities are located in this temperate region.
The Mallee and upper Wimmera are Victoria's warmest regions with hot winds blowing from nearby semi-deserts. Average temperatures exceed during summer and in winter. Except at cool mountain elevations, the inland monthly temperatures are warmer than around Melbourne (see chart). Victoria's highest maximum temperature of was recorded in Hopetoun on 7 February 2009, during the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave.
The Victorian Alps in the northeast are the coldest part of Victoria. The Alps are part of the Great Dividing Range mountain system extending east–west through the centre of Victoria. Average temperatures are less than in winter and below in the highest parts of the ranges. The state's lowest minimum temperature of was recorded at Omeo on 15 June 1965, and again at Falls Creek on 3 July 1970. Temperature extremes for the state are listed in the table below:
Rainfall
Rainfall in Victoria increases from south to the northeast, with higher averages in areas of high altitude. Mean annual rainfall exceeds in some parts of the northeast but is less than in the Mallee.
Rain is heaviest in the Otway Ranges and Gippsland in southern Victoria and in the mountainous northeast. Snow generally falls only in the mountains and hills in the centre of the state. Rain falls most frequently in winter, but summer precipitation is heavier. Rainfall is most reliable in Gippsland and the Western District, making them both leading farming areas. Victoria's highest recorded daily rainfall was at Tidal River in Wilsons Promontory National Park on 23 March 2011.
Demographics
At June 2022 Victoria had a population of 6,613,700. The Australian Bureau of Statistics estimates that the population may well reach 7.2 million by 2050.
Victoria's founding Anglo-Celtic population has been supplemented by successive waves of migrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia and, most recently, Africa and the Middle East. Victoria's population is ageing in proportion with the average of the remainder of the Australian population.
About 72% of Victorians are Australian-born. This figure falls to around 66% in Melbourne but rises to higher than 95% in some rural areas in the north west of the state. Less than 1% of Victorians identify themselves as Aboriginal.
More than 75% of Victorians live in Melbourne, located in the state's south. The greater Melbourne metropolitan area is home to an estimated 4,850,740 people. Urban centres outside Melbourne include Geelong, Ballarat, Bendigo, Shepparton, Mildura, Warrnambool, Wodonga and the Latrobe Valley.
Victoria is Australia's most urbanised state: nearly 90% of residents living in cities and towns. State Government efforts to decentralise population have included an official campaign run since 2003 to encourage Victorians to settle in regional areas, however Melbourne continues to rapidly outpace these areas in terms of population growth.
Ancestry and immigration
At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were:
0.8% of the population, or 47,788 people, identified as Indigenous Australians (Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders) in 2016.
At the 2016 census, 64.9% of residents were born in Australia. The other most common countries of birth were England (2.9%), India (2.9%), Mainland China (2.7%), New Zealand (1.6%) and Vietnam (1.4%).
Language
As of the 2016 census, 72.2% of Victorians speak English at home. Speakers of other languages include Mandarin (3.2%), Italian (1.9%), Greek (1.9%), Vietnamese (1.7%), and Arabic (1.3%).
Religion
In the 2016 Census, 47.9% of Victorians described themselves as Christian, 10.6% stated that they followed other religions and 32.1% stated that they had no religion or held secular or other spiritual beliefs. In the survey, 31.7% of Victorians stated they had no religion, Roman Catholics were 23.2%, 9.4% did not answer the question, 9% were Anglican and 3.5% were Eastern Orthodox.
In 2017 the proportion of couples marrying in a civil ceremony in Victoria was 77.3%; the other 22.7% were married in a religious ceremony.
Age structure and fertility
The government predicts that nearly a quarter of Victorians will be aged over 60 by 2021. The 2016 census revealed that Australian median age has crept upward from 35 to 37 since 2001, which reflects the population growth peak of 1969–72. In 2017, Victoria recorded a TFR of 1.724.
Average demographic
The "average Victorian" according to the demographic statistics may be described as follows:
Crime
In the year ending September 2020, the statistics were skewed by the introduction of six new public safety offences relating to the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia. Total offences numbered 551,710, with 32,713 of these were breaches of Chief Health Officer Directions. The total offences occurred at a rate of 8,227 per 100,000 people, up 4.4% on the previous year. While there have been some dips along the way, the rate of recorded offences have increased year on year since 2011, when the figure was 6,937.7 offences per 100,000 people.
Government
Parliament
Victoria has a parliamentary form of government based on the Westminster System. Legislative power resides in the Parliament consisting of the Governor (the representative of the King), the executive (the Government), and two legislative chambers. The Parliament of Victoria consists of the lower house Legislative Assembly, the upper house Legislative Council and the monarch of Australia.
Eighty-eight members of the Legislative Assembly are elected to four-year terms from single-member electorates.
In November 2006, the Victorian Legislative Council elections were held under a new multi-member proportional representation system. The State of Victoria was divided into eight electorates with each electorate represented by five representatives elected by Single Transferable Vote. The total number of upper house members was reduced from 44 to 40 and their term of office is now the same as the lower house members—four years. Elections for the Victorian Parliament are now fixed and occur in November every four years. Prior to the 2006 election, the Legislative Council consisted of 44 members elected to eight-year terms from 22 two-member electorates.
Premier and cabinet
The Premier of Victoria is the leader of the political party or coalition with the most seats in the Legislative Assembly. The Premier is the public face of government and, with cabinet, sets the legislative and political agenda. Cabinet consists of representatives elected to either house of parliament. It is responsible for managing areas of government that are not exclusively vested in the Commonwealth, by the Australian Constitution, such as education, health and law enforcement. The current Premier of Victoria is Jacinta Allan.
Governor
Executive authority is vested in the Governor of Victoria who represents and is appointed by the monarch of Australia. The post is usually filled by a retired prominent Victorian. The governor acts on the advice of the premier and cabinet. The current Governor of Victoria is Margaret Gardner.
Constitution
Victoria has a written constitution enacted in 1975, but based on the 1855 colonial constitution, passed by the United Kingdom Parliament as the Victoria Constitution Act 1855, which establishes the Parliament as the state's law-making body for matters coming under state responsibility. The Victorian Constitution can be amended by the Parliament of Victoria, except for certain "entrenched" provisions that require either an absolute majority in both houses, a three-fifths majority in both houses, or the approval of the Victorian people in a referendum, depending on the provision.
Politics
Victorians, and Melburnians in particular, are considered by some analysts to be more progressive than other Australians. The state recorded the highest Yes votes of any state in the republic referendum and same-sex marriage survey. Victorians are said to be "generally socially progressive, supportive of multiculturalism, wary of extremes of any kind".
Premier Jacinta Allan leads the Australian Labor Party who replaced Daniel Andrews after his resignation in September 2023. Labor has been in power since the November 2014 Victorian state election.
The centre-left Australian Labor Party (ALP), the centre-right Liberal Party of Australia, the rural-based National Party of Australia, and the left-wing environmentalist Australian Greens are Victoria's main political parties. Traditionally, Labor is strongest in Melbourne's working and middle class western, northern and inner-city suburbs, and the regional cities of Ballarat, Bendigo and Geelong. The Liberals' main support lies in Melbourne's more affluent eastern suburbs and outer suburbs, and some rural and regional centres. The Nationals are strongest in Victoria's North Western and Eastern rural regional areas. The Greens, who won their first lower house seats in 2014, are strongest in inner Melbourne.
Federal government
Victorian voters elect 50 representatives to the Parliament of Australia, including 38 members of the House of Representatives and 12 members of the Senate. Since 1 April 2023, the ALP hold 25 Victorian house seats, the Liberals 10, the Nationals three, the Greens one, and independents the remaining three. The ALP and the Liberals hold four senate seats each, while the Nationals, Greens, UAP and an independent hold one seat each.
Local government
Victoria is incorporated into 79 municipalities for the purposes of local government, including 39 shires, 32 cities, seven rural cities and one borough. Shire and city councils are responsible for functions delegated by the Victorian parliament, such as city planning, road infrastructure and waste management. Council revenue comes mostly from property taxes and government grants.
Education
Primary and secondary
Victoria's state school system dates back to 1872, when the colonial government legislated to make schooling both free and compulsory. The state's public secondary school system began in 1905. Before then, only private secondary schooling was available. Today, a Victorian school education consists of seven years of primary schooling (including one preparatory year) and six years of secondary schooling.
The final years of secondary school are optional for children aged over 17. Victorian children generally begin school at age five or six. On completing secondary school, students earn the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) or Victorian Certificate of Applied Learning (VCAL). Students who successfully complete their VCE also receive an ATAR, to determine university admittance.
Victorian schools are either publicly or privately funded. Public schools, also known as state or government schools, are funded and run directly by the Victoria Department of Education Department of Education and Training Victoria. Students do not pay tuition fees, but some extra costs are levied. Private fee-paying schools include parish schools run by the Roman Catholic Church and independent schools similar to British public schools. Independent schools are usually affiliated with Protestant churches. Victoria also has several private Jewish and Islamic primary and secondary schools. Private schools also receive some public funding. All schools must comply with government-set curriculum standards. In addition, Victoria has six government selective schools, Melbourne High School for boys, MacRobertson Girls' High School for girls, the coeducational schools John Monash Science School, Nossal High School and Suzanne Cory High School, and the Victorian College of the Arts Secondary School. Students at these schools are exclusively admitted on the basis of an academic selective entry test.
As of February 2019, Victoria had 1,529 public schools, 496 Catholic schools and 219 independent schools. Just under 631,500 students were enrolled in public schools, and just over 357,000 in private schools. Over 58 per cent of private students attend Catholic schools. More than 552,300 students were enrolled in primary schools and more than 418,600 in secondary schools. Retention rates for the final two years of secondary school were 84.3 per cent for public school students and 91.5 per cent for private school students. Victoria has about 46,523 full-time teachers.
Tertiary education
Victoria has nine universities. The first to offer degrees, the University of Melbourne, enrolled its first student in 1855. The largest, Monash University, has an enrolment of over 83,000 students—more than any other Australian university.
The number of students enrolled in Victorian universities was 418,447 in 2018, an increase of 5.3% on the previous year. International students made up 40% of enrolments and account for the highest percentage of pre-paid university tuition fees. The largest number of enrolments were recorded in the fields of business, administration and economics, with nearly 30% of all students, followed by arts, humanities, and social science, with 18% of enrolments.
Victoria has 12 government-run institutions of technical and further education (TAFE). The first vocational institution in the state was the Melbourne Mechanics' Institute (established in 1839), which is now the Melbourne Athenaeum. More than 1,000 adult education organisations are registered to provide recognised TAFE programs. In 2014, there were 443,000 students enrolled in vocational education in the state. By 2018, the number of students in the sector had dropped by 40 per cent to 265,000—a five-year low which the education department attributed to withdrawal of funding to low-quality providers and a societal shift to university education.
Libraries
The State Library Victoria is the State's research and reference library. It is responsible for collecting and preserving Victoria's documentary heritage and making it available through a range of services and programs. Material in the collection includes books, newspapers, magazines, journals, manuscripts, maps, pictures, objects, sound and video recordings and databases.
In addition, local governments maintain local lending libraries, typically with multiple branches in their respective municipal areas.
Economy
The state of Victoria is the second largest economy in Australia after New South Wales, accounting for a quarter of the nation's gross domestic product. The total gross state product (GSP) at current prices for Victoria was A$459 billion in June 2020, with a GSP per capita of A$68,996.
Finance and insurance is Victoria's largest income producing sector, while the health care and social assistance sector is the state's biggest employer. The shift towards service industries in the preceding decades has seen manufacturing lose its mantle as Victoria's largest employer and income producer.
Agriculture
During 2003–04, the gross value of Victorian agricultural production increased by 17% to $8.7 billion. This represented 24% of national agricultural production total gross value. As of 2004, an estimated 32,463 farms occupied around of Victorian land. This comprises more than 60% of the state's total land surface. Victorian farms range from small horticultural outfits to large-scale livestock and grain productions. A quarter of farmland is used to grow consumable crops.
More than of Victorian farmland are sown for grain, mostly in the state's west. More than 50% of this area is sown for wheat, 33% for barley and 7% for oats. A further is sown for hay. In 2003–04, Victorian farmers produced more than of wheat and of barley. Pgt standard race 126 was the most common (Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici) race here from 1929 to 1941, as it was for the whole of Australia. First detected on Tasmania in 1954, standard race 21 was the most common race by the next year in this state, the southern part of NSW, and Tasmania. (P. triticina) is known to have been present here, and throughout the continent, at least since European colonization. P. triticina pathotype was first found here in 1984 and has contributed to populations ever since. It is considered to be foreign to Australia due to a difference in pathogenicity and due to its unique allele.
Victorian farms produce nearly 90% of Australian pears and a third of apples. It is also a leader in stone fruit (Prunus) production. The main vegetable crops include asparagus, broccoli, carrots, potatoes and tomatoes. Last year, of pears and of tomatoes were produced.
More than 14 million sheep and 5 million lambs graze over 10% of Victorian farms, mostly in the state's north and west. In 2004, nearly 10 million lambs and sheep were slaughtered for local consumption and export. Victoria also exports live sheep to the Middle East for meat and to the rest of the world for breeding. More than of wool clip was also produced—one-fifth of the Australian total.
Victoria is the centre of dairy farming in Australia. It is home to 60% of Australia's 3 million dairy cattle and produces nearly two-thirds of the nation's milk, almost . The state also has 2.4 million beef cattle, with more than 2.2 million cattle and calves slaughtered each year. In 2003–04, Victorian commercial fishing crews and aquaculture industry produced of seafood valued at nearly A$109 million. Blacklipped abalone is the mainstay of the catch, bringing in A$46 million, followed by southern rock lobster worth A$13.7 million. Most abalone and rock lobster is exported to Asia.
there are almost 100 strawberry farms here, most close to Melbourne CBD in the Yarra Valley. They are represented by the organization. They recommend varieties for production here.
Most of Australia including this state imposed a moratorium on GM canola in 2003 to consider the positives and negatives. After consideration the ban here was lifted in 2008 and the state's produced a review of the effects of the moratorium and the expected economic and other effects of adoption or failure to adopt GM canola. The government finds a benefit of AUS/season over conventional.
Manufacturing
Victoria has a diverse range of manufacturing enterprises and Melbourne is considered Australia's most important industrial city. The post-World War II manufacturing boom was fuelled by international investment; attracted to the state by the availability of cheap land close to the city and inexpensive energy from the Latrobe Valley. Victoria produced 26.4% of total manufacturing output in Australia in 2015–16, behind New South Wales at 32.4%.
Machinery and equipment manufacturing is the state's most valuable manufacturing activity, followed by food and beverage products, petrochemicals and chemicals. Prominent manufacturing plants in the state include the Portland and Point Henry aluminium smelters, owned by Alcoa; Geelong and Altona oil refineries; a major petrochemical facility at Laverton; and Victorian-based CSL, a global biotechnology company that produces vaccines and plasma products, among others. Victoria also plays an important role in providing goods for the defence industry.
Victoria proportionally relies on manufacturing more than any other state in Australia, constituting 8.6% of total state product; slightly higher than South Australia at 8.0%. However, this proportion has been declining for three decades; in 1990 at the time of the early 1990s recession manufacturing constituted 20.3% of total state output. Manufacturing output peaked in absolute terms in 2008, reaching $28.8 billion and has slowly fallen over the decade to $26.8 billion in 2016 (−0.77% per annum). Since 1990, manufacturing employment has also fallen in both aggregate (367,700 to 274,400 workers) and proportional (17.8% to 9.0%) terms. The strong Australian dollar as a result of the 2000s mining boom, small population and isolation, high wage base and the general shift of manufacturing production towards developing countries have been cited as some of the reasons for this decline.
Historically, Victoria has been a hub for the manufacturing plants of the major car brands Ford, Toyota and Holden; however, closure announcements by all three companies in the 2010s has meant Australia will completely lose their car manufacturing industry by the end of 2017. Holden's announcement occurred in May 2013 following Ford's decision in December the previous year (Ford's Victorian plants, in Broadmeadows and Geelong, closed in October 2016). Toyota followed suit in February 2014 with an expected announcement as without Holden or Ford, local supply chains would struggle to create the economics of scale required to supply one manufacturer.
Land
Victoria adopted the Torrens system of land registration with the Real Property Act 1862. The Torrens system did not replace the common law system but applied only to new land grants and to land that has been voluntarily registered under the Act, and its successors. The common law system continues to apply to all other private landholdings. Crown land held in Victoria is managed under the Crown Land (Reserves) Act 1978 and the Land Act 1958.
Mining
Mining in Victoria contributes around A$6 billion to the gross state product (~2%) but employs less than 1% of workers. The Victorian mining industry is concentrated on energy producing minerals, with brown coal, petroleum and gas accounting for nearly 90% of local production. The oil and gas industries are centred off the coast of Gippsland in the state's east, while brown coal mining and power generation is based in the Latrobe Valley.
In the 2005–06 fiscal year, the average gas production was over per day (M cuft/d) and represented 18% of the total national gas sales, with demand growing at 2% per year.
In 1985, oil production from the offshore Gippsland Basin peaked to an annual average of per day. In 2005–2006, the average daily oil production has declined to /d, but despite the decline Victoria still produces almost 19.5% of crude oil in Australia.
Brown coal is Victoria's leading mineral, with 66 million tonnes mined each year for electricity generation in the Latrobe Valley, Gippsland. The region is home to the world's largest known reserves of brown coal.
Despite being the historic centre of Australia's gold rush, Victoria today contributes a mere 1% of national gold production. Victoria also produces limited amounts of gypsum and kaolin. Victoria's gold production is mostly derived from the Fosterville and Stawell Gold Mines.
Service industry
The service industries sector is the fastest growing component of the Victorian economy. It includes the wide range of activities generally classified as financial and professional services; health care and social assistance, education, transportation, IT and communication services, government services and wholesale and retail trade. Most service industries are located in Melbourne and the state's larger regional centres.
As of 2015–16, service industries employed over three-quarters of Victorian workers and more than three-quarters of the state's GSP. Finance and insurance as a group provide more value-add to the economy than any other economic activity in Victoria while health care and social assistance employ the most workers.
Tourism
Some major tourist destinations in Victoria are:
The metropolis of Melbourne, particular its inner city suburbs (known also for shopping tourism) and the attractions of the city centre such as Melbourne Zoo, Melbourne Museum, the Melbourne Aquarium and Scienceworks, tourism precincts such as Melbourne Docklands, Southbank and St Kilda as well as cultural and sporting tourist icons such as Arts Centre Melbourne, the East End Theatre District, the National Gallery of Victoria, the Melbourne Cricket Ground, also known as the MCG, and the Eureka Tower, with the highest observation deck in the Southern Hemisphere, Skydeck 88.
Victoria has more than 2000 kilometres of coastline with hundreds of beaches.
The Goldfields region featuring the historic cities of Ballarat, Beechworth, Bendigo, Castlemaine, Maldon and Daylesford.
Natural attractions, such as The Twelve Apostles, Wilsons Promontory, The Grampians, the fairy penguins (particularly at Phillip Island and St Kilda), the Buchan Caves and the Gippsland Lakes.
The Dandenong Ranges (in particular the Puffing Billy Railway).
Healesville Sanctuary, which specialises in local Australian species.
Towns along the Murray River and Riverina including Echuca and Mildura including waterskiing.
Geelong and its famous Waterfront, Eastern Beach and Geelong West's Pakington Street
The Bellarine Peninsula which features vineyards and historic resort towns such as Queenscliff, Drysdale and Portarlington
The Werribee Mansion and Werribee Open Range Zoo
The Surf Coast which features famous beaches such as Bells Beach, Torquay and Lorne
Mornington Peninsula, particularly for its wineries in Red Hill and secluded beaches in Mount Eliza and Mornington, The Pillars in Mount Martha, Arthur's Seat and the coastal attractions of Portsea, Sorrento and Flinders.
Yarra Valley (in particular Healesville Sanctuary and wineries).
Great Ocean Road, which features The Twelve Apostles, historic towns of Port Fairy and Portland, cliffs and whale watching and resort towns such as Lorne.
The Victorian Alpine Region, part of the Australian Alps, particularly for skiing
The Central Victorian Highlands, "High country" are very well known for winter sports and bushwalking
Wine regions across the entire state.
Other popular tourism activities are gliding, hang-gliding, hot air ballooning and scuba diving.
Major events that explore cultural diversity, music and sports play a big part in Victoria's tourism. The V8 Supercars and Australian Motorcycle Grand Prix at Phillip Island, the Grand Annual Steeplechase at Warrnambool and the Australian International Airshow at Avalon and numerous local festivals such as the popular Port Fairy Folk Festival, Queenscliff Music Festival, Pako Festa in Geelong West, Bells Beach Surf Classic and the Bright Autumn Festival amongst others.
Transport
Victoria has the highest population density in any state in Australia, with population centres spread out over most of the state; only the far northwest and the Victorian Alps lack permanent settlement.
The Victorian road network services the population centres, with highways generally radiating from Melbourne and other major cities and rural centres with secondary roads interconnecting the highways to each other. Many of the highways are built to freeway standard ("M" freeways), while most are generally sealed and of reasonable quality.
Rail transport in Victoria is provided by several private and public railway operators who operate over government-owned lines. Major operators include: Metro Trains Melbourne which runs an extensive, electrified, passenger system throughout Melbourne and suburbs; V/Line which is now owned by the Victorian Government, operates a concentrated service to major regional centres, as well as long-distance services on other lines; Pacific National, CFCL Australia which operate freight services; Great Southern Rail which operates The Overland Melbourne—Adelaide; and NSW TrainLink which operates XPTs Melbourne—Sydney.
There are also several smaller freight operators and numerous tourist railways operating over lines which were once parts of a state-owned system. Victorian lines mainly use the broad gauge. However, the interstate trunk routes, as well as a number of freight lines in the north and west of the state have been converted to standard gauge. Two tourist railways operate over narrow gauge lines, which are the remnants of five formerly government-owned lines which were built in mountainous areas.
Melbourne has the world's largest tram network, currently operated by Yarra Trams. As well as being a popular form of public transport, over the last few decades trams have become one of Melbourne's major tourist attractions. There are also tourist trams operating over portions of the former Ballarat and Bendigo systems. There are also tramway museums at Bylands, Haddon and Hawthorn.
Melbourne Airport is the major domestic and international gateway for the state. Avalon Airport is the state's second busiest airport, which complements Essendon and Moorabbin Airports to see the remainder of Melbourne's air traffic. Hamilton Airport, Mildura Airport, Mount Hotham and Portland Airport are the remaining airports with scheduled domestic flights. There are no fewer than 27 other airports in the state with no scheduled flights.
The Port of Melbourne is the largest port for containerised and general cargo in Australia, and is located in Melbourne on the mouth of the Yarra River, which is at the head of Port Phillip. Additional seaports are at Westernport, Geelong, and Portland.
As of October 2013, smoking tobacco is prohibited in the sheltered areas of train stations, and tram and bus stops, as is the use of e-cigarettes. Between 2012 and 2013, 2002 people were issued with infringement notices. The state government announced a plan in October 2013 to prohibit smoking on all Victorian railway station platforms and raised tram stops.
Utilities
Energy
Victoria's major utilities include a collection of brown-coal-fired power stations, particularly in the Latrobe Valley. One of these was the recently decommissioned Hazelwood Power Station, which was number 1 on the worldwide List of least carbon efficient power stations. The Victorian government is aiming to cut 40.6 mega tonnes of greenhouse gases emissions by 2025.
Water
Victoria's water infrastructure includes a series of dams and reservoirs, predominantly in Central Victoria, that hold and collect water for much of the state. The water collected is of a very high quality and requires little chlorination treatment, giving the water a taste more like water collected in a rainwater tank. In regional areas however, such as in the west of the state, chlorination levels are much higher.
The Victorian Water Grid consists of a number of new connections and pipelines being built across the State. This allows water to be moved around Victoria to where it is needed most and reduces the impact of localised droughts in an era thought to be influenced by climate change. Major projects already completed as part of the Grid include the Wimmera Mallee Pipeline and the Goldfields Superpipe.
Sport
Victoria is the home of Australian rules football, with ten of the 18 Australian Football League (AFL) clubs based in the state. The AFL Grand Final is traditionally held at the Melbourne Cricket Ground on the last Saturday of September. The state has a public holiday the day before the Grand Final, which coincides with the AFL Grand Final parade.
The Victorian cricket team play in the national Sheffield Shield cricket competition. Victoria is represented in the National Rugby League by the Melbourne Storm and in Super Rugby by the Melbourne Rebels. It is represented in the National Basketball League by Melbourne United and South East Melbourne Phoenix. It is also represented in soccer by Melbourne Victory, Melbourne City and Western United in the A-League.
Melbourne has held the 1956 Summer Olympics, 2006 Commonwealth Games and the FINA World Swimming Championship.
Melbourne is also home to the Australian Open tennis tournament in January each year, which is the first of the world's four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, as well as the Formula One Australian Grand Prix, which is, on an annual basis, usually held in March or April. It hosted the Australian Masters golf tournament from 1979 to 2015.
Victoria's Bells Beach hosts one of the world's longest-running surfing competition, the Bells Beach SurfClassic, which is part of The ASP World Tour.
The Melbourne Vixens and Collingwood Magpies Netball represent Victoria in the National Netball League.
Victoria's Phillip Island is home of the Phillip Island Grand Prix Circuit which hosts the Australian motorcycle Grand Prix which features MotoGP (the world's premier motorcycling class), as well as the Australian round of the World Superbike Championship and the domestic V8 Supercar racing, which also visits Sandown Raceway and the rural Winton Motor Raceway circuit.
Australia's most prestigious footrace, the Stawell Gift, is an annual event.
Victoria is also home to the Aussie Millions poker tournament, the tournament with the highest potential proceeds in the Southern Hemisphere.
The main horse racing tracks in Victoria are Caulfield Racecourse, Flemington Racecourse and Sandown Racecourse. The Melbourne Spring Racing Carnival is one of the biggest horse racing events in the world and is one of the world's largest sporting events. The main race is for the $6 million Melbourne Cup, and crowds for the carnival usually exceed 700,000.
Victoria was due to host the 2026 Commonwealth Games but withdrew on 18 July 2023 as a result of increased costs of holding the event.
Major professional teams include:
Australian rules football (AFL): Carlton, Collingwood, Essendon, Geelong Cats, Hawthorn, Melbourne, North Melbourne, Richmond, St Kilda, Western Bulldogs
Basketball (NBL): Melbourne United, South East Melbourne Phoenix
Cricket (BBL): Melbourne Renegades, Melbourne Stars
Cricket (Sheffield Shield and Marsh One-Day Cup): Victoria cricket team
Netball (NNL): Melbourne Vixens, Collingwood Magpies
Rugby league (NRL): Melbourne Storm
Rugby union (Super Rugby): Melbourne Rebels
Soccer (A-League): Melbourne City, Melbourne Victory, Western United
Sister states
Victoria has four sister states:
Jiangsu, China (1979)
Aichi Prefecture, Japan (1980)
Busan, South Korea (1994)
Sichuan, China (2016)
See also
Geography of Victoria
List of highways in Victoria
Protected areas of Victoria (Australia)
Vicmap Topographic Map Series
Notes
References
Further reading
Victorian frontier history
Jan Critchett (1990), A distant field of murder: Western district frontiers, 1834–1848, Melbourne University Press (Carlton, Vic. and Portland, Or.) .
Ian D Clark (1990), Aboriginal languages and clans: An historical atlas of western and central Victoria, 1800–1900, Dept. of Geography & Environmental Science, Monash University (Melbourne), .
Ian D Clark (1995), Scars in the landscape: A register of massacre sites in western Victoria, 1803–1859, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (Canberra), .
Ian D Clark (2003), "That's my country belonging to me": Aboriginal land tenure and dispossession in nineteenth century Western Victoria, Ballarat Heritage Services, Ballarat.
External links
Official Government tourism website
Victorian Places website
Tourism Victoria's Online Image Library
Victoria's Households Schemes
Properties for Sale in Mornington Peninsula
States and territories of Australia
Former British colonies and protectorates in Oceania
States and territories established in 1851
1851 establishments in Australia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor%20Castle
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Windsor Castle
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Windsor Castle is a royal residence at Windsor in the English county of Berkshire. It is strongly associated with the English and succeeding British royal family, and embodies almost a millennium of architectural history.
The original castle was built in the 11th century, after the Norman invasion of England by William the Conqueror. Since the time of Henry I (who reigned 1100–1135), it has been used by the reigning monarch and is the longest-occupied palace in Europe. The castle's lavish early 19th-century state apartments were described by the art historian Hugh Roberts as "a superb and unrivalled sequence of rooms widely regarded as the finest and most complete expression of later Georgian taste". Inside the castle walls is the 15th-century St George's Chapel, considered by the historian John Martin Robinson to be "one of the supreme achievements of English Perpendicular Gothic" design.
Originally designed to project Norman dominance around the outskirts of London and oversee a strategically important part of the River Thames, Windsor Castle was built as a motte-and-bailey, with three wards surrounding a central mound. Gradually replaced with stone fortifications, the castle withstood a prolonged siege during the First Barons' War at the start of the 13th century. Henry III built a luxurious royal palace within the castle during the middle of the century, and Edward III went further, rebuilding the palace to make an even grander set of buildings in what would become "the most expensive secular building project of the entire Middle Ages in England". Edward's core design lasted through the Tudor period, during which Henry VIII and Elizabeth I made increasing use of the castle as a royal court and centre for diplomatic entertainment.
Windsor Castle survived the tumultuous period of the English Civil War, when it was used as a military headquarters by Parliamentary forces and a prison for Charles I. At the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, Charles II rebuilt much of Windsor Castle with the help of the architect Hugh May, creating a set of extravagant Baroque interiors. After a period of neglect during the 18th century, George III and George IV renovated and rebuilt Charles II's palace at colossal expense, producing the current design of the state apartments, full of Rococo, Gothic and Baroque furnishings. Queen Victoria made a few minor changes to the castle, which became the centre for royal entertainment for much of her reign. In the reign of George VI, it was used as a refuge by the royal family during the Luftwaffe bombing campaigns of the Second World War. An extensive restoration of several state rooms took place after the castle survived a fire in 1992. It is a popular tourist attraction, a venue for hosting state visits, and was the main residence of Elizabeth II from 2011 to 2022.
Architecture
Windsor Castle grounds cover 13 acres (52,609 square metres) and combines the features of a fortification, a palace, and a small town. The present-day castle was created during a sequence of phased building projects, culminating in the reconstruction work after a fire in 1992. It is in essence a Georgian and Victorian design based on a medieval structure, with Gothic features reinvented in a modern style. Since the 14th century, architecture at the castle has attempted to produce a contemporary reinterpretation of older fashions and traditions, repeatedly imitating outmoded or even antiquated styles. As a result, architect Sir William Whitfield has pointed to Windsor Castle's architecture as having "a certain fictive quality", the Picturesque and Gothic design generating "a sense that a theatrical performance is being put on here", despite late 20th century efforts to expose more of the older structures to increase the sense of authenticity. Although there has been some criticism, the castle's architecture and history lends it a "place amongst the greatest European palaces".
Middle Ward
At the heart of Windsor Castle is the Middle Ward, a bailey formed around the motte or artificial hill in the centre of the ward. The motte is high and is made from chalk originally excavated from the surrounding ditch. The keep, called the Round Tower, on the top of the motte is based on an original 12th century building, extended upwards in the early 19th century under architect Jeffry Wyatville by to produce a more imposing height and silhouette. The interior of the Round Tower was further redesigned in 1991–1993 to provide additional space for the Royal Archives, an additional room being built in the space left by Wyatville's originally hollow extension. The Round Tower is in reality far from cylindrical, due to the shape and structure of the motte beneath it. The current height of the tower has been criticised as being disproportionate to its width; archaeologist Tim Tatton-Brown, for example, has described it as a mutilation of the earlier medieval structure.
The western entrance to the Middle Ward is now open, and a gateway leads north from the ward onto the North Terrace. The eastern exit from the ward is guarded by the Norman Gatehouse. This gatehouse, which, despite its name, dates from the 14th century, is heavily vaulted and decorated with carvings, including surviving medieval lion masks, traditional symbols of majesty, to form an impressive entrance to the Upper Ward. Wyatville redesigned the exterior of the gatehouse, and the interior was later heavily converted in the 19th century for residential use.
Upper Ward
The Upper Ward of Windsor Castle comprises a number of major buildings enclosed by the upper bailey wall, forming a central quadrangle. The State Apartments run along the north of the ward, with a range of buildings along the east wall, and the private royal apartments and the King George IV Gate to the south, with the Edward III Tower in the south-west corner. The motte and the Round Tower form the west edge of the ward. A bronze statue of Charles II on horseback sits beneath the Round Tower. Inspired by Hubert Le Sueur's statue of Charles I in London, the statue was cast by Josias Ibach in 1679, with the marble plinth featuring carvings by Grinling Gibbons. The Upper Ward adjoins the North Terrace, which overlooks the River Thames, and the East Terrace, which overlooks the Home Park; both of the current terraces were constructed by Hugh May in the 17th century. The East Terrace has a private formal rose garden, first laid out by George IV in the 1820s. The present garden was updated by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, after it was used for victory garden production during World War II, tended in part by Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret. In 2020 it was announced that for a limited time the garden would be open to the public for the first time in 40 years.
Traditionally the Upper Ward was judged to be "to all intents and purposes a nineteenth century creation ... the image of what the early nineteenth-century thought a castle should be", as a result of the extensive redesign of the castle by Wyatville under George IV. The walls of the Upper Ward are built of Bagshot Heath stone faced on the inside with regular bricks, the gothic details in yellow Bath stone. The buildings in the Upper Ward are characterised by the use of small bits of flint in the mortar for galletting, originally started at the castle in the 17th century to give stonework from disparate periods a similar appearance. The skyline of the Upper Ward is designed to be dramatic when seen from a distance or silhouetted against the horizon, an image of tall towers and battlements influenced by the picturesque movement of the late 18th century. Archaeological and restoration work following the 1992 fire has shown the extent to which the current structure represents a survival of elements from the original 12th century stone walls onwards, presented within the context of Wyatville's final remodelling.
State Apartments
The State Apartments form the major part of the Upper Ward and lie along the north side of the quadrangle. The modern building follows the medieval foundations laid down by Edward III, with the ground floor comprising service chambers and cellars, and the much grander first floor forming the main part of the palace. On the first floor, the layout of the western end of the State Apartments is primarily the work of architect Hugh May, whereas the structure on the eastern side represents Jeffry Wyatville's plans.
The interior of the State Apartments was mostly designed by Wyatville in the early 19th century. Wyatville intended each room to illustrate a particular architectural style and to display the matching furnishings and fine arts of the period. With some alterations over the years, this concept continues to dominate the apartments. Different rooms follow the Classical, Gothic and Rococo styles, together with an element of Jacobethan in places. Many of the rooms on the eastern end of the castle had to be restored following the 1992 fire, using "equivalent restoration" methods – the rooms were restored so as to appear similar to their original appearance, but using modern materials and concealing modern structural improvements. These rooms were also partially redesigned at the same time to more closely match modern tastes. Art historian Hugh Roberts has praised the State Apartments as "a superb and unrivalled sequence of rooms widely regarded as the finest and most complete expression of later Georgian taste." Others, such as architect Robin Nicolson and critic Hugh Pearman, have described them as "bland" and "distinctly dull".
Wyatville's most famous work are those rooms designed in a Rococo style. These rooms take the fluid, playful aspects of this mid-18th century artistic movement, including many original pieces of Louis XV style, but project them on a "vastly inflated" scale. Investigations after the 1992 fire have shown though that many Rococo features of the modern castle, originally thought to have been 18th century fittings transferred from Carlton House or France, are in fact 19th century imitations in plasterwork and wood, designed to blend with original elements. The Grand Reception Room is the most prominent of these Rococo designs, long and tall and occupying the site of Edward III's great hall. This room, restored after the fire, includes a huge French Rococo ceiling, characterised by Ian Constantinides, the lead restorer, as possessing a "coarseness of form and crudeness of hand ... completely overshadowed by the sheer spectacular effect when you are at a distance". The room is set off by a set of restored Gobelins French tapestries. Although decorated with less gold leaf than in the 1820s, the result remains "one of the greatest set-pieces of Regency decoration". The White, Green and Crimson Drawing Rooms include a total of 62 trophies: carved, gilded wooden panels illustrating weapons and the spoils of war, many with Masonic meanings. Restored or replaced after the fire, these trophies are famous for their "vitality, precision and three-dimensional quality", and were originally brought from Carlton House in 1826, some being originally imported from France and others carved by Edward Wyatt. The soft furnishings of these rooms, although luxurious, are more modest than the 1820s originals, both on the grounds of modern taste and cost.
Wyatville's design retains three rooms originally built by May in the 17th century in partnership with the painter Antonio Verrio and carver Grinling Gibbons. The Queen's Presence Chamber, the Queen's Audience Chamber and the King's Dining Room are designed in a Baroque, Franco-Italian style, characterised by "gilded interiors enriched with florid murals", first introduced to England between 1648 and 1650 at Wilton House. Verrio's paintings are "drenched in medievalist allusion" and classical images. These rooms were intended to show an innovative English "baroque fusion" of the hitherto separate arts of architecture, painting and carving.
A handful of rooms in the modern State Apartments reflect either 18th century or Victorian Gothic design. The State Dining Room, for example, whose current design originates from the 1850s but which was badly damaged during the 1992 fire, is restored to its appearance in the 1920s, before the removal of some of the gilded features on the pilasters. Anthony Salvin's Grand Staircase is also of mid-Victorian design in the Gothic style, rising to a double-height hall lit by an older 18th century Gothic vaulted lantern tower called the Grand Vestibule, designed by James Wyatt and executed by Francis Bernasconi. The staircase has been criticised by historian John Robinson as being a distinctly inferior design to the earlier staircases built on the same site by both Wyatt and May.
Some parts of the State Apartments were completely destroyed in the 1992 fire and this area was rebuilt in a style called "Downesian Gothic", named after the architect, Giles Downes. The style comprises "the rather stripped, cool and systematic coherence of modernism sewn into a reinterpretation of the Gothic tradition". Downes argues that the style avoids "florid decoration", emphasising an organic, flowing Gothic structure. Three new rooms were built or remodelled by Downes at Windsor. Downes' new hammer-beam roof of St George's Hall is the largest green-oak structure built since the Middle Ages, and is decorated with brightly coloured shields celebrating the heraldic element of the Order of the Garter; the design attempts to create an illusion of additional height through the gothic woodwork along the ceiling. The Lantern Lobby used to welcome guests features flowing oak columns forming a vaulted ceiling, imitating an arum lily and is where the pre-fire chapel built for Queen Victoria was located. The new Private Chapel is relatively intimate, only able to fit thirty worshippers, but combines architectural elements of the St George's Hall roof with the Lantern Lobby and the stepped arch structure of the Henry VIII chapel vaulting at Hampton Court. The result is an "extraordinary, continuous and closely moulded net of tracery", complementing the new stained glass windows commemorating the fire, designed by Joseph Nuttgen, based on an idea of Prince Philip's. The Great Kitchen, with its newly exposed 14th-century roof lantern sitting alongside Wyatville's fireplaces, chimneys and Gothic tables, is also a product of the reconstruction after the fire.
The ground floor of the State Apartments retains various famous medieval features. The 14th-century Great Undercroft still survives, some long by wide, divided into 13 bays. At the time of the 1992 fire, the Undercroft had been divided into smaller rooms; the area is now opened up to form a single space in an effort to echo the undercrofts at Fountains and Rievaulx Abbeys, although the floor remains artificially raised for convenience of use. The "beautifully vaulted" 14th-century Larderie passage runs alongside the Kitchen Courtyard and is decorated with carved royal roses, marking its construction by Edward III.
Lower Ward
The Lower Ward lies below and to the west of the Round Tower, reached through the Norman Gate. Originally largely of medieval design, most of the Lower Ward was renovated or reconstructed during the mid-Victorian period by Anthony Salvin and Edward Blore, to form a "consistently Gothic composition". The Lower Ward holds St George's Chapel and most of the buildings associated with the Order of the Garter.
On the north side of the Lower Ward is St George's Chapel. This huge building is the spiritual home of the Order of the Knights of the Garter and dates from the late 15th and early 16th century, designed in the Perpendicular Gothic style. The ornate wooden choir stalls are of 15th century design, having been restored and extended by Henry Emlyn at the end of the 18th century, and are decorated with a unique set of brass plates showing the arms of the Knights of the Garter over the last six centuries. On the west side, the chapel has a grand Victorian door and staircase, used on ceremonial occasions. The east stained glass window is Victorian, and the oriel window to the north side of it was built by Henry VIII for Catherine of Aragon. The vault in front of the altar houses the remains of Henry VIII, Jane Seymour and Charles I, with Edward IV buried nearby. The chapel is considered by historian John Robinson to be "one of the supreme achievements of English Perpendicular Gothic" design.
At the east end of St George's Chapel is the Lady Chapel, originally built by Henry III in the 13th century and converted into the Albert Memorial Chapel between 1863 and 1873 by George Gilbert Scott. Built to commemorate the life of Prince Albert, the ornate chapel features lavish decoration and works in marble, glass mosaic and bronze by Henri de Triqueti, Susan Durant, Alfred Gilbert and Antonio Salviati. The east door of the chapel, covered in ornamental ironwork, is the original door from 1246.
At the west end of the Lower Ward is the Horseshoe Cloister, originally built in 1480, near to the chapel to house its clergy. It houses the vicars-choral, or lay clerks of the chapel. This curved brick and timber building is said to have been designed to resemble the shape of a fetlock, one of the badges used by Edward IV. George Gilbert Scott heavily restored the building in 1871 and little of the original structure remains. Other ranges originally built by Edward III sit alongside the Horseshoe, featuring stone perpendicular tracery. As of 2011, they are used as offices, a library and as the houses for the Dean and Canons.
Behind the Horseshoe Cloister is the Curfew Tower, one of the oldest surviving parts of the Lower Ward and dating from the 13th century. The interior of the tower contains a former dungeon, and the remnants of a sally port, a secret exit for the occupants in a time of siege. The upper storey contains the castle bells placed there in 1478, and the castle clock of 1689. The French-style conical roof is a 19th-century attempt by Anthony Salvin to remodel the tower in the fashion of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc's recreation of Carcassonne.
On the opposite side of the chapel is a range of buildings including the lodgings of the Military Knights, and the residence of the Governor of the Military Knights. These buildings originate from the 16th century and are still used by the Knights, who represent the Order of the Garter each Sunday. On the south side of the Ward is King Henry VIII's gateway, which bears the coat of arms of Catherine of Aragon and forms the secondary entrance to the castle.
Park and landscape
Windsor Castle's position on top of steep ground has meant that the castle's gardens are limited in scale. The castle gardens stretch east from the Upper Ward across a 19th-century terrace. Windsor Castle is surrounded by extensive parkland. The immediate area stretching to the east of the castle is a 19th-century creation known as the Home Park. The Home Park includes parkland and two working farms, along with many estate cottages mainly occupied by employees and the Frogmore estate. The Long Walk, a double lined avenue of trees, runs for south of the castle, and is 240 ft (75 m) wide. The original 17th century elms were replaced with alternating chestnut and plane trees. The impact of Dutch elm disease led to large-scale replanting after 1945.
The Home Park adjoins the northern edge of the more extensive Windsor Great Park, occupying some and including some of the oldest broadleaved woodlands in Europe. In the Home Park, to the north of the castle, stands a private school, St George's, which provides choristers to the chapel. Eton College is located about half a mile from the castle, across the River Thames, reflecting the fact that it was a royal foundation of Henry VI.
History
11th and 12th centuries
Windsor Castle was originally built by William the Conqueror in the decade after the Norman conquest of 1066. William established a defensive ring of motte and bailey castles around London; each was a day's march – about – from the City and from the next castle, allowing for easy reinforcements in a crisis. Windsor Castle, one of this ring of fortifications, was strategically important because of its proximity to both the River Thames, a key medieval route into London, and Windsor Forest, a royal hunting preserve previously used by the Saxon kings. The nearby settlement of Clivore, or Clewer, was an old Saxon residence. The initial wooden castle consisted of a keep on the top of a man-made motte, or mound, protected by a small bailey wall, occupying a chalk inlier, or bluff, rising 100 ft (30 m) above the river. A second wooden bailey was constructed to the east of the keep, forming the later Upper Ward. By the end of the century, another bailey had been constructed to the west, creating the basic shape of the modern castle. In design, Windsor most closely resembled Arundel Castle, another powerful early Norman fortification, but the double bailey design was also found at Rockingham and Alnwick Castle.
Windsor was not initially used as a royal residence. The early Norman kings preferred to use the former palace of Edward the Confessor in the village of Old Windsor. The first king to use Windsor Castle as a residence was Henry I, who celebrated Whitsuntide at the castle in 1110 during a period of heightened insecurity. Henry's marriage to Adela, the daughter of Godfrey of Louvain, took place in the castle in 1121. During this period the keep suffered a substantial collapse – archaeological evidence shows that the southern side of the motte subsided by over 6 ft (2 m). Timber piles were driven in to support the motte and the old wooden keep was replaced with a new stone shell keep, with a probable gateway to the north-east and a new stone well. A chemise, or low protective wall, was subsequently added to the keep.
Henry II came to the throne in 1154 and built extensively at Windsor between 1165 and 1179. Henry replaced the wooden palisade surrounding the upper ward with a stone wall interspersed with square towers and built the first King's Gate. The first stone keep was suffering from subsidence, and cracks were beginning to appear in the stonework of the south side. Henry replaced the keep with another stone shell keep and chemise wall, but moved the walls in from the edge of the motte to relieve the pressure on the mound, and added massive foundations along the south side to provide additional support. Inside the castle Henry remodelled the royal accommodation. Bagshot Heath stone was used for most of the work, and stone from Bedfordshire for the internal buildings.
13th century
King John undertook some building works at Windsor, but primarily to the accommodation rather than the defences. The castle played a role during the revolt of the English barons: the castle was besieged in 1214, and John used the castle as his base during the negotiations before the signing of Magna Carta at nearby Runnymede in 1215. In 1216 the castle was besieged again by baronial and French troops under the command of the Count of Nevers, but John's constable, Engelard de Cigogné, successfully defended it.
The damage done to the castle during the second siege was immediately repaired in 1216 and 1221 by Cigogné on behalf of John's successor Henry III, who further strengthened the defences. The walls of the Lower Ward were rebuilt in stone, complete with a gatehouse in the location of the future Henry VIII Gate, between 1224 and 1230. Three new towers, the Curfew, Garter and the Salisbury towers, were constructed. The Middle Ward was heavily reinforced with a southern stone wall, protected by the new Edward III and Henry III towers at each end.
Windsor Castle was one of Henry III's three favourite residences and he invested heavily in the royal accommodation, spending more money at Windsor than in any other of his properties. Following his marriage to Eleanor of Provence, Henry built a luxurious palace in 1240–1263, based around a court along the north side of the Upper Ward. This was intended primarily for the queen and Henry's children. In the Lower Ward, the king ordered the construction of a range of buildings for his own use along the south wall, including a 70 ft (21 m) long chapel, later called the Lady Chapel. This was the grandest of the numerous chapels built for his own use, and comparable to the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris in size and quality. Henry repaired the Great Hall that lay along the north side of the Lower Ward, and enlarged it with a new kitchen and built a covered walkway between the Hall and the kitchen. Henry's work was characterised by the religious overtones of the rich decorations, which formed "one of the high-water marks of English medieval art". The conversion cost more than £10,000. The result was to create a division in the castle between a more private Upper Ward and a Lower Ward devoted to the public face of the monarchy. Little further building was carried out at the castle during the 13th century; the Great Hall in the Lower Ward was destroyed by fire in 1296, but it was not rebuilt.
14th century
Edward III was born at Windsor Castle and used it extensively throughout his reign. In 1344 the king announced the foundation of the new Order of the Round Table at the castle. Edward began to construct a new building in the castle to host this order, but it was never finished. Chroniclers described it as a round building, 200 ft (61 m) across, and it was probably in the centre of the Upper Ward. Shortly afterwards, Edward abandoned the new order for reasons that remain unclear, and instead established the Order of the Garter, again with Windsor Castle as its headquarters, complete with the attendant Poor Knights of Windsor. As part of this process Edward decided to rebuild Windsor Castle, in particular Henry III's palace, in an attempt to construct a castle that would be symbolic of royal power and chivalry. Edward was influenced both by the military successes of his grandfather, Edward I, and by the decline of royal authority under his father, Edward II, and aimed to produce an innovative, "self-consciously aesthetic, muscled, martial architecture".
Edward placed William of Wykeham in overall charge of the rebuilding and design of the new castle and whilst work was ongoing Edward stayed in temporary accommodation in the Round Tower. Between 1350 and 1377 Edward spent £51,000 on renovating Windsor Castle; this was the largest amount spent by any English medieval monarch on a single building operation, and over one and a half times Edward's typical annual income of £30,000. Some of the costs of the castle were paid from the results of ransoms following Edward's victories at the battles of Crécy, Calais and Poitiers. Windsor Castle was already a substantial building before Edward began expanding it, making the investment all the more impressive, and much of the expenditure was lavished on rich furnishings. The castle was "the most expensive secular building project of the entire Middle Ages in England".
Edward's new palace consisted of three courts along the north side of the Upper Ward, called Little Cloister, King's Cloister and the Kitchen Court. At the front of the palace lay the St George's Hall range, which combined a new hall and a new chapel. This range had two symmetrical gatehouses, the Spicerie Gatehouse and the Kitchen Gatehouse. The Spicerie Gatehouse was the main entrance into the palace, whilst the Kitchen Gatehouse simply led into the kitchen courtyard. The great hall had numerous large windows looking out across the ward. The range had an unusual, unified roof-line and, with a taller roof than the rest of the palace, would have been highly distinctive. The Rose Tower, designed for the king's private use, set off the west corner of the range. The result was a "great and apparently architecturally unified palace ... uniform in all sorts of ways, as to roof line, window heights, cornice line, floor and ceiling heights". With the exception of the Hall, Chapel and the Great Chamber, the new interiors all shared a similar height and width. The defensive features, however, were primarily for show, possibly to provide a backdrop for jousting between the two-halves of the Order of the Garter.
Edward built further luxurious, self-contained lodgings for his court around the east and south edges of the Upper Ward, creating the modern shape of the quadrangle. The Norman gate was built to secure the west entrance to the Ward. In the Lower Ward, the chapel was enlarged and remodelled with grand buildings for the canons built alongside. The earliest weight-driven mechanical clock in England was installed by Edward III in the Round Tower in 1354. William of Wykeham went on to build New College, Oxford and Winchester College, where the influence of Windsor Castle can easily be seen.
The new castle was used to hold French prisoners taken at the Battle of Poitiers in 1357, including King John II, who was held for a considerable ransom. Later in the century, the castle also found favour with Richard II. Richard conducted restoration work on St George's Chapel, the work being carried out by Geoffrey Chaucer, who served as a diplomat and Clerk of The King's Works.
15th century
Windsor Castle continued to be favoured by monarchs in the 15th century, despite increasing political violence. Henry IV seized the castle during his coup in 1399, although failing to catch Richard II, who had escaped to London. Under Henry V, the castle hosted a visit from the Holy Roman Emperor in 1417, a massive diplomatic event that stretched the castle's accommodation to its limits.
By the middle of the 15th century England was increasingly divided between the rival royal factions of the Lancastrians and the Yorkists. Castles such as Windsor did not play a decisive role during the resulting Wars of the Roses (1455–1485), which were fought primarily in the form of pitched battles between the rival factions. Henry VI, born at Windsor Castle and known as Henry of Windsor, became king at the young age of nine months. His long period of minority, coupled with the increasing tensions between Henry's Lancastrian supporters and the Yorkists, distracted attention from Windsor. The Garter Feasts and other ceremonial activities at the castle became more infrequent and less well attended.
Edward IV seized power in 1461. When Edward captured Henry's wife, Margaret of Anjou, she was brought back to be detained at the castle. Edward began to revive the Order of the Garter, and held a particularly lavish feast in 1472. Edward began the construction of the present St. George's Chapel in 1475, resulting in the dismantling of several of the older buildings in the Lower Ward. By building the grand chapel Edward was seeking to show that his new dynasty were the permanent rulers of England, and may also have been attempting to deliberately rival the similar chapel that Henry VI had ordered to be constructed at nearby Eton College. Richard III made only a brief use of Windsor Castle before his defeat at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, but had the body of Henry VI moved from Chertsey Abbey in Surrey to the castle to allow it to be visited by pilgrims more easily.
Henry VII made more use of Windsor. In 1488, shortly after succeeding to the throne, he held a massive feast for the Order of the Garter at the castle. He completed the roof of St George's Chapel, and set about converting the older eastern Lady Chapel into a proposed shrine to Henry VI, whose canonisation was then considered imminent. In the event, Henry VI was not canonised and the project was abandoned, although the shrine continued to attract a flood of pilgrims. Henry VII appears to have remodelled the King's Chamber in the palace, and had the roof of the Great Kitchen rebuilt in 1489. He also built a three-storied tower on the west end of the palace, which he used for his personal apartments. Windsor began to be used for international diplomatic events, including the grand visit of Philip I of Castile in 1506. William de la Pole, one of the surviving Yorkist claimants to the throne, was imprisoned at Windsor Castle during Henry's reign, before his execution in 1513.
16th century
Henry VIII enjoyed Windsor Castle, as a young man "exercising himself daily in shooting, singing, dancing, wrestling, casting of the bar, playing at the recorders, flute, virginals, in setting of songs and making of ballads". The tradition of the Garter Feasts was maintained and became more extravagant; the size of the royal retinue visiting Windsor had to be restricted because of the growing numbers. During the Pilgrimage of Grace, a huge uprising in the north of England against Henry's rule in 1536, the king used Windsor as a secure base in the south from which to manage his military response. Throughout the Tudor period, Windsor was also used as a safe retreat in the event of plagues occurring in London.
Henry rebuilt the principal castle gateway in about 1510 and constructed a tennis court at the base of the motte in the Upper Ward. He also built a long terrace, called the North Wharf, along the outside wall of the Upper Ward; constructed of wood, it was designed to provide a commanding view of the River Thames below. The design included an outside staircase into the king's apartments, which made the monarch's life more comfortable at the expense of considerably weakening the castle's defences. Early in his reign, Henry had given the eastern Lady Chapel to Cardinal Wolsey for Wolsey's future mausoleum. Benedetto Grazzini converted much of this into an Italian Renaissance design, before Wolsey's fall from power brought an end to the project, with contemporaries estimating that around £60,000 (£295 million in 2008 terms) had been spent on the work. Henry continued the project, but it remained unfinished when he himself was buried in the chapel, in an elaborate funeral in 1547.
By contrast, the young Edward VI disliked Windsor Castle. Edward's Protestant beliefs led him to simplify the Garter ceremonies, to discontinue the annual Feast of the Garter at Windsor and to remove any signs of Catholic practices with the Order. During the rebellions and political strife of 1549, Windsor was again used as a safe-haven for the king and the Duke of Somerset. Edward famously commented whilst staying at Windsor Castle during this period that "Methink I am in a prison, here are no galleries, nor no gardens to walk in". Under both Edward and his sister, Mary I, some limited building work continued at the castle, in many cases using resources recovered from the English abbeys. Water was piped into the Upper Ward to create a fountain. Mary also expanded the buildings used by the Knights of Windsor in the Lower Ward, using stone from Reading Abbey.
Elizabeth I spent much of her time at Windsor Castle and used it a safe haven in crises, "knowing it could stand a siege if need be". Ten new brass cannons were purchased for the castle's defence. It became one of her favourite locations and she spent more money on the property than on any of her other palaces. She conducted some modest building works at Windsor, including a wide range of repairs to the existing structures. She converted the North Wharf into a permanent, huge stone terrace, complete with statues, carvings and an octagonal, outdoor banqueting house, raising the western end of the terrace to provide more privacy. The chapel was refitted with stalls, a gallery and a new ceiling. A bridge was built over the ditch to the south of the castle to enable easier access to the park. Elizabeth built a gallery range of buildings on the west end of the Upper Ward, alongside Henry VII's tower. Elizabeth increasingly used the castle for diplomatic engagements, but space continued to prove a challenge as the property was simply not as large as the more modern royal palaces. This flow of foreign visitors was captured for the queen's entertainment in William Shakespeare's play, The Merry Wives of Windsor.
17th century
James I used Windsor Castle primarily as a base for hunting, one of his favourite pursuits, and for socialising with his friends. Many of these occasions involved extensive drinking sessions, including one with Christian IV of Denmark in 1606 that became infamous across Europe for the resulting drunken behaviour of the two kings. The absence of space at Windsor continued to prove problematic, with James' English and Scottish retinues often quarrelling over rooms.
