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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standby%20power
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Standby power
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Standby power, also called vampire power, vampire draw, phantom load, ghost load or leaking electricity refers to the way electric power is consumed by electronic and electrical appliances while they are switched off (but are designed to draw some power) or in standby mode. This only occurs because some devices claimed to be "switched off" on the electronic interface, but are in a different state. Switching off at the plug, or disconnecting from the power point, can solve the problem of standby power completely. In fact, switching off at the power point is effective enough, there is no need to disconnect all devices from the power point. Some such devices offer remote controls and digital clock features to the user, while other devices, such as power adapters for disconnected electronic devices, consume power without offering any features (sometimes called no-load power). All of the above examples, such as the remote control, digital clock functions and—in the case of adapters, no-load power—are switched off just by switching off at the power point. However, for some devices with built-in internal battery, such as a phone, the standby functions can be stopped by removing the battery instead.
In the past, standby power was largely a non-issue for users, electricity providers, manufacturers, and government regulators. In the first decade of the twenty-first century, awareness of the issue grew and it became an important consideration for all parties. Up to the middle of the decade, standby power was often several watts or even tens of watts per appliance. By 2010, regulations were in place in most developed countries restricting standby power of devices sold to one watt (and half that from 2013).
Definition
Standby power is electrical power used by appliances and equipment while switched off or not performing their primary function, often waiting to be activated by a remote controller. That power is consumed by internal or external power supplies, remote control receivers, text or light displays, circuits energized when the device is plugged in even when switched off.
While this definition is inadequate for technical purposes, there is as yet no formal definition; an international standards committee is developing a definition and test procedure.
The term is often used more loosely for any device that continuously must use a small amount of power even when not active; for example a telephone answering machine must be available at all times to receive calls, switching off to save power is not an option. Timers, powered thermostats, and the like are other examples. An uninterruptible power supply could be considered to be wasting standby power only when the computer it protects is off. Disconnecting standby power proper is at worst inconvenient; powering down completely, for example an answering machine not dealing with a call, renders it useless.
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
Standby power is often consumed for a purpose, although in the past there was little effort to minimize power used.
It may enable a device to switch on very quickly without delays that might otherwise occur ("instant-on"). This was used, for example, with CRT television receivers (now largely supplanted by flat screens), where a small current was passed through the tube heater, avoiding a delay of many seconds in starting up.
It may be used to power a remote control receiver, so that when infrared or radio-frequency signals are sent by a remote control device, the equipment is able to respond, typically by changing from standby to fully on mode.
Standby power may be used to power a display, operate a clock, etc., without switching on the equipment to full power.
Battery-powered equipment connected to mains electricity can be kept fully charged although switched on; for example, a mobile telephone can be ready to receive calls without depleting its battery charge.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of standby power mainly relate to the energy used. As standby power is reduced, the disadvantages become less. Older devices often used ten watts or more; with the adoption of the One Watt Initiative by many countries, standby energy use is much diminished.
Devices on standby consume electricity which must be paid for. The total energy consumed may be of the order of 10% of the electrical energy used by a typical household, as discussed below. The cost of standby energy is easily estimated—each watt of continuous standby consumes about 9 kWh of electricity per year, and the price per kWh is shown on electricity bills.
Electricity is very often generated by combustion of hydrocarbons (oil, coal, gas) or other substances, which releases substantial amounts of carbon dioxide, implicated in global warming, and other pollutants such as sulphur dioxide, which produces acid rain. Standby power is a significant contributor to electricity usage.
Magnitude
Standby power makes up a portion of homes' miscellaneous electric load, which also includes small appliances, security systems, and other small power draws. The U.S. Department of Energy said in 2008:
"Many appliances continue to draw a small amount of power when they are switched off. These "phantom" loads occur in most appliances that use electricity, such as VCRs, televisions, stereos, computers, and kitchen appliances. This can be avoided by unplugging the appliance or using a power strip and using the switch on the power strip to cut all power to the appliance."
Standby power used by older devices can be as high as 10–15 W per device, while a modern HD LCD television may use less than 1 W in standby mode. Some appliances use no energy when turned off. Many countries adopting the One Watt Initiative now require new devices to use no more than 1 W starting in 2010, and 0.5 W in 2013.
Although the power needed for functions such as displays, indicators, and remote control functions is relatively small, the large number of such devices and their being continuously plugged in resulted in energy usage before the One Watt regulations of 8 to 22 percent of all appliance consumption in different countries, or 32 to 87 W. This was around 3–10 percent of total residential consumption. In Britain in 2004 standby modes on electronic devices accounted for 8% of all British residential power consumption. A similar study in France in 2000 found that standby power accounted for 7% of total residential consumption.
In 2004, the California Energy Commission produced a report containing typical standby and operational power consumption for 280 different household devices, including baby monitors and toothbrush chargers.
In 2006 some electronics, such as microwaves, CRTs and VHS players used more standby power than appliances manufactured in the previous five years.
In the US the average home used an average of 10,649 kWh of electricity per year in 2019, down from 11,040 kWh in 2008. Each watt of power consumed by a device running continuously consumes about 9 kWh (1 W × 365.25 days/year × 24 hours/day) per year, a little less than one thousandth of the annual US household consumption. Unplugging a device constantly consuming standby power saves a yearly 9 kWh for each watt of continuous consumption (saving $1 per year at average US rates).
Devices such as security systems, fire alarms, and digital video recorders require continuous power to operate properly (though in the case of electric timers used to disconnect other devices on standby, they actually reduce total energy usage). The Reducing Consumption section below provides information on reducing standby power.
Fire risks
There is a risk of fire from devices in standby mode. There are reports of televisions, in particular, catching fire in standby mode.
Before the development of modern semiconductor electronics it was not uncommon for devices, typically television receivers, to catch fire when plugged in but switched off, sometimes when fully switched off rather than on standby. This is much less likely with modern equipment, but not impossible. Older cathode-ray tube display equipment (television and computer displays) had high voltages and currents, and were far more of a fire risk than thin panel LCD and other displays.
Contributing factors for electrical fires include:
Damp environments
Lightning strikes affecting building wiring
Age of the appliance—older appliances are less well designed for safety, and may have deteriorated
Policy
The One Watt Initiative was launched by the IEA in 1999 to ensure through international cooperation that by 2010 all new appliances sold in the world only use one watt in standby mode. This would reduce CO2 emissions by 50 million tons in the OECD countries alone by 2010.
In July 2001 U.S. President George W. Bush signed an Executive Order directing federal agencies to "purchase products that use no more than one watt in their standby power consuming mode".
In July 2007 California's 2005 appliance standards came into effect, limiting external power supply standby power to 0.5 watts.
On 6 January 2010 the European Commission (EC) Regulation No 1275/2008 came into force. The regulations mandate that from 6 January 2010 "off mode" and standby power for electrical and electronic household and office equipment shall not exceed 1W, "standby plus" power (providing information or status display in addition to possible reactivation function) shall not exceed 2W. Equipment must where appropriate provide off mode and/or standby mode when the equipment is connected to the mains power source. These figures were halved on 6 January 2013.
Determining standby power
Identifying devices
The following types of devices consume standby power.
Transformers for voltage conversion.
Wall wart power supplies powering devices that are switched off.
Many devices with "instant-on" functions that respond immediately to user action without warm-up delay.
Commonly used LED strips and such low power household lights.
Electronic and electrical devices in standby mode that can be woken by a remote control, e.g. some air conditioners, audio-visual equipment such as a television receiver
Electronic and electrical devices that can carry out some functions even when switched off, e.g. with an electrically powered timer. Most modern computers consume standby power, allowing them to be woken remotely (by Wake on LAN, etc.) or at a specified time. These functions are always enabled even if not needed; power can be saved by disconnecting from mains (sometimes by a switch on the back), but only if functionality is not needed.
Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS)
Other devices consume standby power which is required for normal functioning that cannot be saved by switching off when not in use. For these devices electricity can only be saved by choosing units with minimal permanent power consumption:
Cordless telephones and answering machines
Timers that operate devices
Security systems and fire alarms
Transformer-powered doorbells
Programmable thermostats
Motion sensors, light sensors, built-in timers and automatic sprinklers
Estimating standby power
Standby power consumption can be estimated using tables of standby power used by typical devices, although standby power used by appliances of the same class vary extremely widely (for a CRT computer display standby power is listed at a minimum of 1.6 W, maximum 74.5 W). Total standby power can be estimated by measuring total house power with all devices standing by, then disconnected, but this method is inaccurate and subject to large errors and uncertainties.
Measuring standby power
The power wasted in standby must go somewhere; it is dissipated as heat. The temperature, or simply perceived warmth, of a device on standby long enough to reach a stable temperature gives some idea of power wasted.
For most home applications, wattmeters give a good indication of energy used, and some indication of standby consumption.
A wattmeter is used to measure electrical power. Inexpensive plugin wattmeters, sometimes described as energy monitors, are available from prices of around US$10. Some more expensive models for home use have remote display units. In the US wattmeters can often also be borrowed from local power authorities or a local public library. Although accuracy of measurement of low AC current and quantities derived from it, such as power, is often poor, these devices are nevertheless indicative of standby power, if sensitive enough to register it. Some home power monitors simply specify an error figure such as 0.2%, without specifying the parameter subject to this error (e.g., voltage, easy to measure), and without qualification. Errors of measurement at the low standby powers used from about 2010 (i.e., less than a few watts) may be a very large percentage of the actual value—accuracy is poor. Modification of such meters to read standby power has been described and discussed in detail (with oscilloscope waveforms and measurements). Essentially, the meter's shunt resistor, used to generate a voltage proportional to load current, is replaced by one of value typically 100 times larger, with protective diodes. Readings of the modified meter have to be multiplied by the resistance factor (e.g. 100), and maximum measurable power is reduced by the same factor.
Professional equipment capable of (but not specifically designed for) low-power measurements clarifies typically that the error is a percentage of full-scale value, or a percentage of reading plus a fixed amount, and valid only within certain limits.
In practice, accuracy of measurements by meters with poor performance at low power levels can be improved by measuring the power drawn by a fixed load such as an incandescent light bulb, adding the standby device, and calculating the difference in power consumption.
Less expensive wattmeters may be subject to significant inaccuracy at low current (power). They are often subject to other errors due to their mode of operation:
If the load is highly reactive, the power shown by some meters may be inaccurate. Meters capable of displaying power factor do not have this problem.
Many AC meters are designed to give readings that are only meaningful for the sinusoidal waveforms of normal ac power. Waveforms for switched-mode power supplies as used in much electronic equipment may be very far from sinusoidal, causing power readings of such meters to be meaningless. Meters specified to read "RMS power" do not have this problem.
Laboratory-grade equipment designed for low power measurement, which costs from several hundreds of US dollars and is much larger than simple domestic meters, can measure power down to very low values without any of these effects. The US IEC 62301 recommendation for measurements of active power is that power of 0.5 W or greater shall be made with an uncertainty of 2%. Measurements of less than 0.5 W shall be made with an uncertainty of 0.01 W. The power measurement instrument shall have a resolution of 0.01 W or better.
Even with laboratory-grade equipment measurement of standby power has its problems. There are two basic ways of connecting equipment to measure power; one measures the correct voltage, but the current is wrong; the error is negligibly small for relatively high currents, but becomes large for the small currents typical of standby—in a typical case a standby power of 100 mW would be overestimated by over 50%. The other connection gives a small error in the voltage but accurate current, and reduces the error at low power by a factor of 5000. A laboratory meter intended for measurement of higher powers may be susceptible to this error. Another issue is the possibility of measuring equipment damage if in a very sensitive range capable of measuring a few milliamps; if the device being measured comes out of standby and draws several amps, the meter can be damaged unless it is protected.
Reducing standby consumption
Operating practices
Some equipment has a quick-start mode; standby power is eliminated if this mode is not used. Video game consoles often use power when they are turned off, but the standby power can be further reduced if the correct options are set. For example, a Wii console can go from 18 watts to 8 watts to 1 watt by turning off the WiiConnect24 and Standby Connection options.
Devices that have rechargeable batteries and are always plugged in use standby power even if the battery is fully charged. Corded appliances such as vacuum cleaners, electric razors, and simple telephones do not need a standby mode and do not consume the standby power that cordless equivalents do.
Older devices with power adapters that are large and are warm to the touch use several watts of power. Newer power adapters that are lightweight and are not warm to the touch may use less than one watt.
Standby power consumption can be reduced by unplugging or totally switching off, if possible, devices with a standby mode not currently in use; if several devices are used together or only when a room is occupied, they can be connected to a single power strip that is switched off when not needed. This may cause some electronic devices, particularly older ones, to lose their configuration settings.
Timers can be used to turn off standby power to devices that are unused on a regular schedule. Switches that turn the power off when the connected device goes into standby, or that turn other outlets on or off when a device is turned on or off are also available. Switches can be activated by sensors. Home automation sensors, switches and controllers can be used to handle more complex sensing and switching. This produces a net saving of power so long as the control devices themselves use less power than the controlled equipment in standby mode.
Standby power consumption of some computers can be reduced by turning off components that use power in standby mode. For instance, disabling Wake-on-LAN (WoL), "wake on modem", "wake on keyboard" or "wake on USB" may reduce power when in standby. Unused features may be disabled in the computer's BIOS setup to save power.
Devices were introduced in 2010 that allow the remote controller for equipment to be used to totally switch off power to everything plugged into a power strip. It was claimed in the UK that this could save £30, more than the price of the device, in one year.
Equipment efficiency
As users of energy and government authorities have become aware of the need not to waste energy, more attention is being paid to the electrical efficiency of devices (fraction of power consumed that achieves functionality, rather than waste heat); this affects all aspects of equipment, including standby power. Standby power use can be decreased both by attention to circuit design and by improved technology. Programs directed at consumer electronics have stimulated manufacturers to cut standby power use in many products. It is probably technically feasible to reduce standby power by 75% overall; most savings will be less than a watt, but other cases will be as large as 10 watts.
For example, a commercially available computer in Wake on LAN standby typically consumed 2 to 8 watts of standby power , but it was possible to design much more efficient circuitry: a purpose-designed microcontroller can reduce total system power to under 0.5W, with the microcontroller itself contributing 42 mW.
See also
Green computing
List of energy storage projects
Low-power electronics
Miscellaneous electric load
Parasitic load
AC adapter
Losses in electrical systems
References
External links
Standby Power Home Page, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Official Energy Star Website, Energy Star
International Conference on Standby Power, New Delhi INDIA
“Phantom Loads”
EU States Endorse Steps to Cut Standby Power Use
Electricity
Energy conservation
Environmental impact of the energy industry
Electronics and the environment
Electric power
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4739509
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maryland%20Route%20144
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Maryland Route 144
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Maryland Route 144 (MD 144) is a collection of state highways in the U.S. state of Maryland. These highways are sections of old alignment of U.S. Route 40 (US 40) between Cumberland and Baltimore. Along with US 40 Scenic, US 40 Alternate, and a few sections of county-maintained highway, MD 144 is assigned to what was once the main highway between the two cities, connecting those endpoints with Hancock, Hagerstown, Frederick, New Market, Mount Airy, Ellicott City, and Catonsville. MD 144 has seven disjoint sections of mainline highway that pass through the Appalachian Mountains in Allegany and Washington counties and the rolling Piedmont of Frederick, Carroll, Howard, and Baltimore counties.
Route description
There are seven mainline sections of MD 144:
MD 144 in Allegany County runs from MD 807 in Cumberland east to US 40 Scenic east of Flintstone. The state highway generally parallels I-68 and crosses over the freeway multiple times as both highways pass through mountainous creek valleys and over Martin Mountain and Polish Mountain.
MD 144WB runs from I-68 west of Hancock to I-70 east of Hancock. The state highway was assigned in the mid-1960s following the completion of I-70 and the new alignment of US 40 on either side of Hancock.
MD 144WA runs from US 40 west of Hagerstown to Western Maryland Parkway just west of the city limits of Hagerstown.
MD 144FA runs from the intersection of Patrick Street and Jefferson Street in Frederick east to I-70 near Bartonsville.
MD 144FB runs from the west town limit of New Market east to MD 75. This state-maintained segment of old US 40 lies between two county-maintained segments of the road in eastern Frederick County.
MD 144A runs from MD 27 in Mount Airy east to US 40 in Ellicott City. The state highway briefly passes through Frederick and Carroll counties before serving as the main east–west surface highway of northern Howard County.
MD 144 runs from the Howard–Baltimore county line at the Patapsco River east to US 1 in Baltimore. A county-maintained segment of Frederick Road continues west through Ellicott City to a junction with US 40 a short distance east of MD 144A.
MD 144 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial in two sections. The first section runs from the western terminus of MD 144FA at Jefferson Street east to I-70 and US 40 within Frederick. The second section runs from North Rolling Road in Catonsville to the highway's eastern terminus at US 1 in Baltimore.
Cumberland–Flintstone
MD 144 begins at an intersection with MD 807 (Bedford Road) a short distance north of the Cumberland city limits. The state highway heads east as two-lane undivided Naves Cross Road, passing through a pair of ridges before meeting a pair of ramps to and from westbound I-68 (National Freeway) and heading north of a park and ride lot. Naves Cross Road continues east as MD 807A, while MD 144 turns south onto Christie Road to pass under I-68. Christie Road continues south while MD 144 turns east onto Ali Ghan Road, passing to the south of a park and ride lot. The state highway crosses Evitts Creek before receiving an exit ramp from eastbound I-68 and joins US 220 in a short concurrency. US 220 turns north onto its bypass of Bedford Road while MD 144 continues east, meeting I-68 at Exit 47, a diamond interchange.
Within the interchange, MD 144 becomes National Pike and expands to a four-lane divided highway that follows the valley of Elk Lick Run. The state highway passes under I-68 and reduces to a two-lane undivided highway at Hinkle Road. At Rocky Gap Road, MD 144 begins to closely parallel the eastbound lanes of I-68. The state highway leaves the valley of Elk Lick Run and ascends Martin Mountain. On the climb, MD 144 intersects Pleasant Valley Road, which meets I-68 at Exit 50 and leads to Rocky Gap State Park. At the top of Martin Mountain, the state highway crosses over I-68 and intersects Sunset Orchard Road, which leads to a ramp to westbound I-68. On the descent, MD 144 crosses I-68 again and receives a ramp from the eastbound direction of the freeway and the highways part ways around a quarry.
MD 144 curves around the quarry and rejoins the side of I-68 as the highway passes West Wilson Road and crosses a tributary of Flintstone Creek. The state highway leaves the freeway and passes through the unincorporated village of Flintstone, where the state highway intersects the Exit 56 ramps to and from eastbound I-68 and Black Valley Road, which leads to ramps for westbound I-68. MD 144 joins I-68 and Flintstone Creek in passing through a gap in Warrior Mountain. Gilpin Road, an older alignment of US 40 that is designated MD 144AE, begins to parallel the eastbound side of the state highway at Town Creek Road. The two surface highways cross Town Creek and begin to climb Polish Mountain, with MD 144 following a gentle curve while Gilpin Road follows a winding alignment. MD 144 intersects Gilpin Road as the highway begins the descent from the mountain. MD 144 and I-68 follow Pratt Hollow east between several ridges. The state highway crosses the freeway and over Pine Lick Hollow and closely parallels the westbound direction of I-68 before reaching its eastern terminus at US 40 Scenic (Old National Pike) just north of I-68 Exit 62, just west of Fifteen Mile Creek, and on the edge of Green Ridge State Forest.
Hancock
MD 144 begins at Exit 77 of I-68 (National Freeway) north of Woodmont and west of Hancock. The state highway heads south through the diamond interchange to an intersection with US 40 Scenic (National Pike), at which MD 144 turns east as two-lane undivided Western Pike. The state highway intersects Woodmont Road and crosses Little Tonoloway Creek before ascending Tonoloway Ridge. East of the ridge, MD 144 passes through multiple curves through a mixture of farms and forest, intersecting Locher Road, which leads south to Fort Tonoloway State Park, before passing north of Hancock Middle-Senior High School at the town limits of Hancock. The state highway passes through a residential area before issuing a ramp to southbound US 522. MD 144 passes under US 522 itself, crosses Little Tonoloway Creek, and intersects Limestone Road, which is the old alignment of US 522 and unsigned MD 894.
MD 144 continues east as Main Street through downtown Hancock. Access to northbound US 522 as well as both I-70 and I-68 is provided by Virginia Avenue. MD 144 parallels both the Western Maryland Rail Trail and Chesapeake and Ohio Canal National Historical Park one block to the north through the downtown area. The state highway leaves the town limits and passes the C&O Canal's Hancock visitor center and a park and ride lot before crossing Tonoloway Creek. MD 144 reaches its eastern terminus at a partial interchange with I-70 (Eisenhower Memorial Highway). There is no direct access from MD 144 to westbound I-70 at Exit 3; that movement can be completed by turning around at Exit 5.
Hagerstown
MD 144 begins at an intersection with US 40 (National Pike) between Huyett and Hagerstown. The state highway heads east as two-lane undivided Washington Street past farmland, residential subdivisions, and a cemetery. After crossing over I-81 (Maryland Veterans Memorial Highway) with no access, MD 144 enters an industrial area and reaches its eastern terminus at a roundabout with Western Maryland Parkway. Western Maryland Parkway, which is unsigned MD 910C heading north, is used to access US 40 and I-81. Washington Street continues east into the city of Hagerstown, where it meets US 40 again in the downtown area.
Frederick–Bartonsville
The old alignment of US 40 through Frederick begins at a partial cloverleaf interchange with the Frederick Freeway, which heads north from the interchange as US 15 and south as a concurrency of US 15 and US 40. Patrick Street heads east from the interchange as a four-lane undivided highway that splits into a one-way pair just beyond West College Terrace/Catoctin Avenue. The eastbound direction, which is signed as eastbound MD 144 at the split, follows municipally-maintained South Street. MD 144 in Frederick officially begins at the intersection of Patrick Street, which is one-way westbound, and Jefferson Street, which was formerly US 340. Both streets pass through the Frederick Historic District: Patrick Street crosses Carroll Creek into the commercial district, while South Street has a more residential flavor. Both streets intersect Market Street, the main north–south thoroughfare of the downtown area that was formerly MD 355. The eastbound direction of MD 144 turns north onto East Street, passing by the Frederick station serving the Frederick Branch of MARC's Brunswick Line and traversing Carroll Creek before meeting Patrick Street.
MD 144 heads east from downtown Frederick on two-lane undivided Patrick Street. The state highway crosses Carroll Creek and passes between a residential area to the south and the Frederick Fairgrounds to the north. MD 144 expands to a four-lane undivided street and continues east through an industrial area where the highway intersects Monocacy Boulevard, which is used to access westbound I-70 and Frederick Municipal Airport. Just before reaching I-70, the street's alignment continues straight as an unnamed road, unsigned MD 870G, that receives the westbound Exit 56 ramp from I-70 and is used to access Bowmans Farm Road. MD 144 reduces to two lanes and veers to the southeast to cross I-70 (Baltimore National Pike), then curves back to the original alignment ahead of ramps to and from eastbound I-70 at the intersection with Quinn Orchard Road.
MD 144 continues east as Old National Pike, a two-lane undivided road that is paralleled by an unused carriageway immediately to the north that serves as a park and ride and the original alignment further north, which is lined with scattered residences. The two southern carriageways cross the Monocacy River on bridges while the northernmost road dead ends at the site of the removed Jug Bridge. East of Bartonsville Road, MD 144 expands to a four-lane divided highway, with the westbound direction making use of what to the west was an unused carriageway. The original alignment, Baltimore Road, now parallels the highway to the south, while Long Branch parallels the highway to the north. MD 144 crosses Long Branch before approaching its eastern terminus. Westbound MD 144 receives a loop ramp from Exit 59 of westbound I-70. The old alignment, Old National Pike, heads north from the divided highway, passes under I-70, and turns east toward New Market as a county highway. MD 144 continues east to its terminus at Ijamsville Road, where the divided highway ends, with the eastbound direction becoming an entrance ramp to eastbound I-70.
New Market
Old National Pike parallels I-70 as a county highway for about to the western town limits of New Market. The road heads east through New Market as Main Street, which is a municipal street that passes through the New Market Historic District, within which it intersects MD 874 (Prospect Street). MD 144 begins again at the east town limit of New Market, where it heads east as Old National Pike. The original alignment continues straight to a dead end while the state highway turns north and then east to its eastern terminus at MD 75 (Green Valley Road), which is used to access I-70. Old National Pike continues east as a county highway for about to Mount Airy on the Frederick–Carroll county line.
Mount Airy – Ellicott City
MD 144 begins at an intersection with MD 27 (Ridge Road) just south of MD 27's interchange with I-70 south of Mount Airy. The state highway, known as Frederick Road, immediately turns north and after crosses the Frederick–Carroll County line. MD 144 passes Parr's Spring, the source of the Patapsco River, before curving to the east through residential subdivisions and closely paralleling the eastbound lanes of I-70. Shortly after crossing the Patapsco River and entering Howard County, the state highway veers away from the freeway and passes through a mix of farmland and scattered residences. MD 144 intersects Long Corner Road and Watersville Road before reaching Lisbon, where the highway meets MD 94 (Woodbine Road) at a roundabout. The state highway continues past Daisy Road and Morgan Station Road to Cooksville, where the highway passes the historic Roberts Inn and intersects MD 97 (Roxbury Mills Road). A park and ride lot is located at the northeast corner of this intersection. MD 144 continues east to West Friendship, where the highway crosses the Middle Patuxent River and Terrapin Branch, passes the Howard County Fairgrounds, and intersects MD 32 (Sykesville Road). The state highway leaves the farmland behind and passes through a mixture of forest and residential subdivisions, passing Marriottsville Road and Folly Quarter Road. On the western edge of Ellicott City, MD 144 reaches its eastern terminus at US 40 (Baltimore National Pike).
Ellicott City – Baltimore
Frederick Road splits off from US 40 as a county highway about east of the eastern end of the Mount Airy – Ellicott City portion of MD 144. This county highway parallels US 40 to the south as it passes through residential subdivisions, crossing the Little Patuxent River, intersecting Centennial Lane and St. John's Lane, and passing the historic home MacAlpine. Frederick Road passes under US 29 (Columbia Pike) before intersecting Toll House Road. The county highway intersects Rogers Avenue and descends into downtown Ellicott City as Main Street. Within the Ellicott City Historic District and nearby are the Howard County offices and the Howard County Circuit Courthouse, the remains of the Patapsco Female Institute, and the Ellicott City Station, which preserves the oldest remaining passenger train station in the U.S. as a railroad museum. The highway passes under the Oliver Viaduct, which carries CSX's Old Main Line Subdivision railroad line, before crossing the Patapsco River into Baltimore County.
MD 144 begins at the county line as two-lane undivided Frederick Road, where the state highway passes through the Ellicott's Mills Historic District. The state highway parallels the Patapsco River east to River Road, where the highway gains an eastbound climbing lane and leaves the steep river valley. MD 144 passes several loops of old alignment on the ascent, which concludes shortly after passing Old Frederick Road. MD 144 continues east through a densely populated residential area, intersecting North Rolling Road and entering Catonsville, where the highway intersects MD 166 (South Rolling Road), which heads south toward the University of Maryland Baltimore County and Baltimore/Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport (via I-195). The state highway passes close to the historic home Summit and passes between the Old Catonsville Historic District and Central Catonsville and Summit Park Historic District as it enters downtown Catonsville, which contains Old Catonsville High School. At the eastern end of the central business district, MD 144 passes Wade Avenue, which heads south to Spring Grove Hospital Center, before meeting I-695 (Baltimore Beltway) at a diamond interchange.
Shortly after the interchange with I-695, MD 144 enters the city of Baltimore, where it continues as Frederick Avenue. The state highway passes Baltimore National Cemetery, Mount Saint Joseph College high school, the Schwartze Mansion, and Loudon Park National Cemetery in an affluent residential area. MD 144 expands to a four-lane undivided highway at Beechfield Avenue before reaching Hilton Street and Caton Avenue, where the highway crosses over Amtrak's Northeast Corridor railroad line. The state highway continues east through a less affluent series of neighborhoods where it crosses over Gwynns Falls and CSX's Hanover Subdivision railroad line. East of Bentalou Street, MD 144 splits into a one-way pair, with the eastbound lanes following Pratt Street and the westbound lanes following Frederick Avenue and then Lombard Street. The state highway intersects US 1 at its own one-way pair, Monroe Street southbound and Fulton Avenue northbound. Both directions of MD 144 have their eastern terminus at Fulton Avenue, although Frederick Avenue itself continues two more blocks to its own terminus at Baltimore and Gilmor Streets. Both Pratt Street and Lombard Street continue east toward downtown Baltimore, passing through the Union Square neighborhood and by the Mount Clare Shops and the B&O Railroad Museum.
History
The section of MD 144FB within New Market was transferred to the town in an agreement dated December 14, 2011. In 2014, the group Preservation Howard County placed the road on its top 10 most endangered list, followed by Preservation Maryland in 2015. In 2015, a roundabout was constructed at the eastern terminus of the Hagerstown section of MD 144 at MD 910C.
MD 144WB
MD 144 follows what was constructed as the Baltimore and Cumberland Turnpike through Hancock in the 19th century. This highway was reconstructed as one of the original state roads by the Maryland State Roads Commission. The highway was paved from Little Tonoloway Creek to the western edge of Hancock in 1913, and from there east through the town to east of Tonoloway Creek in 1915. The highway through Hancock followed the same alignment as modern MD 144 except for a circuitous alignment on both sides of Tonoloway Creek that followed what is now Old Route 40, Tollgate Ridge Road, and Ford Drive. The present bridge and alignment were constructed in 1940. Construction on I-70 from the Pennsylvania state line to east of Tonoloway Creek began in 1963. By 1964, a US 40 bypass of Hancock, following what is now I-68 from Exit 77 to I-70, was under construction. I-70 and the US 40 bypass were completed in 1966. MD 144 was marked along the old alignment of US 40 through Hancock by 1967.
Junction lists
MD 144 Allegany
MD 144WB
MD 144WA
MD 144FA
MD 144FB
MD 144A
MD 144 Baltimore
Auxiliary routes
MD 144 has four auxiliary routes, two in Allegany County and two in Howard County.
MD 144AE is the unsigned designation for Gilpin Road, a section of original alignment of US 40 that runs from Town Creek Road east to MD 144 east of Flintstone.
MD 144AL is the unsigned designation for an unnamed spur south from US 40 Scenic near Town Hill.
MD 144HB is the designation for Twin Arch Road, a service road that runs from the Patapsco River east to an intersection with county-maintained Twin Arch Road between I-70 to the south and the namesake double-arch bridge that carries CSX's Old Main Line Subdivision.
MD 144HC is the designation for Twin Arch Road, a service road that runs from the intersection of MD 144A and Long Corner Road north to a dead end.
See also
Maryland Route 7, a similar route for many sections of the old alignments of US 40 between Baltimore and Elkton.
References
External links
MD 144 at MDRoads.com
MD 144 at AARoads.com
Maryland Roads - MD 144
144
Maryland Route 144
Hagerstown
Maryland Route 144
Maryland Route 144
Maryland Route 144
Maryland Route 144
Maryland Route 144
Maryland Route 144
U.S. Route 40
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4739545
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhering%20Abbey
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Wilhering Abbey
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Wilhering Abbey () is a Cistercian monastery in Wilhering in Upper Austria, about 8 km (5 mi) from Linz. Stift Wilhering is the oldest Cistercian monastery in Upper Austria. The buildings, re-constructed in the 18th century, are known for their spectacular Rococo decoration.
History
The monastery was founded by Ulrich and Kolo of Wilhering who donated their family's old castle for the purpose, in accordance with the wish of their deceased father after the family had moved to their new castle at Waxenberg in Oberneukirchen. It was settled initially by Augustinian Canons, but in the first years the new foundation was beset with problems. On 30 September 1146, Ulrich replaced the canons with Cistercian monks from Rein Abbey in Styria. Under its first abbot, Geraldus, the monastery was richly endowed and placed under the protection of Eberhard, Bishop of Bamberg. After Ulric's death, his brother, Colo, completed the work so well begun.
Despite all this, the foundation did not flourish and in 1185, Henry, the fourth abbot, having but two subjects, transferred the abbey to Burkhard, Abbot of Ebrach Abbey, the mother house of Rein, and the monastery was soon re-settled by monks from Ebrach, establishing the community on a secure footing.
Leopold VI, Duke of Austria took it under his protection; monastic buildings replaced the old castle, donations enriched them, and many exemptions and privileges were granted by ecclesiastical and secular authorities, especially by Pope Innocent III, Pope Honorius III, and Emperor Frederick II. Wilhering later founded Hohenfurth Abbey, today known as Vyšší Brod Abbey, in the Czech Republic (1258), Engelszell Abbey in Upper Austria (1295), and Säusenstein Abbey in Lower Austria (1334). In 1928, the monastery founded a daughter house at Apolo, La Paz, in Bolivia as part of a mission drive.
Reformation
The abbey almost came to an end during the Protestant Reformation, when Abbot Erasmus Mayer absconded with its funds to Nuremberg, where he married. By 1585, there were no monks left at the abbey, which was only saved by the efforts of Abbot Alexander a Lacu, who was installed by the Emperor during the Counter-Reformation. He inaugurated reform in regular observance and temporal administration and regained possession of much of the monastery's former property; he also reconstructed the monastic buildings. At the end of his rule there were twenty priests, four clerics, and one brother in the community.
The abbey buildings were almost entirely destroyed by fire on 6 March 1733. Abbot Johann Baptist Hinterhölzl (1734-1750) made emergency repairs to the church using the remnants of the walls.
In 1940, Wilhering Abbey was expropriated by the Nazis, and the monks were expelled; some were arrested and sent to concentration camps, while others were forced into military service. The abbot, , died of starvation in 1941 in Anrath Prison. The buildings were used at first to accommodate the seminary from Linz, and then from 1944 for displaced Germans from Bessarabia and as a military hospital. In 1945, American troops took over the premises. The monks returned in the same year to resume monastic life and to reopen the school.
Balduin Sulzer, Stiftskapellmeister at Wilhering, was a noted music educator and composer.
Present day
As of 2007, the monastic community numbered 28. Today the abbey's business enterprises—mainly forestry, farming, and greenhouses—provide a sound economic basis for the monastery. Kürnberg Forest (Kürnberger Wald), owned by the abbey and situated between Wilhering and Linz, forms a green belt that is highly beneficial to the people of the region. The forest contains the remains of a watchtower from the Roman period.
The Lady Chapel in the monastery's former chapter house in the cloister is now the place for the daily Liturgy of the Hours, which remains the center of monastic life for the small monastic community.
The monastery houses a museum, cafe, and museum store. Benedikt Hall is available for rental for functions. The new Guardian Angel Chapel, located in the entrance area of the collegiate church, was opened on May 14, 2023.
School
Under Abbot Theobald Grasböck in 1895, the abbey secondary school (Gymnasium) was founded with facilities for boarding. At first it consisted only of a private lower school. In the school year 1903/04 the school was granted permission to accept state pupils. From the school year 1917/18 upper forms were added, and the first Matura examinations were held in 1922. In 1938 the school and the boarding-house were suspended by the National Socialist régime. After the war the school was immediately re-established, and re-opened in the autumn of 1945. In 1956 a new boarding-house wing was constructed. The school buildings were entirely re-developed in 1963. Girls have been admitted since 1980/81. The facilities for boarding were discontinued at the end of the academic year in 1990. Presently the school offers general education to approximately 450 boys and girls.
Buildings
The monastic buildings of the Cistercians were to be constructed, as closely as was possible, in the likeness of the mother house at Cîteaux. The entire monastery premises had to be surrounded by a wall. The main axis of the church had to be on an east-west line. The cloister, the "heart of the monastery", was to adjoin the southern front of the church. The chapter house and the common room had to be placed in the east section of the cloister. Upstairs in the eastern range was the monks’ dormitory, connected by stairs with the church and the cloister. In the southern section of the cloister lay the monks’ refectory, and in front of it, projecting into the cloister, a pavilion with a washing-fountain, called the "fountain-chapel". The lay-brothers’ refectory and dormitory were placed in the western range of the cloister, and the kitchen in the south-western corner. The section of the cloister next to the church was used as a lecture-hall and had to be furnished with a pulpit. This ground plan was also retained in the Baroque layout of Wilhering Abbey. The prestigious buildings, however, which had been planned to surround the outer court of the abbey, were meant as extensions.
Nothing remains of the original castle of Wilhering nor of any buildings erected by the monks of Rein. The monks of Ebrach, however, started the construction of a church in 1195 in the Romanesque style, repeatedly rebuilt in the following centuries. Of the previous buildings, only a Romanesque doorway, parts of the Gothic cloister and two tombs Gothic Schaunberg family tombs located on either side of the entrance by the western wall of the abbey church remain. The plain round-arched Romanesque portal of the former 12th-century church was integrated into the present Rococo church.
Originally, access to the church was forbidden to the public, in keeping with the wish of the Cistercians for seclusion. However, for the use of their tenantry they erected a special church, the so-called "people’s church", known from an old engraving in the cloister, which also shows the guesthouse by the road, the fish-pond, the gate-house with the monastery wall, and the garden with the mill. Today the fish-pond, the guesthouse and parts of the gate-house still remain. The guesthouse is considered one of the oldest parts of the monastery buildings. It was the abbey inn until 1970, and now houses a museum of modern art exhibiting works of the painter Fritz Fröhlich. Along with the former wine-cellars and the brewery, which ceased operation around 1930, it is now separated from the main building complex by a road.
The present abbey buildings comprise (a) the medieval nucleus (the church, the cloister and the quadrangular buildings of the convent), (b) the extensions from the Baroque period (the abbatial suite, the domed wing, the stables, barns and farm buildings), and (c) the new buildings of the school erected after World War II. To the west lies the abbey park, open to the public, with its stock of exotic trees and the Baroque pavilion. Further on are the greenhouses of the horticultural nursery which also belongs to the abbey.
The prominent attraction of the abbey’s outer court is the west façade with the tower and, to the right, the abbatial suite. The tower was erected between 1735 and 1740 and consists of three storeys, which, due to their upward tapering, resemble an extended telescope. It is adorned with rich figural decorations.
Abbey Church of the Assumption of Mary
According to the German art historian Cornelius Gurlitt, "the abbey church of Wilhering is the most brilliant achievement of the Rococo style in the German-speaking world." It gives the impression that more decoration, colour, sculptures, paintings and stuccowork could not be found in a single place. The Baroque dream that heavenly light-heartedness and timeless happiness can be brought down to earth, a dream which in the Rococo period reached its nearly unrestrained climax, has come true at Wilhering. Moreover, all the individual elements are in harmony and seem to be connected in some way: the altars, the pulpit, the two organs, the choir stalls, the putti and the frescoes with numerous saints, with clouds and blue sky. These artists had a uniform feeling for style and taste.
The ground-plan of the present church is the same as that of the old church from before 1733. The church was completely rebuilt in the Rococo style by Johann Haslinger of Linz, a little-known master mason from Linz, who may have been working from designs by Joseph Matthias Abbot Hinterhölzl engaged various freelance artists to carry out the programme for the decoration, which is recorded in a banderol in the ceiling fresco of the chancel: "Assumpta est Maria in caelum, gaudent angeli".
The well-known Baroque painter Martino Altomonte, who was over eighty during this commission, created the altar-pieces. He also designed the high altar. The high altar-piece is dedicated to the Assumption of Mary. The two anterior altar-pieces, placed nearest to the high altar, refer to Mary’s work in the Benedictine (left) and Cistercian (right) Orders. The pictures on the two middle altars show the death of Saint Joseph (left) and the guardian angel (right). Both altar-pieces at the back are dedicated to the Fourteen Holy Helpers (die Vierzehn Nothelfer): the holy virgins to the left and the intercessors for agriculture to the right. The paintings represent Late Baroque Italian Classicism.
The fresco painter was Martino Altomonte’s son, Bartolomeo. He directed the greatest attention to frescoing the ceilings. In a way it was Bartolomeo’s endeavour to create a perfect heavenly illusion, the desire to create a "new Heaven", according to Saint John's vision in the Book of Revelation. According to the abbot’s wish, the frescoes had to be similar to those of the abbey at Spital am Pyhrn, showing Mary being assumed into the glory of Heaven. The angels, the whole world, and the saints of Heaven were to take part in Our Lady’s triumph, assumption and coronation. Bartolomeo Altomonte succeeded in painting a fresco of more than 450 m2 (approximately 540 square yards). This extensive ceiling fresco is characteristic of the specific atmosphere in the church. The painting mainly shows saints related to the Cistercian Order, who are arranged in groups. The transition from fresco to plastic decoration is fluid. The richly gilded frames of stucco take up the liveliness of the picture and pass it on to the periphery of the vault. The transept shows frescoes praising the Virgin Mary in an allegorical manner. The idea is that grace will be heaped upon those who venerate Mary, and that all continents are united with her by the virtues of faith, hope, and charity.
The fresco in the flat cupola of the crossing is a combined work by the Italian painter of architectural perspective, Francesco Messenta, and Altomonte. The picture is an allegory of Mary’s triumph over sin and the sinner’s due punishment, symbolized by mankind chained to the globe. The frescoes in the presbytery and below the organ-loft show angels playing musical instruments in honour of the Queen of Heaven. The fresco in the Grundemann Chapel is complementary to the altar-piece of the chapel, whose subject is the wiping out of the original sin by Christ’s redeeming blood. In the centre of the fresco there is the Christ Child being offered the instruments of Christ's Passion.
The Austrian stuccoer Franz Josef Holzinger of Sankt Florian was commissioned to do the stucco work (1739-1741). However, he was forced to interrupt his work by the War of the Austrian Succession, and his commission was later discontinued, as his stuccoing was too orderly with little exuberance. The work was continued by the Augsburg-born master stuccoers, Johann Michael Feuchtmayer and Johann Georg Ueblherr, two members of the Wessobrunner School. They applied the then highly admired and fashionable rocaille cartouche ornamentation, redecorated Holzinger’s stuccoing with great skill, created the lively curved retables surrounding the large altar-pieces, and fashioned the pulpit as well as the casing of the choir organ. They also furnished the continuous main cornice with red stuccoed marble and all the pilasters with the same material in an elegant grey. Moreover, Ueblherr himself created the sixteen life-sized statues of saints for the altars, the figures of the Holy Trinity above the high altar, the statue of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, the most famous abbot of the Cistercians, for the sounding-board of the pulpit, and the royal harpist David above the choir organ. It was also Feichtmayr and Ueblherr who placed the numerous glazed stucco putti and angels’ heads throughout the church.
They sent for the gilder Johann Georg Frueholz of Munich, who was known to them, to provide the final gloss to the interior of the church by gilding it abundantly. In the meantime two lay-brothers of Wilhering, Eugen Dymge and Johann Baptist Zell, carved the choir stalls and the pews.
The choir organ, a counterpart of the pulpit, was made in 1746 by Nikolaus Rumel the elder. The famous Austrian composer Anton Bruckner counted it among his favourites. The main organ, with its Baroque casing, is the decorative highlight at the back of the church. It was made in 1883 by Leopold Breinbauer and now has thirty-eight stops.
The essential work of decorating and furnishing was completed in 1748. At that time the monastery’s debts amounted to 122,000 florins, a sum equivalent to the value of 10,000 cows. The result is now one of the most significant Rococo buildings in the German-speaking world.
The mystery of this abundantly and solemnly decorated space lies in the interplay of many single decorative elements. The beauty displayed here is likely to disclose itself best to those who do not analyse the details, but appreciate the whole interior in its entirety.
The latest overall restoration of the church took place between 1971 and 1977 under the artistic direction of Prof. Fritz Fröhlich.
Gallery
List of abbots
Gebhard I (1146–1155)
Gebhard II (1155–1180)
Otto I (1180–1181)
Heinrich I (1181–1185)
Heinrich II (1185–1186)
Hiltger (1186–1193)
Otto II von Niest (1193–1201)
Gottschalk (1201–1208)
Eberhard (1208–1215)
Konrad I (1215–1234)
Theodorich (1234–1241)
Konrad II (1241–1243)
Heinrich III (1243–1246)
Ernest (1246–1270)
Ortolf (1270–1273)
Pitrof (1273–1276)
Hugo (1276–1280)
Wolfram (1281–1288)
Konrad III (1288-1308)
Ulrich I (1308–1309)
Otto III (1309)
Wisento (1309–1313)
Stephan I (1313–1316)
Heinrich IV Praendl (1316–1331)
Konrad IV (1331–1333)
Hermann (1333–1350)
Bernhard I Hirnbrech (1350–1359)
Simon (1359–1360)
Walther (Balthasar) (1360–1366)
Andreas (1366–1369)
Johann I (1370–1381)
Peter I (1381–1385)
Jakob I (1385–1421)
Stephan II (1421–1432)
Ulrich II (1432–1451)
Georg I (1451–1452)
Ulrich III (1452–1460)
Wilhelm (1460–1466)
Conrad V Panstorfer (1467–1470)
Urban (1470–1480)
Thomas Dienstl (1480–1507)
Caspar I (1507–1518)
Leonhard Rosenberger (1518–1534)
Peter II Rinkhammer (1534–1543)
Erasmus Mayer (1543–1544)
Martin Gottfried (1545–1560)
Matthaeus Schweitzer (1568–1574)
Johann II Hammerschmied (1574-1583)
Jakob II Gistl (1584–1587)
Alexander a Lacu (1587–1600)
Johann Schiller (1603–1611)
Anton Wolfradt (1612–1613)
Georg II Grill (1614–1638)
Capar II Orlacher (1638–1669)
Malachias Braunmüller (1670–1680)
Bernhard II Weidner (1681–1709)
Hilarius Sigmund (1709–1730)
Bonus Pemerl (1730–1734)
Johann IV Baptist Hinterhölzl (1734–1750)
Raimund Schedelberger (1750–1753)
Alan Aichinger (1753–1780)
Johann V Baptist Hinterhölzl (1781–1801)
Bruno Detterle (1801–1832)
Johann VI Baptist Schober (1832–1850)
Alois Dorfer (1851–1892)
Theobald Grasböck (1892–1915)
Gabriel Fazeny (1915–1938)
Bernhard Burgstaller (1938–1941)
Balduin Wiesmayer (1941–1948)
Wilhelm Ratzenböck (1948–1965)
Gabriel Weinberger (1965–1977)
Dominik Nimmervoll (1977–1991)
Gottfried Hemmelmayr (1991–present)
Reinhold Dessl (administrator from 2012)
Notes
References
Sources
Guby, Rudolf, 1920: Das Zisterzienserstift Wilhering in Oberösterreich. Österreichische Kunstführer, vol. 4. Vienna
Zisterzienserstift Wilhering (ed.), 1983: Wilhering, Stift und Kirche. Wilhering
External links
Wilhering Abbey website
Stiftsgymnasium Wilhering website
Cistercian monasteries in Austria
1146 establishments in Europe
Religious organizations established in the 1140s
Monasteries in Upper Austria
Christian monasteries established in the 12th century
Baroque architecture in Austria
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matteo%20Messina%20Denaro
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Matteo Messina Denaro
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Matteo Messina Denaro (; ; 26 April 1962 – 25 September 2023), also known as Diabolik (from the Italian comic book character), was a Sicilian Mafia boss from Castelvetrano. He was considered to be one of the new leaders of the Sicilian mob after the arrests of Bernardo Provenzano on 11 April 2006 and Salvatore Lo Piccolo in November 2007. The son of a Mafia boss, Denaro became known nationally on 12 April 2001 when the magazine L'Espresso put him on the cover with the headline: Ecco il nuovo capo della Mafia ("Here is the new Mafia boss").
Messina Denaro became a fugitive on the most wanted list in 1993; according to Forbes in 2010, he was one of the ten most wanted and powerful criminals in the world. With the deaths of Bernardo Provenzano in 2016 and Salvatore Riina in 2017, Messina Denaro was seen as the unchallenged boss of all bosses within the Mafia. After 30 years on the run, he was arrested on 16 January 2023 near a private clinic in Sicily's capital, Palermo, where he was reportedly undergoing chemotherapy under a false name. Messina Denaro died in a prison hospital on 25 September 2023 after falling into an irreversible coma at the age of 61 after receiving treatment for colon cancer.
Early life
Matteo Messina Denaro was born in Castelvetrano in the province of Trapani, Sicily. His father, Francesco Messina Denaro, known as Don Ciccio, was the capo mandamento of Castelvetrano. Matteo learned to use a gun at 14. He once bragged: "I filled a cemetery all by myself." He made a reputation by murdering rival boss Vincenzo Milazzo from Alcamo and strangling Milazzo's three-month pregnant girlfriend.