Charles I was a connoisseur of art, and paid greater attention to the aesthetic aspects of Windsor Castle than his predecessors. Charles had the castle completely surveyed by a team including Inigo Jones in 1629, but little of the recommended work was carried out. Nonetheless, Charles employed Nicholas Stone to improve the chapel gallery in the Mannerist style and to construct a gateway in the North Terrace. Christian van Vianen, a noted Dutch goldsmith, was employed to produce a baroque gold service for the St George's Chapel altar. In the final years of peace, Charles demolished the fountain in the Upper Ward, intending to replace it with a classical statue.
In 1642 the English Civil War broke out, dividing the country into the Royalist supporters of Charles, and the Parliamentarians. In the aftermath of the battle of Edgehill in October, Parliament became concerned that Charles might advance on London. John Venn took control of Windsor Castle with twelve companies of foot soldiers to protect the route along the Thames river, becoming the governor of the castle for the duration of the war. The contents of St George's Chapel were both valuable and, to many Parliamentary forces, inappropriately high church in style. Looting began immediately: Edward IV's bejewelled coat of mail was stolen; the chapel's organs, windows and books destroyed; the Lady Chapel was emptied of valuables, including the component parts of Henry VIII's unfinished tomb. By the end of the war, some of gold and silver plate had been looted.
Prince Rupert of the Rhine, a prominent Royalist general, attempted to relieve Windsor Castle that November. Rupert's small force of cavalry was able to take the town of Windsor, but was unable to overcome the walls at Windsor Castle – in due course, Rupert was forced to retreat. Over the winter of 1642–1643, Windsor Castle was converted into the headquarters for the Earl of Essex, a senior Parliamentary general. The Horseshoe Cloister was taken over as a prison for captured Royalists, and the resident canons were expelled from the castle. The Lady Chapel was turned into a magazine. Looting by the underpaid garrison continued to be a problem; 500 royal deer were killed across the Windsor Great Park during the winter, and fences were burned as firewood.
In 1647 Charles, then a prisoner of Parliament, was brought to the castle for a period under arrest, before being moved to Hampton Court. In 1648 there was a Royalist plan, never enacted, to seize Windsor Castle. The Parliamentary Army Council moved into Windsor in November and decided to try Charles for treason. Charles was held at Windsor again for the last three weeks of his reign; after his execution in January 1649, his body was taken back to Windsor that night through a snowstorm, to be interred without ceremony in the vault beneath St George's Chapel.
The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 saw the first period of significant change to Windsor Castle for many years. The civil war and the years of the Interregnum had caused extensive damage to the royal palaces in England. At the same time the shifting "functional requirements, patterns of movement, modes of transport, aesthetic taste and standards of comfort" amongst royal circles was changing the qualities being sought in a successful palace. Windsor was the only royal palace to be successfully fully modernised by Charles II in the Restoration years.
During the Interregnum, however, squatters had occupied Windsor Castle. As a result, the "King's house was a wreck; the fanatic, the pilferer, and the squatter, having been at work ... Paupers had squatted in many of the towers and cabinets". Shortly after returning to England, Charles appointed Prince Rupert, one of his few surviving close relatives, to be the Constable of Windsor Castle in 1668. Rupert immediately began to reorder the castle's defences, repairing the Round Tower and reconstructing the real tennis court. Charles attempted to restock Windsor Great Park with deer brought over from Germany, but the herds never recovered their pre-war size. Rupert created apartments for himself in the Round Tower, decorated with an "extraordinary" number of weapons and armour, with his inner chambers "hung with tapisserie, curious and effeminate pictures".
Charles was heavily influenced by Louis XIV style and imitated French design at his palace at Winchester and the Royal Hospital at Chelsea. At Windsor, Charles created "the most extravagantly Baroque interiors ever executed in England". Much of the building work was paid for out of increased royal revenues from Ireland during the 1670s. French court etiquette at the time required a substantial number of enfiladed rooms to satisfy court protocol; the demand for space forced architect Hugh May to expand out into the North Terrace, rebuilding and widening it in the process. This new building was called the Star Building, because Charles II placed a huge gilt Garter star on the side of it. May took down and rebuilt the walls of Edward III's hall and chapel, incorporating larger windows but retaining the height and dimensions of the medieval building. Although Windsor Castle was now big enough to hold the entire court, it was not built with chambers for the King's Council, as would be found in Whitehall. Instead Charles took advantage of the good road links emerging around Windsor to hold his council meetings at Hampton Court when he was staying at the castle. The result became an "exemplar" for royal buildings for the next twenty-five years. The result of May's work showed a medievalist leaning; although sometimes criticised for its "dullness", May's reconstruction was both sympathetic to the existing castle and a deliberate attempt to create a slightly austere 17th-century version of a "neo-Norman" castle.
William III commissioned Nicholas Hawksmoor and Sir Christopher Wren to conduct a large, final classical remodelling of the Upper Ward, but the king's early death caused the plan to be cancelled. Queen Anne was fond of the castle, and attempted to address the lack of a formal garden by instructing Henry Wise to begin work on the Maestricht Garden beneath the North Terrace, which was never completed. Anne also created the racecourse at Ascot and began the tradition of the annual Royal Ascot procession from the castle.
18th century
George I took little interest in Windsor Castle, preferring his other palaces at St James's, Hampton Court and Kensington. George II rarely used Windsor either, preferring Hampton Court. Many of the apartments in the Upper Ward were given out as "grace and favour" privileges for the use of prominent widows or other friends of the Crown. The Duke of Cumberland made the most use of the property in his role as the Ranger of Windsor Great Park. By the 1740s, Windsor Castle had become an early tourist attraction; wealthier visitors who could afford to pay the castle keeper could enter, see curiosities such as the castle's narwhal horn, and by the 1750s buy the first guidebooks to Windsor, produced by George Bickham in 1753 and Joseph Pote in 1755. As the condition of the State Apartments continued to deteriorate, even the general public were able to regularly visit the property.
George III reversed this trend when he came to the throne in 1760. George disliked Hampton Court and was attracted by the park at Windsor Castle. George wanted to move into the Ranger's House by the castle, but his brother, Henry was already living in it and refused to move out. Instead, George had to move into the Upper Lodge, later called the Queen's Lodge, and started the long process of renovating the castle and the surrounding parks. Initially the atmosphere at the castle remained very informal, with local children playing games inside the Upper and Lower Wards, and the royal family frequently seen as they walked around the grounds. As time went by, however, access for visitors became more limited.
George's architectural taste shifted over the years. As a young man, he favoured Classical, in particular Palladian styles, but the king came to favour a more Gothic style, both as a consequence of the Palladian style becoming overused and poorly implemented, and because the Gothic form had come to be seen as a more honest, national style of English design in the light of the French revolution. Working with the architect James Wyatt, George attempted to "transform the exterior of the buildings in the Upper Ward into a Gothic palace, while retaining the character of the Hugh May state rooms". The outside of the building was restyled with Gothic features, including new battlements and turrets. Inside, conservation work was undertaken, and several new rooms constructed, including a new Gothic staircase to replace May's 17th-century version, complete with the Grand Vestibule ceiling above it. New paintings were purchased for the castle, and collections from other royal palaces moved there by the king. The cost of the work came to over £150,000 (£100 million in 2008 terms). The king undertook extensive work in the castle's Great Park as well, laying out the new Norfolk and Flemish farms, creating two dairies and restoring Virginia Water Lake, and its grotto and follies.
At the end of this period Windsor Castle became a place of royal confinement. In 1788 the king first became ill during a dinner at Windsor Castle; diagnosed as suffering from madness, he was removed for a period to the White House at Kew, where he temporarily recovered. After relapses in 1801 and 1804, his condition became enduring from 1810 onwards and he was confined in the State Apartments of Windsor Castle, with building work on the castle ceasing the following year.
19th century
George IV came to the throne in 1820 intending to create a set of royal palaces that reflected his wealth and influence as the ruler of an increasingly powerful Britain. George's previous houses, Carlton House and the Brighton Pavilion were too small for grand court events, even after expensive extensions. George expanded the Royal Lodge in the castle park whilst he was Prince Regent, and then began a programme of work to modernise the castle itself once he became king.
George persuaded Parliament to vote him £300,000 for restoration (£245 million in 2008 terms). Under the guidance of George's advisor, Charles Long, the architect Jeffry Wyatville was selected, and work commenced in 1824.
Wyatville's own preference ran to Gothic architecture, but George, who had led the reintroduction of the French Rococo style to England at Carlton House, preferred a blend of periods and styles, and applied this taste to Windsor. The terraces were closed off to visitors for greater privacy and the exterior of the Upper Ward was completely remodelled into its current appearance. The Round Tower was raised in height to create a more dramatic appearance; many of the rooms in the State Apartments were rebuilt or remodelled; numerous new towers were created, much higher than the older versions. The south range of the ward was rebuilt to provide private accommodation for the king, away from the state rooms. The statue of Charles II was moved from the centre of the Upper Ward to the base of the motte. Sir Walter Scott captured contemporary views when he noted that the work showed "a great deal of taste and feeling for the Gothic architecture"; many modern commentators, including Prince Charles, have criticised Wyatville's work as representing an act of vandalism of May's earlier designs. The work was unfinished at the time of George IV's death in 1830, but was broadly completed by Wyatville's death in 1840. The total expenditure on the castle had soared to the colossal sum of over one million pounds (£817 million in 2008 terms) by the end of the project.
Queen Victoria and Prince Albert made Windsor Castle their principal royal residence, despite Victoria complaining early in her reign that the castle was "dull and tiresome" and "prison-like", and preferring Osborne and Balmoral as holiday residences. The growth of the British Empire and Victoria's close dynastic ties to Europe made Windsor the hub for many diplomatic and state visits, assisted by the new railways and steamships of the period. Indeed, it has been argued that Windsor reached its social peak during the Victorian era, seeing the introduction of invitations to numerous prominent figures to "dine and sleep" at the castle. Victoria took a close interest in the details of how Windsor Castle was run, including the minutiae of the social events. Few visitors found these occasions comfortable, both due to the design of the castle and the excessive royal formality. Prince Albert died in the Blue Room at Windsor Castle in 1861 and was buried in the Royal Mausoleum built at nearby Frogmore, within the Home Park. The prince's rooms were maintained exactly as they had been at the moment of his death and Victoria kept the castle in a state of mourning for many years, becoming known as the "Widow of Windsor", a phrase popularised in the famous poem by Rudyard Kipling. The Queen shunned the use of Buckingham Palace after Albert's death and instead used Windsor Castle as her residence when conducting official business near London. Towards the end of her reign, plays, operas, and other entertainments slowly began to be held at the castle again, accommodating both the Queen's desire for entertainment and her reluctance to be seen in public.
Several minor alterations were made to the Upper Ward under Victoria. Anthony Salvin rebuilt Wyatville's grand staircase, with Edward Blore constructing a new private chapel within the State Apartments. Salvin also rebuilt the State Dining Room following a serious fire in 1853. Ludwig Gruner assisted in the design of the Queen's Private Audience Chamber in the south range. Blore and Salvin also did extensive work in the Lower Ward, under the direction of Prince Albert, including the Hundred Steps leading down into Windsor town, rebuilding the Garter, Curfew and Salisbury towers, the houses of the Military Knights and creating a new Guardhouse. George Gilbert Scott rebuilt the Horseshoe Cloister in the 1870s. The Norman Gatehouse was turned into a private dwelling for Sir Henry Ponsonby. Windsor Castle did not benefit from many of the minor improvements of the era, however, as Victoria disliked gaslight, preferring candles; electric lighting was only installed in limited parts of the castle at the end of her reign. Indeed, the castle was famously cold and draughty in Victoria's reign, but it was connected to a nearby reservoir, with water reliably piped into the interior for the first time.
Many of the changes under Victoria were to the surrounding parklands and buildings. The Royal Dairy at Frogmore was rebuilt in a mock Tudor style in 1853; George III's Dairy rebuilt in a Renaissance style in 1859; the Georgian Flemish Farm rebuilt, and the Norfolk Farm renovated. The Long Walk was planted with fresh trees to replace the diseased stock. The Windsor Castle and Town Approaches Act, passed by Parliament in 1848, permitted the closing and re-routing of the old roads which previously ran through the park from Windsor to Datchet and Old Windsor. These changes allowed the royal family to undertake the enclosure of a large area of parkland to form the private "Home Park" with no public roads passing through it. The Queen granted additional rights for public access to the remainder of the park as part of this arrangement.
20th century
Edward VII came to the throne in 1901 and immediately set about modernising Windsor Castle with "enthusiasm and zest". Many of the rooms in the Upper Ward were de-cluttered and redecorated for the first time in many years, with Edward "peering into cabinets; ransacking drawers; clearing rooms formerly used by the Prince Consort and not touched since his death; dispatching case-loads of relics and ornaments to a special room in the Round Tower ... destroying statues and busts of John Brown ... throwing out hundreds of 'rubbishy old coloured photographs' ... [and] rearranging pictures". Electric lighting was added to more rooms, along with central heating; telephone lines were installed, along with garages for the newly invented automobiles. The marathon was run from Windsor Castle at the 1908 Olympics, and in 1911 the pioneering aviator Thomas Sopwith landed an aircraft at the castle for the first time.
George V continued a process of more gradual modernisation, assisted by his wife, Mary of Teck, who had a strong interest in furniture and decoration. Mary sought out and re-acquired items of furniture that had been lost or sold from the castle, including many dispersed by Edward VII, and also acquired many new works of art to furnish the state rooms. Queen Mary was also a lover of all things miniature, and a famous dolls' house was created for her at Windsor Castle, designed by the architect Edwin Lutyens and furnished by leading craftsmen and designers of the 1930s. George V was committed to maintaining a high standard of court life at Windsor Castle, adopting the motto that everything was to be "of the best". A large staff was still kept at the castle, with around 660 servants working in the property during the period. Meanwhile, during the First World War, anti-German feeling led the members of the royal family to change their dynastic name from the German House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha; George decided to take the new name from the castle, and the royal family became the House of Windsor in 1917.
Edward VIII did not spend much of his reign at Windsor Castle. He continued to spend most of his time at Fort Belvedere in the Great Park, where he had lived whilst Prince of Wales. Edward created a small aerodrome at the castle on Smith's Lawn, now used as a golf-course. Edward's reign was short-lived and he broadcast his abdication speech to the British Empire from the castle in December 1936, adopting the title of Duke of Windsor. His successor, George VI also preferred his own original home, the Royal Lodge in the Great Park, but moved into Windsor Castle with his wife Elizabeth. As king, George revived the annual Garter Service at Windsor, drawing on the accounts of the 17th-century ceremonies recorded by Elias Ashmole, but moving the event to Ascot Week in June.
On the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 the castle was readied for war-time conditions. Many of the staff from Buckingham Palace were moved to Windsor for safety, security was tightened and windows were blacked-out. There was significant concern that the castle might be damaged or destroyed during the war; the more important art works were removed from the castle for safe-keeping, the valuable chandeliers were lowered to the floor in case of bomb damage, and a sequence of paintings by John Piper were commissioned from 1942 to 1944 to record the castle's appearance. The king and queen and their children Princesses Elizabeth and Margaret lived for safety in the castle, with the roof above their rooms specially strengthened in case of attack. The king and queen drove daily to London, returning to Windsor to sleep, although at the time this was a well-kept secret, as for propaganda and morale purposes it was reported that the king was still residing full-time at Buckingham Palace. The castle was also used as a storage facility; for example, the only purified heavy water at the time was rescued from France in the face of the imminent French defeat in 1940, and most of it was sent to the castle to be stored in the basement alongside the Crown Jewels. After the war the king revived the "dine and sleep" events at Windsor, following comments that the castle had become "almost like a vast, empty museum"; nonetheless, it took many years to restore Windsor Castle to its pre-war condition.
In February 1952, Elizabeth II came to the throne and decided to make Windsor her principal weekend retreat. The private apartments which had not been properly occupied since the era of Queen Mary were renovated and further modernised, and the Queen, Prince Philip and their two children took up residence. By the early 1990s, however, there had been a marked deterioration in the quality of the Upper Ward, in particular the State Apartments. Generations of repairs and replacements had resulted in a "diminution of the richness with which they had first been decorated", a "gradual attrition of the original vibrancy of effect, as each change repeated a more faded version of the last". A programme of repair work to replace the heating and the wiring of the Upper Ward began in 1988. Work was also undertaken to underpin the motte of the Round Tower after fresh subsidence was detected in 1988, threatening the collapse of the tower.
1992 fire
On 20 November 1992, a major fire occurred at Windsor Castle, lasting for 15 hours and causing widespread damage to the Upper Ward. The Private Chapel in the north-east corner of the State Apartments was being renovated as part of a long term programme of work within the castle, and it is believed that one of the spotlights being used in the work set fire to a curtain by the altar during the morning. The fire spread quickly and destroyed nine of the principal state rooms and severely damaged more than 100 others. Fire-fighters applied water to contain the blaze, whilst castle staff attempted to rescue the precious artworks from the castle. Many of the rooms closest to the fire had been emptied as part of the renovation work, and this contributed to the successful evacuation of most of the collection.
The fire spread through the roof voids and efforts continued through the night to contain the blaze, at great risk to the 200 fire-fighters involved. It was not until late afternoon that the blaze began to come under control, although the fire continued during the night before being officially declared extinguished the next morning. Along with the fire and smoke damage, one of the unintended effects of the fire-fighting was the considerable water damage to the castle; more than 1.5 million gallons of water were used to extinguish it, which in many ways caused more complex restoration problems than the fire.
Two major issues for Windsor Castle emerged following the fire. The first was a political debate in Britain as to who should pay for the repairs. Traditionally, as the property of the Crown, Windsor Castle was maintained, and if necessary repaired, by the British government in exchange for the profits made by the Crown Estate. Furthermore, like other occupied royal palaces, it was not insured on grounds of economy. At the time of the fire, however, the British press strongly argued in favour of the Queen herself being required to pay for the repairs from her private income. A solution was found in which the restoration work would be paid for by opening Buckingham Palace to the public at selected times of the year, and by introducing new charges for public access to the parkland surrounding Windsor. The second major issue concerned how to repair the castle. Some suggested that the damaged rooms should be restored to their original appearance, but others favoured repairing the castle so as to incorporate modern designs. The decision was taken to largely follow the pre-fire architecture with some changes to reflect modern tastes and cost, but fresh questions emerged over whether the restoration should be undertaken to "authentic" or "equivalent" restoration standards. Modern methods were used at Windsor to reproduce the equivalent pre-fire appearance, partially due to the cost. The restoration programme was completed in 1997 at a total cost of £37 million (£67 million in 2015 terms).
21st century
Windsor Castle, part of the Occupied Royal Palaces Estate, is owned by Charles III in right of the Crown, and day-to-day management is by the Royal Household. In terms of population, Windsor Castle is the largest inhabited castle in the world and the longest-occupied palace in Europe, but it also remains a functioning royal home. As of 2006, around 500 people were living and working in the castle. The Queen had increasingly used the castle as a royal palace as well as her weekend home before her death. In recent years, Windsor Castle has hosted visits from President Mbeki of South Africa, King Abdullah II of Jordan and presidents Obama, Trump, and Biden of the United States. The castle remains an important ceremonial location. The Waterloo ceremony is carried out in the presence of the monarch each year, and the annual ceremony of the Order of the Garter takes place in St George's Chapel. When the Queen was in residence, the Guard Mounting ceremony occurred on a daily basis. The Royal Ascot procession leaves the castle each year during the annual meeting.
During Elizabeth II's reign much was done, not only to restore and maintain the fabric of the building, but also to transform it into a major British tourist attraction, containing a significant portion of the Royal Collection of art. Archaeological work at the castle has continued, following on from limited investigations in the 1970s, the work on the Round Tower from 1988 to 1992 and the investigations following the 1992 fire. During 2007, 993,000 tourists visited the castle. This has had to be achieved in co-ordination with security issues and the castle's role as a working royal palace. In late 2011 two large water turbines were installed upstream of the castle on the River Thames to provide hydroelectric power to the castle and the surrounding estate. In April 2016, the Royal Collection Trust announced a £27m project to reinstate the original entrance hall of the castle to visitors, as well as a new café in the 14th-century undercroft. The new entrance was opened at the end of 2019. From March 2020, the Queen and her husband, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, shielded at Windsor during the COVID-19 pandemic with a small staff in what became known as 'HMS Bubble' – a jocular reference to the UK Government's rules on household support 'bubbles' during the pandemic. The pandemic also meant that they celebrated Christmas at Windsor Castle rather than Sandringham House for the first time since 1987. Prince Philip died at Windsor Castle on 9 April 2021.
On Christmas Day 2021, while Queen Elizabeth was staying at Windsor Castle, 19-year-old Jaswant Singh Chail broke into the gardens using a rope ladder and carrying a crossbow. Before he could enter any buildings Chail was arrested and later sectioned under the Mental Health Act. He had posted a video on the internet threatening to assassinate the Queen. Chail later admitted that his aim was to take revenge for the Amritsar massacre of 1919. He pleaded guilty to charges under section two of the Treason Act 1842.
On 7 May 2023 the East Lawn of the castle was the venue for the Coronation Concert, in celebration of the coronation of King Charles III and Queen Camilla. It was the first open air concert to be staged at the castle and included performances by Lionel Richie, Katy Perry, Andrea Bocelli, Sir Bryn Terfel, Take That and Paloma Faith. The concert was attended by members of the royal family, alongside an audience of 20,000 members of the public.
See also
Constables and Governors of Windsor Castle
The Society of the Friends of St George's and Descendants of the Knights of the Garter
Windsor Festival International String Competition
Notes
References
Bibliography
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External links
Windsor Castle at the Royal Family website
Windsor Castle at the Royal Collection Trust
College of St George, home to St George's Chapel
11th-century fortifications
Buildings and structures completed in the 11th century
Art museums and galleries in Berkshire
Castles in Berkshire
Country houses in Berkshire
Edward Blore buildings
Grade I listed buildings in Berkshire
Grade I listed castles
Historic house museums in Berkshire
History museums in Berkshire
Jeffry Wyatville buildings
Palaces in England
Royal residences in England
Tourist attractions in Berkshire
William the Conqueror
Grade I listed palaces
Motte-and-bailey castles
11th-century establishments in England
Former squats
Burned buildings and structures in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Howard
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John Howard
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John Winston Howard (born 26 July 1939) is an Australian former politician who served as the 25th prime minister of Australia from 1996 to 2007. He held office as leader of the Liberal Party of Australia, having previously served as the treasurer of Australia from 1977 to 1983 under Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser. His eleven-year tenure as prime minister is the second-longest in Australian history, behind only Sir Robert Menzies. Howard has also been the oldest living Australian former prime minister since the death of Bob Hawke in May 2019.
Howard was born in Sydney and studied law at the University of Sydney. He was a commercial lawyer before entering parliament. A former federal president of the Young Liberals, he first stood for office at the 1968 New South Wales state election, but lost narrowly. At the 1974 federal election, Howard was elected as a member of parliament (MP) for the division of Bennelong. He was promoted to cabinet in 1977, and later in the year replaced Phillip Lynch as treasurer of Australia, remaining in that position until the defeat of Malcolm Fraser's government at the 1983 election. In 1985, Howard was elected leader of the Liberal Party for the first time, thus replacing Andrew Peacock as Leader of the Opposition. He led the Liberal–National coalition to the 1987 federal election, but lost to Bob Hawke's Labor government, and was removed from the leadership in 1989. Remaining a key figure in the party, Howard was re-elected leader in 1995, replacing Alexander Downer, and subsequently led the Coalition to a landslide victory at the 1996 federal election.
In his first term, Howard introduced reformed gun laws in response to the Port Arthur massacre, and controversially implemented a nationwide value-added tax, breaking a pre-election promise. The Howard government called a snap election for October 1998, which they won, albeit with a greatly reduced majority. Going into the 2001 election, the Coalition trailed behind Labor in opinion polling. However, in a campaign dominated by national security, Howard introduced changes to Australia's immigration system to deter asylum seekers from entering the country, and pledged military assistance to the United States following the September 11 attacks. Due to this, Howard won widespread support, and his government would be narrowly re-elected.
In Howard's third term in office, Australia contributed troops to the War in Afghanistan and the Iraq War, and led the International Force for East Timor. The Coalition would be re-elected once more at the 2004 federal election. In his final term in office, his government introduced industrial relations reforms known as WorkChoices, which proved controversial and unpopular with the public. The Howard government was defeated at the 2007 federal election, with the Labor Party's Kevin Rudd succeeding him as prime minister. Howard also lost his own seat of Bennelong at the election to Maxine McKew, becoming only the second prime minister to do so, after Stanley Bruce at the 1929 election. Following this loss, Howard retired from politics, but has remained active in political discourse.
Howard's government presided over a sustained period of economic growth and a large "mining boom", and significantly reduced government debt by the time he left office. He was known for his broad appeal to voters across the political spectrum, and commanded a diverse base of supporters, colloquially referred to as his "battlers". Retrospectively, ratings of Howard's premiership have been polarised. His critics have admonished him for involving Australia in the Iraq War, his policies regarding asylum seekers, and his economic agenda. Nonetheless, he has been frequently ranked within the upper-tier of Australian prime ministers by political experts and the general public.
Early and personal life
Howard is the fourth son of Mona (née Kell) and Lyall Howard, who married in 1925. Howard was also known as "Jack" in his youth. His older brothers were Walter (1926–2019), Stanley (1930–2014) and Robert (b. 1936). Lyall Howard was an admirer of Winston Churchill. Howard's ancestors were English, Scottish, and Irish. He is descended from convict William Tooley, who was transported to New South Wales in 1816 for stealing a watch.
Howard was born and raised in the Sydney suburb of Earlwood, in a Methodist family; the site of his family home is now a KFC restaurant. His mother had been an office worker until her marriage, while his father and his paternal grandfather, Walter Howard, were both veterans of the First Australian Imperial Force in the First World War. They also ran two Dulwich Hill petrol stations where Howard worked as a boy. In 1955, when Howard was aged 16, his father died, leaving his mother to take care of him.
Howard suffered a hearing impairment in his youth, leaving him with a slight speech impediment, and he continues to wear a hearing aid. It also influenced him in subtle ways, limiting his early academic performance; encouraging a reliance on an excellent memory; and in his mind ruling out becoming a barrister as a likely career.
Howard attended Earlwood Primary School and Canterbury Boys' High School. He won a citizenship prize in his final year at Earlwood (presented by local politician Eric Willis), and subsequently represented his secondary school at debating as well as cricket and rugby union. Cricket remained a lifelong hobby. In his final year at school he took part in a radio show hosted by Jack Davey, Give It a Go, broadcast on the commercial radio station, 2GB. After gaining his Leaving Certificate, he studied law at the University of Sydney, graduating with a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1962. Howard began working for the firm of Stephen Jaques and Stephen as a junior solicitor. In 1964, he took a trip around the world, visiting Britain, Europe, Israel, India, and Singapore. After returning to Sydney in 1965, he began working for Clayton Utz, but "lacked the university grades and the social connections to be on track for a partnership". He subsequently moved to a smaller firm, which became Truman, Nelson and Howard after he was made a partner.
Howard married fellow Liberal Party member Janette Parker in 1971, with whom he had three children: Melanie (1974), Tim (1977) and Richard (1980). John and Janette are Christians.
Early political career
Howard joined the Liberal Party in 1957. He was a member of the party's New South Wales state executive and was federal president of the Young Liberals (the party youth organisation) from 1962 to 1964. Howard supported Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War, although has since said there were "aspects of it that could have been handled and explained differently".
At the 1963 federal election, Howard acted as campaign manager for Tom Hughes in his local seat of Parkes. Hughes went on to defeat the 20-year Labor incumbent, Les Haylen. In mid-1964, Howard travelled to London to work and travel for a period. He volunteered for the Conservative Party in the electorate of Holborn and St Pancras South at the 1964 UK general election. In 1967, with the support of party power brokers John Carrick and Eric Willis, Howard was endorsed as candidate for the marginal suburban state seat of Drummoyne, held by Labor's Reg Coady. Howard's mother sold the family home in Earlwood and rented a house with him at Five Dock, a suburb within the electorate. At the election in February 1968, in which the incumbent state Liberal government was returned to office, Howard narrowly lost to Coady, despite campaigning vigorously.
At the 1974 federal election, Howard successfully contested the Division of Bennelong, located in suburban Sydney. The election saw the return of the Gough Whitlam-led Labor government. Howard supported Malcolm Fraser for the leadership of the Liberal Party against Billy Snedden following the 1974 election. When Fraser won office at the 1975 federal election, Howard was appointed Minister for Business and Consumer Affairs, a position in which he served until 1977. At this stage, he followed the protectionist and pro-regulation stance of Fraser and the Liberal Party.
Federal Treasurer
In December 1977, aged 38, Howard was appointed Treasurer, in place of Phillip Lynch. He was the youngest Treasurer since Chris Watson in 1904. Fraser said in his memoirs that he appointed him despite his limited experience because "he was bright and he got across a brief well, and he was a good manager".
During his five years in the position, Howard became an adherent of free-market economics, which was challenging economic orthodoxies in place for most of the century. He came to favour tax reform including broad-based taxation (later the GST), a freer industrial system including the dismantling of the centralised wage-fixing system, the abolition of compulsory trade unionism, privatisation and deregulation.
In 1978, the Fraser government instigated the Campbell Committee to investigate financial system reforms. Howard supported the Campbell report, but adopted an incremental approach with Cabinet, as there was wide opposition to deregulation within the government and the treasury. The process of reform began before the committee reported 2 years later, with the introduction of the tender system for the sale of Treasury notes in 1979, and Treasury bonds in 1982. Ian Macfarlane described these reforms as "second only in importance to the float of the Australian dollar in 1983." In 1981, Howard proposed a broad-based indirect tax with compensatory cuts in personal rates; however, cabinet rejected it citing both inflationary and political reasons. After the free-marketeers or "drys" of the Liberals challenged the protectionist policies of Minister for Industry and Commerce Phillip Lynch, they shifted their loyalties to Howard. Following an unsuccessful leadership challenge by Andrew Peacock to unseat Fraser as prime minister, Howard was elected deputy leader of the Liberal Party in April 1982. His election depended largely on the support of the "drys", and he became the party's champion of the growing free-market lobby.
The economic crises of the early 1980s brought Howard into conflict with the Keynesian Fraser. As the economy headed towards the worst recession since the 1930s, Fraser pushed an expansionary fiscal position much to Howard's and Treasury's horror. With his authority as treasurer being flouted, Howard considered resigning in July 1982, but, after discussions with his wife and senior advisor John Hewson, he decided to "tough it out". The 1982 wages explosion—wages rose 16 per cent across the country—resulted in stagflation; unemployment touched double-digits and inflation peaked at 12.5% (official interest rates peaked at 21%).
The Fraser government with Howard as Treasurer lost the 1983 election to the Labor Party led by Bob Hawke. Over the course of the 1980s, the Liberal Party came to accept the free-market policies that Fraser had resisted and Howard had espoused. Policies included low protection, decentralisation of wage fixation, financial deregulation, a broadly based indirect tax, and the rejection of counter-cyclical fiscal policy.
Opposition
Following the defeat of the Fraser government and Fraser's subsequent resignation from parliament, Howard contested the Liberal leadership against Andrew Peacock, losing 36–20. However, he was re-elected as deputy leader. The Liberal Party were again defeated by Labor at the early 1984 election. In 1985, as Labor's position in opinion polls improved, Peacock's popularity sank and Howard's profile rose. Leadership speculation persisted, and Peacock said he would no longer accept Howard as deputy unless he offered assurances that he would not challenge for the leadership. Following Howard's refusal to offer such an assurance, Peacock sought, in September 1985, to replace him with John Moore as deputy leader. The party room re-elected Howard as deputy on 5 September 38 votes to 31, which Peacock treated as a vote of no confidence in his leadership. He subsequently called a leadership ballot, which he chose not to contest. Howard defeated Jim Carlton by 57 votes to six, thus becoming Leader of the Opposition.
Leader of the Opposition (1985–1989)
New economic policy
Howard was in effect the Liberal party's first pro-market leader in the conservative Coalition and spent the next two years working to revise Liberal policy away from that of Fraser's. In his own words he was an "economic radical" and a social conservative. Referring to the pro-market liberalism of the 1980s, Howard said in July 1986 that "The times will suit me". That year the economy was seen to be in crisis with a 40% devaluation of the Australian dollar, a marked increase in the current account deficit and the loss of the Federal Government's triple A rating. In response to the economic circumstances, Howard persistently attacked the Labor government and offered his free-market reform agenda. Support for the Labor Party and Hawke strengthened in 1985 and 1986 and Howard's approval ratings dropped in the face of infighting between Howard and Peacock supporters, a "public manifestation of disunity" over policy positions, and questions over Howard's leadership.
Hawke called the 1987 federal election six months early. In addition to the Howard–Peacock rivalry, Queensland National Party criticism of the federal Liberal and National leadership culminated in longtime Queensland Premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen making a bid to become prime minister himself—the "Joh for Canberra" campaign. Keating campaigned against Howard's proposed tax changes forcing Howard to admit a double-counting in the proposal, and emphasising to the electorate that the package would mean at that stage undisclosed cuts to government services.
Howard was not helped when the federal Nationals broke off the Coalition agreement in support of the "Joh for Canberra" push, which led to a large number of three-cornered contests. Bjelke-Petersen abandoned his bid for prime minister a month before the election, however, the damage had already been done. Additionally, a number of swing voters outside Queensland were alarmed at the prospect of Bjelke-Petersen holding the balance of power, and voted for Labor to ensure that the Liberals and Nationals would be defeated. As a result, the Hawke government was handily reelected, winning the most seats that Labor had ever won in an election.
Social agenda
In his social agenda, Howard promoted the traditional family and was antipathetic to the promotion of multiculturalism at the expense of a shared Australian identity. The controversial immigration policy, One Australia, outlined a vision of "one nation and one future" and opposed multiculturalism. Howard publicly suggested that to support "social cohesion" the rate of Asian immigration be "slowed down a little". The comments divided opinion within the Coalition, and undermined Howard's standing amongst Liberal party figures including federal and state Ministers, intellectual opinion makers, business leaders, and within the Asia Pacific. Three Liberal MPs crossed the floor and two abstained in response to a motion put forward by Prime Minister Hawke to affirm that race or ethnicity would not be used as immigrant selection criteria. Many Liberals later nominated the issue as instrumental in Howard subsequently losing the leadership in 1989. In a 1995 newspaper article (and in 2002 as prime minister), Howard recanted his 1988 remarks on curbing Asian immigration.
In line with "One Australia's" rejection of Aboriginal land rights, Howard said the idea of an Aboriginal treaty was "repugnant to the ideals of One Australia" and commented "I don't think it is wrong, racist, immoral or anything, for a country to say 'we will decide what the cultural identity and the cultural destiny of this country will be and nobody else." Howard is opposed to abortion and voted against the RU-486 abortion drug being legalised.
Loss of the leadership
As the country's economic position worsened in 1989, public opinion moved away from Labor, however there was no firm opinion poll lead for Howard or the Coalition. In February, Liberal Party president and prominent businessman, John Elliott, said confidentially to Andrew Peacock that he would support him in a leadership challenge against Howard, and in May a surprise leadership coup was launched, ousting Howard as Liberal leader. When asked that day whether he could become Liberal leader again, Howard likened it to "Lazarus with a triple bypass". The loss of the Liberal Party leadership to Peacock deeply affected Howard, who admitted he would occasionally drink too much. Declining Peacock's offer of Shadow Education, Howard went to the backbench and a new period of party disunity ensued which was highlighted by a Four Corners episode detailing the coup against Howard.
Following the Coalition's 1990 election loss, Howard considered challenging Peacock for the leadership, but didn't have enough support for a bid. Ultimately, Peacock resigned and was replaced with Howard's former staffer John Hewson who defeated Peter Reith; Peacock supported Hewson as a symbol of generational change. Howard was a supporter of Hewson's economic program, with a Goods and Services Tax (GST) as its centrepiece. Howard was Shadow Minister for Industrial relations and oversaw Jobsback section of Fightback. After Hewson lost the "unloseable" 1993 election to Paul Keating, Howard unsuccessfully challenged Hewson for the leadership. In 1994, he was again passed over for the leadership, which went to Alexander Downer. Hewson had pledged to resign if defeated in 1993 but did not resign to block Howard from succeeding him.
Leader of the Opposition (1995–1996)
In January 1995, leaked internal Liberal Party polling showed that with gaffe-prone Downer as leader, the Coalition had slim chance of holding its marginal seats in the next election, let alone of winning government. Media speculation of a leadership spill ended when, on 26 January 1995, Downer resigned as Liberal Leader and Howard was elected unopposed to replace him. The Coalition subsequently opened a large lead over Labor in most opinion polls, and Howard overtook Paul Keating as preferred prime minister. Hoping to avoid a repeat of mistakes made at the 1993 election, Howard revised his earlier statements against Medicare and Asian immigration, describing Australia as "a unique intersection between Europe, North America and Asia". This allowed Howard to campaign on a "small-target" strategy. He focused on the economy and memory of the early 1990s recession, and on the longevity of the Labor government, which in 1996 had been in power for 13 years. In May 1995, Howard also pledged that the GST would not be implemented by the Liberal Party as, the since retired, Hewson's defeat in 1993 was a rejection of the GST.
Prime Minister
First term
By the time the writs were issued for the 1996 election, the Coalition had been well ahead of Labor in opinion polls for over a year. The consensus of most opinion polls was that Howard would be the next prime minister.
With the support of many traditionally Labor voters—dubbed "Howard battlers"—Howard and the Liberal-National Coalition swept to power on the back of a 29-seat swing. This was the second-worst defeat of an incumbent government since Federation. The Coalition picked up a five per cent swing, taking 13 seats away from Labor in New South Wales, and winning all but two seats in Queensland. The Liberals actually won a majority in their own right with 75 seats, the most that the party had ever won. It was only the third time (the others being 1975 and 1977) that the main non-Labor party has been even theoretically able to govern alone since the Coalition's formation. Nevertheless, Howard kept the Nationals in his government.
Howard entered office with a 45-seat majority—the second-biggest majority in Australian history, only behind Fraser's 55-seat majority in 1975. At the age of 56, he was sworn in as prime minister on 11 March 1996, ending a record 13 years of Coalition opposition. Howard departed from tradition and made his primary residence Kirribilli House in Sydney rather than The Lodge in Canberra. Early in the term Howard had championed significant new restrictions on gun ownership following the Port Arthur massacre in which 35 people had been shot dead. Achieving agreement in the face of immense opposition from within the Coalition and some State governments, was credited with significantly elevating Howard's stature as prime minister despite a backlash from core Coalition rural constituents.
Howard's initial silence on the views of Pauline Hanson—a disendorsed Liberal Party candidate and later independent MP from the Brisbane area—was criticised in the press as an endorsement of her views. When Hanson had made derogatory statements about minorities, Howard not only canceled her Liberal endorsement, but declared she would not be allowed to sit as a Liberal if elected. Howard repudiated Hanson's views seven months after her maiden speech.
Following the Wik Decision of the High Court in 1996, the Howard government moved swiftly to legislate limitations on its possible implications through the so-called Ten-Point Plan.
From 1997, Howard spearheaded the Coalition push to introduce a Goods and Services Tax (GST) at the subsequent election; this was despite saying, before winning the prime ministership, that it would "never ever" be part of Coalition policy. A long-held conviction of Howard's, his tax reform package was credited with "breaking the circuit" of party morale—boosting his confidence and direction, which had appeared to wane early in the Government's second term. The 1998 election was dubbed a "referendum on the GST", and the tax changes—including the GST—were implemented in the government's second term after amendments to the legislation were negotiated with the Australian Democrats to ensure its passage through the Senate.
Through much of its first term, opinion polling was disappointing for the government. The popularity of Pauline Hanson, and the new restrictions on gun ownership drew many traditionally Coalition voters away from the Howard government. Also unpopular with voters were large spending cuts aimed at eliminating the budget deficit (and Howard's distinction between "core" and "non-core" election promises when cutting spending commitments), industrial changes and the 1998 waterfront dispute, the partial sale of government telecommunications company Telstra, and the Government's commitment to a GST.
Howard called a snap election for October 1998, three months sooner than required. The Coalition actually lost the national two-party preferred vote to Labor, suffering a 14-seat swing. However, the uneven nature of the swing allowed Howard to win a second term in government, with a considerably reduced majority (from 45 seats to 12). Howard himself finished just short of a majority on the first count in his own seat, and was only assured of reelection on the ninth count. He ultimately finished with a fairly comfortable 56 per cent of the two-party preferred vote.
Second term
In 1998, Howard convened a constitutional convention which decided in principle that Australia should become a republic. At the convention Howard confirmed himself as a monarchist, and said that of the republican options, he preferred the minimalist model. Howard outlined his support for retaining the Australian constitutional monarchy. Despite opinion polls suggesting Australians favoured a republic, a 1999 referendum rejected the model chosen by the convention. The new President of Indonesia, B.J. Habibie, had some months earlier agreed to grant special autonomy to Indonesian-occupied East Timor. However, following the receipt of a letter sent by Howard to Habibie suggesting that a referendum be held, Habibie made a snap decision to hold a vote on independence. This referendum on the territory's independence triggered a Howard and Downer orchestrated shift in Australian policy. In September 1999, Howard organised an Australian-led international peace-keeping force to East Timor (INTERFET), after pro-Indonesia militia launched a violent "scorched-earth" campaign in retaliation to the referendum's overwhelming vote in favour of independence. The successful mission was widely supported by Australian voters, but the government was criticised for "foreign policy failure" following the violence and collapse of diplomatic relations with Indonesia. By Howard's fourth term, relations with Indonesia had recovered to include counter-terrorism cooperation and Australia's $1bn Boxing Day Tsunami relief efforts, and were assisted by good relations between Howard and Indonesian president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.
Throughout his prime-ministership, Howard was resolute in his refusal to provide a parliamentary "apology" to Indigenous Australians as recommended by the 1997 "Bringing Them Home" Report. Howard made a personal apology before the release of the report.
In 1999, Howard negotiated a "Motion of Reconciliation" with Aboriginal Senator Aden Ridgeway. Eschewing use of the word "sorry", the motion recognised mistreatment of Aborigines as the "most blemished chapter" in Australia's history; offered "deep and sincere regret" for past injustices. Following his 2007 loss of the prime ministership, Howard was the only living former prime minister who declined to attend the February 2008 apology made by Kevin Rudd with bi-partisan support.
Howard did not commit to serving a full term if he won the next election; on his 61st birthday in July 2000 he said he would consider the question of retirement when he turned 64. This was interpreted as boosting Costello's leadership aspirations, and the enmity over leadership and succession resurfaced publicly when Howard did not retire at the age of 64. In the first half of 2001, rising petrol prices, voter enmity over the implementation of the GST, a spike in inflation and economic slowdown led to bad opinion polls and predictions the Government would lose office in the election later that year. The government announced a series of policy reversals and softenings which boosted the government's fortunes, as did news that the economy had avoided recession. The government's position on "border protection", in particular the Tampa affair where Howard refused the landing of asylum seekers rescued by a Norwegian freighter, consolidated the improving polls for the government, as did the 11 September 2001 attacks. Howard led the government to victory in the 2001 federal election with an increased majority.
Third term
Howard had first met US President George W. Bush in the days before the 11 September terrorist attacks and was in Washington the morning of the attacks. In response to the attacks, Howard invoked the ANZUS Treaty. In October 2001, he committed Australian military personnel to the War in Afghanistan despite widespread opposition. Howard developed a strong personal relationship with the President, and they shared often similar ideological positions – including on the role of the United States in world affairs and their approach to the "War on Terror". In May 2003, Howard made an overnight stay at Bush's Prairie Chapel Ranch in Texas, after which Bush said that Howard "...is not only a man of steel, he's showed the world he's a man of heart."
In April 2002, Howard was the first Australian prime minister to attend a royal funeral, that of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. In October Howard responded to the 2002 Bali bombing with calls for solidarity. Howard re-dedicated his government to the "War on Terror".
In March 2003, Australia joined the US-led "Multinational force in Iraq" in sending 2,000 troops and naval units to support in the invasion of Iraq. In response to the Australian participation in the invasion, there were large protests in Australian cities during March 2003, and Prime Minister Howard was heckled from the public gallery of Parliament House. While opinion polls showed that opposition to the war without UN backing was between 48 and 92 per cent, Howard remained preferred prime-minister over the Leader of the Opposition, Simon Crean, although his approval ratings were lower compared to before the war.
Throughout 2002 and 2003 Howard had increased his opinion poll lead over Labor Party leader, Simon Crean. In December 2003, Crean resigned after losing party support and Mark Latham was elected leader. Howard called an election for 9 October 2004. While the government was behind Labor in the opinion polls, Howard himself had a large lead over Latham as preferred prime minister. In the lead up to the election, Howard again did not commit to serving a full term. Howard attacked Latham's economic record as Mayor of Liverpool City Council and attacked Labor's economic history. The election resulted in a five-seat swing to the Coalition, netting it a majority almost as large as in 1996. It also resulted the first, albeit slim, government majority in the Senate since 1981. For the second time since becoming prime minister, Howard came up short of a majority in the first count for his own seat. He was assured of reelection on the third count, ultimately winning 53.3 per cent of the two-party preferred vote. On 21 December 2004, Howard overtook Bob Hawke to become the second longest-serving Australian prime minister after Sir Robert Menzies.
Fourth term
In 2006, with the government now controlling both houses of parliament for the first time since the Fraser era, industrial relations changes were enacted. Named "WorkChoices" and championed by Howard, they were intended to fundamentally change the employer-employee relationship. Opposed by a broad trade union campaign and antipathy within the electorate, WorkChoices was subsequently seen as a major factor in the government's 2007 election loss.
In April 2006, the government announced it had completely paid off the last of $96 billion of Commonwealth net debt inherited when it came to power in 1996. By 2007, Howard had been in office for 11 of the 15 years of consecutive annual growth for the Australian economy. Unemployment had fallen from 8.1% at the start of his term to 4.1% in 2007, and average weekly earnings grew 24.4% in real terms. During his prime ministership, opinion polling consistently showed that a majority of the electorate thought his government were better to handle the economy than the Opposition.
In 2006, Ian McLachlan and Peter Costello said that under a 1994 deal between Howard and Costello, Howard would serve one and a half terms as prime minister if the Coalition won the next election before stepping aside to allow Costello to take over. Howard denied that this constituted a deal; Citing strong party room support for him as leader, Howard stated later that month that he would remain to contest the 2007 election. Six weeks before the election, Howard indicated he would stand down during the next term, and anointed Costello as his successor.
The Coalition trailed Labor in opinion polls from mid-2006 onward, but Howard still consistently led Labor leader Kim Beazley on the question of preferred prime minister. In December 2006, after Kevin Rudd became Labor leader, the two-party preferred deficit widened even further and Rudd swiftly overtook Howard as preferred prime minister. Howard chaired APEC Australia 2007, culminating in the APEC Economic Leaders Meeting in Sydney during September. The meeting was at times overshadowed by further leadership speculation following continued poor poll results.
In May 2006, the degradation of Aboriginal communities, and the frequent child sexual abuses that occurred within these, was brought to the forefront of the public's mind. In response to this, a report into child sexual abuse in the Northern Territory was commissioned. Following this, there was an intervention into these Northern Territory communities. This received widespread criticism, with some holding that it was no more than another attempt to control these communities. Howard was not exempt from this criticism on the grounds of racism.
Howard supported the Bush administration's 2007 surge strategy in Iraq, and criticised Democrat US presidential candidate Barack Obama for calling for a complete withdrawal of Coalition troops by March 2008.
2007 election
Leading up to the 24 November election, the Coalition had been behind Labor in the polls for almost two years, a margin that grew even larger after Rudd became opposition leader. In the election, Howard and his government were defeated, suffering a 23-seat swing to Labor, which was almost as large as the 29-seat swing that propelled him to power in 1996. During the election campaign he was targeted by protesters including the John Howard Ladies Auxiliary Fanclub. Howard lost his seat of Bennelong to former journalist Maxine McKew with 44,685 votes (51.4 per cent) to Howard's 42,251 (48.6 per cent). The latest redistribution placed Bennelong right on the edge of seats Labor needed to win to make Rudd prime minister. The ABC actually listed Bennelong as a Labor gain on election night. However, the result remained in doubt for a few days after the election. The final tally indicated that McKew defeated Howard on the 14th count due to a large flow of Green preferences to her; 3,793 (78.84 per cent) of Green voters listed McKew as their second preference. Howard was only the second Australian prime minister to lose his seat in an election since Stanley Bruce in 1929. He remained in office as caretaker prime minister until the formal swearing in of Rudd's government on 3 December.
Media analysis of The Australian Election Study, a postal survey of 1,873 voters during the 2007 poll, found that although respondents respected Howard and thought he had won the 6-week election campaign, Howard was considered "at odds with public opinion on cut-through issues", his opponent had achieved the highest "likeability" rating in the survey's 20-year history, and a majority had decided their voting intention before the election campaign.
Retirement
In January 2008, Howard signed with the speaking agency called the Washington Speakers Bureau, joining Tony Blair, Colin Powell, Madeleine Albright, and others. He was available for two speeches, Leadership in the New Century and The Global Economic Future.
The Australian and New Zealand cricket boards unsuccessfully nominated Howard as their candidate for president of the International Cricket Council (ICC). Howard was the chairman of the International Democrat Union (IDU), a body of international conservative political parties, between 2002 and 2014, when he was succeeded by John Key of New Zealand. In 2008, he was appointed a director of the foundation established to preserve the legacy of Donald Bradman.
Howard was the subject of a lengthy interview series by The Australian columnist Janet Albrechtsen in 2014, which aired as a featured story on Seven Network's Sunday Night, and again in January 2015 as its own five-part series on Sky News Australia entitled Howard Defined. In November 2017, Howard launched the Ramsay Centre for Western Civilisation, headed by Simon Haines, formerly professor of English at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. In 2017, Howard endorsed a "No" vote in the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey and joined the campaign against same-sex marriage.
In February 2019, Howard provided a character reference for Cardinal George Pell, a senior leader of the Catholic Church in Australia and former Vatican Treasurer, whose conviction on five counts of child sexual abuse while Archbishop of Melbourne was later overturned by the High Court. Howard's character reference followed Pell's convictions, and was provided along with nine others to support Pell's barrister's submissions in the pre-sentencing hearing.
In October 2021, Howard endorsed Dominic Perrottet to succeed Gladys Berejiklian as Premier of New South Wales following Berejiklian's resignation as Premier.
In July 2023, ahead of the Australian Indigenous Voice referendum, Howard said that "the luckiest thing that happened to this country was being colonised by the British. Not that they were perfect by any means, but they were infinitely more successful and beneficent colonisers than other European countries".
Honours
Orders
26 January 2008: Companion of the Order of Australia (AC) "for distinguished service to the Parliament of Australia, particularly as prime minister and through contributions to economic and social policy reform, fostering and promoting Australia's interests internationally, and the development of significant philanthropic links between the business sector, arts and charitable organisations".
1 January 2012: Member of the Order of Merit (OM) by Queen Elizabeth II
Medals
1 January 2001: Centenary Medal
Foreign honours
15 June 2005: Star of the Solomon Islands (SSI)
13 January 2009: Presidential Medal of Freedom by the President of the United States, George W. Bush.
10 December 2013: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun by the Japanese Government, represented by Ambassador Yoshitaka Akimoto.
Organisations
26 January 1997: Australian Father of the Year
22 August 2005: Woodrow Wilson Award from the Woodrow Wilson Center of the U.S. Smithsonian Institution
May 2006: Presidential Gold Medal from the B'nai B'rith International
5 March 2008: Irving Kristol Award from the American Enterprise Institute
6 April 2008: Common Wealth Award of Distinguished Service for services to Government
20 November 2003: IOC Gold Olympic Order
Appointments
30 November 2008present: Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Honorary Doctorate for "outstanding statesmanship and leading role on the world stage in promoting democracy and combating international terrorism" and his "remarkable understanding of, and exceptional support for, the State of Israel and his deep friendship with the Australian Jewish community".
14 February 2009present: Bond University, Honorary doctorate
10 April 2012present: Macquarie University, Honorary Doctor of Letters
30 September 2016present: University of Sydney, Honorary Doctor of Letters
See also
First Howard Ministry
Second Howard Ministry
Third Howard Ministry
Fourth Howard Ministry
SIEV X
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Biographical
Scholarly studies
Gulmanelli, Stefano. "John Howard and the ‘Anglospherist’ reshaping of Australia." Australian Journal of Political Science 49#4 (2014): 581–595.
Works
Books
Book reviews
External links
Howard, John (1939–) National Library of Australia, Trove, People and Organisation record for John Howard
Australia's Prime Ministers: John Howard National Archives of Australia
John Howard addresses a joint session of parliament in Canada, the first Australian prime minister to do so since John Curtin in 1944.
ABC's Four Corners– Howard's End – video
Past PMs Website
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1939 births
Living people
20th-century Australian politicians
21st-century Australian politicians
Australian Anglicans
Australian autobiographers
Australian historians
Leaders of the Opposition (Australia)
Australian members of the Order of Merit
Australian monarchists
Commonwealth Chairpersons-in-Office
Companions of the Order of Australia
Converts to Anglicanism from Methodism
Former Methodists
Delegates to the Australian Constitutional Convention 1998
Grand Cordons of the Order of the Rising Sun
Leaders of the Liberal Party of Australia
Liberal Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Australia
Members of the Australian House of Representatives for Bennelong
Members of the Cabinet of Australia
People educated at Canterbury Boys' High School
Politicians from Sydney
Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients
Prime Ministers of Australia
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Member of the Mont Pelerin Society
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20butterflies%20of%20Taiwan
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List of butterflies of Taiwan
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At least 377 species of butterfly have been recorded in Taiwan, with some reports putting the number at over 400. Of these, 56 species are endemic to the island. Taiwan is in the Indomalayan realm.
Following is a list of all butterflies found in Taiwan.