His father started as a campiere (armed guard) of the D'Alì family, wealthy landowners who were among the founders of the Banca Sicula. He became the fattore (overseer of an estate) of the D'Alì land holdings. They handed over a significant estate in the area of Zangara (Castelvetrano) to Matteo Messina Denaro. However, the real new owner turned out to be Salvatore Riina, leader of the Corleonesi Mafia clan, with whom Messina Denaro was allied.
Antonio D'Alì Sr. had to resign from the board of the Banca Sicula in 1983 because he appeared on the list of the secret freemason lodge Propaganda Due (P2) of Licio Gelli. His son Antonio D'Alì Jr. became a senator for Silvio Berlusconi's Forza Italia party in 1996, and in April 2001 under-secretary at the Ministry of the Interior, the institution responsible for fighting organised crime. His cousin Giacomo D'Alì is a counsellor of the Banca Commerciale Italiana (Comit) in Milan, which acquired the Banca Sicula in 1991. Matteo's brother Salvatore Messina Denaro, arrested in November 1998, worked at the Banca Sicula and continued to work for Comit.
Messina Denaro is often portrayed as a ruthless playboy mafioso and womaniser, driving an expensive Porsche sports car and wearing a Rolex Daytona watch, Ray Ban sunglasses and fancy clothes from Giorgio Armani and Versace. He was an ardent player of computer games, and is said to be the father of an extramarital child, which is unusual in the conservative culture of the Mafia. Messina Denaro had a reputation for fast living and allegedly killed a Sicilian hotel owner who accused him of taking young girls to bed. As such, he was remarkably different from traditional Mafia bosses like Salvatore Riina and Bernardo Provenzano who claimed to adhere to conservative family values.
Mafia activity
After the natural death of his father in November 1998, Matteo became capo mandamento of the area including Castelvetrano and the neighbouring cities, while Vincenzo Virga ruled in the city of Trapani and its surroundings. After the arrest of Virga in 2001, Messina Denaro took over the leadership of the Mafia in the province of Trapani. He was said to command some 900 men and apparently reorganised the 20 Mafia families in Trapani into one single mandamento separated from the rest of Cosa Nostra. The Trapani Mafia is considered the zoccolo duro (solid pedestal) of Cosa Nostra and the most powerful except for the families in Palermo.
Messina Denaro got his money through an extensive extortion racket forcing businesses to pay a pizzo (protection money) and through skimming off public construction contracts (the family owns substantial sand quarries). He was also active in the international drug trade, allegedly with the Cuntrera-Caruana clan, which attracted the attention of the US Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). He also made money through legitimate business; he had stakes in a Sicilian supermarket chain and owned vast olive groves. He was involved in olive oil production in a corrupt business, which used cheap African labour.
According to the Direzione distrettuale antimafia (DDA) of Palermo, he had interests in Venezuela and contacts with Colombian drug trafficking cartels as well as the 'Ndrangheta. His illicit networks extend to Belgium and Germany.
Messina Denaro had strong links with Mafia families in Palermo, in particular in Brancaccio, the territory of the Graviano Family. Filippo Guttadauro the brother of the Giuseppe Guttadauro – the regent of the Brancaccio Mafia while Giuseppe Graviano and Filippo Graviano are in jail – is the brother-in-law of Messina Denaro. They are involved in cocaine trafficking in agreement with 'Ndrangheta clans from Platì, Marina di Gioiosa Ionica and Siderno, as well as the Mafia family of Mariano Agate.
Fugitive after 1992/93 bombings
After bomb attacks in Capaci and Via D'Amelio that killed prosecutors Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino, the arrest of Salvatore Riina on 15 January 1993 and the introduction of strict prison regime (article 41-bis), Cosa Nostra embarked on a terrorist campaign in which Messina Denaro played a prominent role.
The remaining Mafia bosses, among them Messina Denaro, Giovanni Brusca, Leoluca Bagarella, , Giuseppe Graviano and Gioacchino La Barbera, met several times (often in the Santa Flavia area in Bagheria on an estate owned by the mafioso Leonardo Greco). They decided on a strategy to force the Italian state to retreat. That resulted in a series of bomb attacks in the Via dei Georgofili in Florence, in Via Palestro in Milan, in the Piazza San Giovanni in Laterano and Via San Teodoro in Rome, which left 10 people dead and 93 injured as well as damage to centres of cultural heritage such as the Uffizi Gallery.
Messina Denaro also tailed the TV journalist Maurizio Costanzo, host of the Maurizio Costanzo Show, who just escaped a car bomb attack on 14 May 1993. He also observed the movements of Giovanni Falcone and the Minister of Justice, Claudio Martelli, in 1991. After the 1993 bombings, Messina Denaro went into hiding as of June 1993.
According to investigators, between 1994 and 1996 Messina Denaro spent time in his hiding place located between Aspra and Bagheria with his lover Maria Mesi, with whom he went on vacation to Greece under the false name of "Matteo Cracolici".
In 1995, Messina Denaro, who by then had a daughter from a previous relationship with Francesca Alagna, went to live with his mother. In a letter addressed to a friend, seized by investigators, Messina Denaro revealed that he had never met this daughter.
In 2000, Maria Mesi was arrested, and because police found love letters that she had exchanged with Messina Denaro, the following year she was sentenced to three years in prison for aiding and abetting together with her brother Francesco. In July 2006, investigators found other love letters from Maria Mesi at the home of Filippo Guttadauro, who had the task of delivering them to his brother-in-law Messina Denaro.
On 6 May 2002, Messina Denaro was sentenced in absentia to life imprisonment for his role in the bombings of 1993.
Possible successor of Provenzano
According to Giusy Vitale, a pentita, in 1998, Messina Denaro was one of the young Turks within Cosa Nostra who wanted to set aside Bernardo Provenzano. In addition to Messina Denaro, they were Giovanni Brusca, Domenico Raccuglia, and Vito Vitale. The younger bosses wanted to take strategic decisions without prior consent of Provenzano. They told him to "go home and take care of your family".
After the arrest of Provenzano on 11 April 2006, Messina Denaro was often mentioned as his successor. His main rivals were supposed to be Salvatore Lo Piccolo, boss of the mandamento of San Lorenzo, Palermo, and Domenico Raccuglia from Altofonte. Provenzano allegedly nominated Messina Denaro in one of his pizzini, which are small slips of paper used to communicate with other mafiosi to avoid phone conversations. Messina Denaro used the pseudonym "Alessio" in his clandestine correspondence with former Mafia boss Provenzano. He suffers from severe myopia and received treatment for this condition at a clinic in Barcelona, Spain, in 1994 and 1996.
This presupposed that Provenzano had the power to nominate a successor, which was not unanimously accepted among Mafia observers. According to anti-Mafia prosecutor Antonio Ingroia of the Direzione distrettuale antimafia (DDA) of Palermo, "The Mafia today is more of a federation and less of an authoritarian state", referring to the previous period of authoritarian rule under Salvatore Riina. Ingroia says that Provenzano "established a kind of directorate of about four to seven men who met very infrequently, only when necessary, when there were strategic decisions to make".
According to Ingroia, "in an organization like the Mafia, a boss has to be one step above the others, otherwise, it all falls apart. It all depends on whether he can manage consensus and whether the others agree or rebel." For Ingroia, Provenzano "guaranteed a measure of stability because he had the authority to quash internal disputes". According to Sergio Lari, deputy chief prosecutor of Palermo, "Either the directorate can choose a successor or we could again be in for a fiery time". Ingroia said that it was unlikely that there would be an all-out war over who would fill Provenzano's shoes. He said: "Right now I don't think that's probable." Of the two possible successors, Ingroia thought Lo Piccolo was the more likely heir to the Mafia throne, saying: "He's from Palermo and that's still the most powerful Mafia stronghold."
After the arrest of Lo Piccolo
After the arrest of Salvatore Lo Piccolo in November 2007, Messina Denaro was generally viewed as one of the possible leading Mafia bosses. According to Antonio Ingroia, one of the prosecutors of the Direzione distrettuale antimafia (DDA) of Palermo, the main leading figures in Cosa Nostra at that point, Messina Denaro, Giovanni Riina, Domenico Raccuglia, Pietro Tagliavia and Gianni Nicchi, were still too young to be recognized as leading bosses of the organisation. The police believed that Messina Denaro was hiding out close to his family home at Castelvetrano, and moved between safe houses. On 15 November 2009, Domenico Raccuglia was arrested in a small town near Trapani, having been convicted in absentia for murder and other crimes. He was facing three life sentences.
On 18 November 2008, Italian authorities seized €700 million in assets from the supermarket king of Sicily, Giuseppe Grigoli, traceable to Messina Denaro. The assets included 12 businesses, 220 real estate holdings – including villas and apartment blocks – and 133 land holdings, for a total of 60 hectares. Grigoli was arrested in December 2007 after authorities found documents linking him to Messina Denaro in the hideout where Provenzano was arrested in April 2006. Grigoli has the exclusive franchise for western Sicily of the SPAR supermarket chain.
"This is one of the most important operations in recent years", said Palermo prosecutor Roberto Scarpinato. Investigators believed that through his supermarkets, Grigoli was able to launder illicit profits for Cosa Nostra and give legal cover to mafiosi. "Having conquered the food distribution market, Grigoli was able to give jobs to hundreds of people close to Cosa Nostra or recommended by the Mafia", Scarpinato said. He added that from evidence discovered on tiny paper-scrap messages found in the hut where Provenzano was arrested, Messina Denaro "knew to the last comma the accounts of Grigoli's supermarkets".
More assets seized
In January 2010, police seized construction companies, villas, shops and vehicles worth some €550 million from a western Sicilian construction magnate, Rosario Cascio, believed to be one of the main bankrollers and money launderers for Messina Denaro. Together with €700 million in assets taken from supermarket magnate Giuseppe Grigoli at the end of 2008 and €200 million from construction tycoon Francesco Pecora in November 2009. In total €1.4 billion were seized, which was seen as a clear reminder of the deep-rooted economic power of Messina Denaro.
In September 2010, police seized a record amount of assets, worth €1.5 billion from Sicilian businessman Vito Nicastri, accused of working with Messina Denaro. He had invested in wind and solar energy sources as a way of laundering money. The Italian police applied a new strategy to try to capture Messina Denaro, arresting scores of his underlings and seizing millions of euros in assets. "The circle is closing around the No.1 fugitive", Interior Minister Roberto Maroni said. Palermo Chief Prosecutor Francesco Messineo added that the aim of the strategy against Messina Denaro was to "dry up the water he swims in".
With the arrest of Gerlandino Messina, the alleged boss of Agrigento, on 23 October 2010 in Favara, Agrigento province, the circle around Messina Denaro tightened even more, as notes addressed specifically to Messina Denaro to discuss territorial division were thought likely to provide clues to his whereabouts and recent activities.
Arrest attempts and later events
On 15 March 2010, Messina Denaro's brother, Salvatore Messina Denaro, was arrested along with 18 others in operation "Golem 2". They were part of a network surrounding the Mafia boss, and were charged with organizing Messina Denaro's secret correspondence in order to help him remain hidden. Other charges include mafia association, corruption and protection rackets.
On 19 May 2011, an attempt to arrest Messina Denaro failed. Police surrounded a manor farm ten minutes from his hometown Castelvetrano. They were tipped by the secret service Agenzia Informazioni e Sicurezza Interna which had provided useful information for the previous arrests of Mafia bosses Giuseppe Falsone and Gerlandino Messina. However, there was no trace of Messina Denaro.
In 2012, though still at large, Messina Denaro was one of five people sentenced to life imprisonment for their roles in the murder of Giuseppe Di Matteo.
On 13 December 2013, Messina Denaro's sister, Patrizia Messina Denaro, was arrested along with several other mafia associates in a serious blow to Messina Denaro by Italian police. On 17 April 2018, she was sentenced to 14 years in prison for mafia association, external competition, and attempted extortion.
In December 2014, there was a mention of Italian police coming close to apprehending Messina Denaro after they made an estimated €20 million seizure of his assets in the form of valuable olive groves in Trapani. Wiretaps had revealed Messina Denaro was receiving funding from the Fountain of Gold olive oil business based in the region.
In December 2017, over 200 Italian police officers executed search warrants at properties owned by around 30 Italian mafiosi in and near Castelvetrano, his hometown, in the search for Messina Denaro.
In November 2018, Italian businessman Carmelo Patti, accused of working with Messina Denaro, had €1.5 billion of his assets seized by Italian police on the basis that they related to the proceeds of crime.
On 20 October 2020, Messina Denaro was sentenced in absentia to life imprisonment by the Corte d'Assise for having been one of the instigators of the Capaci bombing and Via D'Amelio bombing. After his capture in January 2023, the sentence was confirmed on 18 July 2023.
On 12 August 2021, TG1 released the first-ever voice recording of Messina Denaro. The recording originated from an archived cassette tape of the Court of Marsala until it was recovered by local Anti-Mafia associations and news outlets. The recording dated from 18 March 1993, taking place in the court of Marsala regarding a murder case in Partanna. Messina Denaro testified in the case, and almost three months later was deemed a fugitive.
On 10 September 2021, there was a Dutch news report that Messina Denaro might have been arrested two days earlier while in a restaurant in The Hague, after receiving a tip from Italian authorities. However, Dutch prosecutors confirmed later that it was not Denaro but instead a man from Liverpool. Following this incident, severe criticism was directed toward Italian authorities.
On 30 September 2021, TG2 revealed the first known video of Messina Denaro. The sighting came from a security camera in the area of the Valle del Belice in December 2009. The footage shows a Mitsubishi Pajero driving through the valley, revealing at least two occupants. The front passenger is supposedly Messina Denaro. In October 2021, Italian authorities launched a manhunt across Sicily.
Capture and death
On 16 January 2023, Messina Denaro was arrested in Sicily by Italian police, after being a fugitive since 1993. His arrest came almost exactly 30 years after that of Riina, who was taken into custody on 15 January 1993, also in Palermo.
Over 100 members of the armed forces were involved in the arrest of Messina Denaro, who was detained in Palermo at a private clinic where he was receiving treatment for colon cancer (reportedly visiting the clinic under a fake name for chemotherapy). Italian media reported that Messina Denaro was captured just before 10:00 (CET) and taken to a secret location by the Carabinieri. At the time of his arrest, Messina Denaro's assets were estimated to be at least €4 billion.
During the night, he was transferred by a secret military flight to the prison of L'Aquila under the article 41-bis prison regime. The prison has an oncology ward and is the nearest place to Rome where he was to be put under interrogation by the Italian magistrates.
On 24 September 2023, Messina Denaro fell into an irreversible coma, and died in the early morning on 25 September 2023 at age 61.
Writings
– via = archive.is.
Marco Bova (2021). Matteo Messina Denaro, latitante di Stato. Inchieste (in Italian). Roma: Ponte alle Grazie. p. 336. ISBN 8833318427. – via amazon.com.
See also
List of fugitives from justice who disappeared
References
External links
Il "papa" della nuova mafia, by Rino Giacalone, Libera Informazione, 3 December 2008
The World's 10 Most Wanted Fugitives, Forbes
Ecco il nuovo capo della mafia , di Peter Gomez e Marco Lillo, L'Espresso, 12 April 2001.
1962 births
2023 deaths
People from Castelvetrano
Sicilian mafiosi
Capo dei capi
Fugitives wanted by Italy
Italian crime bosses
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by Italy
People convicted of murder by Italy
Sicilian mafiosi sentenced to life imprisonment
Italian people convicted of murder
Deaths from colorectal cancer
Deaths from cancer in Abruzzo
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic%20Egg
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Cosmic Egg
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Cosmic Egg is the second studio album by Australian rock band Wolfmother, released on 23 October 2009. It is the first album by the second lineup of the band, featuring vocalist, songwriter and lead guitarist Andrew Stockdale, bassist and keyboardist Ian Peres, rhythm guitarist Aidan Nemeth and drummer Dave Atkins, formed in 2009 after original members Chris Ross and Myles Heskett left in August 2008. Upon its release, Cosmic Egg peaked at number three on the Australian ARIA Albums Chart, the same position as the band's first album. The album was the only studio release by the band to feature Atkins, who left the band in April 2010 during the Cosmic Egg promotional tour cycle.
The album was recorded between April and May 2009 at Sound City Studios and Sunset Sound Studios in Los Angeles, California. The title of the album comes from a position in yoga described by frontman Stockdale as "like the fetal pose". The album's release was promoted throughout 2009 and 2010 by the New Moon Rising World Tour, beginning in September 2009 in Australia. The first song released from the album was the promotional digital download single "Back Round" on 2 June 2009; "New Moon Rising" was the first full single release from Cosmic Egg, on 25 August 2009.
History
Background and composition
Mention of a follow-up to the band's 2005 debut studio album Wolfmother began shortly after its international release in 2006. In August, music magazine NME revealed that the band were discussing ideas for their second album, quoting Stockdale as saying "I feel like we've got a lot more to say". In January 2007, MTV reported that "Wolfmother celebrated the news of their Grammy nomination last month by writing a new song, which they've since recorded." The song, then known as "Love Attacker" and "about people who use love as a weapon to manipulate and get their way through desire", later evolved into "Pleased to Meet You" and was featured on the Spider-Man 3 soundtrack released on 1 May 2007. In revealing the news, MTV also suggested fall 2007 as the beginning of the recording process, quoting Andrew Stockdale as saying:
In February NME reported that Wolfmother "[felt] good about the second record", explaining that the band wanted to make their follow-up to Wolfmother sound "more relentless and in your face." After more touring and a brief period of inactivity with few updates regarding new material, American magazine Rolling Stone reported in November 2007 that "Wolfmother [were] hard at work on a new album". Speaking on the upcoming album, Stockdale explained that "It's kind of cinematic, and it's kind of epic", going on to suggest that "there's also this fully aggressive side that's undeniably explosive". Among ten songs "ready to go", Stockdale first revealed the name "Back Home", which would eventually evolve into "Back Round".
The first new original material, since the release of "Pleased to Meet You" in 2007, appeared during the band's first performance in nine months at the Queensland Gallery of Modern Art (QGMA) on 12 April 2008 in the form of four new songs: "Back Round", "The Violence of the Sun", "Monolith" and "Inside the Mountain". With increasing discussion of Wolfmother's second album, rumours began to emerge in August 2008 that the band was due to split up; various sources suggested that the trio were experiencing tensions after their performance at Splendour in the Grass on 3 August and that a statement to be released by their management was imminent. The following statement was released to radio station Triple J upon the band's lack of appearance at a scheduled interview:
The statement made by manager John Watson at the time was as follows:
Within days of the rumours surfacing, reports were updated to make the breakup official; bassist and keyboardist Chris Ross and drummer Myles Heskett departed Wolfmother immediately due to "longstanding frictions". Universal Music Australia released a statement explaining that Ross departed the band first due to "irreconcilable personal and musical differences" and was followed almost immediately by Heskett who was not willing to continue as part of a new line-up. Stockdale, however, promised fans that he would continue the Wolfmother moniker by finding new members to replace the departed co-founders. It was subsequently reported by the band's record label, Modular Recordings, that "Wolfmother Phase II" planned to record their first album with producer Dave Sardy ready for an "early 2009" release.
After a number of rumours regarding new members, Wolfmother re-appeared in February 2009, performing under the alias "White Feather"; two low-key gigs were played on 6 February at The Valley Studios, Brisbane and 8 February at Oxford Art Factory, Sydney with new musicians accompanying Stockdale. Following the performances the new members of Wolfmother, who had officially joined the band on 5 January 2009, were confirmed as guitarist Aidan Nemeth, bassist and keyboardist Ian Peres and drummer Dave "Acosta" Atkins, and a new song called "Pilgrim" was mentioned. Other songs debuted at the two low-key comeback performances included "White Feather", "Phoenix", "Far Away" and "10,000 Ft.", complemented by the previously performed "Back Round" and "The Violence of the Sun". In an interview with Triple J in February, Stockdale mentioned a number of songs being considered for the new album, namely "Pilgrim", "Phoenix", "Back Round", "The Violence of the Sun" and the previously unmentioned "Sun Dial". He also revealed that there were 17 new songs written for the album, recording for which was due to begin in March, which he described as "heavy" and "riff driven".
Recording and production
Stockdale began recording early versions of the new Wolfmother songs in his home-based studio before the new band members were officially unveiled. With subsequent comeback performances made on 14 and 22 March at Sound Relief and Clipsal 500 respectively, the first official material released by "Wolfmother Phase II" was a studio version of "Back Round", made available as a free digital download on the band's official website on 30 March. Stockdale began using his Twitter profile in April, with his first update on 9 April confirming recording progression by revealing that the band were "Onto the 9th song tracking drums", hinting that it "looks like this will be a double album spectacular." On 11 April, Stockdale revealed that they had "Tracked the 14th song," and by 15 April the band had tracked the drums on all 18 songs. The title of the album was revealed as Cosmic Egg by NME in April, who also revealed that the album would contain 18 songs including "White Feather", "The Violence of the Sun" and a title track. On 1 May, Wolfmother performed at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, debuting new songs "Cosmic Egg" and "California Queen". Beginning in late-April, confirmation began spreading that ex-Guns N' Roses and current Velvet Revolver guitarist Slash was to join the band in recording their new album, although it later turned out that the collaboration had resulted in "By the Sword", a song which would later appear on Slash's self-titled debut solo album.
On 9 May, Stockdale reported on his Twitter page that the band had "3 more songs to go, of 17 songs", adding that "this is an endurance test, though the horizon seems closer". Later, he notified readers that he was "About to shred the solo on White Feather", describing it as "possibly the greatest song written since Womac[k] and Womac[k]'s "Foot Steps" Yes!" On 15 May, Stockdale reported that the title track "Cosmic Egg" had been completed, describing it as "a rollicking viking song". On 16 May, Stockdale hinted at the prominence of a string section on the song "10,000 Feet" by revealing that "Dave [Atkins] has done some amazing string arrangements for 10,000 feet, he's a talented guy!" Shortly after this update, a link was posted on the Twitter page to a montage video of the band recording and mixing some songs on the album, including "Back Round" and "Pilgrim". On 20 May, Stockdale reported that the album was near to completion, stating that there are "Ten songs down, Seven to go", adding "we're in double album territory now. It's a vast album". On 22 May, another Twitter update revealed that "tomorrow [23 May] we may well be finished! Then 4 weeks of mixing!" On 30 May, Stockdale reported that the band were "leaving L.A tonight [...] with Album in hand", confirming that recording for Cosmic Egg had been completed.
Cosmic Egg was mixed in Pasadena, California shortly after the recording of the album by Stockdale, producer Alan Moulder and Joe Barresi. On 18 June, Stockdale reported that he had "Just heard a mixed and mastered version of Cosmic Egg the song", describing it as "of[f] the Richter Scale". In the tweet, he also revealed that the album would be released on 13 October 2009. On 3 August, Stockdale revealed that he had "Just recorded some B Sides at Electric Ladyland, Jimi Hendrix's studio in N.Y.", adding that the recordings "Sound[ed] amazing" and had a "great vibe".
Style and direction
In revealing details of the album to NME in April 2009, Stockdale compared Cosmic Egg to the band's debut album Wolfmother by explaining that "Everything is magnified. The heaviness is magnified to heavier state. The simple ones are really simplistic, two-minute songs, and the journey songs are like 12 parts". In a pre-release interview with the singer-songwriter, Rolling Stone Australia described the album as "vintage Wolfmother", mentioning features and qualities such as the "distorted, frenetic, bass-heavy sounds of 'White Feather'" and "the epic 'In the Morning'". MTV also hinted at the style of the album early, explaining that "Tunes like 'California Queen' and 'Sundial' chug along on meaty chords, dive into sludgy breakdowns and sizzle with Stockdale's flame-kissed solos". Writer James Montgomery went on to add that "'Far Away' and 'Pilgrim' are moody, fog-machine ruminations on astral planes and mythic realms, floating on pealing organ lines and stony synths".
In August 2009, Spin published a track-by-track review of Cosmic Egg, revealing the following song descriptions:
Release and promotion
After being tipped for a release in September, Cosmic Egg was confirmed as being due for release on 13 October 2009, possibly as a double album. Replying to a fan's query on Twitter, Stockdale confirmed that the album would "be [released] on vinyl with some beautiful artwork". The band announced that they would begin touring in November, as well as supporting fellow Australian hard rock band AC/DC at a number of dates on the Australia/New Zealand leg of their Black Ice World Tour, beginning in February 2010. The release date of 13 October was later confirmed to be that of the United States, while Japan (8 October), Germany, New Zealand (both 9 October), Europe (12 October) and the band's native Australia (also 9 October) would receive the album earlier.
In July 2009 it was announced that the band would be completing a national tour of Australia in September, the New Moon Rising Tour, prior to the release of Cosmic Egg, showcasing much of the new material. On 17 July Stockdale announced that the band would tour the United States before the end of 2009, in October or November; later in the day, he confirmed that Wolfmother would also visit the United Kingdom and Europe later in the year. It was later revealed that the band would be supporting American alternative rock band The Killers on the North American leg of their Day & Age Tour, prior to their Australian New Moon Rising Tour.
On 27 July the album was played in full at the newly opened Laserium CyberTheater in Hollywood, California. This was first hinted at by Stockdale on 22 July when he revealed that "Los Angeles – Your time has come. 7/27 is your chance to join in on a very exclusive Cosmic event"; a competition was later opened to allow 20 Wolfmother fans from Los Angeles to attend the event and "hear Cosmic Egg, in full and FIRST". The track listing was revealed by a fan and Laserium attendant the next day.
On the subject of music videos or a possible full movie companion to the album, Stockdale revealed that "We want to do a film clip for every song – just like a total visual thing for the whole record", adding that "I don't know if it'll be a linear thing where it has a script or anything like that but we'll definitely try to create some interesting footage to go with this record". On 10 August a Wolfmother blog on MySpace revealed that the first single from the album would be "New Moon Rising", available on 5 October worldwide. The news also came with the official revelation of the track listing, as well as information regarding album formats and release dates.
The artwork for Cosmic Egg was revealed on 12 August 2009. On 26 August a video was uploaded to the band's official YouTube page entitled "Transmissions From The COSMIC EGG – Episode 1", revealed to be "The first of a series of behind-the-scenes looks at the forthcoming Wolfmother opus" in which "Episode 1 travels the open high-way to Byron Bay where much of the record was born and pre-production took place". In September Cosmic Egg was delayed further "to allow [the band and management] more time to complete the artwork and manufacture the various release configurations". Throughout October 2009 the full album was available to listen to on the band's official MySpace page. On the Australian release date of the album, record label Modular Recordings declared 23 October to be "Official Cosmic Egg Day".
Reception
{{Music ratings
| MC = 65/100
| rev1 = AllMusic
| rev1Score =
| rev2 = The A.V. Club
| rev2Score = A−
| rev3 = Classic Rock
| rev3score =
| rev4 = The Fly
| rev4Score =
| rev5 = The Guardian
| rev5Score =
| rev6 = IGN
| rev6Score = (8.9/10)
| rev7 = NME
| rev7Score = (unfavourable)<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.nme.com/reviews/wolfmother/10927 |title=Wolfmother – 'Cosmic Egg (Modular) |magazine=NME|author=Luke Turner |date=26 October 2009 |accessdate=14 October 2010 }}</ref>
| rev8 = PopMatters
| rev8Score = (7/10)
| rev9 = Rock Sound| rev9Score = (8/10)
| rev10 = Rolling Stone| rev10Score =
}}
According to the majority of pre-release reviews and interviews, Cosmic Egg was generally well received among music critics. Tiffany Bakker of Rolling Stone Australia magazine described the songs on the album as "vintage Wolfmother – heavy Sabbath-esque riffs and heaving basslines mixed with the distinctive wail of Andrew Stockdale that all add up to something raucous and thrilling". In another pre-release interview with Stockdale, music website Artistdirect summarised the album as "a powerful and poignant rock n' roll record with all the ingredients of a modern classic". Writer Rick Florino went on to describe specific strengths of the album, including "unforgettable riffs on 'Pilgrim' and 'Sun Dial'" and "the infectious hook on 'New Moon Rising'". Florino also identified "Pilgrim" as "lyrically [...] stand[ing] out", described "Sundial" as "like one of those crazy Black Sabbath stories" and outlined the bass performance as "pretty killer". MTV writer James Montgomery explained that "Cosmic Egg shouts very loudly, showcasing the added punch of three new musicians [...] and taking everything that made Wolfmother's self-titled debut such a smash – namely, gut-busting riffs, incendiary solos and bong-glazed mysticism – and cranking it to the absolute maximum". A review blog, CMK Music Review, stated that "While it may seem like it is nothing special, the simplicity of this album, combined with a constant force makes for a great combination". According to the Australian Recording Industry Association, in 2009 in Australia, Cosmic Egg was the 75th best-selling album and the 21st best-selling album by an Australian artist.
The album was nominated for the Classic Rock Album of the Year award in 2010, eventually losing to Slash's debut album, Slash.
Track listing
Personnel
Wolfmother
Andrew Stockdale – lead vocals, lead guitar, mixing
Ian Peres – bass guitar, keyboards
Aidan Nemeth – rhythm guitar
Dave Atkins – drums, strings on "10,000 Feet"
Production personnel
Alan Moulder – production, mixing
Joe Barresi – engineering, mixing
Morgan Stratton – engineering assistance
Adam Fuller – engineering assistance
Darren Lawson – additional mixing
Henrik Michelsen – mixing assistance
Justin Tressider – engineering on "Back Round"
Additional personnel
Kenny Segal – strings on "10,000 Feet"
Ben Tolliday – additional bass and engineering assistance on "Back Round"
Invisible Creature – art direction
Ryan Clark – graphic design
Diego Ibanez – photography
Charts
Certifications
Release history
As well as those releases listed, Cosmic Egg'' was released as an iTunes digital download album available internationally. It was released in Austria, Belgium, Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland Switzerland on 23 October; Denmark on 26 October; Canada and Spain on 27 October; and Sweden on 28 October.
References
2009 albums
Albums produced by Alan Moulder
Wolfmother albums
Albums recorded at Sound City Studios
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early%20childhood%20intervention
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Early childhood intervention
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Early childhood intervention (ECI) is a support and educational system for very young children (aged birth to six years) who have been victims of, or who are at high risk for child abuse and/or neglect as well as children who have developmental delays or disabilities. Some states and regions have chosen to focus these services on children with developmental disabilities or delays, but Early Childhood Intervention is not limited to children with these disabilities.
The mission of early childhood intervention is to assure that families who have at-risk children in this age range receive resources and supports that assist them in maximizing their child's physical, cognitive, and social/emotional development while respecting the diversity of families and communities.
Definition
Early intervention is a system of coordinated services that promotes the child's age-appropriate growth and development and supports families during the critical early years. In the United States, some early intervention services to eligible children and families are federally mandated through the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Other early intervention services are available through various national, regional, and state programs such as Crisis Nurseries and Healthy Start/Healthy Families America. Starting with a partnership between parents and professionals at this early stage helps the child, family and community as a whole.
Early intervention services delivered within the context of the family can aid with the below through the services of physical, occupational, and speech therapy. Some examples include:
Help prevent child abuse and neglect
Mitigate the effects of abuse and neglect
Improve parenting skills
Strengthen families
Improve the child's developmental, social, and educational gains;
Reduce the future costs of special education, rehabilitation and health care needs;
Reduce feelings of isolation, stress and frustration that families may experience;
Help alleviate and reduce behaviors by using positive behavior strategies and interventions; and
Help children with disabilities grow up to become successful, independent individuals.
Assistance with technological devices, counseling, and family training.
The earlier children at high risk for abuse or neglect and children with disabilities receive assistance, the likelihood for both short term and long term benefits to occur increases. Short-term benefits of early intervention include primary school readiness, increased learning and school performance, better health and nutrition, as well as a safer and more supportive home environment. Long term benefits of early intervention include reduction in instances of crime, drug use and teen pregnancy as children grow into adolescents and young adults.
History
Early childhood intervention came about as a natural progression from special education for children with disabilities (Guralnick, 1997). Many early childhood intervention support services began as research units in universities (for example, Syracuse University in the United States and Macquarie University in Australia) while others were developed out of organizations helping older children.
Early childhood education has roots in legislation reaching as far back as 1966 with the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. The legislation provides federal funding to primary and secondary education. The act emphasizes equal access to education, aiming to shorten the achievement gaps between students by providing federal funding to support schools with children from low income families. A more modern form of this act is the No Child Left Behind Act passed in the early 2000s. Then only a few years after the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the Handicapped Children’s Early Education Assistance Act of 1968 was passed which established 75 to 100 programs to support preschool aged children that are disabled.
Further, in 1972 the Economy Opportunity Act of 1964 was amended to extend Head Start programs. Head Start programs started as services to support children from low income families, the amendment extended the services to support children with disabilities. Head Start programs are the foundation that early childhood intervention was built upon.
In 1975, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (previously known as the Education for all Handicapped Children Act) was passed. This was landmark legislation that guaranteed free, appropriate, public, education to all students regardless of ability. IDEA is the legislation that guarantees early childhood education programs to children and families.
In the 1990s, many states in the US put into place a program where the child's pediatrician can recommend a child for early childhood intervention screening. These services are usually provided free of charge through the local school district or county, depending on the state.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) Part C
The Part C (originally Part H) program mandates a statewide, comprehensive, multidisciplinary service system to address the needs of infants and toddlers who are experiencing developmental delays or a diagnosed physical or mental condition with a high probability of an associated developmental disability in one or more of the following areas: cognitive development, physical development, language and speech development, psychosocial development, and self-help skills. In addition, states may opt to define and serve at-risk children. The therapies provided by IDEA can be found in the home, child care, early head start, and community settings such as the county. Commonly cited factors that may put an infant or toddler at risk of developmental delay include low birth weight, respiratory distress as a newborn, lack of oxygen, brain hemorrhage, infection, and prenatal exposure to toxins through maternal substance abuse. Other factors, not commonly cited but often experienced are language delays due to factors such as deafness, Autism, learning disabilities, or severe psychosocial issues (ie severe neglect).
Every state now implements Part C fully. The original legislation provided a five-year phase-in period for states to develop their comprehensive system of service for the affected population. Although IDEA does not mandate states' participation in Part H/C, powerful financial incentives from the federal government have led every state to participate. States were provided extensions of the 5-year period as they struggled with the logistic, interagency, and financial demands of developing a statewide system. To ensure a coordinated approach to service delivery and financing of services, federal regulations of Part C require that states develop interagency agreements that define the financial responsibility of each agency and impanel a state interagency coordinating council to assist the lead agency in implementing the statewide system. Regulations also prohibit the substitution of funds and reduction of benefits once the plan is implemented in each state (United States Department of Education, 1993). As states and federal territories (for example, Guam, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands) began to plan for implementation of P.L. 99-457 and later IDEA, their first obligation was to designate an agency that would provide leadership in the planning and administration of the state's comprehensive system. In 1989, 22 states or territories had the department of education as lead agency, 11 others had the department of health, another 9 had the department of human services, and the remaining states had combined departments or departments of mental health or developmental disabilities (Trohanis, 1989).
Meeting developmental milestones
Every child is unique, growing and developing at his or her own rate. Differences between children of the same age are usually nothing to worry about. However, for one child in 10, the differences can be related to a developmental delay. The sooner these delays are identified, the quicker children may be able to catch up to their peers.
Identifying these delays early is also important because the most critical time for brain development is before the age of three. The brain develops in an experience-dependent process. If certain experiences are not triggered, the pathways in the brain relating to this experience will not be activated. If these pathways are not activated, they will be eliminated.
Milestones birth to three
At age one month most children can:
Raise their heads slightly when lying on their stomachs
Briefly watch objects
Pull away from a blanket on their face
At age three months most children can:
Lift their heads and chest while lying on their stomachs
Make cooing sounds
Follow a moving person with their eyes
Smile back at someone
At age six months most children can:
Sit with minimal support
Roll from their back to their stomach
Respond to their name by looking
At age 12 months most children can:
Pull themselves up to stand and take steps with hands held
Follow with their eyes in the direction in which a person are pointing
Start a game of peek-a-boo, imitate clapping hands, point to show a person something
Say two or three words on a regular basis
Sit up when prompted
At age 18 months most children can:
Walk backwards
Walk down stairs holding an adult's hand
Use words and gestures (like taking someone by the hand) to get needs met
Perform simple pretend play like talking on the phone, feeding a stuffed animal
At age 24 months most children can:
Kick a large ball
Describe an injury or illness to an adult (bumped my head)
Show interest in other children by offering them a toy or taking their hand
At age 32 months most children can:
Pretend to be an animal or favorite character
Talk about the past/future
Answer "what", "where", and "who" questions easily
Imitate drawing a horizontal line after being shown
Hold a crayon with 3 fingers
However, if a child is premature it is not correct to compare them to this list of developments to be achieved by the age of three. Their chronological age of a premature child needs to be considered. That is, if a child is 12 weeks old but was born four weeks early, then the child's chronological age is only eight weeks. This is the age that needs to be considered when comparing the child's developments to others.
Recent discovery has also suggested that in some premature children the delays do not appear until the age of three, suggesting that all premature children receive Early Intervention Therapy rather than just those who appear to have developmental delays.
Early intervention services
The following is a list of what early intervention can provide:
Assisting technology devices and services – equipment and services that are used to improve or maintain the abilities of a child to participate in such activities as playing, communication, eating or moving
Audiology – identifying and providing services for children with hearing loss and prevention of hearing loss
Family training – services provided by qualified personnel to assist the family in understanding the special needs of the child and in promoting the child’s development
Medical services – only for diagnostic or evaluation purposes
Mental health counseling for children, parents, and families
Nursing services – assessment of health status of the child for the purpose of providing nursing care, and provision of nursing care to prevent health problems, restore and improve functioning, and promote optimal health and development. This may include administering medications, treatments, and other procedures prescribed by licensed physician.
Nutrition services – services that help address the nutritional needs of children that include identifying feeding skills, feeding problems, food habits, and food preferences
Occupational therapy – services that relate to self-help skills, feeding and food tolerance, dressing and undressing, toileting, adaptive behavior and play, social skills, and sensory, motor, and postural development
Parent training; parenting education, also referred to as embedded coaching
Physical therapy – services to prevent or lessen movement difficulties and related functional problems.
Psychological services – administering and interpreting psychological tests and information about a child’s behavior and child and family conditions related to learning, mental health and development as well as planning services including counseling, consultation, parent training, and education programs.
Service coordination – someone who works in partnership with the family by providing assistance and services that help the family to coordinate and obtain their rights under the early intervention program and services agreed upon in the Individual Family Service Plan
Social work services – preparing an assessment of the social and emotional strengths and needs of a child and family, and providing individual or group services such as counseling or family training
Special instruction – includes designing learning environments and activities that promote the child’s development, providing families with information, skills, and support to enhance the child’s development.
Speech-language pathology – services for children with delay in communication skills or with motor skills such as weakness of muscles around the mouth or swallowing. The power of early intervention, lays in the fact that the paediatric brain is most ‘plastic’ (meaning: flexible or capable of change) during the first three years of life.
Therapeutic early childhood classrooms, providing developmentally appropriate learning environments, and staffed by trained early interventionists
Vision services – identification of children with visual disorders or delays and providing services and training to those children
Providing early childhood intervention
Robin McWilliam (2003, 2010) developed a model that emphasizes five components: Understanding the family ecology through eco-maps; functional needs assessment through a routines-based interview; transdisciplinary service delivery through the use of a primary service provider; support-based home visits through the parent consultation; and collaborative consultation to child care through individualized intervention within routines. "These services are to be provided in the child's natural setting, preferably at a local level, with a family-oriented and multi-dimensional team approach".
A very common form of early intervention provided is a therapist coming into the home and playing with the child with toys. Large toys such as wagons and puzzles can be used to aid the child in muscle development while toys like bubbles can be used to aid in sensory development. With services like this the care provided is in a neutral setting at a local level and the family and therapist team are present. Experts in early intervention have, however, discredited this form of early intervention in favor of using the visit to build the capability of the child's natural caregivers (e.g., parents), so the child receives much more "intervention" throughout the week than would be received in a single visit, directly from the professional.
Early childhood intervention may be provided within a centre-based program (such as Early Head Start in the United States), a home-based program (such as Portage in Britain), or a mixed program (such as Lifestart in Australia). Some programs are funded entirely by the government, while others are charitable or fee-paying, or a combination.
An early childhood intervention team generally consists of teachers with early childhood education training, special education specialists, speech and language pathologists, physical therapists (physiotherapists), occupational therapists, and other support staff, such as ABA (Applied Behavioral Analysis) providers, music therapists, teacher aides/assistants, and counselors. A key feature of early childhood intervention is the transdisciplinary model, in which staff members discuss and work on goals even when they are outside their discipline: "In a transdisciplinary team the roles are not fixed. Decisions are made by professionals collaborating at a primary level. The boundaries between disciplines are deliberately blurred to employ a 'targeted eclectic flexibility'" (Pagliano, 1999).
Goals are chosen by the families through the annual or biannual Individual Family Service Plan (IFSP), which evolves from a meeting where families and staff members talk together about current concerns, as well as celebrating achievements. McWilliam's Routines-Based Interview, in which caregivers talk about the details of the child's and family's day, is used in many parts of the world to develop the family's chosen goals.
A significant application of the transdisciplinary model, was developed by Relief Nursery, Inc. of Eugene, Oregon, an early pioneer of the model. Founded in 1976 as a local child abuse prevention effort, Relief Nursery became a pilot project under the National Crisis Nurseries Act of 1986 Working with early childhood experts Christine Chaille and Lory Britain and representatives from the local community, the approach was refined into a new comprehensive family services model, so successful that it was replicated at more than 30 sites in the State of Oregon. The model attracted national and international interest, recognized in 2002 by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office on Child Abuse and Neglect (OCAN), as an "innovative program with noteworthy aspects", and becoming part of a project sponsored by Holt International in 2008, to introduce the model into the Ukraine as an alternative to their existing—and failing—orphanage model.
Early Hearing Detection Intervention
The Early Hearing Detection Intervention (EHDI) mandates each state and territory in the United States to implement programs providing newborn screening, diagnostic and early intervention. Programs are publicly funded and provided for free or at reduced cost for any eligible child. This serves all children with hearing loss. Screening occurs prior to hospital discharge. If an infant does not pass the newborn screening will receive diagnostic evaluation before three months of age. They will be enrolled in early intervention if hearing loss is diagnosed.
Early intervention services are designed to support babies and young children with developmental delays and disabilities or at risk for a developmental delay. This includes their families and caregivers. A child under the age of three may be eligible for early intervention services if the child is diagnosed with a medical condition, not reaching age-appropriate milestones, or at risk for a developmental delay due to medical or social history. Depending on the child's needs services may include speech therapy, physical therapy, and other types of services. Each child will receive an Individualized Family Service Plan, covered by IDEA.
History
The EDHI program has developed in efficiency over the past few decades. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) initially began mandating EDHI programs in each state in 2000, when the first funds were authorized from Congress to support its development. The CDC claimed deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) children to be endanger of potential developmental emergencies and thus it was necessary that they get diagnosed as early after birth as possible. There have been a variety of organizations involved in establishing early diagnosis and intervention treatment, many of which are branches under American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP). After 17 years, EDHI federally mandated through a law passed on October 18, 2017, when President Trump signed the Early Hearing Detection and Intervention (EHDI) Act (PL 115-71). In this act, three main U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) agencies, the (CDC), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), are required to work together to maintain, build up, and support EDHI programs in all the territories of the US.
Progress in diagnostic efficiency after EDHI program implementation from 2000 to 2017 has seen substantial increase. In 2000, only 855 infants were identified as DHH, but as of 2016 the number has increased to over 6,000 infants a year. In 2017, 65.1% of the 6,537 children with detected hearing loss were enrolled in early childhood intervention programs. Though these statistics do not prove all diagnosed children get services, there is still a drastic increase of children who were able to access them between 2000 and 2017.
Parent access
Once a parent decides that they want their child to be evaluated for early intervention, they can reach out directly to their state's early intervention program. A list of these contacts for each state is available on the CDC website. If their child is over the age of three, the parent can contact their local public elementary school to request for their child to be evaluated for special education preschool.
The cost of early childhood intervention services can range greatly depending on the needs of the child, but it is not uncommon for these services to cost thousands of dollars. Each state offers different programs to help make these costs affordable for parents. These programs take financial information such as income, rent/mortgage payments, household size, and medical expenses to calculate the maximum value that the family is capable of paying. Most programs also offer a way for families to request a reevaluation if they believe the amount is too high. In some instances, families can receive full coverage for their child's early intervention services.
Criticism
Some criticism of early childhood intervention asserts that growing up is different for each individual, depending on genetic endowments and environmental circumstances. However, one thing is common to everyone: the process, in order to take full advantage of the species' potential, must be a natural ripening, without interference from clumsy intruders. Some critics of early childhood intervention say that no one should push healthy children to learn any skill or academic discipline before they choose to do so of their own accord.
The family-centered ethos in early intervention programs, however, supports families' desires for their children to be engaged, independent, and social in their everyday routines. The choice is therefore not the child's but the parents', who are urged to follow the child's lead.
In the US state of Georgia, the program "Babies Can't Wait" was put in place to help parents find early intervention therapy. The program works the same as many government-mandated early intervention programs in that it first evaluates the child for free, and then deems what services the child needs to receive.
However, this particular program has received two major criticisms, for its timeline and for the collaborative model it provides. The program has 45 days to evaluate the child, then has another 45 days to develop a plan and provide services for the child. Due to limited providers working with "Babies Can't Wait", the deadline is sometimes not met and the services are not provided.
"Babies Can't Wait" works on a collaborative model, with medical professionals communicating with each other about the services each child needs. A physical therapist would consult with a speech therapist, and then the physical therapist would provide the child with speech therapy as part of the child's physical therapy session, instead of the child having an additional therapy session with the speech therapist.
See also
Special Assistance Program (Australian education)
Adverse childhood experiences
References
External links
.
Overview of Early Intervention Early Intervention Information from NICHCY
Early Childhood Intervention Association of Australia. Retrieved 2006-06-15.
Lifestart Early Childhood Intervention, Australia. Retrieved 2006-06-15.
Early Intervention Program for NYC . Retrieved 2008-06-16
Early intervention support and inclusion for children with disability. Retrieved 2016-05-10
New Jersey Early Intervention System
Early Intervention Foundation UK
Child development
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normalization%20%28people%20with%20disabilities%29
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Normalization (people with disabilities)
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"The normalization principle means making available to all people with disabilities patterns of life and conditions of everyday living which are as close as possible to the regular circumstances and ways of life or society." Normalization is a rigorous theory of human services that can be applied to disability services. Normalization theory arose in the early 1970s, towards the end of the institutionalisation period in the US; it is one of the strongest and long lasting integration theories for people with severe disabilities.
Definition
Normalization involves the acceptance of some people with disabilities, with their disabilities, offering them the same conditions as are offered to other citizens. It involves an awareness of the normal rhythm of life – including the normal rhythm of a day, a week, a year, and the life-cycle itself (e.g., celebration of holidays; workday and weekends). It involves the normal conditions of life – housing, schooling, employment, exercise, recreation and freedom of choice previously denied to individuals with severe, profound, or significant disabilities.
Wolfensberger's definition is based on a concept of cultural normativeness: "Utilization of a means which are as culturally normative as possible, in order to establish and/or maintain personal behaviors and characteristics that are as culturally normative as possible." Thus, for example, "medical procedures" such as shock treatment or restraints, are not just punitive, but also not "culturally normative" in society. His principle is based upon social and physical integration, which later became popularized, implemented and studied in services as community integration encompassing areas from work to recreation and living arrangement.
Theoretical foundations
This theory includes "the dignity of risk", rather than an emphasis on "protection" and is based upon the concept of integration in community life. The theory is one of the first to examine comprehensively both the individual and the service systems, similar to theories of human ecology which were competitive in the same period.
The theory undergirds the deinstitutionalization and community integration movements, and forms the legal basis for affirming rights to education, work, community living, medical care and citizenship. In addition, self-determination theory could not develop without this conceptual academic base to build upon and critique.
The theory of social role valorization is closely related to the principle of normalization having been developed with normalization as a foundation. This theory retains most aspects of normalization concentrating on socially valued roles and means, in socially valued contexts to achieve integration and other core quality of life values.