Family Hesperiidae
Subfamily Coeliadinae
Badamia exclamationis (Fabricius, 1775) brown awl
Bibasis jaina formosana (Fruhstorfer, 1911) - formerly Burara
Choaspes benjaminii formosanus (Fruhstorfer, 1911) Indian awl king
Choaspes xanthopogon chrysopterus Hsu, 1988
Hasora anura taiwana Hsu, Tsukiyama & Chiba, 2005 slate awl
Hasora badra (Moore, 1858) common awl
Hasora chromus (Cramer, 1782) banded awl
Hasora taminatus vairacana Fruhstorfer, 1911 white-banded awl
Subfamily Hesperiinae
Aeromachus bandaishanus Murayama & Shimonoya, 1968 ※endemic
Aeromachus inachus formosana Matsumura, 1931
Aeromachus matsudai (Murayama, 1943) ※endemic
Ampittia dioscorides etura (Mabille, 1891) bush hopper
Ampittia virgata miyakei Shonen Matsumura, 1910 striped bush hopper
Borbo cinnara (Wallace, 1866) Formosan swift
Caltoris bromus yanuca (Fruhstorfer, 1911) colon swift
Caltoris cahira austeni (Moore, 1883) dark swift
Erionota torus Evans, 1941 banana skipper
Halpe gamma Evans, 1937
Isoteinon lamprospilus formosanus Fruhstorfer, 1911 shiny-spotted bob
Notocrypta curvifascia (C. & R. Felder, 1862) restricted demon
Notocrypta feisthamelii (Boisduval, 1832)
N. f. alinkara Fruhstorfer, 1911
N. f. arisana Sonan, 1930
Ochlodes bouddha yuchingkinus Matsuyama & Shimonoya, 1963
Ochlodes formosanus (Matsumura, 1919) ※endemic
Onryza maga takeuchii (Matsumura, 1929)
Parnara bada (Moore, 1878) Oriental straight swift
Parnara guttata (Bremer & Grey, 1852) common straight swift
Pelopidas agna (Moore, 1866) little branded swift
Pelopidas conjuncta (Herrich-Schäffer, 1869) conjoined swift
Pelopidas mathias oberthueri Evans, 1937
Pelopidas sinensis (Mabille, 1877) small branded swift
Polytremis eltola tappana (Matsumura, 1919)
Polytremis kiraizana (Sonan, 1938) ※endemic
Polytremis lubricans taiwana Matsumura, 1919 contiguous swift ※endemic
Polytremis theca asahinai Shirozu, 1952
Polytremis zina taiwana Murayama, 1981
Potanthus confucius angustatus (Matsumura, 1910) Chinese dart
Potanthus diffusus Hsu, Tsukiyama & Chiba, 2005
Potanthus motzui Hsu, Li, & Li, 1990 ※endemic
Potanthus pava (Fruhstorfer, 1911) yellow band dart
Potanthus wilemanni (Evans, 1934) ※endemic
Pseudoborbo bevani (Moore, 1878)
Suastus gremius (Fabricius, 1798) Indian palm bob
Telicota bambusae horisha Evans, 1934
Telicota colon bayashikeii Tsukiyama, Chiba & Fujioka, 1997 pale palm dart
Telicota ohara formosana Fruhstorfer, 1911 dark palm dart
Thoressa horishana (Matsumura, 1910) ※endemic
Udaspes folus (Cramer, 1775) grass demon
Subfamily Pyrginae
Abraximorpha davidii ermasis Fruhstorfer, 1914 magpie flat
Celaenorrhinus chihhsiaoi Hsu, 1990 ※endemic
Celaenorrhinus horishanus Shirozu, 1960 ※endemic
Celaenorrhinus kurosawai Shirozu, 1960 ※endemic
Celaenorrhinus maculosus (C. & R. Felder, 1919)
Celaenorrhinus osculus major Hsu, 1990
Celaenorrhinus pulomaya formosanus Fruhstorfer, 1909
Celaenorrhinus ratna Fruhstorfer, 1908
Coladenia pinsbukana (Shimonoya & Murayama, 1976) ※endemic
Daimio tethys niitakana Matsumura, 1907
Lobocla bifasciata kodairai Sonan, 1936
Pseudocoladenia dan sadakoe (Sonan & Mitono, 1936)
Satarupa formosibia Strand, 1927 ※endemic
Satarupa majasra Fruhstorfer, 1910
Seseria formosana (Fruhstorfer, 1909) ※endemic
Tagiades cohaerens Mabille, 1914
Tagiades trebellius martinus Plotz, 1884
Family Papilionidae
Subfamily Papilioninae
Tribe Leptocircini
Graphium agamemnon (Linneaeus, 1758) tailed jay
Graphium cloanthus kuge (Fruhstorfer, 1908) glassy bluebottle
Graphium doson postianum (Fruhstorfer, 1908) common jay
Graphium sarpedon connectens (Fruhstorfer, 1906) common bluebottle
Pazala eurous asakurae (Matsumura, 1908)
Graphium mullah Pazala timur chungianum (Murayama, 1961)
Tribe Papilionini
Papilio maraho (Shiraki & Sonan, 1934) ※endemic
Papilio agestor matsumurae (Fruhstorfer, 1909) tawny mime
Papilio bianor Cramer, 1777 Chinese peacock
P. b. kotoensis Sonan, 1927
P. b. thrasymedes Fruhstorfer 1909
Papilio castor formosanus Rothschild, 1896
Papilio demoleus Linnaeus, 1758 lime butterfly
Papilio dialis tatsuta Murayama, 1970 southern Chinese peacock
Papilio epycides melanoleucus (Ney, 1911)
Papilio helenus fortunius Fruhstorfer, 1908 red Helen
Papilio paris hermosanus Rebel, 1906
Papilio hoppo Matsumura, 1907 ※endemic
Papilio machaon sylvina Hemming, 1933
Papilio memnon heronus Fruhstorfer, 1903 great Mormon
Papilio nephelus chaonulus Fruhstorfer, 1908
Papilio paris nakaharai Shirozu, 1960 Paris peacock
Papilio polytes Linnaeus, 1758 common Mormon
P. p. ledebouria Eschscholtz, 1821 ※vagrant
P. p. pasikrates Fruhstorfer, 1908
P. p. polytes Linnaeus, 1758 ※vagrant
Papilio protenor Cramer, 1775 spangle
Papilio rumanzovia Eschscholtz, 1821 ※vagrant
Papilio taiwanus Rothschild, 1898 ※endemic
Papilio xuthus Linnaeus, 1767 Asian swallowtail
Tribe Troidini
Atrophaneura horishana (Matsumura, 1910) ※endemic
Atrophaneura semperi (C.& R. Felder, 1861) ※vagrant
Byasa alcinous mansonensis (Fruhstorfer, 1901)
Byasa impediens febanus (Fruhstorfer, 1908)
Byasa polyeuctes termessus (Fruhstorfer, 1908)
Pachliopta aristolochiae interpositus (Fruhstorfer, 1901) common rose
Troides aeacus formosanus Rothschild, 1899 golden birdwing
Troides magellanus sonani Matsumura, 1932
Troides plateni (Staudinger, 1889) ※vagrant
Family Pieridae
Subfamily Coliadinae
Catopsilia pomona (Fabricius, 1775) lemon emigrant
Catopsilia pyranthe (Linnaeus, 1758) mottled emigrant
Catopsilia scylla cornelia (Fabricius, 1787) ※exotic
Colias erate formosana Shirozu, 1955
Eurema alitha esakii Shirozu, 1953
Eurema andersonii godana (Fruhstorfer, 1910)
Eurema blanda arsakia (Fruhstorfer, 1910) three-spot grass yellow
Eurema brigitta hainana (Moore, 1878) small grass yellow
Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus, 1758) common grass yellow
Eurema laeta punctissima (Matsumura, 1909) spotless grass yellow
Gonepteryx amintha formosana (Fruhstorfer, 1908)
Gonepteryx taiwana Paravicini, 1913 ※endemic
Subfamily Pierinae
Aporia agathon moltrechti (Oberthür, 1909)
Aporia gigantea cheni Hsu & Chou, 1999
Aporia potanini insularis Shirozu, 1959
Appias albina semperi (Moore, 1905) common albatross
Appias indra aristoxemus Fruhstorfer, 1908
Appias lyncida formosana (Wallace, 1866) chocolate albatross
Appias nero domitia (C. & R. Felder, 1862) ※vagrant
Appias olferna peducaea Fruhstorfer, 1910 ※vagrant
Appias paulina minato (Fruhstorfer, 1898)
Cepora aspasia olga (Eschscholtz, 1821) ※exotic
Cepora coronis cibyra (Fruhstorfer, 1910) common gullwing
Cepora nandina eunama (Fruhstorfer, 1903)
Delias berinda wilemani Jordan, 1925
Delias hyparete luzonensis C. & R. Felder, 1862 painted Jezebel
Delias lativitta formosana Matsumura, 1909
Delias pasithoe curasena Fruhstorfer, 1908 red-base Jezebel
Hebomoia glaucippe formosana Fruhstorfer, 1908 great orange tip
Ixias pyrene insignis Butler, 1879 yellow orange tip
Leptosia nina niobe (Wallace, 1866)
Pieris canidia (Sparrman, 1768) Indian cabbage white
Pieris rapae crucivora Boisduval, 1836 cabbage white
Prioneris thestylis formosana Fruhstorfer, 1908 spotted sawtooth
Saletara panda nathalia (C. & R. Felder, 1862) ※vagrant
Talbotia naganum karumii (Ikeda, 1937) Naga white
Family Riodinidae
Abisara burnii etymander (Fruhstorfer, 1908)
Dodona eugenes (Guerin, 1843)
D. e. esakii Shirozu, 1952
D. e. formosana Matsumura, 1919
Family Lycaenidae
Subfamily Curetinae
Curetis acuta formosana Fruhstorfer, 1908
Curetis brunnea Wileman, 1909 ※endemic
Subfamily Lycaeninae
Heliophorus ila matsumurae (Fruhstorfer, 1908)
Subfamily Miletinae
Tribe Spalgini
Spalgis epeus dilama (Moore, 1878)
Tribe Tarakini
Taraka hamada thalaba Fruhstorfer, 1922
Subfamily Polyommatinae
Tribe Polyommatini
Acytolepis puspa myla (Fruhstorfer, 1909)
Callenya melaena shonen (Esaki, 1932)
Catochrysops panormus exiguus (Distant, 1886)
Catochrysops strabo luzonensis Tite, 1959
Catopyrops ancyra almora (Druce, 1873) ※exotic
Celastrina argiolus caphis (Fruhstorfer, 1922)
Celastrina lavendularis himilcon (Fruhstorfer, 1909)
Celastrina oreas arisana (Matsumura, 1910)
Celastrina sugitanii shirozui Hsu, 1987
Celatoxia marginata (de Niceville, 1884)
Chilades lajus koshunensis Matsumura, 1919
Danis schaeffera (Eschscholtz, 1821) ※vagrant
Euchrysops cnejus (Fabricius, 1798)
Everes argiades hellotia (Menetries, 1857)
Everes lacturnus rileyi Godfrey, 1916
Famegana alsulus taiwana (Sonan, 1938) ※extinct
Freyeria putli formosanus (Matsumura, 1919)
Jamides alecto dromicus Fruhstorfer, 1910
Jamides bochus formosanus Fruhstorfer, 1909
Jamides celeno (Cramer, 1775)
Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus, 1767)
Luthrodes peripatria (Hsu, 1989)
Megisba malaya sikkima Moore, 1884
Nacaduba berenice leei Hsu, 1990
Nacaduba beroe asakusa Fruhstorfer, 1916
Nacaduba kurava therasia Fruhstorfer, 1916
Nacaduba pactolus hainani Bethune-Baker, 1914
Neopithecops zalmora (Butler, 1869)
Orthomiella rantaizana (Wileman, 1910)
Phengaris atroguttata formosana (Matsumura, 1926)
Phengaris daitozana Wileman, 1908 ※endemic
Pithecops corvus cornix Cowan, 1965
Pithecops fulgens urai Bethune-Baker, 1913
Prosotas nora formosana (Fruhstorfer, 1916)
Shijimia moorei (Leech, 1889)
Syntarucus plinius (Fabricius, 1793)
Tongeia filicaudis mushanus (Tanikawa, 1940)
Tongeia hainani (Bethune-Baker, 1914) ※endemic
Udara albocaerulea (Moore, 1879)
Udara dilecta (Moore, 1879)
Zizeeria karsandra (Moore, 1865)
Zizeeria maha okinawana (Matsumura, 1929)
Zizina otis riukuensis (Matsumura, 1929)
Zizula hylax (Fabricius, 1775)
Subfamily Aphnaeinae
Cigaritis kuyaniana (Matsumura, 1919) ※endemic
Cigaritis lohita formosana (Moore, 1877)
Cigaritis syama (Horsfield, 1829)
Subfamily Theclinae
Tribe Arhopalini
Arhopala bazalus turbata (Butler, 1881)
Arhopala birmana asakurae (Matsumura, 1910)
Arhopala ganesa formosana Kato, 1930
Arhopala japonica (Murray, 1875)
Arhopala paramuta horishana Matsumura, 1910
Mahathala ameria hainani Bethune-Baker, 1903
Tribe Catapaecilmatini
Catapaecilma major moltrechti (Wileman, 1908)
Tribe Deudorigini
Artipe eryx horiella (Matsumura, 1929)
Deudorix epijarbas menesicles Fruhstorfer, 1911
Deudorix rapaloides (Naritomi, 1911)
Deudorix repercussa sankakuhonis Matsumura, 1938
Rapala caerulea liliacea Nire, 1920
Rapala nissa hirayamana Matsumura, 1926
Rapala takasagonis Matsumura, 1929 ※endemic
Rapala varuna formosana Fruhstorfer, 1911
Sinthusa chandrana kuyaniana (Matsumura, 1919)
Tribe Eumaeini
Fixsenia watarii (Matsumura, 1927) ※endemic
Satyrium austrinum (Murayama, 1943)
Satyrium esakii (Shirozu, 1942) ※endemic
Satyrium eximium mushanum (Matsumura, 1929)
Satyrium formosanum (Matsumura, 1910)
Satyrium inouei (Shirozu, 1959)
Satyrium tanakai (Shirozu, 1943) ※endemic
Tribe Horagini
Horaga albimacula triumphalis Murayama & Sibatani, 1943
Horaga onyx moltrechti Matsumura, 1919
Horaga rarasana Sonan, 1936 ※endemic
Tribe Hypolycaenini
Hypolycaena othona Hewitson, 1865 ※extinct
Hypolycaena kina inari (Wileman, 1908)
Tribe Iolaini
Tajuria caerulea Nire, 1920 ※endemic
Tajuria diaeus karenkonis Matsumura, 1929
Tajuria illurgis tattaka (Araki, 1949)
Tribe Remelanini
Ancema ctesia cakravasti (Fruhstorfer, 1909)
Tribe Theclini
Amblopala avidiena y-fasciata (Sonan, 1929)
Antigius attilia obsoletus (Takeuchi, 1923)
Araragi enthea morisonensis (M. Inoue, 1942)
Chrysozephyrus ataxus lingi Okano & Okura, 1969
Chrysozephyrus disparatus pseudotaiwanus (Howarth, 1957)
Chrysozephyrus esakii (Sonan, 1940)
Chrysozephyrus kabrua niitakanus (Kano, 1928)
Chrysozephyrus mushaellus (Matsumura, 1938)
Chrysozephyrus nishikaze (Araki & Sibatani, 1886) ※endemic
Chrysozephyrus rarasanus (Matsumura, 1939)
Chrysozephyrus splendidulus Murayama, 1965 ※endemic
Chrysozephyrus yuchingkinus Murayama & Shimonoya, 1965 ※endemic
Cordelia comes wilemaniella (Matsumura, 1929)
Euaspa forsteri (Esaki & Shirozu, 1943)
Euaspa milionia formosana Nomura, 1931
Euaspa tayal (Esaki & Shirozu, 1943)
Iratsume orsedice suzukii (Sonan, 1940)
Japonica patungkoanui Matsumura, 1956 ※endemic
Leucantigius atayalicus (Shirozu & Murayama, 1943)
Neozephyrus taiwanus (Wileman, 1908) ※endemic
Ravenna nivea (Nire, 1920)
Sibataniozephyrus kuafui Hsu & Lin, 1994 ※endemic
Teratozephyrus arisanus (Wileman, 1909)
Teratozephyrus elatus Hsu & Lu, 2005
Teratozephyrus yugaii (Kano, 1928) ※endemic
Ussuriana michaelis takarana (Araki & Hirayama, 1941)
Wagimo sulgeri insularis (Shirozu, 1957)
Family Nymphalidae
Subfamily Apaturinae
Chitoria chrysolora (Fruhstorfer, 1908)
Chitoria ulupi arakii (Naritomi, 1959)
Helcyra plesseni (Fruhstorfer, 1912) ※endemic
Helcyra superba takamukui Matsumura, 1919
Hestina assimilis formosana (Moore, 1895) red ring skirt
Sasakia charonda formosana Shirozu, 1963
Sephisa chandra androdamas Fruhstorfer, 1908 eastern courtier
Sephisa daimio Matsumura, 1910 ※endemic
Timelaea albescens formosana Fruhstorfer, 1908
Subfamily Biblidinae
Ariadne ariadne pallidior (Fruhstorfer, 1899) angled castor
Subfamily Calinaginae
Calinaga buddha formosana Fruhstorfer, 1908
Subfamily Charaxinae
Polyura eudamippus formosana (Rothschild, 1899) great nawab
Polyura narcaea meghaduta (Fruhstorfer, 1908)
Subfamily Cyrestinae
Cyrestis thyodamas formosana Fruhstorfer, 1898 common map
Dichorragia nesimachus formosanus Fruhstorfer, 1909 constable
Subfamily Danainae
Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus, 1758) plain tiger
Danaus genutia (Cramer, 1779) common tiger
Danaus melanippus edmondii (Bougainville, 1837) ※vagrant
Danaus plexippus (Linnaeus, 1758) ※extirpated
Euploea camaralzeman cratis Butler, 1866 ※vagrant
Euploea core godartii Lucas, 1853 common Indian crow ※vagrant
Euploea eunice (Godart, 1819)
E. e. hobsoni (Butler, 1877)
E. e. kadu Eschscholtz, 1821 ※vagrant
Euploea klugii Moore, 1858 ※vagrant
Euploea mulciber barsine Fruhstorfer, 1904 striped blue crow
Euploea phaenareta juvia Fruhstorfer, 1908 ※extinct
Euploea swainson (Godart, 1824) ※vagrant
Euploea sylvester swinhoei Wallace & Moore, 1866 double-branded black crow
Euploea tulliolus (Fabricius, 1793)
E. t. koxinga Fruhstorfer, 1908
E. t. pollita Erichson, 1834 ※vagrant
Idea leuconoe Erichson, 1834
I. l. clara (Butler, 1867)
I. l. kwashotoensis (Sonan, 1928)
Ideopsis similis (Linnaeus, 1758) Ceylon blue glassy tiger
Parantica aglea maghaba (Fruhstorfer, 1909) glassy tiger
Parantica luzonensis (C. & R. Felder, 1863) ※vagrant
Parantica sita niphonica (Moore, 1883) chestnut tiger
Parantica swinhoei (Moore, 1883) Swinhoe's chocolate tiger
Tirumala hamata orientalis (Semper, 1879) ※vagrant
Tirumala limniace (Cramer, 1775) blue tiger
T. l. limniace (Cramer, 1775)
T. l. orestilla (Fruhstorfer, 1910) ※vagrant
Tirumala septentrionis (Butler, 1874) dark blue tiger
Subfamily Heliconiinae
Acraea issoria formosana (Fruhstorfer, 1912) yellow coster
Argynnis paphia formosicola Matsumura, 1927
Argynnis hyperbius (Linnaeus, 1763) Indian fritillary
Boloria pales yangi Hsu & Yen, 1997 ※extinct
Cupha erymanthis (Drury, 1773) rustic
Paduca fasciata (C.& R. Felder, 1860) ※vagrant
Phalanta phalantha (Drury, 1773) common leopard ※exotic
Vindula dejone (Erichson, 1834) ※vagrant
Subfamily Limenitidinae
Abrota ganga formosana Fruhstorfer, 1908
Aldania ilos nirei Nomura, 1935
Athyma asura baelia (Fruhstorfer, 1908)
Athyma cama zoroastes (Butler, 1877)
Athyma fortuna kodahirai (Sonan, 1938)
Athyma jina sauteri (Fruhstorfer, 1912)
Athyma opalina hirayamai (Matsumura, 1935)
Athyma perius (Linnaeus, 1758)
Athyma selenophora laela (Fruhstorfer, 1908)
Athyma sulpitia tricula (Fruhstorfer, 1908)
Euthalia formosana Fruhstorfer, 1908 ※endemic
Euthalia hebe kosempona Fruhstorfer, 1908
Euthalia irrubescens fulguralis (Matsumura, 1909)
Euthalia malapana Shirozu & Chung, 1958 ※endemic
Euthalia insulae Hall, 1930
Neptis hesione podarces Nire, 1920
Neptis hylas luculenta Fruhstorfer, 1907
Neptis nata lutatia Fruhstorfer, 1913
Neptis noyala ikedai Shirozu, 1952
Neptis philyra splendens Murayama, 1942
Neptis philyroides sonani Murayama, 1942
Neptis pryeri jucundita Fruhstorfer, 1908
Neptis reducta Fruhstorfer, 1908 ※endemic
Neptis sankara shirakiana Matsumura, 1929
Neptis sappho formosana Fruhstorfer, 1908
Neptis soma tayalina Murayama & Shimonoya, 1968
Neptis sylvana esakii Nomura, 1935
Neptis taiwana Fruhstorfer, 1908 ※endemic
Pantoporia hordonia rihodona (Moore, 1878)
Parasarpa dudu jinamitra (Fruhstorfer, 1908)
Parthenos silvia philippensis Fruhstorfer, 1898
Subfamily Libytheinae
Libythea celtis formosana Fruhstorfer, 1909
Libythea geoffroy philippina Staudinger, 1889 ※vagrant
Subfamily Morphinae
Discophora sondaica (Boisduval, 1836) large faun – ※exotic
Faunis eumeus (Drury, 1773) common duffer ※exotic
Stichophthalma howqua formosana Fruhstorfer, 1908
Subfamily Nymphalinae
Doleschallia bisaltide philippensis Fruhstorfer, 1899 ※vagrant
Hypolimnas anomala Wallace, 1869 Malayan egg-fly ※exotic
Hypolimnas bolina (Linnaeus, 1758) great egg-fly
H. b. jacintha (Drury, 1773) ※exotic
H. b. kezia (Butler, 1877)
Hypolimnas misippus (Linnaeus, 1764) Danaid egg-fly
Junonia almana (Linnaeus, 1758) peacock pansy
Junonia atlites (Linnaeus, 1758) grey pansy ※exotic
Junonia hedonia ida (Cramer, 1776) yellow pansy ※vagrant
Junonia iphita (Cramer, 1779) chocolate pansy
Junonia lemonias aenaria Tsukada & Kaneko, 1985 lemon pansy
Junonia orithya (Linnaeus, 1758) blue pansy
Kallima inachus formosana Fruhstorfer, 1912 orange oakleaf
Kaniska canace drilon (Fruhstorfer, 1908) blue admiral
Nymphalis xanthomelas formosana (Matsumura, 1925)
Polygonia c-album asakurai Nakahara, 1920
Polygonia c-aureum lunulata Esaki & Nakahara, 1923 comma
Symbrenthia hypselis scatinia Fruhstorfer, 1908
Symbrenthia lilaea formosanus Fruhstorfer, 1908 common jester
Vanessa cardui (Linnaeus, 1758) painted lady
Vanessa indica (Herbst, 1794) Indian red admiral
Yoma sabina podium Tsukada, 1985 Australian lurcher
Subfamily Satyrinae
Elymnias hypermnestra hainana Moore, 1878 common palmfly
Lethe bojonia Fruhstorfer, 1913
Lethe butleri periscelis Fruhstorfer, 1908
Lethe chandica ratnacri Fruhstorfer, 1908
Lethe christophi hanako Fruhstorfer, 1908
Lethe diana australis Naritomi, 1943
Lethe europa pavida Fruhstorfer, 1908 bamboo treebrown
Lethe gemina zaitha Fruhstorfer, 1914
Lethe insana formosana Fruhstorfer, 1908
Lethe mataja Fruhstorfer, 1908 ※endemic
Lethe rohria daemoniaca Fruhstorfer, 1908 common tree brown
Lethe verma cintamani Fruhstorfer, 1848 straight-banded treebrown
Melanitis leda (Linnaeus, 1758) common evening brown
Melanitis phedima polishana Fruhstorfer, 1908 dark evening brown
Minois nagasawae (Matsumura, 1906) ※endemic
Mycalesis francisca formosana Fruhstorfer, 1908
Mycalesis gotama nanda Fruhstorfer, 1908
Mycalesis mineus (Linnaeus, 1758) dark-banded bushbrown
Mycalesis perseus blasius (Fabricius, 1798) dingy bushbrown
Mycalesis sangaica mara Fruhstorfer, 1908 single ring bushbrown
Mycalesis suaveolens kagina Fruhstorfer, 1908
Mycalesis zonata Matsumura, 1909 South China bushbrown
Neope armandii lacticolora (Fruhstorfer, 1908)
Neope bremeri taiwana Matsumura, 1919
Neope muirheadi nagasawae Matsumura, 1919 Muirhead's labyrinth
Neope pulaha didia Fruhstorfer, 1909
Palaeonympha opalina macrophthalmia Fruhstorfer, 1911
Penthema formosanum (Rothschild, 1898)
Ypthima akragas Fruhstorfer, 1911 ※endemic
Ypthima angustipennis Takahashi, 2000 ※endemic
Ypthima baldus zodina (Fruhstorfer, 1911) common five-ring
Ypthima conjuncta yamanakai Sonan, 1938
Ypthima esakii Shirozu, 1960 ※endemic
Ypthima formosana Fruhstorfer, 1908 ※endemic
Ypthima motschulskyi (Bremer & Grey, 1853) large three-ring
Ypthima multistriata Butler, 1883
Ypthima norma posticalis Matsumura, 1909 small three-ring ※extinct
Ypthima okurai (Okano, 1962)
Ypthima praenubilia common four-ring
Y. p. kanonis Matsumura, 1929
Y. p. neobilia Murayama, 1980
Ypthima tappana Matsumura, 1909
Ypthima wangi Lee, 1998 ※endemic
Zophoessa dura neoclides (Fruhstorfer, 1909)
Zophoessa niitakana (Matsumura, 1906) ※endemic
Zophoessa siderea kanoi (Esaki & Nomura, 1937)
See also
List of moths of Taiwan
References
. 1997. The life histories of Asian butterflies vol. 1. Tokai University Press, Tokyo.
http://booksfromtaiwan.com/Butterfly_Books.html
Taiwan
Taiwan
Lepidoptera of Taiwan
Butterflies of Taiwan
Butterflies
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4690382
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walking%20in%20Memphis
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Walking in Memphis
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"Walking in Memphis" is a song written and originally recorded by American singer-songwriter Marc Cohn, for whom it remains his signature song. It received a Song of the Year nomination at the 34th Grammy Awards in 1992, the same year that the 32-year-old Cohn won the Grammy for Best New Artist.
The song's lyrics are autobiographical, chronicling a 1985 trip that Cohn, then a struggling songwriter and singer, took to Memphis to overcome a bout of writer's block. After visiting the church where former soul singer Al Green was preaching, Elvis Presley's former home of Graceland, and a small nightclub in nearby Mississippi, as well as wandering various streets of downtown Memphis, he returned to New York and began composing the song. While writing and recording sessions continued through the late 1980s, his debut album, on which the song was the lead single, was not released until 1991.
"Walking in Memphis" reached number 13 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1991, becoming Cohn's only top-forty hit on the chart. The song reached number three in Canada, number seven in Ireland, and number 11 in Australia. "Walking in Memphis" has since been covered several times, notably in 1995 by Cher and in 2003 by Lonestar.
Inspiration
Cohn has said that "Walking in Memphis" is "100 percent autobiographical". He has described it as a song about "a Jewish gospel-music-lover", and added that "the song is about more than just a place; it's about a kind of spiritual awakening, one of those trips where you're different when you leave." He was inspired to write "Walking in Memphis" by a 1985 visit to the Memphis, Tennessee, area. At the time, he was working as a session singer in New York City while pursuing a recording contract. In 2014, he recalled:One night while listening to all of my demos, I came to the realization that I shouldn't be signed, because I didn't have any great songs yet... I was 28 years old and not in love with my songs. James Taylor had written 'Fire and Rain' when he was 18, and Jackson Browne wrote 'These Days' when he was only 17. I thought: 'I'm already ten years older than these geniuses. It's never going to happen for me.' So it was a pretty desperate time, and I went to Memphis with that struggle at the forefront of my mind. After reading that James Taylor overcame writer's block by going to a place he had never been, Cohn visited Memphis.
A friend had told him "there were two things in particular that I had to do [in Memphis], things that would forever change me. They later became the centerpieces of 'Walking in Memphis'." Cohn added:The first thing was go to the Full Gospel Tabernacle Church on a Sunday morning to hear the Reverend Al Green preach. ... I [soon] had chills running up and down my spine. The service was so deeply moving that I found myself with sweat running down my face and tears in my eyes, totally enveloped by everything I was seeing and hearing. There was something incredibly powerful about Al Green's voice in that context. Even after three hours of continuous singing, his voice only got stronger and his band only got better. I sat there crying in the church, aware of the irony of how I used to cry in synagogue in Cleveland as a kid — but because I wanted to get the heck out of there! Al Green's service was one of the great experiences of my life."
The second piece of advice was that Cohn visit the Hollywood Café in Robinsonville, Mississippi (present-day Tunica Resorts, 35 miles south of Memphis), to see Muriel Davis Wilkins, a retired schoolteacher who performed at the cafe on Friday nights. Cohn remembered: When I arrived, Muriel, who ... was in her 60s, was onstage playing a beat-up old upright piano and singing gospel standards ... I felt an immediate connection to her voice, her spirit, her face, and her smile. I was totally transfixed by her music. While many of the patrons were busy eating and not paying close attention to Muriel, I couldn't take my eyes off her. During her breaks, the two of us would talk. Muriel asked me why I was there, and I told her I was a songwriter trying to find inspiration. I also told her a little bit about my childhood — how when I was two and a half years old, my mom had passed away very unexpectedly, and about ten years later, my dad had passed away and I'd been raised by a stepmother. My mother's death was a central event in my life, and I'd been writing a lot about it over the years, both in songs and in journals. I think a part of me felt stuck in time, like I'd never quite been able to work through that loss... By midnight, the Hollywood was still packed, and Muriel asked me to join her onstage. We soon realized that there wasn't a song in the universe that both of us knew in common. A quick thinker, Muriel started feeding me lyrics to gospel songs so that I could catch up in time to sing somewhat in rhythm with her and make up my own version of the melody. Some songs I was vaguely familiar with, and some I didn't know at all. The very last song we sang together that night was 'Amazing Grace'. After we finished and people were applauding, Muriel leaned over and whispered in my ear: 'Child, you can let go now.' It was an incredibly maternal thing for her to say to me. Just like sitting in Reverend Al Green's church, I was again transformed. It was almost as if my mother was whispering in my ear. From the time I left Memphis and went back home to New York City, I knew I had a song in me about my experience there.
Composition
Soon after returning to New York City, Cohn began constructing the melody for "Walking in Memphis" on his guitar:The music for 'Walking in Memphis', except for the bridge, is really just the same thing over and over again. It's an attempt to keep things simple so that the narrative is what the listener focuses on. The story keeps changing; it goes from one scenario to another, all following the thread of my elation, described in the lyric 'Walking with my feet ten feet off of Beale'. What's being expressed is my love of music and the spiritual transformation I've always felt through it.
Cohn didn't think the song worked on the guitar and so switched to his piano, at which point the process started to flow. In an interview with Songwriting Magazine, he said:
Me and the piano, that’s all I cared about. I knew that I had turned a corner as a songwriter when I wrote that song because it worked so well without any adornment. It begins with me alone. Slowly it builds, the rhythm comes and goes, and towards the end of the song there’s no band again.
Cohn mentions Muriel Wilkins: Now Muriel plays piano every Friday at the Hollywood
And they brought me down to see her and they asked me if I would
Do a little number, and I sang with all my might
She said "Tell me are you a Christian child?" I said "Ma’am I am tonight." In 2014, Cohn noted: The line: 'Tell me are you a Christian child, and I said 'Ma'am I am tonight' – even in the moment I wrote it down, I knew I was getting closer to finding my songwriting voice. To this day, people still ask me if I am a Christian. While I have to admit that I enjoy the confusion the lyric brings, the thing that makes that line work is the fact that I'm a Jew. So many great artists over the years needed to hide the fact that they were Jewish to protect themselves and their families from anti-Semitism, so I'm proud of the fact that I could come right out and practically announce my religion on the first song I ever released.
In 1986, Cohn returned to the Hollywood Café to play "Walking in Memphis" and the other songs from his new album for Wilkins. After he finished, Wilkins said, "'You know the one where you mention me at the end? That's the best one you got!'" She died in October 1990, just before Cohn released "Walking in Memphis".
Critical reception
Pan-European magazine Music & Media described "Walking in Memphis" as "an inspiring song about the capitol of rock & roll, by this promising American singer/songwriter who is backed by an impressive gospel choir." Bobby Surf from NME said the song is "the Tennessee Tourist Board's wettest dream come true". He added, "To conclude that 'Walking in Memphis' is a mite similar to fellow pop hagioraphers Danny Wilson's 'Mary's Prayer' is to do Cohn a serious disservice. Firstly, he has a fine, grown up voice and a manner at the piano that mercifully skirts the morbid pomposity composing at that instrument so often engenders."
Commercial performance
Released as the first single from Cohn's self-titled debut album in March 1991, "Walking in Memphis" debuted at number 87 on the US Hot 100 in Billboard magazine dated March 30, 1991, with a subsequent two-month gradual chart ascent to the top 40. The single's number 38 ranking on the Hot 100 dated May 25, 1991, inaugurated a ten-week top 40 tenure with a peak of number 13 for two weeks, the first week of which was dated July 6, 1991—one day after Cohn's birthday. Overall "Walking in Memphis" spent 23 weeks on the Hot 100. "Walking in Memphis" was also a hit on Billboards Adult Contemporary chart (number 12) and crossed-over to the magazine's C&W chart (number 74). In Canada the song peaked at number three on the week dated July 13, 1991.
During its original release, "Walking in Memphis" reached number seven in Ireland but stalled at number 66 in the United Kingdom; its September 1991 re-release returned "Walking in Memphis" to the Irish top 20 at number 16 and introduced the single to the UK top 30 with a peak of number 22. (The re-release of "Walking in Memphis" replaced the original B-side, "Dig Down Deep", with a live version of "Silver Thunderbird" recorded July 17, 1991.) "Walking in Memphis" was also a top-twenty hit in both Australia and New Zealand, with chart peaks of number 11 and 18. In Europe, the single charted in France (number 45), Germany (number 25), the Netherlands (number 54), and Sweden (number 36).
At the 34th Grammy Awards in February 1992, "Walking in Memphis" was nominated for Song of the Year. Also, Cohn was nominated for the Best Pop Male Vocalist award for his vocals in "Walking in Memphis". Cohn did not win either award, although he did win the Grammy for Best New Artist.
Track listings and formats
7-inch single (first UK release) "Walking in Memphis" – 4:18
"Silver Thunderbird" (live) – 5:26
7-inch single (second UK release) "Walking in Memphis" – 4:18
"Dig Down Deep" – 5:08
CD maxi "Walking in Memphis" – 4:18
"Dig Down Deep" – 5:08
"Saving the Best for Last" – 5:31
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Cher version
Background
"Walking in Memphis" was remade by American singer and actress Cher for her 21st studio album, It's a Man's World (1995). It was released as the album's lead single in the United Kingdom on October 16, 1995. Her version debuted at number 11 on the UK Singles chart for the week ending October 28, 1995. Despite being a comparative failure for Cher, "Walking in Memphis" was included in the set list for the singer's 1999–2000 Do You Believe? Tour, the first Cher tour subsequent to her recording of the song. In introducing the number, Cher would overstate how low the impact of her take on "Walking in Memphis" was, first citing Marc Cohn's original as "a huge hit", then her own version as "a huge bomb". Her cover was used on The X-Files in the final scene of the fifth-season episode "The Post-Modern Prometheus".
Critical reception
AllMusic described Cher's cover version of "Walking in Memphis" as "rousing". Jim Farber from Entertainment Weekly stated that it "must be heard to be believed." Pan-European magazine Music & Media wrote, "The regular version of Marc Cohn's low key ballad doesn't do much justice to Cher's throaty voice, which needs more drama."
Live performances
Do You Believe? Tour
The Farewell Tour (sung on the fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth and the ninth leg of the tour)
Cher at the Colosseum
Dressed to Kill Tour
Classic Cher
Here We Go Again Tour
Track listings
European cassette and 7-inch single "Walking in Memphis" – 3:55
"Angels Running" – 4:35
European CD single "Walking in Memphis" – 3:55
"Angels Running" – 4:35
"Walking in Memphis" (Shut Up & Dance Instrumental) – 5:16
European remix CD and 12-inch single "Walking in Memphis" (Shut Up & Dance Vocal) – 5:04
"Walking in Memphis" (Shut Up & Dance Instrumental) – 5:10
"Walking in Memphis" (Rated P.G. Mix) – 7:25
"Walking in Memphis" (Baby Doc Mix) – 7:11
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
Lonestar version
Background
American country music band Lonestar reached number eight on the Hot Country Songs chart and number 61 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 2003 with a remake of "Walking in Memphis'''" released as a single off the album From There to Here: Greatest Hits. This version was featured on Smallville Season 3, Episode 5 "Perry" when Perry White returns to Metropolis.
Lonestar's lead vocalist Richie McDonald recalled that, during the two years of the band's inaugural phase as a bar band, "Walking in Memphis" was a staple of their set list from the beginning: "After we got our record deal, we stopped doing [any] cover songs but ... a few years later, [we were] in Memphis, Tennessee getting ready to do a benefit for St. Jude's down on Beale Street" – i.e. St. Jude Children's Research Hospital – "[and] we thought this would be a good time to do 'Walking in Memphis,' because we were right there on Beale ... One of the label guys was there [and] said, "Y'all should record that." We started doing it in our live shows and it just became something we wanted to put out."
Charts
Other versions
In the summer of 2005, Wouter (nl), the runner-up in Idool 2004, spent eleven weeks in the top 20 of the Flemish chart with his version of "Walking in Memphis", with the track spending three weeks at No. 3. The track was included on Rock On, Wouter's only album release to-date.
"Walking in Memphis" became a No. 5 hit in Sweden in December 2009 via a remake by Calle Kristiansson, the runner-up finalist in Idol 2009. Kristiansson's version of "Walking in Memphis" was included on his self-titled album issued in January 2010.
A concert performance of "Walking in Memphis" by Eric Church was featured in the first installment of the 15-LP (vinyl) box set of Church recordings titled 61 Days in Church.
English heavyweight boxer Tyson Fury covered the song a capella adopted into "Walking in Las Vegas", during the post-fight interview to celebrate the victory against Deontay Wilder in their third fight, which ended in an 11th–round knockout.
Songs based on "Walking in Memphis"
Shut Up and Dance version ("Raving I'm Raving")
English electronic duo Shut Up and Dance released "Raving I'm Raving" on May 18, 1992, based significantly on "Walking in Memphis". Several lyrics were altered including the line "I'm walking in Memphis" becoming "I'm raving I'm raving".
The single reached number 2 on the UK Singles Chart in May 1992, but ran into difficulties as they had not obtained clearance. As a result, the track was banned, causing it to fall to number 15 the following week then leave the charts completely. Proceeds were ordered to be given to charity. Nonetheless, near the end of 1992, the song did make another appearance on the influential compilation Rave 92, with the sample removed and the lyrics and tune re-written. It also peaked at number 18 on the European Dance Radio Chart.
Scooter version ("I'm Raving")
In 1996, German hard dance band Scooter released a similar cover entitled "I'm Raving" as a single from their album Wicked!. The single was certified gold in Germany and peaked at number 4 on the German charts.
Pan-European magazine Music & Media wrote about the song, "Remember Marc Cohn's beautiful piano ballad Walking In Memphis? Change the lyrics in I'm Raving, I'm Raving, add some bagpipe-synths and the semi-live-gimmick patented by Scooter. This makes chart-storming seem effortless."
Saturday Night Live version ("Walking in Staten")
In the November 20, 2021 episode of Saturday Night Live'' hosted by Simu Liu, cast member Pete Davidson performed "Walking in Staten" along with Cohn, country pop artist Big Wet, and Method Man. The parody's lyrics and visuals were a playful tribute to Davidson's native Staten Island.
See also
1991 in music
References
1991 singles
1995 singles
2003 singles
Black-and-white music videos
Marc Cohn songs
Cher songs
Lonestar songs
Songs about Memphis, Tennessee
Songs about Elvis Presley
Song recordings produced by Dann Huff
Song recordings produced by Christopher Neil
Pop ballads
1990s ballads
Atlantic Records singles
Warner Music Group singles
BNA Records singles
1991 songs
Articles containing video clips
Songs written by Marc Cohn
hu:I'm Raving
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4690528
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline%2C%20No
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Caroline, No
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"Caroline, No" is a song by American musician Brian Wilson that was released as his first solo record on March 7, 1966 and, two months later, reissued as the closing track on the Beach Boys' album Pet Sounds. Written with Tony Asher, the lyrics describe a disillusioned man who reflects on his former love interest and the loss of her innocence. Musically, it is distinguished for its jazz chords and unusual combination of instruments, including bass flutes, 12-string electric guitar, and muted harpsichord.
The words were inspired by a past girlfriend of Asher's named Carol Amen. He initially conceived the title phrase as "Carol, I Know", misheard by Wilson as "Caroline, No". Other reports, which Wilson disputed, variously suggest that the song was written about himself, his former schoolmate Carol Mountain, or his then-wife Marilyn. Asher credited the impetus for the song to Wilson's disappointment with "sweet little girls" who grow up into "bitchy hardened adults".
Wilson produced the track in early 1966 at Western Studio with 12 session musicians who variously played harpsichord, flutes, guitars, basses, and vibraphone. Some of the percussion involved an empty water cooler jug struck from the bottom with a mallet. Wilson sped up the mix by one semitone to make his voice sound younger. The album version was edited to include a non-musical tag consisting of the sounds of Wilson's dogs barking and a passing train.
"Caroline, No", issued with the B-side "Summer Means New Love", peaked at number 32 in the US and failed to chart in the UK. To mitigate the poor sales, Capitol quickly issued "Sloop John B" as the Beach Boys' next single. Wilson later cited "Caroline, No" as his favorite track on Pet Sounds and among the finest songs he ever wrote. In 2004, it was ranked number 214 in Rolling Stones list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time".
Background
"Caroline, No" was written by Brian Wilson and Tony Asher, possibly within a few days of writing "Wouldn't It Be Nice". Although Wilson claimed that Asher only provided the words to his music, Asher credited himself with contributing musical ideas to at least three songs on Pet Sounds, including "Caroline, No". He credited Wilson with the subject matter, however, as "he'd always wanted to write a song about lost innocence, a young girl who changes as she matures and somehow, something's lost." Wilson's 2016 memoir describes "Caroline, No" both as "a new song [Tony had been] working on" and a song on which Wilson "wrote the music". His (since-discredited) 1991 memoir says that after discussing the proposed lyric theme, Asher "took a tape home, embellished on my concept, and completed the words."
Lyrics
Content
The lyrics describe a man who reflects on his former love interest and the loss of her innocence, asking, "Where did your long hair go? Where is the girl I used to know? How could you lose that happy glow?" Music historian Charles Granata writes that the line "Caroline, why?" suggests that the protagonist is unsure "why the relationship has ended. ... He doesn't blame her, but he muses and frets over a flood of unanswered questions". Author James Perone differs in his interpretation, "the blame for the end of the relationship [is placed] on his partner; she is the one who changed, not him. At the end of the song, the singer asks if they could ever work together to bring back "the things that made me love you so much then", before pleading, "Oh, Caroline, no".
Wilson later commented that the lyrics were "a real tear jerker, very like 'Hey Girl' [a 1963 record] by Freddie Scott." Musicologist Philip Lambert identified the song as a continuation of the themes established by Wilson's previous compositions "You Still Believe in Me" and "The Little Girl I Once Knew". In his description, the protagonist is "thoroughly heartbroken and disillusioned" and "longs for a return to the youthful innocence, not the complexity of childhood – 'Wouldn't It Be Nice' in reverse." Granata offered that the "ruminating tune" represented "the antithesis" of most Beach Boys hits.
Inspiration
According to Asher, their discussions that led to the song revolved around "how wonderful it is when you first meet a girl and she looks great, and how terrible it is when you know you'll be breaking up at any moment." He said that it was originally a happier song, but Wilson moved it into a sadder direction because Wilson "was saddened to see how sweet little girls turned out to be kind of bitchy hardened adults." Elsewhere, Asher attributed the impetus for the song to "Brian's wish that he could go back to simpler days, his wish that the group could return to the days when the whole thing was a lot of fun and very little pressure." Wilson's 1991 memoir states that the song derived from his past infatuation with a high school classmate named Carol Mountain. He writes,
Asher recalled that he was never told about Mountain and stated that his lyrics were inspired by a former high school girlfriend—named Carol Amen—who had moved to New York to become a Broadway dancer. "When I went east to visit her a scant year after the move, she had changed radically. Yes, she had cut her hair. But she was a far more worldly person, not all for the worse." He initially conceived the title phrase as "Carol, I Know". When spoken, however, Wilson heard this as "Caroline, No". After the confusion was resolved, the pair decided to keep the new title, feeling that it brought an especially poignant quality to the song.
Asked about the song in a 1996 interview, Marilyn said that she had not heard "too much of it" until the track was recorded and Wilson brought an acetate home. She acknowledged that the song was difficult to listen to, as she was aware that Wilson's "first crush was for a girl named Carol." Marilyn said of her reaction to the lyrics, "I wasn't ready for how intense it was. ... from a romantic standpoint, which is the way I was thinking in those days. And then, I thought it was about me, because I had cut my hair. ... He always used to talk about how long hair keeps a girl feminine." However, in 1994, Wilson credited that particular line to Asher, who "must have known a girl who cut her hair off".
In a 2005 interview, Wilson said that the song "wasn't written about anyone. I just used the name Caroline." Bruce Johnston similarly denied that "Caroline" was a real person and said that the song was actually "directly about Brian himself and the death of a quality within him that was so vital. His innocence. He knows it too." Brian's brother Dennis claimed otherwise, saying in 1976 that the song was "about a girl that Brian was really in love with in high school. He saw her again years later, and it all came back to him, and he wrote the song." Asher told biographer David Leaf that Wilson had in mind "sweet little girls ... and his wife's sister".
Composition
"Caroline, No" contains an AABA form and an ambiguous tonal center. Most of the song is closest to the key of D major, while other portions suggest G major or B minor. None of the chords are simple (major or minor) triads. The verses alternate between AMadd6 (or Fm) and Em until the end of the section, with the appearance of a G major chord (first as GM9 and then as GM9) that gives the piece a brief sense of tonal stability, but which pivots to the newly-tonicized D bridge. Lambert concluded his analysis of the song by writing:
It is one of only two tracks on Pet Sounds with just one vocal part (the other being "Don't Talk"). The instrumentation features harpsichord and bass flutes combined with more typical pop rock instrumentation, creating a sound that, in Lambert's estimation, reflects a jazz influence. Jim Fusilli, author of the 33⅓ book on the album, concurred that "In many ways it's a jazz tune. Some of those chords are jazz chords." Wilson said of the bridge, "The melody and the chords were like Glenn Miller ... a Glenn Miller-type bridge." Perone observed that while the melody engages in "wide tessitura changes and wide melodic intervals, it is the largely the instrumentation that makes 'Caroline, No' sound completely unlike recordings by other major pop artists in 1966."
Granata referred to the arrangement as Wilson's "instrumental pinnacle". He cited the percussion as playing "a key role in extending the breezy feel of the performance", although "it's the flutes and [saxophone] that really make the difference, infusing the melody with an enchanting glow." Asher said that he implored Wilson to incorporate the bass flute. Wilson commented, "The fade-out was like a 1944 kind of record ... Listen for the flutes in the fadeout."
Production
Single recording
"Caroline, No" was recorded on January 31, 1966 at Western Studio in Hollywood. The basic track was recorded with 12 musicians who variously played guitars, bass, flutes, and percussion. Earlier takes featured an instrumental introduction before Wilson opted for the final arrangement: an empty Sparkletts water cooler jug struck from the bottom with a hard percussion mallet. 17 takes were required, after which Wilson recorded a lead vocal and further instrumentation. Like "You Still Believe in Me", his vocal was doubletracked "live-to-tape" as engineer Chuck Britz mixed the mono master on or before February 9.
It is often reported that "Caroline, No" does not feature additional vocals from Wilson's bandmates because they were away on a tour and he was in a hurry to complete the record. According to biographer Mark Dillon, the relevant documentation suggests that the members were available for recording and could have contributed to the song if Wilson had wished. Asher remembered that he never had the impression of it being a Beach Boys song. Unlike the pair's other collaborations, Wilson never demonstrated on piano the vocal parts that his bandmates would sing.
During the mastering process, Wilson sped up the track by a semi-tone, following the advice of his father Murry, who thought that the vocal would benefit from sounding younger. In doing so, the song's tempo increased by 6% while the key was raised from C to C.
Album tag
Wilson wanted to end Pet Sounds with a non-musical tag to follow "Caroline, No". On March 22, he returned to Western to capture the barking of his dogs Banana, a beagle, and Louie, a Weimaraner. A taped conversation from the session reveals that Wilson considered photographing a horse belonging to Carl in Western Studio 3 for the album cover. Wilson asked Britz, "Hey, Chuck, is it possible we can bring a horse in here without ... if we don't screw everything up?" and Britz responded, "I beg your pardon?" before Wilson said, "Honest to God, now, the horse is tame and everything!" Wilson's dogs inspired the album's title.
As the album version of "Caroline, No" fades out, it segues into the sounds of Wilson's barking dogs and a passing locomotive train sampled from the 1963 effects album Mister D's Machine ("Train #58, the Owl at Edison, California"). The Owl (SP 6461) was a Southern Pacific Railroad train that ran an overnight route between San Francisco and Los Angeles from 1898 to 1965. Its horn sounds a B7 trichord that transforms into a G7 (a consequence of the Doppler effect) as it approaches a railway crossing. Musicologist Daniel Harrison wrote, "There's no little irony that this effect was put on record by a group noted for their songs about cars."
Granata, writing in his 2003 book about Pet Sounds, reported that "no one remembers" why Wilson chose to end the album as he did. Asked in a 1996 interview, Wilson said, "I'm not really sure [what I had in mind]. I can't answer that question. ... I took a tape recorder and I recorded their barks. And we went down and we looked through some sound effects tapes and we found a train. So we just put it all together." Edwin Pouncey of The Wire describes the "atmospheric, evocative and lonesome-sounding" album tag as one of several notable "pop and rock musique concrète flirtations" from the period, while Adam Webb of BBC Music deems it a "forlorn soundtrack".
Release
On March 7, 1966, "Caroline, No" (backed with the Summer Days instrumental "Summer Means New Love") was issued by Capitol Records as Wilson's first solo record. According to music historian Keith Badman, "everyone close to [Brian was] certain the disc [would] be a monster hit." In Marilyn's recollection, "Everybody at Capitol said it should be a single because it was so good, and there were no background vocals, so they said, 'Why don't we release this as a Brian Wilson single, because it's really not a Beach Boys song."
Conversely, biographer Steven Gaines wrote that Capitol "knew it was not a hit" but released the song "to encourage Brian to complete the forthcoming album." Asher recalled that the criticism Wilson received from his bandmates about the song not being "Beach Boys" enough was what prompted him to issue the single under his own name. Session musician Steve Douglas told an interviewer that he had been "really instigating" Wilson to issue the single as a solo record, a decision that ultimately "caused problems, man, I just can't tell you."
To promote the single, Brian, Carl Wilson, Love, and Johnston recorded several 23-second "thank you" radio spots for different stations across the U.S., thanking them for playing the record and making it "a hit". The single debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 37, more than a month after it was released, and ultimately peaked at number 32 during its seven weeks on the chart. Badman states that Capitol quickly issued "Sloop John B" as a single "to cover up the unimpressive performance" of "Caroline, No". In the UK, "Caroline, No" was issued in April and failed to chart. In a 2000 interview, Wilson was asked if he would have issued Pet Sounds as a solo album had the single performed better, to which he responded, "Probably would've, yeah, but I didn't." Asked again on a later occasion, he said, "No, I just wanted to do that one. 'Caroline No' fit my voice more than the other guys ..."
Pet Sounds was released on May 16 with "Caroline, No" as its final track. In his self-described "unbiased" review of the album for Record Mirror, Norman Jopling praised the song as the LP's best track, "Very sad and very romantic. In fact horribly sad." However, he decreed that the added sound effects ruined "an atmosphere which must have taken some amount of time and trouble to create. A pity because Beach Boy fans won't thank them for that kind of musical development." Cash Box described the song as a "tender, slow-moving gentle ode about an unhappy fella who desperately wants to get back with his ex-gal." Billboard called it an "easy go emotional ballad with strong back beat" that "has all the ingredients of a No. 1 smash."
Legacy
Wilson later stated that "Caroline, No" was his favorite Pet Sounds track, "the prettiest ballad I've ever sung. Awfully pretty song." In a 1995 interview, he viewed it as "probably the best [song] I've ever written." Dennis said that their father Murry "used to go to pieces when he heard stuff like 'Caroline, No.'" Asher opined, "At first, I didn't think it was on the same level as the other songs we were doing, although I liked it well enough. It just didn't have the level of sophistication that the other songs had." Journalist Nick Kent recognized it in 1975 as "arguably the most beautiful song [Brian] has ever written." In 2001, "Caroline, No" was ranked number 55 in Rock's Backpages list of "The 100 Most Heartbreaking Records of All Time". In 2003, it was ranked number 214 in Rolling Stones list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time".
In the autumn of 1966, Wilson attempted to reconnect with Carol Mountain, acting on the suggestion of friend Stanley Shapiro. According to Shapiro, Wilson phoned every person named Mountain listed in the Hawthorne-Inglewood area until he found her parents, who gave Wilson her address. Wilson then drove with Shapiro to Mountain's house, intending to bring her to his home on Laurel Way, but was unsuccessful in the endeavor. Wilson continued to telephone Mountain, as she recalled, "He didn't sound drugged or anything, but it was very strange. He'd call at 3:00 a.m. and want to talk about music. I was such a nerd I'd say, 'What? Who?' and have him talk to my husband. But it was nothing inappropriate."
Wilson revisited the themes of "Caroline, No" in his 1988 song "Baby Let Your Hair Grow Long" from his first solo album Brian Wilson. Biographer Peter Ames Carlin wrote that it "updated the mournful first line of 'Caroline, No' ... only with the voice of a seasoned veteran who knows that innocence and hope can be regained." Wilson rerecorded "Caroline, No" for his 1995 album I Just Wasn't Made for These Times. The Beach Boys, accompanied by Timothy B. Schmit, remade the song with a new multi-part vocal arrangement for the 1996 album Stars and Stripes Vol. 1. Jimmy Webb was commissioned to write the orchestration for the track. Dillon praised the rendition as "the highlight" of the album.
In popular culture
It is sometimes suggested that the animal sound effects inspired a similar device in the Beatles' 1967 song "Good Morning, Good Morning".
Neil Young mentions the song in the title track to the Stills-Young Band album Long May You Run (1976).
The British band Modesty Blaise released the sunshine-pop single "Carol Mountain" (2002).
A song called "Caroline, Yes" appears on the Kaiser Chiefs' album Employment (2005).
A song called "Caroline Mountain" appears on Sugar Candy Mountain's album Mystic Hits (2013).
The 2014 biopic Love & Mercy includes a depiction of the recording of "Caroline, No" and its dog barking session.
Cover versions
1967 – The Hollyridge Strings – Beach Boys Song Book, Volume 2
1968 – Nick DeCaro
1970 – Gary Usher, Add Some Music to Your Day: A Symphonic Tribute to Brian Wilson
1993 – Ian McNabb, B-side to Great Dreams of Heaven 12-inch single
1999 – Elliot Easton, Sounds Of Wood And Steel 2
2000 – The Aluminum Group, Caroline Now!: The Songs of Brian Wilson and the Beach Boys
2000 – Eric Carmen, I Was Born to Love You
2004 – They Might Be Giants, Indestructible Object
2006 – The Wedding Present, Do It Again: A Tribute to Pet Sounds
2009 – Charles Lloyd, Mirror
2011 – Dewey Bunnell, Back Pages
2012 – Glenn Frey, After Hours
2013 – Ken Peplowski, Maybe September
2019 – Chrissie Hynde, Valve Bone Woe
Personnel
Per band archivist Craig Slowinski.
Brian Wilson – lead vocal
Session musicians
Hal Blaine – Sparklett's water jug, overdubbed drums
Frank Capp – vibraphone
Carol Kaye – 12-string electric guitar, overdubbed Danelectro 6-string bass
Glen Campbell – 12-string electric guitar
Steve Douglas – woodblock on tambourine, overdubbed alto or tenor saxophone
Barney Kessel – acoustic guitar
Lyle Ritz – double bass
Al De Lory – harpsichord with lute stop
Bill Green – flute and bass flute
Jim Horn – alto flute
Plas Johnson – alto flute
Jay Migliori – bass flute
Guests
Banana and Louie – barking (album version)
Technical staff
Chuck Britz – engineer
Charts
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
1966 songs
1966 singles
1960s ballads
The Beach Boys songs
Brian Wilson songs
Baroque pop songs
Songs written by Brian Wilson
Songs written by Tony Asher
Song recordings produced by Brian Wilson
Capitol Records singles
Songs based on actual events
Torch songs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1975 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1975 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 43rd Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 14 and 15 June 1975.
Colloquially called the “Le Mans Economy Run”, stringent refuelling regulations were put in place. Unable to match the requisite 7mpg fuel economy the manufacturer teams from Ferrari, Alfa Romeo withdrew and Matra had retired from the sport at the end of 1974. Therefore, this only left Gulf and Ligier as front-running works-teams.
The race was won by Jacky Ickx and Derek Bell in their Gulf GR-8, finishing just a lap ahead of the Ligier of Jean-Louis Lafosse and Guy Chasseuil. It was the first victory for an all-British car since the Aston Martin in 1959, and for running at an ‘economic’ speed, the winner covered just one lap less than the winning car of the previous year.
Regulations
The ongoing fuel-crisis was having a growing impact on international motor-racing, as critics saw the sport as a profligate waste of petrol. The Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO), ever wanting to follow its original mandate to advance automobile technology, put in radical measures to provide a solution. All cars had to go 20 laps before refuelling with petrol and oil – roughly equivalent to , around 7mpg, for a 25% improvement. As a reference, the Matras had only done 16 laps between their fuel stops in 1974. Fuel tank sizes were also limited in size.
These, however, put it out of step with the CSI (Commission Sportive Internationale - the FIA’s regulations body) and the FIA therefore removed the Le Mans 24 Hours from the World Championship calendar. This had happened before when the FIA had excluded Le Mans in 1956 because of their stricter safety requirements. It can also be pointed out that Le Mans races prior to 1960 had run to refuelling restrictions. For its part, the CSI had postponed the introduction of its new Group 5 “silhouette” rules until 1976.