History
The principle of normalization was developed in Scandinavia during the sixties and articulated by Bengt Nirje of the Swedish Association for Retarded Children with the US human service system a product of Wolf Wolfensberger formulation of normalization and evaluations of the early 1970s. According to the history taught in the 1970s, although the "exact origins are not clear", the names Bank-Mikkelson (who moved the principle to Danish law), Grunewald, and Nirje from Scandinavia (later Ministry of Community and Social Services in Toronto, Canada) are associated with early work on this principle. Wolfensberger is credited with authoring the first textbook as a "well-known scholar, leader, and scientist" and Rutherford H. (Rud) Turnbull III reports that integration principles are incorporated in US laws.
Academe
The principle was developed and taught at the university level and in field education during the seventies, especially by Wolf Wolfensberger of the United States, one of the first clinical psychologists in the field of mental retardation, through the support of Canada and the National Institute on Mental Retardation (NIMR) and Syracuse University in New York State. PASS and PASSING marked the quantification of service evaluations based on normalization, and in 1991 a report was issued on the quality of institutional and community programs in the US and Canada based on a sample of 213 programs in the US, Canada and the United Kingdom.
Significance in structuring service systems
Normalization has had a significant effect on the way services for people with disabilities have been structured throughout the UK, Europe, especially Scandinavia, North America, Israel, Australasia (e.g., New Zealand) and increasingly, other parts of the world. It has led to a new conceptualisation of disability as not simply being a medical issue (the medical model which saw the person as indistinguishable from the disorder, though Wolfensberger continued to use the term into the 2000s, but as a social situation as described in social role valorization.
Government reports began from the 1970s to reflect this changing view of disability (Wolfensberger uses the term devalued people), e.g. the NSW Anti-Discrimination Board report of 1981 made recommendations on "the rights of people with intellectual handicaps to receive appropriate services, to assert their rights to independent living so far as this is possible, and to pursue the principle of normalization." The New York State Quality of Care Commission also recommended education based upon principles of normalization and social role valorization addressing "deep-seated negative beliefs of and about people with disabilities". Wolfensberger's work was part of a major systems reform in the US and Europe of how individuals with disabilities would be served, resulting in the growth in community services in support of homes, families and community living.
Critical ideology of human services
Normalization is often described in articles and education texts that reflect deinstitutionalization, family care or community living as the ideology of human services. Its roots are European-American, and as discussed in education fields in the 1990s, reflect a traditional gender relationship-position (Racino, 2000), among similar diversity critiques of the period (i.e., multiculturalism). Normalization has undergone extensive reviews and critiques, thus increasing its stature through the decades often equating it with school mainstreaming, life success and normalization, and deinstitutionalization.
In contemporary society
In the United States, large public institutions housing adults with developmental disabilities began to be phased out as a primary means of delivering services in the early 1970s and the statistics have been documented until the present day (2015) by David Braddock and his colleagues. As early as the late 1960s, the normalization principle was described to change the pattern of residential services, as exposes occurred in the US and reform initiatives began in Europe. These proposed changes were described in the leading text by the President's Committee on Mental Retardation (PCMR) titled: "Changing Patterns in Residential Services for the Mentally Retarded" with leaders Burton Blatt, Wolf Wolfensberger, Bengt Nirje, Bank-Mikkelson, Jack Tizard, Seymour Sarason, Gunnar Dybwad, Karl Gruenwald, Robert Kugel, and lesser known colleagues Earl Butterfield, Robert E. Cooke, David Norris, H. Michael Klaber, and Lloyd Dunn.
Deinstitutionalization and community development
The impetus for this mass deinstitutionalization was typically complaints of systematic abuse of the patients by staff and others responsible for the care and treatment of this traditionally vulnerable population with media and political exposes and hearings. These complaints, accompanied by judicial oversight and legislative reform, resulted in major changes in the education of personnel and the development of principles for conversion models from institutions to communities, known later as the community paradigms. In many states the recent process of deinstitutionalization has taken 10–15 years due to a lack of community supports in place to assist individuals in achieving the greatest degree of independence and community integration as possible. Yet, many early recommendations from 1969 still hold such as financial aid to keep children at home, establishment of foster care services, leisure and recreation, and opportunities for adults to leave home and attain employment (Bank-Mikkelsen, p. 234-236, in Kugel & Wolfensberger, 1969).
Community supports and community integration
A significant obstacle in developing community supports has been ignorance and resistance on the part of "typically developed" community members who have been taught by contemporary culture that "those people" are somehow fundamentally different and flawed and it is in everyone's best interest if they are removed from society (this developing out of 19th Century ideas about health, morality, and contagion). Part of the normalization process has been returning people to the community and supporting them in attaining as "normal" as life as possible, but another part has been broadening the category of "normal" (sometimes taught as "regular" in community integration, or below as "typical") to include all human beings. In part, the word "normal" continues to be used in contrast to "abnormal", a term also for differentness or out of the norm or accepted routine (e.g., middle class).
Contemporary services and workforces
In 2015, public views and attitudes continue to be critical both because personnel are sought from the broader society for fields such as mental health and contemporary community services continue to include models such as the international "emblem of the group home" for individuals with significant disabilities moving to the community. Today, the US direct support workforce, associated with the University of Minnesota, School of Education, Institute on Community Integration can trace its roots to a normalization base which reflected their own education and training at the next generation levels.
People with disabilities are not to be viewed as sick, ill, abnormal, subhuman, or unformed, but as people who require significant supports in certain (but not all) areas of their life from daily routines in the home to participation in local community life. With this comes an understanding that all people require supports at certain times or in certain areas of their life, but that most people acquire these supports informally or through socially acceptable avenues. The key issue of support typically comes down to productivity and self-sufficiency, two values that are central to society's definition of self-worth. If we as a society were able to broaden this concept of self-worth perhaps fewer people would be labeled as "disabled."
Contemporary Views on Disability
During the mid to late 20th century, people with disabilities were met with fear, stigma, and pity. Their opportunities for a full productive life were minimal at best and often emphasis was placed more on personal characterizes that could be enhanced so the attention was taken from their disability Linkowski developed the Acceptance of Disability Scale (ADS) during this time to help measure a person's struggle to accept disability. He developed the ADS to reflect the value change process associated with the acceptance of loss theory. In contrast to later trends, the current trend shows great improvement in the quality of life for those with disabilities. Sociopolitical definitions of disability, the independent living movement, improved media and social messages, observation and consideration of situational and environmental barriers, passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 have all come together to help a person with disability define their acceptance of what living with a disability means.
Bogdan and Taylor's (1993) acceptance of sociology, which states that a person need not be defined by personal characterizes alone, has become influential in helping persons with disabilities to refuse to accept exclusion from mainstream society. According to some disability scholars, disabilities are created by oppressive relations with society, this has been called the social creationist view of disability. In this view, it is important to grasp the difference between physical impairment and disability. In the article The Mountain written by Eli Clare, Michael Oliver defines impairment as lacking part of or all of a limb, or having a defective limb, organism or mechanism of the body and the societal construct of disability; Oliver defines disability as the disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by a contemporary social organization which takes no or little account of people who have physical (and/or cognitive/developmental/mental) impairments and thus excludes them from the mainstream of society. In society, language helps to construct reality, for instance, societies way of defining disability which implies that a disabled person lacks a certain ability, or possibility, that could contribute to her personal well-being and enable her to be a contributing member of society versus abilities and possibilities that are considered to be good and useful . Society needs to destruct the language that is used and build a new one that does not place those with disabilities in the "other" category.
Personal wounds, quality of life and social role valorization
However, the perspective of Wolfensberger, who served as associated faculty with the Rehabiltation Research and Training Center on Community Integration (despite concerns of federal funds), is that people he has known in institutions have "suffered deep wounds". This view, reflected in his early overheads of PASS ratings, is similar to other literature that has reflected the need for hope in situations where aspirations and expectations for quality of life had previously been very low (e.g., brain injury, independent living). Normalization advocates were among the first to develop models of residential services, and to support contemporary practices in recognizing families and supporting employment. Wolfensberger himself found the new term social role valorization to better convey his theories (and his German Professorial temperament, family life and beliefs) than the constant "misunderstandings" of the term normalization!
Related theories and development
Related theories on integration in the subsequent decades have been termed community integration, self-determination or empowerment theory, support and empowerment paradigms, community building, functional-competency, family support, often not independent living (supportive living),and in 2015, the principle of inclusion which also has roots in service fields in the 1980s.
Misconceptions
Normalization is so common in the fields of disability, especially intellectual and developmental disabilities, that articles will critique normalization without ever referencing one of three international leaders: Wolfensberger, Nirje, and Bank Mikkelson or any of the women educators (e.g., Wolfensberger's Susan Thomas; Syracuse University colleagues Taylor, Biklen or Bogdan; established women academics (e.g., Sari Biklen); or emerging women academics, Traustadottir, Shoultz or Racino in national research and education centers (e.g., Hillyer, 1993). In particular, this may be because Racino (with Taylor) leads an international field on community integration (See, Wikipedia), a neighboring related concept to the principle of normalization, and was pleased to have Dr. Wolf Wolfensberger among Center Associates. Thus it is important to discuss common misconceptions about the principle of normalization and its implications among the provider-academic sectors:
a) Normalization does not mean making people normal – forcing them to conform to societal norms.
Wolfensberger himself, in 1980, suggested "Normalizing measures can be offered in some circumstances, and imposed in others." This view is not accepted by most people in the field, including Nirje. Advocates emphasize that the environment, not the person, is what is normalized, or as known for decades a person-environment interaction.
Normalization is very complex theoretically, and Wolf Wolfensberger's educators explain his positions such as the conservatism corollary, deviancy unmaking, the developmental model (see below) and social competency, and relevance of social imagery, among others.
b) Normalization does not support "dumping" people into the community or into schools without support.
Normalization has been blamed for the closure of services (such as institutions) leading to a lack of support for children and adults with disabilities. Indeed, normalization personnel are often affiliated with human rights groups. Normalization is not deinstitutionalization, though institutions have been found to not "pass" in service evaluations and to be the subject of exposes. Normalization was described early as alternative special education by leaders of the deinstitutionalization movement.
However support services which facilitate normal life opportunities for people with disabilities – such as special education services, housing support, employment support and advocacy – are not incompatible with normalization, although some particular services (such as special schools) may actually detract from rather than enhance normal living bearing in mind the concept of normal 'rhythms' of life.
c) Normalization supports community integration, but the principles vary significantly on matters such as gender and disability with community integration directly tackling services in the context of race, ethnicity, class, income and gender.
Some misconceptions and confusions about normalization are removed by understanding a context for this principle. There has been a general belief that 'special' people are best served if society keeps them apart, puts them together with 'their own kind, and keep them occupied. The principle of normalization is intended to refute this idea, rather than to deal with subtlety around the question of 'what is normal?' The principle of normalization is congruent in many of its features with "community integration" and has been described by educators as supporting early mainstreaming in community life.
d) Normalization supports adult services by age range, not "mental age", and appropriate services across the lifespan.
Arguments about choice and individuality, in connection with normalization, should also take into account whether society, perhaps through paid support staff, has encouraged them into certain behaviours. For example, in referring to normalization, a discussion about an adult's choice to carry a doll with them must be influenced by a recognition that they have previously been encouraged in childish behaviours, and that society currently expects them to behave childishly. Most people who find normalization to be a useful principle would hope to find a middle way - in this case, an adult's interest in dolls being valued, but with them being actively encouraged to express it in an age-appropriate way (e.g., viewing museums and doll collections), with awareness of gender in toy selection (e.g., see cars and motorsports), and discouraged from behaving childishly and thus accorded the rights and routines only of a "perpetual child". However, the principle of normalization is intended also to refer to the means by which a person is supported, so that (in this example) any encouragement or discouragement offered in a patronising or directive manner is itself seen to be inappropriate.
e) Normalization is a set of values, and early on (1970s) was validated through quantitative measures (PASS, PASSING).
Normalization principles were designed to be measured and ranked on all aspects through the development of measures related to homes, facilities, programs, location (i.e. community development), service activities, and life routines, among others. These service evaluations have been used for training community services personnel, both in institutions and in the community.
Normalization as the basis for education of community personnel in Great Britain is reflected in a 1990s reader, highlighting Wolf Wolfensberger's moral concerns as a Christian, right activist, side-by-side ("How to Function with Personal Model Coherency in a Dysfunctional (Human Service) World") with the common form of normalization training for evaluations of programs. Community educators and leaders in Great Britain and the US of different political persuasions include John O'Brien and Connie Lyle O'Brien, Paul Williams and Alan Tyne, Guy Caruso and Joe Osborn, Jim Mansell and Linda Ward, among many others.
References
Further reading
"The Principle of Normalization: History and Experiences in Scandinavian Countries," Kent Ericsson. Presentation ILSMH Congress, Hamburg 1985.
"Setting the record straight: a critique of some frequent misconceptions of the normalization principle", Perrin, B. & Nirje, B., Australia and New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 1985, Vol 11, No. 2, 69–72.
A comprehensive review of research conducted with the program evaluation instruments PASS and PASSING. (1999). In: R. Flynn & R. LeMay, "A Quarter Century of Normalization and Social Role Valorization: Evolution and Impact". (pp. 317–349). Ottawa, Canada: University of Ottawa Press.
The social origins of normalisation by Simon Whitehead in the reader Normalisation from Europe by Hillary Brown and Helen Smith (1992, Routledge). Foreword by Linda Ward. Reader includes references to Wolfensberger, John O'Brien (Citizen advocacy, Frameworks for accomplishment), Syracuse University Training Institute (European PASS workshops), Australian Training and Evaluation for Change Association, and Great Britain's Community and Mental Handicap Educational and Research Associates, among others.
Presentations
New York State Office of Mental Health. (1980). Normalisation Excerpt from 1973 Orientation Manual on Mental Retardation. Goals of Community Residence Workshop. Albany, NY: Author.
Nirge, B. (1990, April 23). Lecture: Recent Developments in Community Services in Sweden. Syracuse, NY: Sponsored by Syracuse University, Division of Special Education and Rehabilitation, and the Center on Human Policy.
Wolfensberger, W. & Associates. (2001). The "Signs of the Times" and their Implications to Human Services and Devalued People. Syracuse, NY: Training Institute for Human Service Planning and Change Agentry, Syracuse University. [Held at the site of the former Syracuse Developmental Center].
Wolfensberger, W. (2000). Half Day Presentation on Social Role Valorization. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, Training Institute on Human Services Planning, Leadership and Change Agentry.
Wolfensberger, W. (2000). A Critical Examination of the Current Concept of "Rights" in the Contemporary Human Services & Advocacy Culture. Syracuse, NY: Training Institute on Human Services Planning, Leadership and Change Agentry, Syracuse University.
Wolfensberger, W. (2000). The Most Common "Wounds" of Societally Devalued People with an Emphasis on Threats to, Attacks Upon, Their Lives. Syracuse, NY: Training Institute on Human Services Planning, Leadership and Change Agentry, Syracuse University.
Wolfesnberger, W. (2000). Deeply-Embedded Concepts About What We Call "Mental Retardation" as Expressed Throughout History in Visual Iconography & Language & Implications for Our Day. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, Training Institute on Human Services Planning, Leadership and Change Agentry.
Syllabi: course readings
Wolfensberger, W. (1979). "Readings for Universal Issues and Principles in Human Services". (pp. 1–6). Syracuse, NY: Training Institute for Human Service Planning, Leadership and Change Agentry.
Wolfensberger, W. (1979). Overheads on PASS, Integration and Normalization. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University School of Education.
Assessment reports
Wolfensberger, W. & Associates. (1985, April). "Passing Assessment Reports Available for Training and Demonstration Purposes". Syracuse, NY: Training Institute for Human Service Planning, Leadership and Change Agentry.
Wolfensberger, W. (1989, February). Overview of "PASSING," A New Normalization/Social Role Valorization-Based Human Service Evaluation Tool: Assumptions, Purposes, Structure, & Intended Uses (Revised). Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University, Training Institute on Human Services Planning, Leadership and Change Agentry.
Historical references
Nirje, B. (1969). Chapter 7: The normalisation principle and its human management implications. Kugel, R. & Wolfensberger, W. (Eds.), Changing Patterns in Residential Services for the Mentally Retarded. Washington, DC: President's Committee on Mental Retardation.
Nirje, B. (1970). The Normalization Principle: Implications and comments. Symposium on "Normalization. Midland Society for the Study of Abnormality, 16(62-70).
Wolfensberger, W. (1970). The principle of normalization and its implications to psychiatric services. American Journal of Psychiatry, 127:3, 291–297.
Wolfesnberger, W. (1973). The future of residential services for the mentally retarded. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 2(1): 19–20.
Wolfensberger, W. (1975). The Origin and Nature of Our Institutional Models. Syracuse, NY: Human Policy Press.
Wolfensberger, W. (1976). Will there always be an institution? The impact of epidemiological trends. (pp. 399–414). In: M. Rosen, G.R. Clark, & M.S. Hivitz, The History of Mental Retardation: Collected Papers: Volume 2. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
Wolfensberger, W. (1983). Social role valorization: A proposed new term for the principle of normalization. Mental Retardation (now Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities), 21(6): 234–239.
Wolfensberger, W. (1988). Common assets of mentally retarded people that are commonly not acknowledged. Mental Retardation, 26(2): 63–70.
Disability rights
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Mark 15
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Mark 15 is the fifteenth chapter of the Gospel of Mark in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. This chapter records the narrative of Jesus' passion, including his trial before Pontius Pilate and then his crucifixion, death and entombment. Jesus' trial before Pilate and his crucifixion, death, and burial are also recorded in Matthew 27, Luke 23, and John 18:28–19:42.
Text
The original text was written in Koine Greek. This chapter is divided into 47 verses.
Textual witnesses
Some early manuscripts containing the text of this chapter are:
Codex Vaticanus (~325–350)
Codex Sinaiticus (~330–360)
Codex Bezae (~400)
Codex Washingtonianus (~400)
Codex Alexandrinus (~400–440)
Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus (~450; complete)
Old Testament references
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New Testament parallels
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Trial before Pilate
Verse 1
Immediately, in the morning, the chief priests held a consultation with the elders and scribes and the whole council; and they bound Jesus, led Him away, and delivered Him to Pilate.
In the previous chapter, Mark has stressed that "all the chief priests, the elders, and the scribes", "all the council", had taken part in the overnight trial of Jesus. "As soon as it was morning", the council or Sanhedrin reaches a decision, and agrees to hand Jesus over to Pontius Pilate. Pilate was the Roman Prefect (governor) of Iudaea Province from 26 to 36, which was the Roman combination of Idumea, Judea and Samaria and did not include Galilee, which was under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas. William Robertson Nicoll suggests that the "consultation" should be understood as the "resolution" resulting from the consultation, given that the whole council had been involved in the trial.
According to Matthew, the Sanhedrin had decided to execute Jesus. Only the Romans were allowed to execute someone, not the local officials, according to John 18:31, yet records the Sanhedrin ordering the stoning of Saint Stephen and also James the Just according to Antiquities of the Jews (20.9.1), resulting in a rebuke from the Roman authority.
Verse 2
Pilate asked him, 'Are you the King of the Jews?'
He answered him, 'You say so.' (NRSV)
The Greek Textus Receptus/Majority Text reads:
καὶ ἐπηρώτησεν αὐτὸν ὁ Πιλάτος, Σὺ εἶ ὁ βασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων;
ὁ δὲ ἀποκριθεὶς εἶπεν αὐτῷ, Σὺ λέγεις.
Cross references: Matthew 27:11; Luke 23:3; John 18:37
An interpretation is that Pilate is asking Jesus if he is the messiah, just as the high priest before in , but with an explicit emphasis on the Messiah's political role, that of Jewish King. According to John's gospel, in response to Pilate's question Jesus has a short conversation with Pilate and then answers, "You are right in saying I am a king. In fact, for this reason I was born, and for this I came into the world, to testify to the truth. Everyone on the side of truth listens to me." Historically it is likely that perceived insurrection against Rome was for what Pilate executed Jesus. According to , however, Jesus said one should pay the Roman tax and was thus not a revolutionary.
The 1985 Jesus Seminar reached the conclusion that the temple incident was the cause of the crucifixion.
Verse 3Then the chief priests accused him of many things, orAnd the chief priests accused Him of many things, but He answered nothing.The chief priests remain in attendance before Pilate and make several further, unspecified, allegations, "heaping accusations on Him". Nicoll surmises that the single accusation, that Jesus had declared himself king, was not sufficient to convince Pilate of any wrongdoing. Some sources state here that Jesus gives no reply, but these words do not appear in the "best manuscripts or versions". Pilate pushes him for one but he still remains silent, which amazes or surprises Pilate. According to Luke, Pilate at this point sent Jesus to Herod Antipas because Jesus, as a Galilean, was under Herod's jurisdiction. Herod was excited to see Jesus at first, but ended up mocking him and sending him back to Pilate.
Release of Barabbas
According to Mark's account, it was a custom to release a prisoner at Passover, which was a celebration of freedom. No other historical record of the time records Pilate doing this, and he is known to have been cruel, for which he was eventually expelled from his post. (JA18.4.2) All the other Gospels however also agree with Mark on this tradition. Some theologians suggest that Pilate did this once or a few times or that the Gospels accurately record this tradition even though other sources fail to mention. The Jesus Seminar argued doing this during a volatile situation like this would have been unlikely.
According to Matthew, Pilate received a message from his wife that she believed Jesus was innocent because of a disturbing dream she had just had. He asks the crowd if they want the King of the Jews released to them because, according to Mark, Pilate knew the priests were envious of Jesus and so presumably wanted to free him without a fight with them.
The priests however convince the crowd to ask for the release of Barabbas, a prisoner. Mark says he was in prison chained "with" insurrectionists who had committed murder during a recent στασισ (stasis, a riot), probably "one of ... numerous insurrections against the Roman power". Theologian John Gill says he was "at the head" of the rebels. Both Luke and John say he was a revolutionary. Jesus seems to have already been declared guilty as this seems a choice between releasing two prisoners.
Verse 12Pilate answered and said to them again, "What then do you want me to do with Him whom you call the King of the Jews?"Pilate might have asked what should be done "with Jesus", but in his choice of words, "him whom you call the King of the Jews", he may "have hoped that the sound of the title might have not been in vain on the ears of those who had lately cried, 'Blessed is the king that cometh in the name of the Lord'" when Jesus had arrived in Jerusalem.
They crowd reply that Jesus should be crucified, but Pilate asks what he is guilty of. They still demand he be crucified so Pilate turns Barabbas over to the crowd and has Jesus flogged and then sent out to be crucified. Matthew has Pilate washing his hands and declaring the crowd responsible, which the crowd accepts.
For his flogging Jesus would have been tied to a pillar, and hit with bone or metal studded whips. Crucifixion was a particularly shameful or unmentionable form of death, with a stigma put onto even the condemned's family.
Roman magistrates had wide discretion in executing their tasks, and some question whether Pilate would have been so captive to the demands of the crowd. Summarily executing someone to calm the situation however would have been a tool a Roman governor would have used.
The soldiers mock Jesus
Mark says the soldiers took Jesus to the Praetorium, either Herod's palace or the Fortress Antonia. They gather together all the other soldiers. These were probably mostly recruits from the area of Palestine or Syria.
The soldiers put a purple robe on Jesus and put a crown of thorns on his head and mockingly hail him as the King of the Jews. They hit him in the head with a staff and pay fake homage to him. According to Matthew they put the staff in his hand first before beating him with it. They dress him in his own clothes and take him out to be crucified. According to John they left his purple robe and crown on.
Jesus is given the trappings of a King. Purple is a royal color. He wears a crown and is hit with a staff, also a royal symbol. This whole scene is colored with divine irony, as everything the soldiers do to mock Jesus' claim of being a King is used by Mark to show this, at the height of the Passion, as Jesus' crowning as messiah according to God's plan.
According to John after the flogging Pilate brought Jesus back a second time and tried to convince the crowd that he was innocent but the crowd still demanded Jesus' death and so then Pilate had him crucified. Luke has no account of the soldiers beating Jesus.
Jesus' crucifixion
On the way to their final destination the soldiers force a man passing by, Simon of Cyrene, to carry Jesus' cross for him, though Mark does not say why. Cyrene was in North Africa and Simon would have moved from there or would have been visiting. Mark lists his children, Alexander and Rufus.
Verse 21Then they compelled a certain man, Simon a Cyrenian, the father of Alexander and Rufus, as he was coming out of the country and passing by, to bear His cross.That Mark takes the time to list only Alexander and Rufus as the names of Simon's children suggests they might have been Early Christians known to Mark's intended audience. Paul also lists a Rufus in Romans . A burial cave in the Kidron Valley discovered in 1941 by E. L. Sukenik, belonging to Cyrenian Jews and dating before AD 70, was found to have an ossuary inscribed twice in Greek "Alexander son of Simon." It cannot, however, be certain that this refers to the same person.James H. Charlesworth (editor), Jesus and Archaeology, page 338 (Wm B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2006).
Luke has Jesus talking to some of his women followers along the way.
They arrive at Golgotha, which Mark says means the place of the skull. This was probably an exhausted rock quarry whose remaining rock had been damaged in an earthquake.
They offer Jesus wine laced with myrrh to lessen the pain, but he refuses. Mark then simply says they crucified him. They then take his clothes and draw lots to distribute them. George Maclear suggests that they are "unconsciously fulfilling" the words of , which John actually quotes as a fulfillment of prophecy.
According to Mark, it was the "third hour" when Jesus was crucified. This would be the third hour of daylight, or about 9:00 am. John however says Jesus was condemned to death around the sixth hour, or noon. The charge listed on Jesus' cross is "THE KING OF THE JEWS" (INRI) According to John, the chief priests complained to Pilate about this but he refused to change the charge.
Two robbers were also crucified, one on each side of him, and according to Mark, both of them mocked Jesus, even when they were in their processes of death. Luke reports the robbers' conversation with Jesus. People come by and insult Jesus and mock him for claiming he would destroy and then rebuild Herod's Temple in three days, which Jesus has not said so far in Mark but was falsely accused of claiming to destroy the "man-made" Temple and rebuilt it in three days in Mark 14:57–58. The chief priests are also there and say that if he is really the Christ then he should be able to come down from the cross and save himself as he had saved others, a reference to his many miracles earlier in Mark.
Mark relates these two mockings to perhaps highlight the question of why, if Jesus is indeed the messiah, can he not save himself from being put to death. Mark refutes these two charges later when Jesus rebuilds the Temple of his body and not only overcomes the cross but death itself in Mark 16. Mark might be stressing that if one follows Jesus, who Mark believes is the messiah, then one can expect help from God, such as Jesus' miracles, but one will not be saved from the pains of this world, and indeed in some way they are necessary to achieve a greater goal as Jesus' death is necessary for his role as the messiah.
The death of Jesus
According to Mark:
Verses 33–39And when the sixth hour was come, there was darkness over the whole land until the ninth hour. And at the ninth hour Jesus cried with a loud voice, saying, Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani? which is, being interpreted, My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me? And some of them that stood by, when heard it, said, Behold, he calleth Elias. And one ran and filled a spunge full of vinegar, and put it on a reed, and gave him to drink, saying, Let alone; let us see whether Elias will come to take him down. And Jesus cried with a loud voice, and gave up the ghost. And the veil of the temple was rent in twain from the top to the bottom. And when the centurion, which stood over against him, saw that he so cried out, and gave up the ghost, he said, Truly this man was the Son of God.The soldier might be recognizing something that no one else could and thus vindicating Jesus, or he might be saying this sarcastically. This statement may bring the Gospel full circle to Mark 1:1 where Jesus is identified by the writer as "the Son of God" (only in some versions, see Mark 1 for details). Luke records that he said that Jesus was a righteous man. Matthew adds that at the moment of Jesus' death tombs in Jerusalem were opened and many bodies of "the saints" were raised from the dead. They were seen subsequently in the "holy city," Jerusalem, by many (Matthew 27:53–54).
The veil of the Temple was the barrier between the inner Temple, thought to be God's place on Earth, and the rest. Its destruction is a vindication of Jesus. This might be a metaphor for God now no longer being separated but free for all the world. Given the imagery of the temple veil (there were cherubim woven into it, like the cherub set as guard over the entrance to Eden after Adam and Eve were cast out) as a symbol of the barrier between the Holy God and sinful men, the rending of the veil indicates a propitiation of God's wrath.
According to John, Jesus' mother Mary and her sister Mary were there with the disciple whom Jesus loved and Jesus told the disciple to take Mary into his home.
It is notable that, according to Mark, it is only Jesus' women followers who are now still with him:
Verses 40–41There were also women looking on from afar, among whom were Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James the Less and of Joses, and Salome, who also followed Him and ministered to Him when He was in Galilee, and many other women who came up with Him to Jerusalem.Mary Magdalene has not been mentioned so far in Mark, and the other Mary is perhaps Jesus' mother Mary as she is also mentioned as James' mother in Mark 6:3. She could also be another Mary, perhaps another relative. Salome was James' and John's mother. The fact the Mark has not explicitly related any of Jesus' interaction with them shows that Mark has left out many of the events of the life of the "Historical Jesus" and only related events he deems necessary to make his points about Jesus.
John says the soldiers were told to take down the bodies for the Sabbath and broke the other two men's legs but stabbed Jesus with a spear to make sure he was dead. John claims this is eyewitness testimony.
Jesus' entombmentFor the subject in art, see Entombment of ChristEvening is approaching and Joseph of Arimathea, a member of the sanhedrin, who was also waiting for the "Kingdom of God," goes to Pilate and asks for Jesus' body. The Scholars Version notes this as "unexpected .. Is Joseph in effect bringing Jesus into his family?" As the next day was the Sabbath Jesus would have to have been buried before sundown or then not until the next night. According to Mosaic law (), if someone was hanged on a tree they were not to remain there at night. Pilate is surprised that Jesus has died so soon and asks for confirmation, and then gives Jesus' body to Joseph.
Joseph wraps it in linen and puts it in a sepulchre, rolls a stone over the entrance, and leaves. According to John, he was assisted by the Pharisee Nicodemus. The two Marys witness the burial, or at any rate the location where Jesus' body was buried: German biblical commentators Meyer and Weiss infer from the Greek perfect tense τέθειται (tetheitai, he was laid) that "the women were not present at the burial, but simply approached and took note where Jesus lay after burial". Bodies were normally anointed, but there seems to be no time here. John however says Nicodemus wrapped up Jesus' body with spices, which seems to indicate an anointing. The tomb, one of many around Jerusalem, was a limestone cave and Jesus' body would have been laid on a pre-cut shelf, and then most bodies would have been left for a year.
Verse 47And Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Joses observed where He was laid.Maclear suggests reading this verse as "observed carefully".
See also
Crucifixion of Jesus
Pilate's court
Rufus (biblical figure)
Stephaton
Related Bible parts: Matthew 27, Luke 23, John 18, John 19, Romans 16
References
Sources
Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament Doubleday 1997
Brown, Raymond E. et al. The New Jerome Biblical Commentary Prentice Hall 1990
Kilgallen, John J. A Brief Commentary on the Gospel of Mark Paulist Press 1989
Miller, Robert J. Editor The Complete Gospels'' Polebridge Press 1994
External links
King James Bible - Wikisource
English Translation with Parallel Latin Vulgate
Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)
Multiple bible versions at Bible Gateway (NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.)
Gospel of Mark chapters
Crucifixion of Jesus
Pontius Pilate
Calvary
Barabbas
Descent from the Cross
Joseph of Arimathea
Burial of Jesus
Crown of thorns
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaby%20Willis
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Gaby Willis
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Gaby Willis is a fictional character from the Australian television soap opera Neighbours, played by Rachel Blakely. The show's casting director spotted Blakely on the cover of a magazine and asked her to audition for the role of Gaby. Blakely received the part and she was introduced to the show during a period of roller-coaster ratings. She made her first appearance during the episode broadcast on 12 August 1991. Gaby was introduced as the eldest daughter of Doug (Terence Donovan) and Pam Willis (Sue Jones). She comes to Erinsborough after taking a business course in Japan. Gaby is characterised as beautiful, intelligent and the apple of her father's eye. She also has a temper, leading Blakely to call her fiery.
Gaby opens her own fashion boutique, with the help and support from her boyfriend, and later fiancé, Glen Donnelly (Richard Huggett). Gaby and Glen's engagement ends when he flees Erinsborough following an accident. Gaby's business burns down and she becomes a punk to cope with her losses. She also befriends and briefly dates a punk musician. Gaby takes a job as a barmaid, before becoming a secretary at the Robinson Corporation. Gaby becomes attracted to teacher Wayne Duncan (Jonathon Sammy-Lee), with whom she shares a real chemistry. However, the couple are mismatched and they often fight. Gaby and Wayne realise their relationship is destructive and they end it.
Blakely believed the breakup with Wayne was Gaby's fault and called for her character to grow up. Gaby takes flying lessons and she falls for her instructor, Jack Flynn (Mark Pennell). Gaby becomes pregnant and Jack refuses to stand by her. Gaby later gives birth to a son, who is named Zac (Jay Callahan). Blakely's decision to quit Neighbours in 1993, led to Gaby taking a less stressful job in Darwin after struggling to balance her career and motherhood. Her departure aired on 2 September 1994. Blakely later reprised the role to appear in the show's 20th anniversary episode, which was broadcast on 27 July 2005.
Creation and casting
The character, along with Brad Willis (Scott Michaelson) and Guy Carpenter (Andrew Williams), was created as part of a large revamp of the show, which had seen a large decline in ratings and eight other characters written out. Coral O'Connor of the Daily Mirror said it was hoped their introductions would attract younger viewers to the serial. Blakely was a successful model when she was spotted by the Neighbours casting director on the front cover of a magazine and invited to audition for the part of Gaby Willis. The casting director thought Blakely would be perfect for the role. Of her casting, Blakely told Mark McGowan from TV Week: "I was ecstatic... I screamed down the end of the phone when my agent rang me. She asked me to do it again. I obliged!" The producers also hoped Blakely's introduction would capture the "Kylie magic". The actress was introduced to the cast as Gaby in August 1991, alongside Michaelson, who played Gaby's brother, Brad. James Cockington of The Sydney Morning Herald commented on their introduction: "Despite some roller-coaster ratings of late, Ten still believes there is life in Ramsay Street and is introducing some new, young residents this week. Rachel Blakely, 23, and Scott Michaelson, 20, conform to the teen hunk/spunk category that has made E Street such a fun place to visit. Gaby and Brad, as they will become better known, appear as a boutique owner and her brother."
Development
When the Willis family were introduced to Neighbours, eldest daughter Gaby was said to be studying at a business school in Japan. She later returned to Australia and came to live with her parents, Doug Willis (Terence Donovan) and Pam Willis (Sue Jones), in Ramsay Street. Gaby was also reunited with her brother, Brad. During her tenure, writers displayed the character as having a bad temper. Blakely told TV Week's McGowan that "Gaby's a fiery little thing. She flies off the handle quite regularly, which I find quite enjoyable." A writer for the BBC described Gaby as being "the apple of her father's eye" and said her beauty was matched by her intelligence. Josephine Monroe, author of Neighbours: The First 10 Years said Gaby's "cascading dark hair" and model looks meant there was never a shortage of men after her. Monroe opined that whatever Gaby set her mind to, happened. She said Gaby had "a knack with a sewing machine", which she put to use by making dresses for her friends and neighbours. Gaby then decided to use her skills to make a profit and she opened her own boutique called Gabrielle's in the Lassiter's complex.
Gaby begins dating Glen Donnelly (Richard Huggett), who becomes a source of support for her during the opening of her store. He encouraged her to capatalise on a client with a famous name and the boutique's takings rose. Following an argument, Gaby runs off with Guy Carpenter (Andrew Williams), but she is not serious about him and she returns to Glen, who proposes to her. Huggett revealed that Glen and Gaby do not end up getting married, saying "I don't want to give the game away, but it's pretty dramatic stuff, and it all ends in tears." While repairing a roof at the Lassiter's Complex, Glen falls and is paralysed from the waist down, Gaby vows to support him. However, she was devastated when he decided to leave Erinsborough. After her engagement to Glen is broken off and her fashion boutique burns down, Gaby turns into "the biggest rebel in Erinsborough." A writer for Inside Soap said turning punk is her way of coping with her losses. Gaby befriends "outrageous punk" musician Zed (Gavan McLaren) as she believes he is the perfect man to party with. Zed also gives Gaby a lot of support when she needs it. Zed tries to turn his friendship with Gaby into something more, but she turns him down in favour of Simon Hunter (Fred Whitlock). When Gaby is almost raped by Simon, while on a date with him, she turns to Zed for his support. Gaby then decides to date Zed as "a blatant act of defiance" against her father. McLaren explained "It never really comes to anything, but Zed doesn't mind, he's happy just to have Gaby as a friend." Gaby and Zed partake in binge nightclubbing sessions which annoys her parents further. Blakely told Mark McGowan from TV Week that "Gaby threatens that if they don't let her lead her own life, she will move out. Much to her shock they say 'see you later'."
Gaby takes a barmaid position at The Waterhole and she competes with Brad for the manager's job. A writer for Inside Soap said both siblings are convinced they are the right person for the job and try to prove this to Philip Martin (Ian Rawlings). However, when Gaby issues an ultimatum to Philip to choose between her and Brad, Philip fires her. Gaby embarks on a "fevered" job hunt and she accepts a bar job over the phone. When she goes to the new bar to start work, she discovers that she is expected to waitress topless. Gaby turns the job down and finds employment as a secretary at the Robinson Corporation. She is later promoted to manager of Lassiter's. Gaby later sets about furthering her career. During an interview with Inside Soap, Blakely said she did not think Gaby would ever be happy with a guy as she kept picking losers. She said her character is "too headstong and likes too many arguments."
An attraction forms between Gaby and Wayne Duncan (Jonathon Sammy-Lee) and Monroe said there was a real chemistry between them. The author said that while the couple were mismatched from the start, they could not get each other out of their minds and often came together for "sparring sessions". One night, Gaby believes Wayne has been groping her and she tips her drink over him. Blakely said things get worse from there and explained that when she received a script containing a scene in which Gaby slaps Wayne, Blakely taunted Sammy-Lee. She revealed "When it came to do the scene I slapped him so hard I really hurt him! I think I got a little too worked up for it!" Despite the rough start, Gaby and Wayne do get together, but a writer for Inside Soap said Wayne "turns out to be yet another loser on Gaby's list of unsuitable men." Blakely explained that while Gaby cares for Wayne, she decides the relationship is not right. The couple break up when they realise how destructive their relationship is. The actress thought the breakup was Gaby's fault and said there were some aspects of her character she did not respect. Blakely cited Gaby's fiery nature and her tendency to take gossip too seriously as the aspects she did not like, while calling for her character to grow up. Blakely added "People her age aren't so irresponsible in real life, so hopefully she'll grow up soon."
Gaby begins taking flying lessons and she gets her pilots license, but not before she falls for her instructor, Jack Flynn (Mark Pennell). After a short romance, Gaby leaves for a job in Europe, but she returns two months later and her family cannot understand why. Gaby then reveals she is pregnant and has decided to keep the baby. An Inside Soap columnist said "When she lets slip that the father is no-good flying instructor Jack Flynn, Doug goes berserk and hunts down the man that did his daughter wrong." Jack refuses to take responsibility and Gaby realises she will be a single mother. Though she has the support of her family. Shortly after Gaby announces her pregnancy, Cheryl Stark (Caroline Gillmer) also announces she is pregnant. Monroe said everyone expects Gaby to give birth first, but "in true Neighbours style" both Gaby and Cheryl go into labour at the same time. Gaby gives birth to a baby boy who is named Zac (Jay Callahan), while Cheryl gives birth to a daughter. Gaby finds it difficult to balance her career and motherhood and she later takes a less stressful job running a branch of Lassiter's in Darwin.
In the 23 October 1993 edition of TV Week, David Brown reported Blakely would be leaving Neighbours, along with Michaelson and Natalie Imbruglia (Beth Brennan). Brown said the actors were expected to film their exit scenes during November. Blakely admitted that her decision to quit the show was not easy, as she "adored" her time there and had made some good friends. After her last day on set, Blakely broke down in tears in the taxi taking her home from the studios. She recalled: It suddenly hit me I was no longer a part of the Neighbours team and I felt really sad. The poor cab driver was so surprised, he pulled over and very kindly lent me his hanky to cry into!" On-screen, Gaby decides to leave Erinsborough, after struggling to care for Zac and deal with her stressful job at Lassiters Hotel. She accepts an offer to manage Outback Artist Tours in Darwin. Gaby also invites Jack to join her as an official pilot for the project, after he convinces her that he will be a good father to Zac. Of this, Blakely said "Motherhood may have softened her determined streak, but Gaby still values her independence. I doubt if it will be smooth sailing all the way. Jack certainly shouldn't take her for granted." In April 2005, Kris Green of Digital Spy confirmed Blakely had reprised her role for the show's 20th anniversary episode, which was broadcast on 27 July 2005.
Storylines
After studying a business course in Japan, Gaby returns to Erinsborough to be with her family. She learns her parents are on the verge of bankruptcy and she poses as a lawyer to get Wilf Turner (Terry Trimble), one of her father's debtors to pay an outstanding debt. Gaby begins making dresses for her friends and neighbours and she decides to open her own boutique in the Lassiter's Complex, with Caroline Alessi (Gillian Blakeney) as her silent partner. The business is successful and profits increase after Glen Donnelly discovers one of Gaby's customers is called Elizabeth Taylor and tells the Erinsborough News. Gaby considers dating Guy Carpenter until she learns he is seeing Caroline. Gaby then turns to Glen and they fall in love. After a brief split, Glen proposes and Gaby accepts. Glen falls from the roof of Lassiter's Hotel and he is paralysed from the waist down. Gaby stands by him, but Glen later flees Erinsborough, leaving Gaby behind. Gaby's aunt, Faye Hudson (Lorraine Bayly) accidentally causes the boutique to burn down and Gaby finds employment at The Waterhole.
Gaby goes through a rebellious phase to cope with her losses and she befriends punk musician, Zed. Gaby competes with her brother, Brad, for the manager's position at the pub, but after confronting their boss, Philip Martin, she is fired. Gaby becomes a secretary at the Robinson Corporation and she is later promoted to manager. Gaby meets Lassiter's client, Simon Hunter, and they begin dating. However, during a weekend away Simon tries to rape Gaby. Gaby presses charges and her father, Doug, hits Simon. Simon blackmails Gaby into dropping the charges, so her father does not get a conviction for assault. Wayne Duncan moves into Ramsay Street and Gaby immediately clashes with him. Her grandfather, Bert (Bud Tingwell), realises she is attracted to Wayne and he tries to get the couple together. Gaby and Wayne admit their feelings for each other and they begin a relationship. Gaby becomes jealous of Wayne's friendship with Annalise Hartman (Kimberly Davies) and when she fails to stand by him after he is accused of murdering biker Cactus (Les Toth), Wayne ends the relationship.
After The Waterhole explodes due to a gas leak, Gaby and Philip have to work together to rebuild it. Lassiter's owner, Paul Robinson (Stefan Dennis), tires of their bickering and sends senior associate Jack Parker (Philip Parslow) to Erinsborough to sort them out and choose which one is most suitable for the manager job. Gaby works hard to impress Jack, but when she steals one of Philip's clients, Jack tells Paul that Philip should be given the managerial position. Philip insists that Gaby stays on as assistant manager and Paul agrees. Gaby begins taking flying lessons and she falls for her instructor, Jack Flynn. They start dating and when Jack admits he is a virgin, Gaby offers to have sex with him. Jack takes Gaby to Tasmania and she falls in love with him. Gaby is devastated when an ex-student of Jack's tells her that he had pretended to be virgin to get her to have sex with him years before. Jack makes advances on Lauren Carpenter (Sarah Vandenbergh) and Gaby's younger sister, Cody (Peta Brady), and Gaby breaks up with him.
Gaby and Annalise go on a flight up the coast, but Gaby is forced to make a crash landing. Both women survive, but they are stranded in the bush for hours until they are rescued by a helicopter on patrol. Gaby meets Stefano (Dino Marnika), a fashion designer who offers her a job as his personal assistant in Milan. Gaby accepts, but two months later she returns to Erinsborough and reveals she is pregnant. Gaby assures her parents that Stefano is not the father and they work out that Jack is. Doug tells Jack that Gaby is carrying his child and he insists on supporting her financially. Gaby is rushed to hospital when she starts bleeding and she is convinced that she is losing the baby. Gaby is relieved when the doctors tells her the bleeding came from the placenta and she is told to rest. Gaby goes into labour with her mother and sister by her side and she gives birth to a son, who she names Shannon. Cheryl Stark gives birth to her daughter at the same time and also names her Shannon.
When Doug registers the birth he decides to name his grandson, Zachary. Gaby is not happy, but realises she likes the shortened version of the name, Zac. Jack turns up, wanting to be part of his son's life and Gaby refuses at first. However, when she sees how much Jack wants to be a father, she relents. Rosemary Daniels (Joy Chambers) offers Gaby a job managing the new Lassiter's branch in Darwin and Gaby accepts. When Jack learns of Gaby's decision, he decides to move up north too. After attending a naming ceremony, Gaby, Jack and Zac leave for Darwin. Gaby later appears in Annalise's documentary about Ramsay Street and reveals she is still in Darwin, managing Lassiter's.
Reception
The BBC said Gaby's most notable moment was "Surviving a plane crash with Annalise." A writer for Inside Soap said "Gorgeous Gaby has had so many job changes she would make a great careers adviser!" The added that if only her love life had been as successful as her employment record. Another writer stated Gaby and Glen had Ramsay Street's biggest on-off romance since Scott (Jason Donovan) and Charlene (Kylie Minogue). During a feature on Neighbours, Anna Pickard of The Guardian tried to choose the characters she would be most starstruck by if she met them. She said "It would have to be the Willis family. All of them. Pam, Doug, Adam, Gaby, Brad and Cody".
In September 2014, Mark James Lowe from All About Soap called for Gaby's return to Neighbours following the reappearances of Brad, Doug and Pam. He commented, "we last saw a glimpse of her almost a decade ago in Annalise's documentary… so we desperately want to know what Gaby's been up to since!" In 2015, Lowe colleague Kerry Barrett placed Gaby at number 26 on the magazine's list of 30 favourite Neighbours characters. Barrett quipped "Smart Gaby was clever, stylish, successful and could even fly a plane!". Barrett thought Gaby's had a lot of "unsuitable boyfriends" and her best moment was "crash landing her plane."
References
External links
Gaby Willis at the BBC
Gaby Willis at Neighbours.com
Neighbours characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syd%20Barrett
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Syd Barrett
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Roger Keith "Syd" Barrett (6 January 1946 – 7 July 2006) was an English singer, guitarist and songwriter who co-founded the rock band Pink Floyd in 1965. Barrett was the band's frontman and primary songwriter, known for his whimsical style of psychedelia, English-accented singing, and stream-of-consciousness writing style. As a guitarist, he was influential for his free-form playing and for employing effects such as dissonance, distortion, echo and feedback.
Originally trained as a painter, Barrett was musically active for less than ten years. With Pink Floyd, he recorded four singles, their debut album The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967), portions of their second album A Saucerful of Secrets (1968), and several songs that were not released until years later. In April 1968, Barrett was ousted from the band amid speculation of mental illness and his excessive use of psychedelic drugs. He began a brief solo career in 1969 with the single "Octopus", followed by albums The Madcap Laughs (1970) and Barrett (1970), recorded with the aid of three other members of Pink Floyd.
In 1972, Barrett left the music industry, retired from public life and strictly guarded his privacy until his death. He continued painting and dedicated himself to gardening. Pink Floyd recorded several tributes and homages to him, including the 1975 song suite "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" and parts of the 1979 rock opera The Wall. In 1988, EMI released an album of unreleased tracks and outtakes, Opel, with Barrett's approval. In 1996, Barrett was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Pink Floyd. He died of pancreatic cancer in 2006.
Life and career
Early years
Roger Keith Barrett was born on 6 January 1946 in Cambridge to a middle-class family living at 60 Glisson Road. He was the fourth of five children. His father, Arthur Max Barrett, was a prominent pathologist and was said to be related to Elizabeth Garrett Anderson through Max's maternal grandmother Ellen Garrett. In 1951, his family moved to 183 Hills Road.
Barrett played piano occasionally but usually preferred writing and drawing. He bought a ukulele aged 10, a banjo at 11 and a Höfner acoustic guitar at 14. A year after he purchased his first acoustic guitar, he bought his first electric guitar and built his own amplifier. He was a Scout with the 7th Cambridge troop and went on to be a patrol leader.
According to one story, at the age of 14, Barrett acquired the nickname Syd after an old Cambridge jazz bassist, Sid "the Beat" Barrett; Barrett changed the spelling to differentiate himself. By another account, when Barrett was 13, his schoolmates nicknamed him Syd after he came to a field day at Abington Scout site wearing a flat cap instead of his scout beret, because "Syd" was a "working-class" name. He used both names interchangeably for several years. His sister Rosemary said: "He was never Syd at home. He would never have allowed it."
At one point at Morley Memorial Junior School, Barrett was taught by the mother of future Pink Floyd bassist Roger Waters. Later, in 1957, he attended Cambridgeshire High School for Boys with Waters. His father died of cancer on 11 December 1961, less than a month before Barrett's 16th birthday. On this date, Barrett left the entry in his diary blank. By this time, his siblings had left home and his mother rented out rooms to lodgers.
Eager to help her son recover from his grief, Barrett's mother encouraged the band in which he played, Geoff Mott and the Mottoes, a band which Barrett formed, to perform in their front room. Waters and Barrett were childhood friends, and Waters often visited such gigs. At one point, Waters organised a gig, a CND benefit at Friends Meeting House on 11 March 1962, but shortly afterwards Geoff Mott joined the Boston Crabs, and the Mottoes broke up.
In September 1962, Barrett had taken a place at the art department of the Cambridgeshire College of Arts and Technology, where he met David Gilmour. In late 1962 and early 1963, the Beatles made an impact on Barrett, and he began to play Beatles songs at parties and at picnics. In 1963, Barrett became a Rolling Stones fan and, with then-girlfriend Libby Gausden, saw them perform at a village hall in Cambridgeshire. He would cite Jimmy Reed as an influence; however, he remarked that Bo Diddley was his greatest influence.
At this point, Barrett started writing songs; one friend recalls hearing "Effervescing Elephant" (later to be recorded on his solo album Barrett). Also around this time, Barrett and Gilmour occasionally played acoustic gigs together. Barrett had played bass guitar with Those Without in mid-1963 and bass and guitar with the Hollerin' Blues the next summer. In 1964, Barrett and Gausden saw Bob Dylan perform. After this performance, Barrett was inspired to write "Bob Dylan Blues". Barrett, now thinking about his future, decided to apply for Camberwell College of Arts in London. He enrolled in the college in the summer of 1964 to study painting.
Pink Floyd years (1965–1968)
Starting in 1964, the band that would become Pink Floyd evolved through various line-up and name changes including the Abdabs, the Screaming Abdabs, Sigma 6 and the Meggadeaths. In 1965, Barrett joined them as the Tea Set (sometimes spelled T-Set). When they found themselves playing a concert with another band of the same name, Barrett came up with the Pink Floyd Sound (also known as the Pink Floyd Blues Band, later the Pink Floyd). During 1965, they went into a studio for the first time, when a friend of Richard Wright's gave the band free time to record.
During this summer Barrett had his first LSD trip in the garden of friend Dave Gale, with Ian Moore and Storm Thorgerson. During one trip, Barrett and another friend, Paul Charrier, ended up naked in the bath, reciting: "No rules, no rules". That summer, as a result of the continued drug use, the band became absorbed in Sant Mat, a Sikh sect. Storm Thorgerson (then living on Earlham Street) and Barrett went to a London hotel to meet the sect's guru; Thorgerson managed to join the sect; Barrett, however, was deemed too young to join. Thorgerson saw this as a deeply important event in Barrett's life, as he was extremely upset by the rejection. While living near his friends, Barrett decided to write more songs ("Bike" was written around this time).
London Underground, Blackhill Enterprises and gigs
While Pink Floyd began by playing cover versions of American R&B songs, by 1966 they had carved out their own style of improvised rock and roll, which drew as much from improvised jazz. After Bob Klose departed from the band, the band's direction changed. However, the change was not instantaneous, with more improvising on the guitars and keyboards. Drummer Nick Mason reflected, "It always felt to me that most of the ideas were emanating from Syd at the time."
At this time, Barrett's reading reputedly included Grimm's Fairy Tales, Tolkien's The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, and The I-Ching. During this period, Barrett wrote most of the songs for Pink Floyd's first album, and also songs that would later appear on his solo albums. In 1966, a new rock concert venue, the UFO, opened in London and quickly became a haven for British psychedelic music. Pink Floyd, the house band, was its most popular attraction and after making appearances at the rival Roundhouse, became the most popular musical group of the London underground psychedelic music scene.
By the end of 1966, Pink Floyd had gained a reliable management team in Andrew King and Peter Jenner. Towards the end of October 1966, Pink Floyd, with King and Jenner, set up Blackhill Enterprises, to manage the group's finances. Blackhill was staffed by lodgers Jenner found in his Edbrooke Road house, and among others, Barrett's flatmate, Peter Wynne Wilson (who became road manager, however, since he had more experience in lighting, he was also lighting assistant). King and Jenner wanted to prepare some demo recordings for a possible record deal, so at the end of October, they booked a session at Thompson Private Recording Studio, in Hemel Hempstead. King said of the demos: "That was the first time I realised they were going to write all their own material, Syd just turned into a songwriter, it seemed like overnight."
King and Jenner befriended American expatriate Joe Boyd, the promoter of the UFO Club, who was making a name for himself as one of the more important entrepreneurs on the British music scene. The newly hired booking agent, Bryan Morrison, and Boyd had proposed sending in better quality recordings. From Morrison's agency the band played a gig outside London for the first time. In November, the band performed the first (of many) strangely named concerts: Philadelic Music for Simian Hominids, a multimedia event arranged by the group's former landlord, Mike Leonard, at Hornsey College of Art. They performed at the Free School for the following two weeks, before performing at the Psychodelphia Versus Ian Smith event at the Roundhouse in December, arranged by the Majority Rule for Rhodesia Campaign, and an Oxfam benefit at the Albert Hall (the band's biggest venue up to this point).
Tonite Let's All Make Love in London
At the beginning of 1967, Barrett was dating Jenny Spires. However, unknown to Barrett, Spires had an affair with Peter Whitehead. Spires convinced Whitehead (who thought the band sounded like "bad Schoenberg") to use Pink Floyd in a film about the swinging London scene. At the cost of £80 (), in January, Whitehead took the band into John Wood's Sound Techniques in Chelsea, with the promoter Joe Boyd. They recorded a 16-minute version of "Interstellar Overdrive" and another composition, "Nick's Boogie". Whitehead had filmed this recording, which was used in the film Tonite Let's All Make Love in London and later on the video release of London '66–'67. Whitehead later said the band "were just completely welded together, just like a jazz group".
The Piper at the Gates of Dawn
Boyd attempted to sign the band with Polydor Records. However, Morrison had convinced King and Jenner to try to start a bidding war between Polydor and EMI. In late January, Boyd produced a recording session for the group, with them returning to Sound Techniques in Chelsea again. After the bidding war idea was finished, Pink Floyd signed with EMI. Unusual for the time, the deal included recording an album, which meant the band had unlimited studio time at EMI Studios in return for a smaller royalty percentage. The band then attempted to re-record "Arnold Layne", but the Boyd version from January was released instead.
The band's first studio album, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, was recorded intermittently between February and July 1967 in Studio 3 at Abbey Road Studios, and produced by former Beatles engineer Norman Smith. By the time the album was released on 4 August, "Arnold Layne" (which was released months earlier, on 11 March) had reached number 20 on the British singles charts, despite being banned by Radio London, and the follow-up single, "See Emily Play", had peaked at number 5. The album was successful in the UK, hitting number 6 on the British album charts. Their first three singles (including their third, "Apples and Oranges"), were written by Barrett, who also was the principal visionary/author of their critically acclaimed 1967 debut album. Of the eleven songs on Piper, Barrett wrote eight and co-wrote another two.
Health problems
Through late 1967 and early 1968, Barrett became increasingly erratic, partly as a consequence of his heavy use of psychedelic drugs such as LSD. Once described as joyful, friendly, and extroverted, he became increasingly depressed and withdrawn, and experienced hallucinations, disorganised speech, memory lapses, intense mood swings and periods of catatonia. Although the changes began gradually, he went missing for a long weekend and, according to several friends, including Wright, came back "a completely different person".
One of the striking features of his change was the development of a blank, dead-eyed stare. Barrett did not recognise friends, and often did not know where he was. While Pink Floyd were recording "See Emily Play" at the Sound Techniques studio, Gilmour stopped by on his return visit from Europe to say hello to Barrett. According to Gilmour, he "just looked straight through me, barely acknowledged me that I was there". Boyd encountered Barrett and the rest of the Floyd at the UFO Club in mid-1967, which he described in his memoir: "I had exchanged pleasantries with the first three when Syd emerged from the crush. His sparkling eyes had always been his most attractive feature but that night they were vacant, as if someone had reached inside his head and turned off a switch. During their set he hardly sang, standing motionless for long passages, arms by his sides, staring into space." On a tour of Los Angeles, Barrett is said to have exclaimed, "Gee, it sure is nice to be in Las Vegas!" Many reports described him on stage, strumming one chord through the entire concert, or not playing at all. At a show in Santa Monica, Barrett slowly detuned his guitar.
Interviewed on The Pat Boone in Hollywood television program during the tour, Barrett replied with a "blank and totally mute stare"; according to Mason, "Syd wasn't into moving his lips that day." Barrett exhibited similar behaviour during the band's first appearance on Dick Clark's television show American Bandstand. Surviving footage of this appearance shows Barrett miming his parts competently; however, during a group interview afterwards, Barrett gave terse answers. During their appearance on the Perry Como show, Rick Wright had to mime all the vocals on "Matilda Mother" because of Barrett's condition. During this time, Barrett would often forget to bring his guitar to sessions, damage equipment and was occasionally unable to hold his plectrum. Before a performance in late 1967, Barrett reportedly crushed Mandrax tranquilliser tablets and a tube of Brylcreem into his hair, which melted down his face under the heat of the stage lighting, making him look like "a guttered candle". Mason disputed the Mandrax portion of this story, saying that "Syd would never waste good mandies".
Departure from Pink Floyd
During Pink Floyd's UK tour with Jimi Hendrix in November 1967, guitarist David O'List from The Nice (who were fifth on the bill) substituted for Barrett on several occasions when he was unable to perform or failed to appear. Around Christmas, Pink Floyd asked Gilmour to join as a second guitarist to cover for Barrett. For a handful of shows, Gilmour played and sang while Barrett wandered around on stage, occasionally joining the performance. The other band members grew tired of Barrett's antics and, on 26 January 1968, when Waters was driving on the way to a show at Southampton University, they elected not to pick Barrett up. One person in the car said, "Shall we pick Syd up?" and another said, "Let's not bother." As Barrett had written the bulk of the band's material, the plan was to retain him as a non-touring member, as the Beach Boys had done with Brian Wilson, but this proved impractical.
According to Waters, Barrett came to what was to be their last practice session with a new song he had dubbed "Have You Got It Yet?" The song seemed simple when he first presented it, but it soon became impossibly difficult to learn; the band eventually realised that Barrett was changing the arrangement as they played, and that Barrett was playing a joke on them. According to David Gilmour, it "was really just a twelve-bar, but the responses were always in the wrong places according to Syd. Some parts of his brain were perfectly intact—his sense of humour being one of them." Waters called it "a real act of mad genius".
Of the songs Barrett wrote for Pink Floyd after The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, only "Jugband Blues" was included on their album, A Saucerful of Secrets (1968). "Apples and Oranges" became an unsuccessful single, while "Scream Thy Last Scream", "Vegetable Man" and the instrumental "In The Beechwoods" remained unreleased until 2016 in The Early Years 1965–1972 box set, as the former two were deemed too dark and unsettling. Another instrumental mislabelled "Sunshine" by bootleggers and Waters composition "One in a Million" remain unreleased (the latter circulates only on concert recordings.) Barrett played guitar on the Saucerful of Secrets tracks "Remember a Day" and "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun".
Feeling guilty, the members of Pink Floyd did not tell Barrett that he was no longer in the band. According to Wright, who lived with Barrett at the time, he told Barrett he was going out to buy cigarettes when leaving to play a show. He would return hours later to find Barrett in the same position, sometimes with a cigarette burned completely down between his fingers. The incident was later referenced in the film Pink Floyd – The Wall. Emerging from catatonia and unaware that a long period had elapsed, Barrett would ask, "Have you got the cigarettes?"
Barrett spent time outside the recording studio, in the reception area, waiting to be invited in. He also came to a few performances and glared at Gilmour. On 6 April 1968, Pink Floyd officially announced that Barrett was no longer a member, the same day their contract with Blackhill Enterprises was terminated. Considering him the band's musical leader, Blackhill Enterprises retained Barrett.
Solo years (1968–1972)
After leaving Pink Floyd, Barrett was out of the public eye for a year. In 1969, at the behest of EMI and Harvest Records, he embarked on a brief solo career, releasing two solo albums, The Madcap Laughs and Barrett (both 1970), and a single, "Octopus". Some songs, "Terrapin", "Maisie" and "Bob Dylan Blues", reflected Barrett's early interest in the blues.
The Madcap Laughs (1970)
After Barrett left Pink Floyd, Jenner quit as their manager. He led Barrett into EMI Studios to record tracks in May that were released on Barrett's first solo album, The Madcap Laughs. However, Jenner said: "I had seriously underestimated the difficulties of working with him." By the sessions of June and July, most of the tracks were in better shape; however, shortly after the July sessions, Barrett broke up with his girlfriend Lindsay Corner and went on a drive around Britain, ending up in psychiatric care in Cambridge. During New Year 1969, Barrett, somewhat recovered, had taken up tenancy in a flat on Egerton Gardens, South Kensington, London, with the postmodernist artist Duggie Fields. Barrett's flat was so close to Gilmour's that Gilmour could look right into Barrett's kitchen.
Deciding to return to music, Barrett contacted EMI and was passed to Malcolm Jones, the head of EMI's new prog rock label, Harvest. After Norman Smith and Jenner declined to produce Barrett's record, Jones produced it. Barrett wanted to recover the recordings made with Jenner; several of the tracks were improved upon. The sessions with Jones started in April 1969 at EMI Studios. After the first, Barrett brought in friends to help: the Humble Pie drummer Jerry Shirley, and Willie Wilson, the drummer of Gilmour's old band Jokers Wild. For the sessions, Gilmour played bass. Jones said that communicating with Barrett was difficult: "It was a case of following him, not playing with him. They were seeing and then playing so they were always a note behind." A few tracks on the album feature overdubs by members of Soft Machine. During this time, Barrett also played guitar on the sessions for the Soft Machine founder Kevin Ayers' debut LP Joy of a Toy, although his performance on "Religious Experience", later titled "Singing a Song in the Morning", was not released until the album was reissued in 2003.
At one point, Barrett told his flatmate that he was going for an afternoon drive, but followed Pink Floyd to Ibiza; according to legend, he skipped check-ins and customs, ran onto the runway and attempted to flag down a jet. One of his friends, J. Ryan Eaves, the bass player for the short-lived but influential Manchester band York's Ensemble, spotted him on a beach wearing dirty clothes and with a carrier bag full of money. During the trip, Barrett asked Gilmour for help in the recording sessions.
After two of the Gilmour/Waters-produced sessions, they remade one track from the Soft Machine overdubs and recorded three tracks. These sessions came to a minor halt when Gilmour and Waters were mixing Pink Floyd's newly recorded album, Ummagumma. However, through the end of July, they managed to record three more tracks. The problem with the recording was that the songs were recorded as Barrett played them "live" in studio. On the released versions a number of them have false starts and commentaries from Barrett. Despite the track being closer to complete and better produced, Gilmour and Waters left the Jones-produced track "Opel" off Madcap.
Gilmour later said of the sessions for The Madcap Laughs:
Upon the album's release in January 1970, Jones was shocked by the substandard musicianship on the songs produced by Gilmour and Waters: "I felt angry. It's like dirty linen in public and very unnecessary and unkind." Gilmour said: "Perhaps we were trying to show what Syd was really like. But perhaps we were trying to punish him." Waters was more positive: "Syd is a genius." Barrett said: "It's quite nice but I'd be very surprised if it did anything if I were to drop dead. I don't think it would stand as my last statement."
Barrett (1970)
The second album, Barrett, was recorded more sporadically, the sessions taking place between February and July 1970. The album was produced by Gilmour, and featured Gilmour on bass guitar, Richard Wright on keyboard and Humble Pie drummer Jerry Shirley. The first two songs attempted were for Barrett to play and/or sing to an existing backing track. However, Gilmour thought they were losing the "Barrett-ness". One track ("Rats") was originally recorded with Barrett on his own. That would later be overdubbed by musicians, despite the changing tempos. Shirley said of Barrett's playing: "He would never play the same tune twice. Sometimes Syd couldn't play anything that made sense; other times what he'd play was absolute magic." At times Barrett, who experienced synaesthesia, would say: "Perhaps we could make the middle darker and maybe the end a bit middle afternoonish. At the moment it's too windy and icy."
In a 1970 interview reprinted in 1975, Barrett mentions listening to Taj Mahal and Captain Beefheart.
These sessions were happening while Pink Floyd had just begun to work on Atom Heart Mother. On various occasions, Barrett went to "spy" on the band as they recorded their album.
Wright said of the Barrett sessions:
Performances
Despite the numerous recording dates for his solo albums, Barrett undertook very little musical activity between 1968 and 1972 outside the studio. On 24 February 1970, he appeared on John Peel's BBC radio programme Top Gear playing five songs—only one of which had been previously released. Three would be re-recorded for the Barrett album, while the song "Two of a Kind" was a one-off performance (possibly written by Richard Wright). Barrett was accompanied on this session by Gilmour and Shirley who played bass and percussion, respectively.
Gilmour and Shirley also backed Barrett for his one and only live concert during this period. The gig took place on 6 June 1970 at the Olympia Exhibition Hall as part of a Music and Fashion Festival. The trio performed four songs, "Terrapin", "Gigolo Aunt", "Effervescing Elephant" and "Octopus". Poor mixing left the vocals barely audible until part-way through the last number. At the end of the fourth song, Barrett unexpectedly but politely put down his guitar and walked off the stage. The performance has been bootlegged. Barrett made one last appearance on BBC Radio, recording three songs at their studios on 16 February 1971. All three came from the Barrett album. After this session, he took a hiatus from his music career that lasted more than a year, although in an extensive interview with Mick Rock and Rolling Stone in December, he discussed himself at length, showed off his new 12-string guitar, talked about touring with Jimi Hendrix and stated that he was frustrated in terms of his musical work because of his inability to find anyone good to play with.
Later years (1972–2006)
Stars and final recordings
In February 1972, after a few guest spots in Cambridge with ex-Pink Fairies member Twink on drums and Jack Monck on bass using the name The Last Minute Put Together Boogie Band (backing visiting blues musician Eddie "Guitar" Burns and also featuring Henry Cow guitarist Fred Frith), the trio formed a short-lived band called Stars. Though they were initially well received at gigs in the Dandelion coffee bar and the town's Market Square, one of their gigs at the Corn Exchange in Cambridge with MC5 proved to be disastrous. A few days after this final show, Twink recalled that Barrett stopped him on the street, showed him a scathing review of the gig they had played, and quit on the spot, despite having played at least one subsequent gig at the same venue supporting Nektar.
Free from his EMI contract on 9 May 1972, Barrett signed a document that ended his association with Pink Floyd, and any financial interest in future recordings. He attended an informal jazz and poetry performance by Pete Brown and former Cream bassist Jack Bruce in October 1973. Brown arrived at the show late, and saw that Bruce was already onstage, along with "a guitarist I vaguely recognised", playing the Horace Silver tune "Doodlin'". Later in the show, Brown read out a poem, which he dedicated to Syd, because, "he's here in Cambridge, and he's one of the best songwriters in the country" when, to his surprise, the guitar player from earlier in the show stood up and said, "No I'm not". By the end of 1973, Barrett had returned to live in London, staying at various hotels and, in December of that year, settling in at Chelsea Cloisters. He had little contact with others, apart from his regular visits to his management's offices to collect his royalties, and the occasional visit from his sister Rosemary.
In August 1974, Jenner persuaded Barrett to return to Abbey Road Studios in hope of recording another album. According to John Leckie, who engineered these sessions, even at this point Syd still "looked like he did when he was younger ... long haired". The sessions lasted three days and consisted of blues rhythm tracks with tentative and disjointed guitar overdubs. Barrett recorded eleven tracks, the only one of which to be titled was "If You Go, Don't Be Slow". Once again, Barrett withdrew from the music industry, but this time for good. He sold the rights to his solo albums back to the record label and moved into a London hotel. During this period, several attempts to employ him as a record producer (including one by Jamie Reid on behalf of the Sex Pistols, and another by the Damned, who wanted him to produce their second album) were fruitless.
Wish You Were Here sessions
Barrett visited the members of Pink Floyd in 1975 during the recording sessions for their ninth album, Wish You Were Here. He attended the Abbey Road session unannounced, and watched the band working on the final mix of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond"—a song about him. Barrett, then 29, was overweight and had shaved off all of his hair (including his eyebrows), and his former bandmates did not initially recognise him. Barrett spent part of the session brushing his teeth. Waters asked him what he thought of the song to which Barrett responded "sounds a bit old". He is reported to have briefly attended the reception for Gilmour's wedding to Ginger that immediately followed the recording sessions, but Gilmour said he had no recollection of this.
A few years later, Waters saw Barrett in the department store Harrods; Barrett ran away, dropping his bags, which Waters said were filled with candy. It was the last time any member of Pink Floyd saw him.
Withdrawal to Cambridge
In 1978, when Barrett's money ran out, he moved back to Cambridge to live with his mother. He returned to live in London for a few weeks in 1982, but soon returned to Cambridge permanently. Barrett walked the from London to Cambridge. Until his death, he received royalties from his work with Pink Floyd; Gilmour said, "I made sure the money got to him." In 1996, Barrett was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Pink Floyd. He did not attend the ceremony.
According to the biographer and journalist Tim Willis, Barrett, who had reverted to using his birth name Roger, continued to live in his late mother's semi-detached home, and returned to painting, creating large abstract canvases. He was also an avid gardener. His main point of contact with the outside world was his sister, Rosemary, who lived nearby. He was reclusive, and his physical health declined, as he had stomach ulcers and type 2 diabetes.
Although Barrett had not appeared or spoken in public since the mid-1970s, reporters and fans travelled to Cambridge seeking him, despite public appeals from his family to stop. Apparently, Barrett did not like being reminded about his musical career and the other members of Pink Floyd had no direct contact with him. However, he did visit his sister's house in November 2001 to watch the BBC Omnibus documentary made about him; reportedly he found some of it "a bit noisy", enjoyed seeing Mike Leonard again, calling him his "teacher", and enjoyed hearing "See Emily Play".
Barrett made a final public acknowledgement of his musical past in 2002, his first since the 1970s, when he autographed 320 copies of Psychedelic Renegades, a book by the photographer Mick Rock which contained a number of photos of Barrett. Rock had conducted Barrett's final interview in 1971 before his retirement from the music industry, and Barrett visited Rock in London several times for tea and conversation in 1978. They had not spoken in more than 20 years when Rock approached Barrett to autograph his book, and Barrett uncharacteristically agreed. Having reverted to his birth name, he autographed the book "Barrett".
Death and tributes
Barrett died at home in Cambridge on 7 July 2006 aged 60, from pancreatic cancer. His death was reported a week later on 12 July. He was cremated at a funeral held at Cambridge Crematorium on 18 July 2006; no Pink Floyd members attended. In a statement, Wright said: "The band are very naturally upset and sad to hear of Syd Barrett's death. Syd was the guiding light of the early band lineup and leaves a legacy which continues to inspire." Gilmour said: "Do find time to play some of Syd's songs and to remember him as the madcap genius who made us all smile with his wonderfully eccentric songs about bikes, gnomes, and scarecrows. His career was painfully short, yet he touched more people than he could ever know."
NME produced a tribute issue to Barrett a week later with a photo of him on the cover. In an interview with The Sunday Times, Barrett's sister, Rosemary Breen, said that he had written an unpublished book about the history of art. According to local newspapers, Barrett left approximately £1.7 million to his four siblings, largely acquired from royalties from Pink Floyd compilations and live recordings featuring Barrett's songs. A tribute concert, "Madcap's Last Laugh", was held at the Barbican Centre, London, on 10 May 2007 with Barrett's bandmates and Robyn Hitchcock, Captain Sensible, Damon Albarn, Chrissie Hynde and Kevin Ayers. Gilmour, Wright and Mason performed the Barrett compositions "Bike" and "Arnold Layne", and Waters performed a solo version of his song "Flickering Flame".
In 2006, Barrett's home in St. Margaret's Square, Cambridge, was put on the market and attracted considerable interest. After over 100 showings, many to fans, it was sold to a French couple who knew nothing about Barrett. On 28 November 2006, Barrett's other possessions were sold at an auction at Cheffins auction house in Cambridge, raising £120,000 for charity. Items sold included paintings, scrapbooks and everyday items that Barrett had decorated.
A series of events called The City Wakes was held in Cambridge in October 2008 to celebrate Barrett's life, art, and music. Breen supported this, the first series of official events in memory of her brother. After the festival's success, arts charity Escape Artists announced plans to create a centre in Cambridge, using art to help people with mental health problems. A memorial bench was placed in the Botanic Gardens in Cambridge and a more prominent tribute was planned in the city.
Legacy
Compilations
In 1988, EMI Records (after constant pressure from Malcolm Jones) released an album of Barrett's studio out-takes and previously unreleased material recorded from 1968 to 1970 under the title Opel. The disc was originally set to include the unreleased Barrett Pink Floyd songs "Scream Thy Last Scream" and "Vegetable Man", which had been remixed for the album by Jones, but the band pulled the two songs before Opel was finalised. In 1993 EMI issued another release, Crazy Diamond, a boxed set of all three albums, each with further out-takes from his solo sessions that illustrated Barrett's inability or refusal to play a song the same way twice. EMI also released The Best of Syd Barrett: Wouldn't You Miss Me? in the UK on 16 April 2001 and in the US on 11 September 2001. This was the first time his song "Bob Dylan Blues" was officially released, taken from a demo tape that Gilmour had kept after an early 1970s session. Gilmour kept the tape, which also contains the unreleased "Living Alone" from the Barrett sessions. In October 2010 Harvest/EMI and Capitol Records released An Introduction to Syd Barrett—a collection of both his Pink Floyd and remastered solo work. The 2010 compilation An Introduction to Syd Barrett includes the downloadable bonus track "Rhamadan", a 20-minute track recorded at one of Syd's earliest solo sessions, in May 1968. In 2011, it was announced that a vinyl double album version would be issued for Record Store Day.
Bootleg editions of Barrett's live and solo material exist. For years the "off air" recordings of the BBC sessions with Barrett's Pink Floyd circulated, until an engineer who had taken a tape of the early Pink Floyd gave it back to the BBC—which played it during a tribute to John Peel on their website. During this tribute, the first Peel programme (Top Gear) was aired in its entirety. This show featured the 1967 live versions of "Flaming", "Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun", and a brief 90-second snippet of the instrumental "Reaction in G". In 2012, engineer Andy Jackson said he had found "a huge box of assorted tapes", in Mason's possession, containing versions of R&B songs that (the Barrett-era) Pink Floyd played in their early years.
Creative impact
Barrett wrote most of Pink Floyd's early material, and their producer, Norman Smith compared him favourably with John Lennon in his memoir: "Syd Barrett could write like John. I've said it before. He wasn't quite as good as John, and I am talking about a Syd on top form with 'See Emily Play'. But he would have developed. Definitely! In time he would have got even better." Jimmy Page never saw Barrett play with the Floyd, but was a fan of the early group's music, telling an interviewer, "Syd Barrett's writing with the early Pink Floyd was inspirational. Nothing sounded like Barrett before Pink Floyd's first album. There were so many ideas and so many positive statements. You can really feel the genius there, and it was tragic that he fell apart. Both he and Jimi Hendrix had a futuristic vision in a sense." According to critic Steven Hyden, even after Barrett left the band, Barrett's spirit "haunted" their records, and their most popular work "drew on the power of what Barrett signified".
Barrett was an innovative guitarist, using extended techniques and exploring the musical and sonic possibilities of dissonance, distortion, feedback, the echo machine, tapes and other effects; his experimentation was partly inspired by free improvisation guitarist Keith Rowe of the group AMM, active at the time in London. Rowe would lay the guitar flat on a table and, among other things, would run ball bearings, metal rulers, coins, or knives along the strings. AMM and Pink Floyd played several gigs together from early 1966 to early 1967, and Barrett even attended the recording session for the group's debut album, "AMMMusic", in June 1966. One of Barrett's trademarks was playing his guitar through an old echo box while sliding a Zippo lighter up and down the fret-board to create the mysterious, otherworldly sounds that became associated with the group. Barrett was known to have used Binson delay units to achieve his trademark echo sounds. Daevid Allen, founder member of Soft Machine and Gong, cited Barrett's use of slide guitar with echo as a key inspiration for his own "glissando guitar" style.
Barrett's recordings both with Pink Floyd and in later solo albums were delivered with a strongly British-accented vocal delivery, specifically that of southern England. He was described by Guardian writer Nick Kent as having a "quintessential English style of vocal projection". David Bowie said that Barrett, along with Anthony Newley, was the first person he had heard sing rock or pop music with a British accent.
Barrett's free-form sequences of "sonic carpets" pioneered a new way to play the rock guitar. He played several different guitars during his tenure, including an old Harmony hollowbody electric, a Harmony acoustic, a Fender acoustic, a single-coil Danelectro 59 DC, several different Fender Telecasters and a white Fender Stratocaster in late 1967. A silver Fender Esquire with mirrored discs glued to the body was the guitar he was most often associated with and the guitar he "felt most close to". The mirrored Esquire was traded for a black Telecaster Custom, in 1968. Its whereabouts are currently unknown.
Influence
Many artists have acknowledged Barrett's influence on their work. Paul McCartney, Pete Townshend, Blur, Kevin Ayers, Gong, Marc Bolan, Tangerine Dream, Genesis P-Orridge, Julian Cope, Pere Ubu, Jeff Mangum, The Olivia Tremor Control, The Flaming Lips, Animal Collective, John Maus, Paul Weller, Roger Miller, East Bay Ray, Cedric Bixler-Zavala, and David Bowie were inspired by Barrett; Jimmy Page, Brian Eno, Sex Pistols, and The Damned all expressed interest in working with him at some point during the 1970s. Bowie recorded a cover of "See Emily Play" on his 1973 album Pin Ups. The track "Grass", from XTC's album Skylarking was influenced when Andy Partridge let fellow band member Colin Moulding borrow his Barrett records. Robyn Hitchcock's career was dedicated to being Barrett-esque; he even played "Dominoes" for the 2001 BBC documentary The Pink Floyd and Syd Barrett Story.
Barrett also had an influence on alternative and punk music in general. According to critic John Harris:
To understand his place in modern music you probably have to first go back to punk rock and its misguided attempt to kick aside what remained of the psychedelic 1960s. Given that the Clash and Sex Pistols had made brutal social commentary obligatory, there seemed little room for any of the creative exotica that had defined the Love Decade—until, slowly but surely, singing about dead-end lives and dole queues began to pall, and at least some of the previous generation were rehabilitated. Barrett was the best example: having crashed out of Pink Floyd before the advent of indulgent "progressive" rock, and succumbed to a fate that appealed to the punk generation's nihilism, he underwent a revival.
Barrett's decline had a profound effect on Waters' songwriting, and the theme of mental illness permeated the later Pink Floyd albums The Dark Side of the Moon (1973), Wish You Were Here (1975) and The Wall (1979). The reference to a "steel rail" in the song "Wish You Were Here"—"can you tell a green field from a cold steel rail?"—references a recurring theme in Barrett's song "If It's In You" from The Madcap Laughs. The song suite "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" from Wish You Were Here is also a tribute to Barrett.
In 1987, an album of Barrett cover songs called Beyond the Wildwood was released. The album was a collection of cover songs from Barrett's tenure with Pink Floyd and from his solo career. Artists appearing were UK and US indie bands including The Shamen, Opal, The Soup Dragons, and Plasticland.
Other artists who have written tributes to Barrett include his contemporary Kevin Ayers, who wrote "O Wot a Dream" in his honour (Barrett provided guitar to an early version of Ayers' song "Religious Experience: Singing a Song in the Morning"). Robyn Hitchcock has covered many of his songs live and on record and paid homage to his forebear with the song "(Feels Like) 1974". Phish covered "Bike", "No Good Trying", "Love You", "Baby Lemonade" and "Terrapin". The Television Personalities' single "I Know Where Syd Barrett Lives" from their 1981 album And Don't the Kids Love It is another tribute. In 2008, The Trash Can Sinatras released a single in tribute to the life and work of Syd Barrett called "Oranges and Apples", from their 2009 album In the Music. Proceeds from the single go to the Syd Barrett Trust in support of arts in mental health.
Johnny Depp showed interest in a biographical film based on Barrett's life. Barrett is portrayed briefly in the opening scene of Tom Stoppard's play Rock 'n' Roll (2006), performing "Golden Hair". His life and music, including the disastrous Cambridge Corn Exchange concert and his later reclusive lifestyle, are a recurring motif in the work. Barrett died during the play's run in London.
In 2016, in correspondence with the 70th anniversary birthday, The Theatre of the Absurd, an Italian independent artists group, published a short movie in honour of Barrett named Eclipse, with actor-director Edgar Blake in the role of Barrett. Some footage from this movie was also shown at Syd Barrett – A Celebration during Men on the Border's tribute: the show took place at the Cambridge Corn Exchange, with the participation of Barrett's family and old friends.
For 2017 TV series Legion creator Noah Hawley named one of the characters after Barrett, whose music was an important influence on the series.
In The X-Files season nine episode, "Lord of the Flies" (2001), a powerful mutant, Dylan Lokensgard (Hank Harris), has several posters of Syd Barrett on his bedroom wall, and listens to "It's No Good Trying" and "Terrapin" from The Madcap Laughs.
He recites the line, "A dream in a mist of gray", from Barrett's song "Opel", saying of the singer, "He was, like, this brilliant guy that no-one understood".
Barrett's influence on the genesis of psychedelia was considered in a chapter entitled "Astronauts of Inner Space: Syd Barrett, Nick Drake and the Birth of Psychedelia" in Guy Mankowski's book Albion's Secret History: Snapshots of England's Pop Rebels and Outsiders.
The 2023 documentary film Have You Got It Yet? The Story of Syd Barrett and Pink Floyd features interviews with Roger Waters, Nick Mason, David Gilmour, Barrett's sister Rosemary Breen, and Pink Floyd managers Peter Jenner and Andrew King. It is directed by Roddy Bogawa and Storm Thorgerson, and narrated by Jason Isaacs.
Health
Members of Barrett's family denied that he was mentally ill. Asked if Barrett may have had Asperger's syndrome, his sister Rosemary Breen said that he and his siblings were "all on the spectrum". She also stated that, contrary to common misconception, Barrett neither suffered from mental illness nor had he received treatment for it since they had resumed regular contact in the 1980s. Breen said he had spent some time in a private "home for lost souls"—Greenwoods in Essex—but that there was no formal therapy programme there. Some years later, Barrett agreed to sessions with a psychiatrist at Fulbourn psychiatric hospital in Cambridge, but Breen said that neither medication nor therapy was considered appropriate. Breen also denied Barrett was a recluse or that he was vague about his past: "Roger may have been a bit selfish—or rather self-absorbed—but when people called him a recluse they were really only projecting their own disappointment. He knew what they wanted, but he wasn't willing to give it to them." In 1996, Wright said that Barrett's mother told the members of Pink Floyd not to contact him because being reminded of the band would make him depressed for weeks.
In the 1960s, Barrett used psychedelic drugs, especially LSD, and there are theories he subsequently had schizophrenia. Wright asserted that Barrett's problems stemmed from a massive overdose of acid, as the change in his personality and behaviour came on suddenly. However, Waters maintains that Barrett suffered "without a doubt" from schizophrenia. In an article published in 2006, Gilmour was quoted as saying: "In my opinion, his nervous breakdown would have happened anyway. It was a deep-rooted thing. But I'll say the psychedelic experience might well have acted as a catalyst. Still, I just don't think he could deal with the vision of success and all the things that went with it." According to Gilmour in a 1974 interview, the other members of Pink Floyd approached psychiatrist R. D. Laing with the "Barrett problem". After hearing a tape of a Barrett conversation, Laing declared him "incurable".
In Saucerful of Secrets: The Pink Floyd Odyssey, author Nicholas Schaffner interviewed people who knew Barrett before and during his Pink Floyd days, including friends Peter and Susan Wynne-Wilson, artist Duggie Fields (with whom Barrett shared a flat during the late 1960s), June Bolan, and Storm Thorgerson. Bolan became concerned when Syd "kept his girlfriend under lock and key for three days, occasionally shoving a ration of biscuits under the door". A claim of cruelty against Barrett committed by the groupies and hangers-on who frequented his apartment during this period was described by writer and critic Jonathan Meades. "I went [to Barrett's flat] to see Harry and there was this terrible noise. It sounded like heating pipes shaking. I said, 'What's up?' and he sort of giggled and said, 'That's Syd having a bad trip. We put him in the linen cupboard'". Storm Thorgerson responded to this claim by stating "I do not remember locking Syd up in a cupboard. It sounds to me like pure fantasy, like Jonathan Meades was on dope himself."
Other friends state that Barrett's flatmates, who had also taken LSD, thought of Barrett as a genius or a deity, and were spiking his morning coffee every day without his knowledge, leaving him in a never-ending trip. He was later rescued from that flat by friends and moved elsewhere, but his erratic behaviour continued. According to Thorgerson, "On one occasion, I had to pull him [Barrett] off [his girlfriend] Lindsay because he was beating her over the head with a mandolin". On one occasion, Barrett threw a woman called Gilly across the room, because she refused to go to Gilmour's house.
Personal life
According to his sister, Rosemary, Barrett took up photography and sometimes they went to the seaside together. She also said he took a keen interest in art and horticulture and continued to devote himself to painting:
Barrett had relationships with various women, such as Libby Gausden; Lindsay Korner; Jenny Spires; and Pakistani-born Evelyn "Iggy" Rose (1947–2017) (aka "Iggy the Eskimo", "Iggy the Inuit"), who appeared on the back cover of The Madcap Laughs. He never married or had children, though he was briefly engaged to marry Gayla Pinion and planned to relocate to Oxford.
Discography
Solo albums
The Madcap Laughs (1970)
Barrett (1970)
with Pink Floyd
The Piper at the Gates of Dawn (1967)
A Saucerful of Secrets (1968)
1965: Their First Recordings (2015)
The Early Years 1965–1972 (2016)
Filmography
Syd Barrett's First Trip (1966) directed by Nigel Lesmoir-Gordon
London '66–'67 (1967)
Tonite Let's All Make Love in London (1967)
The Pink Floyd and Syd Barrett Story (2003)
Have You Got It Yet? The Story of Syd Barrett and Pink Floyd (2023)
See also
List of songs recorded by Syd Barrett
List of songs about or referencing Syd Barrett
References
Informational notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
The Official Syd Barrett Website
The Syd Barrett Archives
Official trailer for Have You Got It Yet? The Story of Syd Barrett and Pink Floyd
1946 births
2006 deaths
20th-century English composers
20th-century English painters
20th-century English male singers
20th-century English singers
21st-century English painters
Alumni of Anglia Ruskin University
Alumni of Camberwell College of Arts
Blues rock musicians
Capitol Records artists
Deaths from cancer in England
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
EMI Records artists
English experimental musicians
English male painters
English rock guitarists
English rock singers
English male singer-songwriters
English singer-songwriters
Experimental composers
Experimental guitarists
Harvest Records artists
Lead guitarists
Musicians from Cambridgeshire
Outsider musicians
People with schizophrenia
Pink Floyd members
Protopunk musicians
Psychedelic folk musicians
Psychedelic rock musicians
Rhythm guitarists
Slide guitarists
English male guitarists
20th-century British guitarists
English people with disabilities
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Fielding
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Joseph Fielding
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Joseph Fielding (March 26, 1797 – December 19, 1863) was an early leader of the Latter Day Saint movement. He served as the second president of the British Mission (1838–1840), coordinating the activities of missionaries in sections of the United Kingdom and parts of Europe. He was the brother of Mary Fielding, the second wife of Hyrum Smith, and an uncle of Joseph F. Smith, the sixth president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church).
Family history
Fielding was born in Honeydon, Bedfordshire, England, to John Fielding and Rachel Ibbotson, who braved the scorn and persecution of the established church to become members of the Square Chapel Independent congregation, led by the famous minister Titus Knight, in their hometown of Halifax, Yorkshire. James was christened there on 5 May 1793. The family then moved to Honidon, Bedfordshire, where the Fielding family were active in the growing Methodist movement in the area. For many years they regularly walked the four miles to attend the Methodist chapel at St Neots. It is significant that of the ten children, at least eight were to spend their lives closely involved with the evangelism of the gospel, albeit within differing religions.
James preached in first the Methodist Church, but became disaffected and, at the instigation of his brother-in-law, Timothy Matthews (a priest), went to Preston, accompanied by two of his sisters, Martha and Mary, to preach in the Semi-Episcopalian and Primitive Episcopalian churches. Martha Ibbotson Fielding married Peter Isaac Watson (a minister) in Preston in 1836. Thomas Fielding served the ministry in the Church of England, initially at Papworth under the rector, Harvey James Sperling.
In 1832, Joseph Fielding emigrated to Canada with his sister, Mercy Rachel. The siblings established a farm in Charleton, nine miles northwest of York, Upper Canada. They were joined a short time later by his younger sister, Mary. Between 1834 and 1836, Fielding and his sisters participated in a religious study group in Toronto. Other members included John and Leonora Taylor, who later also became prominent in the Latter Day Saint faith. The group discussed problems and concerns with their Methodist faith, and quickly became known as the "Dissenters."
Fielding was baptized into the Church of the Latter Day Saints on May 21, 1836 by Parley P. Pratt. He was ordained a teacher in the summer of 1836 and a priest in May 1837. He then moved his family to Kirtland, Ohio to join the general body of the church in May 1837. His sister, Mercy, born 15 June 1807, married fellow Latter Day Saint Robert Blashel Thompson, who served as a missionary to Canada and later became associate editor of Times and Seasons. He died of consumption in 1841. In 1837, Mary Fielding met and married widower Hyrum Smith, patriarch of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, and brother to the movement's founder, Joseph Smith. She became stepmother to his six children by his first wife and on 13 November 1838 bore him a son, Joseph F. Smith, and later a daughter, Martha Ann. Joseph F. Smith would serve as counselor to four LDS Church presidents before becoming the sixth president in 1901, at the age of 62. His own child, Hyrum and Mary’s grandson, Joseph Fielding Smith, became the 10th church president in 1970, at the age of 93. Another grandson, Hyrum Mack Smith, was ordained an apostle in 1901 and his grandson, M. Russell Ballard, called as an apostle in 1985, has been serving as Acting President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles since January 2018.
Mission to England
Between 1837 and 1840, Fielding was called to serve as part of the first Latter Day Saint mission to England. In June, he accompanied apostles Heber C. Kimball and Orson Hyde, along with four other missionaries on board 'The Garrick', across the Atlantic from New York to Liverpool, where they landed on 19 July 1837. Fielding was ordained both an elder and a high priest while in England. He later served as President of the British Mission, when the remaining missionaries other than Willard Richards returned to America in April 1838.
The importance of the Fieldings in the growth of the Latter Day Saints in England lay not just in the diligent missionary service of Joseph Fielding. The early success of this first mission was due largely to the willingness of Joseph's brother, James Fielding, to open his pulpit to the missionaries. Missionary work also began in Bedfordshire because of the Fielding family connection. In August 1837, Richards and Goodson travelled to Bedford and their first action on arriving in Bedford was to contact Matthews, who invited them to preach in his chapel. Later missionary efforts also took advantage of Fielding family connections. During the second apostolic mission of 1840, when John Taylor and Joseph Fielding took the gospel to Liverpool in January 1840, it was yet again the Fielding family connection which opened the door. Matthews had established a congregation on Hope Street, Liverpool, adapting principles of the Latter Day Saint gospel to suit his own purposes. Although they were refused permission to preach in the Hope Street chapel, it was there that they found their first convert. Joseph Fielding had high hopes that his brother and other members of his family remaining in England would join the Church and spent much of the voyage praying to that end. However, he was to be sadly disappointed.
The decision of the missionaries to go first to Preston, Lancashire, was because Joseph and his friend John Taylor had written about this new, restored gospel to James Fielding. James had read those letters to his congregation at the Vauxhall Road Chapel, but kept back the parts that talked about baptism, as his non-conformist congregation, known in Preston as Semi-episcopalians, did not practice baptism. He was aware that the missionaries were coming to England and eagerly awaited their arrival in Preston. According to Joseph his brother had, "raised their expectations very high."
In this way, James laid much of the ground work for the conversion of his members to the Mormon faith when they were invited by him to preach in his chapel, which they did for the first time on Sunday 23 July 1837, speaking at two services and again during the week. When the missionaries preached, many came forward desiring to be baptised. Learning of the proposed baptisms, and foreseeing correctly that he was going to lose his flock, James visited Apostle Heber C. Kimball, the mission leader, the night before, forbidding him from doing so. Elder Kimball simply replied that God was no respecter of persons and he would proceed with the baptisms.. Those first baptisms east of the Atlantic took place the following Sunday, 30 July 1837, in the River Ribble near the Old Tram Bridge, in what is now Avenham Park, Preston. The nine baptised were all from James Fielding's congregation.
His brother did not take kindly to losing his flock, most of whom would join the Church, despite a late attempt to have Robert Aitken (an English priest and preacher) offer baptism to his congregation. By 21 September 1837, Heber C. Kimball was able to note of James Fielding that, "His church has left him and he is an object of pity." James was made something of a laughing stock in Preston, and referred to his brother as a 'sheep stealer.'; James later published pamphlets attacking the Church. But more lay behind his bitterness than just the loss of his congregation. At the date of the missionaries' arrival James was doing so well that his congregation had outgrown the 500 seat Vauxhall Chapel, and he had contracted to build a new, larger chapel a few streets away on Avenham Lane, which opened in January 1838 as the Primitive Episcopalian Church. It had cost £1,500 to build and the builders and contractors were pressing for payment of their bills. Without much of a congregation and therefore unable to meet the demands, James was compelled to sell the building. Ever anxious to eliminate 'dissenting' congregations, and in genuine need of more Church of England places of worship to accommodate Preston's growing population, Roger Carus Wilson, Vicar of Preston, bought the newly built chapel in April 1838 at the much reduced price of £1,000. The whole affair was of considerable embarrassment to James. By the beginning of January 1838, he became seriously ill. Many in Preston blamed Joseph, saying that he had broken his brother's heart by stealing his congregation. James eventually recovered his health but not his congregation. Joseph Fielding recorded that his brother finally left his church in March 1839. However, according to his own statement, James continued to preach elsewhere in the Preston area for a further 13 years.
Joseph was described as a good and kindly man, anxious to serve the Lord faithfully, but he felt less worthy and successful than some of his missionary companions, particularly Elders Hyde and Kimball, and struggled with his own missionary service. He was saddened by his brother's eventual rejection of the Latter-day Saint gospel and confided to his diary that he felt, "rather lonely." His missionary companions Heber C Kimball and Orson Hyde were busy with their individual evangelism; both were experiencing great success but each tended to work alone. For often weeks at a time Joseph Fielding was left very much to his own labours in Preston. Elder Kimball, perhaps in keeping with his frontier background, felt more comfortable in spending most of his time in the country areas outside of Preston. Joseph greatly admired Elders Kimball and Hyde and felt highly favoured in having their companionship. Hyde, an eloquent speaker, he saw as very faithful and diligent, with great power in preaching; so much so that other preachers did not dare come against him. He was said to be making Methodist preachers scarce, having baptised some thirteen of them. Joseph wrote in his diary that Hyde's preaching was "very engaging and has attracted many hearers." To Joseph, Elder Kimball was a spiritual giant: "I like brother K's company, but he is so far before me that it casts me down, and I have grieved the Spirit of God by murmuring when I ought to have rejoiced and been thankful." Kimball and Hyde, it seemed to Joseph, worked in perfect unison, being on the same spiritual plane.
Despite the rapid growth in converts, Joseph Fielding was frequently disappointed with his own performance and sense of weakness. He felt that the Lord would never make much of him, yet was determined to keep him humble. At other times, however, his diligent service resulted in feelings that he was blessed with both an increase in faith and an enlargement of the mind, "it is evident that I am most pleasing to the Lord when I am most engaged in the work," he confided to his diary.