The ACO also introduced a new “GTX” (Le Mans Grand Touring Experimental) class for GT cars to use non-homologated equipment. It also opened up its entry list to Group 3 GTs, alongside the Group 5, 4 and 2 cars. Finally, the ACO allowed teams to replace any pieces of equipment during the race, but the defective parts had to be given to the ACO technical team. This year, the ACO also gave a prize to the car which used the smallest amount of fuel. Also the Index of Thermal Efficiency was now opened to all car classes.
Since the race's inception in 1923, the Le Mans circuit had incorporated using public highways. An ambitious plan in the early 1970s had been proposed to build a new Mulsanne Straight parallel to the main road and bypassing the Mulsanne corner. However, by 1975 with the economic recession and reduced interest in motor-racing, no work had been started, and in the end the project was cancelled later in the year.
Entries
To general surprise, the ACO received a commendable 101 applications, which became 71 arriving for qualifying and a final 55 in the race. However, Matra had followed Ferrari out of Sports-Car racing. Alfa Romeo works team Autodelta had sold its cars to German Willi Kauhsen, who chose not to enter, saying there was no way the Alfas could make the necessary fuel economy. Alpine-Renault cited the same reason.
Note: The first number is the number of arrivals, the second the number who started.
Although John Wyer had semi-retired, he saw an opportunity for his Gulf-Mirage cars with the fuel-formula and the lack of big opposition. Last year the Gulfs had achieved fuel consumption of 6.1mpg. So he and JWA designer John Horsman set about adapting and optimising a new model, the Gulf GR-8 for this single race in the season. It had a long-wheelbase and low-drag body. They detuned the Cosworth DFV to run at a 8400rpm rev-limit, down about 2000rpm. The engine would now put out 380 bhp capable of 310 kp/h (195 mph). Chemists at Gulf Oil developed a fuel for the cars and put together they could achieve an impressive 7.25mpg. Once again, Wyer was able to call upon Jacky Ickx to drive, partnered with Derek Bell, while the other car had Vern Schuppan and Jean-Pierre Jaussaud.
In the absence of other manufacturers, it was Guy Ligier who would be Gulf's biggest competition. Suffering from the effects of the economic downturn, Ligier realised he would not have sufficient cars built to get Group 4 homologation. Having purchased the facilities of the defunct Matra Sport at the end of 1974, Ligier was preparing to enter Formula One. With the services of Matra's engineer Gérard Ducarouge and ace driver Henri Pescarolo he also adapted his JS2 cars to carry the Cosworth DFV engine (detuned to about 410 bhp) and Hewland gearboxes. However, being about 10% heavier than the Gulfs meant the Ligiers were slightly slower in a straight line. For the race, regular drivers François Migault and Jean-Louis Lafosse were split: Migault drove with Pescarolo, while Lafosse teamed up with Ligier-regular Guy Chasseuil. As a late entry, the team also ran a 320 bhp Maserati-engined version for two other former Matra drivers, Jean-Pierre Beltoise and Jean-Pierre Jarier.
Meanwhile, in the World Championship, it had been the five-year old, 360 bhp Porsche 908/03 of Joest Racing taking the battle to Willi Kauhsen's Alfa Romeos. Norbert Singer, Porsche works engineer, was seconded to the team and gave the car a longtail chassis. Team-owner Reinhold Joest drove with Mario Casoni and Jürgen Barth.
British privateer Alain de Cadenet arrived with a new car – a Lola T380 fitted with a Cosworth DFV capable of 400 bhp by engine-specialist John Nicholson. Despite this the chassis was very new, and nearly 40 kp/h slower on the straights than the Gulfs and Ligiers. It was driven by regular racing duo of de Cadenet with Chris Craft. Swiss privateer Heinz Schulthess likewise entered a new Lola-Cosworth T284, tuned by another engine-specialist, compatriot Heini Mader. Shin Kato returned with his latest Sigma model, the MC-75, that was now powered by a 1.6-litre Toyota turbo engine which put it in the 3-litre class because of the x1.4 equivalency factor for turbo engines (in sports car racing, the factor in Formula 1 was x2.0).
The fuel-economy regulations now made S-2000 class a lot more competitive. Renault Sport had won the inaugural 1973 World Rally Championship, and was now focused on Sports-car racing. Along with its subsidiary companies Gordini (engines) and Alpine (chassis) had been working on a new sports car. For 1975, the new turbo-powered A442 made an immediate impression beating the Alfa Romeos at Mugello. However their cars were very new and proved fast but unreliable. The works team did not enter, however a non-turbo, A441 arrived in the colours of Elf Switzerland for the all-female team of Marie-Claude Beaumont and Lella Lombardi. It was the first Alpine to race at Le mans for six years. André Moynet, French war hero, politician and amateur racer, had been building his own sports car, based on a Chappe et Gesselin chassis with a 2-litre Simca-JRD engine and Porsche transmission. He gained sponsorship from Elf's competitor Esso-France, who suggested also compiling an all-female driving team. Moynet hired Michèle Mouton, Christine Dacremont and Marianne Hoepfner for his car.
The strong showing by the new 2-litre Simca-ROC engines in the 1974 race saw five cars with Fred Stadler's engine including three Lolas of his own team.
In lieu of the works team, Ferrari was represented primarily by the North American Racing Team (NART) bringing four different cars in three categories. The 308 special returned in Group 5, and a regular 365 GTB/4 for Ronnie Bucknum/Carlo Facetti in Group 4. The other two were entered in the new GTX category: a new 365 Berlinetta Boxer and a 365 Daytona spyder.
The Group 4 Special GT class was dominated by the Porsche RSR teams. This year's most successful team - Georg Loos’ Gelo Racing - had three cars entered, for John Fitzpatrick (the current European GT champion)/Gijs van Lennep, Tim Schenken / Howden Ganley and Toine Hezemans/Manfred Schurti. Their main competition came from their compatriot Kremer Racing and Tebernum teams (supported by Joest Racing), the Swiss Porsche Club Romand, Spanish Escuderia Montjuïch along with the local French ASA Cachia-Bondy team and owner-engineers Robert Buchet and Louis Meznarie.
Up against the armada of 911s (comprising half the field with 28 of 55 starters) alongside the NART Ferrari, were two other 365s for the Ecurie Francorchamps and French privateer Marcel Mignot. Along with Henri Greder's Chevrolet Corvette was also a De Tomaso Pantera and a Datsun 240Z. As expected, Porsche dominated the new Group 3 entry with eight of the nine cars against Wicky Racing's lone De Tomaso Pantera.
There was renewed interest in Group 2 this year, with seven cars arriving for qualification. These included two Ford Capris from the French Shark Team and the return of Claude Buchet's Mazda twin-rotary RX-3. Against them were three BMWs: defending class-winner Jean-Claude Aubriet brought his 3.0 CSL back. Lichtenstein engine-specialist Max Heidegger prepared a BMW 2002 TI with a F2 engine (capable of 260 bhp) for French privateer Daniel Brillat. The third was another French privateer. Hervé Poulain, an art dealer and keen racer, entered another 3.0 CSL and convinced his friend, artist Alexander Calder, to paint it. Although not the first “art car” (Porsche had raced the psychedelic Martini-917 in 1970 and “Pink Pig” in 1971), it was to become the first of many BMW Art Cars. BMW insured it for DM 1 million (~US$430 000), and Poulain got 1964-winner Jean Guichet and American IMSA-BMW driver Sam Posey as co-drivers.
The last entry was a big American “muscle car” – a Plymouth Barracuda with a big 426cu in Hemi engine entered by French privateer Michel Guicherd.
Practice
The ACO cancelled the March Test Weekend, when the CSI scheduled a championship race at Mugello on the same weekend. Thus, many teams came to Race Week with no real idea of their racing fuel economy. The ACO required every car to prove some time during the practice sessions that it could run at least 20 laps at a race pace before refuelling. This meant at least one 60-90 minute run. But in compensation, the total practice time was increased to ten hours over the Wednesday and Thursday. Also, every driver now had to pass a minimum lap-time in both daylight and night.
Jacky Ickx immediately set the pace on Wednesday night with a 3:49.9 lap that would put his Gulf on pole. This was fully fourteen seconds slower than the Matra's pole time the previous year. After initial issues, on Thursday Jean-Pierre Jaussaud put the sister Gulf on the front row with a 3:51.8. Third was Lafosse in the Ligier with Casoni fourth in the Joest-Porsche and Pescarolo in the other Ligier.
Then came the two Lolas of Schulthess and De Cadenet, joined by 2-litre Lola-ROC (4:02.8) fractionally ahead of the women in the Alpine. Tenth on the grid was the Ligier-Maserati of Beltoise/Jarier.
Eleventh was the BMW “art-car” (4:06.0) proving significantly faster than the Group 4 GTs, the quickest of which was the Buchet Porsche in 13th (4:16.0) ahead of the Tebernum Porsche. The Buchet Porsche's stablemate, of Wollek/Grandet, was the first of the Group 3 cars down in 38th with a 4:28.9. Slowest qualifier was the little BMW 2002 with a 4:47.9, although it was still quicker in its class than a Ford Capri and the ‘Hemicuda’
A major argument broke out on Friday when the officials declared that the NART Dino 308 GT4 had not qualified, although it had met the qualification requirements. Team manager Luigi Chinetti was incensed and when his appeal was denied he pulled all four of his Ferraris off the dummy grid in protest, as the cars were forming up on Saturday. Some last minute calls and preparation got the Japanese Sigma and the Claude Buchet Mazda RX-3 there in their stead. Paul Rilly, running the Lamborghini Islero that had not qualified in the GTX category was not at home and missed his call to bring the car back to the track.
The Ecuador-Marlboro team had brought two cars, neither of which qualified. However, in a race-first, the team still managed to sneak onto the back row of the dummy grid with its 911, and even got to run three laps in the race until it was spotted and black-flagged by the officials.
Race
Start
On a hot Saturday afternoon, Bell took the lead from the rolling start. Schuppan then overtook him heading onto the Mulsanne Straight for the first time and proceeded to build a lead. Joest slotted into third with Craft then Pescarolo, in the first of the Ligiers, and the Group 2 BMW “art-car” in a credible sixth.
As always there were a number of cars pitting with early problems: The Schulthess Lola had not been able to fire up in time and started the race a lap behind after the rolling start had passed by. Lafosse brought his Ligier in when a warning light came on, and lost a lap only to find that it was the light at fault. The BMW art-car pitted with a broken brake-line, dropping it well down the order, and two of the ROC-Lolas pitted with the start of many electrical issues.
The Gulfs were able to maintain a strong 4-minute pace right through to their first pit-stops after 21 laps, and soon afterward Ickx took the lead the car was never going to forfeit thereafter. It was at the first stops that the only victim was afflicted by the fuel regulations. Marie-Claude Beaumont, in the Alpine 2-litre running sixth, came to a stop at Mulsanne corner with no fuel three laps before her scheduled refuelling stop. The team had managed 26 laps on a tank during practice. Able to manually pump some fuel she could only get as far as Indianapolis. A faulty fuel system was blamed, but team principal Gérard Larrousse later admitted the team had got their fuel calculations wrong.
Going into the third hour, the Gulfs were 2 seconds apart, with de Cadenet, Joest and Casoni now the last on the lead lap. Migault was a lap down and the other two Ligiers a further lap back with Posey in the BMW catching up again and the Poirot Porsche in eighth. Schickentanz in the Tebernum Porsche lead the GTs by ten seconds from the Fitzpatrick Gelo-Porsche. Beltoise in the Ligier-Maserati was running sixth when he tried to outbrake a Ferrari going into Indianapolis, but only ended up getting pushed off into the Armco barrier. Craft pitted the de Cadenet from third. The notorious vibration of the Cosworth engine had popped rivets in the engine case and broken the exhaust. The repairs took 45 minutes, and when Craft came back out he set the fastest lap rushing back through the field. The third Gelo Porsche (Hezemans/Schurti) crashed when its suspension failed. They continued on until nightfall when the car was retired and the drivers were transferred to the team's leading car, now running fifth.
Night
Around 9.30pm, as night fell, the second-placed Gulf of Schuppan/Jaussaud spent 25 minutes in the pits replacing an alternator, dropping it to 5th, six laps behind the teammates The BMW ‘art-car’ had got back up to 6th when a broken CV joint left Posey stuck out on the circuit. In the GTs it was Fitzpatrick two laps ahead of the “Beurlys” car with the Kremer car closing.
Just before midnight Alain De Cadenet, running third, was completely unaware when the engine-cover of his Lola flew off while at speed on the Mulsanne Straight. It landed on the track and fourth-placed François Migault had the misfortune to hit it at full speed in the dark with his Ligier. Although repaired (taking three-quarters an hour) a faulty alternator in the small hours dropped them out of contention.
Around 2am the second-placed Joest Porsche collided with Poirot's 908 (running 6th) at Mulsanne corner. Repairs took 20 minutes and dropped them down to fourth. By half-time, the Gulf cars were back running 1-2 (albeit 6 laps apart), ahead of the Lafosse/Chasseuil Ligier and the repaired Joest Porsche. The Gelo Porsche still led the GT class, and running fifth overall, now ahead of the Kremer Porsche up to second in class.
Morning
Soon after dawn Pescarolo suffered a puncture on his Ligier, ruining the bodywork, and stranding him out on the track. About the same time a very similar accident happened to Joest but he was more fortunate to be able to get the Porsche back to the pits. However the repairs put the car 15 laps behind the leader and only two ahead of the Gelo Porsche.
By the time the sun was up, Ickx and Bell had built up a sizeable lead. Right on 6am Jaussaud pitted complaining of an excessive rear-end vibration. Subsequent checks and work took a quarter-hour and put them on the same lap, two minutes behind the Ligier. Joest had yet another puncture at 8am, but kept his place. The Gelo Porsche was now four laps back, still holding a two-lap lead over the Kremer and “Beurlys” cars. Throughout the morning the Ligier traded places with the second Gulf which would power past only to then come into the pits to investigate its engine vibration further.
Soon after midday the rain arrived. The Gulf of Schuppan/Jaussaud pitted yet again, when water got into its electrics. Drying them out cost fifteen minutes which finally gave the Ligier breathing space in second place.
Finish and post-race
The leading Gulf also had the same ongoing vibration as their stablemate and it finally came to a head when it was forced to pit at 2.30pm with an exhaust shaken apart by the vibration. While repairs were being done, the Ligier closed in. It had just got onto the lead lap when Bell took the Gulf back out, fuelled to the finish. When the Ligier subsequently pitted for its final fuel stop, the race was secure for JWA. About the same time, the Kremer Porsche had to pit with a major engine failure. Amazingly, the team was able to replace the whole engine in 30 minutes and they only lost ten laps to finish 9th.
Going into the final hour Bob Wollek, running 12th, spun his Porsche damaging the exhaust. While pitted, the crew mistakenly refuelled the car, before its requisite 20 laps and was disqualified. The fastest S-2000, the Lola-ROC of Ferrier/Lapeyre/Ethuin had issues from the start but was stopped at its final pitstop when the starter motor broke.
In the end Ickx and Bell won by a lap from the Lafosse/Chasseuil Ligier. Schuppan/Jaussaud were third, five laps back, with Joest's Porsche 908 another five laps back. The next eight places were Porsche GTs lead home by the Gelo car of van Lennep/Fitzpatrick/Hezemans winning Group 4 by four laps from the veteran Jean Blaton's privateer entry with Belgian racing-journalist Nick Faure.
De Cadenet's Lola was 14th, finishing the race with a bodywork stuck together with a lot of adhesive tape. First of the S-2000 class home was the Moynet with the all-female crew, finishing 21st, after a careful and trouble-free run. The last classified finisher, and winner of the Group 2 category by attrition, was the little BMW 2002 having spent the first half of the race battling with the Mazda RX-3 for last place.
Winner of the Index of Thermal Efficiency was the second X-Racing Group 3 Porsche. The privateer Lola-ROC (although slowest of the S-2000 class) came second in class four laps behind the Moynet, and comfortably used the smallest amount of fuel.
It was the first Le Mans victory for the nine-year old Cosworth-DFV engine finally proving its reliability. This was the fourth win for John Wyer, dating back to the Aston Martin triumph in 1959 and the second for Jacky Ickx. After the race, Wyer retired for good and the JWA team was disbanded.
After an impressive start, the BMW “art car” had been retired with a damaged driveshaft in the sixth hour. Having been displayed in the Louvre and in Munich before the race, afterward it went onto the Museum of Modern Art in New York.
As it was, Ickx and Bell covered only one lap less than the winning Matra of the previous year. With the cars run at far lower engines revs, the mechanical wear was far lower and thirty cars were running at the end – equalling the record of 1923 and 1951. Ironically that meant there was much more fuel consumed overall than in the previous year's race. Although derided at the time, the ACO regulations would, in fact, be a predecessor to the Group C era of the 1980s.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text.
Note *: Not Classified because did not cover sufficient distance (70% of the leader) at the 12, 18 and 24-hour intervals.
Did Not Finish
Did Not Start
Class Winners
Note: setting a new class distance record.
Index of Thermal Efficiency
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings.
Fuel Consumption Prize
Note: Only the top six positions are included in this set of standings, which is a ranking of the cars using the least volume of fuel during the race.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest Lap in practice –J.Ickx, #11 Gulf-Mirage GR8 – 3:49.9secs;
Fastest Lap – C. Craft, #4 Lola T380 – 3:53.8secs;
Winning Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
Attendance – ~80000
Citations
References
Chilvers, Tim – English editor (1976) Automobile Year #23 1975-76 Lausanne: Edita S.A.
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Porsche Years 1975-1982' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1970-79 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
Wimpffen, János (2007) Spyders and Silhouettes Hong Kong: David Bull Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1975 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 6 Jul 2018
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, quotes, YouTube links). Retrieved 20 Jul 2018
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 20 Jul 2018
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 20 Jul 2018
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 20 Jul 2018
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 20 Jul 2018
Motorsport Memorial – details of the year's fatal accidents. Retrieved 20 Jul 2018
YouTube – Colour footage of the start preparation in French (4mins). Retrieved 8 Aug 2018
YouTube – The Calder BMW art-car (1min). Retrieved 8 Aug 2018
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1975 in French motorsport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Lewis%20%28musician%29
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Henry Lewis (musician)
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Henry Jay Lewis (October 16, 1932 – January 26, 1996) was an American double-bassist and orchestral conductor whose career extended over four decades. A child prodigy, he joined the Los Angeles Philharmonic at age 16, becoming the first African-American instrumentalist in a major symphony orchestra and, later, the first African-American symphony orchestra conductor in the United States. As musical director of the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra, he supported America's cultural diplomacy initiatives in Europe after World War II.
Early life and education
Henry Jay Lewis was the only child of Henry J. Lewis, an automobile dealer and Mary Josephine Lewis, who was a nurse. Originally from Los Angeles, his musical education started early in life at the age of five. It included studies on the piano and subsequently the clarinet as well as various string instruments. His mother immediately recognized her son's natural musical gifts and encouraged him to perform with amateur orchestras while attending both parochial and public school. His father, however, was less enthusiastic, since professional opportunities did not exist for African-Americans in the field of classical music at that time. Undaunted, Lewis persevered and in Junior High School he undertook studies in both voice and the double bass, reasoning that his professional endeavors might be improved since double-bass players were rare. His virtuoso talents on the instrument earned him a scholarship, and Lewis subsequently attended the University of Southern California.
Musical career
In 1948, at the age of 16, Lewis was invited to join the Los Angeles Philharmonic under the baton of Alfred Wallenstein, becoming the first African-American instrumentalist in a major symphony orchestra. After six years performing as a double-bassist with the Los Angeles Philharmonic, Lewis was abruptly drafted into the United States Army in 1954. In addition to continuing his performances on the double-bass, Lewis also conducted the Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra in Stuttgart, Germany and the Netherlands while serving in the United States Armed Forces (1955–1956). Under his musical direction, the orchestra concertized throughout Europe in support of America's cultural diplomacy initiatives during the post World War II era. His commanding officer noted that his imagination, artistic talent and devotion to his responsibilities as a conductor played an important role in enhancing European-American relations.
In 1957, Lewis completed his service in the United States Army and returned home to Los Angeles. In 1961, Lewis gained national recognition when he was appointed assistant conductor of the Los Angeles Philharmonic under Zubin Mehta, a post he held from 1961 to 1965. In the process, he became the first African-American conductor to lead a major orchestra on a regular season concert. His appearance as a substitute for the ailing Igor Markevitch in 1961 featured arias by Giuseppe Verdi as sung by his wife Marilyn Horne. The music critic Albert Golberg of the Los Angeles Times observed that Lewis exhibited a conductor's natural flair for command during the performance. In addition, Lewis' program was applauded for its musicality. In 1963 and 1964 he traveled with his orchestra in Western Europe and Yugoslavia under the auspices of the United States' Department of State's Cultural Presentations Program, as one of a select group of ensembles which represented American culture abroad as "cultural ambassadors". Lewis was also appointed as a member of the California Arts Commission in 1964.
Even during these early years in his career, Lewis' musical interests clearly extended beyond the traditional symphonic repertoire. As early as 1959, Lewis founded and directed the String Society of Los Angeles, an ensemble which specialized in the performance of chamber music. The ensemble collaborated frequently with teenage soloists from local schools in order to create opportunities for such young musicians. Always eager to share his artistic expertise, in 1969 he also served as a founding member of the nonprofit Black Academy of Arts and Letters which endeavored to promote and cultivate excellence in the African American performing arts. In addition, he was the founding conductor of the Young Musicians Foundation Training Orchestra. Under his direction, this nonprofit ensemble provided both scholarships and performance opportunities to aspiring young artists. After leading the orchestra for seven seasons, Lewis passed his baton to the composer and conductor Elmer Bernstein. During this period, he also demonstrated his interest in the vast operatic repertoire by serving as music director of the Los Angeles Opera.
After his successful tenure at the Los Angeles Philharmonic was completed in 1965, Lewis acquired an international reputation as a talented young symphonic conductor. This enabled him to accept guest appearances with leading orchestral ensembles both in the United States as well as abroad. Appearances with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and the London Symphony Orchestra were frequent during this period in the 1960s. In 1968 he was invited to conduct the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra at the Royal Festival Hall in London.
In 1968 Lewis became the conductor and musical director of the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra in Newark, and continued as musical director from 1968 until 1976. During this time, he transformed the group from a small community ensemble of largely part-time instrumentalists into a nationally recognized orchestra. Lewis vastly increased the orchestra's performance schedule from 22 concerts per year to 100 concerts per season and recruited several first tier soloists such as: Itzhak Perlman and Misha Dichter. Appearances by the orchestra at premier concert venues including Carnegie Hall and the Kennedy Center soon followed.
As the first African-American to lead a major symphony orchestra, Lewis also demonstrated a devotion to presenting music to the entire community by increasing the orchestra's outreach into New Jersey's ghettos and working class neighborhoods, where performances of classical music were virtually unknown. Always eager to surmount artificial boundaries between people Lewis soon scheduled concert appearances within neighborhoods which had largely been destroyed during the riots of 1968. Audiences were even invited into Symphony Hall in Newark for a modest one dollar admission charge. In order to attract even larger crowds, Lewis scheduled appearances by his wife Marilyn Horne as a bonus. Lewis was determined to shatter the myth that classical music is essentially an elitist art form and patiently scheduled performances at outdoor concert venues as well as local high school auditoriums throughout New Jersey. He was noted for his relaxed and informal style during concert appearances, and even encouraged his audiences to break into wild applause between movements if they were so inclined.
As an educator, Lewis joined forces with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra to record an educational film for the benefit of high school and elementary students in 1970. By citing excerpts from the symphonic literature, Lewis strove to introduce students to the varied tonal qualities inherent within the instruments of the modern orchestral ensemble while also emphasizing the central role played by the string section.
Overcoming racial boundaries once again, Lewis emerged as the first African-American to conduct at the Metropolitan Opera in New York City in 1972. His Metropolitan Opera Orchestra debut in 1972 featured a performance of Puccini's La bohème with Anna Moffo in the role of Mimi and Richard Tucker as Rodolfo. It was well received by critics at The New York Times who declared that the Metropolitan Opera exercised good judgment by engaging him. He first appeared with the orchestra in 1965 while collaborating with the pianist Earl Wild in a George Gershwin Night outdoor concert at the landmark Lewisohn Stadium in Manhattan, New York. While conducting at The Met from 1972-1977 he collaborated with several leading operatic vocalists including: James McCracken as Don José in Bizet's Carmen (1973), Luciano Pavarotti as Rodolfo and Pilar Lorengar as Mimi in Puccini's La bohème (1973), Franco Corelli as Roméo and Adriana Maliponte as Juliette in Gounod's Roméo et Juliette (1974), Enrico Di Giuseppe as Lindoro in Rossini's L'italiana in Algeri (1974), Elinor Ross as Amelia and Luciano Pavarotti as Riccardo in a Gala Performance of Verdi's Un ballo in maschera (March 1975) and Renata Scotto as Berthe and James McCracken as Jean of Leyden in Meyerbeer's Le Prophéte (1977). Lewis also conducted the Metropolitan Opera Orchestra on its international concert tour to Japan in 1975.
After retiring from the New Jersey Symphony in 1976, Lewis toured as a guest conductor in all of the major opera houses and appeared as a guest conductor for such leading opera and symphonic ensembles as: the Chicago Symphony, the Cleveland Orchestra, the Boston Symphony, the Hamburg State Opera Orchestra, the Scottish Opera Orchestra, Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra, and the New York Philharmonic. Appearances in Milan, Paris, and Copenhagen were also common. These successful appearances led to his appointment in 1976 as musical director of the Opera-Musik Theatre Institute in New Jersey.
From 1989 to 1991, when Kees Bakels succeeded him, he was principal conductor of the Netherlands Radio Symphony in Hilversum. He continued to concertize in later years even as he struggled with complications from lung cancer.
During the course of his extensive musical career, Lewis mentored several students including Lawrence Foster.
Recordings
{{ external media | align = center |audio1 = You may listen to Henry Lewis conducting the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra performing the Pastoral Symphony No. 6 In F Major, Op 68 by Ludwig van Beethoven in 1969 Here on Archive.org|audio2= Henry Lewis conducting Marilyn Horne and the Vienna Cantata Orchestra in cantatas by Bach and Handel in 1969 [https://archive.org/details/lp_marilyn-horne-sings-bach-and-handel_marilyn-horne-johann-sebastian-bach-georg/disc1/01.03.+Christmas+Oratiorio%3A+Schlafe+Mein+Liebster.mp3 'Here on Archive.org]}}
Henry Lewis' recordings illustrate his professional interest in a variety of diverse composers representing several different traditions in the history of classical music. In addition, they demonstrate his technical prowess for mastering a variety of divergent and technically challenging scores. In the symphonic repertoire, he recorded major works by Ludwig van Beethoven, Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, illustrating his mastery of works by several of the masters from the Classical era into the Romantic period and beyond. These recordings include Richard Strauss' epic tone poem Also sprach Zarathustra. Yet it is also clear that he was quite comfortable conducting compositions from the dawn of the era of symphonic jazz, including George Gershwin's Piano Concerto in F and An American in Paris. He even ventured to complete a recording of the technically challenging Piano Concerto No. 2 in C Minor by Sergei Rachmaninoff with the American pianist Ivan Davis in 1971.
In the operatic repertoire, his interests included compositions by prominent French Romantic composers such as: Georges Bizet, Jules Massenet, as well as the nineteenth century German operatic composer Giacomo Meyerbeer. Yet he also collaborated with his wife Marilyn Horne in recordings of cantatas and songs by composers from the Baroque era including Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel.
In the realm of popular contemporary music, he also recorded songs from the stage musical Carmen Jones featuring the music of Georges Bizet and lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II.
Henry Lewis' musical legacy also includes several recordings from the operatic repertoire with his wife Marilyn Horne. Over the course of several decades starting in the 1960s he recorded over twenty albums for several leading international record labels including: Decca Records, London Records, RCA Red Seal, CBS Masterworks, Contour records, Red Label, RPO Records, EMI Records, Opera D'Oro and RelArt. His collaborators on these recordings include several of the world's leading international vocalists and pianists of his era including: Gabriel Bacquier, Boris Carmeli. Ryland Davies, Ivan Davis, Plácido Domingo, Nicolai Gedda, Alfredo Giacomotti, Robert El Hage, Sherrill Milnes, Fritz Peter, Leontyne Price, Margherita Rinaldi, Janis Vakarelis, and Nicola Zaccaria.
Performance style
During the course of a professional musical career which ranged over four decades, Lewis earned critical acclaim from a variety of leading music critics. As early as 1961, Albert Golberg of The Los Angeles Times noted that Lewis possessed a conductor's natural flair for commanding his orchestra. Donal Henahan of The New York Times noted in 1972 that Lewis' debut with the Metropolitan Orchestra was highly successful and that Lewis possessed a complete understanding of Puccini's broad musical lyricism. Harold C. Schonberg of The New York Times observed that his insightful interpretation of Rossini's Siege of Corinth with Marilyn Horne at Carnegie Hall moved the audience to pandemonium. This was immediately followed by a surge of ovations which brought the concert to a standstill for nearly five minutes.
Awards and honors
For his outstanding contributions to music, Henry J. Lewis was inducted into the American Classical Music Hall of Fame in 2015. His recording with Leontyne Price for RCA Red Seal (ARL1-3522, 1980) of "Great Soprano Arias from Handel and Britten" was awarded the Grammy Award in 1981 in the category of Best Classical Vocal Soloist Performance.
Lewis was also the recipient of several honorary degrees from Saint Peter's University (1972), Rutgers University (1969) and Rider University (1969).
Personal life
From 1960 to 1979, Lewis was married to opera singer Marilyn Horne, who often credits him with her early development as a singer.Horne and Scovell 2004. p. 98. They had a daughter, Angela.
Lewis died from a heart attack in 1996 at the age of 63 at his New York City apartment.
Discography
Henry Lewis' discography includes several recordings in which he collaborates with his wife, Marilyn Horne. Included among them are recordings of: Le prophète by Giacomo Meyerbeer (CBS, 1976) featuring James McCracken (as Jean of Leyden), Renata Scotto (as Berthe) and Horne in the role of Fides. It was also recorded live with Nicolai Gedda and Margherita Rinaldi in Turin (1970). Additional recordings featuring Marilyn Horne include: Souvenirs of a Golden Era (Decca Records, 1966) and Marilyn Horne Recital (Decca Records, 1964).
Included within Henry J. Lewis' discography are the following recordings:
Marilyn Horne – Decca Records (LXT 6149) Marilyn Horne in recital with Henry J. Lewis conducting the Orchestra of the Royal Opera House Covent Garden (1965)
Marilyn Horne, Henry Lewis – Arias from French Operas – Decca Records (SXL 6345) Henry J. Lewis conducting the Vienna Opera Orchestra (1968)
Tchaikovsky Symphony No. 6 in B Minor – Decca Records (SPC-21034) Henry J. Lewis conducting the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (1969)
Marilyn Horne – Decca Records (SXL 6349) Marilyn Horne sings selections from Bach and Handel with Henry J. Lewis conducting the Vienna Cantata orchestra (!969)
Beethoven Symphony No. 6 ("Pastoral") in F Major Op. 68 – London Records (SPC 21039) Henry J. Lewis conducting the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (1969)
Richard Strauss – Also Sprach Zarathustra – Decca Records (SAD 22105) Henry J. Lewis conducting the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (1970)
Tchaikovsky Piano Concerto No. 1 in B Flat Minor – Decca Records (SPC 21056) Ivan Davis soloist with Henry J. Lewis conducting the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (1970)
Mahler Kindertotenlieder & Wagner Wesendonck Lieder – Decca Records (SXL 6446) Marilyn Horne soloist with Henry J. Lewis conducting the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (1970)
Marilyn Horne Sings Carmen – London records (SPC 21055) Marilyn Horne soloist with Henry J. Lewis conducting the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and Chorus (1971)
Richard Strauss – Don Juan & Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks – London Records (21054) Henry L. Lewis conducting the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (1971)
Rachmaninoff Piano Concerto No. 2 in C Minor – Decca Records (PFS 4214) Ivan Davis soloist with Henry J. Lewis conducting the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (1971)
Marilyn Horne Sings Rossini – London Records (OS 26305) Marilyn Horne soloist with Henry L. Lewis conducting the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (1973)
Massenet – La Navarraise – RCA Red Seal (ARL1-1114) Vocalists: Marilyn Horne, Placido Domingo, Sherrill Milnes with Henry J. Lewis conducting the London Symphony Orchestra (1975)
Meyerbeer – Le Prophet – CBS Materworks (79400) – Vocalists: Marilyn Horne, James McCracken, Renata Scotto, Jerome Hines with Henry J. Lewis conducting the Royal Philharmonic (1976)
Leontyne Price – Prima Donna Vol. 5 Great Soprano Arias from Handel and Britten – RCA Red Seal (ARL1-3522) Leontyne Price with Henry L. Lewis conducting the Philharmonia Orchestra (1980)
Tchaikovsky Piano Concerto No.1 /Rachmaninoff – Rhapsody on a Theme by Paganini – Contour Red Label (CC 7594) Ivan Davis, Ilana Vered, soloists with Henry J. Lewis conducting the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (1983)
Gershwin Piano Concerto No. 1 In F, An American in Paris – MCA Classics (MCA 6229) Janis Vakarelis soloist with Henry J. Lewis conducting the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (1988)
Oscar Hammersteins' Carmen Jones – EMI Angel Studio (4DS 54352) Henry J. Lewis conducting (1991)
Filmography
The Symphony Sound with Henry Lewis and the Royal Philharmonic'' – Educational film by Henry Lewis featuring the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra released by I.Q. Films Learning Corp. of America (1970)
See also
Black conductors
References
Bibliography
External links
Henry Lewis: Photographs of Henry Lewis conducting on gettyimages.com
Henry Lewis: Recordings by Henry Lewis on allmusic.com
African-American classical musicians
American male conductors (music)
African-American conductors (music)
American classical double-bassists
Male double-bassists
Military personnel from California
People from Echo Park, Los Angeles
1932 births
1996 deaths
University of Southern California alumni
20th-century American conductors (music)
20th-century classical musicians
Musicians from Los Angeles
Classical musicians from California
20th-century double-bassists
20th-century American male musicians
20th-century African-American musicians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle%20on%20Manchester
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Miracle on Manchester
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The Miracle on Manchester is the nickname given to a National Hockey League (NHL) playoff game between the Los Angeles Kings and Edmonton Oilers that took place on April 10, 1982 in the league's 65th season. The game, the third in a best-of-five postseason series, was played at The Forum, the Kings' home arena at the time, which was situated on Manchester Boulevard in the Los Angeles suburb of Inglewood. The Kings completed the largest comeback in NHL playoff history, going from being down 5–0 to win the game in overtime, 6–5. Combined with upset wins in Games 1 and 5, the Kings eliminated the Gretzky-led Oilers in a 3–2 series victory to reach the second round.
Background
The contest was the third in a five-game first-round playoff series between the Kings and Oilers. Under the playoff structure that existed at the time, the top four teams from each division qualified for the playoffs, with the first seed facing the fourth seed and the second and third seeds pairing off in the first round. In 1981–82, Edmonton won the division with 111 points, while Los Angeles finished in fourth place, 48 points behind.
Edmonton Oilers
The Oilers in their third season in the NHL, were dominant. Under the leadership of head coach and general manager Glen Sather, they finished first in the Clarence Campbell Conference and second best in the league after the New York Islanders. The Oilers, the only team in the Smythe Division to post a winning record, were the most potent offensive team in the NHL that year. They set an NHL record by scoring 417 goals, 32 more than any other team in 1981–82. The Oilers also had a capable defense for the time, allowing 295 goals, 26 fewer than the NHL average.
The Oilers’ offensive attack was led by Wayne Gretzky, Glenn Anderson, Mark Messier, and Jari Kurri. The defense was anchored by Kevin Lowe, Paul Coffey, and team captain Lee Fogolin. Edmonton featured the goalie tandem of Grant Fuhr and Andy Moog.
In 1981–82, Gretzky posted 92 goals, 120 assists, and 212 points, all league records, out-scoring his nearest rival for the scoring lead, Mike Bossy of the New York Islanders, by 65 points. Gretzky would win the Hart Memorial Trophy as the NHL's most valuable player for the third consecutive season.
Los Angeles Kings
After a 99-point season in 1980–81, they suffered through one of the worst one-year declines in NHL history, plummeting down to just 63 points in 1981–82. The team's fall precipitated a coaching change, as Don Perry replaced Parker MacDonald on January 11, 1982. Of the 16 playoff qualifiers in the NHL, Los Angeles had the poorest record. The Kings' total of 314 goals was lower than the league average of 321; they also allowed 369 goals, more than all but two teams in the NHL in 1981–82.
The Kings were led offensively by Marcel Dionne, who scored 117 points and was eighth in the NHL in scoring. Dave Taylor, Dionne's right winger on the Triple Crown Line was second on the team with 106 points. Dionne's usual left winger, Charlie Simmer, missed 30 games due to injury and tallied only 39 points during regular season play. Other offensive notables for the Kings included forward Jim Fox and rookie forward Steve Bozek, as well as defenseman Larry Murphy. This youthful presence in the Los Angeles lineup was further solidified by forwards Bernie Nicholls, Doug Smith, and Daryl Evans.
The high number of goals scored against the Kings was in part a reflection of an outmoded defensive mentality. The 1980s were a decade that witnessed an increasingly speedy game, one which seemed unstoppable to the Kings' old, rangy, "stay-at-home" blueliners of the 1970s. In addition, L.A.'s goaltending suffered a decline; starting goaltender Mario Lessard allowed 4.36 goals per game, one of the worst figures in the league. Backup goaltender Doug Keans fared little better, at 4.30 goals allowed per game.
During the 1981–82 regular season, the Kings and Oilers met eight times, with Edmonton going 5-1-2. The Oilers outscored the Kings 51 goals to 27.
Games 1 and 2
The series began in Edmonton's Northlands Coliseum, where the Oilers had a record of 31-5-4 during the regular season. Combining that mark with the Kings' season road record of 5-26-9 formed an expectation of the Oilers taking the first two games.
Before the series, Los Angeles coach Don Perry elected to utilize his team's youth and offensive speed to try to simply outscore the Oilers rather than shut them down. The Oilers led 4–1 at the start. Due to undisciplined play from Edmonton, the Kings answered back with four consecutive goals, three of which came on the power play, and would never trail the rest of the game. The 18 goals is still an NHL record for most goals scored in a Stanley Cup Playoff game.
Game 2, both teams played more defensively, and thus was a low-scoring, more traditional style of playoff hockey, as the Kings and Oilers were tied 2-2 after regulation time had expired. In overtime, Gretzky took a shot from 40 feet out that went through a screen and past Lessard into the Kings' net. The 3–2 victory for Edmonton tied the series at one game apiece.
Game 3, the "Miracle" Game
The series shifted to the Forum, where the Kings were 19-15-6 during the regular season. Edmonton's season road record was 17-12-11.
First period
The Kings' fans were enthusiastic at the start of the game, but as in Game 2, the Oilers struck first. The Kings had just finished killing a penalty to Dave Taylor when Kings forward Dan Bonar jumped on a loose puck in the Oiler zone and took a shot on goal. Fuhr made the save, and the Oilers counter-attacked. A pass found Messier on the left wing, and he took a slap shot from about 25 feet out that went off Lessard's glove and into the net to give Edmonton a 1–0 lead.
While on the power play near the end of the first period, the Kings made another offensive rush at Fuhr, with Dionne taking a centering pass and sending a wrist shot toward the Oiler net. Fuhr made the save, and the rebound went to Gretzky. Gretzky then proceeded to carry the puck from his own end to the Kings' end, skating down the middle of the ice and in alone on two Kings, Korab and Evans. Gretzky faked to the outside and then shifted quickly back inside, bypassing Korab. Gretzky then skated toward the left side, where rookie Evans was holding his position but conceding space to Gretzky. Gretzky saw enough room for an opportunity to shoot, but had his stick lifted from behind by Simmer, who was backchecking. Nevertheless, Gretzky was able to get his stick back down to ice level long enough to fire a sharp-angled shot that beat Lessard on the short side for a short-handed goal to put the Oilers up 2–0.
Second period
As the second period started, the Kings were still on the power play, but the Oilers were able to mount another rush. Gretzky took the puck in the Oiler zone, skated through center ice and passed to Fogolin. Fogolin skated down the wing and sent a seemingly harmless snap shot toward Lessard. The Kings' goaltender misplayed the sharp angle of the shot, and it went by him on the short side. The Oilers had scored two short-handed goals on the same Kings' power play, and had taken control of the game with a 3–0 lead.
Later in the second period, both teams were playing with three skaters per side due to penalties. The Oilers' defenseman Risto Siltanen skated the puck through center ice and into the Kings' zone. The Oilers maintained control with sharp passing, but after an Oiler shot went wide of the net, the Kings' defender Mark Hardy appeared to have control of the puck. Gretzky swooped in behind the net and deftly stole the puck away. He then sent a quick pass over to Siltanen who one-timed a shot toward the net that seemed to zoom past Lessard into the net; it ricocheted against the end boards and around to the left side of the Kings' zone. The goal light was turned on by the goal judge, so play was stopped as the referees convened. It was determined that Siltanen's shot went through the net, and replays later confirmed it. The Oilers had increased their lead to 4–0.
The Oilers were on the power play, with four skaters against the Kings' three, when they went on the attack again. The Oilers obtained possession in the Kings' zone at the face-off, and as they had on their fourth goal, kept possession while moving the puck. The Oilers kept the puck on the outside until they saw an opening. Anderson took a pass to the right of the Kings' net and saw Gretzky sneak in behind Lessard and Kings' defenseman Rick Chartraw at the left side of the goal crease. Anderson sent a hard pass that went through Chartraw's legs and onto the stick of Gretzky, and all he had to do was deflect the puck into the net to give the Oilers a power play goal and a seemingly insurmountable 5–0 lead, and the score stayed that way as the second period came to a close.
Kings play by play announcer Bob Miller was quoted as saying "I was so upset because I thought, 'We do this every time, get everyone in L.A. excited about hockey and the Kings and then go right in the dumper.'" Kings owner Jerry Buss also left the game early, and was greeted with jeers from the Forum crowd. The home crowd had quieted considerably as the game turned into a rout.
Third period
Early in the third period, with both teams at four skaters per side, the Kings gained possession of the puck in the neutral zone and tried an attack on the Oiler net. The Kings had a two-on-one with Dionne and Larry Murphy, but Dionne's setup pass was missed by Murphy, and the puck went toward the right wing boards. The Kings were able to regain control of the puck, and tried to set up another attack in the Oiler zone, when Dionne again obtained possession of the puck at the right point. Dionne sent a pass toward the left wing, where the puck ricocheted softly off of the boards and on to the stick of Jay Wells. Wells skated in from the left point, noticed Taylor was obstructing the sight line of Oiler goalie Fuhr, and took a shot from 30 feet out that went through the legs of Taylor and into the right side of the net past Fuhr at 2:36 to put the Kings on the scoreboard. The score now stood at 5–1.
Less than three minutes later, the Kings went on another power play as the Oilers got another penalty. The Kings won the face-off, and sent the puck back to Hardy, who threw a shot at the net from the left point. Fuhr made the save, but the rebound went directly in front of the net, toward Oiler defenseman Kevin Lowe. Lowe tried to gain possession of the puck quickly and clear it out of danger, but the puck was caught between his skates, and Lowe couldn't spot it. Kings' forward Doug Smith saw the puck, however; Smith quickly stepped toward Lowe, reached between the defender's skates, and took a shot that went directly under the crossbar and into the Oiler net. It was a power play goal, and the Kings had narrowed the gap to 5–2.
Both teams were again playing at four skaters per side when the Oilers went to gain possession of the puck behind their own net. The attempted Oiler clearing pass, however, was intercepted on the right wing by Kings' forward Dean Hopkins, who took a stride forward and passed to Charlie Simmer. Simmer skated around an Oiler defender, then cut back toward the net. While falling down, Simmer tried to jam the puck into the right side of the net, but Fuhr's left foot blocked the puck. Oiler defenseman Randy Gregg, skating into the play, in trying to use his stick to tie up the stick of Simmer inadvertently hit Fuhr's leg. Fuhr was knocked back enough to allow the puck to slide over the goal line, and the goal brought the Kings to within two, at 5–3. This was the goal that really got the crowd back into the game and made the Kings believe they could actually pull the game out.
With only five minutes to play, veteran Oilers forward Garry Unger – who had played the previous season with the Kings – brought his stick blade up into the face of Dave Lewis behind the Kings' net. Lewis' face was cut, so Unger was assessed an automatic five-minute major penalty for high sticking. Since Lewis was also penalized two minutes for roughing in the ensuing moments following the high stick, both teams would be four skaters per side for two minutes. After the two minutes were up, the Kings would have the last three minutes with a man advantage, as the major to Unger would still be running.
During the four-on-four situation, Kings forward Steve Bozek gained possession of the puck at center ice. Bozek skated into the Oiler zone on the left wing, then quickly moved to his right, toward the center. He then dropped a pass back to Hardy, who was behind Bozek and skating the opposite way (toward the left wing). The criss-cross put the Oilers out of position for a split second, and Hardy used the small window of time to cut in past Gretzky and take a wrist shot back against the grain, toward the right side of the net. Fuhr, surprised at the quick shot, tried to slide to his left to keep the puck out, but he was unsuccessful. The puck was in the net, the Kings' crowd went wild, and the Kings were now trailing 5–4.
Soon after the Hardy goal, the Kings' three-minute power play began. There was an anxious moment for the Kings, as Oiler forward Pat Hughes gained a loose puck at center ice and had a clean breakaway. Hughes skated in alone on King goalie Lessard and took a low shot, but Lessard was able to block it. There was a small rebound for Hughes, but by the time Hughes regained the puck, he was too close to Lessard and didn't have time to shoot. All Hughes could do was knock the puck into Lessard's waiting glove, and Lessard covered the puck to stop play.
The Kings had trouble setting up the puck in the Oiler zone on the major power play, and game time was dwindling away. When play was stopped with 1:37 left, Perry changed goaltenders for the Kings, bringing on Doug Keans to replace Lessard. Under the rules in effect at the time, the game was suspended for several minutes while Keans took practice shots from his teammates, giving the power-play unit time to rest. At the next whistle with 1:14 remaining, Lessard returned to the net (without a warm-up). Finally, with a minute left, the Kings pulled Lessard for an extra attacker to essentially give them a two-skater advantage over the Oilers. With forty-five seconds to go, Dionne gained clear possession of the puck to the right of the Oiler net. Dionne stickhandled for 20 to 25 seconds, desperately looking for an open lane to pass or shoot. At last, Dionne sent the puck to Simmer and headed to the front of the net. Simmer sent Dionne a return pass, and Dionne took a quick wrist shot on net, but the shot was kicked aside by Fuhr. The rebound slid over to the right-wing boards, where Gretzky tried to gain control of it. Jim Fox quickly moved in to harass Gretzky, frantically waving his stick along the ice to knock the puck away, and moving his body between Gretzky and the puck to gain control.
In the last ten seconds, Fox sent the puck back to Hardy, who was farther away from the net, but was positioned in the center of the Oiler zone. Hardy took the pass and sent a low shot toward the net. Fuhr managed to make the save, but could not control the rebound, and the puck squirted out in front of the net. The Oilers were doing their best to contain the dangerous Dionne, and they kept him away from the loose puck. Unfortunately for the Oilers, Kings' left-wing Bozek had drifted from his normal position and was moving toward the front of the net. The Oilers, being two men short, were not positioned to defend Bozek, and watched in horror as the puck slid perfectly toward the King rookie's stick. Bozek immediately took a quick backhanded shot toward the net. Fuhr did not have enough time to react and adjust his position for Bozek's shot, and was helpless as the puck sailed between his pads and into the net. With only five seconds to go, the Kings had completed a historic comeback. The game was tied, 5-5.
The Kings' crowd was electrified at the scoring of the tying goal; the roar from the stands would continue for several minutes. The Kings on the ice formed a joyous group around Bozek, all of them tired, but ecstatic. The Oiler players on the ice, by contrast, were in disbelief, and lying down on the ice. Goaltender Fuhr had dropped to one knee and hung his head in disappointment. All that was left of regulation time was a face-off at center ice. The last five seconds quickly elapsed, and the teams headed to their respective locker rooms to prepare for their second consecutive overtime game.
Overtime
In overtime, the Kings almost met with immediate disaster. A bouncing puck was shot in from center ice toward Kings' goalie Lessard, and he had trouble handling it cleanly. The puck began to slide out in front of the Kings' net. Lessard, fearing that the Oilers would regain possession of the puck, decided to leave his goal crease and chase the puck down. He went into a slide, but in doing so, he collided with Oiler Glenn Anderson about 40 feet in front of the Kings' net and the puck moved even farther out of his reach. By this time, Mark Messier had skated into the Kings' zone and took the puck on his backhand. With Lessard out of the net, Messier had an opportunity to score the winning goal into the open net. The Kings' Mark Hardy scrambled to get in front of the net as Messier unleashed a backhand shot. Unfortunately for Messier, the puck rolled off the end of his stick blade, and the shot sailed harmlessly to the right of the Kings' net. The Kings covered the puck behind their own net. Lessard had quickly skated back to his net as the Kings were covering the puck, and he leaned on the crossbar with his head down.
Later in the overtime period, the Kings had a scoring chance, as Doug Smith entered the Oiler zone with an open lane on the right wing. He took a hard shot, but Fuhr was in perfect position to catch the puck with his glove. He caught and controlled the puck long enough for play to be stopped. The ensuing face-off to restart play would take place in the Oiler zone to Fuhr's left. Kings' head coach Don Perry sent out an all-rookie forward line for the face-off: Bozek on left wing, Smith at center, and Daryl Evans on right wing. Smith won the face-off from Messier, gently drawing the puck back. As the puck slid back, Evans skated in behind Smith and immediately started swinging his stick back and took a slap shot. The shot swiftly headed toward the upper portion of the Oiler net. Fuhr brought his glove up to make the save, but the shot was moving too fast, and Fuhr was a fraction of a second too late. The puck went into the net at two minutes and 35 seconds of overtime, winning the game for the Kings, 6–5.
Box score
Number in parentheses represents the player's total in goals or assists to that point of the playoffs
Goalies
Edmonton — Grant Fuhr: 45 saves / 51 shots
Los Angeles — Mario Lessard: 30 saves / 35 shots
Games 4 and 5
There was still one more game to be played in the Forum: Game 4. Once again, the game was close. The Oilers took a 3–1 lead at 14:44 of the second period when Glenn Anderson scored. Despite a third period goal by the Kings' Mike Murphy, the Oilers held on to defeat the Kings, 3–2, and send the series back to Edmonton for Game 5. Glen Sather, in response to Kings public relations director Scott Carmichael cheering near the dressing rooms after the "miracle" game 3, said to Carmichael after Game 4, "you aren't cheering tonight, are you?" followed by an altercation that ended after several Oilers players intervened on Sather's behalf.
In a rare occurrence, both teams had to board the same plane heading back to Edmonton (charter flights were not the norm back then for NHL teams). The flight left at 1:30am, and the game was to be played that night on April 13. The Oilers were seated in the back and the Kings sat in the front. After landing in Edmonton and arriving at their hotel, the Kings players were confronted by a cleaning lady saying, "you didn't treat my boys very well in Los Angeles." Mark Hardy looked at her and said, "Lady, it's 5:30 in the morning – go home and go to bed!"
Back on home ice for Game 5, the Oilers again appeared to have the advantage. But the Kings, realizing that they had matched Edmonton goal-for-goal thus far in the series, were confident and loose as the game got underway. The Los Angeles team forged ahead 2–0, with both goals being scored by Simmer. The Kings' second-year forward Dan Bonar, the forward chosen to check Wayne Gretzky, chipped in with two goals of his own. The stunned Edmonton fans looked on as two King rookies grabbed the spotlight: new playoff hero Daryl Evans, who scored a pair of goals, and Bernie Nicholls, who scored at 6:49 of the second period to put the Kings in front to stay. The Kings led 6-2 after the second period, and would go on to win by a score of 7–4. The first place Oilers had been eliminated from the playoffs, despite Gretzky's 12 points (five goals and seven assists) in the series. Bob Miller, long-time Kings play-by-play announcer, wrote that after the game: "I was so excited that I wanted to call home, but the only pay phone I could find was near the Oilers dressing room. The Oilers wives and girlfriends were in tears as I shouted to my wife over the phone, 'wasn't that a great game?'"
A combined total of 50 goals were scored by the two teams in the five-game series, a new NHL record. The Kings also set a record for most goals by one team in a five-game series, with 27. Other NHL records that fell included the most goals by both teams in one game (18, in Game 1) and the biggest series upset in the Stanley Cup playoffs, as the Kings had finished 48 points behind Edmonton in the regular season.
Aftermath
The "Miracle on Manchester" remains the biggest single-game comeback in Stanley Cup playoffs history. The Kings clawed their way back from a 5–0 deficit to start the third period to win the game in overtime. Despite the upset against the Oilers, the Kings were eliminated in the next round by the Vancouver Canucks, 4–1. Vancouver would advance to the 1982 Stanley Cup Finals, where they were swept by the New York Islanders in four games.
In the 1982–83 NHL season, the Oilers advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals against the Islanders, but were swept in four games. But Edmonton would go on to win the Stanley Cup in 1984, 1985, 1987, 1988 and 1990.
The "Miracle on Manchester" would prove to be the Kings' only bright spot during the early-1980s. The next two seasons continued the losing trend that began in 1981, as they missed the playoffs in both seasons. The Kings and Oilers would meet again in the playoffs in 1985 and 1987, with the Oilers easily winning both series (3-0 in 1985 and 4–1 in 1987) en route to winning the Stanley Cup both of those years. It wasn't until Wayne Gretzky was traded to Los Angeles in 1988–89 that the franchise turned around, as he led the Kings to an upset of the defending champion Oilers in 1989 after a 3–1 deficit before losing in the second round to the eventual Stanley Cup champions the Calgary Flames. The Kings suffered second round eliminations during the 1990 and 1991 playoffs while losing in the first round in the 1992 playoffs, all three losses to Wayne Gretzky's former teammates from the Oilers. In 1992–93, the Oilers failed to make the playoffs, after being eliminated by a 5-1 regular season loss to the Kings who were without Gretzky for a significant part of the regular season. The 1993 playoffs was also the first time that the Kings advanced to the Conference Finals, defeating the Toronto Maple Leafs to reach their first Cup Finals in franchise history, where they lost to the Montreal Canadiens. From 1994 to 2011 the Kings won just one playoff series, during the 2001 postseason when they upset the Detroit Red Wings in six games (featuring the game four "Stunner at Staples") and coming back from a 3–1 deficit to push the eventual Cup champions Colorado Avalanche to seven games. The Kings made three straight conference finals appearances from 2012 to 2014, with their 2014 playoff run including three series that went to seven games (and trailing 0–3 and 2–3 in the first two series), going on to win the Cup in 2012 and 2014.
On the 40 year anniversary of Miracle on Manchester, the Kings introduced their second Reverse Retro jersey, inspired by the event. With white being the base colour for the first time rather than purple or gold.
Bibliography
The National Hockey League Official Guide and Record Book, 1981–1982. Published by the National Hockey League, 1982.
Miracle on Manchester. Video produced by the Los Angeles Kings, 1982.
Los Angeles Kings 25th Anniversary Commemorative Video. Video produced by the Los Angeles Kings, 1991.
NHL Overtime: Heroes and Drama of the Stanley Cup playoffs. video produced by the National Hockey League, 2000.
Miller, Bob. Tales From the Los Angeles Kings, Sports Publishing LLC, 2006.
References
External links
Doug Smith biography
Overtime dramas at the ESPN website
1982 Stanley Cup
Stanley Cup playoff games
1982
1982
Northwest Division (NHL)
Pacific Division (NHL)
April 1982 sports events in the United States
1982 in sports in California
Nicknamed sporting events
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elle%20Robinson
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Elle Robinson
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Lucinda "Elle" Robinson is a fictional character from the Australian television soap opera Neighbours, played by Pippa Black. The character made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 19 September 2005. She was introduced as the daughter of established characters Paul (Stefan Dennis) and Gail Robinson (Fiona Corke).
She is characterised as a manipulative female who executes various scams and plots against other characters. In one instance Elle feigned a terminal illness for personal gain. The character has been used to play the topical story of post traumatic stress. Production also subjected Elle to Retroactive continuity as scriptwriters aged the character considerably. In June 2009, Black announced her decision to leave Neighbours to seek out other roles. The character departed on 3 December 2009. Black reprised the role for a brief appearance on 9 September 2019 and again on 25 July 2022 for one of the serial's intended final episodes.
Creation and casting
In September 2005, it was announced that the character would be introduced into the series following an off-screen birth. A reporter from TV Week revealed that scheming Elle was another "bad girl", who would give Izzy Hoyland (Natalie Bassingthwaighte) a "run for her money in the scheming stakes!" Black's casting was also publicised and Elle was her first prominent television role. Black planned to travel to London for a working holiday when she was informed that she had secured the role. Black described her experience stating "I admit I was a little star struck turning up to Ramsay Street and meeting everybody, but they all bent over backwards to help out and settle my nerves."