Sometimes, Joseph Fielding found himself unfavourably compared to Heber C Kimball. On a fortnight's preaching in the country in mid-October 1837, he observed that "as I was following Elder Kimball, people would rather have seen him, yet they were mostly kind." Still struggling with his personal trials in January 1838, Joseph wrote that he had laboured much, "but I seemed as nothing in my own eyes and but little in some of the people's eyes. One, not a brother, said if they had had Mr Kimball before they would have had a better congregation and more members.".
By April 1838, over 1,600 had been baptized, and organized into more than twenty branches throughout the country.
Between 1838 and 1840, Fielding was left in charge of the mission when Kimball and Hyde returned to America in the spring of 1838. He acted as Mission President for the church, with Willard Richards as his first counselor and recent British convert William Clayton as his second counselor. Fielding married a newly baptized church member, Hannah Greenwood, on June 11, 1838. Willard Richards was a witness to his marriage and Joseph was a witness to Willard's marriage to Jenetta Richards. Joseph and Hannah had six children, two of them born in Preston: Rachel on 27 June 1839, and Ellen on 2 September 1841.
Fielding was released as mission president when Brigham Young and other apostles arrived in England in 1840, but continued to serve as a missionary until September 1841. He and his wife and their two children left Liverpool for the United States on 21 September 1841, on board the 'Tyrian', bound for Nauvoo, Illinois via New Orleans, with Joseph leading the company of 207 saints. Hundreds of members came to see them off and the company was presented with gifts for the building of the Nauvoo Temple. The ship slipped anchor and those on board sang, 'How firm a foundation, ye saints of the Lord,' as hats and handkerchiefs were waved in fond farewell. The last words heard were 'When through the deep waters I call thee to go, / The rivers of sorrow shall not thee o'erflow.' "Soon all was a dim speck upon the ocean; recorded Parley P Pratt, "a few moments more and they were vanished from view on the wide expanse and lost in the distance. May God speed them onward in their course, and land them safe in their destined port." The voyage was not without difficulty and a few scares. The ship took on water and some thought they would be drowned. To assist in distributing the food ration, Joseph enlisted the help of non-member passenger Richard Bentley, who said that Joseph was "a kind good man, and treated me kindly."
In New Orleans, the company "took one of the best steamboats (the "General Pratt"), and for 11 shillings English each, and luggage, sailed to St. Louis, 800 or 1000 miles. "The country is seldom much above the river. There are many slave settlements; these often reminded us of the factory lords in England, in their mansions surrounded with cottages occupied by the poor oppressed laborer: it is much the same with the slaves and their masters, but the slaves pay no rent… It is a truly interesting scene to pass up this river; we often thought of the crowded population of England, who cannot get a foot of land in all their lifetime, and here we travel many hundred miles and see little but forests and no one to occupy it, and the best of land."
Joseph recorded the remarkable sight as he approached Nauvoo for the first time: "When we came within two miles of our journey's end, we began to see the effects of that industry for which the Saints are so remarkable: fences of rails and of pickets, houses and gardens on the edge of the prairie, such as we had not before seen. This said Brother [Lorenzo] Young, is Nauvoo, but we had two miles to go yet, so extensive had this settlement of the Saints become in so short a time! We soon passed the sacred place and foundation of the temple. The arches of the vault windows were not all finished. The sight of this though by the light of the moon only gave me peculiar feelings. The idea that it was done at the special command of the Almighty was a new thing in this age. It seemed to fill the mind with solemnity and to give a sacredness to the whole place."
Joseph found his sister Mercy now a widow. The house her late husband Robert Thompson had commenced for Joseph and his family had been left unfinished. Joseph was ill and unable to work much. Eventually, he began to labour for his brother-in-law Hyrum Smith, who allowed him some land to farm on shares. Unexpectedly, Joseph and Hannah received a substantial loan of money from her brother in England, George Greenwood. This enabled them to purchase some 20 acres of land on the prairie about two miles from the Temple site and by 1843, they had built a home. That summer, their son Heber was born. A fourth child, Joseph, followed on 13 July 1846.
In his journal, Wilford Woodruff recorded that Fielding received his temple endowment in the same session as William Wines Phelps, Levi Richards, Lot Smith, and Cornelius P. Lott in the office over Joseph Smith's store on December 9, 1843. Fielding took an addition plural wife, Mary Ann Peake Greenhalgh in either 1843 or 1846. Hannah Fielding was troubled by what she had learnt of Joseph Smith’s preaching about "spiritual" wives. With many claiming that Joseph was in error, she began to have some doubts. Joseph confided to his diary: "I tell my wife I mean to hold on to the truth at any cost and the greatest cost would be to lose her, but her unbelief shall not stop us. I feel as though I can in spite of this bear her along. Our children are healthy and in every way promising, and we hope they will be in glory in a future day."
Their differences evidently resolved, Joseph and Hannah were endowed and sealed at the hand of Joseph Smith. They were endowed again once the Nauvoo Temple was sufficiently complete, and had their four children sealed to them.
In Nauvoo, Joseph Fielding found himself a witness to apostasy in the Church and many false charges laid against the prophet Joseph Smith. He wrote, "As to me, I have evidence enough that Joseph is not fallen. I have seen him…organize the kingdom of God on the earth and am myself a member of it. In this I feel myself highly honored but I feel grieved that at this time of the greatest light and the greatest glory and honor, men of so much knowledge and understanding should cut themselves off." In September 1846, Joseph, his sisters Mary and Mercy, and their families were finally obliged to leave Nauvoo. Members of the Church had been leaving since February. Joseph sold his land for $4½, some horses, a wagon, and some cloth. The group only just crossed the Mississippi River with its nine wagons, 21 cattle and 43 sheep, before Joseph’s land was taken over by the Nauvoo attackers, from where they fired into the city.
Migration west
Following the death of Joseph Smith, and Fielding's brother-in-law, Hyrum, the church underwent a crisis over an appropriate successor for the church president. Fielding and both of his widowed sisters chose to follow Brigham Young and move west with the greater part of the Saints.
Joseph described the scenes of chaos in the Battle of Nauvoo, "The poor Saints had to flee, sick or well. They hastened to the river but the citizens judged it not best to let men leave when they were so much needed, but the sick, the women and children got over as fast as they could. I went down to the bank of the river and found many of the Saints in distress. Some had left their goods and were destitute of food and clothing. Others had left their husbands in the battle. The cannons roared tremendously on both sides for several days." At Winter Quarters in 1847, Joseph and Hannah had a child Hyrum Thomas, but he died the same year. In due course, Joseph Fielding and his family made the trek to the Salt Lake Valley. There, two further children were born: Hannah Alice in 1849, and Sarah Ann in 1851.
In September 1846, Joseph, his sisters Mary and Mercy, and their families were finally obliged to leave Nauvoo. Members of the Church had been leaving since February. Joseph sold his land for $4.50, some horses, a wagon, and some cloth. The group only just crossed the Mississippi River with its nine wagons, 21 cattle and 43 sheep, before Joseph’s land was taken over by the Nauvoo attackers, from where they fired into the city. Joseph described the scenes of chaos in the Battle of Nauvoo, "The poor Saints had to flee, sick or well. They hastened to the river but the citizens judged it not best to let men leave when they were so much needed, but the sick, the women and children got over as fast as they could. I went down to the bank of the river and found many of the Saints in distress. Some had left their goods and were destitute of food and clothing. Others had left their husbands in the battle. The cannons roared tremendously on both sides for several days." He supported his sisters, their children and stepchildren, traveling with them to Winter Quarters, Nebraska and, in 1848, to Utah.
At Winter Quarters in 1847, Joseph and Hannah had a child Hyrum Thomas, but he died the same year. In due course, Joseph Fielding and his family made the trek to the Salt Lake Valley. There, two further children were born: Hannah Alice in 1849, and Sarah Ann in 1851.
He settled near Mary's family in Millcreek, Utah. He died there on December 19, 1863, aged 66. Hannah survived him to die in 1877, aged 57.
References
Corbett, Don C. "Mary Fielding Smith: Daughter of Britain." Salt Lake City, Utah 1966.
Joseph Fielding's Writings Blog Version
Biography of Joseph Fielding, The Joseph Smith Papers (accessed December 28, 2011)
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Mormon pioneers
Pre-Confederation Canadian emigrants to the United States
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4740986
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Willmarth
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USS Willmarth
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USS Willmarth (DE-638) was a in service with the United States Navy from 1944 to 1946. She was scrapped in 1968.
History
Willmarth was named in honor of Ensign Kenneth Willmarth (1914-1942), who was killed in action when the cruiser was sunk during the Battle of Savo Island on 9 August 1942. The ship was laid down on 25 June 1943 at San Francisco, California, by the Bethlehem Steel Company's Shipbuilding Division; launched on 21 November 1943; sponsored by Mrs. Eva Willmarth, the mother of Ens. Willmarth; and commissioned on 13 March 1944.
Solomon Islands
Following shakedown out of San Diego and post-shakedown availability at her builder's yard, Willmarth was assigned to Escort Division 40. She stood out of San Francisco Bay on 31 May, as screen for the four-ship Convoy 2410 bound for Hawaii, and arrived at Pearl Harbor on 9 June.
On 12 June, together with and , Willmarth screened the sortie of the Marshall Islands-bound Convoy 4212-A. After delivering the convoy safely at Eniwetok nine days later, Willmarth proceeded on to the Treasury Islands, anchoring in Blanche Harbor at 11:30 on the 26th.
Shifting successively to Tulagi and Purvis Bay, Willmarth operated on local escort and patrol missions in the Solomon and Treasury Islands groups for the remainder of July. She escorted a small convoy to Dreger Harbor, New Guinea, between 1 and 5 August and then shifted to Milne Bay for repairs on her port propeller.
Challenging an unknown ship
Underway for the Treasury Islands on 24 August, Willmarth made radar contact with an unidentified ship at 02:00 on the 25th. Willmarth tracked the stranger and challenged her at 03:35, when about two miles (3 km) distant. The latter did not reply, but instead altered course away from the destroyer escort and increased speed. Willmarth in turn churned up and went to general quarters at 03:40.
Willmarth repeated the challenge at 04:06 but again received no reply. On the port beam of her target, the escort vessel illuminated the stranger with her searchlight and discovered her to be a freighter of some 8,000 to 10,000 tons. Only away, Willmarth's men could see the freighter's crew manning their guns to challenge the destroyer escort.
Willmarth opened the range to as the freighter responded with two different call signs, perhaps seeking to confuse the escort vessel. Just as Willmarth began to flash a call for recognition signals, the freighter commenced fire with guns. The destroyer escort rang down for and opened the range to , refraining from firing because of the stranger's appearance and location, "indicating that it was friendly." With respect to the freighter's fierce – but fortunately ineffective – fire, Willmarth's war diarist noted charitably that the ship's "range was excellent, but deflection was off." No shells landed closer than away.
Escort ship
Willmarth subsequently anchored at Blanche Harbor later on the 25th. Late the next day, she got underway on an escort assignment and convoyed to Green Island, Bougainville, arriving on the 29th to screen the transport as she unloaded. She eventually escorted the troopship to Emirau Island and Torokina, Bougainville, before proceeding independently to the Treasury Islands. She conducted training exercises over the balance of September before she performed local escort missions and the like out of her Treasury Islands' base into October.
Willmarth departed Blanche Harbor on 6 October in company with , bound for Dutch New Guinea. She arrived three days later and sortied on the 12th with Task Unit (TU) 77.7.1 which included , , , , , and merchant ship . Other escorts were , , and Whitehurst.
Willmarth operated with TU 77.7.1 until she was released late on the 13th to escort Chepachet and SS Pueblo to Kossol Passage, in the Palaus. Arriving there at 18:21 on the 14th, she remained anchored for two days before beginning to patrol the harbor entrance on the 17th. Relieved of this duty by , Willmarth got underway during the forenoon on 20 October to screen the sortie of Ashtabula, Saranac, Chepachet, Salamonie, Mazama, and for the Philippines.
Philippines campaign
Willmarth proceeded north with her convoy, while American troops splashed ashore on the beaches of Leyte to commence the liberation of the Philippines. On the 23rd, three days after the main landing began, the destroyer escort anchored off Leyte midway between the northern and southern transport areas while her oilers refueled the ships from Task Group (TG) 77.2. That evening, Willmarth steamed eastward toward a night anchorage and, at 18:25, observed anti-aircraft fire over the northern transport area.
Underway again off Homonhon Island early the next morning, the destroyer escort received a report of enemy aircraft orbiting over the northern transport area. As she steamed along the convoy's flank, she commenced making black smoke at 08:44 to lay a protective screen in anticipation of the enemy's arrival. While the radio crackled with reports of ships under attack, Willmarth spotted no enemy planes nearby, only many puffs of "flak" splattering the skies to the westward of her screening position in the refueling group.
With the receipt of a "flash white" at 13:43, the oilers resumed refueling TG 77.2. Willmarth shifted to Samar Island shortly before 17:00 before going to general quarters at 17:06 upon receipt of a "flash red." After waiting for well over an hour for the enemy to make an appearance, the convoy stopped and prepared to anchor for the night.
At 18:43, however, three "Jills" roared in low from the east, torpedoes slung menacingly beneath their bellies. Willmarth's guns opened fire on two just before they released their "fish." One torpedo holed Ashtabula and forced her to a halt, dead in the water. While the oiler's repair parties controlled the flooding and patched the hole, the convoy passed out of Leyte Gulf and reformed in the wake of the attack. Eventually, Ashtabula, repairs effected, rejoined at 22:30.
Willmarth and the convoy remained underway throughout the evening, maneuvering on various courses and speeds in Leyte Gulf until the first rays of sunlight streaked the eastern skies. After going to general quarters at 04:58, the destroyer escort remained at battle stations throughout the day. Less than an hour after her crew first closed up at action stations, two "Jills" attacked the convoy from the westward. Willmarth immediately opened fire with her and batteries. As one "Jill" roared across the stern of the convoy, it was caught by gunfire from Willmarth and other ships of the convoy and crashed in flames far astern.
While maneuvering and making smoke to mask the convoy, the destroyer escort spotted a floating mine which she sank with gunfire. Soon thereafter, another "Jill" passed through the area and drew fire from Willmarth. Unfortunately, the shells were not observed to hit; and the plane escaped.
The convoy anchored in the fueling area at 11:52, three hours after the last attack. Willmarth and the other escorts screened the convoy and provided an anti-submarine screen patrol around the valuable auxiliaries. Later that afternoon, Willmarth repulsed an attack made by a lone plane which came out of the sun in a glide-bombing attack at 14:20. The destroyer escort's gunfire damaged the plane and caused it to spin into the water about five miles (8 km) away.
The convoy departed the fueling area at 16:46. Frequent alerts and enemy planes enlivened the evening hours as the group maneuvered throughout the night in a retirement formation. Willmarth's war diarist noted that the Japanese planes seemed loathe to attack ships in the fueling area during daylight, probably because of the heavy concentration of anti-aircraft fire that could be directed at an attacker.
The next day, 26 October, saw a repetition of the same routine that had kept the destroyer escort active since her arrival in Leyte Gulf three days earlier. After maneuvering on screening duties through the night, the warship spotted a lone "Val" dive bomber making an attack at 05:50; Willmarth opened fire from but failed to score any hits. Within minutes, she and her sister escorts were laying smoke screens to cover the convoy for the next hour. Thereafter, they provided anti-submarine screening protection while the oilers conducted fueling operations.
Further escort duty
After following the same routine on the 27th, Willmarth departed Leyte Gulf and headed for the Palaus. At 08:00 on 28 October, Willmarth – escorting the oilers earmarked to refuel the 7th Fleet ships – rendezvoused with the carriers of Task Group 77.4 and screened the refuelling operations for the balance of the day. Detached that afternoon, Willmarth screened Ashtabula and Chepachet as they voyaged to Kossol Roads, in the Palaus. Arriving on 31 October, Willmarth refueled from and anchored, her job done.
The respite afforded the destroyer escort was a brief one, however, for she got underway on 1 November for Hollandia and Seeadler Harbor, escorting a convoy. Entering Humboldt Bay on the 4th, Willmarth anchored there over the next two days before proceeding to sea to screen the sortie of TG 78.4 – , 12 LSM's, 4 LCI's, 8 LCI(G)'s, and – on the 7th.
Western New Guinea campaign
For the next three days, Willmarth screened the convoy to its destination – Mapia and Asia Islands, near Morotai – before arriving in the invasion area on the 11th. As the convoy neared Morotai, Willmarth's lookouts observed anti-aircraft fire between 04:15 and 05:30. Two "bogies" passed within four miles (6 km) of the convoy; but, as Wilmarth's war diarist recorded, "evidently they either did not sight us or were not interested, as they proceeded directly toward the area from which flak appeared." There was a reason why Willmarth did not open fire on the two planes that seemed so close – she carried the only reliable air-warning radar in the entire convoy and to open fire prematurely would have disclosed the position of the little convoy and exposed it to possible air attacks. At 08:32, the destroyer escort anchored just off the southern coast of Morotai, near Ariadne, while the remainder of the convoy (save the LCM's) proceeded to another part of the island to load for the impending invasion of Mapia and Asia Islands. The mission of the assault group was to establish weather station and LORAN – long range radio aid to navigation – facilities.
On 13 November, with the assault ships having embarked their troops, Willmarth got underway in company with TG 78.14, bound for Pegun Island. At 05:00, two days later – she was joined by and . Willmarth, the two destroyers, and PC-1122 bombarded the southern part of the island prior to the landings and provoked no return fire from the beach. After a half-hour of firing, Ariadne signalled that "H" hour was 06:30, meaning that the first wave of LVT(A)s would hit the reef at that time.
Willmarth remained at her bombardment station for the rest of the morning, ceasing fire as the first assault wave splashed toward the beachhead. The accompanying LCI(G)'s laid their own barrage, thus obviating the need for the destroyers' gunfire. By noon, the island was in American hands. When surrounded, the remaining garrison – only 12 to 14 Japanese soldiers – committed suicide.
Meanwhile, since she was not needed for bombardment, Willmarth patrolled to the northward of the invasion beach and came across canoes full of natives to the north. One native, speaking good English, told Willmarth that the remainder of the Japanese garrison, about 170 men, had waded across the reef to Bras Island the previous night – thus accounting for the sparse reception given the invasion forces.
While plans were being laid to go after this remnant on Bras Island, Willmarth conducted anti-submarine patrol around the unloading assault craft and made abortive attempts to pull several LCI's that had been stranded by low tides off the reefs. At 17:30 on the 15th, the destroyer escort succeeded in towing one off after about an hour's time and began operations to free another one of the infantry assault craft. However, the destroyer escort's efforts were frustrated by the line's parting and the near approach of darkness.
Four LCI(G)'s had to be left on the reef – as was one LCI – when the task group headed for Morotai. Arriving on 17 November, Willmarth fueled from Salamonie before anchoring. Underway again on the 18th, with the Asia Island occupation force, Willmarth and two PC's served as escort for Ariadne, four LCM's, four LCI's, and four LCI(G)'s. Embarked in the assault craft were 400 troops.
Three-fourths of a mile off Igi Island, Willmarth, Ariadne, and PC-1122 conducted shore bombardment from 05:42 to 06:19 on the 19th. Troops splashed ashore from landing craft eight minutes after the bombardment ceased and met no opposition. An unfortunate result of the shore bombardment was that two natives were wounded and one killed – the Japanese had evacuated the island in the face of imminent invasion the previous evening.
Willmarth subsequently screened the movement of the convoy to the Mapia Islands, where the landing craft loaded troops and unloaded shore personnel and supplies. When the loading was completed at 18:00 on the 20th, the convoy shifted to Asia Island, where the destroyer escort screened the landing craft as they embarked more troops on the 21st. Willmarth continued her screening duties until arriving in the southernanchorage near the naval base at Morotai Island at 12:38 on 22 November. While there, the escort vessel witnessed an enemy night air raid on the airfield installations on Morotai. The Japanese boldly conducted their attacks despite anti-aircraft fire and searchlights. Local port restrictions forbade the use of any anti-aircraft batteries larger than 40 millimeter. Willmarth's war diary sadly noted this restriction, recommending that 3-inch gunfire could do very little damage to shore installations in the area.
While the rest of TG 78.14 departed Morotai on the 23rd, Willmarth remained behind as LSM-205 and LSM-314 loaded equipment for the Asia and Mapia Island forces. She then escorted those craft to Hollandia where they delivered their cargo. Over the next three days, Willmarth escorted the two landing craft on their appointed rounds, dropping off supplies at Asia and Mapia Islands. At one point, the arrival of the little convoy at Mapia on the 26th almost went unnoticed.
Willmarth experienced great difficulty contacting anyone on shore: "We finally succeeded in rousing someone by blowing our siren and whistle together." A jeep soon appeared on the beach, its occupants using the headlights to signal. Heavier swells than at Asia Island made unloading through the surf difficult. One of the LSM's was holed several times by scraping on the jagged coral heads of the reef. When unloading was completed at 11:30, the diminutive convoy headed for Hollandia.
Service Squadron 4
On 1 December 1944, Willmarth and the other ships from Escort Division 40 set sail for Manus, in the Admiralties, for assignment to Service Squadron 4. Arriving at Seeadler Harbor the following day, Willmarth spent the next three months operating on local escort missions between Manus, Ulithi, Hollandia, and the Palaus.
On 4 March 1945, Willmarth reported to the Commander, 5th Fleet, for duty. Between the 5th and 18th, she conducted anti-submarine patrols in the Palaus before being sent to Ulithi to refuel and replenish.
Okinawa campaign
At Ulithi, Willmarth was assigned to Task Force 54 (TF 54) – the pre-invasion bombardment group for the invasion of Okinawa. She got underway again on the 21st to as part of Fire Support Unit 2 (TU 54.1.2) built around the battleship , in Fire Support (FS) areas 4 and 5, off Okinawa. The destroyer escort screened Colorado for the entire day on 26 March as the battleship delivered gunfire support for the troops ashore. Over the next two days, the warship screened fire support units and escorted them to night retirement areas. She was refuelled at Kerama Retto on the 30th before returning to screening duties with heavy units off the island.
On 1 April, she was steaming on station 16 of a circular screen around TU 54.3.2, a night retirement group built around the battleship , when several enemy planes flew near the convoy. Screening destroyers fired upon the intruders who probably did not come to attack the Allied force but merely to keep it awake and permit it little rest.
Detached from this duty to provide a screen for , one of the oldest battleships on active service in the Navy, Willmarth operated to seaward as the battleship worked inshore to open fire on Japanese positions holding up the American advance near Naha Airport. After commencing this duty at 06:30, Willmarth had been serving on anti-submarine patrol for over six hours when Japanese shore battery guns boomed out salvoes at Arkansas.
Arkansas main battery trained 'round to reply and quickly commenced counter-battery fire. At the time of the initial firing, Willmarth was located about southwestward of the battleship, maintaining her screening position to seaward. At 13:23, a Japanese shell hurtled over Willmarth's bridge "plainly heard" by all men there. It splashed beyond the ship, away. With only one boiler operating (the other had been secured to repair a leaking gasket) the destroyer escort was hampered in getting away, but she headed seaward at her best speed. Soon another shell landed only beyond the destroyer escort's starboard quarter. While increasing the range, Willmarth turned toward each splash, thus avoiding getting hit by the Japanese guns. Arkansas, by this time beyond gun range of the Nipponese guns, did not conduct any further counter-battery fire; Willmarth soon emerged from the enemy battery's zone of fire and proceeded to sea unscathed.
After retiring to Kerama Retto soon thereafter for fueling, Willmarth operated on screening station A-27 until 6 April, when she returned to Kerama Retto with an appendicitis patient on board for medical treatment. Several bogies flew near the ship while she steamed to the fleet anchorage, and one was downed by a nearby ship at 02:00.
As the Japanese air arm had been decimated by this point in the war, the lack of trained and experienced pilots led to its most extensive deployment of kamikaze attacks during this battle. At 15:25, while still north of Kerama Retto, Willmarth spotted three "Val" dive bombers. One peeled off and maneuvered to make an attack. Ten minutes later, the "Val" turned kamikaze, attempting to crashing into Willmarth. Heavy and fire bracketed the plane when she became visible, dodging in and out of the broken clouds overhead. Seven bursts rocked the plane as she made her deadly approach. Lookouts on the destroyer escort noted a thin line of smoke tracking from the suicider's port wing as he went into his dive. The 20-millimeter battery on Wilmarth opened fire when the plane's range lessened to ; and, at , the Oerlikons seemed to have their effect. Pieces of the "Val's" wing began flying off in the slipstream, indicating that the shells were beginning to hit. Six feet of the port wing soon broke away, shot off by the flak, and the "Val" spun into the sea off the ship's port side, slightly abaft her beam.
Willmarth entered Kerama Retto at 16:10; and, while preparing to anchor, saw hit by a kamikaze south of the harbor entrance. Flames had engulfed the entire amidships section of the stricken landing ship, and explosions tore holes in the stricken ship's side. The jagged edges in turn ripped gashes in Willmarth's hull at the waterline. One hole, unfortunately, opened up one of the destroyer escort's fuel tanks, and the oil leaking out made further close operations hazardous.
Willmarth stood clear while dense smoke from the burning LST further complicated firefighting. Eventually, the destroyer escort picked up the ship's survivors and later transferred them to . While steaming to the ship's anchorage in the harbor, she took an enemy plane under fire as it approached from the south; and multiple gunfire from all ships present in the harbor knocked it down.
Willmarth anchored, transferred her appendicitis patient ashore, and patched the hole in her side caused by the damaged LST-447 before proceeding on the 7th to screening station "Able-60" near the transport area off the west coast of Okinawa. Following her shift to another screening station on the morning of the 8th, Willmarth escorted to Kerama Retto on the 9th. On 10 April, the destroyer escort departed the Okinawa area, bound for Guam in the screen for 12 transports.
Screening 3rd Fleet logistics force
Arriving at Guam on the 14th, Willmarth developed boiler trouble while there and spent the entire month of May and most of June undergoing repairs. On 28 June, the destroyer escort got underway for Ulithi. En route, she picked up a sonar contact, and in company with , over the ensuing two days, conducted an unsuccessful hunt. Willmarth then proceeded on to Ulithi where she arrived on the last day of June.
Underway again on 3 July, Willmarth stood out of Ulithi lagoon screening the logistics force of the 3rd Fleet which would provide the needed supplies for Admiral William F. Halsey's fast carrier task forces as it pounded the Japanese homeland. During the passage north, the destroyer escort planeguarded for and conducted anti-submarine screening operations. She picked up the crew of a downed Grumman TBF Avenger on 20 July. On that occasion, two swimmers from Willmarth helped to get the downed airmen on board. However, one of the crewmen died. The two survivors and the body of the dead man were transferred to Steamer Bay later that day.
Willmarth subsequently planeguarded for in early August, continuing her screening and escort duties with TG-30 – the replenishment group for the 3rd Fleet. She was at sea when the atomic bombs were dropped upon Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August, respectively, and when Japan surrendered on the 15th.
Post-war activities
Willmarth remained on escort duty off the coast of Japan into September. In mid-September, the ship underwent an availability in Tokyo Bay and rode out a storm there on 18 September. Departing Tokyo Bay on 24 September to return to the United States, Willmarth touched at Pearl Harbor, San Diego, and the Panama Canal before undergoing an overhaul at Norfolk, Virginia which lasted until late in October.
Decommissioning and disposal
Shifting to the St. Johns River, Florida, soon thereafter, Willmarth prepared for inactivation with the Florida group of the 16th (Reserve) Fleet. Berthed in the Green Cove Springs facility, Willmarth was decommissioned on 26 April 1946 and placed in reserve. She remained there until struck from the Navy List on 1 December 1966. Sold on 1 July 1968 to the North American Smelting Company, of Wilmington, Delaware, the ship was broken up for scrap soon thereafter.
Awards
Willmarth received four battle stars for her participation in World War II.
References
External links
Buckley-class destroyer escorts
Ships built in San Francisco
1943 ships
World War II frigates and destroyer escorts of the United States
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4741170
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungulate%20protoparvovirus%201
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Ungulate protoparvovirus 1
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Porcine parvovirus (PPV), a virus in the species Ungulate protoparvovirus 1 of genus Protoparvovirus in the virus family Parvoviridae, causes reproductive failure of swine characterized by embryonic and fetal infection and death, usually in the absence of outward maternal clinical signs. The disease develops mainly when seronegative dams are exposed oronasally to the virus anytime during about the first half of gestation, and conceptuses are subsequently infected transplacentally before they become immunocompetent. There is no definitive evidence that infection of swine other than during gestation is of any clinical or economic significance. The virus is ubiquitous among swine throughout the world and is enzootic in most herds that have been tested. Diagnostic surveys have indicated that PPV is the major infectious cause of embryonic and fetal death. In addition to its direct causal role in reproductive failure, PPV can potentiate the effects of porcine circovirus type II (PCV2) infection in the clinical course of postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS).
Signs and symptoms
Acute infection of postnatal pigs, including pregnant dams that subsequently develop reproductive failure, is usually subclinical. However, in young pigs and probably in older breeding stock as well, the virus replicates extensively and is found in many tissues and organs with a high mitotic index. Viral antigen is especially concentrated in lymphoid tissues (Fig. 3A, B). Many pigs, irrespective of age or sex, have a transient, usually mild, leukopenia sometime within 10 days after initial exposure to the virus. PPV and other structurally similar viruses have been identified in the feces of pigs with diarrhea. However, there is no experimental evidence to suggest that PPV either replicates extensively in the intestinal crypt epithelium or causes enteric disease as do parvoviruses of several other species. PPV also has been isolated from pigs with lesions described as vesiclelike. The causal role of PPV in such lesions has not been clearly defined.
The major and usually only clinical response to infection with PPV is maternal reproductive failure. Pathologic sequelae depend mainly on when exposure occurs during gestation. Dams may return to estrus, fail to farrow despite being anestrus, farrow few pigs per litter, or farrow a large proportion of mummified fetuses. All can reflect embryonic or fetal death or both. The only outward sign may be a decrease in maternal abdominal girth when fetuses die at midgestation or later and their associated fluids are resorbed. Other manifestations of maternal reproductive failure, namely, infertility, abortion, stillbirth, neonatal death, and reduced neonatal vitality, also have been ascribed to infection with PPV. These are normally only a minor component of the disease. The presence of mummified fetuses in a litter can prolong both gestation and the farrowing interval. Either may result in stillbirth of apparently normal littermates, whether or not they are infected.
There is no evidence that either fertility or libido of boars is altered by infection with PPV.
Cause
PPV is classified in the genus Parvovirus (Latin parvus = small) of the family Parvoviridae. All isolates of PPV that have been compared have been found antigenically similar if not identical. PPV is also antigenically related to several other members of the genus. However, its identity can be established by relatively stringent serologic tests such as virus neutralization (VN) and hemagglutination inhibition (HI).
Biophysical and biochemical properties
The biophysical and biochemical properties of PPV have been extensively studied and are summarized as follows. A mature virion has cubic symmetry, two or three capsid proteins, a diameter of approximately 20 nm, 32 capsomeres, no envelope or essential lipids, and a weight of 5.3 × 106 daltons. The viral genome is single-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) with a molecular weight of 1.4 × 106 (i.e., about 26.5% of the weight of the complete virion). Buoyant densities (g/mL in cesium chloride) of complete infectious virions, incomplete "empty" virions, and extracted virion DNA are 1.38–1.395, 1.30–1.315, and 1.724 respectively. Viral infectivity, hemagglutinating activity, and antigenicity are remarkably resistant to heat, a wide range of hydrogen ion concentrations, and enzymes.
Replication
Replication of PPV in vitro is cytocidal and characterized by "rounding up," pyknosis, and lysis of cells (Fig. 1A). Many of the cell fragments often remain attached, eventually giving the affected culture a ragged appearance. Intranuclear inclusions develop but they are often sparsely distributed. Infected cultures may hemadsorb slightly (Fig. 1B). Cytopathic changes are extensive when cell culture-adapted virus is propagated under appropriate conditions. However, on initial isolation several serial passages of the virus or, better, the infected culture may be necessary before the effects are recognized. The use of immunofluorescence (IF) microscopy greatly increases the likelihood of detecting minimally infected cultures.
Primary and secondary cultures of fetal or neonatal porcine kidney cells are most often used for propagation and titration of PPV, although other kinds of cultures are also susceptible. Replication is enhanced by infection of mitotically active cultures. Many cells in such cultures are in the S phase (i.e., the DNA synthesis phase) of their cell cycle, wherein the DNA polymerases of cell origin needed for viral replication are available.
If either fetal or adult bovine serum is incorporated in the nutrient medium of cell cultures used to propagate PPV, it should be pretested for viral inhibitors. The same may apply to sera of several other species. Because replication of PPV is affected by mitotic activity, the effect of the serum on the cells is also especially important. In addition, cultures should be pretested for PPV contamination. Cultures are sometimes unknowingly prepared from infected tissues of fetal and postnatal pigs. Moreover, PPV can be accidentally introduced into cultures in several ways, including the use of contaminated trypsin. If contamination is detected before all cells are infected, the virus can be eliminated by repeatedly subculturing the cells in the presence of nutrient medium containing PPV antiserum.
Several investigators have used IF microscopy to follow the development of PPV in cell culture. In general, the sequence of events is as follows. Viral antigen is detected in the cytoplasm of cells soon after infection if the inoculum contains a high titer of virus and viral antigen. Most, if not all, of this early cytoplasmic fluorescence is the result of antigen phagocytized from the inoculum. By sequential examinations, such antigen can be demonstrated first on the external surface of the cytoplasmic membrane and later within the cytoplasm, often relatively concentrated in a juxtanuclear location. The first unequivocal evidence of viral replication is the appearance of nascent viral antigen in the nucleus (Fig. 2A). In at least some infected cells, nascent antigen next appears in the cytoplasm in sufficient quantity that both cytoplasm and nucleus are brightly fluorescent. Infected cells commonly seen in the lung of fetuses that develop a high titer of antibody for PPV probably represent this stage of replication (see Fig. 8C). Affected cells subsequently round up, become pyknotic, and disintegrate with release of virus and viral antigen (Fig. 2B). Other cells in the culture that are not at the appropriate stage to support viral replication continue to phagocytize and accumulate viral antigen in their cytoplasm (Fig. 2C). A second wave of viral replication can be induced if these cells are stimulated to enter the S phase of the cell cycle as, for example, by the addition of fresh culture medium.
Hemagglutination
PPV agglutinates human, monkey, guinea pig, cat, chicken, rat, and mouse erythrocytes. Erythrocytes of other kinds of animals that have been tested are relatively or completely insensitive, or the results have been equivocal. Several parameters of the hemagglutination (HA) test—such as the temperature of incubation, the species of erythrocyte used, and in the case of chicken erythrocytes the genetic composition and age of the donor—may quantitatively affect results. The HA test is most commonly conducted at room temperature, at approximately neutral pH, and with guinea pig erythrocytes. Higher HA titers have been recorded when the diluent used in the test was veronal buffer rather than phosphate-buffered saline. Elution of virus (the hemagglutinin is part of the virion) can be induced by suspending erythrocytes in alkaline buffer, pH 9.
Infectivity assays
Infectivity assays are conducted in a standard manner except that, because cytopathic changes at terminal dilutions are often vague, endpoints of infectivity are often determined either by examining cell cultures for intranuclear inclusions after appropriate staining or by examining cell culture medium for viral hemagglutinin. A titration procedure wherein infected cells are made evident by IF microscopy and a plaque assay also have been described.
Serologic
Tests The HI test is frequently used for detection and quantitation of humoral antibody for PPV. Antibody sometimes can be detected as early as 5 days after swine are exposed to live virus, and it may persist for years. Sera examined by the HI test are usually pretreated by heat inactivation (56?C, 30 minutes) and by adsorption with erythrocytes (to remove naturally occurring hemagglutinins) and kaolin (to remove or reduce nonantibody inhibitors of HA). Trypsin also has been used to remove nonantibody inhibitors of HA. Parameters of the HI test have been studied in detail.
The SN test is occasionally used for detection and quantitation of humoral antibody for PPV. Neutralization of infectivity is usually confirmed by the absence or reduction either of intranuclear inclusions or fluorescent cells in cultures or of viral hemagglutinin in the culture medium. The SN test has been reported to be more sensitive than the HI test. A microtechnique for application of the SN test has been described.
Immunodiffusion, a modified direct complement-fixation test, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay also have been used successfully to detect antibody for PPV.
Evolution
These viruses appear to have evolved ~120 years ago with a rapid increase in their population size within the last 40–60 years. They appear to have evolved initially in wild boars and subsequently spread to domestic pigs. The rate of evolution has been estimated to be 3.86 x 10−4 – 8.23 x 10−4 substitutions per site per year. This rate is similar to other single stranded DNA viruses.
Epidemiology
Porcine parvovirus is ubiquitous among swine throughout the world. In major swine-producing areas such as the midwestern United States, infection is enzootic in most herds, and with few exceptions sows are immune. In addition, a large proportion of gilts are naturally infected with PPV before they conceive, and as a result they develop an active immunity that probably persists throughout life. Collectively, the seroepidemiological data indicate that exposure to PPV is common. They also emphasize the high risk of infection and reproductive disease among gilts that have not developed immunity before conception. The most common routes of infection for postnatal and prenatal pigs are oronasal and transplacental respectively.
Pigs nursing immune dams absorb a high titer of antibody for PPV from colostrum. These titers decrease progressively with time by dilution as pigs grow as well as by biological degradation. They usually reach subdetectable levels in 3–6 months if sera are examined by the HI test. Sometimes passively acquired antibody persists for a longer interval. Moreover, levels of antibody too low to be detected by the HI test may be detected by the SN test. The primary significance of passively acquired antibody is that it interferes with the development of active immunity. High levels of such antibody can prevent infection, and lower levels can minimize dissemination from infected pigs. Consequently, some groups of gilts are not fully susceptible to infection and dissemination of virus until either shortly before conception or during early gestation.
Contaminated premises are probably major reservoirs of PPV. The virus is thermostable, is resistant to many common disinfectants, and may remain infectious for months in secretions and excretions from acutely infected pigs. It was shown experimentally that although pigs transmitted PPV for only about 2 weeks after exposure, the pens in which they were initially kept remained infectious for at least 4 months. The ubiquity of PPV also raises the possibility that some pigs are persistently infected and at least periodically shed virus. However, shedding beyond the interval of acute infection has not been demonstrated. The possibility of immunotolerant carriers of PPV as a result of early in utero infection has been suggested. When gilts were infected with PPV before day 55 of gestation, their pigs were born infected but without antibody. Virus was isolated from kidneys, testicles, and seminal fluid of such pigs killed at various times after birth up to the time they were 8 months of age; at which time the experiment was terminated. Results of another study, wherein dams were infected early in gestation and their pigs were born infected but without antibody, also suggest an acquired immunotolerance. A possible example of an infected, immunotolerant, sexually active boar was reported.
Boars may play a significant role in dissemination of PPV at a critical time. During acute infection the virus is shed by various routes, including semen, and the isolation of PPV from semen of naturally infected boars has been reported. Semen may be contaminated externally, as for example with viruscontaining feces, or within the male reproductive tract. The virus was isolated from a testicle of a boar 5 days after it was injected into the boar's prepuce and from testicles of boars killed 5 and 8 days after they were infected oronasally (Mengeling, unpublished data 1976). Virus was also isolated from scrotal lymph nodes of boars killed 5, 8, 15, 21, and 35 days after oronasal exposure. After day 8, isolation was accomplished by cocultivating lymph node fragments with fetal porcine kidney cells (Mengeling, unpublished data 1976). Irrespective of their immune status, boars can also function as a vehicle for mechanical dissemination of PPV among susceptible females.
Pathogenesis
Dams are susceptible to PPV-induced reproductive failure if infected anytime during about the first half of gestation. This interval of maternal susceptibility is indicated by the collective results of several experimental studies, by in-depth epidemiological investigations, and by estimates of the time of death of fetuses collected during epidemiological surveys. Consequences of maternal infection during this interval are embryonic and fetal death followed by resorption and mummification respectively. Transplacental infection also follows maternal exposure after midgestation, but fetuses usually survive without obvious clinical effects in utero. The likely reason is that transplacental infection often requires 10–14 days or longer, and by 70 days of gestation most fetuses are able to develop a protective immunologic response to the virus. In general, fetuses experimentally infected by transuterine inoculation of the virus have died when infected before day 70 of gestation, but they have survived and produced antibody when infected later in gestation. A strain of PPV of slightly greater virulence also has been reported. The usual consequences of infection at different stages of gestation are summarized in Table 1.
When only part of a litter is infected transplacentally, as is often the case, one or more littermates are frequently infected by subsequent intrauterine spread of virus. The same would apply if initial infection were through contaminated semen. As a result, any combination or all of the sequelae indicated in Table 1 can develop in the same litter. Intrauterine dissemination is probably less common when early embryos are infected because they are quickly resorbed after death, effectively removing the intrauterine reservoir of virus. In such cases there is no evidence at farrowing for the cause of fewer pigs per litter.
aIntervals are approximations.
bAssuming transplacental infections 10–14 days after maternal exposure.
The effect, if any, of PPV on the ovum before ovulation is unknown. The virus adheres tenaciously to the external surface of the zona pellucida of the fertilized porcine ovum, and although it apparently cannot penetrate this layer, speculation is that it could pose a threat to the embryo after hatching.
Despite strong circumstantial evidence, a direct causal role of PPV-contaminated semen in reproductive failure has not been established unequivocally. The zona pellucida could protect the early embryo while local immunity is developing. Conversely, the virus may cause uterine changes incompatible with gestation. In any event, a female infected through semen provides a focus of infection for others.
With the possible exception of the uterine changes alluded to in the preceding paragraph, PPV-induced reproductive failure is caused by the direct effect of the virus on the conceptus. In the absence of an immune response, the virus replicates extensively throughout these tissues. By the time the conceptus dies, most of its cells contain large quantities of intracytoplasmic viral antigen that can be demonstrated by IF microscopy. The relative lack of nuclear fluorescence at the time of death, compared to earlier stages of the disease, indicates that when the conceptus is severely affected, mitotic activity and the associated conditions necessary for viral replication are suppressed more than phagocytic activity.
Death of the conceptus probably results from the collective damage by the virus to a variety of tissues and organs, including the placenta. However, in the absence of an immune response, changes in almost any vital organ are probably sufficient to eventually cause death. One of the most striking features of viral distribution is the extensive involvement of endothelium. This seems to preclude further development of the vascular network of the conceptus. Preparation for cellular mitosis (i.e., the S phase) results in concomitant viral replication and cell death. Damage to the fetal circulatory system is indicated by edema, hemorrhage, and the accumulation of large amounts of serosanguineous fluids in body cavities. Necrosis of the endothelium is microscopically evident.
The mechanism of transplacental infection has been investigated by using IF microscopy to identify infected cells in maternal and fetal tissues at progressively longer intervals after maternal oronasal exposure. Examination of tissues contiguous with the maternal-fetal junction revealed viral antigen in endothelial and mesenchymal cells of the chorion, with increasing involvement of these tissues at progressively later stages of gestation. Viral antigen was never detected unequivocally in either uterine epithelium or trophectoderm. Consequently, there was no evidence for maternalfetal transfer of the virus by replicating through these tissues. However, this route cannot be excluded, since only a small part of the total area of contact was examined. Transfer of the virus within macrophages has been considered. Whatever the route, maternal viremia seems a likely prerequisite for transplacental infection.
Lesions
Neither macroscopic nor microscopic lesions have been reported for nonpregnant pigs. It is conceivable that cellular infiltrations subsequently described for fetuses could be induced by infection during the perinatal interval.
Macroscopic lesions have not been reported in pregnant dams; however, microscopic lesions have been seen in tissues of gilts killed after their fetuses were infected by transuterine inoculation of virus. Gilts that were seronegative when their fetuses were infected at 70 days of gestation had focal accumulations of mononuclear cells adjacent to the endometrium and in deeper layers of the lamina propria when they were killed 12 and 21 days later. In addition, there were perivascular cuffs of plasma cells and lymphocytes in the brain, spinal cord, and choroid of the eye. When fetuses were infected earlier in gestation (35, 50, and 60 days) and their dams were killed 7 and 11 days later, the lesions were similar. However, uterine lesions were more severe and also included extensive cuffing of myometrial and endometrial vessels with mononuclear cells. Only focal accumulations of lymphocytes were seen in uteruses of gilts that were seropositive when their fetuses were infected.
Macroscopic changes of embryos are death followed by resorption of fluids (Fig. 4) and then soft tissues (Fig. 5). Virus and viral antigen are widely distributed in tissues of infected embryos and their placentas, and it is probable that microscopic lesions of necrosis and vascular damage, subsequently described for fetuses, also develop in advanced embryos.
There are numerous macroscopic changes in fetuses infected before they become immunocompetent (Fig. 6). These include a variable degree of stunting and sometimes an obvious loss of condition before other external changes are apparent; occasionally, an increased prominence of blood vessels over the surface of the fetus due to congestion and leakage of blood into contiguous tissues; congestion, edema, and hemorrhage with accumulation of serosanguineous fluids in body cavities; hemorrhagic discoloration becoming progressively darker after death; and dehydration (mummification). Many of these changes also apply to the placenta. Microscopic lesions consist primarily of extensive cellular necrosis in a wide variety of tissues and organs (Fig. 7A). Inflammation and intranuclear inclusions also have been described.
In contrast, macroscopic changes have not been reported for fetuses infected after they become immunocompetent for PPV. Microscopic lesions are primarily endothelial hypertrophy and mononuclear cell infiltrations consistent with an immune response. Meningoencephalitis characterized by perivascular cuffing with proliferating adventitial cells, histiocytes, and a few plasma cells was seen in the gray and white matter of the cerebrum and in the leptomeninges of PPV-infected stillborn pigs. These lesions were believed to be pathognomonic for PPV infection. Similar lesions have been observed in PPV-infected, live fetuses collected late in gestation (Fig. 7B).
Both general types of microscopic lesions (i.e., necrosis and mononuclear cell infiltration) may develop in fetuses infected near midgestation when the immune response is insufficient to provide protection.
Diagnosis
PPV should be considered in a differential diagnosis of reproductive failure of swine whenever there is evidence of embryonic or fetal death or both. The pathologic sequelae of maternal infection during gestation have been described (see the section on clinical signs). If gilts but not sows are affected, maternal illness is not seen during gestation, there are few or no abortions or fetal developmental anomalies, and other evidence suggests an infectious disease, then a tentative diagnosis of PPV-induced reproductive failure can be made. The relative lack of maternal illness, abortions, and fetal developmental anomalies differentiates PPV from most other infectious causes of reproductive failure. However, a definitive diagnosis requires laboratory support.
Several mummified fetuses (<16 cm in length) or lungs from such fetuses, if sufficiently developed, should be submitted to the diagnostic laboratory. Larger mummified fetuses (i.e., more than about 70 days of gestational age), stillborn pigs, and neonatal pigs are not recommended for submission unless they are the only samples available. If infected, their tissues will usually contain antibody that interferes with laboratory tests for either virus or viral antigen.
If females fail to farrow despite being anestrus and are sent to an abattoir, their uteruses should be collected and examined for affected fetuses. Sometimes only remnants of fetal tissues remain when fetuses die early in the middle third of gestation. Nevertheless, these are adequate samples if tested for viral antigen by IF microscopy. The absence of affected fetuses or fetal remnants does not exclude PPV-induced reproductive failure. When all embryos of a litter die and are completely resorbed after the first few weeks of gestation, the dam may remain endocrinologically pregnant and not return to estrus until after the expected time of farrowing.
Identification of viral antigen by IF microscopy is a reliable and sensitive diagnostic procedure. Sections of fetal tissues are prepared with a cryostat microtome and are then reacted with standardized reagents. The test can be completed within a few hours. In the absence of a fetal antibody response, antigen is seen throughout fetal tissues (Fig. 8A, B); even when antibody is present, infected cells usually can be detected in fetal lung (Fig. 8C).
Detection of viral hemagglutinin also has been recommended as a diagnostic technique. Tissues are triturated in diluent and then sedimented by centrifugation. The supernatant fluid is tested for agglutinating activity for guinea pig erythrocytes. This test requires a minimum of laboratory equipment and is effective in the absence of antibody.
Virus isolation is less suitable as a routine diagnostic procedure than either of the aforementioned tests. Infectivity is slowly but progressively lost after fetal death; as a result, isolation of virus from mummified fetuses that have died as a result of infection is sometimes unsuccessful. Moreover, the procedure is time-consuming, and contamination is a constant threat because of the stability of PPV in the laboratory and because cell cultures are sometimes unknowingly prepared from infected tissues. IF microscopy is often used to determine whether PPV has been isolated in cell culture.
In general, serologic procedures are recommended for diagnosis only when tissues from mummified fetuses are not available for testing as previously described. Results with maternal sera are of value if antibody is not detected, thus excluding PPV as a cause, and if samples collected at intervals reveal seroconversion for PPV coincident with reproductive failure. Because PPV is ubiquitous, the presence of antibody in a single sample is otherwise meaningless. However, a determination of relative amounts of antibody present as immunoglobulin M and G can indicate the recency of infection. Detection of antibody in sera of fetuses and stillborn pigs and in sera collected from neonatal pigs before they nurse is evidence of in utero infection, since maternal antibody does not cross the maternal-fetal junction. When serum is not available, body fluids collected from fetuses or their viscera that have been kept in a plastic bag overnight at 4?C have been used successfully to demonstrate antibody.
Treatment and prevention
There is no treatment for PPV-induced reproductive failure.
Gilts should be either naturally infected with PPV or vaccinated for PPV before they are bred. To promote natural infection, a common practice is to arrange contact between seronegative gilts and seropositive sows, with the expectation that one or more of the sows will be shedding virus. Moving gilts to a potentially contaminated area, either currently or recently inhabited by seropositive swine, also can be recommended. Once infection is started, the virus spreads rapidly among fully susceptible swine. Just how effective these procedures are in increasing the incidence of natural infection is unknown. For whatever reasons, infection is common, and probably well over one-half of all gilts in areas where PPV is enzootic are infected before they are bred for the first time.
The use of vaccine is the only way to ensure that gilts develop active immunity before conception. Both inactivated and modified live-virus (MLV) vaccines have been developed. An inactivated vaccine has been tested under field conditions, and both types of vaccines were effective when tested under controlled laboratory conditions.
Vaccines should be administered several weeks before conception to provide immunity throughout the susceptible period of gestation but after the disappearance of passively acquired colostral antibody, which could interfere with the development of active immunity. These limits may define a very brief interval for effective vaccination of gilts that are bred before 7 months of age. Although inactivated vaccine provides maximum safety, there is experimental evidence that PPV can be sufficiently attenuated so that it is unlikely to cause reproductive failure even if inadvertently administered during gestation. The apparent safety of MLV vaccine may be due to its reduced ability to replicate in tissues of the intact host and cause the level of viremia needed for transplacental infection. Moreover, it has been shown by transuterine inoculation of both virulent and attenuated virus that a much larger dose of attenuated virus is required to establish infection of fetuses. Duration of immunity following vaccination is unknown; however, in one study antibody titers were maintained for at least 4 months after administration of an inactivated vaccine. Low levels of antibody found to be protective allow speculation that, once the immune system has been primed with PPV, subsequent exposure to virulent virus during gestation is unlikely to result in transplacental infection even if antibody from vaccination is no longer detected.
Vaccination is recommended also for seronegative sows and boars. Seronegative sows are usually found only in PPV-free herds; in such cases, inactivated vaccine is indicated. Experience has shown that few herds can be expected to remain free of PPV even if access is carefully controlled. Introduction of PPV into a totally susceptible herd can be disastrous. Vaccination of boars should reduce their involvement in dissemination of the virus.
Vaccines are used extensively in the United States and in several other countries where PPV has been recognized as an economically important cause of reproductive failure. All federally licensed vaccines marketed in the United States are inactivated.
See also
SMEDI
References
Swine diseases
Parvovirinae
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable%20Replacement%20Warhead
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Reliable Replacement Warhead
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The Reliable Replacement Warhead (RRW) was a proposed new American nuclear warhead design and bomb family that was intended to be simple, reliable and to provide a long-lasting, low-maintenance future nuclear force for the United States. Initiated by the United States Congress in 2004, it became a centerpiece of the plans of the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) to remake the nuclear weapons complex.
In 2008, Congress denied funding for the program, and in 2009 the Obama administration called for work on the program to cease.
Background
During the Cold War, the United States, in an effort to achieve and maintain an advantage in the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union, invested large amounts of money and technical resources into nuclear weapons design, testing, and maintenance. Many of the weapons designed required high upkeep costs, justified primarily by their Cold War context and the specific and technically sophisticated applications they were created for. With the end of the Cold War, however, nuclear testing has ceased in the United States, and new warhead development has been significantly reduced. As a result, the need for high technical performance of warheads has decreased considerably, and the need for a longer-lasting and reliable stockpile has taken a high priority.
Prior nuclear weapons produced by the U.S. had historically become extremely compact, low weight, highly integrated, and low-margin designs which used exotic materials. In many cases the components were toxic and/or unstable. A number of older US designs used high explosive types which degraded over time, some of which became dangerously unstable in short lifetimes (PBX 9404 and LX-09).
Some of these explosives have cracked in warheads in storage, resulting in dangerous storage and disassembly conditions.
Most experts believe that the insensitive explosives (PBX 9502, LX-17) currently in use are highly stable and may even become more stable over time.
The use of beryllium and highly toxic beryllium oxide material as neutron reflector layers was a major health hazard to bomb manufacturer and maintenance staff. The long term stability of plutonium metal, which may lose strength, crack, or otherwise degrade over time is also a concern. (See Nuclear weapons design and Teller-Ulam design for technical context.)
The question of whether the plutonium-gallium alloy used in the cores of the weapons suffered from aging has been a major topic of research at the weapons laboratories in recent decades. Though many at the labs still insist on scientific uncertainty on the question, a study commissioned by the National Nuclear Security Administration to the independent JASON group concluded in November 2006 that "most plutonium pits have a credible lifetime of at least 100 years". The oldest pits currently in the US arsenal are still less than 50 years old.
Concept
The concept underlying the RRW program is that the US weapons laboratories can design new nuclear weapons that are highly reliable and easy and safe to manufacture, monitor, and test. If that proves to be possible, designers could adapt a common set of core design components to various use requirements, such as different sized missile warheads, different nuclear bomb types, etc.
NNSA officials believe the program is needed to maintain nuclear weapons expertise in order to rapidly adapt, repair, or modify existing weapons or develop new weapons as requirements evolve. They see the ability to adapt to changing military needs rather than maintain additional forces for unexpected contingencies as a key program driver. However, Congress has rejected the notion that the RRW is needed to meet new military requirements. In providing funds for 2006, the Appropriations Committee specified, "any weapons design under the RRW program must stay within the military requirements of the existing deployed stockpile and any new weapon design must stay within the design parameters validated by past nuclear tests".
According to a Task Force of the Secretary of Energy's Advisory Board (SEAB), the RRW program and weapon designs should have the following characteristics:
Support an adaptable 1,700-2,200 weapon sustained force level (3.1)
Resolve an issue with the weapons stockpile within 12 months
Adapt a weapon to a new requirement in 18 months
Design a new weapon within 36 months
Be ready for full production within 48 months
Be capable of conducting an underground nuclear test within 18 months
Produce all new weapons using Insensitive High Explosive (see TATB and Plastic bonded explosive) and replace all existing weapons which use other explosives (3.1.2)
Produce new weapons with the full spectrum of security and use control safety features available today, some of which are intrinsic to the basic design of a weapon and cannot possibly be retrofitted into the design of an existing weapon (3.1.3)
Designs which trade off higher weight and larger volume to maximise: (3.1.4)
Certification without nuclear testing
Inexpensive manufacture and disassembly
Ease of maintenance, surveillance, and disposition
Modularity (primaries, secondaries, non-nuclear) across systems
Maximizing component reuse and minimizing life-cycle costs
Comparable or improved levels of reliability to existing designs, using larger margins and simpler components (3.1.5)
Lower cost (3.1.6)
Designs which can be designed and certified without necessarily undergoing nuclear testing (3.1.7)
Consolidation of many nuclear weapon production and maintenance functions to one site (4.1)
(in passing) Designs avoiding the use of beryllium or beryllium Oxide in the weapon fission reflector (4.6)
However, the full SEAB disavowed the Task Force's recommendations regarding the RRW, because the Task Force did not consider the program's potentially adverse impacts on U.S. nonproliferation objectives, which were beyond its expertise.
The RRW program has not to date publicly announced that it has developed any new nuclear weapon designs which are intended to be placed into production. Presumably, once that occurs, the weapons will receive numbers in the US warhead designation sequence, which currently runs from the Mark 1 nuclear bomb (aka Little Boy) to the W91 nuclear warhead, which was cancelled in the 1990s. RRW designs would presumably receive designations after that number, though new RNEP nuclear bunker buster weapons could conceivably be type-standardized and numbered prior to any RRW reaching that point, if the RNEP program does proceed.
Selected design
On March 2, 2007, the NNSA announced that the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory RRW design had been selected for the initial RRW production version.
One of the selection reasons given was that the LLNL proposed design was more closely tied to historical underground tested warhead designs. It was described by Thomas P. D'Agostino, acting head of the National Nuclear Security Administration, as having been based on a design which was test fired in the 1980s, but never entered service.
LLNL staff have previously hinted in the press that LLNL was considering a design entry based on the tested but never deployed W89 design.
This warhead had been proposed as a W88 warhead replacement as early as 1991. The W89 design was already equipped with all then-current safety features, including insensitive high explosives, fire-resistant pits, and advanced detonator safety systems. The W89 was also reportedly designed using recycled pits from the earlier W68 nuclear weapon program, recoated in vanadium to provide the temperature resistance. The W89 warhead was test fired in the 1980s. It had entered Phase 2A technical definition and cost study in November, 1986, and Phase 3 development engineering and was assigned the numerical designation W89 in January 1988. The lead designer, Bruce Goodwin, referred to the primary as the "SKUA9" design which he said had been tested a number of times.
The W89 warhead design was a by weapon, with a weight of and yield of . As noted above, major safety features inherent in the tested W89 design include:
Insensitive and fire-resistant LX-17 Polymer-bonded explosive, a type of high explosive using TATB as its main explosive ingredient (see Insensitive munitions)
Fire-resistant pit
Type D Permissive Action Link
Strong link weak link detonation chain safety mechanisms
Modifications for the RRW design would probably have included replacing beryllium neutron reflector layers with another material, and increased performance margins throughout the design, possibly including more fissile material in the pit and a thicker radiation case or hohlraum (see Teller-Ulam design: Basic principle).
History
2006
In an April 15, 2006, article by Walter Pincus in the Washington Post, Linton F. Brooks, administrator of the US National Nuclear Safety Administration, the US nuclear weapon design agency within the United States Department of Energy, announced that two competing designs for the Reliable Replacement Warhead were being finalized by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Los Alamos National Laboratory, and that a selection of one of those designs would be made by November 2006, to allow the RRW development program to be included in the Fiscal 2008 US government budget.
The article confirmed prior descriptions of the RRW, describing the weapons in the following terms:
The next-generation warheads will be larger and more stable than the existing ones but slightly less powerful, according to government officials. They might contain "use controls" that would enable the military to disable the weapons by remote control if they are stolen by terrorists.
Based on prior weapons programs, the RRW should be assigned a numerical weapon designation when the design selection is made.
On December 1, 2006, the NNSA announced that it had decided to move forwards with the RRW program after analyzing the initial LLNL and LANL RRW proposals. At that time, NNSA's Nuclear Weapons Council had not selected which of the two designs to proceed forwards with.
2007
According to the FY 2008 NNSA budget (pp 88), the RRW program is described as:
The NWC approved the RRW Feasibility Study that began in May 2005 and completed in November 2006. The goal of the RRW study was to identify designs that will sustain long term confidence in a safe, secure and reliable stockpile and enable transformation to a responsive nuclear weapon infrastructure. The joint DOE/DoD RRW POG was tasked to oversee a laboratory design competition for a RRW warhead with FPU goal of FY 2012. The POG assessed the technical feasibility including certification without nuclear testing, design definition, manufacturing, and an initial cost assessment to determine whether the proposed candidates met the RRW study objectives and requirements. The POG presented the RRW study results to the NWC in November 2006 and the NWC decided that the RRW for submarine-launched ballistic missiles is feasible and should proceed to complete a Phase 2A design definition and cost study. In addition, the NWC determined that the RRW is to be adopted as the strategy for maintaining a long term safe, secure and reliable nuclear deterrent and as such also directed the initiation of a conceptual study for an additional RRW design. The next steps include detailed design and preliminary cost estimates of the RRW to confirm that the RRW design provides surety enhancements, can be certified without nuclear testing, is cost-effective, and will support both stockpile and infrastructure transformation. Once this acquisition planning is completed and if the NWC decides to proceed to engineering and production development, outyear funding (FY 2009 - FY 2012) to support an executable program will be submitted.
And (pp 94)
Reliable Replacement Warhead
The increase funds the startup of activities in support of a NWC decision to have RRW proceed to engineering and production development. Activities include design, engineering and certification work such as finalization of requirements, material studies, technology demonstrations, detailed design and concurrent engineering with the production plants, and modeling, simulation and analysis in support of certification without additional nuclear testing.
Funding is listed as $25 million for FY 2006, $28 million for FY 2007, and $89 million for FY 2008.
As defined in an earlier UC report, nuclear weapons engineering phases are:
phase 2 = competitive feasibility study; phase 2A = design definition and cost study by the lab to which DOE awarded the project; phase 3 = development engineering (at beginning of this phase warhead is assigned a #); phase 4 = production engineering; phase 5 = first production; phase 6 = quantity production and stockpiling. Note: Projects entering phase 1 (concept study) and phase 7 (=retirement) have not been included.
The FY08 RRW budget therefore indicates that one of the RRW designs has been approved and is entering the design definition and cost study phase. The document does not state which of the RRW designs has been selected.
Historically, the weapon's nuclear series identification is assigned at the entrance to phase 3, and if the design proceeds forwards to complete phase 2 and enter phase 3 this can be expected in 1–2 years.
The design is intended for first production unit (FPU) delivery by the end of 2012.
On March 2, 2007, the NNSA announced that the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory RRW design had been selected for the initial RRW production version.
2008
The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2008, H.R. 4986, Section 3111, forbids the expenditure of funds for the RRW program beyond Phase 2A; in effect, this prevents the RRW program from going forward without explicit Congressional authorization. Section 3121 Subsection 1 requires the study of the reuse of previously manufactured plutonium cores in any RRW warheads, so as to avoid the manufacture of additional plutonium cores. Section 3124 reaffirms the commitment of the U.S. to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and encourages the mutual reduction in armament of the U.S. and Russia through negotiation.
2009
President Obama's 2009 Department of Energy budget calls for development work on the Reliable Replacement Warhead project to cease.
Criticisms of the program
Opponents of the RRW program believe it has nothing to do with making US weapons safer or more reliable, but is merely an excuse for designing new weapons and maintaining jobs at the weapons laboratories. They note that the Secretaries of Defense and Energy have certified that the existing nuclear weapons stockpile is safe and reliable in each of the last nine years. The existing stockpile was extensively tested before the US entered the moratorium on nuclear weapons tests. According to Sidney Drell and Ambassador James Goodby, "It takes an extraordinary flight of imagination to postulate a modern new arsenal composed of such untested designs that would be more reliable, safe and effective than the current U.S. arsenal based on more than 1,000 tests since 1945".
Critics maintain that this innocuous-sounding program could significantly damage US national security. Critics believe an expansive RRW program would anger US allies as well as hostile nations. They worry it would disrupt the global cooperation in nonproliferation that is vital to diplomacy with emerging nuclear powers such as Iran and North Korea and to controlling clandestine trafficking in nuclear materials and equipment.
See also
Fogbank
Nuclear weapon design
List of nuclear weapons
Renovation of the nuclear weapon arsenal of the United States
References
External links
Pit Lifetime
United States Nuclear Weapons Program: The Role of the Reliable Replacement Warhead
Reliable Replacement Warhead page at globalsecurity.org
DOE argument for the RRW
"Concerns about the Reliable Replacement Warheads Program" by Council for a Livable World
"Nuclear Weapons: The Reliable Replacement Warhead" Congressional Research Service, updated March 9, 2006
"Nuclear Weapons: The Reliable Replacement Warhead" Congressional Research Service, updated February 8, 2007, via Federation of American Scientists
"Nuclear weapons: The next nuke" By Geoff Brumfiel, Nature, July 6, 2006 (subscription required)
Nuclear bombs of the United States
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Nuclear warheads of the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakai%20Limited%20Footwear
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Lakai Limited Footwear
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Lakai Limited Footwear is an American footwear company based in Torrance, California, that creates shoes designed for and inspired by skateboarding. Lakai was founded in 1999 by the professional skateboarders Mike Carroll and Rick Howard, who co-founded Girl Skateboards.
History
Beginnings
Both Carroll and Howard decided that they wanted to make a contribution to the skate footwear industry by founding their own company rather than being sponsored. One night in April 1999, while at Largo Comedy Club in Los Angeles, Tim Gavin proposed an idea to Howard about starting a new shoe company. Afterwards, Howard and Carroll decided to partner with Podium Distribution to launch Lakai Limited Footwear.
In August 1999, Carroll contacted Cairo Foster and asked him if he would like to ride for his “unnamed” shoe company. When Foster called his current sponsor to quit, he said, "Mike Carroll asked me to ride for his shoe company, that’s all I know." After hanging up the phone, he informally became Lakai's first official team rider.
In the next couple of months, Andy Jenkins hired designer Andy Mueller to develop a logo for Lakai, which later became known as the “Flare”. Mueller moved to Los Angeles shortly thereafter to become Lakai's art director. Kelly Bird was hired as Lakai's team manager.
Anthony Pappalardo, Rob Welsh, and Jeff Lenoce agreed to become Lakai's first batch of amateur talent, earning a whopping $250 per month; in November 1999, Scott Johnston left his sponsor, DC Shoes, and joined Lakai as the final rider on the company's introductory team. By May 2000, the first line of Lakai shoes ("Howard", "Carroll", "Cohort", "Clay", and "Worthy") were delivered to shops worldwide.
Developments
In June 2000, after filming together for Tranworld's Modus Operandi, Carroll asked Brandon Biebel to join Lakai. In April 2001, Scott Johnston's debut pro model was released, and Danny Garcia joined the team. In November 2001, JJ Rousseau became Lakai's first official European rider. In March 2002, after waiting for almost a year for his existing shoe contract to expire, Lakai welcomed Marc Johnson to the team; his first pro model came out a little over one year later. Cairo Foster's first pro model came out in December 2003. In January 2004, Lucas Puig and JB Gillet joined the team, and with Rousseau officially formed the subgroup called "The French Connection".
In May 2004, the first ever co-brand shoe with Girl Skateboards was released, paving the way for several more notable collaborations, including the series "The Art Dump", "Dominion", "Wrench Pilot", "The Quiet Life", and "Where the Wild Things Are". In May 2005, Guy Mariano joined Lakai after a long hiatus from skateboarding. Jesus Fernandez also joined the team, as well as Brits, Nick Jensen, and Danny Brady, who were dubbed "The Royal Family". In September 2005, Alex Olson, the son of veteran pro skateboarder Steve Olson, became Lakai's first amateur in almost five years. After months of speculation, Eric Koston joined Lakai in May 2006.
In July 2006, Danny Garcia was the first skateboarder to leave Lakai, and moved onto his next shoes sponsor, éS Footwear. Mike Mo was officially announced as a team amateur (AM) in August 2006, and Guy Mariano received his first pro model shoe. Eric Koston's pro models released in December 2006. In January 2007, Scott Johnston joined the Lakai design team, beginning his transition from professional skater to footwear designer. Johnston told ESPN: "... that was my plan, to end on a good note and not bleed this career dry the way some guys do by not letting it go. Skating was so good to me, and I want to be good to it and not be one of those guys that won't go away. I still skate, I don't need to get paid for it, though." In May 2007, Brandon Biebel's first signature shoe was released; in August, Independent Trucks partnered with Lakai to release their first footwear collaboration ever, the "Koston Select / Independent Limited Edition". In November 2007, Lakai released its first full-length video, Fully Flared.
After Fully Flared
In March 2008, Alex Olson and Anthony Pappalardo decided to part ways with Lakai in pursuit of footwear opportunities with Vans and Converse CONS. The following month, Vincent Alvarez became Lakai's newest AM.
In 2009, Lakai celebrated their 10-year anniversary with a special catalog showcasing the history of the brand.
Eric Koston was next to leave Lakai, in pursuit of sponsorship with NIKE SB. A skit in the same vein as his Lakai introduction was made as a send-off for Koston. In 2010, Lakai introduced Riley Hawk, Daniel Espinoza, and Raven Tershy as their newest AMs, along with their video introduction, Am I Am. In 2011, Lucas Puig left Lakai for Adidas. Sebo Walker was announced as Lakai's newest AM with his clip in the "Carroll 5: Out of Control" commercial. Lakai left Podium Distribution to join Girl Skateboards Distribution. Lakai won Thrasher's King of the Road competition with 6,060 points. This also marked Mike Mo Capaldi's last Lakai trip; he went on to join DC Shoes in December 2011.
The Flare Era
After adding names such as Stevie Perez, Jon Sciano, Ronnie Sandoval, and Miles Silvas, a meeting was held at Spike Jonze's house in early 2014. Discussion was made for Lakai's next full-length video, which would eventually be titled The Flare. Throughout the filming for the video, the team went through massive changes as riders left the company, including Miles Silvas, Ronnie Sandoval, Brandon Biebel, and most notably, Guy Mariano and Marc Johnson. Lakai brand manager Kelly Bird and shoe designer Scott Johnston left the company in 2015. Amateur riders such as Cody Chapman, Simon Bannerot, Tyler "Manchild" Pacheco, Yonnie Cruz, James Capps, Nico Hiraga, and Johnny Jones joined the company, as well as veteran pro Rick McCrank. The Flare released in July 2017, unveiling Lakai's next additions to the team: Jimmy Wilkins and Tony Hawk. Lakai left Girl Distribution and joined HUF under Renegade Brands.
Griffin Gass was later announced as a member of the team in February 2018.
Videos
Similar to the other brands distributed by Girl, Lakai has received a considerable level of attention for its video productions. Videographer and director Ty Evans has been responsible for the majority of Lakai's video productions, followed by Federico Vitetta.
Australia Tour (2001)
Lakai's first release was a short video of a tour through Australia and New Zealand, featuring original riders Brandon Biebel, Rick Howard, Jeff Lenoce, Anthony Pappalardo, Scott Johnston, and Rob Welsh. The tour also included lensman Ty Evans, team manager Kelly Bird, art director Andy Mueller, and photographer Mike O' Meally. Missing on the tour were Mike Carroll and Cairo Foster.
The tour's video showcased the personality and skill of rising stars Brandon Biebel and Anthony Pappalardo. It was released on VHS for skateshops only, and came with a zine featuring photos and interviews taken on the trip by Mueller and O' Meally. The video was later remastered and included as a bonus feature on The Final Flare DVD boxset.
Beware of the Flare (2002)
Lakai's second release was a much bigger production: a 30-minute tour video through Europe. It introduced Marc Johnson to the team, as well as offered a sneak peek of flow riders JJ Rousseau and Lucas Puig, who were later dubbed "The French Connection" in Fully Flared. Although not all riders were present on the trip (such as Cairo Foster and Danny Garcia), those who were absent were included in a team montage at the end of the video.
The focus of the video was to document tour life, showcasing a behind-the-scenes look at travelling, injuries, packed signings, and a huge number of demos. The video includes commentary about each of these topics, as well as demo and street montages. The video was shot by Ty Evans and Dan Wolfe, with photography by Atiba Jefferson, and was released on VHS in June 2002.
Fully Flared (2007)
Lakai's first full-length video, Fully Flared, premiered November 16, 2007. The video had an enormous amount of hype surrounding it, mostly due to high-profile riders such as Eric Koston being added to the team, a rumored 13-minute Marc Johnson part, the return of Guy Mariano, and a release date that was pushed back multiple times throughout 2005–2007.
Timeline
Filming for the video started almost immediately after Chocolate Skateboards' video Hot Chocolate. The first filming trip was to Arizona in November 2003.
In the Fully Flared book that came with The Final Flare (2008) boxset, Marc Johnson explains the beginning stages of the video:
In February 2004 a handful of the team embarked on a trip to Barcelona and Mallorca. The goal was to have the video done by the end of 2005. During the trip, it snowed, which the locals explain "never happens". The team met up with European riders JJ Rousseau, JB Gillet, and Lucas Puig.
In March 2005, with the original video deadline approaching, a rough cut of the video was made. While Marc Johnson already had 15 minutes of edited footage, others had as little as 30 seconds. Marc felt embarrassed to have a disproportionately large screentime. It was evident that the team had a lot of work to do if they wanted to meet the deadline set for the end of the year.
A couple of months later, Lakai added Guy Mariano to the team after a 5-year hiatus from skateboarding. Initially, Guy thought he was just going to film a handful of tricks for the video as sort of a welcome back, but Ty pushed for Guy to have a full part. Because of this, and the fact the rough cut didn't meet expectations, the video was delayed to a 2006 release.
By the summer of 2006, the Lakai team had grown to an astonishing size of 20 riders, the latest being Eric Koston. With the deadline quickly approaching, another rough edit was made at the end of summer. The team still wasn't happy with the edit, especially considering all the outside hype and pressure from the industry and fans. Yet again, the video deadline was pushed to the end of 2007.
Well into the fourth year of production (and two years past the initial deadline), an exhausted video budget meant the only viable option was to close it out with two vans, the open road, and cheap hotels. Riders quickly became accustomed to the "Motel 6 tour life"—finding things like used condoms and cockroaches in their hotel room, living off gas station food, spending hours on the road, peeing in bottles, fixing spots, and staying up all day and night filming for the video.
Towards the end of production, a timer appeared on the website, counting down the release of the video, to the second. Alex Olson stated that he thought it was "the worst fucking thing they could do to us. It's like knowing the day you're going to die or something".
Ads, names, release dates
In December 2004, Lakai's 60th ad was the first to mention a video in production. In the ad, text coming out of Ty's camera read, "Another new video..... it just seems weird." This is a tribute to Carroll's infamous response when initially asked about the idea.
The next ad with any reference to the video came about a year later, in September 2005. In the ad, the text read, "Another new video... get ready for the Heat Score suckas", thus sparking a long trial-and-error process of naming the video.
In November 2005, ad #71 is released, with Scott Johnston's suggestion of naming it "The Full Flare". This came close to the final name, but it took another five months to evolve into the name that eventually stuck.
In February 2006, ad #76, the name "Who Flares?" was thrown out. Ty was not happy about this and the working title "The Full Flare" returned. The next month's ad was the first ad to use the triangular color prism that became emblematic for all Fully Flared branding. In April 2006, ad #81 was the first time the actual name of the video was seen. The name "Fully Flared", a morph of "The Full Flare" title Scott Johnston had suggested, was coined by Kelly Bird.
The first trailer was also released, set to the song "Leave Them All Behind" by Whitey. This song became somewhat of a theme song for Fully Flared and was used for the main menu music on the DVD. In the summer of 2006, ads were released in magazines such as Thrasher Magazine and Transworld Skateboarding stating that the video was coming in 2006, the first of many premature release dates.
In spring 2007, convinced that the video would be finished, Lakai dedicated their entire spring catalog to the video. The inside had a mock editing timeline running across the bottom of every page. The first Fully Flared limited edition shoe was also in this catalog. Finally, in November 2007, the release date of November 16th was set and made public in ad #102. Ads #103–105 also promoted the release of the video.
Introduction of High Definition (HD)
In 2006, Panasonic released the HVX-200, a high definition (HD) camcorder with P2 technology. Quickly adopted by Ty Evans, the HD camera was met with mixed emotions. No one completely understood the concept of how its footage would be used in the video. The HD footage was later cropped to a 4:3 aspect ratio to match the standard definition footage. Most of the HD footage was used for b-roll shots such as riders dropping their boards, fixing spots, getting kicked out, or portraits. Some shots also served as alternate angles of tricks. All of the HD footage would later be compiled on the Blu-Ray disc of The Final Flare (2008), shown in its proper format.
Release and reception
Fully Flared premiered at UCLA's Royce Hall on Friday, November 16, 2007, at 8:00pm. Along with the world premiere came an international tour of premieres, in Vancouver on the 17th, London on the 18th, Lyon on the 20th, and Tokyo on the 24th. The video received great feedback and won awards, including Best Video Award at the 10th Transworld Skateboarding Awards. Marc Johnson went on to win Thrasher's Skater of the Year. Guy Mariano won TWS Best Street Skater, Best Video Part, and the Readers' Choice Award. In Thrasher Magazine's 2007 T-Eddy Awards, Fully Flared was Video of the Year; Guy Mariano was awarded Best Comeback, Ever; and Mike Mo Capaldi was awarded AM of the Year.
The Flare (2017)
The Flare, Lakai's second full-length video was released in July 2017, ten years after their first video, Fully Flared. Filming officially began in February 2014 after a meeting at Spike's house in Los Angeles. Throughout the video, there was massive changes to the team, both on the inside, and outside. This video would heavily feature the newer squad of rising stars, with appearances from team veterans. At the time of release, the only riders left from Fully Flared were Rick Howard, Mike Carroll, Danny Brady, and Jesus Fernandez. Since Ty Evans left Girl Films in 2013 following Girl & Chocolate Skateboards' video Pretty Sweet, Federico Vitetta led the videography and was joined by Daniel Wheatley, Rye Beres, and John Marello.
The Flare premiered on June 13, 2017, at the Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood. At the premiere, the podcast The Nine Club with Chris Roberts interviewed riders and people associated with the brand.
Team riders
The Lakai team consists of the following riders:
Professional
Mike Carroll
Rick Howard
Vincent Alvarez
Stevie Perez
Riley Hawk
Simon Bannerot
Tyler "Manchild" Pacheco
Griffin Gass
James Capps
Jimmy Wilkins
Cody Chapman
Amateur
Nico Hiraga
Cody Chapman
Greg Dehart
Kyonosuke Yamashita
Former
Danny Garcia
Scott Johnston
JJ Rousseau
Alex Olson
Anthony Pappalardo
Lucas Puig
Eric Koston
Mike Mo Capaldi
Rob Welsh
Cairo Foster
Jeff Lenoce
Karsten Kleppan
Guy Mariano
Brandon Biebel
Marc Johnson
JB Gillet
Daniel Espinoza
Raven Tershy
Nick Jensen
Ronnie Sandoval
Jon Sciano
Sebo Walker
Danny Brady
Jesus Fernandez
Rick McCrank
Tony Hawk
Videography
Australia/NZ Tour (2001)
Beware Of The Flare (2002)
Canada Eh? (2004)
The Red Flare Tour (2006)
EMB Carroll (2007)
Fully Flared (2007)
The Final Flare! (2008)
Fully Trippin' in Malaga (2008)
Voltage (2010)
Am I Am (2010)
2010 Video Collection (2010)
Transworld's Skate & Create "LAKAIromania" (2010)
Getting Nordical Tour (2010)
Stupor Tour (2014)
Stay Flared (2015) (with Emerica Footwear)
The Flare (2017)
La Flareto Rico Tour (2019)
No Rest in the Northwest Tour (2019)
Flare Canada Tour (2019)
Street Safari Tour (2019)
References
External links
Crailtap blog
Lakai on Skately Library
Shoe companies of the United States
Companies based in Los Angeles County, California
Companies based in Torrance, California
Skateboarding companies
Skateboard shoe companies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal%20reconstruction
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Internal reconstruction
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Internal reconstruction is a method of reconstructing an earlier state in a language's history using only language-internal evidence of the language in question.
The comparative method compares variations between languages, such as in sets of cognates, under the assumption that they descend from a single proto-language, but internal reconstruction compares variant forms within a single language under the assumption that they descend from a single, regular form. For example, they could take the form of allomorphs of the same morpheme.
The basic premise of internal reconstruction is that a meaning-bearing element that alternates between two or more similar forms in different environments was probably once a single form into which alternation has been introduced by the usual mechanisms of sound change and analogy.
Language forms that are reconstructed by internal reconstruction are denoted with the pre- prefix, as in Pre-Old Japanese, like the use of proto- to indicate a language reconstructed by means of the comparative method, as in Proto-Indo-European. (However, the pre- prefix is sometimes used for an unattested prior stage of a language, without reference to internal reconstruction.)
It is possible to apply internal reconstruction even to proto-languages reconstructed by the comparative method. For example, performing internal reconstruction on Proto-Mayan would yield Pre-Proto-Mayan. In some cases, it is also desirable to use internal reconstruction to uncover an earlier form of various languages and then submit those pre- languages to the comparative method. Care must be taken, however, because internal reconstruction performed on languages before the comparative method is applied can remove significant evidence of the earlier state of the language and thus reduce the accuracy of the reconstructed proto-language.
Role in historical linguistics
When undertaking a comparative study of an underanalyzed language family, one should understand its systems of alternations, if any, before one tackles the greater complexities of analyzing entire linguistic structures. For example, Type A forms of verbs in Samoan (as in the example below) are the citation forms, which are in dictionaries and word lists, but in making historical comparisons with other Austronesian languages, one should not use Samoan citation forms that have missing parts. (An analysis of the verb sets would alert the researcher to the certainty that many other words in Samoan have lost a final consonant.)
In other words, internal reconstruction gives access to an earlier stage, at least in some details, of the languages being compared, which can be valuable since the more time has passed, the more changes have been accumulated in the structure of a living language. Thus, the earliest known attestations of languages should be used with the comparative method.
Internal reconstruction, when it is not a sort of preliminary to the application of the comparative method, is most useful if the analytic power of the comparative method is unavailable.
Internal reconstruction can also draw limited inferences from peculiarities of distribution. Even before comparative investigations had sorted out the true history of Indo-Iranian phonology, some scholars had wondered if the extraordinary frequency of the phoneme in Sanskrit (20% of all phonemes together, an astonishing total) might point to some historical fusion of two or more vowels. (In fact, it represents the final outcome of five different Proto-Indo-European syllabics whose syllabic states of and can be discerned by the application of internal reconstruction.) However, in such cases, internal analysis is better at raising questions than at answering them. The extraordinary frequency of in Sanskrit hints at some sort of historical event but does not and cannot lead to any specific theory.
Issues and shortcomings
Neutralizing environments
One issue in internal reconstruction is neutralizing environments, which can be an obstacle to historically correct analysis. Consider the following forms from Spanish, spelled phonemically rather than orthographically:
One pattern of inflection shows alternation between and ; the other type has throughout. Since those lexical items are all basic, not technical, high-register or obvious borrowings, their behavior is likely to be a matter of inheritance from an earlier system, rather than the result of some native pattern overlaid by a borrowed one. (An example of such an overlay would be the non-alternating English privative prefix un- compared to the alternating privative prefix in borrowed Latinate forms, in-, im, ir-, il-.)
One might guess that the difference between the two sets can be explained by two different native markers of the third-person singular, but a basic principle of linguistic analysis is that one cannot and should not try to analyze data that one does not have. Also, positing such a history violates the principle of parsimony (Occam's Razor) by unnecessarily adding a complication to the analysis whose chief result is to restate the observed data as a sort of historical fact. That is, the result of the analysis is the same as the input. As it happens, the forms as given yield readily to real analysis and so there is no reason to look elsewhere.
The first assumption is that in pairs like bolbér/buélbe, the root vowels were originally the same. There are two possibilities: either something happened to make an original turn into two different sounds in the third-person singular, or the distinction in the third-singular is original and the vowels of the infinitives are in what is called a (if an original contrast is lost because two or more elements "fall together", or coalesce into one). There is no way of predicting when breaks to and when it remains in the third-person singular. On the other hand, starting with and , one can write an unambiguous rule for the infinitive forms: becomes . One might notice further, upon looking at other Spanish forms, that the nucleus is found only in stressed syllables even other than in verb forms.
That analysis gains plausibility from the observation that the neutralizing environment is unstressed, but the nuclei are different in stressed syllables. That fits with vowel contrasts often being preserved differently in stressed and unstressed environments and that the usual relationship is that there are more contrasts in stressed syllables than in unstressed ones since previously-distinctive vowels fell together in unstressed environments.
The idea that original might fall together with original is unproblematic and so internally, a complex nucleus *ue can be reconstructed that remains distinct when it is stressed and coalesces with *o when it is unstressed.
However, the true history is quite different: there were no diphthongs in Proto-Romance. There was an (reflecting Latin ŭ and ō) and an (reflecting Latin ŏ). In Spanish the two fell together in unstressed syllables, as in all other Romance languages, but broke into the complex nucleus in stressed syllables. Internal reconstruction accurately points to two different historical nuclei in unstressed but gets the details wrong.
Shared innovations
When applying internal reconstruction to related languages prior to applying the comparative method, one must check that the analysis does not remove the shared innovations that characterize subgroups. An example is consonant gradation in Finnish, Estonian, and Sami. A pre-gradation phonology can be derived for each of the three groups by internal reconstruction, but it was actually an innovation in the Finnic branch of Uralic, rather than the individual languages. Indeed, it was one of the innovations defining that branch. That fact would be missed if the comparanda of the Uralic family included as primary data the "degraded" states of Finnish, Estonian, and Sami.
Lost conditioning factors
Not all synchronic alternation is amenable to internal reconstruction. Even if a secondary split (see phonological change) often results in alternations that signal a historical split, the conditions involved are usually immune to recovery by internal reconstruction. For example, the alternation of voiced and voiceless fricatives in Germanic languages, as described in Verner's law, cannot be explained only by examining the Germanic forms themselves.
Despite that general characteristic of secondary split, internal reconstruction can occasionally work. A primary split is, in principle, recoverable by internal reconstruction whenever it results in alternations, but later changes can make the conditioning irrecoverable.
Examples
English
English has two patterns for forming the past tense in roots ending in apical stops: .
Although Modern English has very little affixal morphology, its number includes a marker of the preterite, other than verbs with vowel changes of the find/found sort, and almost all verbs that end in take as the marker of the preterite, as seen in Type I.
Comparing between the verbs of Type I and Type II, those in Type II are all basic vocabulary (This is a claim about Type II verbs and not about basic verbs since there are basic verbs in Type I also). However, no denominative verbs (those formed from nouns like to gut, to braid, to hoard, to bed, to court, to head, to hand) are in Type II. There are no verbs of Latin or French origin; all stems like depict, enact, denote, elude, preclude, convict are Type I. Furthermore, all new forms are inflected as Type I and so all native speakers of English would presumably agree that the preterites of to sned and to absquatulate would most likely be snedded and absquatulated.
That evidence shows that the absence of a "dental preterite" marker on roots ending in apical stops in Type II reflects a more original state of affairs. In the early history of the language, the "dental preterite" marker was in a sense absorbed into the root-final consonant when it was or , and the affix after word-final apical stops then belonged to a later stratum in the evolution of the language. The same suffix was involved in both types but with a total reversal of "strategy." Other exercises of internal reconstruction would point to the conclusion that the original affix of the dental preterites was (V being a vowel of uncertain phonetics). A direct inspection of Old English would certainly reveal several different stem-vowels involved. In modern formations, stems that end in preserve the vowel of the preterite marker. As oddly as it might seem, the loss of the stem vowel had taken place already whenever the root ended in an apical stop before the first written evidence.
Latin
Latin has many examples of "word families" showing vowel alternations. Some of them are examples of Indo-European ablaut:
pendō "weigh", pondus "a weight"; dōnum "gift", datum "a given", caedō "cut" perf. ce-cid-, dīcō "speak", participle dictus, that is, inherited from the proto-language (all unmarked vowels in these examples are short), but some, involving only short vowels, clearly arose within Latin:
faciō "do", participle factus, but perficiō, perfectus "complete, accomplish"; amīcus "friend" but inimīcus "unfriendly, hostile"; legō "gather", but colligō "bind, tie together", participle collectus; emō "take; buy", but redimō "buy back", participle redemptus; locus "place" but īlicō "on the spot" (< *stloc-/*instloc-); capiō "take, seize", participle captus but percipiō "lay hold of", perceptus; arma "weapon" but inermis "unarmed"; causa "lawsuit, quarrel" but incūsō "accuse, blame"; claudō "shut", inclūdō "shut in"; caedō "fell, cut", but concīdō "cut to pieces"; and damnō "find guilty" but condemnō "sentence" (verb). To oversimplify, vowels in initial syllables never alternate in this way, but in non-initial syllables short vowels of the simplex forms become -i- before a single consonant and -e- before two consonants; the diphthongs -ae- and -au- of initial syllables alternate respectively with medial -ī- and -ū-.
As happened here, reduction in contrast in a vowel system is very commonly associated with position in atonic (unaccented) syllables, but Latin's tonic accent of reficiō and refectus is on the same syllable as simplex faciō, factus, which is true of almost all of the examples given (cólligō, rédimō, īlicō (initial-syllable accent) are the only exceptions) and indeed for most examples of such alternations in the language. The reduction of contrast points in the vowel system (-a- and -o- fall together with -i- before a single consonant, with -e- before two consonants; long vowels replace diphthongs) must not have had anything to do with the location of the accent in attested Latin.
The accentual system of Latin is well-known, partly from statements by Roman grammarians and partly from agreements among the Romance languages on the location of tonic accent: the tonic accent in Latin fell three syllables before the end of any word with three or more syllables unless the second-last syllable (called the penult in classical linguistics) was "heavy" (contained a diphthong or a long vowel or was followed by two or more consonants). Then, that syllable had the tonic accent: perfíciō, perféctus, rédimō, condémnō, inérmis.
If there is any connection, between word-accent and vowel-weakening, the accent in question cannot be that of Classical Latin. Since the vowels of initial syllables do not show that weakening (to oversimplify a bit), the obvious inference is that in prehistory, the tonic accent must have been an accent that was always on the first syllable of a word. Such an accentual system is very common in the world's languages (Czech, Latvian, Finnish, Hungarian, and, with certain complications, High German and Old English) but was definitely not the accentual system of Proto-Indo-European.
Therefore, on the basis of internal reconstruction within Latin, a prehistoric sound-law can be discovered that replaced the inherited accentual system with an automatic initial-syllable accent, which itself was replaced by the attested accentual system. As it happens, Celtic languages also have an automatic word-initial accent that is subject, like the Germanic languages, to certain exceptions, mainly certain pretonic prefixes. Celtic, Germanic and Italic languages share some other features as well, and it is tempting to think that the word-initial accent system was an areal feature, but that would be more speculative than the inference of a prehistoric word-initial accent for Latin specifically.
There is a very similar set of givens in English but with very different consequences for internal reconstruction. There is pervasive alternation between long and short vowels (the former now phonetically diphthongs): between and in words like divide, division; decide, decision; between and in words like provoke, provocative; pose, positive; between and in words like pronounce, pronunciation; renounce, renunciation; profound, profundity and many other examples. As in the Latin example, the tonic accent of Modern English is often on the syllable showing the vowel alternation.
In Latin, an explicit hypothesis could be framed on the location of word-accent in prehistoric Latin that would account for both the vowel alternations and the attested system of accent. Indeed, such a hypothesis is hard to avoid. By contrast, the alternations in English point to no specific hypothesis but only a general suspicion that word accent must be the explanation, and that the accent in question must have been different from that of Modern English. Where the accent used to be and what the rules, if any, are for its relocation in Modern English cannot be recovered by internal reconstruction. In fact, even the givens are uncertain: it is not possible to tell even whether tonic syllables were lengthened or atonic syllables were shortened (actually, both were involved).
Part of the problem is that English has alternations between diphthongs and monophthongs (between Middle English long and short vowels, respectively) from at least six different sources, the oldest (such as in write, written) dating all the way back to Proto-Indo-European. However, even if it were possible to sort out the corpus of affected words, sound changes after the relocation of tonic accent have eliminated the necessary conditions for framing accurate sound laws. It is actually possible to reconstruct the history of the English vowel system with great accuracy but not by internal reconstruction.
In short, during the atonic shortening, the tonic accent was two syllables after the affected vowel and was later retracted to its current position. However, words like division and vicious (compare vice) have lost a syllable in the first place, which would be an insuperable obstacle to a correct analysis.
Notes
References
Philip Baldi, ed. Linguistic change and reconstruction methodology. Berlin-NY: Mouton de Gruyter, 1990.
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Anthony Fox. Linguistic Reconstruction: An Introduction to Theory and Method. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995. .
T. Givón. “Internal reconstruction: As method, as theory”, Reconstructing grammar: comparative linguistics and grammaticalization, ed. Spike Gildea. Amsterdam–Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2000, pp. 107–160.
Jerzy Kuryłowicz. “On the Methods of Internal Reconstruction”, Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Linguists, Cambridge, Mass., August 27–31, 1962, ed. Horace G. Lunt. The Hague: Mouton, 1964.
Historical linguistics
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4741957
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurring%20characters%20in%20the%20Aubrey%E2%80%93Maturin%20series
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Recurring characters in the Aubrey–Maturin series
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This is a list of recurring characters in the Aubrey–Maturin series of novels by Patrick O'Brian. As is noted in the articles about each novel, some of these characters are based on real historical persons, while others are purely fictional. Because there is an article describing each novel, links are made to those articles when mentioning the stories in which each character appears. References to page numbers, where they appear, are based upon the W. W. Norton & Company printing of the novels.
Recurring characters
Main characters and their families
Jack Aubrey is one of the heroes of the series. His rise from a young lieutenant in the Royal Navy, through the ranks of commander and post-captain to rear-admiral is chronicled thoroughly. A resourceful and powerful man, he is regarded as one of the best fighting captains in the Royal Navy. Part of Aubrey's success is the result of having been disrated from midshipman and turned before the mast as a common sailor, in part because of a love affair he has with a black girl named Sally Mputa (this occurs prior to Master and Commander, but is referred to in several novels). Though this experience is painful at the time, it gives him unique (among officers) insight into the life and beliefs of common sailors, enabling him to more effectively lead them as an officer. His own hero is Lord Nelson. His crew often follows him from ship to ship, not just because of his leadership but also due to his knack for capturing valuable prizes, for which he is nicknamed "Lucky Jack". Aubrey is also referred to by some as "Goldilocks" because of his long yellow hair. His physical characteristics, namely a large frame and scarred visage, often lead to an underestimation of his mental abilities, but he is also a renowned mathematician and amateur astronomer, a Fellow of the Royal Society. Aubrey's love of women has led to problems with the men he has cuckolded and with his wife, Sophia. His other great loves are the violin and puns, which he seems to enjoy creating as much as telling. He is both a natural and a scientific sailor, as his interest in mathematics grew rapidly from his time on HMS Lively in Post Captain. Unfortunately, as masterful and lucky as Jack is at sea, he is somewhat inept and unlucky by land, and is often forced to hurriedly take ship in order to escape his troubles. His parents were both English, and when not at sea, he is part of the landed gentry, having learned fox-hunting and cricket in his young days, still enjoyed in his adult life.
Stephen Maturin is the series' other hero. A former Irish radical, he is a ship's surgeon who has sailed with Aubrey since his first voyage as commander. Unlike many surgeons in this era, Maturin is a physician, and is highly regarded for his intimate knowledge of anatomy and diseases. His skills have saved the lives of many of his shipmates. He is acknowledged as a man of high breeding (The Fortune of War, p. 48), and while on land he is consulted by such prominent figures as the Duke of Clarence. Maturin is also well known in the scientific community as a naturalist, specializing in comparative anatomy of birds but also willing to examine (and sometimes dissect) any interesting animal that crosses his path. His qualities as a doctor are only outshone by his skills as an intelligence agent, a profession only suspected by those he sails with but one by which he has occasionally confounded Napoleon's attempts at European domination. Despite spending so much time aboard ships, Maturin has little knowledge of their qualities and terminology, which does not stop him from trying to explain various sailing terms and maneuvers to people even less informed. His appearance—small, pale, and usually dishevelled—does not make him very appealing to the opposite sex, but that does not deter him from trying to win the heart of the beautiful Diana Villiers. Unfortunately, Maturin, from what he claims is a spirit of pure philosophical enquiry, is a regular dabbler in any intoxicating drug that comes his way. Though skirting the line that separates heavy use from addiction, he has dabbled in laudanum, a tincture of opium, coca leaves, and other local intoxicants ranging from bhang to khat, depending on where he happens to be at the moment. Maturin also has the sometimes distressing habit of bringing both live (wombats, a hive of bees, "a most discriminating" sloth) and dead animal (and human) specimens on board ship. Most are tolerated (even the bees) due to the crew's respect for Stephen's talents as a physician and natural philosopher, some, such as severed human hand and a narwhal's horn are seen as lucky talismans. He was born "the wrong side of the blanket" to an Irish father and a Catalan mother. He spent his childhood in both Ireland and Catalonia, and inherited land from his Catalan relatives. He is fluent in many languages, including English, Irish and Catalan from his upbringing, and French, Italian, Castilian Spanish and local dialects on the islands, Portuguese, Dutch, among others, and spent time learning Urdu on the long journey in HMS Surprise. On occasion he helps his shipmates out of a predicament by speaking one language in the accent of another, as part of the ruse de guerre common in the Royal Navy. He draws the line there, as his role on board ship is saving lives, not taking them. He makes an exception in The Letter of Marque, on the mission to cut out the French frigate Diane: he imprisons the intelligence officer, and then joins the fight on deck by coolly killing the ship's captain with his pistol and then his sword.