The character has been subject to the SORAS phenomenon, in which the age of Elle and her triplet brothers were increased. Elle was born off-screen in October 1989, so when she debuted in 2005 she would have been almost sixteen, but was aged up to nineteen.
Development
Characterisation
Elle's persona has often been portrayed as manipulative and ruthless. Of Elle, Black has described her stating: "Viewers will recognise Elle as a fairly cold, hard, fairly manipulative character". Black also praised her character's maturity during her relationship with Oliver Barnes (David Hoflin) adding: "Lately she’s shown a softer, more mature side to her personality. [...] I like it when the scriptwriters choose to show a caring side to Elle as it makes her more of an interesting person to play". Elle's manipulative ways calmed during her later years in the series, although they still were present during storylines involving Paul; of this Black said: "She’s quite manipulative, because she wants him to be a model dad, she tries to correct his flaws. By keeping an eye on him and his roving eye, she thinks she can make sure he stays out of trouble".
Black has also described her character on a different occasion stating: "She is strong-willed, ambitious and unafraid of standing up for what she believes – even if others don't see things her way. Loyal to her family in any circumstance and has no worries about bending rules to get where she needs to be – she never provides a dull moment!! [...] When she's bad she has an agenda and whether it's right or wrong she'll go through with it. I like her because she's not a quitter. Anyway, I don't like to call her bad...she's misunderstood!!"
Channel Ten publicity describe in depth many of her character traits. They brand her "spoilt princess" image as often being a misconception of her, making note of her single parent upbringing, branding her as a "country girl at heart". Also adding upon her arrival in Paul's life she discovered many ways to get what she wanted involving manipulating people. They also add that she proved over time that she was a "chip off the old block" in her similarities to father Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis), They also described how Elle changed her ways, stating: "Elle descended to deplorable depths and eventually came to despise herself." They also make note of her desire to overthrow her father in his manipulative actions, stating she has wanted to remain free from his clutches and help change him for the better.
Relationships
Speaking of her relationship with Ned Parker (Daniel O'Connor), Black states: "She's sees herself as Ned's leading lady, but the problem has been getting him to admit that he likes her, too." Black believes that Elle using the fact that Ned is illiterate to her advantage isn't malicious: "Elle has earned Ned's trust by helping him learn his scripts, although she doesn't realise it, the fact that Ned hasn't responded to her advances before now is more to do with him feeling insecure and inferior. He likes Elle, but has been to scared to do anything about it." Black also states that the play's theme is a good insight to how their relationship actually works adding: "The scene they are practising concerns the couple in the play, but the words ring true for Ned and Elle – wanting each other but not having the courage to act on it." "Elle's admired Ned for so long so it's a relief to know that he feels the same way about her!"
When Ned betrays Elle she attempts to seduce his brother Stuart Parker (Blair McDonough) by stripping naked for him. Black said there was a feeling of "embarrassment" on set and added that the crew were laughing and joking about the scenes. Black said that Elle is "purely acting out of hurt and confusion" when she seduces Stuart. As Stuart was also going through a break up so "misery comes together" in the storyline. Black also stated "I think she's attracted to the fact that Stuart is Ned's older brother and that being with him is really going to hurt Ned. She's also looking for comfort and she finds that in Stu." However, Stuart makes it clear that he is not interested which leaves Elle feeling embarrassed. While they agree to be friends, Black said that "they've formed a really genuine friendship and they share a kiss, they've poured their hearts out and it just happens." Black opined that Elle never loved Stuart but said they had a "definite chemistry".
Elle begins a relationship with Lucas Fitzgerald (Scott Major). Major said that they are completely different and he cannot figure Elle out at first, however is attracted to her. Lucas calls Elle Princess. Major added "It's not smooth sailing for either of them, and it's still up in the air as to whether they'll finally get it together or not." Of Elle and Lucas, executive producer, Susan Bower said "They're our moonlighting couple. They're chalk and cheese and they'll always be chalk and cheese". She said that they are "crazy about each other", but they are always splitting up and getting back together again. Within their relationship, Bower said that they brought in an important issue that concerns a lot of people, "how does one get an adrenalin rush?" Elle and Lucas are "high rollers", so when they get together they need to look elsewhere for their adrenalin rush. When Elle and Lucas split because he is struggling with a gambling addiction, Elle decides to get revenge on him and invites him to her father's stag night at a casino. However, Elle is left feeling guilty about what she has done. The couple get back together, but when Elle discovers that Lucas has withdrawn a large amount of money, she worries that he has started gambling again. However, Lucas brings out a ring and proposes to Elle at the Erinsborough High Deb ball. Elle accepts, but she is late offered a job in New York and Lucas tells her to follow her dreams and they say goodbye at the airport.
Departure and return
In June 2009, Black decided to quit the series to pursue other acting roles. Though Black agreed to marginally extend her contract to facilitate her character's exit storyline. Neighbours executive producer Susan Bower decided not to kill the character off because she admired Black's work, adding "the door would always be open for Pippa Black. She's been absolutely marvellous." Bower had expected Black to broaden her career elsewhere and believed Neighbours had been "incredibly privileged" to have had her work on the show for three years. Black later revealed she would be willing to return to the role in the future.
On 1 September 2019, it was announced Black had reprised the role for a brief appearance from 9 September. Elle appears via video call, after Paul learns that she is behind the recent appearances of his former wives. An "unapologetic" Elle explains that while she did not want to sabotage his engagement to Terese Willis (Rebekah Elmaloglou), she hoped seeing his exes would break him "out of his toxic cycle with women."
On 7 May 2022, Dan Seddon of Digital Spy announced Black would reprise the role of Elle for the final episodes of Neighbours following its cancellation. She was one of numerous cast members who agreed to return for the show's end. The "most memorable characters" from each decade were chosen to return and Executive producer Jason Herbison explained that it ensured there was "something for everyone as Neighbours draws to a close."
Storylines
Elle is born off-screen to mother Gail Robinson (Fiona Corke) in October 1989, a fraternal triplet along with identical brothers Cameron and Robert. Gail divorces Paul whilst pregnant, and moves to Tasmania where she raises the children. It is inferred that Paul pays them occasional visits during Elle's youth. In 2005, Elle lies to Gail about going to visit a friend in Byron Bay when in fact she heads for Erinsborough to see Paul. Elle begins to lace Izzy Hoyland's (Natalie Bassingthwaighte) food with drugs, in order to make her appear insane. Along with a number of Ramsay Street residents, Elle is involved the Lassiter's plane crash during a joyflight to Tasmania. She survives. Elle starts a relationship with Ned, which ends when he falls in love with Izzy. Dylan Timmins (Damien Bodie) and Elle start a relationship. Sky reveals she is pregnant with Dylan's child. Elle fears he will reunite with Sky. Elle concocts a lie that she had been diagnosed with a terminal illness. Dylan chose to stick by her. However, the news spreads that Elle is sick and she receives well-wishes from fooled neighbours. Cameron dies after being hit by a car. Elle tells Dylan to truth, he leaves her for Sky.
Elle begins playing tricks on Max Hoyland (Stephen Lovatt) who is responsible for Cameron's death, rearranging his cupboards and stealing his car. After stealing his car, Elle discovers that Max has hired an investigator to try to catch Elle. Elle deceives him into making a fake report. After the report was produced Max has a nervous breakdown, he commits himself to a hospital, then leaves Erinsborough. Elle feels guilty and unsuccessfully tries to cheer up the Hoylands, after Loris Timmins (Kate Fitzpatrick) invests in Lassiter's Hotel, Dylan tries to be spiteful by ruining her future plans for Lassiter's, but this throws them back into each other's arms. Elle becomes annoyed by Boyd Hoyland (Kyal Marsh) and Stephanie Scully (Carla Bonner) no longer wanting anything to do with her after they find out about her games. Elle sees Max in a shopping mall car park, with a woman and her children. After telling Janae Timmins (Eliza Taylor-Cotter), she goes to see him and he returns to Ramsay Street for a couple of months.
When Paul tricks residents of Ramsay Street into believing Dylan and Carmella Cammeniti (Natalie Blair) slept together, Elle ends her relationship with Dylan. Elle then schemes with Oliver Barnes (David Hoflin) to take control of Lassiter's. They succeed. Paul is diagnosed with a brain tumor and Elle takes him back in when he recovers. Oliver and Elle get together, and she helps him search for his biological mother. Elle quits Lassiters and signs 25% to Paul and 24% to Oliver. She begins a career as a journalist. Elle and Riley Parker (Sweeney Young) develop feeling towards each other, nothing develops. They are both trapped in a warehouse roof collapse. Surviving, Elle suffers post traumatic stress. Riley and Paul try to help her but she pushes them away. Elle and Marco Silvani (Jesse Rosenfeld) pair up in a joint business to run the General Store. Whilst reporting on Pete Ferguson (Kristin Holland) with Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne), the pair are kidnapped and held hostage by Ferguson. They escape unharmed, but it worsens her stress.
Elle becomes the guardian of Donna Freedman (Margot Robbie). She starts a relationship with Lucas, then with Andrew Simpson (Peter Flanigan) to make him jealous, later reconciling with Lucas. Elle and Lucas become engaged, Elle finds out Lucas has a gambling addiction so she cunningly arranges his stag night at a casino. Elle breaks off their engagement fearing his gambling addiction will worsen. Elle and Lucas discover Paul has a secret sister Jill Ramsay (Perri Cummings); Paul said he already knew about her and told Elle to drop this. Paul finds out that Jill dies after being hit by a car; Paul denies involvement, he is arrested, later cleared. Elle quits her job as a journalist at the Erinsborough News after she disagrees with the way her father is running stories on the Kennedys' surrogacy. Elle is then offered a job with The New York Times, but she turns it down. Josh Burns (Scott Brennan), a former boss of Elle's dies, which prompts her to write one of her best articles. Lucas accepts the New York job on her behalf and Elle leaves. Lucas later receives a video message from Elle, who tells him their relationship would not have worked out. When Ringo dies in 2010, Elle is very angry and hurt for Donna, e-mails Lucas and asks him to fire Steph from the garage.
In the buildup to Paul's wedding to Terese Willis, his former wives turn up in Erinsborough and try to convince Terese not to go through with the marriage. While the couple are in Queensland, Paul meets his former wife Christina Alessi (Gayle Blakeney) and her sister Caroline Alessi (Gillian Blakeney), who reveals that someone he knows is behind the plan. Elle then receives a video call from Paul, who demands to know why she would do that to him. Elle explains that after learning of his engagement to Terese, she wanted to test him and get him to think about how he treated his former wives, but she never told them to break him and Terese up. She also reveals that she was working with her half-brother, Leo Tanaka (Tim Kano). Three years later, Elle and her siblings video call Paul to cheer him up during the sale of Lassiter's. They suggest that Paul, Leo and David Tanaka (Takaya Honda) move to New York to be with the rest of the family
Reception
In 2006 Black was nominated for Most Popular New Female Talent in her role of Elle at the Logie awards. She was also nominated for Best Actress at Cosmopolitan's Fun, Fearless Female awards in 2009. Ruth Deller of entertainment website Lowculture commented on Elle branding her a "fierce businesswoman and journalist". She also stated that Elle was the most notable 'victim' of character ageing in soap opera because fellow Neighbours character Sky Mangel was born before her remained younger than her. In a separate feature Deller credited Elle as one of the best soap opera characters in the whole 2000's, stating: "Elle is one of the best characters on Neighbours in the past decade. Feisty, cutting, bitchy, but with a heart underneath, she also hates Libby, which we approve of. Plus the scenes with her and Susan becoming frenemies recently were good value. Long may she reign." When Elle took revenge on Lucas using his gambling addiction, Metro.co.uk likened Elle to her father Paul, branding her "a chip off the old block", also stating it as a cruel way to get revenge.
Columnists for the Daily Record have regularly analysed Elle's storylines. Through her revenge campaign on Max they said she proved "herself once again to be a chip off the old Robinson block". One perceived the whole "will-they won't-they" storyline between Elle and Oliver to be "tiresome" and "nonsense" and their later affair was deemed predictable. While another said that the start of her relationship with Lucas was more epic than "Doctor Zhivago, Romeo and Juliet or The Thorn Birds". They said it was a silly storyline because they were "clearly mad for each other" yet "too stubborn to let each other know it". They later stated that it would have been easier if Lucas told Elle the truth more often. However; they opined that there was no need for Elle to be jealous of Lucas and Steph's friendship. They observed Elle as spending most of her days "wandering around looking like a wounded puppy" and said she should get over herself. As Elle is involved in different building disasters they said she has the "kiss of death". They quipped "If there's one thing you really must never do in soapland, it's enter a dodgy building with Elle Robinson. That's because before you know it, some disaster will have struck, and it's likely you'll be left fighting for your life because of it." Upon Elle's final scenes, they said that viewers could expect "plenty of tears" when Elle makes her departure and leave Lucas behind. Inside Soap asked their readers whether Oliver should be with Elle or Carmella. Elle was voted their second best with only thirty-four percent of the vote. Katie Baillie writing for Metro included Elle on a list of the "worst Neighbours characters" ever. Baillie stated that Elle's inclusion owed to her "annoying" status as a scheming Robinson and her pouting.
References
External links
Character profile at the Official Neighbours website
Character profile at the Official Neighbours website
Character profile at the Official UK Neighbours website
Character profile at BBC Online
Character profile at the Internet Movie Database
Neighbours characters
Fictional triplets
Fictional reporters
Television characters introduced in 2005
Fictional female businesspeople
Female characters in television
Female villains
Robinson family (Neighbours)
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4691699
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinixt
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Sinixt
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The Sinixt (also known as the Sin-Aikst or Sin Aikst, "Senjextee", "Arrow Lakes Band", or—less commonly in recent decades—simply as "The Lakes") are a First Nations People. The Sinixt are descended from Indigenous peoples who have lived primarily in what are today known as the West Kootenay region of British Columbia in Canada and the adjacent regions of Eastern Washington in the United States for at least 10,000 years. The Sinixt are of Salishan linguistic extraction, and speak their own dialect (snsəlxcín) of the Colville-Okanagan language.
Today they live primarily on the Colville Indian Reservation in Washington, where they form part of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation, which is recognized by the United States government as an American Indian Tribe. Many Sinixt continue to live in their traditional territory on the Northern Side of the 49th Parallel, particularly in the Slocan Valley and scattered amongst neighbouring tribes throughout BC, however the Canadian Government declared the Sinixt extinct in 1956.
History
Traditional territory
In her anthropological study of the Sinixt in Canada, Keeping the Lakes Way, Paula Pryce notes that "despite their obscurity in Canada and the scattered documentation of their presence in the area, both archival and published material show that the Sinixt Interior Salish resided along the Columbia River, Arrow Lakes, Slocan Valley, and parts of Kootenay Lake..." Other tribes used the Columbia as a trade route, passing through Sinixt territory to trade with the Sinixt and to trade further south. Parts of the traditional territory of the Sinixt are being claimed by the Westbank Band of the Okanagan people and as shared use and occupancy by the Ktunaxa. There is controversy over their historic claims to the area.
Traditional life
According to Lawney Reyes, the Sinixt numbered about 3,000 in the early 19th century, divided into several bands of sizes suited to hunting and fishing. He distinguishes the "Upper Sin-Aikst" around the Arrow Lakes, "above Revelstoke and around the Castlegar, Trail, and Slocan Valley area" from the "Lower Sin-Aikst in the Northport, Bossburg, Marcus, and Kettle Falls area in Washington State." The latter constituted "at least eight large bands". Once they obtained horses, they ranged farther east to hunt on the Great Plains.
In prehistoric times, the Sinixt were a semi-sedentary people, living in warm, semi-subterranean houses for the winter months. Summers were spent fishing, hunting, and gathering other food resources in their mountain and lake-dominated homeland. Reyes says that they wintered in the more wind-sheltered valleys, but summered by the Columbia. Scholars have classified the Sinixt as "complex collectors" (as opposed, for example, to "hunter-gatherers").
Sharon Montgomery of the Nakusp Museum, and tribal legend documented by Nancy Perkins Wynecoop and Nettie Wynecoop Clark describe the Sinixt as the "Mother Tribe" of the Pacific Northwest Salish. In an interview with the journalist Rex Weyler, Bob Campbell, "Headman" of the Sinixt in British Columbia, notes that, "As the mother nation, we often settled disputes among the (other) bands." Contributors to the article's forum refuted the claims as being without ethnographic or historical foundation. Sinixt mitochondrial DNA can be found at the base of Native American Haplogroup B2. (See GENBANK Accession EF648602.)
Early white explorers reported the Sinixt to be of average height and size, with hazel eyes. They were adept in making suspended bridges over the narrow, swift-flowing Columbia, and skillful at fishing.
Their staples included huckleberry, salmon, and roots (camas, bitterroot), but they also ate black moss, other berries (serviceberry, gooseberry, and foam berry), hazelnuts, wild carrots, peppermint, and various game meats (deer, elk, moose, caribou, rabbit, mountain sheep, mountain goat, and bear; after the coming of the horse, they also ventured east after bison). They chewed pine pitch like gum, and had a range of herbal medicines. Starting in June, mature salmon arrived at Kettle Falls, the farthest downriver that the Sinixt territory extended. The Sinixt caught only the salmon that were not strong enough to clear the falls, ensuring that the strongest went on to spawn. Both bands traveled to Red Mountain near Rossland, B.C. to harvest huckleberries in August. These seasonal events figured prominently in their culture. They hunted in late autumn, but still often were short of food by late winter.
The Upper Sin Aikst trained dogs to drive deer toward the Columbia River, where hunters in canoes shot them with bow and arrow. The Sin Aikst used the distinctive Sturgeon-nosed canoe; about 15–17 feet (4.5–5 meters) long with a cedar frame covered by large slabs of pine bark, riding low in the water with downward-sloping tips to reduce wind resistance.
Reyes says that they often intermarried with the Swhy-ayl-puh (Colville), who had a very similar language. The territory of the latter was largely in the Colville Valley and intersected Sinixt territory at Kettle Falls.
Reyes gives an account of various Sinixt customs, especially related to pregnancy, birth, and education, as well as some descriptions of funerary customs. Children were "closely monitored" by elders. Children were sent on "short excursions" to search for protective spirits; they were usually required to bring back an object to prove that they had made the journey. As they grew older, until puberty, these journeys became longer. Each person was expected to acquire multiple spirits, because each had different powers.
At about the age of six, the children began to be instructed in "the legends of the tribe and family history…, tribal ways and tribal laws." At eight or nine, they learned to swim and to run long distances; boys were taught to make and use weapons and fishing gear, while girls started to learn plant lore and tanning, as well as how to care for young children, maintain dwellings, and prepare meals.
Sinixt religion was mainly "for harnessing power." The sun, the stars, the water, and the different animals (especially the salmon and coyote) each had different powers.
The whole tribe was led by one head chief (ilmi wm), but each smaller village of 50–200 had a local chief, whom they called a "thinker". These "thinkers" would come together to form a council.
The Sinixt were a Matrilocal people, with newly married couples living with the wife's family rather than the husband's.
Late Precontact smallpox/instability
There is historical evidence suggesting that the Sinixt were heavily depopulated by one or two smallpox epidemics that preceded the arrival of Scottish and Métis fur-traders of the North West Company. The epidemic of 1781 was likely the biggest single outbreak, with accounts of that epidemic describing a mortality rate up to 80%. David Thompson and other early traders noticed the pock-marked faces of older Sinixt and heard oral accounts of the epidemic. There is also evidence that the Sinixt were seriously affected by the major political upheavals that preceded the arrival of the Europeans.
The Ktunaxa (Kutenai) people who neighboured the Sinixt to the east were driven further into the mountains by the Blackfoot, who had obtained control of Ktunaxa territory in the foothills and northwestern plains. Ethnographic and historical evidence suggests the Ktunaxa and the Sinixt battled each other over the territory along the lower Kootenay River between the present cities of Nelson and Castlegar, British Columbia. The Ktunaxa were considered the intruders, and the dispute was reportedly ended after the Sinixt mounted a large-scale raid into (Lower) Ktunaxa Territory at the south end of Kootenay Lake. The Sinixt later renewed their historic peace with the Ktunaxa, and took common cause with them, the Kalispel, the Flathead, the Coeur d'Alene, the Spokane, the Nez Perce, and others against the Blackfoot. While the Sinixt never directly fought the Blackfoot as a group, it is very likely that individual Sinixt joined their Salishan neighbours (and the Ktunaxa) in war parties and buffalo hunts to the Western Plains. Reyes says they had ongoing skirmishes with the Blackfoot, from whom, according to him, they stole horses. They also took part with other regional peoples in the punitive expedition in 1838 against the St'at'imc of Seton Lake led by Nicola (Hwistesmexteqen), chief of the Nicola people. They were allied with the interior tribes led by the Nlaka'pamux, who assembled at Lytton (Camchin) during the Fraser Canyon War of 1858.
Fur trade, missionaries, and border dispute
The Sinixt and their allies had a very close relationship with the Hudson's Bay Company. They wintered near the major trading post at Colville for the first time in 1830-31, led by the Lower Sinixt chief See-Whel-Ken (died 1840). The Sinixt supported the company in its efforts to prevent American trappers and settlers from entering and taking over the territory. As fur traders, the Sinixt were among the most prolific of all the First Nations who traded at Fort Colvile.
In 1837, Jesuit missionaries arrived in the area. St. Paul's Mission at Kettle Falls was constructed with the help of Colville and Sinixt labor. According to Reyes, it was in the 1840s that the Sinixt experienced a major die-off, shrinking from about 3,000 to about 400 during the period of chief Kin-Ka-Nawha, nephew of See-Whel-Ken. In addition to suffering diseases and incursions on their land, they found the salmon runs began to diminish because of the development of commercial fisheries at Astoria, Oregon near the mouth of the Columbia River. Some saw the die-off as a failure of the powers of their traditional religion; Kin-Ka-Nawha was among the eventual converts to Catholicism.
One people, two countries
When the United States gained formal control of the Oregon Country south of the 49th Parallel in 1846, some Sinixt remained in American territory near Kettle Falls, where Fort Colville continued to operate. Kettle Falls (or just above it) was essentially the southern boundary of Sinixt Territory, and was shared with the Colville people. They were traditionally close to the Colville people, who celebrated the Sinixt arrival at the falls during fishing season with a three-day dance. The tribes had a three-day dance at the end of their season.
In the wake of the partition, the Hudson's Bay Company created Fort Shepherd, British Columbia, just upstream from the confluence of the Pend d'Oreille and Columbia Rivers, which was very near the border, in order to serve their former clients and also maintain a post on British territory. Adjacent Sinixt territory in British Columbia remained in the hands of the Sinixt. As late as the 1860s, Sinixt leaders still equated British title in their Northern territory as signifying Sinixt sovereignty. When Fort Shepherd was abandoned by the Hudson's Bay Company, for example, it was left in Sinixt hands.
Gold and silver rushes
Prospectors began entering Sinixt territory in British Columbia in the 1850s and 1860s. Nevertheless, the Sinixt managed to maintain effective control over their northern traditional territory through the 1850s, 1860s, and 1870s, despite some conflict. While often accommodating white interests, they continued to claim ownership in British Columbia, and resisted the American miners, sometimes by force. In 1865, Sinixt blocked 200 miners and mining activities at the confluence of the Columbia and Kootenay rivers in an attempt to protect their hunting and fishing rights as promised by the Crown as related by Gold Commissioner J.C Haynes in a letter to the then acting colonial government in Victoria. Haynes reported in colonial correspondence that the local Indian (Sinixt) Chief expressed his grievances to mining in the region on at least two separate occasions and that the Hudson's Bay Company had promised royalties from mining in the area.
However, their reduced numbers resulted in the Sinixt being unable to control development of the area as it was flooded with miners during a second mineral rush in the 1880s and 1890s. Several boomtowns were erected throughout the West Kootenay and Boundary Country regions. The majority of Sinixt continued to live in Washington State on the Colville Reservation. Nevertheless, a number of Sinixt remained permanently in Canada during the first half of the 20th century. Many others also returned to their ancestral land in B.C., to hunt and fish during the summer months, well into the 20th Century.
Kin-Ka-Nawha resigned his role as chief as an old man. He was succeeded by Joseph Cotolegu, with Andrew Aorpaghan (Chief Edwards) and James Bernard (c. 1870–1935) as subchiefs. They would succeed him, in turn, as leaders.
Colville Confederated Tribes
On the U.S. side, the Colville Confederated Tribes—now the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation—were formally established in 1872. They were forced to become wards of the government on the Colville Reservation. It was at this time that the name Sinixt or Sin Aikst was dropped in favor of Lakes, apparently at the behest of the U.S. government.
Initially, the Confederated Tribes were given a reservation east of the Columbia River. Three months later it was taken away because white settlers wanted it, and they were given a comparably large tract on the west side of the river on inferior land. Initially, this reservation extended all the way to the Canada–US border, but the northern half was taken away in 1892, which separated it from Sinixt traditional territory in British Columbia; in addition, as more tribes lost their land, the shrinking reservation had to absorb yet more people. Even then, they had to deal with incursions of miners, homesteaders, and settlers such as the Doukhobors, who arrived from Russia in 1912.
In 1900, Aropaghan, over James Bernard's objection, agreed to have the land divided into individual allotments rather than held in common; he also agreed to include "half breeds" equally in the allocation.
Bernard journeyed three times to Washington, D.C., on behalf of his people: first in 1890 as interpreter for Chief Smitkin of the Colvilles, then in 1900 with Chief Lot and Chief Barnaby to negotiate the reservation boundaries, and finally in 1921 as chair of a delegation of the Confederated Tribes.
Grand Coulee Dam
Until the construction of Grand Coulee Dam, the Lower Sinixt continued to fish in their traditional manner at Kettle Falls. They continued to elect a Salmon Chief. They fished with baskets on poles that caught the salmon who were not strong enough to clear the falls, and also with spears that had detachable tips, like a harpoon. Reyes sees this as the end of the traditional life of the Colville and Lakes: "After the concrete was poured into the steel framework to form the base of the dam, the great salmon runs ended. … It brought to a close a great tradition that had existed for centuries. From that day on… there was always a shortage of food. The bands dispersed… the great days of the Sin-Aikst were over." A few years later, rising waters from the dam also engulfed the largely Sinixt community of Inchelium, Washington on the banks of the Columbia, which had to be relocated, further disrupting even remnants of their traditional way of life.
Return to Canada
In her book, Keeping the Lakes Way, B.C. author Paula Pryce relates stories shared with her by Sinixt elders living in Washington State about visiting "the Northern Territory" from time to time after the extinction, "to pick berries, trade fish and visit sacred sites."
A permanent Sinixt presence was re-established in British Columbia during the late 1980s when, following direction by an Elder, a number of Sinixt descendants returned to the Slocan Valley to protest road building affecting an important village site, now called the Vallican Heritage Site. A bridge being built at Vallican resulted in a road being placed very near the large pithouse village and ancient burial site. Since 1989, a permanent Sinixt presence continues in the Slocan Valley, with local members overseeing the repatriation of remains and playing an increasing role in local affairs.
Archaeology
Publication in the early 21st century of archaeological work has suggested the traditional society was complex. This is in line with historic, ethnographic, and contemporary Sinixt accounts of a socially and economically advanced society. Pithouses in the Slocan Valley are among the earliest very large houses of this type, with some having diameters of over 20 metres (66 feet). The Slocan Narrows site also included some of the most recent very large pithouses. This and other evidence of a hierarchical and stratified society has led a leading scholar to state that the Sinixt's society was among the most complex of the entire region. Major hydroelectric projects along the Columbia and Kootenay rivers resulted in the flooding of many graveyards and the majority of Sinixt village sites, preventing excavation and study of these historic areas.
Status today
The Sinixt today live primarily on the Colville Indian Reservation in Washington, where they form part of the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation, which has governmental recognition as an American Indian Tribe.
Legal extinction in Canada
Presently, some Sinixt people live in their traditional territory on the "Canadian side" of the 49th parallel, mainly in Vallican in the Slocan Valley, or scattered throughout neighbouring lands in the area now known as British Columbia. They are not recognized by the Canadian Government, and were officially declared "extinct" by Canada in 1956 under the provisions of the Indian Act. When asked about this extinction in 1995, Ron Irwin, then Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, stated that "The Arrow Lakes Band ceased to exist as a band for the purpose of the Indian Act... It does not, however, mean that the Sinixt ceased to exist as a tribal group." (August 9, 1995).
There were more than 250 Sinixt in Washington State at the time the Canadian Government declared the Sinixt extinct, along with other self-identifying Sinixt who had relocated with relatives to the Canadian part of the Okanagan region, some Sinixt descendants had joined the Spallumcheen Indian Band (Splats'in First Nation) of the Secwepemc (Shuswap) peoples.
Land claims in Canada
Members of Sinixt Nation have contested this extinction, and are taking steps to reclaim their land rights in British Columbia, where about 80% of their ancestral territory lies. Further complicating the question of Canadian territory claimed by the Sinixt are the overlapping claims of Ktunaxa traditional territory. The Ktunaxa Nation is currently negotiating a treaty with the Canadian federal government and the British Columbia government in the region, particularly regarding the lower Kootenay River valley around Castlegar and Nelson, and all lands within the curve of the Columbia as far north as Mica Dam and all of the Slocan Valley. In a 1994 presentation to the United Nations, Sinixt Appointed Spokesperson Marilyn James, along with the Official Vallican Heritage Site Caretaker, Robert Watt stated that "Neither our ancestors nor the members of Sinixt Nation have ever relinquished our inherent rights to any individual, any government or any other organization, including other native tribes or native nations.
Similar to the conflicting Ktunaxa land claims, territorial claims shown on maps published by the Okanagan Nation Alliance, of which the Colville Tribes is the American-side member, do not show Sinixt territory, instead showing the region as part of Okanagan traditional territory.
On July 28, 2008, "directors of the Sinixt Nation Society have filed a lawsuit claiming aboriginal title to Crown land in the Kootenays." Their lawyer David Aaron describes the intent of the action as "asserting a right (for the Sinixt) to be consulted, and to consent to all uses or dispositions of Crown land within that territory," and notes that private lands in the area will not be affected by the claim.
Sinixt as "Urban Indians"
Many Lakes (Sinixt) feel that to live ethically one must follow a moral code which maintains a reciprocal relationship between humans, the land, and the realm of spirits in which the ancestors dwell. (Ancestor) Eva Orr called this 'keeping the Lakes' way.' The ideal of keeping the Lakes' way requires that people not take for their own gain but instead give back by following a cultural ethic of egalitarianism, reciprocity and peaceful living. Orr was acknowledged as spiritual leader—a klakwilt. Marilyn James states that Orr got her authority as a klakwilt by being culturally whole, linguistically connected to Sinixt culture, and bringing people to spirit. The Sinixt connection to their traditional territory is underscored by the wbuplak'n, the highest territorial and cultural legal doctrine of the Sinixt, which sets out their territorial responsibility to all land, water, plant, animal and cultural resources within the Sinixt territory.
Sinixt in the group's northern territory host a bi-weekly radio program, Sinixt Radio, on Nelson, B.C. Community Radio station CJLY-FM. The northern Sinixt also host an annual Barter Fair every fall in Vallican, B.C. The event features live music and performance, and it is set up to encourage local Bartering of goods and services.
Recognition of hunting rights
On 27 March 2017, the Provincial Court of British Columbia ruled in favor of Sinixt member Rick DeSautel, a resident of the Colville reservation, over a dispute with Canadian authorities on hunting in Canadian territory. The ruling effectively recognized the Sinixt as having rights in Canada, despite being declared extinct in 1956. On May 2, 2019, the BC Court of Appeal upheld Desautel's hunting rights. The Supreme Court of Canada agreed 24 October 2019, to hear the B.C. government's appeal of this decision. On April 23, 2021, the Supreme Court of Canada dismissed the appeal, upholding Mr. Desautel’s right to exercise Aboriginal rights under section 35 of the Constitution and recognizing the Lakes Tribe, a modern successor of the Sinixt, as an “Aboriginal people of Canada.”
Notable Sinixt people
In Washington, one particular family of Sinixt have figured prominently among recent-day "urban Indians". Bernie Whitebear (1937–2000), a Seattle Indian rights activist and founder of several "urban Indian" organizations, was declared Washington state's "First Citizen of the Decade" in November 1997; his sister Luana Reyes (1933–2001) was, at the time of her death, deputy director of the U.S.'s 14,000-person Indian Health Services; and their brother Lawney Reyes (c.1931–2022) was a Seattle-based sculptor, designer, curator and author. Lawney, Luana and Bernie are descendants of Alex Christian, whose family lived at Kp'itl'els (Brilliant, B.C., near present-day Castlegar), a Sinixt village, for generations, until the Canadian Government sold their land to settlers.
Novelist and memoirist Mourning Dove, also known as Christine Quintasket, is described by anthropologist Paula Pryce as being of Sinixt-Skoyelpi descent, and Quintasket described her childhood and youth at Pia (now Kelly Hill, Washington) in the late 19th to early 20th century. Quintasket (Humishuma) was one of the first Native American women to publish a novel. Mourning Dove herself identified as Okanogan.
Joe Feddersen is a Sinixt/Okanagan sculptor, painter, photographer and mixed-media artist born in Omak, Washington.
References
Further reading
Harris, Cole et al. Sinixt in the Slocan: The Last 3,000 Years. Slocan History Series. Chameleonfire Editions, 2022
Harris, Cole et al. Sinixt in the Slocan: The Last 3,000 Years
James, Marilyn. Not Extinct: Keeping the Sinixt Way. Maa Press Publishing and Distribution, 2017
James, Marilyn. Not Extinct: Keeping the Sinixt Way
Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. The Geography of Memory, Sono Nis Press, 2002 ISBN
Pearkes, Eileen Delehanty. The Geography of Memory
Pryce, Paula. Keeping the Lakes Way, University of Toronto Press, 1999 ISBN
Pryce. Paula. Keeping the Lakes Way
Reyes, Lawney. White Grizzly Bear's Legacy: Learning to be Indian, University of Washington Press, 2002. ISBN .
Sinixt: The Lakes People. Grand Forks, B.C.: Boundary Museum, [200-?].
In the Stream: an Indian Story. Nancy Perkins Wynecoop, Spokane, Wa.: 1987.
External links
Autonomous Sinixt website (Canada)
First Nations Land Rights and Environmentalism in British Columbia
The Blood of Life Collective: A group of Sinixt and settler activists, collaborating to support Sinixt resurgence
Interior Salish
Native American history of Washington (state)
West Kootenay
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ping%20Chong
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Ping Chong
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Ping Chong (; born 1946) is an American contemporary theater director, choreographer, video and installation artist. Born in Toronto and raised in the Chinatown section of Manhattan, Chong is a creator of and early pioneer in interdisciplinary theater work, and the integration of media into it. Chong is considered a seminal figure in Asian American theater and the Asian American arts movement.
Career and works
Originally trained as a visual artist and filmmaker at the School of Visual Arts and Pratt Institute, Chong studied dance/performance with Meredith Monk and began his theatrical career as a member of Monk's company, The House in 1971. Chong was both a performer and collaborator in it. His co-created work include The Travelogue Series: Paris 1972, Chacon 1974, and Venice/Milan 1976. His final collaboration with Monk was The Games in 1983 which premiered at the Schaubuhne in Berlin, in then-West Germany.
Chong created his first independent theatre work, Lazarus, in 1972. In this work his interest in an interdisciplinary approach to theater as a guiding principle is apparent. His roots are in the visual arts, in film, in dance and in the Chinese opera (both his grandfather and father were director/librettists). Central to Chong's work is the theme of Otherness. As a non-white, immigrant and an artist growing up in a highly segregated city and white art world it is no surprise that this theme proved central to his work. In the earliest works such as Lazarus, Fear and Loathing in Gotham (1975), and Humboldt's Current (1977), the theme of Otherness reflected Chong's personal sense of estrangement from the society he grew up in as a first generation immigrant. Later the theme became more universal, encompassing a broader range of material. Many of Chong's works concern colonialism and the collision of cultures and/or issues of cultural diversity, and frequently draw on documentary and interview-based materials (as in the Undesirable Elements series.)
Ping Chong + Company (originally called The Fiji Theatre Company) was founded in 1975. The company's mission is "to explore the meaning of contemporary theatre and art on a national and international level," and "to create and tour innovative multi-disciplinary works of theater and art, which explore the intersections of history, race, art and technology in the modern world." The company has created and toured more than 100 works by Chong and his collaborators, which have been presented at major theaters, performing arts centers, and arts festivals around the world.
Key works in Chong's evolution include Humboldt's Current (1977) from his first decade. It is an early work anticipating Chong's interest in geopolitical and historical subjects. It received an Obie award. In 1980 Ping Chong formed a small ensemble, and it is with this group of performers which includes, Jeannie Hutchins, Louise Smith, John Fleming, and Brian Hallas that he evolved his performance style. A.M./A.M - The Articulated Man (1981) marked Chong's full bloom interest in evolving a choreographic, non-literary kind of theater. This, The 2nd decade of Ping Chong's works include 3 major works back-to-back. Nosferatu, A Symphony of Darkness (1985), a work straddling the allegorical with Chong's increasing interest in art as activism. This was followed by another dance/theater work Angels of Swedenborg (1985) and Kind Ness (1986), two very different works though nevertheless informed by a strong physicality. Both works speak to in very different ways, Chong's lifelong engagement with the profound issue of Otherness. Kind Ness was the recipient of a USA Playwright's Award in 1988. The 1990s, marked major changes and innovations in Ping Chong's work. It is at this time that he disbanded his decade old ensemble in order to explore new directions and collaborations. While the works of the early decades were devised, Chong would have a much more active role in writing new work often in collaboration with a partner. From 1990 with the East/West Quartet: Deshima (1990), Chinoiserie (1996), After Sorrow (1997), Pojagi (1999) and in 1992 with the launch of the Undesirable Elements series the work took a 180-degree turn toward poetic documentary and historical subjects. The exception to this are the puppet theater works beginning with Kwaidan (1998) which largely nods toward Chong's earlier allegorical works.
Ping Chong's early interest in puppetry starting with Lazarus in 1972 was given full expression in the creation of large scale productions of puppet theatre works including, Kwaidan (1998) which received Unima-USA's Citation of Excellence in the Art of Puppetry, Obon: Tales of Rain and Moonlight (2002), the sequel to Kwaidan, and Cathay: Three Tales of China (2005), Kwaidan and Obon were both based on Kwaidan, Japanese ghost stories collected and adapted by Lafcadio Hearn. Cathay, commission by the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts was set in China and used three interconnected stories to explore three eras of Chinese history: the Tang Dynasty, the Second Sino-Japanese War|Japanese invasion during World War II, and contemporary China today. Cathay was named one of the Top 10 Shows of the 2005-2006 Season by NY Theatre Wire, and was awarded three Henry Hewes Awards for achievement in theatrical design.
Since 1992, Chong and his collaborators has created over 70 works in the Undesirable Elements project, an ongoing series of oral-history theater works exploring issues of race, culture, and identity in the lives of individuals in specific communities. The development process includes an extended residency and rehearsal period during which Ping Chong and collaborators conduct intensive interviews with potential participants who are not generally performers, from the local community. These interviews then form the basis of a script, performed by the interviewees, that covers the historical and personal narratives of individuals who are in some way living between two cultures. Chong has often described the series as, "Seated operas for the spoken word." One of the most recent entries in the series is Beyond Sacred: Voices of Muslim Identity which started touring in 2016. Beyond Sacred is an interview-based theatre production exploring the diverse experiences of Muslim communities in the United States. The five cast members of Beyond Sacred vary in many ways, but share the common experience of coming of age in a post-9/11 New York City, at a time of increasing Islamophobia. They are young men and women that reflect a wide range of Muslim identities, including those who have converted to Islam, those who were raised Muslim, but have since left the faith, those who identify as “culturally” Muslim, and those who are observant on a daily basis. It stars Tiffany Yasmin Abdelghani, Ferdous Dehqan, Kadin Herring, Amir Khafagy and Maha Syed.
In 2014, Chong and dramaturg/director/playwright Talvin Wilks created Collidescope: Adventures in Pre- and Post-Racial America in collaboration with undergraduate and graduate designers and actors in the University of Maryland School of Theatre, Dance, and Performance Studies. Of the work, Chong says, "In response to the recent killings of Trayvon Martin, shooting of Jordan Davis|Jordan Davis, shooting of Michael Brown and the seemingly endless killings of black men and boys for unarmed offenses, we have designed Collidescope to be a collision-course view of the legacy and psyche behind this history of racial violence, racism and social injustice in America." Subsequent adaptations have performed at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and Wake Forest University.
There are aspects of Chong's prolific career that have remained under the radar. Primarily an artist of the theater he also, when the opportunity arose created works of video art, pure dance works, and installations. The two dance works are, I Will Not be Sad In This World (1991), Baldwin/NOW (2016). Video works include the video adaptation of I Will Not Be Sad In This World (1992) and Plage Concrete (1988). His installation work includes Kind Ness not to be confused with his play Kind Ness, a commission by MIT's List Visual Arts Center in its inaugural season in 1985. Another highlight of Chong's installation work was Testimonial commissioned for the Venice Bienalle.
Works in chronological order
A Universal History of Infamy: Variations on Nocturne in 1200 Seconds, 2020, Visual Art and Installation, Film and Media, in collaboration with Kenya Bullock, Jaime Sunwoo, Matt Chilton, Zakaria Khafagy and Irisdelia Garcia
Nocturne Remix 2020, Film and Media,in collaboration with Edwin Aguila, Kenya Bullock, Irisdelia Garcia and Zakaria Khafagy
Collidescope 4.0 (University of Minnesota), 2019, Theater, in collaboration with Talvin Wilks
Difficult Lives, 2019, Theater, in collaboration with Hiromi Sakamoto and the cast
ALAXSXA | ALASKA, 2017, Theater,in collaboration with Ryan Conarro, Justin Perkins & Gary Upay'aq Beaver (Central Yup'ik)
Cage Is Stage, 2017, Visual Art and Installation, in collaboration with Danny Yunh
Collidescope 3.0 (Wake Forest University), 2017, Theater, in collaboration with Talvin Wilks
Collidescope 2.0 (UMass Amherst), 2016, Theater, in collaboration with Talvin Wilks
Baldwin/NOW, 2016, Dance, in collaboration with the ensemble
PUSH! Real Athletes. Real Stories. Real Theatre., 2015, Theater, in collaboration with Sara Zatz and the performers
Beyond Sacred: Voices of Muslim Identity, 2015, Theater, in collaboration with Sara Zatz, Ryan Conarro, and the performers
Collidescope: Adventures in Pre- and Post-Racial America, 2014, Theater, in collaboration with Talvin Wilks
Brooklyn '63, 2013, Theater, in collaboration with Talvin Wilks and the performers
Angels of Swedenborg (2011), 2011, Dance, in collaboration with John Fleming
The Devil You Know, 2010, Puppetry, Theater
Cry for Peace: Voices From The Congo, 2010, Theater, in collaboration with Kyle Bass, Sara Zatz, and the performers
Throne of Blood, 2010, Theater
Invisible Voices: New Perspectives On Disability, 2009, Theater, in collaboration with Sara Zatz and the performers
The Women of the Hill, 2009, Theater, in collaboration with Talvin Wilks and the cast
Secret History: The Philadelphia Story, 2009, Theater, in collaboration with Sara Zatz and the performers
Delta Rising, 2008, Theater, in collaboration with Talvin Wilks and the cast
Inside/Out...voices from the disability community, 2008, Theater, in collaboration with Sara Zatz and the performers
Tales from the Salt City, 2008, Theater, in collaboration with Sara Zatz and the performers
Undesirable Elements/Asian America, 2007, Theater, in collaboration with Sara Zatz and the performers
Cocktail, 2007, Theater, in collaboration with Vince LiCata
Six Lives, 2007, Theater, in collaboration with Sara Zatz, Bonnie Morris, Michael Robins, and the performers
Testimonial II, 2006, Visual Art and Installation, in collaboration with Michiki Okaya
Native Voices-Secret History, 2005, Theater, in collaboration with Sara Zatz and the performers
Undesirable Elements/Ten Years Later, 2005, Theater, in collaboration with Sara Zatz, the performers, Sean Kelley-Pegg, Bonnie Morris, and Mai Moua
Undesirable Elements/Albuquerque, 2005, Theater, in collaboration with Sara Zatz and the performers
Cathay: Three Tales of China, 2005–2012, Puppetry
Secret Histories: Seattle Youth, 2004, Theater, in collaboration with Sara Zatz and the performers
BLIND NESS: The Irresistible Light of Encounter, 2004, Theater, Puppetry, Circus, in collaboration with Michael Rohd, Bobby Bermea, Jeff Randall, and Burke Walker
Secret History: Journeys Abroad, Journeys Within, 2004, Theater, in collaboration with Leyla Modirzadeh, Sara Zatz, and the cast
God Favors The Predator, 2004, Theater, in collaboration with Michael Rohd
La Clemenza Di Tito, 2003, Music and Opera
Undesirable Elements/Pioneer Valley, 2003, Theater, in collaboration Talvin Wilks and the cast
Undesirable Elements/Hanover, 2002, Theater, in collaboration with Michael Rohd and the cast
Undesirable Elements/Berlin, 2002, Theater, in collaboration with Michael Rohd and the cast
UE 92/02, 2002, Theater, in collaboration Talvin Wilks and the cast
Children of War, 2002, Theater, in collaboration with the cast
Reason, 2002, Theater, in collaboration with Michael Rohd
EDDA: Viking Tales of Lust, Greed and Family, 2001–2002, Theater, in collaboration with Victoria Abras
Undesirable Elements/Madison, WI, 2001, Theater, in collaboration with the cast
Undesirable Elements/Atlanta, 2001, Theater, in collaboration Talvin Wilks and the cast
Secret Histories/Charleston, 2001, Theater, in collaboration Talvin Wilks and the cast
Obon: Tales of Rain and Moonlight, 2002–2003, Puppetry, Theater
Secret History, 2000, Theater
Undesirable Elements/Washington DC, 2000, Theater, in collaboration with Michael Rohd and the cast
Undesirable Elements/Chicago, 1999, Theater, in collaboration with Michael Rohd and the cast
Undesirable Elements/East Harlem, 1999, Theater, in collaboration with Emerald Trinket Monsod, the cast, and Alain Jezequel
Undesirable Elements/Hamilton College, 1999, Theater, in collaboration with the cast
Pojagi, 1999–2000, Theater
Undesirable Elements: A/P/A, 1999, Theater, in collaboration with the cast
SlutForArt, 1999-2002, Dance, Theater, in collaboration with Muna Tseng
Truth and Beauty, 1999–2005, Theater, in collaboration with Michae Rohd and Jeff Randall
Undesirable Elements/Newark, 1998, Theater, in collaboration with the cast
Nocturne in 1200 Seconds, 1998, Theater
Undesirable Elements/Seattle, 1998, Theater, in collaboration with the cast
Kwaidan, 1998–2000, Theater, Puppetry
Undesirable Elements/Yellow Springs, 1997, Theater, in collaboration with the cast
Undesirable Elements/Rotterdam, 1997, Theater, in collaboration with Dave Schwab and the cast
Undesirable Elements/Los Angeles, 1997, Theater, in collaboration with David Mohrmann and the cast
After Sorrow, 1997–1998, Dance, Theater in collaboration with Muna Tseng
Curlew River, 1997, Music and Opera
98.6: A Convergence in 15 Minutes, 1996-2007, Dance, Theater
Interfacing Joan, 1996–1997, Theater, written by Louise Smith
Undesirable Elements/Tokyo (Gaijin), 1995, Theater, in collaboration with Hiromi Sakamoto and the cast
Testimonial, 1995, Visual Art and Installation, in collaboration with Fumio Nanjo and Dana Friis-Hansen
Persuasion, 1994, Theater, in collaboration with Anne Basting and Vince LiCata
Chinoiserie, 1994–1995, Music and Opera, Theater, in collaboration with Michael Matthews, Regine Anna Seckinger and Ric Oquita
Undesirable Elements/Twin Cities, 1994, Theater, in collaboration with Emerald Trinket Monsod, Cochise Anderson, and the cast
Undesirable Elements/New York, 1993, Theater, in collaboration with the cast
Undesirable Elements/Cleveland, 1993, Theater, in collaboration with the cast
American Gothic, 1992, Theater
A Facility for the Containment and Channeling of Undesirable Elements, 1992, Visual Art and Installation, in collaboration with Carlos Solanas
I Will Not Be Sad in This World, 1991/2008, Dance, Film and Media
Elephant Memories, 1990–1994, Theater, in collaboration with performers and designers
Deshima, 1990–1996, Theater, Dance, in collaboration with Michael Matthews
Tempus Fugit, 1990, Visual Art and Installation, in collaboration with Curtis Carter
4AM America, 1990–1991, Theater
Noiresque: The Fallen Angel, 1989, Theater
Brightness, 1989, Circus, in collaboration with Louise Smith, the designers, and the performers
In The Absence of Memory, 1989, Visual Art and Installation
Skin - A State of Being, 1989, Theater, in collaboration with the cast
Quartetto, 1988, Theater, in collaboration with Michael Matthews
Snow, 1988, Theater
Plage Concrete, 1988, Visual Art and Installation, in collaboration with Gary Garrels and Jock Reynolds
Without Law, Without Heaven, 1987, Theater, written by Norman Duke
Maraya - Acts of Nature in Geological Time, 1987–1988, Theater
KIND NESS, 1986–1993, Theater, in collaboration with the cast
Nosferatu, 1985–1991/2017, Theater, in collaboration with the cast
Angels of Swedenborg, 1985–1989, Dance, Theater in collaboration with John Fleming
Kind Ness, 1985, Visual Art and Installation, in collaboration with Katy Kline
A Race, 1983–1984, Theater
Astonishment and The Twins, 1984–1987, Theater, in collaboration with Louise Smith
Anna Into Nightlight, 1982–1983, Dance, Film and Media, Puppetry, Theater
Nuit Blanche, A Select View of Earthlings, 1981–1985, Theater, in collaboration with Louise Smith, John Miglietta, Tone Blevins, and Pablo Vela
A.M./A.M. - The Articulated Man, 1981–1985, Dance, Theater
Rainer and the Knife, 1981–1982, Theater, in collaboration with Rob List
Humboldt's Current, 1977–1980, Theater
Fear and Loathing in Gotham, 1975–1982, Theater
I Flew to Fiji, You Went South, 1973, Theater
Lazarus, 1972–1980, Theater
References
External links
Works on official website
1946 births
Living people
People from Toronto
Canadian choreographers
American theatre directors
Canadian emigrants to the United States
American theatre directors of Chinese descent
American people of Chinese descent
Canadian people of Chinese descent
Artists from New York City
American choreographers
Bessie Award winners
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4691835
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20Island%20Airways
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British Island Airways
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British Island Airways (BIA) was the legal successor to British United Island Airways (BUIA). It commenced operations under that name in mid-1970. Ten years later it merged with Air Anglia, Air Wales and Air Westward to form Air UK, at the time the United Kingdom's biggest regional airline and its third-largest scheduled operator. The first British Island Airways had its head office at Congreve House (1970–1972) and Berkeley House (1973–1979), which are respectively located in Station Road and on the high street in Redhill, Surrey.
In 1982 British Island Airways was reconstituted by splitting off the charter operation Air UK had inherited from BIA at the time of its creation into a separate company.
The reconstituted BIA ceased operations in 1991.
History
Origin
British Island Airways was the new name BUIA, the regional affiliate of British United Airways (BUA), adopted in July 1970. At that time the airline adopted a new livery as well.
When in late November of that year Caledonian Airways acquired BUA from British & Commonwealth (B&C), the owner of both BUA and BUIA at the time, the latter's assets were not included in that deal. As a result, BUA's former parent company continued to own BIA.
Following the completion of BUA's sale to Caledonian on 30 November 1970, BIA officially began its life as a legal entity in its own right the following day, 1 December 1970.
British Island Airways "Mark One" (1970–1980)
BIA's corporate headquarters was located at Redhill, Surrey. The airline's main engineering base was at Blackpool while its main operating base was at London Gatwick. Other airports that used to receive BIA's regular scheduled passenger services in the early to mid-1970s included Antwerp, Belfast, Blackpool, Dublin, Edinburgh, Exeter, Glasgow, Guernsey, the Isle of Man, Jersey, Manchester, Newcastle, Paris Orly and Southampton. Many of the services to the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man were operated on a seasonal basis — exceptions being year-round operations linking Gatwick with Guernsey, Southampton with both Channel Islands and the Isle of Man with Blackpool and Belfast. BIA's scheduled route network was considerably enlarged in 1979 when it assumed the entire scheduled operation of British Air Ferries (BAF).
All passenger services were operated with a fleet of 50-seat Handley Page Dart Herald turboprops. Each of these aircraft was convertible, enabling them to be used to operate all-cargo services as well. BIA inherited most of these aircraft at the time of its inception from BUIA. It subsequently acquired additional second-hand examples from various other sources.
In addition to its Herald turboprop fleet, BIA also inherited a small number of Douglas DC-3 "Dakota" piston-engined airliners from BUIA. These exclusively operated freight services until the last example's retirement on 30 May 1974. Until then, the DC-3 freighters (together with the convertible Heralds) were kept busy carrying mail and cargo, including fresh flowers from the Channel Islands to the UK mainland (principally Bournemouth and Gatwick) as well as overnight newspaper deliveries from Gatwick under contract to the Ministry of Defence to supply the UK's armed forces in Germany.
A limited amount of charter flying (passenger and freight) also occurred, including BIA's speciality of one-hour aerial geography trips for school groups from the Gatwick catchment area, which took advantage of the Herald's superb downward passenger visibility (due to high wings and relatively large windows) on low altitude flying tours of Southeast England, usually incorporating a traverse of the south coasts of Kent, Sussex and Hampshire and the opportunity to see the North and South Downs plus the Weald from the air.
Following the DC-3's retirement, BIA standardised its fleet on twelve Handley Page Dart Herald turboprops. The airline augmented its core fleet during the busy summer holiday period when it leased in additional Heralds from other operators, such as British Midland, on a wet lease basis.
To justify the introduction of larger, more modern jet aircraft types into its fleet as well as to substantially improve its financial performance, BIA needed access to higher volume, higher profile year-round scheduled routes that had the potential to attract a significant number of business travellers.
In 1977, BIA applied to the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) to serve Dublin, Copenhagen, Hamburg, Frankfurt, Zürich and Geneva from Gatwick on a regular, year-round scheduled basis. (At that time British Airways, British Caledonian and Dan-Air applied to serve these and other destinations from Gatwick on a regular scheduled basis as well.) In support of its application, BIA had proposed to begin operating these services with three 65-seater Fokker F-28 1000 series "Fellowship" jet aircraft, which it was planning to acquire second-hand from Germanair, rather than the larger BAC One-Eleven 500s its rivals had planned to use on their services. These had almost twice the seating capacity of the Fokker jets. Using smaller aircraft would have enabled BIA to offer more frequent flights, thereby offering a more attractive product for the business travel market. BIA reckoned that this would improve its chances of being awarded these licences.
In the event, the CAA decided to reject both BIA's and Dan-Air's applications while approving British Airways' and British Caledonian's applications. It argued that BIA and Dan-Air, unlike British Airways and British Caledonian, lacked the necessary expertise to take on the established scheduled airlines on major international trunk routes.
The agreement with British Air Ferries to take over the operation of that airline's scheduled services from BAF's Southend base resulted in BIA leasing the seven Heralds BAF had used to operate these services. The addition of the ex-BAF aircraft expanded BIA's operational Herald fleet to 19 aircraft from 1979 onwards.
1979 also saw the adoption of BIA's second and final new livery as well as the acquisition of a dedicated charter fleet comprising four 89-seat BAC One-Eleven 400s, the first jet aircraft in BIA's history. Three of these were ex-Gulfair while the fourth was previously operated by the Indonesian government.
In addition to operating regional, short-haul scheduled services on its own account, BIA was also contracted by other airlines to operate scheduled services on their behalf.
British Caledonian contracted BIA to operate its Gatwick—Manchester service between 1973 and 1976 (the aircraft operating this service continued on to Blackpool and the Isle of Man during the peak summer holiday season from 1975 onwards operating as BIA flights with UK flight designators) as well as the Gatwick—Le Touquet air portion of that airline's London—Paris Silver Arrow/Flèche d'argent rail-air service and the Gatwick—Rotterdam route between 1975 and 1979. (In 1979 British Caledonian granted BIA permission to prefix all flights it operated from Gatwick to Le Touquet and Rotterdam under contract to that airline with its own two-letter UK airline designator (in addition to British Caledonian's BR designator).)
Sabena contracted BIA to operate its London Heathrow—Antwerp route.
Occasionally, BIA also operated Dan-Air's scheduled service between Gatwick and Bern, which involved special crew training and permits due to the hazardous alpine terrain surrounding the Swiss federal capital.