Sophia "Sophie" Aubrey meets Jack Aubrey in Post Captain, the second novel, when he is ashore in England due to the Peace of Amiens. She is the eldest of the three Williams sisters. She is described as very beautiful, fair, tall and with a perfect complexion. She and Maturin develop a close friendship lasting to the end of the series. Sophia followed Maturin's advice to tell Aubrey her true feelings, which advice proves wise. Her similar advice to Maturin to propose to Diana Villiers is dismissed by Maturin in Post Captain, and he misses the moment (later said also by Villiers in HMS Surprise). She grows in the courage of her convictions, agreeing to meet Aubrey aboard HMS Lively in Post Captain to agree not to marry anyone else; at Madeira (HMS Surprise) by travelling on a frigate with his friend Heneage Dundas as captain; en route, the frigate, and thus Sophia, sees some action. She is Jack's wife beginning in the fourth novel, The Mauritius Command. Her upbringing and values ensure that she does not share Aubrey's history of affairs, and they have a happy marriage and three children (twin girls, Charlotte and Fanny, and a boy, George). Sophia proves to be very competent at keeping accounts, in addition to successfully managing a household whose main provider (Jack) is often absent for months at a time. She is the stable person in his life. Sophia has two younger sisters, Cecelia and Frances, who appear in Post-Captain and are mentioned in HMS Surprise. Cecelia's young daughter is raised with her twin cousins, as Cecelia travels with her husband, in The Mauritius Command. Frances is said to be having a child in Ulster in book seven of the series, The Surgeon's Mate (112). Sophia meets her husband's son from a youthful romance when, full grown, he seeks out his father for his blessing in The Reverse of the Medal. This meeting does not upset her; she hands him a note to bring to her husband in the event the two meet at the West Indies station. In The Letter of Marque, Sophia visits fictional Shelmerston to train and otherwise aid the newly hired purser for the privately owned ship Surprise.
Mrs Williams is Aubrey's mother-in-law. In HMS Surprise, Maturin describes her as "a deeply stupid, griping, illiberal, avid, tenacious, pinchfist, a sordid lickpenny and a shrew". It is hard to see any likeness of the mother in the daughter. Despite being stingy and obsessed with money, she is quite credulous and snobbish, which leads her to get involved in, for example, an illegal bookmaking operation, where she loses a great deal of her fortune and is threatened with arrest. When Aubrey is flush with funds after returning from The Mauritius Command, he takes care of her debts, so she again owns Mapes Court free and clear, but she prefers to lease it out and live with Sophia and her grandchildren at Ashgrove Cottage. Her harsh ways drive servants away until Aubrey staffs his household with seamen who are immune to her words, and keep up the house as they would a ship. When Aubrey is found guilty in a fraud on the stock exchange (in The Reverse of the Medal), then makes a fortune in prizes on the shake-down cruise of Surprise as a letter of marque (in The Letter of Marque), she is pleased, but believes him guilty as charged, and would do the same herself if she had the chance, as one must always guard one's capital. Mrs Williams dies in an accident when the coach in which she is riding, driven by her niece Diana Villiers-Maturin, overturns.
Samuel Mputa (aka Sam Panda) is the illegitimate son born out of Aubrey's affair with Sally Mputa during his day as a midshipman. Aubrey had no idea that Sally was pregnant when they were parted, so meets the full grown man over twenty years later. Samuel is described as identical to Aubrey in appearance and gestures except for his dark skin tone and dark hair, and he speaks English like an Irishman. He was raised by Irish Catholic missionaries in Lourenço Marques, and comes to seek his father's blessing, which he receives, in the West Indies, in The Reverse of the Medal. Samuel is headed to the with Irish missionaries, a man in minor orders who wishes to be a priest. In England with the priests, he sought out his father, but met Mrs Aubrey, who told him they might meet in the West Indies. Both Aubrey and Maturin find him to be a valuable and enjoyable companion, and thanks in part to Maturin's influence, Samuel becomes a priest and eventually Papal Nuncio to Argentina.
General Aubrey is Jack Aubrey's father. He has embarrassed his son on numerous occasions with his politics, which swing all the way from Tory to Radical, but always in opposition to the Government. The General remarries long after Jack's mother dies. He has a son in Post Captain, providing Jack with a much younger half-brother, Philip. In The Reverse of the Medal, the General and his associates buy heavily into stocks that Aubrey unwittingly recommends to them, causing Jack Aubrey to be tried for stock fraud and briefly stripped of his rank in the Navy. The General flees the country to avoid being arrested; his corpse is later discovered in a ditch (The Letter of Marque). Jack Aubrey organizes the funeral for his father at the family estate, Woolcombe House.
Diana Villiers is Sophia's beautiful cousin and her opposite in many respects, beginning with appearance, as she is dark-haired, slender, and her complexion suffered from her years in India with her father. With her graceful carriage she appears tall, but is shorter than Sophia (Post Captain). She has a great love of horses and riding and breeds Arabians. She rides gracefully and loves to jump barriers on a fox hunt, while Sophia enjoys the gallop, dislikes the hunt. Her impetuous nature has led to more than one ill-conceived affair, but eventually Maturin wins her over. O'Brian perhaps took her name from Frances Villiers, Countess of Jersey, the notorious mistress of the Prince Regent. During one of her many periods of disgrace, Diana is described as running about with "Lady Jersey's set." Diana temporarily flees her home after the birth of her daughter Brigid, unable to deal with the young girl's autism.
Brigid Maturin is Stephen and Diana's daughter, born while he was away at sea. Before her father met her she was severely introverted, showing signs of what a modern doctor would diagnose as autism. After Diana's grief-driven departure, Padeen's gentle and nurturing manner helps her to connect with the world, and gain a full recovery.
Shipmates
William Babbington is a midshipman in Aubrey's first command, HM Sloop Sophie. As a midshipman, Babbington has an almost insatiable lust for the fairer sex. Stephen notes that Babbington's stunted growth is likely the result of his frequent encounters, at an early age, with poxed ladies of the evening. Babbington is a lieutenant in Desolation Island, and later becomes a master and commander, and then a Post Captain (in The Letter of Marque), both because of his natural ability (augmented by having been trained by Aubrey), and because he has influential relations who control several seats in Parliament. As a master and commander of the ship in which Maturin and Diana travel back from Paris in The Surgeon's Mate, he solemnises their marriage (p. 382). Babbington himself later falls in love with Admiral Harte's daughter, before she is married to the traitorous Andrew Wray by her father's arrangement. He has charge of the Dryad in The Ionian Mission, missing his chance at a share of the prize taken by HMS Surprise in convoy with Dryad, as he is not on the horizon, having spent time saving women stranded in a ship. In Treason's Harbour, he is in convoy on Dryad with HMS Surprise when they take a prize returning from the Adriatic Sea. In The Letter of Marque, he is made post Captain, and sails with Mrs Wray, whose husband has fled England.
Barret Bonden is Aubrey's highly competent, highly valued coxswain. Bonden appears in the first book of the series, Master and Commander, as the coxswain and captain of the maintop in HM Sloop Sophie. He is described as "a fine open-looking creature, tough without brutality, cheerful, perfectly in his place and, of course, a prime seaman – bred to the sea from childhood." In this same novel, Aubrey asks Bonden to become a member of the quarter-deck, but Bonden declines, responding, "I ain't got the learning, sir." (p. 275). Nevertheless, Bonden's obvious abilities and trustworthiness enable Aubrey to entrust him with many missions of his own, several of which involve looking after Maturin during Maturin's activities as an intelligence agent. He appears in The Ionian Mission and Treason's Harbour. Bonden also proves to be valuable in always taking care to get the perpetually clumsy doctor safely on and off ship. Maturin returns the favor by teaching Bonden how to read and write. Bonden, along with his cousin, Joe Plaice, follows Aubrey from ship to ship. He was killed in an engagement with a xebec in The Hundred Days. In the 2003 film, Bonden was portrayed by Billy Boyd.
"Awkward" Davies / Davis has long followed Aubrey from ship to ship. As his nickname suggests, he is a clumsy sailor, known for dropping sharp edged tools from great heights, narrowly missing his shipmates. This, coupled with his immense strength and his hot temper, make him an undesirable crew mate. Despite this, he is valued as a powerful fighter useful for boarding and cutting out expeditions. In The Ionian Mission and Treason's Harbour, he is called Davis, with the same description as Davies, and was saved from drowning just once. In Treason's Harbour (Chapter 7), in port at Suez, he negotiated with a bear leader to buy the cub, when "a fight broke out in the square below, a fight between Davis and the bear, which resented his familiarity in chucking it under the chin. ... Stephen hurried down to repair the bear," is one testimony to Davis's strength, and O'Brian's humour. Davies was played in the 2003 film by Patrick Gallagher. In the final Aubrey/Maturin adventure, Blue at the Mizzen, Aubrey describes Davies in a letter written to his wife Sophie:
"Your favourite Awkward Davies can be positively dogged, if crossed by a new hand: but in a boarding-party, or storming a shore-position, he is worth his weight in gold, heavy though he is. His huge bulk, his terrifying strength and activity, the awful pallor of his face and his way of foaming at the mouth when he is stirred, all make him a most dreadful opponent. What Stephen calls his berserker rage fairly clears the enemy's decks before him. He also howls. But he has other sides: not only is he very useful when you must sway up the mast short-handed, but in sudden emergencies too." (p. 98-99).
Faster Doudle is a seaman often found in ships under Jack Aubrey's command, first named in HMS Surprise. In The Fortune of War he is described as the Leopard's wicket-keeper. He is mentioned once in Treason's Harbour, as he drops a sharp tool from the maintop, nearly injuring another crew man, on seeing the lovely Mrs Fielding aboard the ship. His last name is pronounced like the word "dawdle", punning on the ironic connection of the two words. In The Far Side of the World, his name is spelled both as Doudle and as Doodle. In the 2003 film, Doudle was portrayed by William Mannering.
Preserved Killick is Aubrey's shrewish steward, inherited from Captain Allen when Aubrey assumes command of HM Sloop Sophie in Master and Commander. He also comes to unofficially care for Maturin (The Fortune of War, p. 57), particularly his long-suffering uniforms and clothes, and never resists the opportunity to nag either of them (though mostly Maturin, his habits generally leaving him looking much shabbier than Aubrey) for their carelessness in appearance. He is also known to listen in on their private conversations, steal from the captain's private stores, and drain more than his fair share of wine from the captain's table. Despite all these shortcomings, he is a highly valued, fiercely loyal and well-respected member of Aubrey's crew. Killick follows Aubrey from ship to ship. He is in The Ionian Mission. It is no surprise that larger dictionaries define killick as a small anchor. Killick's star does fade slightly in the nineteenth book, The Hundred Days, when an assistant at one of Aubrey's dinners "in a paroxysm of adolescent drunkenness, spewing improbable jets of Madeira," contrives to trip Killick and the poor steward cracks Stephen's sacrosanct narwhal horn (p. 89). Eventually, the horn, which the superstitious crew believes will bring good fortune to the ship, is restored, as is Killick's standing among his fellows. In the 2003 film, Killick was portrayed by actor David Threlfall.
Nathaniel Martin is an Anglican priest whom Maturin meets as a parson, a thin and shabby literary gentleman in The Ionian Mission. He shares Maturin's love of nature and lack of maritime knowledge. Martin has an unfortunate tendency to buy his knowledge of living creatures at the expense of personal injury, including the loss of an eye to an owl, but his knowledge of anatomy and former experience in stuffing birds make him an obvious choice for surgeon's mate under Stephen. Martin first serves as assistant to Maturin in Treason's Harbour (Chapter 4), when Martin stays too long on the Dromedary inspecting Maturin's new diving bell, purchased to inspect the sea bottom. One notable show of his skills is when Martin sutures Maturin's long cut on the forehead; he is with the Surprises for the entire Red Sea mission, but not taken aboard the Surprise once she is repaired. He serves in this capacity through several novels. He is assistant surgeon on the Surprise sailing as a privateer in The Letter of Marque. Later, Martin serves as Surprise's surgeon during Stephen's absence (Thirteen-Gun Salute and The Nutmeg of Consolation). Sailors, who normally consider churchmen unlucky on board a ship, are often prepared to accept him in this medical capacity, further comforting themselves with the mistaken belief that he is only aboard because he was defrocked for having an affair with his Bishop's wife (from The Letter of Marque), though by that time he is a solid married man. At first meeting, Martin is a young man (younger than Stephen) who is eager to please and to be pleased; these qualities, along with his interest in nature, slowly fade with time. Martin's career at sea ends in The Wine Dark Sea when he becomes too ill to sail after treating himself with strong medicines he did not need, mistaking salt sores for the pox, in guilt for his thoughts, not actions towards Clarissa Oakes on the previous voyage. His love of botanizing returns as Maturin begins treatment to restore him. Surprise arrives at Callao, a port in Peru, before Martin is recovered, and Maturin has work to do ashore in Peru. Martin heads home with Dr Geary on a merchantman, Three Graces. Aubrey has given two livings on his holdings to Martin.
William Mowett – Originally a master's mate in HM Sloop Sophie, he became one of Aubrey's junior lieutenants in the Surprise in The Ionian Mission, and then first lieutenant once Pullings is promoted, in Treason's Harbour. Mowett is injured aboard the Peacock as part of the War of 1812; the news that he is recovering in a New York hospital reaches Aubrey via the American Captain Lawrence (captain of the USS Hornet when he meets Mowett) as Aubrey is recovering in a hospital in Boston, both prisoners of war, in The Fortune of War. Mowett and another lieutenant, Rowan, who joins the Worcester in The Ionian Mission and remains on Surprise as first lieutenant in Treason's Harbour, are amateur poets of indifferent talent, who try to outdo each other in declaiming bombastic poetry, one in "the classical style" and another in "the modern style" – their poems all having to do with shipwrecks, lee shores and naval battles. He is aboard HMS Tartarus under Babbington en route to his position as first lieutenant on HMS Illustrious, and still waiting for his book of poems to be published. In the 2003 film, Mowett was played by Edward Woodall.
Padeen (Patrick Colman) is Maturin's longtime servant and loblolly boy. Only Maturin is able to communicate with him, as Padeen has a cleft palate and can speak only in the Irish tongue. He becomes addicted to opium after he is anaesthetized with laudanum following a shipboard accident in The Letter of Marque, and found out by Martin. He breaks into an apothecary shop to steal some. He is caught and transported to New South Wales, but later pardoned. His patient, gentle nature is instrumental in bringing Brigid, Maturin's disabled (possibly autistic) daughter, out of her shell. In the 2003 film, Padeen was played by John DeSantis.
Joseph "Joe" Plaice is an able seaman and long-time follower of Aubrey, described as "deeply stupid" but an excellent hand in Post Captain. He is Barret Bonden's cousin. The medical procedure to relieve pressure on the brain, leaving a flattened coin in place of the bone removed is performed by Maturin upon both Plaice (in The Far Side of the World) and Mr Day, the gunner of HM Sloop Sophie (in Master and Commander), among others. He is aboard HMS Worcester and HMS Surprise in The Ionian Mission. Like Awkward Davies/Davis, Plaice is a character whose name seems to change over time: in Treason's Harbour, for example, Stephen Maturin refers to "William Plaice," a shipmate whom O'Brian had earlier described as "an elderly forecastle hand"—the same terminology he has used in other contexts to describe Joe Plaice; either a manuscript error or Maturin making a rare error in the name of someone he knows. Plaice is part of the crew on HMS Surprise in The Far Side of the World and in The Letter of Marque on the private ship Surprise when they take the French frigate Diane. He was played in the 2003 film by George Innes. In the film, Stephen Maturin saves his life by performing brain surgery after he sustains a depressed skull fracture.
Thomas Pullings is a long-time officer under Aubrey, serving under him as a master's mate in his first command HM Sloop Sophie. He is the first lieutenant of HMS Worcester in The Ionian Mission. He is promoted to commander in Treason's Harbour and post captain for his bravery in various shipboard actions led by Aubrey. His face is scarred by a Turkish saber cut, taken in The Ionian Mission, giving his easy-going look a mark of the fierce fighter he is. When Aubrey has no ship, Pullings once transfers to the British East India Company and commands transport ships (so that he is attached to the British government's Transport Board, though still retaining his nominal rank in the navy). As commander, he has difficulty getting his own ship in the Royal Navy. He later rejoins the navy, regularly serving as a volunteer aboard Aubrey's ships. When HMS Surprise is sold out of the service, Pullings assists newly wealthy Maturin in making the successful bid and in securing the ship once he owns it. When Aubrey is dismissed from the Navy after a false accusation of stock fraud, Pullings, who remains on "half pay" (Royal Navy officers get full pay only when they are posted to a ship), again ships as a volunteer on the Surprise in its new character as a letter of marque, serving as captain when Aubrey is on another ship, or as first officer when Aubrey is aboard. In The Wine Dark Sea, he plays both roles in alternation, as Surprise takes the privateer Franklin, which Pullings then commands until they reach port in Peru, when Pullings takes Surprise while Aubrey stays aboard the Franklin until it is time to sell her. He is Captain of HMS Bellona when Aubrey is The Commodore. Pullings is married and has several children, on land. When Aubrey is made a commodore, Pullings serves as his Flag-Captain. In the 2003 film, Pullings was portrayed by James D'Arcy.
William Reade is first seen as a midshipman in The Thirteen Gun Salute, though he is eventually promoted to master's mate. In the events described in The Nutmeg of Consolation, he loses his entire arm due to injuries sustained in battle (p. 45). He adapts well to his limitation, and when young boys are again aboard the Surprise in The Wine Dark Sea, he takes to skylarking again. He is 14 years old then, and is sent to take the prize Franklin after the underwater volcano erupts in the Pacific Ocean. This injury does not impair his abilities as a sailor or an officer; as a master's mate, he captains Aubrey's private tender, a fast Baltimore Clipper called the Ringle. Reade fills a vacancy that develops as Pullings, Babbington and Mowett mature, embark on independent naval careers, and start their own families, in that Reade is an eager young man (initially a boy of the status "squeaker" or first voyager) to whom Aubrey, and to a lesser extent Maturin serve as mentors.
Other recurring characters
Sir Joseph Blaine is Maturin's superior in British Naval Intelligence. He is a keen naturalist and, like Maturin, a fellow of the Royal Society, with a particular interest in beetles. The fictional character of Sir Joseph Blaine is to some degree based on the real life Sir Joseph Banks, who nevertheless also makes brief appearances in the series. He is described briefly in a wiki about the Aubrey-Maturin series. An essay about the actual historical context of British intelligence at the time in relation to the O'Brian novels, in the form of a review by an authoritative reviewer (former Director of US Naval Intelligence). of "Most Secret and Confidential: Intelligence in the Age of Nelson," by Steven E. Maffeo. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2000, 355 pages. The review reveals a different organization of intelligence collection than depicted, though agrees it occurred. Blaine and Maturin grow to be close friends as well as colleagues by The Reverse of the Medal, when Maturin's usual haunt, The Grapes is burnt and not yet rebuilt, and he stays in his club, which is also Blaine's club, Blacks. Blaine gives accurate readings of how government is acting in the trial, which guides Maturin's actions to help his particular friend, Jack Aubrey through the ordeal. Blaine instructs Maturin on the powers he will need as the owner of the privateer Surprise, especially when she is sailed on a mission that may benefit government. Despite strong efforts, the spies Ledward and Wray slip through Blaine's hands out of England, it is learned in The Letter of Marque.
Mrs Broad is the owner and keeper of The Grapes, a comfortable inn in the Liberties of the Savoy, where Stephen often stays when in London after finding it in Post Captain as a refuge from debt collectors for Aubrey. Mrs. Broad looks after Stephen as best as she can, and tolerates his habitual untidiness, and his habit of dissecting dead animals and human corpses in the inn premises. She has a niece, Lucy (who in The Surgeons Mate addresses her as "Aunt Broad"), who assists her in running The Grapes. She appears in The Ionian Mission, when Villiers and Maturin realize a good marriage for them means separate homes, and Maturin settles again into The Grapes. In The Reverse of the Medal, her inn has burned to the ground and is not yet rebuilt, so Maturin stays in his club, Blacks. In The Letter of Marque, The Grapes is nearly rebuilt, and Mrs. Broad is again watching over Maturin. At the start of The Commodore, Maturin brings Sarah and Emily Sweetings to Mrs Broad, in hopes they will learn useful social ways in England, as they cannot sail in the squadron.
Capitaine de Vaisseau Christy-Pallière – Introduced in Master and Commander, he is a gallant French post captain with English cousins, who speaks fluent English that is slightly quaint from his habit of mangling quotations – "Let us gather rose pods while we may" as he says, for "Gather ye rosebuds while ye may". Aubrey surrenders to him after HMS Sophie is taken, but Christy-Pallière, impressed with the resistance of the Sophie, refuses to take his sword and insists that he continue to wear it. He is apparently promoted to admiral, as we hear from his nephew Lt. Dumesnil (affectionately called Pierrot), lieutenant of the French frigate Cornélie in The Thirteen Gun Salute. When he appears again in The Hundred Days, he is again a post captain, who renounces Napoleon, declares his loyalty for King Louis XVIII and places his frigate at the disposal of the Royal Navy.
Heneage Dundas is a friend and former shipmate of Aubrey. He is a fellow post-captain, the son of one First Lord of the Admiralty and the brother of a later First Lord. Although the basic facts of his name and relationship are based on the actual individual, most of the actions and events he participates in during the books are fictional.
Professor Ebenezer Graham is a professor of Oriental languages, sent as an envoy to the Ottoman Empire navy on HMS Worcester in The Ionian Mission. He is stereotypical Scotsman: dour, humorless, and speaking with a broad Scots burr. He is also an inept secret agent, working for a branch of British intelligence service that is in conflict with Maturin's branch. Landing on the French coast on a secret mission, he literally shoots himself in the foot by accident, so that Maturin, on a secret mission of his own aborted by Graham's presence, takes Graham as his prize and puts him to work for the Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet. Graham gains crucial information in The Ionian Mission by dint of his long connections with the Turks, and remains with Maturin on Malta in Treason's Harbour, describing one of the French spies on the island, Lesueur, becoming useful with more than his language skills. Graham does not enjoy Maturin's dry humor and nor Aubrey's high spirits and humor before battle, but comes to enjoy Maturin's company. When the new Commander-in-Chief arrives with his own Turkish consultant, Graham is sent home on short notice.
The Duke of Habachtsthal is a minor royal, a German nobleman and distant relation of the King, who is the homosexual lover of Wray and Ledward. After their death, he continues to pass secrets on to France, while trying to get Sir Joseph Blaine into trouble, and also trying to get Maturin arrested for his mostly forgotten fringe role in the Irish rebellion of 1798, as well as for illegally bringing Padeen and Clarissa, both transported convicts, over from Australia. To keep his daughter, Mrs Oakes and Padeen safe from him, Maturin sets them up in a convent in Avila, Spain. He is said to have cut his throat (in The Commodore), possibly due to the threat of trial for treason after being identified by Clarissa Oakes and following extensive investigation carried out by Mr Pratt, a former Bow Street Runner employed by Maturin and Sir Joseph Blaine. His death merits flags at half-staff, in full irony.
Captain (later Admiral) Harte is Aubrey's nemesis. His hatred of Aubrey stems from Aubrey's cuckolding him in Master and Commander. While never calling Jack out, he nevertheless tries to foil Aubrey's professional advancement whenever possible unless he can personally profit from it, as when Aubrey is placed under his command in Post Captain, even though Aubrey fails to bring in many prizes. Harte is especially angry about this because he did not profit from the Sophie's many prizes in Master and Commander. Harte is described as a little man, somewhat resembling Lord St. Vincent in appearance but not in character. He is killed in Treason's Harbour when his secret orders are compromised by Andrew Wray and his ship is destroyed in battle.
Fanny Harte is the daughter of Admiral and Molly Harte. Her father marries her off to Andrew Wray, when she is in love with Babbington, as is learned in The Ionian Mission. Babbington eventually wins her.
Molly Harte is Captain Harte's wife, with whom Aubrey has an affair in Port Mahon as a lieutenant and commander, in Master and Commander.
Amos Jacob is a Jewish physician, intelligence-agent and naturalist who appears first in The Hundred Days. He is close friends with Maturin, and it is clear that they knew each other long before Dr. Jacob was introduced in the series. As Maturin's assistant surgeon and fellow naturalist, he plays a similar role to Martin, though as a physician he is much more medically competent and he often assists Maturin in his covert activities, using his previous profession as a jewel merchant as a cover. He is well liked by the hands of the Surprise both for his medical talent and for bringing Maturin a preserved hand, a specimen of Dupuytren's contracture, which the crew suppose is a Hand of Glory which will bring them luck.
Gedymin Jagiello is a Lithuanian officer in the Swedish army, later attached to the embassy in London. He is described as a beautiful, blonde-haired young man, perpetually unaware of his effect on the fair sex. He meets Aubrey and Maturin as part of a mission to the Baltic in The Surgeon's Mate, and is with them throughout their shipwreck, imprisonment in Paris and subsequent escape. Maturin receives letters from an anonymous source that suggested Jagiello was having an affair with Diana, but they were likely sent by French agents attempting to compromise Maturin. When Diana leaves Maturin and flees to Sweden in The Reverse of the Medal, she lives under Jagiello's protection; however, in The Letter of Marque it is revealed that theirs is not a sexual relationship, and that she has helped arrange Jagiello's own forthcoming marriage.
Harry Johnson is a wealthy American slave-owner of Maryland who is also active in the new US government as an intelligence agent and spymaster in Boston during the War of 1812. He is first met in Alipur, India pursuing Diana Villiers in HMS Surprise. He then becomes Diana Villiers' lover, until she could not bear his brutality or expectation that she would aid him in his spy work against Britain in The Fortune of War. Diana became pregnant with his child, but suffered a miscarriage in Surgeon's Mate. Johnson's cultured exterior hides a brutal nature. Diana fled with Maturin in The Fortune of War. Johnson doggedly pursues Maturin across the Atlantic, and identifying betrays Maturin to the French.
Lord Keith is an admiral in the Royal Navy. He makes Aubrey his protégé from the earliest stages of his career and assists him at various points in the series. When the series opens with Master and Commander, Lord Keith is married to Queenie, Jack's childhood tutor and friend. Jack suspects that her influence gained him his step to master and commander in Minorca.
Edward Ledward – Homosexual lover of Andrew Wray, an official in the British Treasury department, and a French spy who is eventually discovered and forced to flee to France. He had been to Malaya in his youth and is fluent in the Malay language and with Malay court etiquette, so that he serves as the French envoy's official interpreter in The Thirteen Gun Salute. When the French mission fails, Maturin dissects Ledward and Wray after having possibly shot them himself.
Admiral Linois is a French admiral whom Jack Aubrey first encounters in Master and Commander when the Sophie is taken by his squadron in the Mediterranean. Later, after Aubrey has been paroled, Linois and his ships are involved in Sir James Saumarez's battle against a combined French and Spanish fleet in the Gut of Gibraltar. In HMS Surprise Jack, with the assistance of a fleet of armed merchant ships belonging to the British East India Company, fights against Linois' squadron, taking the Surprise into a yardarm to yardarm battle (a cannon duel at almost touching range) against Linois' 74 gun ship of the line, the Marengo.
Clarissa Oakes is the eponymous character in the novel Clarissa Oakes (published as The Truelove in the US). Her early life was very difficult; she was sexually abused as a child, then left penniless after the death of her guardian. She took a job as a book-keeper in a brothel, where she was occasionally forced to work as a prostitute. These experiences left her with no emotional attachment to the act of love-making. She was sentenced to death for killing a man (she blew off his head with a fowling piece), but the sentence was commuted to transport to Sydney, New South Wales. When the Surprise leaves Sydney, Jack discovers that midshipman Oakes has smuggled the convict on board. Jack quickly marries the two off in order to prevent problems with the authorities. Clarissa's presence causes friction among the crew, as she is somewhat free with her "favors" until Maturin convinces her to be faithful to her husband. Clarissa is able to provide Maturin with information that uncovers the source of intelligence leaks inside the British government. Stephen is able to set up Clarissa on his estate in England, where she resides after her husband's death at sea. Clarissa later acts as Stephen's daughter's guardian after Diana leaves home, unable to deal with Brigid's autism (in The Commodore). In Blue at the Mizzen she marries a scholarly clergyman.
Queenie or Queeney is a childhood friend of Jack Aubrey, about ten years older than he is, who is introduced in Master and Commander. Daughter of a neighbouring family, she became a mother figure to Jack after his own mother died, and also tutored him in mathematics (she is a scholar, mathematician and linguist). She later marries Lord Keith as his second wife in 1800. Queenie is a real person, actually married to Lord Keith in 1808; her true name is Hester Maria Thrale, but she is spoken of as "Queeney" in Boswell's Life of Johnson and Mme. D'Arblay's Diary.
Dr. Ramis is a French officer and ship's surgeon under Capitan de Vaisseau Christy-Palliêre. He is a friend of Maturin, as well as an agent for the British, assisting Maturin with Catalan affairs.
Sarah and Emily Sweeting are first seen on their small Pacific island in The Nutmeg of Consolation, where they are the sole survivors of a smallpox epidemic which has killed the other inhabitants. Stephen Maturin rescues them and brings them aboard the ship. Initially Sarah and Emily speak no English, but they soon master both styles spoken in the ship, quarterdeck and below-decks varieties (the latter including oaths and swearing). After they rebel against his attempt to place them in an Australian orphanage, they sail half-way around the world. Upon reaching England, he asks the landlady of his London inn, The Grapes in Savoy, to take them in, at the start of The Commodore. They reappear in subsequent books, developing into fine helpers to Mrs. Broad, the landlady, especially as market shoppers and cooks.
Amanda Smith: Aubrey's affair with Smith occurs during his brief stay in Halifax (The Surgeon's Mate). Even before he has left Halifax, he regrets this affair, but when her love letters, including notice of a coming child, follow him to England, Aubrey begins to worry that the obsessed Smith might follow him herself. Eventually, Smith marries someone else, and her pregnancy appears to be imagined or simply used as a threat to him. Many years later her letters to Jack are discovered by Mrs. Williams, who shows them to Sophie, providing her with proof of Jack's infidelity.
Christine Wood, née Hatherleigh, is the wife (later widow) of Governor Wood of Sierra Leone. She is a sister of Maturin's Royal Society colleague Edward Hatherleigh. Maturin finds her to be, like himself, a competent amateur naturalist and anatomist, and soon falls in love with her, after Diana's death. In 21, he finds himself fighting a duel with a rival suitor of hers.
Andrew Wray – He is first met playing, and cheating at, cards with Aubrey in Desolation Island; his cheating is challenged by Aubrey publicly, but no duel ensues. Later, he is the son-in-law of Admiral Harte, as well as Second Secretary at the Admiralty. He has a poisonous hatred for Jack Aubrey and works silently to blight his career. He is responsible for causing dissension between Maturin and Diana by not passing on his letters to her. He is a double agent working for the French, shown in Treason's Harbour, who passes naval secrets to French intelligence, which pays him generously. He is reluctant to cover his gambling debts on his own funds, asking the French to pass him more money. When his wife Fanny Harte inherits, he will be very wealthy. Her father arranged the marriage in The Ionian Mission and they are married by the start of the next novel, Treason's Harbour. But Admiral Harte tied the money to his daughter and her children; when he dies in Treason's Harbour, Wray is no better off financially. Wray makes much trouble for the British cause, for the London stock exchange (The Reverse of the Medal) to gain money to pay his debts, and for Aubrey and Maturin, as a shadowy opponent. Wray's dual role is discovered in The Reverse of the Medal and he flees for France in The Letter of Marque, leaving behind proof of his role in manipulating the stock exchange and setting up Aubrey for the blame. He has a homosexual lover, Edward Ledward, another highly placed official in the British Treasury, who is also a spy for France and flees with him when they are exposed by Duhamel. In The Thirteen Gun Salute, Wray and Ledward are part of a French diplomatic mission to Malaya competing for the Malay court's allegiance against a British contingent which includes Aubrey and Maturin. When the French mission fails, Maturin dissects Ledward and Wray after having possibly shot them himself.
Sources for novel characters and those in the film adaptation
References
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Straight-ahead jazz
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Straight-ahead jazz is a genre of jazz that developed in the 1960s, with roots in the prior two decades. It omits the rock music and free jazz influences that began to appear in jazz during this period, instead preferring acoustic instruments, conventional piano comping, walking bass patterns, and swing- and bop-based drum rhythms.
Musical style
A study conducted by Anthony Belfiglio at the University of Texas, Austin analyzed the music of Oscar Peterson, Wynton Kelly, Wynton Marsalis, and Marcus Roberts in order to determine key features of straight-ahead jazz that distinguish it from other genres. Belfiglio concluded that the walking bass, a 4/4 bass pattern in which a bassist plays one note to each beat, synchronized with a ride-based drum pattern was a defining component of straight-ahead jazz.
Background
Often called "America's classical music," the subgenres of mainstream jazz have been less "subject to the whims of fashion," according to Scott DeVeaux, than other genres, with jazz reaching its modern form across "a long process of maturation." During the 1960s, however, two opposing subgenres emerged, the avant-garde and fusion, with neoclassicists emerging in the 1980s to oppose both of these factions. Free jazz largely questioned the traditional understanding of jazz harmony and played "outside" chord structures, and jazz, which had already become organic following the development of bebop, became increasingly chaotic as the former structures within bebop evolved into free improvisation and, according to some critics, "functional anarchy." Meanwhile, a strain of jazz musicians who were more focused on commercial success drew from pop influences to develop jazz fusion and the first seeds of what later became called "smooth jazz." One of the founders of this camp was producer Creed Taylor, who turned obscure jazz musicians such as George Benson and Grover Washington, Jr. into popular stars by incorporating pop music influences into jazz melodies and improvisation.
Purists of the era did not see the new jazz fusion subgenre as jazz due to its heavy pop music influences. Hence, the term "straight-ahead" jazz was formulated by critics and academics to describe music that did not employ fusion's innovations, such as rock beats and electric instruments. For example, Tanner, Gerow and Megill trace the straight-ahead aesthetic back to the hard bop era, after which some musicians would continue to be guided by jazz tradition when faced with boundary-pushing innovations.
Although bop "never died" during the 1970s, it had "a much lower profile" and "was overshadowed by other trends" as fusion's popularity skyrocketed. By the time Chuck Mangione joined the Jazz Messengers, there had taken place a "breakdown in the cultural consensus about the elements of authentic jazz." The few musicians who were determined to maintain the acoustic jazz tradition went to small independent labels like Concord and Chiaroscuro, with the latter label producing both swing music and bop, two genres once at odds with each other over bop's modernism.
The impact of the diverging styles was that, rather than "a succession of stylistic periods," jazz was now "an international language" and "it became difficult to describe the direction [of] jazz," making the primary branch of the genre difficult to identify.
History
1960s: Roots in bop
Critic Scott Yanow in his "Hard Bop" essay noted that the decade witnessed the evolution of soul jazz and the merging of modal jazz, soul jazz, hard bop, and avant-garde into the broader hard bop identity. However, as the decade progressed, experimentation with the mainstream notion of modern jazz became popular, first with the avant-garde styles developed by Ornette Coleman and Don Cherry, and later with experiments by leading mainstream musicians John Coltrane and Miles Davis. As rock gained popularity and swing maintained its audience, Coltrane's simultaneous death severely impacted innovation in the jazz world, with Coltrane's album releases maintaining utmost significance in the jazz world long after his death. In fact, in the mid- to late-20th century, there were so many young deaths among jazz musicians that a study conducted at the University Hospital of London, Ontario concluded that "jazz musicians ... have lost a combined 461 years of jazz productivity as a consequence of cirrhosis" alone. The shifts in the jazz world and the rise of free jazz correlated to the Black power and spiritual movements, along with the ideas of freedom of expression associated with the 1960s movement more broadly. But the new genre struggled to gain prevalence throughout the jazz genre, having been "ultimately ambushed by its naiveté."
1970s: Jazz fusion era
Following the rise of jazz fusion, a number of hard bop or "straight-ahead" jazz musicians died or retired: Lee Morgan was shot and Kenny Dorham died in 1972, Hank Mobley retired due to lung disease following Breakthrough (1972), Cannonball Adderley died in 1975, and Charles Mingus died of ALS in 1979.
Jazz pianist McCoy Tyner was one of the few remaining jazz musicians to reject the electric style of jazz fusion, with the former young star at one point contemplating a part-time job as a taxi driver to make ends meet. His album Sahara (1972) received two Grammy nominations, reviving his career and critical acclaim and encouraging Blue Note to release his old material. In the mid-1970s fellow jazz pianist Cedar Walton founded Eastern Rebellion, an ensemble with the traditional saxophone/piano/bass/drums format, with primarily acoustic instrumentalists ranging from George Coleman to Curtis Fuller and Billy Higgins joining the band on rotation. In contrast to Walton's hard-bop style, introspective pianist Bill Evans maintained piano trios throughout the 1970s, and after some experimentation in the fusion and electric subgenres starting in 1969, Evans returned to the acoustic trio format with Marc Johnson and Joe La Barbera during the 1970s.
Many jazz musicians of the fusion era explored the pop-influenced trend while remaining attached to traditional roots. Members of the Charles Lloyd Quartet, including drummer Jack DeJohnette, believed in "the flame of creativity and exploration" in avant-garde and fusion experiments through the decade. Guitarist Pat Metheny's Bright Size Life (1976) with Jaco Pastorius is a further example of the blending of fusion with the music of a relatively straight-ahead musician. These explorations coincided with the rise of the ECM jazz label. With the rise of ECM and political tension in the United States, an increased number of jazz musicians moved from the U.S. to Europe, with Scandinavia and France moving the "centre of gravity" of jazz toward the continent. This shifted once again, however, in 1976, when Dexter Gordon, an important figure in bebop since the 1940s, returned to New York from Europe. His "homecoming" generated a great deal of enthusiasm, reviving interest in musical forms he and others had kept alive in Europe while they had fallen out of prominence in North America. Gordon released a series of live and studio recordings through the late 1970s and the Savoy and Blue Note labels re-released recordings from their Gordon catalogs.
Young straight-ahead tenor saxophonist Scott Hamilton recorded his first album in 1977, with the album's title, Scott Hamilton Is a Good Wind Who Is Blowing Us No Ill, coming from a Leonard Feather quote. Sidemen on the album included trumpeter Bill Berry, pianist Nat Pierce, bassist Monty Budwig, and drummer Jake Hanna. Scott Yanow noted that Hamilton's neo-straight-ahead effort predated the Young Lions Movement despite its similar musical approach.
1980s: Revival
With the rising star of trumpeter Wynton Marsalis, Blakey's hard-bop style once again became a major force in the jazz world, and during the 1980s, this led to the popularization of straight-ahead jazz in jazz circles. He released a number of albums, including Album of the Year (1981) and Blue Night (1985) with his Jazz Messengers band before he died in 1990. Jazz Messengers alumnus Woody Shaw, however, died at age 44 in 1989 following complications from a subway accident, following collaborations with a range of bop-oriented jazz musicians for over two decades. Before his death, Shaw had recorded albums such as Solid (1987) with progressive but bop-rooted saxophonist Kenny Garrett, pianist Kenny Barron, Shearing alumnus Neil Swainson on bass, and Victor Jones on drums. He would follow this album with Bemsha Swing (1997), recorded live on Detroit with pianist Geri Allen, bassist Robert Hurst, and drummer Roy Brooks; and a couple more albums prior to his death, with Yanow noting his high standard of playing despite declining eyesight and other health problems.
In the mid-1980s, a film about jazz in the 1950s and 1960s, Round Midnight, was made based upon the life of Bud Powell, with the score being nominated the "Best Original Score" in 1986. It starred Dexter Gordon, who was nominated for "Best Actor," as an aging jazz musician.
In the mid-1980s, saxophonist Stan Getz led a quartet including pianist Kenny Barron, bassist George Mraz, and drummer Al Foster. In 1987, Getz was diagnosed with cancer, dying a few years later. Preceding his death he had continued to play with a number of albums, including Anniversary!, with these 1980s albums receiving critical acclaim. Fellow cool jazz musician, trumpeter Chet Baker, died in 1988 in the Netherlands, having made a successful comeback from a period out of jazz in the late 1960s. Baker's album My Favourite Songs, Vols. 1-2: The Last Great Concert (1988) was met with praise from critic Yanow, who noted his "inspired form" at the final recording before he landed, dead, outside a window in Amsterdam.
Trumpet and flugelhorn player Tom Harrell, after spending some years in the Horace Silver Quintet during the 1970s, became one of the prominent jazz trumpet players in the 1980s after recording a series of albums and collaborating extensively with alto saxophone player Phil Woods. Woods had formed his quintet/quartet following a brief foray into electronic jazz, and had expanded it to include Harrell, who was later followed by trombonist Hal Crook and trumpeter Brian Lynch.
Young Lions Movement
By 1980, Wynton Marsalis had become widely associated with the straight-ahead concept and was one of the pioneers of neo-bop jazz, a modern revival of straight ahead jazz, bebop, and hard bop. A member of Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers, trumpeter Marsalis appeared on the album Straight Ahead (1981) as a member of Blakey's then-11-piece band.
Following the rise of a number of young artists known as the "Young Lions," the neo-bop movement branched into its own subgenre based upon its "straightahead roots."
1990s: Hard bop and neo-bop
With the new decade, the influence of the Jazz Messengers reverberated throughout the hard bop world, with "wholehearted hard-bop revivalist" Ralph Peterson, Jr., leading a quintet in the style of Art Blakey's band. In 1990, longtime bebop and hard bop alto saxophonist Jackie McLean returned to playing after years of teaching at University of Hartford Hartt School. Fifty-eight years old at the time, he noted, "I only have so many more years left" and vowed to "full-time commitment to the instrument," with his album The Jackie Mac Attack Live being released in 1991. His straight-ahead playing in his final years contrasted with his avant-garde experiments during the 1960s when he had surrounded himself with rising stars. Another bop veteran, Freddie Hubbard, who had switched to fusion in the 1970s before joining the post-bop VSOP Quintet in 1977, suffered a lip injury in 1992, severely impacting his career. He later joined Davis Weiss' New Jazz Composers Octet, switching to flugelhorn, an instrument that is easier on the lip than the trumpet. In 1992, bassist Dave Holland brought a pianist into his quintet, moving away from the pianoless avant-garde band model and toward hard bop. The new group was described by The New York Times as "constrained and methodical." Meanwhile, drummer Joe Farnsworth used Augue
Arturo Sandoval, a Cuban-born trumpeter who could play in both Latin jazz and straight-ahead jazz settings, moved to Florida in the 1990s while on tour, enabling him to tour more freely and play with a wider range of musicians. He "attracted worldwide attention" when he emerged on the jazz scene, with his style being "blazing" and "technically flawless," according to critic Richard S. Ginell.
In 1995, Jim Merod interviewed saxophonist Scott Hamilton for the book Jazz as a Cultural Archive. Hamilton noted a wide range of influences, including pre-bebop and West Coast jazz musicians, while Merod remarked that Hamilton was among the "most contemporary links to the great heritage of the tenor saxophone...at the heart of...the jazz archive." Hamilton lived in the United Kingdom during the decade, although he continued to record albums as leader and sideman for Concord including AllMusic album picks Red Door: Remember Zoot Sims (1998) and Live at Birdland - 2 (1999).
There were a number of bop-oriented musicians who died in the 1990s, however, to offset the rise of new straight-ahead styles. These included saxophonist Stan Getz, trumpeter Miles Davis, saxophonist Dexter Gordon, trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie, and vocalist Sarah Vaughan. In addition, all four members of the Modern Jazz Quartet died in the 1990s or 2000s: Connie Kay in 1994, Milt Jackson in 1999, John Lewis in 2001, and Percy Heath in 2005. The quartet had taken influences from Third Stream and had been rooted in bop due to the backgrounds of Jackson and Lewis.These deaths were replaced by new names including saxophonist Eric Alexander, who burst onto the jazz scene in the early 1990s, having studied under jazz musicians such as pianist Harold Mabern, saxophonist Joe Lovano, and bassist Rufus Reid the previous decade. His debut as leader came with Straight Up for Delmark (1992), and by 1998 he had formed a quartet with pianist John Hicks, bassist George Mraz, and drummer Idris Muhammad to record the album Solid!
2000s: Vocalists and popular influences
Young Canadian singer Michael Bublé, heavily influenced by Frank Sinatra and jazz singers, blended "old-school jazz standards and adult contemporary pop songs" for several hit albums, including his self-titled album (2003), It's Time (2005), and Call Me Irresponsible (2007). Critic Aaron Latham noted that "[u]nlike most young guys who gravitate towards the latest rock or rap trend, Michael Bublé chose to study the classic works of pop vocal masters like Ella Fitzgerald and Frank Sinatra while slowly developing his own technique and career as a vocal interpreter."
With the rise of social media websites such as YouTube, jazz artists and bands were able to obtain popularity without conventional album releases, propelling their success. For example Barcelona-based multi-instrumentalist and teacher Joan Chamorro founded the Sant Andreu Jazz Band in 2006 and reached widespread audiences on the platform. The youth band has bred young multitalents including Andrea Motis (tp, saxes, voc) and Rita Payés (tb, g, voc) while frequently featuring renowned musicians including pianist Ignasi Terraza and saxophonist Scott Hamilton.
Cologne-based WDR Big Band's 2005 album Some Skunk Funk with the Brecker brothers won at the 49th Grammy Awards of 2006, with the big band following this with tributes to veteran jazz musicians Django Reinhardt and Duke Ellington.
Eric Alexander continued to record, releasing three albums that received 4.5 stars from AllMusic: The Second Milestone (2001), It's All in the Game (2006), and Gentle Ballads, Vol. 3 (2008). On the second of these albums he recorded with Joe Farnsworth, who had developed a circle of straight-ahead jazz musicians including Marsalis, pianist Cedar Walton, and saxophonist Benny Golson. Farnsworth had previously used Augie's Jazz Club to play with bop musicians including Junior Cook, Harold Mabern, and Eddie Henderson before the venue was reformed under its current name, Smoke.
2010s: Growth of online media
In 2010, Joan Chamorro recorded Joan Chamorro Presenta Andrea Motis (2013) featuring pianist Terraza. He followed this with Feeling Good (2014), an album recorded with the Sant Andreu Jazz Band, including guitarist Josep Traver and drummer Esteve Pi. All About Jazz critic Bruce Lindsay described the musicians on the latter album as demonstrating "exceptional delicacy and taste." By late 2021, Chamorro had uploaded more than a thousand videos to the band's YouTube channel.
Young jazz pianist Emmet Cohen, taught by Brian Lynch, recorded with his former professor on Questioned Answer (2014); the album also included drummer Billy Hart and bassist Boris Kozlov on some tracks. Now-veteran jazz trumpeter Wynton Marsalis released an album recorded at Lincoln Center in 2018, Una Noche con Rubén Blades, that was included by Laura Fernandez as one of 2010's jazz albums of the decade, representing the blending of straight-ahead jazz with Latin-American influences. Trumpeter Bruce Harris, an Essentially Ellington alumnus, gained publicity in the 2010s with two Broadway show performances and his album Beginnings.
2020s: COVID-19 and re-opening
In 2020, during the spring coronavirus lockdown, pianist Emmet Cohen, bassist Russell Hall, and drummer Kyle Poole started a YouTube channel for "Emmet's Place," a house concert venue run out of an apartment in Harlem. The channel gained millions of viewers, and he invited a wide range of guests to his apartment to sustain the channel and to showcase straight-ahead jazz. The Guardian described the style of music he performed as an "inclusive brand of jazz, incorporating the entire tradition of the genre from the 1920s to the present day" and noted the explosive growth of his almost entirely internet-based following. Meanwhile other artists, such as Pasquale Grasso, maintained more specific brands of straight-ahead jazz, with the guitarist recording a "digital showcase series" with albums including Solo Standards and Be-Bop! featuring vocalist Samara Joy, bassist Ari Roland, and drummer Keith Balla.
References
Jazz genres
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Hamilton Gardens
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Hamilton Gardens is a public garden park in the south of Hamilton owned and managed by Hamilton City Council in New Zealand. The 54-hectare park is based on the banks of the Waikato River and includes enclosed gardens, open lawns, a lake, a nursery, a convention centre and the Hamilton East Cemetery. It is the Waikato region's most popular visitor attraction, attracting more than 1 million people and hosting more than 2,000 events a year.