BIA hoped that the merger with Air Anglia, as well as Air Wales and Air Westward, to form Air UK in January 1980 would help it transform its financial performance by counterbalancing BIA's predominantly seasonal scheduled operations across the Western half of the British Isles with Air Anglia's year-round scheduled services linking important oil and gas industry centres covering the Eastern half of the United Kingdom, as well as by spreading fixed costs over a greater level of activity as a result of the new airline combine's greater economies of scale.
Aircraft fleet and employment details
The original BIA operated the following aircraft types:
BAC One-Eleven 400
Handley Page HPR 7 Dart Herald 100/200/400 series
Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante
Douglas DC-3/C-47
Fleet and employment data in 1971
In May 1971, BIA's fleet comprised 11 aircraft (8 turboprops + 3 piston airliners).
BIA employed 600 people at this time.
Fleet and employment data in 1975
In March 1975, BIA's fleet comprised 12 turboprop aircraft.
BIA employed 600 people at this time.
Fleet and employment data in 1979
In late 1979, BIA's fleet comprised 26 aircraft (4 jets + 22 turboprops).
BIA employed 1,000 people at this time (April 1979).
British Island Airways "Mark Two" (1982–1991)
Following several unsuccessful attempts to sell the loss-making charter operation Air UK had inherited at the time of its formation from the original BIA to another airline, Peter Villa, then the Air UK managing director (as well as the original BIA's [second] MD), decided in 1982 to reconstitute BIA as a charter airline. This involved Villa's purchase of BIA Ltd, a wholly owned B&C subsidiary that had assumed the ownership of Air UK's non-scheduled division to facilitate its eventual disposal, with a loan from the owners. The "new BIA" was headquartered at Apollo House on the industrial estate in Crawley's Lowfield Heath area (close to Gatwick Airport). It commenced operations on 1 April 1982 with the four One-Eleven 400s the original BIA had acquired in 1979 to establish a charter operation. These aircraft, which sported the same livery as the original BIA's second and final livery, were subsequently supplemented with four second-hand 500 series One-Elevens, as well as four brand-new McDonnell-Douglas MD-80s, which entered service during the second half of the 1980s.
The 89-seat One-Eleven 400s and 119-seat One-Eleven 500s operated by the second BIA filled a niche in the UK charter market, which at the time was dominated by 130-seat Boeing 737-200s operated by BIA's much bigger, vertically integrated competitors. These smaller, second-hand aircraft's lower acquisition costs (compared with the competition's bigger and newer 737-200s) enabled BIA to offer tour operators lower capacity aircraft at keener rates, giving it a competitive advantage on less dense routes. The One-Eleven 400's ability to match the 737-200's range, as well as both One-Eleven variants' ability to match the 737's fuel consumption and to comply with stricter, post-1985 noise abatement rules (as a result of having hush kits fitted to their engines), further enhanced BIA's competitiveness vis-à-vis its rivals. This helped attract business from the big tour operators that owned its rivals, especially to secondary European ski destinations served in winter where the lower trip costs of BIA's older planes outweighed the seat-mile cost advantage of the in-house airlines' technologically more advanced equipment. This in turn helped minimise the tour operators' risk, thereby representing a 'win-win' situation for both parties.
A well-subscribed, subsequent stock market flotation that changed BIA's legal status from a privately owned to a public limited company financed future growth.
The addition of the larger capacity, technologically advanced MD-83s during the second half of the 1980s enabled BIA to offer tour operators a state-of-the-art aircraft filling the niche between the 119-seat One-Eleven 500 and the 228/235-seat Boeing 757-200, which increasingly dominated its vertically integrated rivals' fleets during that period. It also enabled the airline to offer tour operators a more advanced aircraft with substantially lower operating costs than the similarly sized Boeing 727-200 Advanced operated by rival independent UK airline Dan-Air.
In addition to supplying various package tour operators, including Thomas Cook, International Leisure Group (ILG) and Owners Abroad, with whole-plane charter seats, the reconstituted airline was also contracted by other airlines to provide the aircraft to operate part of their multi-leg scheduled services, including Air Florida during the early 1980s and Virgin Atlantic during the mid-1980s. During those periods BIA One-Eleven 400s were operating the Gatwick—Amsterdam portion of the former's Miami—London (Gatwick)—Amsterdam route as well as a Gatwick—Maastricht feeder operation for the latter's transatlantic long-haul services.
By the late-1980s, BIA became profitable, marking the completion of the airline's successful financial turnaround.
During late-1988 and early-1989 intense negotiations exploring BIA's sale to ILG were held over several weeks. At that time ILG sought to take control of BIA because of the airline's slots at an increasingly congested Gatwick as well as the fact that it was a major supplier of ILG's charter capacity. BIA's Gatwick slots were required to enable fellow Gatwick-based Air Europe, ILG's rapidly expanding airline subsidiary, to build a major scheduled presence at that airport. Furthermore, ILG's ownership of BIA would have given the ILG-owned package tour operators, notably Intasun, a greater degree of control over their charter airline seat inventory. In addition, BIA's scheduled route licences to serve Sicily and other niche market destinations in Southern Italy from Gatwick could have potentially aided Air Europe's efforts to further expand the reach of its scheduled route network. However, both parties were unable to reach a firm deal that would have resulted in ILG's acquisition of BIA.
Ultimately, BIA's inability to become part of a bigger, financially stronger organisation, the deep recession in the UK during the early 1990s, as well as the escalating jet fuel price and the collapse of the package tour market in the run-up to the first Gulf War during the summer of 1990 resulted in a 38% reduction in its passenger traffic (compared with the same period the year before) and were the main factors that forced the reconstituted BIA to cease all operations on 9 February 1991.
Aircraft fleet and employment details
The reconstituted BIA operated the following aircraft types:
BAC One-Eleven 400
BAC/ROMBAC One-Eleven 500
McDonnell-Douglas MD-80
Fleet and employment data in 1982
In April 1982, BIA's fleet comprised 4 jet aircraft.
BIA employed 115 people at this time.
Fleet and employment data in 1985
In March 1985, BIA's fleet comprised 6 jet aircraft.
BIA employed 120 people at this time.
Fleet and employment data in 1989
In April 1989, BIA's fleet comprised 12 jet aircraft.
BIA employed 480 people at this time.
Accidents and incidents
There are two recorded, non-fatal incidents involving aircraft operated by the original BIA during its ten-year existence from 1970 until 1980.
The first of these incidents occurred on 20 December 1974 involving one of the airline's Handley Page Dart Herald turboprops (registration: G-BBXJ) in a landing accident at Jersey Airport. The aircraft was damaged beyond repair but there were no injuries among the 54 occupants.
The second incident occurred on 20 July 1975. It involved another of the company's Handley Page Dart Heralds (registration: G-APWF) in a runway accident while departing London Gatwick on a scheduled flight to Guernsey. According to eye-witness reports, the aircraft lifted off from runway 26 after a ground run of and appeared airborne for with its landing gear retracting before the rear underside of the fuselage settled back on to the runway. None of the 45 occupants, including the 41 passengers who were safely evacuated via the aircraft's crew entrance door by the two cabin crew members on the instructions of the flight's commander, were hurt in that accident. The subsequent investigation concluded that this accident had been caused by the landing gear being retracted before the aircraft had been properly established in its initial climb. Other contributory factors included a mistaken wing flap configuration and the resulting inadequate airspeed at rotation. The aircraft itself sustained substantial damage and required extensive repairs in order to be restored to an airworthy condition.
In addition to the two aforementioned incidents, in 1979, BIA's maintenance engineers had discovered fatigue cracks in the fuselages of some of the firm's Heralds during routine inspections of the aircraft. This required the affected aircraft to be taken out of service to repair the cracks.
There is one recorded, non-fatal incident involving an aircraft operated by the reconstituted BIA.
This incident occurred on 12 April 1988. It involved a BAC One-Eleven 500 (registration: G-AYWB). The aircraft, which had been cleared to land on Gatwick's runway 08L (the airport's standby runway), inadvertently landed on the parallel taxiway. An air traffic controller in Gatwick's control tower, who spotted the BIA One-Eleven coming in to land on the taxiway parallel to the emergency runway, ordered a British Airways Boeing 737 that had just entered the same taxiway to vacate it immediately. This resulted in the 737 taxiing right into the grass and the One-Eleven stopping 100–200 m to the west of the 737's position.
Notes and Citations
Notes
Citations
References
(World Airline Directory, 1971–1980 and 1982–1990)
(Aircraft online)
External links
BIA - British Island Airways In Memoriam
British Island Airways DC-3
contemporary timetable images
Aviation Photos: British Island Airways
Aviation Photography: British Island Airways
Accident Report G-APWF
Accident Report G-BBXJ
1970 establishments in England
1991 disestablishments in England
Defunct airlines of the United Kingdom
Airlines established in 1970
Airlines disestablished in 1991
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4691838
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry%20Smith%20%28American%20football%2C%20born%201959%29
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Terry Smith (American football, born 1959)
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Terry Michael Smith (born May 1959) is an American sportsman, known for his playing and coaching career in American football and baseball, and his ownership of professional sports teams.
After starting his playing career as a defensive back for American football franchise New England Patriots, Smith moved abroad to the United Kingdom, where he achieved international success as the player and head coach of the Manchester Spartans. Smith was also head coach of the Great Britain national American football team. He later spent ten years as owner and general manager of professional American football teams, and two years as owner and general manager of English soccer club Chester City from 1999 to 2001, including a spell as manager during part of his ownership.
Collegiate career
Smith attended Cornell University for two years, where he played football at wide receiver and free safety and baseball at shortstop and second base.
He then transferred to Furman University, where he played football, baseball, and ran track, becoming the only Furman athlete for the past 50 years to play and letter in three sports. In football, he started at free safety for two years on two Southern Conference Championship Furman teams, leading all defensive backs with more than 150 tackles in two seasons and being selected to the Academic All-Southern Conference and All-Region teams.
He was chosen as the State of South Carolina College Defensive Player of the Week for his outstanding performance in a game versus VMI in 1980, and he was also chosen as the Player of the Week for his performances in games versus both The University of North Carolina in 1980 and The University of Florida in 1981. In the three games combined, Smith totaled 59 tackles, 1 tackle for loss, 3 passes defended, 3 fumbles caused, 1 fumble recovered, and 1 pass interception.
In baseball, he started for two seasons in centerfield, hitting .414 in 1982, the 5th highest single season batting average in Furman history, and he was selected first-team All-Southern Conference and MVP. He finished his career with a .363 career batting average, which is still the second-highest career batting average in Furman history, and the highest career Furman average for the past sixty years. He also stole 29 bases out of 31 attempts, giving him the highest career success rate for steals in Furman history for any player who has attempted more than 10 attempts.
In track, he ran the 100 meter, 200 meter, and 400 meter, and he also ran the 4x100, 4x200, and 4x400 relays. Smith was nominated for the Southern Conference Athlete of the Year.
American football
Professional career
Smith started his professional American football career in 1982. He was signed as a free agent by the New England Patriots. However, he injured his knee in a pre-season game against the Philadelphia Eagles, an injury that required major reconstructive surgery, and was placed on the injured reserve list. He stayed with the Patriots for two years before eventually having to retire because his injured knee would not pass the team physical at the time. He returned to the football field signing for the Arizona Wranglers in the USFL in 1984, and in professional baseball was invited to spring training with the Cincinnati Reds and signed with the Miami Marlins.
In 1988, Smith signed to play and coach for the Manchester Spartans American football team overseas in Great Britain British American Football Association. As a wide receiver and free safety from 1988-1998, Smith set playing records with the Spartans, including setting the then British National League record for pass interceptions in a season with 11 (according to http://www.britballnow.co.uk/), and the British record for pass receptions in a single game with 15 pass receptions for 245 yards on July 7, 1991. His career best receiving yards season was 1988 with 1020 yards. He was named to the All-Europe Team on several occasions as both a wide receiver and free safety.
Coaching career
After coaching at U.S. colleges, Smith went to Great Britain after signing with the Manchester Spartans football club in the NFL-sponsored League. Due to his high level of success, which included turning around a 2-10 team before he arrived into an all-time British record 14-0 undefeated team in his first season in 1988, Smith was chosen by the Great Britain National Governing Body as the head coach of the Great Britain national American football team.
As the Manchester Spartans head coach, he won three straight Division Championships, three straight Conference Championships, two straight British National Championships, one Budweiser Bowl championship in 1989 at Crystal Palace in London, England, one Coca-Cola Bowl championship in 1990 at Crystal Palace in London, England, one Eurobowl championship with the Manchester Spartans in 1990 in Rimini, Italy, and one European Championship in Hamburg, Germany as the National team head coach with the Great Britain National Team in 1989.
As the head coach of the Great Britain national team, Smith and his British national team defeated France 35-6 in the European Quarter-Final in a game played in Birmingham, England, Germany 38-6 in the European Semi-Final in a game played in Hamburg, Germany, and Finland 26-0 in the European Nations Championship Final in Hamburg, Germany.
After leading the Spartans to the Great Britain national championship in order to qualify for the European Football League European Championship competition, Smith led the Spartans to victories over the Dublin Celts from Ireland in a game played in Dublin, Ireland, the Amsterdam Crusaders from the Netherlands in the European Quarter-Final in a game played in Manchester, England, the Berlin Adler from Germany in the European Semi-Final in a game played in Rimini, Italy, and the Legnano Frogs from Italy in the European Championship Final in Rimini, Italy, to win the 1990 Eurobowl Championship. Smith and his Spartans also played in the Schweppes Cool Masters European Final in Hamburg, Germany in 1992.
With the Great Britain National Team, Smith led Great Britain to victories over France, Germany, and Finland by a combined score of 99-12 to win the 1989 European Nations Championship.
Prior to Smith becoming head coach, no British team in history, club team or national team, had ever won a single game in European competition. However, Smith transformed the British game and went a perfect 7 wins and no losses in all European competitions with both of his two teams, the Spartans and the Great Britain national team, winning the first two European Championships in British American football history.
As a result of these successes, Smith was nominated by Queen Elizabeth II for national end-of-year awards.
Smith was the first coach in European history to have won both the Club European Championship and the European Nation’s Championship. He won more than 100 games in total as a head coach, while losing only 15. Due to his coaching success, Smith was selected as the National Coach of the Year three straight times, and as the European Coach of the Year twice. In addition, due to his playing and coaching success, Smith was selected to the Great Britain American Football Hall of Fame in 2004, and to the Minor league football (gridiron) American Football Association (AFA) Hall of Fame in 1995.
Professional sports team ownership
Smith went on to become the owner of several professional sports teams, including the National Champion and European Champion Manchester Spartans. In July 1999, he bought financially struggling English League club Chester City, making him the first American owner, chairman, and chief executive in the history of European football. He declared his belief that the club could reach Division One (now the EFL Championship) within three years. The club was in administration when he took over, and close to folding with more than £1 million in debt. He was credited with rescuing Chester from the brink of bankruptcy by supporters at the time, and announced an intention to appoint three supporters to the club board of directors, which he did.
At the time of Smith's takeover, most veteran players had been sold and the remaining players were mostly young. He kept these young players and tried to develop them in order to keep the player wages low, so that the club could not only balance the budget for that season, but also so they could try to pay off the £1 million of debt that Smith inherited.
Using this low budget strategy, along with increasing revenue through good Cup runs in the FA Cup and the Worthington Cup, increased attendance and commercial advertising, and with Smith serving as both manager and general manager for free at no cost to the club, then Smith was able to get all the club's debts paid off within only five months, which was two and a half years earlier than the administration required. As a result, the club was out of debt for the first time in at least many decades.
In Smith's four months and 21 league matches in charge of team affairs, Chester managed wins against Brighton & Hove Albion, Shrewsbury Town and others, but lost 5–1 and 4–1 to Leyton Orient and Carlisle United respectively, and required a replay to overcome non-league minnows Whyteleafe in the FA Cup. However, they did find success in the Worthington Cup, beating First Division Port Vale 6–5 on aggregate; they won 2–1 at the Deva Stadium in a game which saw both Marcus Bent and Martyn Lancaster sent off, and then drew 4–4 in the return leg at Vale Park.
They also had success in the FA Cup, as they made it to the third round for just the third time in the club's 100-year history. Drawn against Manchester City, they only lost in the final minutes after the score was tied at 1–1 with eleven minutes left. While scouting Man City ahead of the match, Smith, who came up with a very good strategy and team plan for the Man City match, found that when he could watch a match from up in the stands, then he was able to see the necessary tactical adjustments because of his many years of experience coaching American football, where coaches scout opponents by spending hundreds of hours every season watching game footage of their opponents that is filmed from high in the stands. This skill would benefit the team considerably the following season, when Smith would scout all of Chester's impending Cup opponents.
His methods included saying aloud the Lord's Prayer during his pre-match team talk, preparing lengthy written strategic game plans for each match that he went over in his pre-match team talk and gave copies of to each player, always staying positive no matter the current difficulties and circumstances, developing a school program where he went with players to speak with and coach schoolchildren, and to give out free tickets to each child for the upcoming matches, and appointing captains for the defence, midfield and attack.
In late December 1999, with Chester out of debt and on firm financial footing for the first time in decades thanks to Smith’s tight monetary policies, Smith chose to step down as manager. His decision came only one match after his team had pulled itself off the bottom of the Division following a 2-1 win over Halifax Town. Smith hired veteran manager Ian Atkins to the dual role of director of football and manager in a bid to avoid relegation, while Smith himself took on the role of goalkeeper coach for the remainder of the season.
With the excellent improvements in the club’s financial position, the club was able to sign twelve new players that Atkins wanted and chose, doubling the player wage bill compared with when Smith was manager. The club was also able to afford to pay for team travel by luxury coaches to away matches instead of the regular buses used during Smith's period, and was able to pay for the team to stay at top hotels with excellent pre-match meals for all away matches instead of traveling to matches by bus on match day as had occurred during Smith's time period. The club also paid for a proper training facility with two excellent training pitches for Atkins' team, while Smith's team had endured training on a free piece of unlined grass in the middle of a horse racetrack. However, despite these many financial investments in the team, the team began slowly under Atkins, losing seven of his first nine matches in charge, with only one win and one draw, and falling well adrift at the bottom of the Division table. Atkins' team lost his ninth match in charge by a 7-1 score at home to Brighton & Hove Albion, even though Smith's young team had defeated Brighton 3-2 away at Brighton earlier in the season.
Afterwards, however, results began to improve, and a 5-0 home victory over Mansfield Town in April, where Smith signee Angus Eve, Trinidad & Tobago's career leading goal scorer with 43 national team goals, scored two goals, put Chester in a better position.
Going into the final game of the season, Chester had pulled themselves up to 23rd in the 24-team division, and faced a three-way battle with Shrewsbury Town and Carlisle United to avoid the drop to the Conference. With fifteen minutes left in the season, Chester were above both Shrewsbury and Carlisle, but conceded a late goal against Peterborough United that was enough to see them relegated from the Football League on goal difference.
Atkins left, and fan favourite Graham Barrow returned as manager. He completely rebuilt the team, and in the 2000–01 season, his side managed a respectable ninth place, reached the third round of the FA Cup for the second successive season (in a controversial loss to Blackburn Rovers), made it to the semi-finals of the FA Trophy, and won the Conference League Cup, the first silverware for the club in over 70 years. During the season, Smith served as Barrow's scout and set-piece strategist for all Cup opponents, travelling on his own to scout opponents at least once or twice before Chester played them. In this scouting role, Smith utilized his American football background, where every American Football play is planned and choreographed from a set position in intricate detail, to focus on the development of creative set pieces, both corners and free kicks, for all the Cup matches that were based upon the weaknesses he perceived in the opponents' defensive alignment.
In addition, Barrow approached Smith at the start of the season, and asked him to watch the first half of every Chester match from up in the stands as a scout would, and then report what he saw to Barrow at halftime while Barrow was walking from the pitch to the dressing room. This good working relationship between them continued throughout the season.
In spite of this success, ahead of the 2001–02 season, Smith appointed Gordon Hill, an ex-Manchester United and ex-England player who was a personal friend, to become the new manager. Chester made a dreadful start to the season under Hill, winning only one of their first twelve matches. Smith finally sold his interest in the club to Stephen Vaughan and left at the start of October 2001, with the club completely out of debt other than what it owed him.
In 2003, a British court ordered Chester City to repay £300,000 in unpaid loans to Smith and his family. However, Smith still wanted to help the club, and so he accepted a settlement of far less than half that amount.
In 2004, Chester City FC finished first in their division, and was promoted again into the English League Third Division, thereby at that time fully completing the financial and on-field renovation of the club that had begun when Smith first purchased the club in an effort to rescue it from being closed down in 1999.
AppleMagazine.com wrote in its April 23, 2021 edition that Ted Lasso "was actually inspired by the story of Terry Smith, an American gridiron football coach who took over the English association football team Chester City F.C. and subsequently installed himself as the first-team coach".
The writers and actors of the Ted Lasso series often spoke about Terry Smith before the series began. In this interview and AppleTV+ video, Brendan Hunt, the outstanding co-creator of Ted Lasso, and actor who portrays assistant manager Coach Beard in the Ted Lasso series, discusses a 1999 FourFourTwo soccer magazine article about Terry Smith selling the American dream in a positive way, including a photo in the article of Smith wrapped in an American flag. This 22 year-old magazine article was published in England in September, 1999, when Smith was being the first American to ever manage and coach a professional English soccer team.
Personal life
Smith became a full-time professor at Lees-McRae College in North Carolina, teaching eight courses every semester in the School of Business and Management. He was promoted to become the Head of both the Sport Management Department and the Health and Fitness Department within the School of Business and Management. He was also promoted to become the Faculty Athletic Representative where he served in the President’s cabinet and reported directly to Dr. Barry Buxton, the outstanding Lees-McRae College President.
Smith became a Director for Elizabethton High School in Tennessee. Under Smith's leadership, the Bartleby program and Elizabethton High School being selected as one of the 10 XQ Super Schools in the entire United States. Smith then wrote a grant document describing and outlining their program, school courses, and educational methods, a document that resulted in their program and school receiving a $2.3 million grant from the XQ Foundation.
Smith was invited by the United States Congress, and by U.S. Congressman Phil Roe of Tennessee’s First District, to come to Washington, D.C. for Smith to speak on Capitol Hill to the United States Congress. Smith was one of only four public school educators in the entire United States to be honored with this invitation and achievement.
Smith created a television show titled ‘The Veteran's Voice’. As the owner of Mountain Television Network, Smith worked with veteran and author Ken Wiley to air interviews with veterans on local television. He also provided DVD copies of these interviews to veterans' family members. A collection of these DVDs are stored at Watauga County Library.
References
1959 births
Living people
Furman University alumni
Furman Paladins football players
Furman Paladins baseball players
New England Patriots players
Coaches of American football from North Carolina
American soccer coaches
Chester City F.C. managers
American expatriate players of American football
Players of American football from North Carolina
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby%20union%20in%20the%20United%20States
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Rugby union in the United States
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Rugby union in the United States is played at youth, high school, college, amateur, professional, and international levels and governed by USA Rugby. There were over 125,000 players registered with USA Rugby as of 2016. Over 2,500 rugby union clubs exist around the country, including those who are part of college rugby. Professional club competition has existed as Major League Rugby (MLR) since 2017.
An international competition, the USA Sevens, is held every February at Sam Boyd Stadium in Las Vegas, draws over 60,000 fans and is broadcast on NBC. The U.S. national team hosts international matches every June, with an attendance of around 20,000. Collegiately, the Collegiate Rugby Championship (CRC) is held every June at Talen Energy Stadium in the Philadelphia suburb of Chester, Pennsylvania, draws around 20,000 fans and is broadcast on NBC.
Overview
Rugby union usually referred to in the U.S. simply as "rugby" is played professionally (Major League Rugby), recreationally and in colleges, though it is not governed by the NCAA (see college rugby). An estimated 1.2 million people in the United States play rugby.
Rugby union participation in the U.S. has grown significantly in recent years, growing by 350% between 2004 and 2011. A 2010 survey by the National Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association ranked rugby union as the fastest-growing sport in the U.S.
Rugby union is the fastest growing college sport and sport in general in the United States.
Rugby union was first introduced to the United States in the mid nineteenth century and gained popularity throughout the late nineteenth century. However, it started to decline from the early 1900s after the formation of American football. The U.S. won the gold medal in rugby at the 1920 Olympics and again at the 1924 Olympics, but rugby collapsed in the country after the 1924 Olympics (except in certain hotbeds of Rugby such as San Francisco, St. Louis and New York, which saw continuous competition). Rugby union did not re-emerge in the US until its renaissance in the 1960s and 1970s. The United States of America Rugby Football Union (now known as USA Rugby) was formed in 1975.
The United States men's national team, the Eagles, has competed in all but one of the Rugby World Cup tournaments held every four years since 1987. The U.S. national team plays home matches every June, including international test matches. The United States is a Tier 2 rugby nation, which means that it is not currently competitive at the elite level of the sport, but is one of World Rugby's key development markets. The national team has competed in the six-nation Americas Rugby Championship every year since 2016.
USA Rugby fields other national teams. The men's national rugby sevens team has been a "core team" that has participated in every tournament since 2008 of the annual World Rugby Sevens Series. The women's national team has reached the quarterfinals of every Women's Rugby World Cup, and won the inaugural Women's Rugby World Cup in 1991. The women's national sevens team is one of the core teams in the World Rugby Women's Sevens Series, which has included a tournament in the U.S. since its first season in 2012–13. The U.S. tournament was held in Houston in the 2012–13 season, and since then has been held in the Atlanta suburb of Kennesaw, Georgia.
History
The first recorded rugby union match between two North American schools occurred on May 14, 1874, between Harvard University and McGill University teams.
Rugby grew in the early 1900s, spurred in part by American football's crisis of 1905-06 due to the perception that American football was a violent sport. During this era, rugby was perceived as having the potential to challenge American football as the dominant football code on the west coast.
At the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, a United States rugby team composed largely of players from Stanford University defeated France to win the gold medal. Rugby union was again included in the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris, where the United States again defeated France for the gold. Despite this success, however, rugby in the United States largely faded away.
Rugby began its revival in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s, as many colleges started club rugby teams. USA Rugby, the body that governs rugby in the U.S., was founded in 1975. On 31 January 1976, the U.S. national team played Australia—in its first official match since the 1924 Olympics—before 8,000 fans at Glover Field in Anaheim, California. Australia won the match 24–12.
The United States national team participated in the inaugural 1987 Rugby World Cup. Rugby in the U.S. received a significant boost in 2009 when the International Olympic Committee voted to reinstate rugby into the Summer Olympics beginning in 2016.
Governing bodies
Rugby union played anywhere is governed by World Rugby, formerly known as the International Rugby Board, which is based in Dublin, Ireland. It is the governing and law-making body for rugby globally. World Rugby has over 100 member unions.
USA Rugby is the member union of the United States within World Rugby. USA Rugby is responsible for overseeing rugby union domestically and training the various national teams that they put on the pitch.
Rugby union started to grow in the United States in the 1960s. The United States of America Rugby Football Union formed in 1975, and joined World Rugby (then known as IRFB) in 1987.
Within USA Rugby, there are several Geographical Unions (GU's) that are charged with governing a specific region of the country. Within these GU's, there are also Local Area Unions (LAU's), which are responsible for governing a specific region within their respective GU's.
Growing participation
More than 98,000 people are registered members of USA Rugby. The numbers of registered rugby members are highest in California, New York and Pennsylvania. On a per-person basis, rugby membership is highest in New England and in the Rocky Mountain states of Colorado and Utah.
There are 32,754 men and 11,790 women playing senior-level rugby. Over 34,000 high school athletes (26,212 boys and 8,706 girls) play rugby for their schools or U19 clubs. Over 2,200 pre-teens (1,988 boys and 228 girls) play organized rugby. With over 20,000 registered females in USA Rugby, the U.S. has more female rugby players than any other country in the world.
There are 1,582 referees within USA Rugby.
A 2010 survey by the National Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association ranked rugby as the fastest growing sport in the U.S.
In 2014 the Sports and Fitness Industry Association reported rugby as the fastest growing team sport in the U.S. during the previous five years. Rugby participation in the U.S. has grown significantly since 2000, growing by 350% between 2004 and 2011. Between 2006 and 2011, the number of high-school rugby players in the U.S. increased by 84%, with 28,000 players in 650 high school programs. By 2010, the number of registered players in the U.S. had grown to over 81,000, moving the U.S. ahead of traditional rugby powers Wales and Scotland in terms of playing numbers, although the percentage of the U.S. population playing is obviously much lower.
College rugby is the fastest growing college sport in the USA. Rugby union is also the fastest growing sport in the USA.
Increasing popularity
Rugby union's profile in the U.S. has increased as a result of the International Olympic Committee's announcement in 2009 that rugby union would return to the Olympics in 2016. USA Rugby has formally become a member of the US Olympic Committee, allowing rugby players and programs access to Olympic resources.
Attendance at rugby union matches and tournaments has grown significantly in recent years. Attendance for the USA Sevens tournament has grown steadily from 15,800 in 2004, to 52,000 fans at Sam Boyd Stadium in Las Vegas in 2011. The 2011 College Premier Division national championship match between Cal and BYU drew a crowd of 11,000 at Rio Tinto Stadium. A friendly match between the US and Ireland in 2009 drew 10,000 fans to Buck Shaw Stadium in Santa Clara, and a friendly match between the US and Italy in 2012 drew over 17,000 fans to BBVA Compass Stadium in Houston. This was followed by 20,000-strong crowds at BBVA Compass Stadium vs. Ireland in June 2013 and Scotland in June 2014; these records were smashed in November 2014 however when an historic sell-out crowd of 61,500 watched the match against New Zealand at Soldier Field; the match also drew an average TV audience of 927,000 on NBC.
Another significant development in the history of U.S. rugby union came at the 2015 London Sevens, the final tournament of the 2014–15 Sevens Series, when the US won its first-ever championship of a Sevens Series event.
Rugby on TV
The announcement in 2009 that rugby union in its rugby sevens format would by admitted into the 2016 Summer Olympics has meant increased TV exposure. Rugby union came onto NBC's radar following the 2009 announcement. NBC has begun broadcasting several rugby tournaments on network TV, particularly rugby sevens tournaments, considered a television friendly format. NBC has shown the Collegiate Rugby Championship each year since 2010. NBC has also broadcast the USA Sevens tournament each year since 2011. Roughly 5.4 million viewers tuned in to watch the 2011 USA Sevens, helping increase awareness of the sport of rugby. Viewership for the 2012 USA Sevens on NBC earned successful ratings (0.7), beating the ratings for an NHL match (0.4) and five college basketball games (0.1–0.3) played that same weekend. The TV ratings on NBC for the USA Sevens and Collegiate Rugby Championships grew 14% from 2013 to 2014, with the 2014 USA Sevens drawing ratings of 0.7 on Saturday and 1.0 on Sunday.
NBC, along with its Universal Sports affiliate network, broadcast ten matches of the 2011 Rugby World Cup — three on NBC and seven on Universal — marking the first time the Rugby World Cup was broadcast live on TV in the U.S. NBC broadcast a November 1, 2014 match between the United States and New Zealand, earning a 0.7 rating. NBC and Universal Sports Network broadcast nine matches (two on NBC, seven on Universal) from the 2015 Rugby World Cup in England. NBC Sports Group has broadcast matches from Premiership Rugby since spring 2016, and began broadcasting the European Six Nations Championship in 2018. The 2018 Rugby World Cup Sevens held in San Francisco set U.S. rugby viewership records — the finals day coverage averaged 1.4 million viewers.
In addition, specialty cable channels have begun broadcasting an increasing amount of rugby. Select international matches and European club matches are shown on WatchESPN.
Bidding to host the Rugby World Cup
The United States has been considered a likely candidate to host a Rugby World Cup, due to the recent growth and future growth potential of rugby in the U.S., which has been recognized by World Rugby. In 2010, Mike Miller, at the time the CEO of what was then known as the IRB, stated that the U.S. would host a Rugby World Cup, stating that "it's a question of when, not if." USA Rugby CEO Nigel Melville revealed in November 2011 that the U.S. had been asked by the IRB to consider preparing a bid to host the Rugby World Cup, and that USA Rugby was considering bidding for the rights to host the 2023 or the 2027 Rugby World Cup. When the U.S. was then awarded the right to host the 2012 IRB Junior World Rugby Trophy (a tournament now known as the World Rugby Under 20 Trophy), it was seen as the U.S. moving a step closer to hosting a Rugby World Cup. Nigel Melville stated that hosting the 2012 IRB JWRT was "the first step to ... hosting a Rugby World Cup." IRB Chairman Bernard Lapasset has acknowledged that "the USA is a very important and exciting market for Rugby."
The United States has several features that would make it a successful host of the Rugby World Cup:
The U.S. is the world's largest commercial market.
The U.S. had 81,678 registered players , 10th largest in the world.
The U.S. has enough stadiums to host a major tournament, with over 100 stadiums with a capacity of 50,000 or larger, and 25 stadiums with a capacity of 80,000 or larger. Many (although not all) of these stadiums could be used for a Rugby World Cup.
The Rugby World Cup has never been held in the Americas, so a U.S. hosted tournament would further WR's interest in globalizing the sport of rugby. The Americas is the only continent that has not been selected to host a Rugby World Cup.
The number of fans attending high-level rugby tournaments in the U.S. has been increasing. For example, the USA Sevens tournament held annually at Sam Boyd Stadium in Las Vegas drew over 60,000 fans in 2012, exceeding the number of fans attending WR 7s tournaments in traditional rugby countries such as South Africa, Australia, and Scotland. USA Rugby has also successfully staged other international rugby union tournaments, such as the 2012 IRB Junior World Rugby Trophy.
A U.S. hosted Rugby World Cup would likely receive a significant number of international fans. The U.S. is a popular tourist destination, ranked #2 in international tourist arrivals and ranked #1 in international tourism receipts. Many major U.S. cities, such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Washington, Boston and Philadelphia can be reached by non-stop flights from many major European cities.
The U.S. has successfully hosted other major global sporting events, including the 1994 FIFA World Cup, the 1984 Summer Olympics and 1996 Summer Olympics, and the 2002 Winter Olympics.
Rugby tournaments in the U.S. have landed commercial sponsorships from blue-chip companies, such as Toyota, Subway, Anheuser-Busch, Bridgestone and Geico.
On June 10, 2021, the United States formally accepted their bids for the 2027 or 2031 Rugby World Cup as well as the 2029 Women's Rugby World Cup, with their bid campaigns officially launched on October 20, 2021. The United States became the first country to bid on both Men's and Women's World Cups. On May 12, 2022, the United States was awarded the right to host the 2031 Rugby World Cup and 2033 Rugby World Cup (women's), becoming the first country in the Americas to host the Rugby Men's World Cup.
Rugby and popular culture
The popularity of rugby was given a minor boost when it was featured in the fourth season of Friends in the episode The One with all the rugby, broadcast February 26, 1998. Rugby was also featured prominently in the 2008 movie Forever Strong. Rugby was also featured briefly in the film The Departed, by virtue of being set in Boston's Irish community. Executive and Dallas Mavericks owner Mark Cuban was a competitive rugby athlete during his college days.
At least three U.S. presidents have played the sport:
Bill Clinton. Clinton developed an interest in rugby in England, playing at Oxford. It has been claimed that he played at Little Rock RFC in Arkansas, but they deny this. However, his interest was mainly casual, and he was on the third or fourth team. Clinton's position was lock.
George W. Bush. Bush was a keen player during high school and university, and was on Yale's 1st XV, and in 1968, he was part of their win over Harvard. Bush's position was fullback.
John F. Kennedy: Kennedy played for Harvard's team, along with his brother Joseph. Ted Kennedy was also player for Harvard.
National teams
The United States national rugby union team is nicknamed the Eagles. They played their first international in 1912, but did not begin playing regularly until 1976. The Eagles have qualified for six of the seven Rugby World Cups, including the most recent 2019 Rugby World Cup. The U.S. national team also hosts international matches every June, and generally tours against European teams each November.
The United States are currently a Tier-2 rugby nation. The U.S. has been consistently ranked as one of the top 20 teams in the world since the World Rugby Rankings were developed in 2003.
In recent years, Houston, TX has hosted U.S. men's national team matches with high attendance levels against countries such as Scotland, Italy and Ireland. In 2018 the U.S. men beat a Tier 1 national team for the first time in a test match when they defeated Scotland 30–29.
Rugby World Cup
The U.S. national team has played in six of the seven Rugby World Cup tournaments held every four years since the inaugural 1987 tournament.
In the 1987 Rugby World Cup, the United States won one match, beating Japan 21–18 in the pool stage.
At the 1991 Rugby World Cup the United States went 0–3 with losses to New Zealand, England and Italy.
The U.S. failed to qualify for the 1995 Rugby World Cup in South Africa. At the 1999 Rugby World Cup in Wales, the U.S. failed to win a match, losing 25–27 to Romania.
The U.S. had one of its better performances at the 2003 Rugby World Cup, winning one game 39–26 against Japan, and narrowly losing to Fiji 18–19. U.S. fly-half Mike Hercus scored 51 points in the tournament, ranked seventh highest in the tournament, even though the U.S. did not advance to the knockout rounds.
The U.S. came away from the 2007 Rugby World Cup in France without a win. One of the team's high points, though, was the winger Takudzwa Ngwenya, who scored against South Africa by out-pacing Bryan Habana for a try, earning "Try of the Year".
The USA played in the 2011 Rugby World Cup in New Zealand. The team's highlights included a 13–6 win against Russia, and a narrow 22–10 loss against tier-one opponent Ireland. The U.S. had a disappointing 2015 Rugby World Cup in England, losing all four matches, including losses to Tier 2 countries Samoa 16–25 and Japan 18–28.
Regional competitions
The North America 4 was an elite-level IRB-financed tournament that ran from 2006 until 2008. The tournament was contested between four teams, two from the United States and two from Canada.
The United States national team participated in the Pacific Nations Cup from 2013 to 2015. The tournament was intended to strengthen the Tier 2 rugby nations by providing competitive test matches in a tournament format. However, the United States and Canada ended their participation after the 2015 competition.
In 2009, World Rugby launched a new competition, the Americas Rugby Championship, with four teams. The teams included a "USA Selects", effectively the United States "A" (second-level) side; a Canadian team; the Argentina Jaguars, an Argentine developmental side; and an Uruguayan team. These matches between A-sides were not considered official international test matches. The competition was held annually from 2009 through 2014, except in the World Cup year of 2011.
The Americas Rugby Championship was relaunched in 2016 as a Western Hemisphere equivalent to Europe's Six Nations Championship. The new format involves the Argentina Jaguars and the full national teams of the US, Brazil, Canada, Chile, and Uruguay. All matches in the tournament, including those against Argentina Jaguars, are full international tests, and all count in the World Rugby Rankings except those involving Argentina Jaguars.
Top-level domestic competitions
The governing body for World Rugby lifted rugby union's ban on professional rugby following the 1995 Rugby World Cup. Since that time, as other nations have professionalized rugby within their countries, USA Rugby has struggled to transition to a sustainable professional rugby club competition.
Amateur era (1997–2016)
Super League (1997–2012)
The Rugby Super League was the national premier Division 1 rugby amateur club competition that ran from 1997 to 2012. The Super League was created in 1996 by the major territorial unions within USA Rugby with the intention of creating a competitive national competition. The inaugural season of the competition saw 14 teams divided into two seven-team divisions: the Western-Pacific Conference and the Midwestern-East Conference.
Aspen won the first championship. Belmont Shore was the most successful club, appearing in the finals every year from 2002 to 2008, until the club left the competition. San Francisco Golden Gate then led the league, appearing in the finals every year from 2009 to 2011.
The size of the league fluctuated over the years. The inclusion of some sub-par clubs and the exclusion of top-performing clubs was controversial issue since the inception of the Super League, called into question whether it was really USA's "premier" competition.
Following the demise of the Super League, USA Rugby formed the Elite Cup in 2013 among the top eight clubs from the previous season's National Division I Club Championship. The competition was divided into two pools of four teams: East, consisting of Boston, Life Running Eagles, New York Athletic Club, and Old Blue of New York; and West, consisting of Denver Barbarians, Glendale Raptors, San Francisco Golden Gate, and Seattle OPSB. However, the competition lasted only one year, as three of the four western members affiliated with the Pacific Rugby Premiership.
Regional Premierships (2013–2016)
Regional premierships of Division I clubs took the place of the top-level competition in the United States for several years. While this format lives on, it is not longer declared the top-level competition in the U.S, as 2016 saw the introduction of PRO Rugby.
In 2013, seven western clubs announced the formation of the Pacific Rugby Premiership, consisting of three teams from southern California, two from northern California, and two from Colorado. The PRP is a Division 1 competition that began play in spring 2014. The season runs from February to May, with a 12-game regular-season schedule in which teams play each other team twice, culminating in a one-game championship match in May. The teams competing are:
In July 2014, five eastern clubs announced the formation of the American Rugby Premiership, consisting of two teams from New York, two from Boston, and one from Atlanta. The competition schedule involves eight matches played in a split season, with the first half of the season during September–October, a winter break, and the remaining half of the season in April–May, culminating in a challenge match between the champions of the Pacific and the Atlantic competitions. In 2016, Mystic River Rugby Club became a full member of the ARP, replacing Life RFC in a reformatted competition. The teams competing are:
In 2015 eight Midwestern clubs announced the formation of the Midwest Rugby Premiership, consisting of two teams from Chicago, two from Ohio (Cincinnati and Columbus), and one each from Kansas City, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, and Davenport, IA. The MRP is a Division 1 competition that began play in fall of 2015. The season runs from September to May, with a 14-game regular-season schedule in which teams play each other twice, a playoff semi final, culminating in a one-game championship match in May. In November 2015, in conjunction with the Red River Premiership the Metropolis RFC, Kansas City RFC, Austin Blacks RFC and Dallas Reds RFC took part in the inaugural USA Rugby sanctioned first round of the Gold Cup. The teams competing are:
Professional era (2016–present)
PRO Rugby (2016)
The development of a domestic professional rugby competition is seen as a key step in the growth of rugby in the United States. USA Rugby CEO Nigel Melville predicted in 2012 that professional rugby would come to the United States by 2015. Melville was quoted in 2014 as saying "We can do it in two years, it will be city-driven and we will start with six [teams] and we will go from there." U.S. national team assistant coach Justin Fitzpatrick said in 2015 that by 2016 the U.S. will have resolved to create a professional domestic rugby competition.
Griffins Rugby, based in Dallas, announced its goal of becoming a professional rugby club. Jake Abbott became the first professional player to join Griffins from English club Worcester Warriors, and by 2015 the club had signed four professional players.
In November 2015, the Professional Rugby Organization (PRO Rugby) announced that it was launching a USA Rugby-sanctioned professional competition in 2016. Teams played at medium-size venues, with a 12-match schedule from April to July 2016. The five teams were Denver, Ohio, Sacramento, San Diego and San Francisco.
On December 21, 2016, the league announced that its investors has pulled funding and that league operations would be suspended indefinitely.
Major League Rugby (2018–present)
Major League Rugby is a North American professional rugby union competition that played its inaugural season in 2018. MLR is an initiative driven by existing USA Rugby-member teams, in partnership with private investors, who believe that American rugby can thrive at the highest levels: as a commercial enterprise; as an influential player on the international scene; and as a participation sport at the youth and senior level. MLR played the 2018 season with seven teams, expanding to nine teams for the 2019 season. While the 2020 season was cut short due to COVID-19, the 2021 season will consist of thirteen teams: twelve from the United States and one from Canada.
Major League Rugby implemented its first collegiate MLR Draft in 2020. Players are eligible for draft after 3 years in college at 21 years old. Free agents can try to join teams at 18 years old.
Club Sevens Championship
The USA Rugby Club 7s National Championship is the top annual American rugby sevens competition organized by USA Rugby. The best sixteen clubs in the country participate each year. The most successful club in the competition is San Diego based OMBAC, which has won six titles.
College rugby
Rugby union is played in universities throughout the United States. More than 1,000 colleges have rugby teams. College rugby is the largest section of USA Rugby's membership. For the 2010–11 season, there were over 32,000 college members and 854 college clubs registered with USA Rugby, roughly a 14% increase from 28,000 college members in August 2008. College rugby continues to grow in popularity, and rugby is one of the fastest growing sports across college campuses.
Women's college rugby is also experiencing significant growth. Rugby was designated as an “emerging varsity sport” by the NCAA in 2002. Initial growth was slow, with only four women's varsity programs in place as of 2008. The sport received a huge boost with the 2009 decision by the International Olympic Committeeee that rugby would return to the Olympics beginning in 2016. Since 2013, 2-4 colleges each year have added a women's varsity program, bringing the total number of programs up to 21 as of 2017.
College rugby includes the National Collegiate Championship competition in fifteens rugby (since 1980). USA Rugby created a smaller Division 1-A competition in 2011 of roughly 30 schools with the intention of refining topflight collegiate rugby. In 2013 a number of top rugby schools formed the Varsity Cup postseason tournament, leading to the perceived existence of two national championships. The Varsity Cup final has been broadcast live on NBC Sports every spring since 2014.
The 2009 announcement that rugby sevens would return to the Olympics in 2016 has led to an increased emphasis in the collegiate ranks on the sevens game, and increasing interest from TV and other media. The highest profile collegiate 7s competition is the Collegiate Rugby Championship (CRC), which is held in June of every year at Talen Energy Stadium in suburban Philadelphia and is televised live by NBC. USA Rugby also operates a college sevens national championship, the USA Rugby Sevens Collegiate National Championships.
Outstanding college rugby players are recognized as All-Americans by USA Rugby. Qualified All-Americans can represent the United States in international tournaments by playing on the United States national under-20 rugby union team.
High school
Rugby union has been growing in the United States at the high school level, both through high school athletic departments and school-sponsored activity clubs and through independent rugby clubs with no school affiliation:
Rugby became the 35th sport of the Massachusetts Interscholastic Athletic Association (MIAA) in 2016, following a 2015 MIAA vote that passed by a wide majority. As of 2015, there were 19 boys’ teams and 5 girls’ teams in Massachusetts, with the majority of the Catholic Conference schools fielding rugby teams.
In 2017, 668 boys single-school and multi-school teams were active during the 15s season.
Regional bodies
A list of the Geographical Unions (GU's) and their respective Local Area Unions are as follows:
See also
History of rugby union in the United States
USA Rugby
United States national rugby union team
United States at the Rugby World Cup
United States national rugby sevens team
USA Sevens
College rugby
Collegiate Rugby Championship
Comparison of American football and rugby union
References
Further reading
Richards, Huw A Game for Hooligans: The History of Rugby Union (Mainstream Publishing, Edinburgh, 2007, )
Rugby reborn in the USA (from the BBC)
"Rugby Football," in Microsoft(R) Encarta(R) 97 Encyclopedia 1993–1996 Microsoft Corporation. (Reviewed by USA Rugby)
External links
USA Rugby – official site
Rugby Today, American rugby magazine (archived)
This Is American Rugby –covers the U.S. national teams (archived)
U.S. rugby news at Planet Rugby (archived)
A Giant Awakens: The Rise of American Rugby –rugby documentary on DVD
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Gail Robinson (Neighbours)
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Gail Lewis (also Robinson) is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Fiona Corke. She made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 11 March 1987. Corke left the role in 1989, but made appearances in 2005, 2006 and 2007. She reprised the role in 2019, as Gail returns to Erinsborough to meet her granddaughter.
Casting
Corke first appeared in Neighbours in 1987. She described her time on the show as "an amazing experience" and added "It was so full on and so huge you didn't know if you were an actor or in a pop group half the time." In 1988, Corke became one of ten actors from the show who were flown to London to perform in front of the Queen at the Royal Variety Performance.
Development
Introduction and marriage
Gail was introduced alongside her father Rob Lewis (Ernie Bourne). They move to Erinsborough and Gail becomes reacquainted with Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis), who she worked with when they were both flight attendants. Neil Wallis and Dave Hogan of The Neighbours Factfile said both Gail and Paul had become "talented ambitious high-flyers in business" in the intervening years. Gail is shown to be intelligent and a university graduate. Gail becomes Paul's number two at the Daniels Corporation. She puts her work first in order to "blot out" her private life and a failed marriage to racing driver Jeremy Lord (Tim Elston).
Producers created a marriage of convenience story for Gail and Paul. They decide to get married in order to trick Japanese businessman, Mr Udagawa (Lawrence Mah) and secure a business deal with him. Mr Udagawa believes marriage is a favourable indication of a man's judgement, and Gail quickly agrees to Paul's suggestion. They are married in the living room of Number 22 Ramsay Street in front of their families. Paul claims that they wanted something simple as they have both been married before. The plan works and Mr Udagawa awards them the contract, forcing them to work long hours together. Josephine Monroe wrote in her book The Neighbours Programme Guide: "sadly their dedication was only to their work."
Departure
Corke left Neighbours in August 1989, after deciding she wanted to experience life outside of the show. She initially commented, "I love Neighbours and I've had a ball, but it's time to move on." Corke later told Sue Larkin of the Aberdeen Press and Journal that quitting the show was a hard decision, but she did not want to be in it forever. She continued, "I decided to take a few risks, have a look round and see if I could do something else." Corke also told Larkin that the producers did not want to let her go. She had previously made "noises" about leaving six months earlier and they asked her to stay for longer, which she did. She said "This time I meant it, though. In an situation like that, you can go on and on helping people out and end up staying for years."
The producers and writers were surprised by Corke's decision, but immediately began planning how Gail would exit. Ideas included a fatal car accident, a disappearance, or a marriage break up. They favoured the latter option. After Rob is killed in a car accident, Gail partly blames Paul. The couple's marriage is strained further when Paul leaves the funeral for a business meeting. Corke commented, "that was just it for Gail, she couldn't take any more." Gail, who was seven months pregnant with triplets, realises that she probably will not receive the support from Paul that she needs, so she decides to move to Tasmania. Corke said one of the hardest things about leaving Neighbours was saying goodbye to her friends, including Dennis, who she got on with "fantastically".
Return
Corke made a cameo appearance, alongside many former cast members, in the serial's 20th anniversary celebration episode "Friends for Twenty Years". In January 2006, a reporter for Inside Soap confirmed Corke would be reprising the role for a guest stint later that year. Gail returns to Erinsborough in June, almost twenty years after she departed, for her children. Gail and Paul "face the terrible reality" that their son Robert Robinson (Adam Hunter) is a killer. Corke said that the triplets have been everything to Gail. Although she had a long-term relationship with a man in Tasmania, her life has been her children and her plant nursery business. Corke explained, "now she is so overcome by what's happened to her kids. At first, she is angry with Paul. She has brought these three kids up on her own, with no help from him, and they have been perfectly happy and healthy. Then as soon as they start staying with their Dad, everything goes wrong! Gail's really on her guard now." Paul's partner Izzy Hoyland (Natalie Bassingthwaighte) later brands Gail a bad mother and tells her she is in denial. At the same time, Paul is wondering whether he still loves Gail. Dennis thought that the former couple loved each other deeply, but they were refusing to acknowledge it due to the animosity between them. Corke also thought there was something unresolved between Gail and Paul, adding "the thing with Gail is that she's someone who doesn't declare her emotions easily".
Producers created a second sham wedding story for Gail and Paul, who hold the ceremony with the hope of drawing Robert out of hiding. Paul's partner Izzy comes up with the sham wedding idea in jest, but they decide to go ahead with it to help the police capture Robert. Dennis told Jason Herbison from Inside Soap that Robert's goal is to destroy Paul and having a publicised wedding provides Robert with an opportunity to get at Paul. He added "they're only pretending of course, so the marriage isn't binding."
Writers played on the fact Gail and Paul still share romantic feelings. Dennis explained that "the chemistry between Paul and Gail is still there, so the idea of them pretending to wed again is genius. Everyone's wondering if they've really fallen for each other. That's been the greatest thing about this storyline - you just never know. When we were filming it, we didn't even know ourselves!" When the wedding takes place, Gail and Paul say their vows and sound too convincing. Dennis added "it's almost as if he and Gail have to pull themselves up and remember what the day is actually about." When Robert fails to show, Paul shouts out load to get his attention and Robert shoots Paul in front of Gail. Following this, Robert gives himself up to the police and is arrested.
Further returns (2007, 2019)
Corke returned for a short guest stint in 2007. In December 2009, Stefan Dennis called for the return of Gail. He said "I'd like to see Fiona Corke come back, even for another guest role, because she's just adorable and fun to work with. And she's got every right to come back because she's still got a tie with Paul's children."
Corke reprised the role on 21 August 2019, as Gail returns to Erinsborough to get to know her granddaughter Harlow Robinson (Jemma Donovan). After breaking up a catfight between Harlow and Roxy Willis (Zima Anderson), Gail voices her concerns about Harlow living with Paul and his fiancée Terese Willis (Rebekah Elmaloglou). She later admits to Paul that she blames him for the loss of their sons, and warns Terese not to marry him, leaving Terese to question whether Gail wants Paul back.
Storylines
1987–1989
Gail applies for the job at the Daniels Corporation and moves to Ramsay Street with her adoptive father Rob Lewis. She meets Paul Robinson again, and it emerges that they had a brief romance while they worked as air stewards. Paul gives Gail the job and they begin working alongside each other. Her former husband Jeremy Lord arrives in Erinsborough in the hope that Gail will take him back and proposes to her again, but he is killed in a racing car accident. As Gail deals with her grief, she discovers that Jeremy was already married when his widow, Meredith (Terrie Waddell) arrives and reveals she is pregnant with his child. Gail and Paul kiss after signing a business deal, but Paul quickly pulls away and apologises. When Paul realises that Japanese businessman, Mr Udagawa, prefers dealing with family men, Paul asks Gail to enter into a marriage of convenience. They fool their friends and family with their fake marriage and they slowly begin to fall for each other. When her friend Glen Matheson (Richard Moss) calls out of the blue and invites her to lunch, Gail jumps at the chance to meet him. Throughout the dinner, Gail can only talk about Paul and Glen realises that she was clearly in love him. When Gail meets up with Glen again, it follows an argument with Paul. She reveals the truth about the marriage to Glen. Gail kisses Glen goodbye and it is witnessed by Paul's grandmother Helen Daniels (Anne Haddy) who confronts Gail and she admits that she loves Paul, which he overhears.
Gail leaves for a business trip and on her return she tells Paul that they have no future and she wants a divorce. Although they had separated, Gail and Paul agree they make a good team at the Daniels Corporation and remain working together. But the tension between them quickly becomes unbearable and Gail resigns. She decided to leave for New York, but just before she is about to leave she says her goodbyes to everyone and Paul tells her he loves her. Gail agrees to stay in Erinsborough. Paul and Gail affirm their love and commitment for each other properly by renewing their wedding vows on Valentine's Day alongside Paul's father Jim (Alan Dale) and Beverly Marshall (Lisa Armitage). Gail and Paul want to start a family, but Gail discovers she is infertile. They then begin making plans to begin IVF treatment. During this time Paul discovers that he had fathered a child, Amy (Nicolette Minster), with Nina Williams (Leigh Morgan). Gail fears Paul will no longer want to have children with her, but she is proved wrong and Gail becomes pregnant with triplets. The prospect of becoming a mother leads Gail to track down her real parents. She discovers that her real mother Louise Hampstead has died, but finds her biological father, Ian Chadwick (Robin Bowering). Rob is jealous of Ian's presence but soon accepts it.
Rob is involved in a fatal car crash and dies and the blame falls on Paul. Gail learns the two had been engaged in a vicious argument where Paul accused Rob of dealing in stolen car parts, and Rob had stormed off in a rage, culminating in the car accident. Thus, Gail holds Paul responsible for her father's death. After the funeral Gail leaves a note for Paul and told him that she was leaving. Soon after arriving in Tasmania, she gives birth to Robert, Cameron (Adam Hunter) and Lucinda (Pippa Black). Paul flies out to see his children and attempts a reconciliation with Gail, but she is adamant the marriage is over. The couple agree to remain friends.
2005–2019
Gail returns to Erinsborough again when she receives the news that Robert was put into a coma by Cameron. However, it turns out that Robert had actually put Cameron in a coma before assuming his identity and joining Elle and Paul in Erinsborough. Robert plots to destroy his father and everyone who meant anything to him. Gail's feelings for Paul resurface and Paul insists that she stay at No.22. After visiting Rob's grave, Gail kisses Paul. Robert kidnaps Paul and left him trapped in a mineshaft. Gail, Paul's partner Izzy Hoyland and Elle find Paul and rescue him. Paul and Gail then concoct a plan to get married again to lure Robert out of hiding. During the wedding, Gail is touched when Paul speaks from the heart about how blessed he was to have found her again. Robert shows up and shoots Paul. However, Paul is wearing a bulletproof vest and Robert is arrested. Gail returned to Tasmania, leaving Elle and Cameron behind to continue getting to know their father better. Cameron is killed accidentally by Max Hoyland (Stephen Lovatt) and Paul and Elle bring Cameron's body home to Tasmania for burial. Gail blames Paul for effectively costing her her two boys and vows never to speak to him again.
Paul undergoes life-saving surgery to remove a tumour that has been growing on his brain for a number of years and wakes up unable to recall anything that had happened to him since the late 1980s. Gail returns to Erinsborough upon receiving a confused call from Paul declaring his love for her. Gail is sceptical of Paul's memory loss and rejects Elle's pleas to keep the truth from him. Unable to bring herself to hurt him, Gail agrees to go along with Elle's plan and spares Paul from knowing the truth about his past. But Paul overhears Gail and Elle discussing all the pain he has caused people. Gail tells Paul everything and he is stunned as he realises all the things that he had done to his family and friends. When Elle overhears Paul complaining about how he had no feelings for her as a father, she storms off. Gail follows her and tries to persuade her to return to Tasmania, but Elle is determined to make things work with Paul. Gail finds herself being drawn to Paul again and he asks her to give their marriage another go. During a picnic, Gail realises that she cannot forget the past twenty years and she returns to Tasmania.
Gail returns twelve years later, after receiving a call from Paul informing her that they have a granddaughter, Harlow. Gail walks into Number 22 and finds Harlow fighting with Roxy Willis. As they clean up, Gail is introduced to Paul's fiancée Terese Willis and she questions Harlow's living situation. Gail and Harlow have breakfast together, and Harlow asks about her father, Robert, and Gail admits that she visits him a few times a year, but he is currently refusing all visitors. Noticing the continued tension between Harlow and Roxy, Gail worries that it will badly affect Harlow and she tells Paul and Terese that she wants to take Harlow back to Tasmania with her. She blames Paul for the loss of Cameron and Robert, and does not want Harlow to go the same way. Gail changes her mind when she learns that Harlow is doing well in school and wants to stay in Erinsborough. Gail later advises Terese not to marry Paul. While in the cafe, Gail meets Gary Canning (Damien Richardson), who she matched with on tinder, and they go on a couple of dates. Gail later learns Gary has also been on a date with Paul's fifth wife Rebecca Napier (Jane Hall), but unlike Rebecca, she is fine with it as she and Gary are not exclusive. Another of Paul's ex-wives Lyn Scully (Janet Andrewartha) comes to Erinsborough, and Paul confronts Gail about their interference in his relationship with Terese. Gail insists that their arrival is just a coincidence, however, Paul soon learns that Elle asked the wives to persuade Terese not to marry him. Gail stays to look after Harlow while Paul and Terese go on honeymoon, but she soon becomes concerned for Elle, so Harlow books her a flight to New York.
Reception
Sue Larkin of the Aberdeen Press and Journal observed: "As any self-respecting Neighbours fan will know, Gail, the smart, career-woman wife of Paul, is one of the most intriguing characters in the Aussie soap." The BBC said Gail's most notable moment was "Running off with the triplets." Ruth Deller of television website Lowculture said Gail was the "most well-remembered" of Paul's wives. Of Gail and Paul's relationship The Sydney Morning Herald said "we fretted for what seemed like days until Gail Lewis (Fiona Corke) sashayed into Mr R's love zone. We knew from the start that Paul and Gail were star crossed. But who could have predicted that one love's rose could have so many thorns." Gail is referred to in Emily Barr's fictitious novel "Out of My Depth", in which character Amanda is watching Neighbours, with scenes featuring Gail and Paul receiving disapproval from Harold, Amanda opines that she believes the couple are in love. Lorna Cooper from MSN said she "loved" Gail and Paul's romance. In 2006, Jason Herbison from Inside Soap wrote "back in 1987, one of the hottest Ramsay Street storylines involved playboy Paul Robinson and career girl Gail Lewis tying the knot in a cynical marriage of convenience." He added that while their marriage was short lived, the pair "genuinely did fall in love."
Gail was placed at number thirteen on the Huffpost's "35 greatest Neighbours characters of all time" feature. Journalist Adam Beresford described "smart cookie" Gail as "the true love of Paul's life" who is "always welcomed by fans" in her multiple returns. He was also a fan of Gail's fashion sense, stating Gail "served so much high-powered executive realness back in the Eighties that a 'Fiona Corke’s wardrobe by Kamizole' mention was a highlight of the show’s end credits. Iconic."
References
Neighbours characters
Adoptee characters in television
Fictional flight attendants
Television characters introduced in 1987
Female characters in television
Robinson family (Neighbours)
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Due South characters
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Due South is a Canadian crime series with elements of comedy. The series was created by Paul Haggis, produced by Alliance Communications, and stars Paul Gross, David Marciano (seasons 1–2), Gordon Pinsent, Beau Starr, Catherine Bruhier, Camilla Scott, Ramona Milano, and later Callum Keith Rennie (seasons 2–4). It ran for 67 episodes over four seasons, from 1994 to 1999.
Characters
Sergeant Robert Fraser
Robert J. Fraser, often called Bob Fraser and referred to as Fraser Sr. to distinguish from his son, is a fictional character in the television series Due South portrayed by Canadian actor Gordon Pinsent.
Robert Fraser was a sergeant of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Fraser Sr. was 57 years old in April 1994. The pilot episode of Due South focuses on Fraser Sr.'s murder and his son's attempt to solve the case. His last words before he was shot were; "You're going to shoot a Mountie? They'll hunt you to the end of the Earth!" Robert Fraser was betrayed by, and his murder orchestrated by Gerrard (Ken Pogue), his friend of some 30 years, who was highly ranked within the RCMP and involved with illegal activity, in-order to cover-up the truth about flaws in a dam.
Fraser Sr. was a legend in his lifetime. He had a strong sense of justice and believed in the letter of the law. He was known for his ability to track criminals, especially in the expanse of wilderness. For over 20-years, the name "Bob Fraser" was spoken with awe among the ranks of the RCMP. In his Eulogy, it was said that he 'could track a ghost across sheer ice', and that a young officer would have to move fast and drive hard 'just to catch his shadow'. He was considered to be a few mounties who embodied the spirit and traditions of the RCMP. A toast to Robert Fraser after his funeral said, "may he not give the Angels a moment's Peace". It's also said that his son "didn't fall far from the tree."
Fraser Sr. appears in later episodes, starting with The Gift of the Wheelman, as a ghost to give his son, Benton, advice. Fraser Sr. also features in the series in voice-overs of sections from his diaries. In "Asylum", in season 3, Bob tells his son the story where he helped a group of Inuit being forcefully relocated to establish a fictitious town, called Elsmare, and over the course of a year used their accumulated relocation cheques to hire a Lawyer to fight and win their case against their relocation in court; Bob mentions that Elsmare was during that time was listed as having the lowest crime rate in North America that year.
Bob Fraser was married to Caroline Fraser, (née Pinsent). He had two children: son Benton Fraser, and, after the death of his wife, a daughter Maggie Mackenzie by his friend Ellan Mackenzie, a trapper. The latter was only brought to light after his death. #Sergeant Buck Frobisher was one of his closest friends.
Fraser Sr. and his wife lived in an igloo for four months (where their son Benton was conceived). They also lived in Fort Nelson for a while and at "The Rat", near a strip mine. His final home was a log cabin in the Yukon. He built the cabin himself.
Fraser Sr.'s ghost at first only allowed himself to appear to his son but it was soon revealed he could make himself be seen by anybody he chose to. He's allowed his daughter, Maggie Mackenzie, and best friend Sergeant Buck Frobisher to see him as well. On two occasions he has allowed non-family/friends to see him: once to one of the men who was responsible for his death, and to a former friend was being attacked after he offered to turn in evidence against his former partners-in-crime. Fraser Sr. offered to give his former friend a hand up when he was pursued by a car trying to run him down. When Fraser Sr.'s former friend tried to grabbed Fraser Sr.'s hand, it passed right through. The former friend fell several stories. Although severely injured, the former friend survived. The second time that Fraser Sr. appeared to another person was to a criminal name Muldoon, whom Fraser Sr. had pursued and captured years before. But Muldoon escaped from prison and was pursued by Fraser Jr. and "Ray Vecchio" (name then being used by #Detective Stanley Kowalski). "Vecchio" did not see Fraser Sr. though. Fraser Sr. appears in time to stop Muldoon from escaping, with Muldoon surprised to see his old nemesis having heard Fraser Sr. had died. Muldoon was returned to prison, making no mention of seeing Fraser Sr.'s ghost because people would most likely not believe him.
Sergeant Buck Frobisher
Sergeant Duncan "Buck" Frobisher is a fictional character in the television series Due South. Portrayed by Leslie Nielsen, he appears in the episodes "Manhunt", "All The Queens's Horses", "Call of the Wild (pt 1)" and "Call of the Wild (pt 2)".
Frobisher is approximately tall with grey hair and is in his late 50s or early 60s, and in season 3, in "Burning Down the House", Benton Fraser describes him as bearing an uncanny resemblance to "a certain famous Canadian comedian". He is one of #Sergeant Robert Fraser's closest friends; and like his best friend, Frobisher is a legendary sergeant in the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.
During their youth, Fraser and Frobisher were both in love with Caroline. Caroline ultimately chose Fraser after he made fancy shot over a rope bridge. Frobisher accepted his loss with grace. He would later get married and have one known child, Julia, who would have a daughter of her own, Patty.
In his first appearance, in "Manhunt", Frobisher appears to be going through a mid-life crisis; after a phone call from Geiger, one of the worst felons he had ever arrested, Frobisher flees to Chicago, running from both his pursuer, Geiger, and from his own legendary reputation. After being confronted on this by Benton Fraser, the son of his late best friend, Frobisher manages to bring in Geiger for a second time. When Geiger was taken in by the Chicago PD, Frobisher advised the Chicago police "first chance you get, shoot".
In later episodes, it is revealed that Frobisher can also see and talk to Fraser Sr.'s ghost, who first reveals himself to Frobisher in "All The Queens's Horses".
He also seems to take a lot of taxis as seen in "Manhunt". He can't drive motorcycles.
Detective Stanley Kowalski
Stanley Raymond Kowalski (aka "Ray Kowalski") is a fictional character in the television series Due South. He is a Polish-American detective with the Chicago Police Department, serving with the 27th Precinct. The character is portrayed by actor Callum Keith Rennie.
Kowalski's father was a fan of Marlon Brando; who played Stanley Kowalski in the 1951 film version of A Streetcar Named Desire; hence his name. Kowalski however prefers to go by his middle name, Ray. To add to the Streetcar connections, Kowalski's ex-wifethe Assistant States Attorneyis called Stella. They still care about each other, but broke up because he wanted kids and she didn't. Kowalski's family includes his parents Damian and Barbara, and a brother who is only referenced on the show's official webpage and never made an appearance on the show.
Kowalski was brought into the series at the start of Season 3. #Detective Raymond Vecchio had suddenly been sent deep undercover with the mob in Las Vegas, and to protect Ray's identity Kowalski was brought in to impersonate him until the real Vecchio returned. This meant taking on Ray's friend and unofficial partner, Mountie Benton Fraser, who was on vacation at the time of the "switch" and returned to find Kowalski at Ray's desk claiming to be Ray Vecchio. After being let into the secret, Fraser and Kowalski became true friends and partners.
Kowalski's eyesight is not the best in the world, and he needs to put on his glasses in order to use a gun with any degree of effectiveness. He prefers not to wear his glasses because he doesn't like how he looks with them, but he is an excellent shot when he does wear them. Kowalski also likes to put the Canadian version of Smarties into his coffee and likes to dance, something he used to do with Stella. Since the divorce he has taken fancy to a few women, but nothing serious has really happened.
Kowalski owns a black Pontiac GTO that he and his father refurbished. In the episode "Easy Money", his father returns it to him and Kowalski now uses it as his car.
The series ends with Fraser and Kowalski embarking on a quest to find the Hand of Sir John Franklin.
Inspector Margaret Thatcher
Margaret Thatcher is a fictional character in the television series Due South. She is an inspector of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police who works in the American city of Chicago, Illinois. The character is portrayed by Canadian actress Camilla Scott.
Thatcher shares her name with the former British Prime Minister, but seems to prefer "Meg" to her full name. She transfers from Ottawa to the Canadian consulate in Chicago at the beginning of the second season. Following protocol, she inspects all of Constable Benton Fraser's files, resulting in a rather negative initial opinion of him. Throughout the season, Fraser is often called upon to retrieve her clothing from the dry cleaners, to drive her to various formal functions, and to perform other menial tasks better suited to an administrative assistant. Her love of city living clashes with Fraser's love for the Canadian wilderness, a difference she manages to accept only after several years and an impending transfer away from Chicago. Regardless, her mastery of vintage skills of the Force are undiminished for her preferences, such when she effortlessly communicates with Fraser using hand semaphore when they are in a hostage situation.
Thatcher eventually falls in love with Fraser and often becomes flustered in his presence. He reciprocates her feelings (usually expressed through the phrase, "Red suits you."), though he is never demonstrative until the events of "All the Queen's Horses". The two share a passionate kiss on top of a moving train filled with explosives before engaging a group of domestic terrorists. They kiss again in "Mountie on the Bounty, Part 2", though this is possibly a daydream. They kiss one last time in the series finale, "Call of the Wild, Part 2". However, the kiss was shown only in the original Canadian airing and has been cut out of subsequent airings and DVD releases. On one occasion, she asks him to help her adopt a child, though he misinterprets her request as one to father a child with her. They part ways at the end of the series, with Thatcher taking a post in the Canadian Security Intelligence Service. She is shown standing behind Saddam Hussein amongst other Iraqi military officers. In voiceover, Fraser implies that she has a hand in destabilizing Hussein's regime.
Thatcher hints that more than one male superior has propositioned her in the past, offering professional gain in exchange. She has always rejected these offers; she once bluntly rebuffed RCMP counsel Henri Cloutier, who called her his protégée ("We are the Eggmen").
Constable Renfield Turnbull
Renfield Turnbull is a fictional character in the television series Due South. He is a constable of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police who works in the Canadian Consulate in the American city of Chicago, Illinois. The character is portrayed by Dean McDermott.
Constable Turnbull acts as comic relief and is a caricature of Constable Benton Fraser, the series' main character.
Turnbull is not clever and has a tendency to speak his mind. He is frequently seen doing office tasks and answering the phone. He also does guard duty outside the consulate. Turnbull models himself on Fraser, but only ever accomplishes a superficial likeness.
Turnbull enjoys country music. He likes drawing, painting and cooking, and is a curling fan. Turnbull is a monarchist. During the romance interlude in the episode "Mountie on the Bounty", Turnbull appears to proposition another male Mountie and they arm-wrestle while other characters kiss.
Fans have deduced from Turnbull's uniform that he is between 24 and 29 years old when he first appears in the programme.
It is revealed in the series finale that after leaving the RCMP, Turnbull ran for public office. Turnbull's campaign got off to a rocky start after he was run over by his campaign bus.
Detective Raymond Vecchio
Detective First Grade Raymond "Ray" Vecchio is a fictional character in the television series Due South. He is a detective with the Chicago Police Department, on the force for approximately 14 years by the end of the series, serving with the 27th Precinct. He lives at 2926 North Octavia Avenue, a Victorian-style house left to him by his father, in the Chicago suburb of Norwood Park. He frequently works with RCMP Constable Benton Fraser, deputy liaison officer of the Canadian consulate in Chicago, to get to the bottom of crimes; though aggravated by Fraser's unorthodox style (which contributes to the comic side of the show), he is usually satisfied with the results. Ray is portrayed by actor David Marciano.
Background
Ray was born and grew up in Chicago, raised as a Roman Catholic. He is the patriarch of a large family - including his mother, sister Francesca Vecchio (Ramona Milano, in a recurring (29 episodes) role), sister Maria and her husband Tony, many nieces and nephews and a brother who lives outside of Chicago. His father, with whom Ray had a strained relationship, died in 1989 and did not care for police officers, which might explain by way of rebellion why Ray became one. The senior Vecchio did, however, bequeath his house to Ray, although this is most likely by dint of Ray being his firstborn.
Sibling rivalry aside, Ray is very protective of Francesca and attempts to discourage her from pursuing a romance with the relatively unemotional Fraser. In episode 3.09, "Dead Guy Running", Francesca speaks of an incident in which Ray violently threatened an abusive man she was dating; when the man was found dead in the police station, Ray, undercover at the time, was suspected (but later cleared) of killing him.
Ray is a fan and occasional player of basketball, having played on his high-school basketball team; he refuses to believe Fraser's anecdote of the game's invention by a Canadian minister. His inability to skate contributes to his criticism of hockey, which he derides as "figure skating with clubs." On rarer occasion, he plays poker, either for actual gambling or simply to kill time.
Ray is divorced from ex-wife Angie (played by Marciano's real-life wife Katayoun Amini), and has been involved with a few women since, including a suspected arms smuggler who turned out to be an undercover ATF agent. Ray has had an antagonistic relationship since childhood with a neighborhood mafioso, Don Frank Zuko, and an on-and-off relationship with Zuko's sister, Irene (Carrie-Anne Moss). His best friend and de facto partner is a Canadian Mountie, Constable Benton Fraser, who is assigned to the Canadian Consulate in Chicago, and the two often help each other solve crimes and right wrongs in the city of Chicago (and, on rare occasion, in Canada itself).
Fraser is Ray's polar opposite in many ways - whereas the Mountie is polite, well-mannered, and obeys the law to the letter, Ray is loud, brash, and will often bend or break the rules to solve a case. Much of the comedy of the show is derived from their differences. The two also have much in common. Both care deeply about their communities, both had troubled relationships with their deceased fathers, and both can be highly tenacious investigators (once Ray can be motivated to become involved with a case) with a strong sense of justice. Ray habitually mispronounces his partner's name "Frazier" and often calls him "Benny."
Ray is obsessed with mint-condition green 1971 Buick Rivieras. He has currently owned at least three of them - the first was blown up during a gunfight to save Vecchio and Fraser's lives, the second was destroyed by a car bomb, and the third was also fitted with a bomb and was driven into Lake Michigan.
During the first season, Ray often wore loud, garish clothes and was criticised by his colleagues for his wardrobe. He did, however, wear tasteful suits as well (Fraser believed his name to be "Detective Armani" at their first meeting), and wears them much more frequently during the second season. He openly despairs that Fraser has caused a great many of them to be ruined by digging for clues in garbage and other filth.
Ray is unskilled with computers, preferring instead to use a typewriter (although he is a poor typist). He relies heavily on Civilian Aide Elaine Besbriss to do much of his research for him, and will occasionally have Fraser type for him. He also has a black book full of various officials he has blackmail information on, though most of it proves to be outdated and useless by the time he ever finds a reason to use it (often to help Fraser with a legal matter). He is acrophobic, and highly dismayed whenever Fraser jumps out of a window or from some other great height in pursuit of a suspect. In spite of all of that, and his large back-log of cases, he is a skilled and effective detective.
Career
Ray has been a Chicago police officer since at least 1985 and was still a beat cop in mid-1986. It is unclear when he was bumped up to detective; his first supervisor, Lieutenant William Kelly, thought enough of him to attend to his promotion. His present supervisor, Lieutenant Harding Welsh, is somewhat less enthusiastic, but nevertheless fair; he has shown great reluctance to take disciplinary action against Ray, and defended him before higher-ranking officers. Ray's relationship with his brother detectives, particularly Jack Huey and Louis Gardino, is at some times cordial and other times downright competitive and antagonistic.
In "The Promise" (#2.05), Ray mentions that he spent six years in the vice squad prior to his present stint in the violent crimes division. Before meeting Fraser, Ray worked mostly alone; "The Duel" (#2.16) was the only episode in which he encountered a former partner. Despite several references to the slow progress of Ray's career, he was promoted to detective first grade shortly before "Juliet Is Bleeding" (#2.07).
More than once, Ray has been severely injured in the line of duty. In all on-screen incidents, he voluntarily sustained such an injury acting as a human shield to Fraser. In the pilot movie, he pushed Fraser out of a window ahead of a bomb blast; took a bullet for him in "Letting Go" (#1.22); and took another, final bullet in "Call of the Wild: Part 1" (#4.12, see below). In "Victoria's Secret: Part 2" (#1.21), however, he accidentally shot Fraser in the back while attempting to prevent him from coming to harm by Fraser's femme fatale, Victoria Metcalf, with crippling results.
Ray has also been suspended from duty on occasion, though one such suspension was no fault of his own, and not ahead of his colleagues and supervisor going to bat for him. A curiosity of his on-screen suspensions is that Lt. Welsh did not relieve him of his service weapon along with his shield, normally necessary when removing a police officer from active service.
Ray had to suddenly leave Chicago at the start of the third season. It turned out he had an uncanny resemblance to Armando 'the Bookman' Langoustini, a Mob lieutenant in Las Vegas. After the Bookman died in a car crash, Ray was sent undercover to replace him. Episode 3.08 "Spy vs. Spy" hinted that Langoustini might have been discreetly murdered to allow Ray's insertion by federal officers. To protect his identity, Ray himself was impersonated by #Detective Stanley Kowalski, who posed as Ray Vecchio for the next year until Vecchio's return in the series finale.
In the finale, Vecchio is shot during a protracted gunfight, and the bullet proves to be his "Golden Bullet", allowing him to retire. He moves to Florida with Detective Kowalski's ex-wife, an Assistant States Attorney named Stella.
See also
Benton Fraser
References
External links
"A Tale of Two Mounties" (Fraser-Thatcher Study)
Photograph of Dean McDermott as Constable Turnbull
Photograph of Gordon Pinsent as Bob Fraser
Buck Frobisher at Dickenson, Elyse
Fictional Chicago Police Department detectives
Television characters introduced in 1997
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-energy%20electron%20diffraction
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Low-energy electron diffraction
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Low-energy electron diffraction (LEED) is a technique for the determination of the surface structure of single-crystalline materials by bombardment with a collimated beam of low-energy electrons (30–200 eV) and observation of diffracted electrons as spots on a fluorescent screen.
LEED may be used in one of two ways:
Qualitatively, where the diffraction pattern is recorded and analysis of the spot positions gives information on the symmetry of the surface structure. In the presence of an adsorbate the qualitative analysis may reveal information about the size and rotational alignment of the adsorbate unit cell with respect to the substrate unit cell.
Quantitatively, where the intensities of diffracted beams are recorded as a function of incident electron beam energy to generate the so-called I–V curves. By comparison with theoretical curves, these may provide accurate information on atomic positions on the surface at hand.
Historical perspective
An electron-diffraction experiment similar to modern LEED was the first to observe the wavelike properties of electrons, but LEED was established as an ubiquitous tool in surface science only with the advances in vacuum generation and electron detection techniques.
Davisson and Germer's discovery of electron diffraction
The theoretical possibility of the occurrence of electron diffraction first emerged in 1924, when Louis de Broglie introduced wave mechanics and proposed the wavelike nature of all particles. In his Nobel-laureated work de Broglie postulated that the wavelength of a particle with linear momentum p is given by h/p, where h is Planck's constant.
The de Broglie hypothesis was confirmed experimentally at Bell Labs in 1927, when Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer fired low-energy electrons at a crystalline nickel target and observed that the angular dependence of the intensity of backscattered electrons showed diffraction patterns. These observations were consistent with the diffraction theory for X-rays developed by Bragg and Laue earlier. Before the acceptance of the de Broglie hypothesis, diffraction was believed to be an exclusive property of waves.
Davisson and Germer published notes of their electron-diffraction experiment result in Nature and in Physical Review in 1927. One month after Davisson and Germer's work appeared, Thompson and Reid published their electron-diffraction work with higher kinetic energy (thousand times higher than the energy used by Davisson and Germer) in the same journal. Those experiments revealed the wave property of electrons and opened up an era of electron-diffraction study.
Development of LEED as a tool in surface science
Though discovered in 1927, low-energy electron diffraction did not become a popular tool for surface analysis until the early 1960s. The main reasons were that monitoring directions and intensities of diffracted beams was a difficult experimental process due to inadequate vacuum techniques and slow detection methods such as a Faraday cup. Also, since LEED is a surface-sensitive method, it required well-ordered surface structures. Techniques for the preparation of clean metal surfaces first became available much later.
Nonetheless, H. E. Farnsworth and coworkers at Brown University pioneered the use of LEED as a method for characterizing the absorption of gases onto clean metal surfaces and the associated regular adsorption phases, starting shortly after the Davisson and Germer discovery into the 1970s.
In the early 1960s LEED experienced a renaissance, as ultra-high vacuum became widely available, and the post acceleration detection method was introduced by Germer and his coworkers at Bell Labs using a flat phosphor screen. Using this technique, diffracted electrons were accelerated to high energies to produce clear and visible diffraction patterns on the screen. Ironically the post-acceleration method had already been proposed by Ehrenberg in 1934. In 1962 Lander and colleagues introduced the modern hemispherical screen with associated hemispherical grids. In the mid-1960s, modern LEED systems became commercially available as part of the ultra-high-vacuum instrumentation suite by Varian Associates and triggered an enormous boost of activities in surface science. Notably, future Nobel prize winner Gerhard Ertl started his studies of surface chemistry and catalysis on such a Varian system.
It soon became clear that the kinematic (single-scattering) theory, which had been successfully used to explain X-ray diffraction experiments, was inadequate for the quantitative interpretation of experimental data obtained from LEED. At this stage a detailed determination of surface structures, including adsorption sites, bond angles and bond lengths was not possible.
A dynamical electron-diffraction theory, which took into account the possibility of multiple scattering, was established in the late 1960s. With this theory, it later became possible to reproduce experimental data with high precision.
Experimental setup
In order to keep the studied sample clean and free from unwanted adsorbates, LEED experiments are performed in an ultra-high vacuum environment (residual gas pressure <10−7 Pa).
LEED optics
The main components of a LEED instrument are:
An electron gun from which monochromatic electrons are emitted by a cathode filament which is at a negative potential, typically 10–600 V, with respect to the sample. The electrons are accelerated and focused into a beam, typically about 0.1 to 0.5 mm wide, by a series of electrodes serving as electron lenses. Some of the electrons incident on the sample surface are backscattered elastically, and diffraction can be detected if sufficient order exists on the surface. This typically requires a region of single crystal surface as wide as the electron beam, although sometimes polycrystalline surfaces such as highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) are sufficient.
A high-pass filter for scattered electrons in the form of a retarding field analyzer, which blocks all but elastically scattered electrons. It usually contains three or four hemispherical concentric grids. Because only radial fields around the sampled point would be allowed and the geometry of the sample and the surrounding area is not spherical, the space between the sample and the analyzer has to be field-free. The first grid, therefore, separates the space above the sample from the retarding field. The next grid is at a negative potential to block low energy electrons, and is called the suppressor or the gate. To make the retarding field homogeneous and mechanically more stable another grid at the same potential is added behind the second grid. The fourth grid is only necessary when the LEED is used like a tetrode and the current at the screen is measured, when it serves as screen between the gate and the anode.
A hemispherical positively-biased fluorescent screen on which the diffraction pattern can be directly observed, or a position-sensitive electron detector. Most new LEED systems use a reverse view scheme, which has a minimized electron gun, and the pattern is viewed from behind through a transmission screen and a viewport. Recently, a new digitized position sensitive detector called a delay-line detector with better dynamic range and resolution has been developed.
Sample
The sample of the desired surface crystallographic orientation is initially cut and prepared outside the vacuum chamber. The correct alignment of the crystal can be achieved with the help of X-ray diffraction methods such as Laue diffraction. After being mounted in the UHV chamber the sample is cleaned and flattened. Unwanted surface contaminants are removed by ion sputtering or by chemical processes such as oxidation and reduction cycles. The surface is flattened by annealing at high temperatures.
Once a clean and well-defined surface is prepared, monolayers can be adsorbed on the surface by exposing it to a gas consisting of the desired adsorbate atoms or molecules.
Often the annealing process will let bulk impurities diffuse to the surface and therefore give rise to a re-contamination after each cleaning cycle. The problem is that impurities which adsorb without changing the basic symmetry of the surface, cannot easily be identified in the diffraction pattern. Therefore, in many LEED experiments Auger electron spectroscopy is used to accurately determine the purity of the sample.
Using the detector for Auger electron spectroscopy
LEED optics is in some instruments also used for Auger electron spectroscopy. To improve the measured signal, the gate voltage is scanned in a linear ramp. An RC circuit serves to derive the second derivative, which is then amplified and digitized. To reduce the noise, multiple passes are summed up. The first derivative is very large due to the residual capacitive coupling between gate and the anode and may degrade the performance of the circuit. By applying a negative ramp to the screen this can be compensated. It is also possible to add a small sine to the gate. A high-Q RLC circuit is tuned to the second harmonic to detect the second derivative.
Data acquisition
A modern data acquisition system usually contains a CCD/CMOS camera pointed to the screen for diffraction pattern visualization and a computer for data recording and further analysis. More expensive instruments have in-vacuum position sensitive electron detectors that measure the current directly, which helps in the quantitative I–V analysis of the diffraction spots.
Theory
Surface sensitivity
The basic reason for the high surface sensitivity of LEED is that for low-energy electrons the interaction between the solid and electrons is especially strong. Upon penetrating the crystal, primary electrons will lose kinetic energy due to inelastic scattering processes such as plasmon and phonon excitations, as well as electron–electron interactions.
In cases where the detailed nature of the inelastic processes is unimportant, they are commonly treated by assuming an exponential decay of the primary electron-beam intensity I0 in the direction of propagation:
Here d is the penetration depth, and denotes the inelastic mean free path, defined as the distance an electron can travel before its intensity has decreased by the factor 1/e. While the inelastic scattering processes and consequently the electronic mean free path depend on the energy, it is relatively independent of the material. The mean free path turns out to be minimal (5–10 Å) in the energy range of low-energy electrons (20–200 eV). This effective attenuation means that only a few atomic layers are sampled by the electron beam, and, as a consequence, the contribution of deeper atoms to the diffraction progressively decreases.
Kinematic theory: single scattering
Kinematic diffraction is defined as the situation where electrons impinging on a well-ordered crystal surface are elastically scattered only once by that surface. In the theory the electron beam is represented by a plane wave with a wavelength given by the de Broglie hypothesis:
The interaction between the scatterers present in the surface and the incident electrons is most conveniently described in reciprocal space. In three dimensions the primitive reciprocal lattice vectors are related to the real space lattice {a, b, c} in the following way:
For an incident electron with wave vector and scattered wave vector , the condition for constructive interference and hence diffraction of scattered electron waves is given by the Laue condition:
where (h, k, l) is a set of integers, and
is a vector of the reciprocal lattice. Note that these vectors specify the Fourier components of charge density in the reciprocal (momentum) space, and that the incoming electrons scatter at these density modulations within the crystal lattice. The magnitudes of the wave vectors are unchanged, i.e. , because only elastic scattering is considered.
Since the mean free path of low-energy electrons in a crystal is only a few angstroms, only the first few atomic layers contribute to the diffraction. This means that there are no diffraction conditions in the direction perpendicular to the sample surface. As a consequence, the reciprocal lattice of a surface is a 2D lattice with rods extending perpendicular from each lattice point. The rods can be pictured as regions where the reciprocal lattice points are infinitely dense.
Therefore, in the case of diffraction from a surface the Laue condition reduces to the 2D form:
where and are the primitive translation vectors of the 2D reciprocal lattice of the surface and , denote the component of respectively the reflected and incident wave vector parallel to the sample surface. and are related to the real space surface lattice, with as the surface normal, in the following way:
The Laue-condition equation can readily be visualized using the Ewald's sphere construction.
Figures 3 and 4 show a simple illustration of this principle: The wave vector of the incident electron beam is drawn such that it terminates at a reciprocal lattice point. The Ewald's sphere is then the sphere with radius and origin at the center of the incident wave vector. By construction, every wave vector centered at the origin and terminating at an intersection between a rod and the sphere will then satisfy the 2D Laue condition and thus represent an allowed diffracted beam.
Interpretation of LEED patterns
Figure 4 shows the Ewald's sphere for the case of normal incidence of the primary electron beam, as would be the case in an actual LEED setup. It is apparent that the pattern observed on the fluorescent screen is a direct picture of the reciprocal lattice of the surface. The spots are indexed according to the values of h and k. The size of the Ewald's sphere and hence the number of diffraction spots on the screen is controlled by the incident electron energy. From the knowledge of the reciprocal lattice models for the real space lattice can be constructed and the surface can be characterized at least qualitatively in terms of the surface periodicity and the point group. Figure 7 shows a model of an unreconstructed (100) face of a simple cubic crystal and the expected LEED pattern. Since these patterns can be inferred from the crystal structure of the bulk crystal, known from other more quantitative diffraction techniques, LEED is more interesting in the cases where the surface layers of a material reconstruct, or where surface adsorbates form their own superstructures.
Superstructures
Overlaying superstructures on a substrate surface may introduce additional spots in the known (1×1) arrangement. These are known as extra spots or super spots. Figure 6 shows many such spots appearing after a simple hexagonal surface of a metal has been covered with a layer of graphene. Figure 7 shows a schematic of real and reciprocal space lattices for a simple (1×2) superstructure on a square lattice.
For a commensurate superstructure the symmetry and the rotational alignment with respect to adsorbent surface can be determined from the LEED pattern. This is easiest shown by using a matrix notation, where the primitive translation vectors of the superlattice {as, bs} are linked to the primitive translation vectors of the underlying (1×1) lattice {a, b} in the following way
The matrix for the superstructure then is
Similarly, the primitive translation vectors of the lattice describing the extra spots {a, b} are linked to the primitive translation vectors of the reciprocal lattice {a∗, b∗}
G∗ is related to G in the following way
Domains
An essential problem when considering LEED patterns is the existence of symmetrically equivalent domains. Domains may lead to diffraction patterns which have higher symmetry than the actual surface at hand. The reason is that usually the cross sectional area of the primary electron beam (~1 mm2) is large compared to the average domain size on the surface and hence the LEED pattern might be a superposition of diffraction beams from domains oriented along different axes of the substrate lattice.
However, since the average domain size is generally larger than the coherence length of the probing electrons, interference between electrons scattered from different domains can be neglected. Therefore, the total LEED pattern emerges as the incoherent sum of the diffraction patterns associated with the individual domains.
Figure 8 shows the superposition of the diffraction patterns for the two orthogonal domains (2×1) and (1×2) on a square lattice, i.e. for the case where one structure is just rotated by 90° with respect to the other. The (1×2) structure and the respective LEED pattern are shown in Figure 7. It is apparent that the local symmetry of the surface structure is twofold while the LEED pattern exhibits a fourfold symmetry.
Figure 1 shows a real diffraction pattern of the same situation for the case of a Si(100) surface. However, here the (2×1) structure is formed due to surface reconstruction.
Dynamical theory: multiple scattering
The inspection of the LEED pattern gives a qualitative picture of the surface periodicity i.e. the size of the surface unit cell and to a certain degree of surface symmetries. However it will give no information about the atomic arrangement within a surface unit cell or the sites of adsorbed atoms. For instance, when the whole superstructure in Figure 7 is shifted such that the atoms adsorb in bridge sites instead of on-top sites the LEED pattern stays the same, although the individual spot intensities may somewhat differ.
A more quantitative analysis of LEED experimental data can be achieved by analysis of so-called I–V curves, which are measurements of the intensity versus incident electron energy. The I–V curves can be recorded by using a camera connected to computer controlled data handling or by direct measurement with a movable Faraday cup. The experimental curves are then compared to computer calculations based on the assumption of a particular model system. The model is changed in an iterative process until a satisfactory agreement between experimental and theoretical curves is achieved. A quantitative measure for this agreement is the so-called reliability- or R-factor. A commonly used reliability factor is the one proposed by Pendry. It is expressed in terms of the logarithmic derivative of the intensity:
The R-factor is then given by:
where and is the imaginary part of the electron self-energy. In general, is considered as a good agreement, is considered mediocre and is considered a bad agreement. Figure 9 shows examples of the comparison between experimental I–V spectra and theoretical calculations.
Dynamical LEED calculations
The term dynamical stems from the studies of X-ray diffraction and describes the situation where the response of the crystal to an incident wave is included self-consistently and multiple scattering can occur. The aim of any dynamical LEED theory is to calculate the intensities of diffraction of an electron beam impinging on a surface as accurately as possible.
A common method to achieve this is the self-consistent multiple scattering approach. One essential point in this approach is the assumption that the scattering properties of the surface, i.e. of the individual atoms, are known in detail. The main task then reduces to the determination of the effective wave field incident on the individual scatters present in the surface, where the effective field is the sum of the primary field and the field emitted from all the other atoms. This must be done in a self-consistent way, since the emitted field of an atom depends on the incident effective field upon it. Once the effective field incident on each atom is determined, the total field emitted from all atoms can be found and its asymptotic value far from the crystal then gives the desired intensities.
A common approach in LEED calculations is to describe the scattering potential of the crystal by a "muffin tin" model, where the crystal potential can be imagined being divided up by non-overlapping spheres centered at each atom such that the potential has a spherically symmetric form inside the spheres and is constant everywhere else. The choice of this potential reduces the problem to scattering from spherical potentials, which can be dealt with effectively. The task is then to solve the Schrödinger equation for an incident electron wave in that "muffin tin" potential.
Related techniques
Tensor LEED
In LEED the exact atomic configuration of a surface is determined by a trial and error process where measured I–V curves are compared to computer-calculated spectra under the assumption of a model structure. From an initial reference structure a set of trial structures is created by varying the model parameters. The parameters are changed until an optimal agreement between theory and experiment is achieved. However, for each trial structure a full LEED calculation with multiple scattering corrections must be conducted. For systems with a large parameter space the need for computational time might become significant. This is the case for complex surfaces structures or when considering large molecules as adsorbates.
Tensor LEED is an attempt to reduce the computational effort needed by avoiding full LEED calculations for each trial structure. The scheme is as follows: One first defines a reference surface structure for which the I–V spectrum is calculated. Next a trial structure is created by displacing some of the atoms. If the displacements are small the trial structure can be considered as a small perturbation of the reference structure and first-order perturbation theory can be used to determine the I–V curves of a large set of trial structures.
Spot profile analysis low-energy electron diffraction (SPA-LEED)
A real surface is not perfectly periodic but has many imperfections in the form of dislocations, atomic steps, terraces and the presence of unwanted adsorbed atoms. This departure from a perfect surface leads to a broadening of the diffraction spots and adds to the background intensity in the LEED pattern.
SPA-LEED is a technique where the profile and shape of the intensity of diffraction beam spots is measured. The spots are sensitive to the irregularities in the surface structure and their examination therefore permits more-detailed conclusions about some surface characteristics. Using SPA-LEED may for instance permit a quantitative determination of the surface roughness, terrace sizes, dislocation arrays, surface steps and adsorbates.
Although some degree of spot profile analysis can be performed in regular LEED and even LEEM setups, dedicated SPA-LEED setups, which scan the profile of the diffraction spot over a dedicated channeltron detector allow for much higher dynamic range and profile resolution.
Other
Spin-polarized low energy electron diffraction
Inelastic low energy electron diffraction
Very low-energy electron diffraction (VLEED)
Reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED)
Ultrafast low-energy electron diffraction (ULEED)
See also
List of surface analysis methods
External links
LEED program packages
LEED pattern analyzer (LEEDpat)
References
Laboratory techniques in condensed matter physics
Electron beam
Diffraction
Materials science
Scientific techniques
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlene%20Robinson
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Charlene Robinson
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Charlene Robinson (also Mitchell) is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours played by Kylie Minogue. Charlene was introduced to the show along with several new characters, as part of a revamp by Network Ten to increase ratings. Minogue auditioned for the role in 1985, shortly after finishing her high school exams. She attended the audition dressed as the character and casting director Jan Russ cast her in the role. Minogue was initially contracted for a week, but this was later extended through to mid-1988. She made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 17 April 1986.
Charlene was portrayed as a feisty, quick-tempered and outspoken tomboy. She had a difficult relationship with her mother and did not like being patronised. Minogue thought viewers liked the character as she was an average Australian teenager. Reinforcing her tomboyish image, Charlene trained as a mechanic and she often wore khaki overalls and baggy sweatshirts. Her relationship with Scott Robinson (Jason Donovan) was central to many of her storylines. They became a popular couple with viewers and the relationship helped boost ratings for Neighbours. Despite breaking up several times during their first 12 months together, the couple stayed together and their relationship eventually culminated in a wedding during "Episode 523", which was first broadcast on 1 July 1987.
During her time as Charlene, Minogue also started singing and released two successful pop singles during 1987 followed by her debut album the following year. In mid-1988, Minogue decided to leave Neighbours to concentrate on her music career. She filmed her final scenes in June 1988 and Charlene made her final screen appearance on 26 July. Minogue won four Logie Awards for her portrayal of Charlene, including the Gold Logie, becoming the youngest person to do so. Critical reaction to the character has been positive. Soap Opera author Dorothy Hobson said Charlene broke stereotypes when it came to careers for women in the 1980s. In 2022, Minogue returned to the role, alongside Donovan, as part of Neighbours''' final episode.
Creation and casting
After the Seven Network dropped Neighbours in 1985, rival channel Network Ten picked the series up. It initially attracted low ratings and Ten began working hard to publicise the series. They revamped the show and added several new cast members. Kylie Minogue had had a fairly successful career as a child actress, having appeared in various television dramas, including Skyways and The Henderson Kids, but she was considering giving up acting after failing to find further work. After finishing her school exams in 1985, Minogue then auditioned for the role of Charlene. She attended the audition dressed as the character and won the role. Of hiring Minogue, Neighbours casting director Jan Russ commented Minogue "had done a couple of things before I saw her, but she was only 18 and as shy as a mouse. She really hadn't evolved into anything at that stage, but the camera loved her and I knew I had my Charlene." Minogue initially signed up to play Charlene for one week, this was then extended to 13 weeks and then through to mid-1988. She made her debut screen appearance in the episode broadcast on 17 April 1986.
Development
Backstory and characterisation
In her fictional backstory, Charlene was born in Coffs Harbour on 21 October 1969. She is the youngest child of Fred (Nick Waters) and Madge Mitchell (Anne Charleston), and sister of Henry (Craig McLachlan). When she was a teenager, Charlene drank alcohol, fell pregnant with her first boyfriend and had an abortion. In their 1989 book The Neighbours Factfile, Neil Wallis and Dave Hogan described Charlene's life as "one long series of scrapes and scraps". After her parents divorced, Charlene remained living with her father, but when he felt he was incapable of looking after her, Charlene followed her mother to Erinsborough. Hilary Kingsley, author of Soap Box, observed that Charlene left behind her "life as Lolita" upon moving to the suburb.
Charlene was a self-described tomboy, who preferred to be known by her nickname "Lenny". She was known for her quick temper and her "heart of gold". She always stuck up for those who were considered the underdog. In her book Neighbours: The First 10 Years, Josephine Monroe wrote that Charlene did not like to be patronised and had a sharp tongue. Monroe observed that Charlene's feisty side helped endear her to viewers. In keeping with her tomboyish nature, Charlene trained as a mechanic after leaving school and got an apprenticeship with Rob Lewis (Ernie Bourne). The character's style often consisted of khaki overalls, baggy sweatshirts and her hair set in a perm.
Minogue thought people liked Charlene because she was portrayed as an average Australian teenager, experiencing a difficult relationship with her mother. She continued, "She is a bit of a rebel and they probably relate to that, and while she has her problems she will always come out on top." Minogue shared some similarities with her character, but thought Charlene was far more outspoken and tomboyish than she was. Minogue liked that Charlene often said what she thought, but joked that if she were in trouble and tried to punch someone as Charlene did, she would probably get "flattened". Minogue also said Charlene was sensitive, but she was unlikely to show it and would "rather die than be caught crying."
Relationship with Scott Robinson
Charlene's first scenes were with Scott Robinson (played by Jason Donovan). He thought she was trying to break into the Ramsay house and confronted her, which resulted in Charlene punching him. Minogue ended up punching Donovan for real during the take. Producers soon created a story arc for the characters that saw them enter into a romantic relationship. Scott and Charlene's relationship helped boost ratings for Neighbours and the show's publicist, Brian Walsh, capitalised on Minogue and Donovan's increasing popularity with viewers and rumoured off-screen romance. Of Scott and Charlene, Minogue commented "People like Scott and Charlene being a couple. It's probably the most normal relationship in the show." Kelly Bourne from TV Week observed that Scott and Charlene struck a chord with fans, who could identify with them.
Scott and Charlene had problems during their first 12 months together and they broke up several times. One such break-up occurred after Charlene's mother thought she should date other boys, while Scott had to repeat his final year of school without her. Scott was initially unsure how to win Charlene back, but after speaking with his grandmother, Helen (Anne Haddy), who mentioned that her husband gave her a friendship ring, Scott went out and bought one for Charlene. While they were enjoying a barbecue at Charlene's caravan by Lassiter's lake, the couple argued about Charlene spending time with Warren Murphy (Ben Mendelsohn) and Scott decided to leave. When Charlene started to go after Scott, she found herself trapped by a fire that had been accidentally started by Greg Davis (Alex Papps). Greg had been storing petrol under the caravan and spilled it as he was removing the cans, causing the petrol to head towards the still burning barbecue. Scott rescued "a terrified" Charlene from the flames, but an explosion threw them both to the ground and Charlene was knocked unconscious.
Donovan commented that Scott loved Charlene, so when he saw she was in danger, he forgot to think about himself and he just went in to rescue her. Donovan added that Scott was "devastated" when he saw Charlene had been injured. At the hospital, Scott gave Charlene the friendship ring and declared that they would live together. Minogue told Bourne that Charlene was flattered by the gift, while Donovan stated that it proved that they loved each other and were not going to break up again. Minogue agreed with Donovan, saying "There is that underlying love whether they are together or not." After learning about the couple's plans to move in together, their friends and neighbours expressed their shock at how serious the couple had become. When Charlene showed the ring to Daphne Clarke (Elaine Smith) and told her how she and Scott wanted to live together, Daphne was taken back. Scott's friend Mike Young (Guy Pearce) also voiced his opposition, but Scott was determined that no one would stop them from moving in together. Bourne noted that Daphne's shock at the couple's plans was "the start of a major controversy, splitting apart the inhabitants of Ramsay Street."
When older Neighbours viewers expressed their concern about a young unwed couple moving in together, producers decided to have them marry instead. On-screen, neither family approved of Scott and Charlene's plan to move in together, but when Scott learned his father was only 18 when he got married, Scott found the solution to their problem and asked Charlene to marry him. Minogue said Charlene was shocked at first, but she became "very excited" about the idea of getting married. She continued, "She knows they want to live together and they have had so much trouble getting their parents' approval that I suppose getting married seems the logical thing to do. They will be together anyway, so they may as well finalise it." After getting over her initial shock, Madge gave the couple her blessing to get married. Minogue and Donovan both agreed that they would not get married so young, and Donovan thought that younger couples should live together first. He also believed that Scott was rushing into things. Scott and Charlene were married during "Episode 523", which was first broadcast on 1 July 1987 to two million Australian viewers. The episode became "a TV phenomenon" and Minogue said it was what Scott and Charlene's romance had been building up to.
After returning from their honeymoon, Scott and Charlene moved in with Madge and Henry, and they struggled financially. Just three months after their wedding, producers decided to throw temptation at the couple to keep their relationship interesting. Andrew Mercado, author of Super Aussie Soaps, quipped that "a happy soap couple is considered the kiss of death". Scott was the first to cheat when he kissed Jane Harris (Annie Jones), while she helped him study for his HSC. After Jane confessed to Charlene, she threw Scott out and refused to talk to him. In a bid to reunite the couple, Jane told Charlene that she would steal Scott away from her unless she did something about it. The couple soon reunited. The following year, Charlene had a brief affair with her driving instructor Steve Fisher (Michael Pope).
Other storylines
One evening in July 1986, Charlene came home with a newborn baby and shocked her mother by claiming that he was her son. Charlene told Madge a story, so convincing that Madge believed she had become a grandmother. However, Charlene soon revealed that the baby was actually her half-brother Sam Cole (Thomas Hamston; Scott Wealands). She explained to Madge that she had been helping to care for him, after his mother Susan (Gloria Ajenstat), turned to Charlene for help. Susan had had an affair with Charlene's father Fred, until he threw her out. Charlene knew Madge would not be happy looking after another woman's child, so she claimed he was her son. Soap Box author Hilary Kinglesy noted the situation helped expose Charlene's "soft heart" and her sensitive side.
In the same year, Charlene acted as a backing singer for Scott and Mike Young's band. Scott and Mike entered a demo tape into a song competition, and the judges, Molly Meldrum and Brian Hanson (Jon Finlayson), sought out Charlene as they were impressed with her vocal ability. Molly and Brian invited Charlene to their music studio to record some tracks, but she soon realises that she is not interested in singing and wants to complete her HSC instead. Scott also apologised to Charlene for being jealous of her talent.
Departure
Minogue ventured into music during her time on the show and her cover of "The Loco-Motion" spent several weeks at the top of the Australian music chart. In late 1987, Minogue flew to England to record "I Should Be So Lucky", before returning home to continue with Neighbours. The press speculated that she would soon have to decide between acting and singing. Shortly after, Minogue chose to concentrate on her burgeoning music career and decided to leave Neighbours after two and a half years. She filmed her final scenes in June 1988. Charlene's exit storyline saw her move to Brisbane, after her grandfather, Dan Ramsay (Syd Conabere), bought her and Scott a house there. Scott was initially unable to go with his wife, so she said goodbye to him, on the understanding that he would join her as soon as he could get a job transfer. All of the cast gathered in the street, while Charlene said goodbye to her brother, mother and friends. She then got into her green Mini and drove out of Ramsay Street.
In November 2004, Minogue was invited to film a cameo appearance for the show's 20th anniversary the following year. A report then emerged that Minogue was willing to film an appearance as Charlene while she was on tour in the UK, but the producers had refused the offer. However, in a statement from production company Grundy Television, the producers said that they "made every effort to accommodate Minogue", including filming the cameo anywhere in the world, but that their offer was turned down. In May 2010, Minogue pondered a return to Neighbours during an interview published in The Sun. Minogue commented on how fun it would be to appear as Charlene again, after years of saying no, and added "I've decided how it would work. Charlene would screech up the drive in her souped-up Mini which she's been working on all the time".
In 2014, Scott and Charlene's son, Daniel Robinson (Tim Phillipps), was introduced to Neighbours. While Phillipps has yet to have any contact with Minogue, Daniel has been seen making several phone calls to Charlene on-screen. Phillipps also said Scott and Charlene were still together and had become "really loving, supportive parents" to Daniel and his sister, Madison (Sarah Ellen), who was introduced in 2016. In August 2014, a Network Ten spokeswoman told the Australian Associated Press that Minogue had been invited to return to Neighbours for the show's 30th anniversary celebrations in 2015, but she chose not to return. However, Minogue agreed to take part in the documentary special Neighbours 30th: The Stars Reunite, which aired in Australia and the UK in March 2015.
Return
Following the cancellation of Neighbours in March 2022, Fiona Byrne of the Herald Sun reported on 1 May that both Minogue and Donovan were set to reprise their roles. Byrne believed Minogue and Donovan had filmed a guest appearance on Pin Oak Court, the outdoor location for Ramsay Street, during the previous week. Later on the same day, the return of Minogue and Donovan was confirmed on Neighbours''' social media accounts. Executive producer Jason Herbison stated: "Scott and Charlene are the ultimate Neighbours couple and it would not feel right to end the show without them. We are thrilled that Jason and Kylie have come home to play a very special part in our series finale. It has been an emotional experience for them, for us and I'm sure it will be for our viewers." Minogue later told Jenny Paul of Glamour that her return was a thank you to the fans who watched and remembered the early days of Neighbours. Minogue also said the experience led her to think about her past on the serial. She said: "I was just out of school and had just auditioned for Neighbours. I got the job and I was happy to have a job as I'd actually signed up to the dole just a couple of weeks before, but because I got the job I never got dole check! I needed to make a living, I needed to do something. It was meant to be a stint on the show of between one and twelve weeks, I think, so if it didn't work I would have been out after a week or two. Two and a half years later I was still there and the mania had ensued." During an appearance on Late Night with Seth Meyers, Minogue admitted that she felt "quite a bit of pressure" to return.
Reception
Accolades
For her portrayal of Charlene, Minogue won the Logie Award for Most Popular Actress at the 1987 ceremony. She was also nominated for Most Popular New Talent, but lost to her co-star Donovan. The following year, Minogue became the youngest person, at nineteen, to be awarded the Gold Logie Award for Most Popular Personality on Australian Television. She also won the Most Popular Personality on Victorian Television and Most Popular Actress Logie awards. At the Logie Awards of 1989, Minogue earned another nomination for Most Popular Actress and the Gold Logie Award for Most Popular Personality on Australian Television.
Critical reception
Reception for the character has been positive. The BBC's official Neighbours website stated that Charlene's most memorable moments were "her wedding to Scott and punching Scott in the face during their first meeting." The Independent said Minogue's "elfin prettiness" won Charlene a huge following in Australia and Britain. During a TV Week feature on Minogue, a columnist said she "brought to life one of the most loved and memorable characters of Australian TV." Colleen Last from MSN TV branded Charlene "iconic" and "beloved". During a column on the "Top five ex-Neighbours stars", The Daily Telegraph's Robin Wilks placed Minogue at number one, commenting that "Kylie was once best-known as the sharp-tongued, permanently overalled tomboy Charlene". The Age's Jo Roberts said that the "slightly goofy" Charlene was a "tousle-headed teenager with an oil rag and hoop earrings".
In Tony Johnston's 2005 book, Neighbours: 20 Years of Ramsay Street, Charlene placed sixth in the twenty classic characters chapter. Johnston said Charlene and her mother represented "the old and the new", that her career choice was unusual and her "razor-sharp tongue" put the fear into all the men who lusted after her. Johnston added that the younger female viewers admired Charlene, while the boys loved her feisty nature. In her book Soap Opera, Dorothy Hobson believed Charlene broke stereotypes, especially when it came to careers for women in the 1980s. She wrote, "The sight of one of the most attractive female characters, dressed in overalls, with her cascading blonde curls tied up on top of her head, was one of the most positive images for breaking the stereotypes of what jobs are suitable for girls." Hobson also praised Charlene's on-screen relationship with Scott branding the positive images for young people as "immense". The BBC News noted that Charlene became one of Neighbours most popular characters.
Hilary Kingsley, author of Soap Box, dubbed Charlene "soap's teen queen" and the "darling of the show". Kingsley also said the character was an inspiration to girls all over the country with mother problems, calling Charlene and Madge "a marvellous double act". Sky included Charlene in their feature on the twenty-five most memorable Neighbours characters. They stated, Charlene was only in the show for two years, but she remains one of the iconic characters because (a) she's Kylie Blooming Minogue, and (b) she married Jason 'Scott Robinson' Donovan. Charlene's name has become the by-word for girl-next-door characters in Soapland, thanks to her tireless efforts to promote the cause of denim dungarees while working as a mechanic, and as a crucial member of the most successful set of teens that Ramsay Street has seen.
In October 2006, Minogue and Donovan, as Charlene and Scott, were included on a postage stamp issued by the Australia Post to celebrate 50 years of television. The Holy Trinity Church experienced an increase in interest after Scott and Charlene's wedding aired. Backpackers visit the nave where the couple were wed, while some viewers have held their own weddings there. Charlene's wedding dress was donated to the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery by Grundy Television in 1989. It has since gone on display in the Powerhouse Museum and travelled to the UK. In 2013, The Daily Telegraph included Scott and Charlene in their list of the "20 best TV couples". They called them "a supercouple" and "a bit of a Romeo and Juliet" pairing.
Upon the news of the serial's cancellation, Sheena McGinley of the Irish Independent ranked Charlene as the fifth best character in Neighbours history. McGinley explained her choice by saying, "I know we were not going to mention the very famous sorts who managed to utilise Neighbours as a springboard to global fame, but this is the OG. Speaking as someone who’s had the pleasure of meeting Kylie Minogue while working at the front desk in a recording studio, I can personally attest to that part of Charlene that will always be a key element of Kylie — her magnificent, tightly curled locks."
See also
Scott Robinson and Charlene Mitchell
References
Citations
Websites and media notes
Full interview on YouTube
Print sources
External links
Charlene Robinson at BBC Online (archived from 2003)
Charlene Robinson at the Official AU Neighbours website (archived from 2003)
Neighbours characters
Fictional mechanics
Television characters introduced in 1986
Female characters in television
Kylie Minogue
Robinson family (Neighbours)
Ramsay family
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green%20Acre%20Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD%20School
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Green Acre Baháʼí School
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Green Acre Baháʼí School is a conference facility in Eliot, Maine, in the United States, and is one of three leading institutions owned by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís of the United States. The name of the site has had various versions of "Green Acre" since before its founding in 1894 by Sarah Farmer.
It had a prolonged process of progress and challenge while run by Farmer until about 1913 when she was indisposed after converting to the Baháʼí Faith in 1900. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, then head of the religion, visited there during his travels in the West in 1912. Farmer died in 1916 and thereafter it had evolved into the quintessential Baháʼí school directly inspiring Louhelen Baháʼí School and Bosch Baháʼí School, the other two of the three schools owned by the national assembly, and today serves as a leading institution of the religion in America. It hosted diverse programs of study, presenters, and been a focus for dealing with racism in the United States through being a significant venue for Race Amity Conventions (later renamed Race Unity Day meetings) and less than a century later the Black Men's Gatherings and further events.
Origin
The Piscataqua River by which Green Acre Baháʼí school stands was named from Abenaki Native Americans of the Wabanaki Confederacy describing where a river separates into several parts – "a place where boats and canoes ascending the river together from its mouth were compelled to separate according to their several destinations." The town of Eliot was founded 1810 from Kittery, Maine, which itself was founded in the 1600s. By the mid-1800s the area served as a shipyard, including launching the in 1851. At the time of the founding of the school there were some 1,400 people in Eliot and the town has grown in recent years to near 7,000 today.
The Farmers
Sarah Farmer's mother, Hannah Tobey Farmer (1823–1891) was raised Methodist. Her father, Moses Gerrish Farmer (1820–1893) a Dartmouth graduate in 1844, had success in the new field of electrical engineering and telegraph work and was a heartfelt Christian, though he has also been called a Spiritualist and Transcendentalist. Moses and Hannah married in 1844 and Sarah was born 1847. It is said that the Farmer's home, before they lived in Eliot, was part of the Underground railroad.
It is unclear when the land in Eliot came to be owned by the Farmer family. However, they lived in a variety of places in New England until, after 1880, when the family moved to Eliot and Moses retired. The home they built in Eliot was called Bittersweat, or Bittersweet-in-the-Fields. Hannah established a memorial non-segregated service called "Rosemary" as a retreat for unwed or poor mothers and working women in Eliot where, for a donation of $7 ($181 in 2014,) families would have a two-week vacation, up to 40 at a time in 1888. In 1887 Sarah re-animated the Eliot Library Association and set a number of meetings with speakers while also serving as secretary and helping build a list of patrons of the library of some 700 people. Singer Emma Cecilia Thursby recalled her first visit to what was called "Greenacre" was in 1889. Greenacre is and was situated on a bluff overlooking the river which is a mile wide. In 1890 a group of investors signed a contract to set up a hotel initially called the Eliot Hotel or Inn at the site. In 1891 there were paying customers staying at the Inn. Farmer had an originating idea about a spiritual theme for the development of the property in June 1892 and then journeyed with her father to the Chicago Columbian Exposition in late 1892 where she met with Swedenborgian Charles C. Bonney, the "visionary" behind the World's Parliament of Religions, and gained encouragement for her vision for a center of learning for spiritual teachers - an idea blessed by family friends Arthur Wesley Down and John Greenleaf Whittier. Her father died that spring, 1893, and she had to leave before the Parliament took place. She took a brief trip to Norway with Sara Chapman Bull in her grief, and she made it back to the Parliament only in October 1893 after it was over. Farmer made what she recorded in her diary as a "solemn vow" to building the school for spiritual teachers on 4 February 1894. However, by about 1894 the hotel was called a failure and was boarded up when Farmer approached the investors with the plan to use Greenacre as a place to host lectures on religion. Farmer proposed to her investors to use the closed Inn. By 1897 it was capable of housing 75 or more guests and had a number of cottages around the property with a grassy plain that sometimes hosted a tent camp.
Sarah Farmer's inauguration of Greenacre
Following the enthusiasm of the Parliament, Farmer set up the beginnings of using the Greenacre Inn as a summer center of cross-religion gatherings and cultural development. She had success attracting support from Bostonian businessmen, wives of businessmen and politicians, most especially Phoebe Hearst. The work was inaugurated in 1894 with her words "The spirit of criticism will be absolutely laid down – if it comes in it will be gently laid aside; each will contribute his best and listen sympathetically to those who present different ideals. The comparison will be made by the audience, not by the teachers." The early collection of religious interests was wide - Farmer participated with Spiritualist trance-speakers who appeared to channel her father so convincingly the family dog responded, a fact William James took note of.
One of the first such promulgators of spiritual insight there was Carl H. A. Bjerregaard where he would frequent through at least 1896. Swami Vivekananda, a prominent Hindu monk serving in interfaith awareness efforts spent nearly two months there in the summer of 1894. His words were printed in the short lived The Greenacre Voice established with the school-and-conference center running at least to 1897. A review appeared in the local Boston Evening Transcript.
A short list of presentations was published in the newspaper even as far away as Chicago also featured academic scholars as well as priests presenting on religions: Professor Ernst Fenollosa, Boston Museum of Fine Arts – "The Relation of Religion to Art"; Rev. Dr. Edward Everett Hale, "Sociology"; Rev. Dr. William Alger, "Universal Religion"; Edwin Meade, "Immanuel Kant"; Professor Thomas C. Wild, "Union for Practical Progress"; Frank B Sanborn, "The Humane treatment of Mental and Spiritual Aberrations"; Margaret B. Peeke from Sandusky Ohio, "The Soul in its search after God"; and Abby Morton Diaz, "The Work of humanity for humanity" were among the "well known" presenters but the distinction of the summer school was of lecturers who were younger and less well known than those of the earlier Concord School of Philosophy maintained by the Transcendentalists previously which closed about 1887 and less about philosophy than of comparative study initially. The sessions were positively reviewed. Sanborn would soon be among the leaders operating at Greenacre. Professor Lewis G. Janes was there giving talks on "Darwin and Spencer", "Social Tendencies under Evolution" and "Life as a Fine Art" and would also soon take a leading role in developments as well. There was also something of a windstorm that year. The "school" had a winter session in Cambridge with several repeat appearances hosted by Sara Chapman Bull. Indeed, these winter sessions continued some years and came to be called the Cambridge Conferences directed by Janes.
1895 to 1899
An 1895 address book of Farmer's revealed she had contact information on a number of leaders of thought and religion in America. That summer among those that met at the conference center were evolutionists, and Farmer invited Lewis Janes to assist with the program development. Janes was a student of Herbert Spencer. An engine inventor also presented. The conference grew to the point the Inn itself was too small and a tent camp arose as well as buildings to provide shelter from rain or sun were added.
In 1896 Sanborn organized an "Emerson Day" (after Ralph Waldo Emerson) and it continued for more than a decade. That year a formal reunion of the Concord School of Philosophy was also held. In addition to the talks on art, actual musical concerts, painters, sculptors, poets began to make appearances at Greenacre. Strong calls for peace against war from the conference got printed in the Boston Evening Transcript.
The "Monsalvat School for the Comparative Study of Religion", a progressive or liberal development seen against conservative religious experience, was established formally in 1896 as an institution hosted at Greenacre and the first director was Lewis Janes. Monsalvat was named after the sacred mountain in Wagner's Parsifal where the Holy Grail was kept, though it is most often spelled Montsalvat. However, Farmer and Janes differed often – Janes wanted academic credentials among his speakers and a businesslike plan for the economic solvency of the work by charging everyone rather than trusting on contributions. They had serious difficulty even agreeing on what they were talking about – "This difference of understanding could never have occurred between two men accustomed to business methods," Janes wrote in 1899. Farmer framed the school as a place for encounter between religious leaders for "a fuller realization" of unity among religions, and relied on generosity and enthusiasm to overcome the challenges of economy. Nevertheless, the school and Greenacre continue to operate and was noted in newspapers.
The August 1897 season opened with the new lecture hall the "Eirenion", ("place of peace",) and Sarah Farmer and Greenacre made the New York Times. A book was circulated in Japan about it too. Prominent Buddhist monk Anagarika Dharmapala stayed at Greenacre where he worked on practices himself and offered classes and talks on specific meditational disciplines as well as quotes on the teachings of the Buddha. He was enthusiastic about the kind of interfaith coming together process of Greenacre. Unitarian Alfred W. Martin closed the 1897 season with a talk "Universal Religion and the World's Religions", the theme of which became his life's work. Electrical engineers met at the conference center at least in 1897 as the fiftieth anniversary of the invention of the electric tolley car.
The 1898 session on the Monsalvat school listed a variety of people including Janes himself on "Relation of Science to Religious Thought", Swami Abhedananda on "Vedanta philosophy and Religions of India", "Hebrew Prophets" by Prof. Nathaniel Schmidt, "Literature, Ethics and Philosophy of the Talmud" by Rabbi Joseph Krauskopf, "Islam and the Koran" by Emil Nabokoff, "Philosophy and Religions of the Jains" by Vichand Raghavji Gandhi and others.
A diary of Charles W. Chesnutt noted he was a replacement speaker for Walter Hines Page for a talk in 1899 on the condition of African-Americans in the South, and commented on witnessing a diversity of clothing representing cultures of the world. Farmer's farewell address for the 1899 season was printed in the Boston Evening Transcript and contained warm thoughts of the development of the work and its ongoing goals. A beatific booklet Greenacre on the Piscataqua of some 22 pages with a section written in August 1899 and another in September 1900 was published. Baháʼís have identified a quote from the religion in the 1899 program and speculate Farmer had heard of the religion. However, in Farmer's life and the structure of Greenacre there was crisis. According to scholar Eric Leigh Schmidt Sanborn was working for a "creation of a new shrine" for transcendentalism akin to reforming the Concord school centered on Emerson and used his coverage work of Greenacre in newspaper stories to frame that development while at the same time Janes drifted explicitly from Farmer's approach by charging people for the classes and insisting on academic credentials and approaches to understand the diversity of religions. Janes' disconnect from Farmer had reached the point of shutting down the Monsalvat school. There were also tensions between Sanborn and Janes and among other groups. There had been speculation on Farmer being bought out, creditors were nervous, and her business partners had thought to force Farmer to sell out.
Transformation
1900–1906
Farmer's encounter with the Baháʼí Faith
While her partners were seeking to meet with her, Farmer was already aboard the SS Fürst Bismarck out of New York as a guest of Maria P. Wilson trying to release herself of her worries in first week of January 1900. Wilson and Farmer ran into friends Josephine Locke and Elizabeth Knudson aboard ship – and eventually learned they were on the way to see ʻAbdu'l-Bahá who was leader of a new religion and had in their possession an early prayer book. Wilson was dubious but eventually the ladies changed their plans and went along. They waited in Egypt where there are pictures of her with Mírzá Abu'l-Faḍl and scenes there, before leaving for Haifa March 23, 1900.
A few years later her friend Mary Hanford Ford related some of what took place meeting ʻAbdu'l-Bahá as a second hand account. A few facts are detailed - Farmer had met ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and accepted the religion on one occasion, and on another wanted to ask him a series of questions in the context of a review of her whole life - but when she wrote it all down she left the notebook in the hurry of being called to come to him in the early morning. She reported he answered the questions spontaneously and in the right order starting in such a way that the translator was confused because no question had been asked. At the end of that interview she cried "... strange tears of ecstatic happiness, and went to her room to recover the composure which had been shaken by these surprising and illuminating events." This list of questions is referred to in another briefer recollection. Anise Rideout had a similar record of the incident. Rideout reports that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá wrote an inscription in Farmer's Bible dated March 26. For Maria Wilson's part she also joined the religion and was the first Baháʼí to move to Boston.
After being in Haifa and Egypt the women also spent some time in Paris among a small group of Baháʼís after the visit, and Rome.
Back at Greenacre
The Summer 1900 program went on without Farmer, though the Monsalvat school was suspended that year. Farmer returned to the United States in November, injured on arrival according to one account. There were also reports that the translator at the meeting had come to the United States with Farmer on the return voyage. She was noted back in Eliot in May 1901. An organizational meeting came together May 22 and dedicated a site on nearby "Mount Monsalvat", as Farmer called it, to eventually host a school. Kate C. Ives was among those present. That Spring of 1901 she also met with Phoebe Hearst, who herself had been to see ʻAbdu'l-Bahá a few years earlier and she too had adopted the religion.
Farmer was publicly linked with the religion in June 1901. Of the Baháʼí Faith, it was explained, "... she has found the common faith in which all devout souls may unite and yet be free." At the time there were some 700 Baháʼís in the United States.
Amidst her conflict with Janes and newfound attachment to the Baháʼí Faith she offered free classes in parallel, even conflicting on time, with Janes' Monsalvat school classes. In 1901 the charge for the entire season of classes with Janes' group was five dollars for the Monsalvat school – in inflation terms that would be $140 in 2014.
Schmidt featured Farmer and Greenacre in a chapter "Freedom and Self-Surrender" of a book Restless Souls: The Making of American Spirituality published by the University of California Press in 2012:
The struggle at the heart of liberal spirituality ... was over the firmness and fragility of religious identity in the modern world. ... Was the point precisely the freedom of spiritual seeking? Or was the real point to find a well-marked path and to submit to the disciplines of a new religious authority in order to submerge the self in a larger relationship to God and community? ... Farmer's eventual acceptance of the Baha'i faith or "the Persian Revelation" ... discomfited her liberal, universalistic friends, many of whom preferred ongoing inquiry to actually finding one path to follow. For Farmer, the vision that she found in the Baha'i faith of a new age of religious unity, racial reconciliation, gender equality, and global peace was the fulfillment of Transcendentalism's reform impulses and progressivism's millennial dreams. To her skeptical associates, her turn to the Persian Revelation represented a betrayal of their deepest ideals as free-ranging seekers whose vision of a cosmopolitan piety dimmed at the prospect of one movement serving as a singular focus for the universal religion.
Nevertheless, Farmer focused the efforts of the institution on Baháʼí themes. In her words in 1902:
My joy in the Persian Revelation is not that it reveals one of the streams flowing to the great Ocean of Life, Light and Love, but that it is a perfect mirror of that Ocean. What, in Green Acre, was a vision and a hope becomes, through it a blessed reality now. It has illuminated for me every other expression of Truth which I had hitherto known and place my feet on a Rock from which they cannot be moved. And it is the Manifestation of the Fatherhood - Behá'u'lláh (ed - as it was spelled in those days) - who had taught me to look away from even the Greatest and find within the One 'Powerful, Mighty, and Supreme' who is to be the Redeemer of my life. It is a Revelation of Unity such as I had never before found. By means of its Light, as shown the life of the Master Abbas Abdul Beha, I have entered into a joy greater than any I have hitherto known. Green Acre was established as a means to that end and in proportion as well lay aside all spirit of criticism of others and seek only to live the Unity we find, shall we be able to help others to the same divine realization.
Farmer opened the 1901 session at Greenacre with an address "The Revelation of Baháʼu'lláh and its relation to the Monsalvat School" while others gave related talks – "The New Jerusalem, or the City We Want", "Lecture on the Persian Revelation", and "Utterances of Baháʼu'lláh." Mírzá Abu'l-Faḍl, among the most scholarly trained Baháʼís of the time, was there, and his talk was "Lectures on the Revelations of the Báb and Baháʼu'lláh of Persia". Ali Kuli Khan, to serve as his translator, arrived in the United States in June. Abu'l-Faḍl had accompanied Anton Haddad, the first Baháʼí to live in the United States, on his return trip to America. They had been sent by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. The later well known Baháʼí Agnes Baldwin Alexander, later appointed to a high office of the religion, was also there. Esther Davis reports others were there that summer of 1901: she herself, Raffii, the translator at one of Farmer's meetings with ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, and "Mother Beecher" (Ellen Tuller Beecher.) Mary Hanford Ford was there giving one of her talks on literature, and it was at these classes with Abu'l-Faḍl it is considered she joined the religion. Out of this the community of Baháʼís began to form in Boston. Farmer and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá began an active exchange of letters some twenty-plus of his which were gathered and printed initially in 1909 and then the third edition in 1919.
Nevertheless, Farmer did not embark on a heavy handed approach to the presence of the religion and made various compromises to limit its mention and presence, and this fits the Baháʼí teaching about not proselytizing. Her problems did not go away though Janes suddenly died in the fall of 1901. A memorial was held at Greenacre September 6. Fillmore Moore, the director of the Comparative Religion school after Janes, continued the criticism. Others sided with Janes' views including Sanborn and investor Sara Chapman Bull. Meanwhile, a number of eastern teachers presenting their own religions, beyond those of the Baháʼís themselves, began to appear officially on the programs of Monsalvat School beyond those of academically interested non-believers - Muslim Shehadi Abd-Allah Shehadi in 1901, (and later lived in Providence, RI and had a park named after him,) Buddhist Sister Sanghamitta before she left for India as a new convert, B. S. Kimura of Japan, in 1902, Dharmpala, M. Barukatulah, Baha Premanand in 1904, and C. Jinaradadaen in 1905. Fadl and Khan were profiled along with a review of the religion in 1903.
Ralph Waldo Trine wrote a book while at Greenacre and published it in 1903. Additionally music concerts became more common – one of the first was directed by early Baháʼí Edward Kinney. Myron H. Phelps, as part of the transition of the Monsalvat School in his position as director in 1904 and 5 gave a talk on the religion at the 1904 conference following his 1903 book, (though it was later judged to be full of inaccuracies by the Baháʼís.) Articles based on the work were printed in various journals, some noting Greenacre as well.
In the face of the changing realms of support Phoebe Hearst was particularly stabilizing for Farmer in 1902 followed by Helen E. Cole in 1906. Another factor in the progress of Greenacre was that steamer boat service from Portsmouth ran regularly in 1895, and the arrival of electric train service in Eliot near the hotel in 1902. Finally in 1902 Farmer initiated a voluntary board – a "Fellowship" – "a sustaining body to help carry forward the Green Acre Conferences of which Sarah J. Farmer is the director." Amidst this Farmer's personal home burned to the ground in 1904, and Randolph Bolles, whose sister and niece were well known Baháʼís, took up residence living there until he died in 1939.
Year of Peace
In 1904 and 1905 Japanese diplomats visited Greenacre – Yokoyama Taikan, Okakura Kakuzō and Kentok Hori, signing Farmer's autograph book with quotations and drawings for a special tea service and presentations. As an institution Greenacre developed a brief set of "branch" associations including one in Washington D.C. in 1905 that began to host peace conferences.
Farmer's connections and determination for peace was such that she was present at the signing of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty and indeed was the only woman on the naval base. The event was remembered in more recent times. Diplomats from the treaty meeting attended functions at Greenacre. Some 300 attended, including a few reporters from Japan, though President Roosevelt and the Russian delegation did not. There were several talks presented on peace including by Minister Takahira and Ali Kuli Khan, who, in a letter to his wife Florence Breed Khan, called it the most important day in the history of Green Acre to that point.
At the same time a few became interested in the Baháʼí Faith at Green Acre – Harlan Ober and Alfred E. Lunt were Bostonians who joined the religion in the summer of 1905 at Greenacre with Ober learning of the religion first through Lua Getsinger and Alice Buckton, and then Lunt learned of the religion from Ober. Ober had been in shipping interests. Ober and Lunt were leaders in Republican party politics on college campuses, in the era of the Fourth Party System also known as the Progressive Era. About 1905 a formal board to supervise Greenacre called the "Green Acre Fellowship" superseded the earlier voluntary one and was arranged with five trustees – Francis Keefe, Aldred E. Lunt, Horatio Dresser, Maria Wilson, and Fillmore Moore, (two were Baháʼí, three not.)
In the summer of 1906 Stanwood Cobb learned of the religion from a series of articles in the Boston Transcript and went to Green Acre to learn more. He conversed with Sarah Farmer. Thornton Chase, the "first occidental Baháʼí" was also there giving a series of talks. It was on that occasion that Cobb joined the religion. Others were also there giving talks, as well as a meeting of civil war veterans. Ponnambalam Ramanathan's talk that year was featured in the Boston Evening Transcript.
Others also came to Greenacre. In 1906 among others noted, then Third assistant Secretary of State Huntington Wilson, then retired General O. O. Howard, and Ex-Governor John Green Brady of Alaska all gave talks or hosted meetings. Marsden Hartley took a job as a handyman there and through his association he secured his first exhibition, and was friends with Ober and Lunt.
1907–1912
In 1907 it was still possible to review things at Greenacre without mentioning Baháʼís. May Wright Sewall spoke in 1907 at Green Acre. Newspaper coverage began to cover the division and resolution at Greenacre and Farmer managed to keep the reputation of Greenacre high through 1907. Coverage of events occurred in Indianapolis.
Baháʼís sometimes objected that contradictory ideas were presented together while others sometimes objected there was too much Baháʼí coverage. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's advise to Farmer was to be more direct about the religion and less supportive of "mouldered, two thousand years old superstitions". However, in 1907 other events took hold when, at the age of 60, Farmer fell off a train car in Boston, was injured and never fully recovered. She checked herself into McLean Hospital possibly with a severe injury to her back, when it was a sanitorium.
The 1908 season went on though with perhaps a reduced schedule. Fillmore Moore pressed her to surrender the right of trustee appointing and issued a pained statement in 1909. Writer Diane Iverson feels Farmer progressed in her hospitalization over a broken heart from the contention over Greenacre. Her care transferred to a private duty nurse in Portsmouth and from there, when she "became 'too much to handle'", into the care of early psychologist Dr. Edward Cowles.
Farmer's last public appearance at Green Acre was in 1909. The season was successful with singer Mary Lucas (who had joined the religion in 1905,) and many others. That year the Green Acre Fellowship board voted to rebuild Farmer's residence on the site of her father's home at a cost of $5000.
Farmer changed her will to bequeath Greenacre to the Baháʼís in the event of her death via an agent of Phoebe Hearst. Her family involuntarily committed her to a mental institution in July 1910, At the same time the by-laws of the institution allowed Farmer to appoint 3 of its 5 trustees, fill vacancies, and remove any of the trustees. All this was just before the centenary of the town of Eliot itself was celebrated including at Greenacre. Meanwhile, early Canadian Baháʼís, the Magees, began to be regular summer visitors. Among the several presenters and singers were a few Baháʼís, as well as W. E. B. Du Bois and Swami Paramananda.
Ali Kuli Khan was appointed Iranian Charge D'Affaires in Washington D. C. in 1910.
A review of the history of Greenacre was published in 1911 in the local paper though there was more description of the alienness of Vivekananda in racist terms. The season had many speakers.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in the area
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, then head of the religion, embarked on travels to the West following release from imprisonment. While the regular season at Greenacre ran in July, he was there from 16 to 23 August.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá referred to renaming it "Green Acre" vs "Greenacre" in relation to the Baháʼí presence where the founder of the religion is buried - referring to Acre, Syria. Though Farmer herself referred to "Green Acre" since 1902 and publicly in 1903 and the formation documents of the Fellowship also used "Green Acre" - nevertheless Schmidt notes the change in use as a dividing line among the groups involved. Another name sometimes used is "Green-acre-on-the-Piscataqua" dating from 1897 and in modern times. Greenacre itself as a name for the site seems to predate the building of the hotel.
Some five or eight hundred people were there to hear ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's first talk. The talk was about ways of knowing the truth – he disavowed individual approaches like pure reason, simple authority, individual inspiration, etc., but affirmed:
[A] statement presented to the mind accompanied by proofs which the senses can perceive to be correct, which the faculty of reason can accept, which is in accord with traditional authority and sanctioned by the promptings of the heart, can be adjudged and relied upon as perfectly correct, for it has been proved and tested by all the standards of judgment and found to be complete.
Some repudiated their former beliefs in the sanctity in pure inspiration.
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá then visited Farmer at her home.
That evening ʻAbdu'l-Bahá addressed the audience at the Eirenion and he wrote a prayer for Farmer. He was in the program speaking August 16, 17, 18, and 19 with Herbert Peckham speaking at most of the remaining schedule of the week. Several of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's talks were gathered and published in The Promulgation of Universal Peace pages 253–275. He also visited the homes of other Baháʼís – Mason Remey, Carrie and Edward Kinney. At other talks members of the audience wept during his prayers or fainted. He spoke to a girls club camp group by the river on August 19. In a letter he declared Farmer was not insane but experiencing "religious exultation" and not suffering from female hysteria as these things were viewed in the day. He met with individuals on other days at Green Acre or the home of Kate Ives, the first woman member of the religion, offering advice and a listening ear to each.
Fred Mortensen arrived August 20. Mortensen had been a criminal that fled arrest – his lawyer was Baháʼí Albert Hall of Minnesota from whom he learned of the religion. Riding from Minneapolis to Cleveland he then went on to Green Acre – all by way of Freighthopping. Being introduced in a crowd he was embarrassed at his dirty appearance and then was told to sit down amid the company of people in fine dress and wait but soon ʻAbdu'l-Bahá returned and began to speak closely with Mortensen His inquiry revealed how Mortensen had traveled.
Mortensen had arrived on a day ʻAbdu'l-Baha had arranged as a feast which was held on "Mount Monsalvat" and a large panomramic picture taken. Mortensen is seated farthest on the left. Farmer was also reportedly there led by the hand by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá across the hill for a few minutes and had a long conversation then publicly pointed out the area would be host to the second Baháʼí Temple for America as well as a university and then praised Farmer openly.
There followed a few more talks and farewell visits on topics like elimination of prejudice. He was said to characterize the work as "like that of the exhausted iron worker's apprentice whose master said to him 'Die, but pump.'
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá again visited Farmer and they went on a car tour including a stop to view the shipyard where the treaty had been signed. On the return trip she was not allowed to step off the car when it stopped at Green Acre.
On the last day at Green Acre he met with individuals and then left stopping at Farmer's hospitalization again this time by carriage – she wept at his feet on that occasion.
Baháʼí management
1913–1916
With news that Farmer was visible, if only briefly, her health was celebrated, but the "more urgent" appeal by some was to warn people that Green Acre was "threatened with dire calamity" in June 1913. A meeting in June seemed to present a calm front, and noted Farmer had previously appointed a guardian while she was indisposed, but the controversy continued in July. What had happened was that the terms of the trust Green Acre had specified authority resting on Farmer as long as she could direct the program. However, in 1913 she could not and a re-arrangement was undertaken by the board allowing a trustee to run the conference and maintain the program - a step feared by the Sanborn and Fillmore affiliated groups. Sanborn published arguments over rights of access. Public rallies were echoed in print in Open Court and newspapers especially opposing a sense of the religious self-surrender and the foreignness of the Baháʼí Faith. Nevertheless, the board was expanded to nine members and William Randall, shipping businessman and Baháʼí since before 1912, was appointed a trustee, and only one was not a Baháʼí. Scary headlines in various places continued near and far. A program was carried on regardless. Kate Ives, the first Baháʼí of Boston, wrote a letter to the editor inviting Portsmouth residents to a talk on the religion. Debates began about who was Farmer's guardian started in January 1914 with news there was another guardian of her affairs. But Farmer then had been declared sane in February, though the matter was raised again in March when Farmer's family sought to have her guardian appointed by them. Amidst partisan charges in the newspaper the doctor agreed Farmer was sane and competent to run her own affairs in June.
Meanwhile, in May 1914 Alfred E. Lunt was elect to the national leadership of the religion along with William Randall.
The controversy at Green Acre grew more tense. In July Farmer's mental condition was challenged with complaints and support statements all brought into court again as well as the rightful jurisdiction of two guardians of Farmer raised to superior courts.
The July 1914 program at Green Acre went on – it included a talk by later Baháʼí Howard Colby Ives which was printed in the newspaper, as well as Alice Breed, Alfred E. Lunt, and others, while others gave protesting talks from the street. The Fellowship board of Green Acre had argued over money ultimately in court which was settled, but the propriety of the expanded elected board was affirmed and required by-law amendments to be not just by the trustees but by the whole group of investors.
Early Canadian Baháʼí Hariet Magee died at Green Acre in January 1915. Early in 1915 Randall oversaw the electrification of the Inn and driveway. Following the Baháʼí participation at the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in spring 1915, Lunt again served on the national board of Baháʼís in the United States; this time as president, with Ober as secretary. Baháʼís then began to buy several neighboring properties to Green Acre. Still Farmer was not released from hospitalization despite several rounds of judging her sane and fit to mind her own affairs and she had been treated with drugs and electroshock therapy. Now Baháʼís began to plan for Farmer's release - primarily William Randall, Urbain Ledoux, and Montford Mills – and tried various approaches. Ultimately they gathered a chief of police and a judge to accompany a court order with some intercepting the doctor physically and others carried Farmer to a waiting car to effect her freedom. A cousin of Farmer, Helen Green, also participated and recorded her testimony retained in the Baháʼí national archives. Randall and Ober and others were visible at Green Acre a week later. Farmer managed to have her next birthday in comparative freedom, quietly. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá praised the work freeing Farmer. There was a session that summer at Green Acre.
The case was appealed questioning jurisdiction in the argument over guardians in late 1915. The courts settled the case over guardianship against Sanborn's group in 1916. Meanwhile, the donation of Helen Cole in 1902 was set for building what became called the Fellowship House constructed in the middle 1916. Farmer was interviewed in the Boston Post in August during which the reporter had an experience he couldn't explain, (though there also several typos in the article and mis-labeling), and Farmer then died in November, while walking in her family cemetery. There was a guard to protect her body lest it be taken. Sanborn called for an official inquiry of her death. The eulogy was read by Kate Ives and attending were Lunt, Ober and Randall among others of Boston and the area - Ober was noted an officer of Green Acre along with Lunt. With Farmer and her Will supporting the Baháʼís the case ended. The transcendentalists school were, to put it mildly, upset, as were the supporters of the academic school. The Baháʼís inherited the $25k in debt too. Though at the time the newspaper coverage was dismissive over her work, modern coverage noted "She anticipated the peace movement, women's liberation and the New Age culture." Farmer's contribution was considered a "singularly important" to the development of Baháʼí schools. Posthumously, Shoghi Effendi, later head of the religion, appointed her as one of the Disciples of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. Baháʼís noted her individual service as raising a status of organization vs institutionalization, setting a place for the rise of some of Americas' most active supporters of the religion, and the very nature of that place. However, liberal religious idealization noticed that a democratic system had awarded Green Acre to sectarian view. It is true that before 1900 there were about a half dozen Baháʼís in New England and that most of the growth of the religion in the region is attributed to the work done at Green Acre.
There is no record of a summer session in 1916. Ober wrote a letter to the editor about the religion and Green Acre earlier in August.
Green Acre and contributing to the national leadership
The 1917 Spring national convention of Baháʼís with meetings held at Green Acre and Boston. In 1917 William Randall was again elected to the national board of the religion and that year he was elected as president of the board and Harlan Ober was elected to the board as well. Among the speakers on the summer schedule at Green Acre in 1917 were Horace Holley, Randall, Albert R. Vail, Louis G. Gregory, Eshteal Ebn Kalanter, Lunt, and Albert Hall. Randall spoke at Green Acre on "The mission of Green Acre" and another "Talks of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá" as well as others by Frederick Strong on several topics as well as Edward Getsinger.
The military discussed taking over the Green Acre property for its workmen in 1918. Randall was again elected to the national board of the religion, this time as treasurer, in 1918. Though the Inn did not open there was still a summer session with James F. Morton Jr. and a national Esperanto conference being held. Martha Root attended. And Mr and Mrs. Ober, Lunt, and May Maxwell were noted in the services for the funeral program for a close friend of Farmer who died. Randall along with Juliet Thompson, May Maxwell and Albert Vail, debated the position of Green Acre on whether to raise the Peace Flag and ultimately decided it should be raised. Prayers were said at Green Acre to end World War I.
Randall was on Baháʼí pilgrimage after the war, in 1919 and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá encouraged him to continue the work of Farmer at Green Acre. Randall served as the administrator of Green Acre from 1919 to 1929 when he died. Harlan Ober was at the 1919 national convention of Baháʼís was held in New York. The 1919 convention was a major event in the religion because it was also the place the Tablets of the Divine Plan of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá were published.
Traveling teacher of the religion Fádil Mazandarání gave several talks at Green Acre in 1920. Randall was elected to the national board again in 1920 as treasurer and addressed the convention. Randall was listed as the contact for announcing events and reserving rooms at Green Acre in 1920 by Albert Vail.
Siegfried Schopflocher, later to become another Hand of the Cause, joined the religion at Green Acre in 1921 and helped improve the property. A Tea House and gift shop were established. Paul Haney and May Maxwell were also known at the facility in 1921. A major memorial for the death of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was held in 1922. Otherwise there is no known program in 1921. In 1922 a program was carried on by Louis Gregory, Albert Watson, Juliet Putnam, George Latimer, Mr. and Mrs. Aldo Randagger, Mrs. E. Boye, W H Randall. Randall was appointed to the supervisory board of the Baháʼí periodical Star of the West in 1922, and contributed an article on Green Acre. In 1923 he was noted as chairman of the board of Green Acre while continuing as treasurer for the newly designated National Spiritual Assembly. A general renovation was begun in 1921 and completed in 1924 – repairs, painting, and clearing away scrub growth, etc., was done. A program went on in 1923 with Fádil Mazandarání giving a talk, among the program that summer. The "Eirenion" burned down in 1924, right before the summer season of Green Acre was held with an international theme and presence and the first appearance of Glenn A. Shook, professor of Wheaton College (Massachusetts).
In 1925 there were a number of developments. First the national convention was held at Green Acre. Famous African-American leader Alain Locke, a Baháʼí since 1918, spoke at the 1925 convention. Second, the national election was held under new rules fully endorsed by the head of the religion. That year a local assembly was elected for the first time in Eliot. And lastly it was announced the administrative offices of the religion would be run from Green Acre. The members of the Eliot local assembly were – Horace and Doris Holley, Kate Ives, Ivy Drew Edwards, Marion Jack, Colonel Henry and Mary Culver, Ella Roberts and Phillip Marangella. Lunt was noted on the board of trustees of Green Acre. Baháʼí Mary Lucas who had performed at Green Acre several times held her professional school for singers there.
While the history of persecution of Baháʼís in Persia goes back some many years the first known newspaper mention in the area was in 1926. That summer the program was "Green Acre Summer School of World Unity" in August. But the National Assembly acquired direct authority of the Green Acre establishment. At the same time the national assembly began a "Plans of Unified Action" process that included a plan to centralize all Baháʼí funding of projects through one national fund including Green Acre resulting in a learning process for the assembly and the community in maintaining priorities in a nationwide context – a process that extended into the 1930s during the Great Depression. Education reformer Stanwood Cobb established "Mast Cove Camp" at Eliot that year too.
Programs and model
In 1927 Green Acre hosted its first Race Amity Convention in mid-July following an initiative push by Shoghi Effendi, then head of the religion, in April. The first convention had been held in Washington D.C. in 1921 followed by a lapse, and this 1927 convention was arranged by a committee appointed by the US Baháʼí National Spiritual Assembly – Agnes Parsons, Coralie F. Cook, Louis Gregory, Zia Bagdadi, Alain Locke, Elizabeth G. Hopper and Isabel Ives, (though Locke appears on the program he did not actually speak at the convention.) Prominent contributors at the convention included Devere Allen of The World Tomorrow, Samuel McComb of the Emmanuel Movement, Rev. William Stafford Jones and recent pilgrims Edwina Powell and S. E. J. Oglesby. According to Louis Gregory he had to chair one of the sessions "so that the affair would not be too one-sided" in the face of low participation despite "a little under-current of bad feeling" among some Baháʼís. This proved the first of a series of annual race amity conferences. However, the event turned out to be so successful that money from the national budget to support the event was in fact covered by generous individuals caught up in the event and instead the allotment of about $400,(alittle over $5400 in 2014 dollars,) was returned to be contributed to the costs for building the American Baháʼí Temple. There was a peace program the following August.
The success of Green Acre as a Baháʼí institution began to inspire other regional schools for the religion: first came Bosch Baháʼí School becoming more formally a Baháʼí school in 1927 and another in 1931 at Louhelen Baháʼí School.
The pace of race amity meetings continued nationwide for Baháʼís into 1928 when it was again held at Green Acre in August. Randall also took part in it. Perhaps Randall's final appearance was August 1928 at a commemoration of the visit of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá to Green Acre. Randall died Feb 11, 1929. Meanwhile, in 1928 Ober gave a talk in Brooklyn, and Grace hosted an evening social at Green Acre. That year the official board of Green Acre, the "Fellowship", formally deeded Green Acre to a trustees appointed by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís of the United States. Lunt served on the national assembly that year.
The regular program at Green Acre ran in 1930 with talks and services by Albert Vail, Glenn Shook, Stanwood Cobb, Genevieve Coy, Doris Gregory, Allen McDaniel, A B Herst, Mrs Willard McKay, and Louis Gregory. A third Race Amity Convention was also held at Green Acre that year despite the onset of The Great Depression and among which officers of the national Urban League assisted. The 1931 summer conference included a talk by William Leo Hansberry of Howard University discussing the science behind recognizing "Negro civilizations in Ancient Africa". In the 1930s Genevieve Coy directed studies at Green Acre and more formal classes were undertaken than lectures – on languages and Baháʼí texts for example. Fundraising at Green Acre was undertaken to aid in the construction of the Baháʼí House of Worship (Wilmette, Illinois). By 1932 both Farmer and Randall were noted as Disciples of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. The 1932 season was noted in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The Ober family purchased a home near Green Acre in 1932 in the midst of the Great Depression, and Harlan soon was reading on the radio at Portsmouth's WHEB station weekly after noon from spring into the fall from 1933 into 1935 (with occasional gaps). Grace spoke at the Portsmouth chapter of Hadassah and Ober was also visible at other events – a funeral, and several series of talks in 1933. In 1933 he also gave a program series on "Psychology and Life" for Alpha Beta sorority and a ladies club. The regular summer season at Green Acre took place. Glenn Shook's talk was profiled in the local paper. And a "Race Amity Conference" was held too, following which Gregory expressed satisfaction with the now long history of Race Amity meetings at Green Acre despite the economic troubles during the Great Depression.
A Race Amity Convention was held at a time when few others were being held across the country in August 1934. It proved to be the last in the 1930s. In 1936 the national assembly had noted that race amity meetings had sometimes emphasized race differences rather than unity and reconciliation when held at a national level and instead asked local communities to provide meetings which a few communities continued to do later into the 1930s. In November Ober gave a talk in Eliot for the Christian Endeavor Society, and Zeta Alpha Men's Club of a Baptist church. The family wintered in New York to February 1935, and their college student daughter visited them in the summer of 1935. There was also smaller race amity conference that year as part of the general session. It hosted week long course on "Racial likenesses and differences: the scientific evidence and the Baháʼí Teachings" by Genevieve Coy and there were individual talks by Coy, Glenn Shook, Standwood Cobb, Lunt and Samuel Chiles Mitchell, past president of the University of South Carolina (1909–1913).
Ober was a substitute speaker in January 1936 at Green Acre, and lead a funeral there. The Summer schedule at Green Acre went on including Montford Mills, Louis G. Gregory, Manses L. Sato, Dorothy Beecher Baker, Mary Collison, Hishmat Alai, and featuring Stanwood Cobb. Then there was another "Race Amity" session during the summer session of the school. The structure of the classes and offerings at Green Acre further transitioned from summer conferencing to focused classes that year too noting participation by Horace Holley, Edward H. Adams, Louis G. Gregory with music by Evelyn Loveday, sessions by Mrs. M. B. Trotman, Maxwell Miller, Mrs. Bishp Lewis, Ludmilla Bechtold, Theodore C. A. McCardy, and more music by Martha Boutwell.
After serving on the national assembly off an on into the 1930s Lunt died from an illness in 1937 and Shoghi Effendi asked the entire national assembly to assemble at his gravesite on his behalf in Boston. That year a Hall was built replacing the burned down Eirenion a decade earlier and the fourth floor of the Inn was renovated.
Grace Ober died immediately after giving a talk at the Chicago Baháʼí national convention in April 1938 – Harlan was then serving on the national spiritual assembly after traveling in Louisville Kentucky. Harlan gave the next talk at Green Acre that July 1938, and the August schedule for Green Acre took place. Ober then toured universities in December, and served on the Green Acre summer committee for the school in 1939. The 1939 season at Green Acre went on with among the teachers Louis Gregory, and Horace Holley and officers of the program committee including Mrs. Harold Bowman, Ober, Lorna Tasker and Marjorie Wheeler; and there was a focus on discussing international problems.
Nancy Bowditch
Also known as Mrs. Harold Bowditch, Nancy was the daughter of George de Forest Brush who was active in Dublin, New Hampshire, as well as Europe. Though she was among those who had met ʻAbdu-l-Bahá at Green Acre her life changed with the unexpected death of her husband shortly after and she and her new child soon moved away - it wasn't until she came across the religion again in 1927 and heard Randal speak that she considered the religion. This may have been an event the Boston Baháʼí community hosted called a "World Unity Conference" as part of a series sponsored by the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baháʼís of the United States. A report of the conference was published in the Boston Evening Transcript. Randall helped organize and spoke at it. She then credits Randall, Louise Drake Wright and her sister Mrs. George Nelson as aiding her inquiry into the religion while she read books like Baháʼu'lláh and the New Era. She officially joined the religion in 1929. She was visible in the 1930 Race Amity Convention held at Green Acre, and left on Baháʼí pilgrimage in late March 1931 with her then 19 yr old daughter. They spent three weeks in the area of Haifa and left by way of Jerusalem taking in Christian paths of pilgrimage. She then attended the 1931 national convention reporting on events in Boston as the chair of the Boston Assembly.
Bowditch repeated her activity at the Green Acre Race Amity conference in 1934 including an event at her home. In 1936 she assisted in World Order magazine publications with some cover art. In 1937 she offered a talk for the summer program at Green Acre that also dedicated a new hall. In 1938 she took up residence in a summer studio at Green Acre and ran a program on art for the school. There is a break in visible activity in 1940 and her father died April 24, 1941, but she was again involved at Green Acre in July 1941 for a pageant. After another year gap in activity she was on the centenary committee of 1943–44, to commemorate the founding of the religion in 1844. In Portsmouth she offered a program at the Baháʼí library about her pilgrimage, as well as at Green Acre. She was on the maintenance committee for Green Acre across 1945–1947. In Teaneck, New Jersey she offered a program for youth on dramatizations of the religion, and her poem "The Song of Tahirih" was published in July 1947 World Order magazine. In 1948 she was listed as the corresponding secretary of the Baháʼí group of Brookline, Massachusetts, and offered a program in nearby Hamilton, Massachusetts. Her mother died in 1949. In 1950 she published a play "The desert tent: An Easter play in three episodes".
In 1953 Bowditch was noted helping a Portsmouth community pageant, and her family moved to Peterborough, New Hampshire, in the south of the state in 1959, attended the 1963 Baháʼí World Congress with her husband and a granddaughter, and in 1965 Bowditch is pictured on the first local Spiritual Assembly of Brookline, the local administrative organization of the religion.
1972 she was noted for a Portsmouth Friends of the Library, spoke at Meriden Connecticut on her memory of meeting ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, and aided in costumes for play at Keene State College.
She died May 1, 1979 and a posthumously published memoir, "The Artist's Daughter: Memoirs 1890–1979" was printed with the aide of her grandchildren.
Regular hosts at Green Acre were Bahiyyih Randall and Harry Ford along with Mildred Mottahedeh in the 1940s. Louis Gregory and Curtis Kelsey led a race unity workshop at Green Acre in August 1940 and there was a focus on religion and science in a series of talks as well as individual talks. During the tenure of Randall and Ford, Randall gathered historical materials both at Green Acre and from the Baháʼí national archives, the fourth floor of the Inn was renovated, and a new separate building, Baha'i Hall, was built.
In 1941 a trusteeship was created for Green Acre for the National Spiritual Assembly of the United States and Canada – its members were Allen McDaniel, Dorothy Baker, Roy Wilhelm, Horace Holley, Siegfried Scholpflocher, Leroy Ioas, Amelia Collings, Louis Gregory, Harlan Ober. The Baháʼís officially announced the new name of the institution as the "Green Acre Baháʼí School". The extended program of events carried on with wide attendance. That year the site also began to host annual race unity conferences – that year having talks by Louis Gregory, Roy Wilkins of the NAACP and The Crisis, Matthew Bullock and Dorothy Baker.
In July 1942 Helen Archambault, William Kenneth and Robert Christian, Harry Ford, Ober and Cobb all gave talks at the summer session of Green Acre, followed by a study class series by William Kenneth, Roberta Christian, and Ober. Paul Haney married Helen Margery Wheeler there in 1942. Shook's talk at Green Acre in July 1942 was profiled in the local paper, and his presentations went on into September along with other events. A number of prominent Baháʼís were in a Green Acre "Race Amity" conference in August 1942 – Dorothy Beecher Baker, Matthew Bollock, Ali Kuli Khan, Mabel Jenkins, Harlan Ober, Lorna Tasker, Louis Gregory, Doris McKay, Hillery Thorne, and Harriet Kelsey were all on the speaker list. Among the other presenters were Phyllis Weatley and James Weldon Johnson. Ober continued at a general session at Green Acre a few days later.
1943
1943 was a year of race riots around the United States – the Beaumont race riot of 1943 of mid-June, the Detroit race riot of 1943 of late June, and the Harlem riot of 1943 of early August. Profiles of the religion's teaching of race unity had been highlighted by Alice Simmons Cox in The New York Age in the winter-spring Dorothy Beecher Baker had a talk series including the subject of race unity in Rochester, NY, in late July just before the Green Acre summer session and Mrs. Charles Witt talk on race unity over in Los Angeles, CA. Ober was one among several present in an August series of talks at Green Acre – Mary Coristine, Philip Sprague, Lorraine Welsh, Lorna Tasker, Mary McClendon, Gertrude Atkinson, Louis Gregory, Horace Holley, Mrs. Florence Breed Khan, Hesmat Ala'i, Maud Mickle, and Mabel Jenkins all contributed on topics of equality of women and unity of humanity, with the largest attendance of the season, partly from a nationwide call for the prominence of the topic, while the late August session also featured a review of the life of Muhammad. The National assembly had set in motion a series of efforts in anticipation of the Centenary of the Declaration of the Báb, saying the situation of race in the country "demands our devoted attention and endeavor throughout September and October, the fundamental teaching of the Faith, its most challenging principle, its swift healing antidote for the ills of a divided world." There was a specific attempt to reach the public, and on the subject of the oneness of mankind – race unity. The conference achieved some newspaper publicity, and there was indeed a breadth of many talks by Baháʼís into November. Among them were Dorothy Beecher Baker, Louis G. Gregory, and Alain Locke.
The next summer, of 1944, had its own crisis. There was a series by managed by Ober and Nancy Bowditch in early July, but pleas came from the National Assembly that Tera Cowart-Smith drop her plans in Atlanta and arrange to be at Green Acre to take over the management of the summer session.p. 61–7 She reports great difficulty in deciding to go in the face of having to drop her clients, and in getting there, and many privations figuring out how to feed the guests. Mildred Mottahedeh was there assisting her through the period and 75 guests came. The public news covered her at Green Acre. The race unity meeting had Genevieve Coy, Mildred Mottahedeh, Ober, Gregory, Lydia Martin and Sarah Martin (Pereira), and Matthew Bullock (who himself recalled the bitter disappointment of integrated service in the military and returning home to a segregated society.) The national assembly advertised for managers for Green Acre in November. Ober also gave a later series at the Portsmouth Baháʼí Center late in the year and into spring 1945. Sessions of near one hundred people ran in the 1945 race unity meeting and in 1946 a week long study was done on "The Negro in American Life". Gregory called it "the most wonderful season in its history, save that of 1912 when His Holidness ʻAbdu'l-Bahá Himself taught here."
Winter season classes were begun in 1947 by Emanuel (Manny) and Janet Reimer in their cottage "on campus" which grew to be housed in the main "Fellowship Hall". Though talks were held in June 1949, during the rest of 1949 and 1950 the executive decision was made by then head of the religion Shoghi Effendi to close Green Acre School for two years of "austerity" while the final push to finish the Baháʼí House of Worship was under way. A program for World Religion Day did take place in January 1950 over in Portsmouth with Baháʼí support and others Shook was elected chair of the Eliot assembly in 1950 – the other members were Lucien McComb, Mrs McComb, Thorton Pearsall, Vincent Minutti, Mrs Delbert Cress, Mrs Dudley Blakely, Mrs John Marlow, Emaniel Reimer – and other smaller events took place.
1950s
Green Acre Baháʼí School was reopened in 1951 thanks in part to youth groups working on getting the facility ready.
Louis G. Gregory
Louis G. Gregory went to Green Acre in the fall of 1911 for the first time – it was just a few months after his return from Baháʼí pilgrimage. In 1912 he married Louise Matthews. He was next known at Green Acre in 1917 when he gave a talk "Prophetic proofs of the Baha'i Revelation." In 1920 the Gregories were able to spend some ten days together after many months each traveling in different directions for the religion amidst a time where inter-racial marriage was socially troubled and he was "so onerous and irritable, so unlike himself" that his wife was in despair over his condition - nevertheless he set out on the longest of his teaching tours the following year. From then on most summers they were able to be in the environment at Eliot and it became their "home base". In 1922, while a member of the National Spiritual Assembly, he chaired the summer program and gave two talks at Green Acre – "Prayer and Praise", and "The Holy Mariner". They were there in 1923. He attended the organizing 1925 national convention held at Green Acre. The 1926 summer program at Green Acre had Gregory as co-director with Albert Vail and Howard MacNutt. They were there in June 1929 before the Green Acre program started. Like many leaders in the religion, the Gregories began to serve overseas for extended periods in the 1930s – Louise in Europe at first and then the both of them in Haiti. The Gregorys returned to Green Acre in 1938 but wintered in Cambridge.
In 1940 the Gregories bought a different summer cottage in Eliot, and a winter apartment in Portsmouth. A small community held Nineteen Day Feast in September 1941. Gregory served several years on the Green Acre school committee itself in the 1940s and loved to work with children's classes. From 1946, now that Louise was over eighty years old and less independent, Gregory stayed more at home than traveling the country as he had done for decades. Both his race and their inter-racial marriage seemed well accepted in Eliot. Friends often saw them on the porch or at events in Green Acre and their garden was doing well at home.
In December 1948 Gregory suffered a stroke a couple months after returning from a funeral for a friend and between him and his wife, whose health also declined, began to stay closer to home. His recovery was more than the doctor predicted when a couple months later he had regained his hand-writing though slanted. By the summer of 1949 he was again carrying on an active correspondence. In particular Gregory carried on correspondence with U.S. District Court Judge Julius Waties Waring and his wife in 1950–51 who was involved in Briggs v. Elliott even while Green Acre was closed for austerity.
Gregory died aged seventy-seven on July 30, 1951. He is buried at Eliot and just a few days later during the memorial service a telegram arrived stating he was appointed as one of the Hands of the Cause, the highest office open to individuals in the religion, by then head of the religion, Shoghi Effendi.
Other activities
Ober stayed home in the summer of 1951, and officiated at the funeral of Louis G. Gregory, which was followed up with a series of talks at Green Acre, as well as other opportunities. For a few years the public mentions of Ober are a couple funerals he oversaw, but in 1956 he gave a series of talks.
In 1952 the room ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's used while staying there was set aside for prayers and meditation.
Legal cases began to question the roll of Green Acre as a religious institution and its status for tax reasons. In 1954 the Supreme Judicial Court of Maine ruled that the Green Acre Baháʼí Institute was entitled to tax exemption as a charitable institution. Horace Holley made public some material on the legal timeline of Green Acre in 1955 sharing information affecting its tax status. Nathan Rutstein lived at Green Acre in the summer of 1955 with his new wife before getting into television production and appointed as an Auxiliary Board member for the religion.
1960s - 1990s
In the 1960s, the first full-time staff of the school and the first year-round live-in caretaker were hired – Stuart Rhode and Emma Rice. The first full-time property manager, Edwin Miller was hired in the 1970s. Emma Rice, former Knight of Baháʼu'lláh for Sicily, became the resident caretaker of the Fellowship House. The tax status of Green Acre Baha'i Institute was contested in 1963 and the same court removed the tax exemption, based on a 1957 law limiting exemptions to institutions that primarily serve residents of Maine. Richard Grover grew into the first full-time administrator of Green Acre in the 1980s. The administration of Green Acre transferred to Ray Labelle around 1990 and then James and Jeannine Sacco in 1995–96. Later, in 1997, the US Supreme Court declared the Maine law unconstitutional reverting the tax status of Green Acre. Green Acre became recognized as "paradigmatic of a Baháʼí institution".
A variety of individuals visited in the 1960 and into the 1970s in addition to regular presenters. The 1960 session included Firuz Kazemzadeh. A Pennacook Indian, Gerard Morin aka Little Bishop, presented on local Indian culture in Green Acre in 1966. Hand of the Cause Ali Akbar Furutan visited in 1969. Hand of the Cause William Sears visited in 1978 with his wife Marguerite Reimer Sears as part of establishing the Reimer award for service to Green Acre. Its first recipient was Emma Rice.
It was also during the 1960s that the first Baháʼí studies of the history of Sarah Farmer, Green Acre, and Monsalvat took place by Douglas Martin and H.T.D. Rost. This was extended in the 1980s with occasional lectures entitled Farmer Family Memorial Lectures began, while Kenneth Walter published a polemical compilation of the rise and fall of transcendentalism at Green Acre in 1980 recalling the vehemence against the Baháʼís. The Association for Baháʼí Studies held its first regional conference at Green Acre in 1983. Sessions began to be held preserving Green Acre history and in 1986 the National Spiritual Assembly made the restoration of the Sarah Farmer Inn a goal for the Baháʼís of the Northeast. In 1989 local chapters of peace groups offered programs at Green Acre, and centennial observances began starting with its inception in 1890. Restoration of the Sarah Farmer Inn continued for many years as funds became available and was finally completed in summer of 1994, the centennial of the first Greenacre Meeting entitled "100 Years for Peace" commemorated with a post office cancelation and some 1500 guests (greater than the population of the town of Eliot when the site opened.) Some 300 attended program of the Vedanta Society to commemorate Swami Vivekenda's presence in 1894 with a plaque along with publishing a collection of poetry, Voice of Lovers. Baháʼí academies and training sessions by the Baháʼí International Community office at the United Nations were held in the 1990s.
In 1998 the institution of the "Black Men's gathering" began annual meetings at Green Acre Baháʼí School after being hosted at Louis Gregory Baháʼí Institute and other places until it ended in 2011. Each year the group walked in procession to Gregory's gravesite. Green Acre Baháʼí School has also been home to the annual "Turning 15 Academy"/"Badasht Prep Academy"/"Badasht Academy" (variously named and often named after the Conference of Badasht) since the summer of 1999 as a week-long intensive study of Baháʼí history and religious practices.
Since 2000
In 2000 Ruhi Institute courses were offered. Observances memorializing the deaths in 9-11 were held in cooperation with the Eliot public library and the local congregational church. In 2002 the old Baha'i Hall was taken down and replaced the same year with the Curtis and Harriet Kelsey Center which featured an auditorium for 220 seats and seven classrooms. Noted scholar on Khalil Gibran, Suheil Bushrui spoke at Green Acre Baháʼí school in 2003 giving a two-day course on ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's teachings on peace. Renovations and expansion at Green Acre as part of an investment across all the Baháʼí schools was initiated in 2000 under the name "Kingdom Project" and finished in 2005.
In 2004 a commemorative peace garden was established at the School and the property of the home of the Gregory's was added to the holdings of Green Acre Baháʼí School in Eliot.
In 2005 the centenary of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty and Farmer's involvement was established in a Sarah Farmer Peace Award by the Baháʼís of Eliot and has been given out annually and Ryozo Kato, Japanese Ambassador to the United States in 2005, made an official visit to Green Acre commemorating the treaty. The events were held included re-enactments for Theodore Roosevelt, Ida B. Wells, Thomas Edison, William Jennings Bryan, and Fred Harvey as well as Sarah Farmer herself, along with contributions from speakers, writers and artists were held at Green Acre Baháʼí School itself as well as a meeting of the Association of Baháʼí Studies of the US and Canada.
The School also continued to network with the area chapter of the NAACP.
In 2007 sessions included the sitting Chair for Peace from the University of Maryland, Dr. John Grayzel, gave a class with the chair of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty Anniversary Committee.
The Eliot 2010 bicentenary was celebrated and there was a play at Green Acre as part of it. Green Acre was also reviewed in line with other movements of the turn of the 20th century in a documentary about peace activism related to the Treaty of Portsmouth and was premiered on the campus in 2012 during the centenary of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's visit. Four more buildings were dedicated after a four-year construction project: the Harry Randall Guest House, Louise and Louisa Gregory Cottage, Mildred and Rafi Mottahedeh Cottage, and Emma Rice Cottage replacing four of the older cottages on the property. In Washington D. C. a commemorative tour recalled Stanwood Cobb's association with Green Acre and Eliot.
Don Tennant appreciated living in the atmosphere of honesty at Green Acre while he wrote Spy the lie, published in 2012, while his wife worked at Green Acre.
Further reading
References
External links
Official Website
Some of the Talks given by Jináb-i-Fadil-i-Mazindarani at Green Acre in 1921 and 1923
Bahá'í educational institutions
Bahá'í Faith in the United States
1894 establishments in Maine
Tourist attractions in York County, Maine
Eliot, Maine
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