Hamilton Gardens is described in popular culture as a botanical garden, but does not technically qualify as a botanical garden. Instead, the site features 21 gardens representing the art, beliefs, lifestyles and traditions of different civilisations or historical garden styles. These gardens are grouped into the Paradise, Productive, Fantasy, Cultivar and Landscape garden collections, and there is space for gardens which are still in development.
The first development of the gardens began in the early 1960s at what was then the city's waste disposal site. The first substantial development, the Rogers Rose Garden, was opened in 1971 in an attempt to block highway development over the site. Since 1982 many newly developed areas have been opened to the public. Additional features of the gardens now include a lake walkway and a waterfall lookout.
History
Early development
In 1960, four acres of what had been the Hamilton East Town Belt was passed over to Hamilton City Council for use as a public garden. An opening ceremony for Hamilton Gardens was held on 24 July 1960. The design of this area was, and still is, firmly in the Gardenesque tradition, with specimen trees and flower beds set in flat lawns. In 1971 Hamilton was to host the first World Rose Convention. At that time Hamilton had rose gardens at the Lake Domain, but these were limited in size, so a new rose garden was established at Hamilton Gardens. It was named after Dr Denis Rogers, mayor of Hamilton from 1959 to 1968.
In the late 1970s, a new concept for Hamilton Gardens was developed. This new concept would see Hamilton Gardens depart from the traditional botanic garden model, partially because of the proximity of Auckland Botanic Gardens. The focus of Hamilton Gardens was to be on garden design, rather than on botanical science. This concept was developed in three stages through the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s to form five garden collections. The first of the Paradise Gardens were opened in 1992.
Garden development
Trusts were set up to raise funds for specific gardens, including the Rose Garden Committee, the Chinese Garden Trust, the Japanese Garden Trust, the Modernist Garden Trust, the Indian Char Bagh Garden Trust, the Italian Renaissance Garden Trust and Te Parapara Garden Trust.
In 2015, the Hamilton Gardens Development Trust was seeking to raise $7.03 million to develop the Mansfield, Concept, Picturesque and the Surrealist Gardens, and the first stage of a car park extension. A third of this was raised through a targeted rate of $10 per Hamilton City household per year for four years. Another third was secured in June 2015 from the Lottery Significant Project Funds Committee. The full funding was expected to be finalised by 2016. Other planned developments included a playground, three central courts, an Italian Renaissance Pavilion jetty and security cameras.
Awards and recognition
Hamilton Gardens Rose
Hamilton Gardens, a rose named after the gardens, was released on the market in 2008. It was discovered at Hamilton Gardens as a naturally occurring mutation of Paddy Stephens, which was a rose cultivated by rose expert Sam McGredy and like its predecessor has long stems, well formed blooms, and high disease tolerance. The New Zealand Rose Society describes its colour as "an appealing blend of apricot, pink and cream" and says it grows about 1.5 metres. The rose was selected as the 10th most popular Hybrid Tea Rose in a New Zealand rose survey 2009, and was featured at rose events at Hamilton Gardens like the Pacific Rose Bowl Festival, the New Zealand Rose of the Year and the National Spring Rose Show.
International Garden Tourism Awards
Hamilton Gardens won the Garden of the Year award at the International Garden Tourism Awards in Metz, France in 2014, after being selected by a global jury of garden experts. Previous winners of the award for "the world's great and unique gardens" include Singapore Botanic Gardens and the Gardens of Trauttmansdorff Castle in Merano, Italy.
World Garden Tourism Network president Richard Benfield praised the garden's plantings, compartmentalised design, educational value and visual impact. He said visitors were greeted with surprises in each individual garden, and the gardens were linked to the river valley and hence central Hamilton. He says the gardens were nominated for the award because of the maturity of their development, and the strategic plan the council had in place for its future development. Benfield described the gardens as unique in the world, and "visually spectacular".
Critical reception
Lonely Planet encourages visitors to the gardens to see the "extravagant themed enclosed gardens" with "colonnades, pagodas and a mini Taj Mahal". They also recommend the pre-colonial Te Parapara garden and Ngā Uri O Hinetuparimaunga earth blanket statue at the main gates. Blogger David Farrer described Hamilton Gardens as a "hidden treasure" and a "great place to spend half a day".
Supporters
Friends of Hamilton Gardens
The Friends of Hamilton Gardens, a volunteer association set up to support the development of the gardens, have been involved in the development of most gardens and projects. Members of the association have run the Hamilton Gardens Information Centre since the early 1990s, staffing it every day of the year except Good Friday and Christmas Day.
Donors
Several trusts have helped with fundraising and organisation at the gardens. The Hamilton Gardens Building Trust raised the money needed to build the Hamilton Gardens Pavilion, the Waikato Rose Society supported the Rogers Rose Garden, the Waikato Herb Society supported the Herb Garden, and the Waikato Camellia Society supported the development of the Camellia Garden. Former Hamilton mayor Kathleen Braithwaite has been a major sponsor of the English Flower Garden and future development projects. Muriel House made a substantial sponsorship towards the Modernist Garden, and the Russian Bell Tower Trust raised the money needed for the Hamilton Gardens Russian Bell Tower.
Organisations have been involved in organising particular events. The Garden World Trust organised large Gardenworld Festivals at Hamilton Gardens, and the Waikato Garden Festival Trust has organised festivals and fundraising. The Hamilton Gardens Entertainment Trust organised the annual Turtle Lake Concert each year to raise funds for the garden's development. The Hamilton Garden Summer Festival Foundation has organised the Hamilton Gardens Arts Festival since its second year, and the Pacific Rose Bowl Trust was set up to look after the Pacific Rose Bowl Festival.
Gardens
Paradise Garden Collection
The Paradise Garden Collection represents how gardeners have tried to create paradise on Earth. The word 'paradise' is derived from the Old Persian word ‘pairidaeza’ which translates to 'enclosed garden'. There are six gardens in this collection.
The Chinese Scholar's Garden is an interpretation of 10th century to 12th century Sung Dynasty gardens that were designed as natural spaces to spark the imagination. The garden has a tiled entrance way, a winding one way path through a corridor, a cave, over Wisteria Bridge, across an Island of Whispering Birds, past a Hidden Philosopher and through a dense bamboo forest, to the red Ting Pavilion overlooking the Waikato River.
The Japanese Garden of Contemplation is an example of the 14th century to 16th century garden from the Muromachi period, designed for meditation, study and quiet contemplation. The garden includes carefully laid out stones in the Abbott's Quarters, a traditional pavilion, and a vast restful pond.
The English Flower Garden is an example of the Arts and Crafts gardens from 19th century England which were used as plant collections and compositions of seasonal plant colours. The garden has walls and hedges creating 'outdoor rooms', seats and fountains, and the main space includes a pavilion, lawn and pond.
The Modernist Garden is a late 20th century American-style garden designed for outdoor living and inspired by modern art. The garden has a curved pond, yellow outdoor chairs, a raised deck and a large mural of Marilyn Monroe.
The Italian Renaissance Garden is based on the Renaissance gardens of the 15th century or 16th century which were used to rationalise, control and improve nature and draw on Greek, Roman, Medieval and Islamic traditions. The garden includes a Romulus and Remus statue at the entrance, an upper level under arched trellis work, a lower level with flower beds and pavilion, and an outdoor theatre.
The Indian Char Bagh Garden is an interpretation of the 16th century and 17th Century symbolic four-quartered Islamic gardens built by the Mughal aristocracy as an escape from harsh dry conditions. The garden consists of geometric flower beds in a range of colours, below a chalk coloured Indian pavilion.
The Ancient Egyptian Garden, claimed to be the world's first recreation of an Ancient Egyptian garden of ca. 2000 BC, the first decorative gardens ever created, opened in June 2022.
Cultivar Garden Collection
The Cultivar Garden Collection is the closest Hamilton Gardens comes to being a botanical garden. Gardens in the Cultivar Collection include well-known plants which have been selected and bred for gardens at different times throughout history by collectors, breeders and speculators. There are six current or proposed gardens in this collection.
The Rogers Rose Garden includes rose collections from different periods in the history and development of modern roses, from species to new hybrids. The garden is one of 62 rose gardens around the world to be recognised with an Award of Garden Excellence by the World Federation of Rose Societies. Since 2001, the New Zealand Rose of the Year Trials and the Pacific Rose Bowl Festival have been held at the Rogers Rose Garden.
The Rhododendron Lawn features species and cultivars from plant hunting and the development of azalea and rhododendron.
The Hammond Camellia Garden has a range of Camellia from species to various modern cultivars.
The Victorian Flower Garden features tender plants selected and grown for tropical colour. The flowers are displayed in beds and glass houses, in accordance with 19th Century Gardenesque tradition.
The New Zealand Cultivar Garden includes native plants selected and bred for foliage colour.
The Dutch Renaissance Garden represents a 17th-century Dutch renaissance garden, from the golden age of plant imports and speculation.
Productive Garden Collection
The Productive Garden Collection demonstrates different ways people relate to and use productive plants. Each garden is supposed to represent the process of gardening, as both a natural phenomenon and a cultural practice. Gardens in this collection include the Herb Garden, the Kitchen Garden, Te Parapara Māori Garden, and the Sustainable Backyard Garden. There are currently four gardens in the collection, and another one is planned.
The Herb Garden includes plants that are used for food, cosmetics, perfume and medicine.
The Kitchen Garden includes vegetables and small fruit, is maintained by Waikato Institute of Technology students and staff, and is based on traditional 18th century and 19th century European kitchen gardens.
The Sustainable Backyard is a small enclosed garden in which food is sustainably produced at a small backyard scale.
Te Parapara is a traditional Māori garden that demonstrates how local Māori grew food in gardens on the banks of the Waikato River before European settlement. It occupies part of the site of a pre-European settlement of the same name. It was the site of fertile gardens and sacred rituals for the harvesting of food crops, and was the home to famous Ngāti Wairere chief Haanui. The garden is part of Hamilton City Council's long-term plan for the development and restoration of the Waikato River.
Landscape Garden Collection
The Landscape Garden Collection forms the outer spaces of the Hamilton Gardens site, and includes landscape gardens inspired by philosophical traditions. These spaces are supposed to be expressive and subtle artifacts of the relationship between human beings and the natural world.
There are six spaces in this collection:
The Bussaco Woodland is a forest with isolated viewing spots, similar to those in many 3rd century to 12th century cultures. The woodland includes an outdoor chapel, a statue and river views, and is isolated from the rest of the Hamilton Gardens site.
The Hamilton East Park Cemetery, opened in 1863, is an example of the late 19th century and early 20th century Rural Park Cemetery movement, which led to the creation of some of the first public parks. The cemetery follows a symmetrical English style influenced by John Loudon, and is the burial grounds of many of the first British settlers of Hamilton.
The Echo Bank Bush is an area of native bush, maintained in the 20th-century tradition of conservation.
The Valley Walk is a 20th-century naturalistic landscape garden using native Waikato plants. The plantings have been selected for their appropriateness to the habitat and natural ecosystem, reducing the need for weeding and chemicals, and increasing plant growth and diversity.
The Hillside Lawn is a vast lawn on top of Hamilton's old city rubbish dump, which typifies how landscapes have been restored after industrial use.
The Baroque Formal Garden is a proposed take on the classical 17th century to 18th century French gardens which were designed to project the power and wealth of their owner.
Fantasy Garden Collection
The Fantasy Garden Collection is supposed to illustrate both how fantasy and imagination has been used in garden design, and how garden design can stimulate fantasy and imagination in people who visit gardens. There are nine current or proposed gardens in this collection.
The Chinoiserie Garden incorporates elements of Chinoiserie, a European fashion to interpret the Oriental design in the late 18th century and 19th century. The Chinoiserie Pavilion centrepiece is modelled on the Chinese House built in 1738 at Stowe Gardens in the United Kingdom. It is a reinterpretation of Chinese and Japanese designs and European interpretations, and includes The Chinoiserie, a Bottle Gate and Chinoiserie seats.
The Tropical Garden includes plants from other climatic regions, including tropical-looking plants, which are very hard to grow in the temperate Waikato climate. The garden includes 200 species and more than 8000 individual specimens, including a vertical garden wall with 4000 plant pockets around a pond. Tropical bird calls, used under a Creative Commons license, are played from hidden speakers at random times.
The Surrealist Garden is a mystery garden aiming to trick the subconscious mind. The garden includes a large lawn with mysterious, surreal giant topiary figures known as "trons", garden furniture that is five times normal size, and oversized flowers that talk were considered. It was planned to open in 2019. The garden opened on 3 February 2020.
The Tudor Garden is an interpretation of a 16th-century English Renaissance garden with red and black stone knot gardens, Elizabethan walls, and a stone pavilion. The garden design is based on the drawings of the sixteenth-century writer Didymus Mountain and reflects aristocrats' fascination with geometric patterns and symbols. The signature features of the garden are sponsored sculptures of Phoenix, Unicorn, Griffin, Dragon, Satyr, Centaur, Sea serpent and Bottom. It opened in 2015.
The Concept Garden is a 21st-century garden to represent a single idea, following the conventions of conceptual art. It is estimated to cost $250,000. and make a cryptic reference to the Māori proverb, "He peke tangata, apa he peke titoki," which translates as "the human family lives on, while the branch of a titoki falls and decays". It opened in 2018.
The Picturesque Garden is wild landscape, with artificial historic features representing 18th century Romantic period garden traditions, and was estimated to cost $600,000, but the total was about $900,000. It borders the Waikato River, and features river views. It opened on 4 November 2019.
The Mansfield Garden is an $800,000 recreation of the early 20th century New Zealand lawn party featured in Katherine Mansfield's short story The Garden Party. The garden includes a tent on the tennis court, a karaka hedge, a lily pond, long tables with white tablecloths, and the frontage of a 19th-century villa. It was planned to open in October 2018, but opened on 12 November.
The proposed Medieval Garden, an example of a 13th-century European courtyard garden, would be based on the poem Roman de la Rose, and would cost $650,000.
The proposed Rococo Theatre Garden is an 18th-century and 19th century German or Austrian Rococo-Baroque garden costing $900,000. Such a garden would have been a theatrical setting for classical music performances and would have followed in the same traditions as the music of the time.
Visitors
Hamilton Gardens is located between the Waikato River and Cobham Drive State Highway 1. The site can be accessed from two vehicle gates and several pedestrian entry points. The enclosed gardens are open during daylight hours every day of the year, and entry and parking is free. Buses run hourly between Hamilton Gardens and the Hamilton Transport Centre via Hamilton East, and Waikato River Explorer runs regular cruises between Memorial Park, Hamilton Gardens jetty and Mystery Creek. The Hamilton Gardens features on national and regional tours, including a combined one day tour with the Hobbiton Movie Set.
Visitors to the Gardens come from around the world, including Australia, the United Kingdom, Europe, Asia, North America and South America. Local visitors include people from Auckland, the Waikato region, the Bay of Plenty and Taranaki. 1,148,613 visitors are thought to have visited in the year to July 2017, up 13.5% on the previous year.
Events and facilities
Events
The Hamilton Gardens Arts Festival has been held each February since 1998. The festival includes a range of events in different gardens and buildings, including concerts, exhibitions and a pop-up bar.
The gardens play host to many events, including the signature Pacific Rose Bowl Festival in November, the National Painting and Printmaking Awards in February, the Great Pumpkin Carnival in March, the Hamilton Fringe Festival in late March, and Stations of the Cross before Easter.
The gardens host annual gardening events specialising in bonsai, chrysanthemums, daffodils, dahlias, lilies, orchids, tulips and roses. Other annual shows include the Doll and Teddy Bear Show, the Salvation Army Christmas Concert, the Scarecrow Festival, the Waikato Maths Competition and the Waikato Science Fair.
The Hamilton Gardens Pavilion is the venue for concerts, antique fairs, collectable shows, and model railway exhibitions. It is used for one-off business breakfasts, psychic nights, and health seminars. It is also the location of regular fitness expos, wedding expos, natural health expos, and trade shows.
Local communities use the Hamilton Gardens for religious ceremonies, cultural gatherings, and balls.
The gardens also play host to Anzac Day commemorations, model boat regattas, karate competitions, pipe band competitions, and fun runs.
All the gardens and buildings are available for weddings and ceremonies, and the Hamilton Gardens provides an experienced wedding coordinator to make arrangements and provide assistance. There is a fee to book enclosed gardens for weddings, but no charge for taking wedding photos inside the gardens site.
Amenities and facilities
At the centre of the gardens is the Hamilton Gardens Pavilion, a convention and corporate function centre which can seat 650 people across three rooms. The pavilion also houses the Hamilton Gardens Information Centre, which is run by paid staff and volunteers and offers seasonal plants, tourism bookings and souvenirs.
The Waikato Institute of Technology Horticulture Education Centre at Hamilton Gardens offers professional arboriculture, horticulture, floristry, landscape design and horticultural technology courses and holds an annual open day to prospective students.
A focal point of Hamilton Gardens is Turtle Lake, an artificial lake and duck habitat with a stage on one side and a walkway running above the water on the other. The four-metre horsetail waterfall flowing into the lake is the only waterfall in Hamilton. An independently owned cafe, restaurant and catering company operates at the lake, serving a variety of coffees, snacks, meals and ice creams. The cafe's al fresco dining area looks out on the lake.
Toilets are located in the Hamilton Gardens Pavilion and at the Gate 1 entrance. Seating is located around the site, with most gardens having sheltered spots in case of rain. Most gardens are accessible for wheelchairs, mobility scooters and pushchairs. There are maps, apps, brochures and guided tours in different languages, and an activity sheet for children. There are picnic spots near the Waikato River, Turtle Lake and in some gardens. Dogs are banned from enclosed areas, but there is an off-leash dog walking area east of the Turtle Lake car park.
Jetty and Cruises
The old jetty below the Gate 1 car park was one of 10 jetties on the Waikato in Hamilton. As it was in a poor repair, a new facility, built by Total Marine services of Auckland was opened in June 2018 and is served by cruises from Memorial Park and Swarbrick Landing, which started in 2012.
References
External links
Hamilton Gardens official website
Event calendar (from the official Hamilton Gardens website)
Photo of gardens site in 1967
Geography of Hamilton, New Zealand
Tourist attractions in Hamilton, New Zealand
Protected areas of Waikato
Gardens in New Zealand
Botanical gardens in New Zealand
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20the%20Spanish%E2%80%93American%20War
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Timeline of the Spanish–American War
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The timeline of events of the Spanish–American War covers major events leading up to, during, and concluding the Spanish–American War, a ten-week conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States of America.
The conflict had its roots in the worsening socio-economic and military position of Spain after the Peninsular War, the growing confidence of the United States as a world power, a lengthy independence movement in Cuba and a nascent one in the Philippines, and strengthening economic ties between Cuba and the United States. Land warfare occurred primarily in Cuba and to a much lesser extent in the Philippines. Little or no fighting occurred in Guam, Puerto Rico, or other areas.
Although largely forgotten in the United States today, the Spanish–American War was a formative event in American history. The destruction of the , yellow journalism, the war slogan "Remember the Maine!", and the charge up San Juan Hill are all iconic symbols of the war. The war marked the first time since the American Civil War that Americans from the North and the South fought a common enemy, and the war marked the end of strong sectional feeling and the "healing" of the wounds of that war. The Spanish–American War catapulted Theodore Roosevelt to the presidency, marked the beginning of the modern United States Army, and led to the first establishment of American colonies overseas.
The war proved seminal for Spain as well. The loss of Cuba, which was seen not as a colony but as part of Spain itself, was traumatic for the Spanish government and Spanish people. This trauma led to the rise of the Generation of '98, a group of young intellectuals, authors, and artists who were deeply critical of what they perceived as conformism and ignorance on the part of the Spanish people. They successfully called for a new "Spanish national spirit" that was politically active, anti-authoritarian, and generally anti-imperialistic and anti-military. The war also greatly benefited Spain economically. No longer spending large sums to maintain its colonies, significant amounts of capital were suddenly repatriated for use domestically. This sudden and massive influx of capital led to the development for the first time of large, modern industries in banking, chemicals, electrical power generation, manufacturing, ship building, steel, and textiles.
The war led to independence for Cuba within a few years. The United States imposed a colonial government on the Philippines, quashing the young Philippine Republic. This led directly to the Philippine–American War, a brutal guerilla conflict that caused the deaths of about 4,100 Americans and 12,000 to 20,000 Filipino guerilla and regular troops. Another 200,000 to 1,500,000 Filipino civilian deaths occurred. However, the conflict brought William Howard Taft to the attention of President Theodore Roosevelt, and led to Taft's ascension to the U.S. presidency in 1908. The American presence in the Philippines still existed at the beginning of World War II. Along with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the American experience in the Philippines at the start of the war (the Philippines Campaign, the Bataan Death March, the Battle of Corregidor) became another formative episode in the American experience and rehabilitated the career of General Douglas MacArthur.
1892
April 10 - After widespread discussion with Cubans living in the United States, José Martí co-founds El Partido Revolucionario Cubano (the Cuban Revolutionary Party). Its purpose is to win independence for Cuba. The organization is a reaction to nearly 15 years of economic growth, expansion of trade with the U.S., withering of trade with Spain, and extreme dissatisfaction with the peninsular caste system and socio-economic injustice.
1894
August 27 - The United States Congress enacts the Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act, which imposes much higher tariffs on sugar. A suspension of Spanish tariffs on American goods expires at about the same time, leading to fears that the U.S. will retaliate against Cuba and other Spanish colonies by raising sugar and other tariffs even further. The two events devastate Cuba's economy, and Cuban sugar producers unite to try to get the Spanish tariffs lowered.
1895
February 24 - In the small town of Baire near the city of Santiago de Cuba, Martí issues the Grito de Baire, igniting the Cuban War of Independence. Within 18 months, the insurrectionists have 50,000 men under arms and uprisings have spread across the island.
June 12 - U.S. President Grover Cleveland issues a proclamation declaring the United States neutral in the Cuban war of independence.
1896
February 10 - After the Spanish lost the eastern part of Cuba to the revolutionaries and witnessing the outbreak of insurrection in the western provinces, Spanish Army General Arsenio Martínez-Campos y Antón is replaced as Governor of Cuba by General Valeriano Weyler, 1st Duke of Rubí. Weyler begins a policy of recontratación ("reconcentration"), in which the people in rebel-held areas are rounded up and placed in concentration camps. Weyler brings with him more than 200,000 Spanish Army troops, and organizes 50,000 peninsulars and Cubans into a pro-Spanish militia. About 400,000 people are placed in concentration camps with little provision made for food, housing, clothing, sanitation, and medical care, and the local economy collapses in areas where the camps are created. Tens of thousands of Cubans starve to death or die from disease.
November 3 - 1896 United States presidential election: William McKinley defeats William Jennings Bryan to become President of the United States. The Republican Party platform advocates independence and democracy for Cuba. The neutralist wing of the Democratic Party loses power in Congress as voters elect pro-Cuban Democrats.
1897
May 20 - The U.S. Congress appropriates $50,000 to provide food, clothing, and other supplies to approximately 1,200 destitute people living in Cuba who have both Cuban and American citizenship. President McKinley signs the legislation on May 24.
June 7 - United States Secretary of State John Sherman issues an official protest to the government of Spain regarding the brutality of General Weyler.
July 7 - The U.S. Congress enacts the Dingley Act, which doubles the tariff on sugar. This plunges the Cuban economy into depression.
October 6 - After Conservative Party Prime Minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo is assassinated on August 8, Liberal Party leader Práxedes Mateo Sagasta forms a government to become Prime Minister of Spain. Sagasta recalls Weyler (replacing him with General Ramón Blanco y Erenas), offers home rule to the Cubans, and closes the concentration camps. Confident of victory, the Cuban rebels reject the offer of home rule.
1898
January
January 11 - Anti-independence riots, incited by Spanish Army officers, occur in Havana, the capital of Cuba. Extensive property damage occurs as rioters demand that Spain stop giving concessions to the Cuban rebels.
January 25 - The United States Navy battleship arrives at Havana Harbor from Key West, Florida. President McKinley says the ship is on a good-will visit, but the ship is there as a show of strength to ensure American property and lives are not threatened should additional rioting occur.
February
February 9 - Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, the Spanish ambassador to the United States, is forced to resign after the De Lôme Letter is published in the New York Journal. This document, a private letter written to friend in Cuba, characterizes U.S. President McKinley as "weak" and a "would-be politician" who catered to the most jingoistic elements of the Republican Party and public. The American public is outraged at the depiction of the United States as immature, militarily weak, and lacking in diplomatic skill. The Autonomous Charter of Puerto Rico, a law approved the previous November by the Cortes (the Spanish national legislature) giving local city and provincial governments of the island nearly complete autonomy, is implemented by Spanish Governor-General Manuel Macías y Casado. The first autonomous government of Puerto Rico meets the following day.
February 15 - The USS Maine explodes. About 274 of the ship's roughly 354 crew die. A naval court of inquiry led by Captain William T. Sampson is inconclusive, but the American press and most members of Congress conclude that the Maine struck a naval mine laid by the Spanish. (Subsequent investigations over the next century suggest the explosion was caused by the ignition of coal dust in the fuel bunker or a fire in the coal bunker, although some researchers have also concluded the cause was a mine.)
February 25 - U.S. Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt sends an order to Commodore George Dewey, commander of the U.S. Navy's Asiatic Squadron in Hong Kong, to be prepared to attack the Spanish Navy fleet in the Philippines if there is an outbreak of war. Although Secretary of the Navy John Davis Long is angered by Roosevelt's precipitate action (which occurred during his absence), he does not countermand the order.
March
March 3 - Fernando Primo de Rivera, Governor-General of the Philippines, informs the Spanish government in Madrid that the U.S. Asiatic Fleet has orders to attack Manila, capital of the Philippines, in the event of war.
March 9 - After learning that Spain was attempting to buy Brazilian warships under construction in the United Kingdom, U.S. President McKinley asks Congress for $50 million for national defense. Congress approves the request in a single day. The U.S. Navy purchases the Brazilian ships instead.
March 12 - The U.S. Navy's European Squadron is ordered to depart Lisbon, Portugal, and escort the newly purchased ships (formerly the Amazonas) and the (formerly the Almirante Abreu) to the United States.
March 14 - The Spanish Navy's Atlantic Squadron, commanded by Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete, leaves the Spanish port of Cadiz for the Canary Islands and then the Portuguese-held Cape Verde Islands to position itself for a dash to the West Indies in the event of war. Admiral Cervera has orders to destroy Key West and blockade the East Coast of the United States, but knows that his navy is in disrepair, has no ship repair facilities in the Americas, is ill-trained, and is significantly weaker than the U.S. Navy. He advocates a defensive strategy, but is ignored.
March 19 - The battleship leaves Puget Sound, Washington, for Key West, accompanied by the gunboat .
March 26 - William T. Sampson is brevetted to Rear Admiral and ordered to take command of the U.S. Navy's North Atlantic Squadron at Key West.
March 29 - U.S. President McKinley issues an ultimatum to Spain demanding Cuban independence.
April
April 3 - An insurrection against Spanish rule breaks out on the island of Cebu in the Philippines.
April 4 - U.S. President McKinley's war message to Congress is delayed to April 6 and then April 11 after Spain submits a new plan (short of armistice) for Cuban autonomy and U.S. Consul-General Fitzhugh Lee in Havana asks for more time to evacuate Americans. Other factors contributing to the delay include news that the Spanish Atlantic Squadron is still near the Cape Verde Islands and that U.S. Attorney General John W. Griggs needs more time to draft McKinley's message.
April 9 - Spain agrees to the March 29 ultimatum's demand that it ask for an armistice with the Cuban rebels, but the McKinley administration says the concession comes too late. The same day, Spanish Army General Basilio Augustín becomes Governor-General of the Philippines. He creates a consultative assembly to avert open rebellion against Spain, but most Filipinos reject it as illegitimate. Emilio Aguinaldo establishes military organizations in each area under Filipino rebel control.
April 11 - U.S. President McKinley submits his war message to Congress.
April 19 - The U.S. Congress enacts a joint resolution demanding independence for Cuba, and giving President McKinley the authorization to declare war if Spain does not yield. The resolution includes the Teller Amendment, which denies the U.S. the right to annex Cuba and makes it official American policy to promote Cuban democracy and independence.
April 20 - U.S. President McKinley signs the congressional joint resolution into law.
April 21 - Spain severs diplomatic relations with the United States. The same day, the U.S. Navy begins a blockade of Cuba. Spain mobilizes 80,000 army reserves and sends 5,000 regular army soldiers to the Canary Islands.
April 22 - U.S. President McKinley calls for 125,000 volunteers to join the National Guard of the United States, while Congress authorizes an increase in regular Army forces to 65,000. The U.S. Army is small (2,143 officers and 26,040 soldiers), ill-trained, and ill-equipped. The U.S. Navy, on the other hand, is modern and well-trained, well-repaired, and well-supplied.
April 23 - Denouncing the blockade as an act of war under international law, Spain declares war on the United States.
April 25 - The U.S. Congress declares that a state of war between the U.S. and Spain has existed since April 21.
April 27 - The U.S. Asiatic Fleet leaves Mirs Bay, Hong Kong, China, and heads for Manila. The same day, in the first naval action of the war, the , , , and other American naval ships bombard the Cuban city of Matanzas. Cuban coastal defenses return fire.
April 30 - The U.S. Asiatic Fleet — consisting of the protected cruisers , , , and ; gunboats and ; and revenue cutter — arrives at Cape Bolinau, Luzon, the Philippines, at daybreak. Believing that the Spanish fleet is in Subic Bay, the U.S. Asiatic Fleet finds nothing, and steams for Manila Bay.
May
May 1 - Battle of Manila Bay: The U.S. Asiatic Squadron enters Manila Bay at midnight. At anchor in the harbor is the out-gunned and ill-prepared Spanish fleet under the command of Admiral Patricio Montojo. At about 4:10 A.M., the American fleet engages the older Spanish vessels. In the ensuing seven-hour naval battle, Spain loses all seven of its ships, 381 Spanish sailors die, and three Spanish shore batteries are destroyed. There are no American combat deaths; two U.S. Navy officers and six sailors are wounded.
May 2 - The U.S. Asiatic Fleet lacks soldiers to actually occupy territory, so President McKinley authorizes U.S. Army troops to be sent to the Philippines.
May 6 - After convincing U.S. Secretary of War Russell A. Alger he can raise an all-volunteer force of 1,000 men and form the 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry Regiment, Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt resigns. Alger previously offered Roosevelt a commission in the Army as a full colonel in command of a regular regiment, but Roosevelt declined.
May 11 - Battle of Cárdenas: Spanish shore guns repulse a U.S. Navy effort to seize the harbor at Cárdenas, Cuba. Ensign Worth Bagley is killed; he is the only U.S. Navy officer killed in combat during the entire war. The same day, the and send 52 United States Marines ashore at Cienfuegos, Cuba, to cut the transatlantic telegraph cables with Spain. Two of the three cables are cut, and the Marines suffer heavy casualties.
May 12 - Bombardment of San Juan: The U.S. North Atlantic Squadron sails into the harbor at San Juan, Puerto Rico, where it is believed that the Spanish Atlantic Squadron has anchored. The Spanish are not there, but Rear Admiral William T. Sampson orders the city bombed anyway. Numerous civilians die. Major General Wesley Merritt is appointed commander of the American force which will invade the Philippines. Merritt is eventually given more than 20,000 regular army and volunteer troops and told to occupy the entire Philippines.
May 19 - Desperately low on fuel, Admiral Cervera's Spanish Atlantic Squadron sails unopposed into the harbor at Santiago de Cuba.
May 23 - Emilio Aguinaldo declares that he has dictatorial powers over those areas of the Philippines held by Filipino rebels.
May 25 - The First Philippine Expedition, consisting of members of the U.S. Army's Eighth Army Corps, departs San Francisco, California, for Manila. The same day, U.S. President McKinley calls for an additional 75,000 volunteer soldiers.
May 29 - The U.S. Navy Flying Squadron, commanded by Commodore Winfield Scott Schley, arrives off Santiago de Cuba. Schley received orders to blockade Santiago de Cuba on May 24, but futilely awaited the Spanish Atlantic Squadron off Cienfuegos first. The Flying Squadron consists of the armored cruiser ; the battleships , , and ; and the protected cruiser USS Marblehead. The 1st United States Volunteer Cavalry — better known as the "Rough Riders" because most of the men are cowboys, frontiersmen, railroad workers, Native Americans, and similar "rough" people from the American West — depart their training camp in San Antonio, Texas. They are under the command of Colonel Leonard Wood; Theodore Roosevelt, who largely organized the unit, declines command of it. Pleading inexperience, Roosevelt accepts a commission as lieutenant colonel of volunteers and serves as Wood's subordinate.
May 31 - The U.S. Navy's Flying Squadron exchanges fire with the Spanish Navy's Atlantic Squadron armored cruiser and shore batteries at Santiago de Cuba.
June
June 3 - Commodore Schley's U.S. Flying Squadron, supported by Rear Admiral Sampson's U.S. North Atlantic Squadron (which arrived on June 1), attempts to block the entrance to the harbor at Santiago de Cuba by sinking the collier in the main channel. Small Spanish gunboats and mines prevent the ship's proper positioning, and the harbor remains open. Assistant Naval Constructor Richmond P. Hobson and his crew of seven are captured.
June 7 - U.S. Marines from the cut the submarine telegraph cable at Guantánamo Bay, severing communication between the city of Guantánamo and the rest of Cuba.
June 10 - Invasion of Guantánamo Bay: 647 U.S. Marines land at Guantánamo Bay, beginning the invasion of Cuba.
June 12 - Emilio Aguinaldo declares the independence of the Philippines.
June 13 - U.S. President McKinley signs the War Revenue Act of 1898 into law. Passed by Congress on June 10, the act authorizes a tax on amusements, liquor, tea, and tobacco, and requires tax stamps on some business transactions (such as bills of lading, manifests, and marine insurance). It also authorizes $200 million in war bonds, provided that no more than $100 million in bonds is outstanding at any time.
June 16 - The Spanish Navy's 2d Squadron, under the command of Rear Admiral Manuel de la Cámara y Libermoore, departs Spain for the Philippines. The fleet consists of the battleship Pelayo, armored cruiser Emperador Carlos V, unarmored cruisers Patriota and Rapido, and two transports with 4,000 troops.
June 19 - The Rough Riders disembark from U.S. Navy vessels onto a beach near Santiago de Cuba.
June 20 - U.S. Army, U.S. Navy, and Cuban rebels meet for the Aserraderos Conference in the small town of Aserraderos (near Santiago de Cuba). They jointly plan strategy, troop movements, and battle plans.
June 21 - Capture of Guam: The American protected cruiser arrives at the Pacific Ocean island of Guam on June 20 and fires a few warning shots in the air, which are misinterpreted by the small Spanish garrison as a salute. (The undersea telegraph was not working, and the garrison did not know war had been declared.) The Spanish garrison formally surrenders the island without a fight on June 21.
June 22 - U.S. Major General William Rufus Shafter's Fifth Army Corps begins landing at the Cuban village of Daiquirí, east of Santiago de Cuba. About 6,000 men land in a chaotic operation on the first day. Among the 16,888 troops are 15 regiments of regulars and three regiments of volunteers. Spanish Army Lieutenant General Arsenio Linares y Pombo has 12,000 soldiers in the surrounding hills, but does not oppose the landings. The cruiser , commanded by Captain Charles D. Sigsbee (former commander of the USS Maine), disables the Spanish Navy destroyer Terror while blockading San Juan, Puerto Rico.
June 23 - A division of the American Fifth Corps seizes the village of Siboney, Cuba, without a fight. Siboney, just from Santiago de Cuba, becomes the corps headquarters.
June 24 - Battle of Las Guasimas: Major General Joseph Wheeler learns that Spanish Army forces are digging in along a ridge above El Camino Real (the "Royal Road") near the village of Las Guásimas, west of Siboney. Wheeler orders Brigadier General S. B. M. Young to lead the 1st Cavalry Regiment, 10th Cavalry Regiment (a racially segregated unit of African American soldiers), and the Rough Riders to attack the position, apparently knowing that Spanish Army Brigadier General Antero Rubín has orders to withdraw. The Spanish — outnumbering the Americans 1,500 to 1,000, and armed with superior 7mm 1893 model Mauser repetition rifles firing ammunition propelled by smokeless gunpowder — hold off the U.S. 1st Cavalry. Led by Lt. Colonel Roosevelt, three companies of the Rough Riders try to outflank the Spanish and succeed to some extent. After two hours, the Spanish withdraw as scheduled. The Americans claim victory, but were much closer to defeat.
June 28 - U.S. President McKinley extends the American naval blockade to Puerto Rico. The cruiser attacks the Spanish Navy transport Antonio Lopez, which is defended by the Spanish cruisers Isabel II and Alfonso XIII. Although the Antonio Lopez is run aground near the city of San Juan and destroyed, most of her cargo (including heavy artillery) is saved by the Spanish.
June 30 - The first 2,500 U.S. Army troops arrive in Manila Bay in the Philippines and come ashore at Cavite. American troops attempt a landing and are repulsed at the Battle of Tayacoba.
July
July 1 - Battle of the Aguadores: In support of U.S. Army troops moving on Santiago de Cuba, Brigadier General Henry M. Duffield leads a brigade consisting of the 33rd Michigan Volunteer Infantry, 34th Michigan Volunteer Infantry, and 9th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry in a feint toward the Aguadores River. The railway trestle over the river is destroyed, preventing an American crossing. His 2,500 soldiers are stopped by about 275 Spanish Army soldiers, and Duffield withdraws. Battle of El Caney: 520 Spanish Army soldiers under the command of Brigadier General Joaquín Vara del Rey y Rubio hold off 6,653 men of Fifth Army Corps' 2d Division, led by Brigadier General Henry Ware Lawton. Heavy ground cover delayed and exhausted the U.S. troops as they climbed the hill toward El Caney, the men had little food, the underpowered American artillery was not close enough to provide cover, and six wooden blockhouses and a small stone fort give the Spanish excellent protection. The battle begins at 6:30 A.M., and was expected to last two hours; it does not end until American troops finally overrun El Caney at 5:00 P.M. Vara del Rey is killed. Battles of San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill: Two elements of Fifth Corps — the 1st Division, under the command of U.S. Brigadier General Jacob Ford Kent, and the Cavalry Division (dismounted) under the command of Executive Officer Samuel S. Sumner (General Wheeler was ill) — assault San Juan Hill and Kettle Hill (named for the large iron sugar-cooking kettles on its slopes) overlooking Santiago de Cuba. The 15,000 American soldiers are opposed by 800 men of the Spanish Army's IV Corps under the command of General Linares. The attack on Kettle Hill is led by one element of the Cavalry Division's 1st Brigade (the 3rd U.S. Cavalry) and two elements of the Cavalry Division's 2d Brigade (the Rough Riders and the all-black 10th Cavalry). The assault is initially slowed as U.S. soldiers suffer from heat exhaustion, but effective fire from American Gatling guns and "the charge up San Juan Hill" by Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders secure the heights. U.S. troops on Kettle Hill briefly take Spanish artillery fire from San Juan Hill until it, too, is taken relatively easily. All U.S. objectives at San Juan Heights are secure by 1:30 P.M.
July 2 - U.S. General Shafter sends a message to Admiral Sampson, requesting that the U.S. Navy force its way into Santiago de Cuba's harbor and destroy the shore batteries and artillery there. "Sampson is appalled" as he realizes the U.S. Army has suffered such grievous losses from disease that it needs the U.S. Navy to capture the city for it.
July 3 - Battle of Santiago de Cuba: On July 1, the Spanish Governor of Cuba, General Blanco, ordered Admiral Cervera to run the blockade and escape the harbor at Santiago de Cuba. Cervera does so at 9:00 A.M. on July 3, just hours after U.S. Rear Admiral Sampson leaves his fleet for an on-shore conference (leaving Commodore Schley in command of both the Flying Squadron and North Atlantic Squadron). Cervera's fleet consists of the armored cruisers Infanta Maria Teresa (his flagship), Vizcaya, , and Almirante Oquendo, and the destroyers Plutón and Furor. Although Cervera surprises the American fleet by sortying during daylight, the American ships respond quickly, and are three times larger than and outgun Cervera's ships (whose weapons are in disrepair). The Spanish Navy loses all six ships (sank or scuttled); 323 Spanish sailors are wounded, 151 killed, and 1,720 captured, while just one American sailor is killed and one is wounded.
July 4 - Brigadier General Francis Vinton Greene of the U.S. Army's 2d Philippine Expeditionary Force seizes vacant Wake Island and claims it for the United States. U.S. General Shafter tells General José Toral y Velázquez, commander of Spanish forces in Santiago de Cuba (in place of General Linares, who was wounded at San Juan Hill), that he will soon bombard the city and that all women and children should leave. The Spanish Navy cruiser Reina Mercedes, her engines in such disrepair she is barely able to move, leaves the harbor at Santiago de Cuba and is scuttled in the main channel at 11:30 P.M. The U.S. Navy later refloats the ship and takes it back to the United States as a war prize.
July 5 - Just after midnight, the armed yacht intercepts the Spanish cruiser Alfonso XIII as it flees Havana Harbor. The Spanish vessel is forced to run aground, and the Hawk shells it to pieces at daylight.
July 7 - Worried about an American attack on the coast of Spain, the Spanish government tells Rear Admiral Cámara to bring the Spanish Navy's 2d Squadron, then at the mouth of the Suez Canal, back to Cadiz. This ends the Spanish attempt to oppose the U.S. Asiatic Fleet in the Philippines. With U.S. President McKinley having pressed for it since June 11, Congress passes a joint resolution on June 6 annexing Hawaii. McKinley signs the legislation on July 7, and it becomes official the following day.
July 9 - The U.S. Army's Fifth Corps seals off Santiago de Cuba.
July 10–11 - Spanish artillery forces at Santiago de Cuba engage in a firefight with U.S. Army artillery in the hills surrounding the city, supported by U.S. Navy cannon fire offshore.
July 12 - Major General Nelson A. Miles, having arrived in Cuba the previous day, consults with General Shafter and Admiral Sampson about the situation in Cuba. Later that day, the forces the Spanish merchant blockade runner Santo Domingo aground on the Isla de la Juventud.
July 16 - Cuban rebels seize the town of Gibara from the Spanish Army without a fight.
July 17 - Siege of Santiago: Spanish general Toral offers the surrender of the 12,000 men at Santiago de Cuba, the 12,000 men at Guantánamo, and six other small Spanish Army garrisons throughout Cuba. Leonard Wood, promoted to brigadier general, accepts the surrender and is named military governor of Santiago de Cuba. Land combat effectively ends in Cuba for the duration of the war.
July 18 - Third Battle of Manzanillo: The gunboats and , auxiliary cruisers and , and armed tugboats and USS Wompatuck enter the harbor at Manzanillo, Cuba, after brief naval skirmishes on June 30 and on July 1, and sink eight Spanish Navy gunboats and a merchant blockade runner.
July 21 - Battle of Nipe Bay: The U.S. Navy gunboats and , the auxiliary cruiser , and the armed tugboat enter Nipe Bay on the northeastern coast of Cuba and find its shore battery unmanned. Inside the bay, they sink the Spanish Navy light cruiser Jorge Juan, securing the bay as a rendezvous point for U.S. military forces heading to Puerto Rico. The same day, General Miles leaves Guantánamo Bay with a force of 3,400 U.S. Army soldiers, bound for Puerto Rico.
July 22 - The government of Spain asks the French ambassador to the United States, Jules Cambon, to request peace terms from the United States. The request is delayed by four days, as the Spanish give the code key for Cambon's encrypted message to the Austro-Hungarian ambassador, who is vacationing.
July 25 - Originally intending to land at Fajardo, Puerto Rico, on July 24, the U.S. Army invasion force led by General Miles changes course overnight after learning that the American press has revealed the Fajardo destination. Instead, the auxiliary cruiser secures the port at Guánica, Puerto Rico, and U.S. troops come ashore there on July 25. American soldiers secure the main road to Ponce on July 26 in the "Battle of Yauco" after a brief and bloodless skirmish. U.S. General Merritt reaches Manila in the Philippines. American troops there now number 10,000, and Merritt begins military operations from Cavite to capture the city.
July 26 - Having finally decrypted the Spanish government's message to him, French Ambassador Cambon passes on Spain's request for peace terms to U.S. President McKinley.
July 27 - The U.S. Navy gunboat USS Annapolis and the auxiliary cruisers USS Wasp and enter the undefended harbor at Ponce and threaten to bombard the town. With no Spanish official present, foreign diplomats must mediate between the U.S. Navy and the city. These diplomats telegraph the U.S. Navy's terms of surrender to the Spanish Governor-General of Puerto Rico, Manuel Macías. He reluctantly agrees to them.
July 28 - The Puerto Rican city of Ponce surrenders, and is invested with 12,000 U.S. Army troops.
July 29 - U.S. Army troops in the Philippines begin establishing an offensive line stretching from the beach at Manila Bay inland to the Calle Real (the inland road connecting Cavite with Manila).
July 31 - U.S. President McKinley gives the American terms for peace to French Ambassador Jules Cambon: Immediate independence for Cuba, and cession of Puerto Rico to the United States in compensation for its war costs.
August
August 1 - Under threat of bombardment by the U.S. Navy auxiliary cruisers USS Gloucester and USS Wasp, the port of Arroyo, Puerto Rico, surrenders without a fight. A brief skirmish with Spanish Army cavalry occurs on August 3, after which 5,300 U.S. Army troops come ashore and occupy the town.
August 4 - Spain agrees to the American peace terms. In a two-and-a-half hour meeting, U.S. President McKinley and French Ambassador Cambon draft a treaty. The Spanish Governor-General of the Philippines, Basilio Augustín, is replaced with Fermín Jáudenes after the Spanish government learns that Augustín attempted to surrender to U.S. Admiral George Dewey. The "Round-Robin Letter" appears in U.S. newspapers. Fifth Corps departed the U.S. without proper equipment, food, or medical supplies, and is suffering from extremely poor living and sanitary conditions. The letter, written by now-Colonel Theodore Roosevelt and signed by all commanders of the corps, demands the withdrawal of the corps to the U.S. before disease decimates it. Delivered to General Shafter before its publication, U.S. Secretary of War Alger has already agreed to withdraw Fifth Corps (and does so on August 3). The American public is outraged by the scandalous living conditions under which the troops suffer.
August 5 - 5,000 U.S. Army troops under the command of Major General John R. Brooke have orders to march west along the southern coast of Puerto Rico from Arroyo to the nearby town of Guayama, then to Coamo. They are then to turn northeast and head for the inland city of Cayey. The U.S. soldiers meet stiff resistance in Guayama, but the August 5 firefight is brief and they invest the town.
August 9 - Units of Major General James H. Wilson's U.S. Army column, moving east-northeast from Ponce to Coamo and then north to the heavily concentrated Spanish Army position at Aibonito, encounter heavy resistance in Coamo. Wilson's men are forced to envelope the Spanish from the rear, killing 40 and capturing 170. Wilson suffers no dead, and just six wounded.
August 10 - 2,900 U.S. Army soldiers under the command of Brigadier General Theodore Schwan, marching from Ponce on the south-central coast of Puerto Rico northwest to Mayagüez on the western coast and then northeast to Arecibo on the north coast, encounter stiff resistance by Spanish Army forces at the village of Hormigueros, Puerto Rico. One American dies and 16 are wounded before the Spanish flee.
August 12 - U.S. Army General Wilson's command again runs into Spanish Army resistance, this time in the Asomante Hills near Aibonito. The Spanish are routed after a brief skirmish. Spain and the United States sign an armistice, the "Protocol of Peace".
August 12–13 - Fourth Battle of Manzanillo: A U.S. Navy squadron consisting of the protected cruiser , the auxiliary cruisers and USS Suwanee, the gunboat , and the armed tugboat bombard the Cuban port of Manzanillo and capture it.
August 13 - Battle of Manila: Manila surrenders. Governor General Jáudenes, fearing Spanish troops will be massacred by the Filipinos, agrees to surrender the city after token resistance if U.S. General Wesley Merritt excludes Filipino troops from the battle. Merritt agrees. After a brief naval bombardment, the 1st Brigade under Brigadier General Arthur MacArthur, Jr. attacks from the south while General Greene's 2d Brigade attacks from the north. There is brief Spanish resistance to MacArthur's advance after large groups of Filipinos ignore American orders to stay behind and rush the Spanish lines. Governor General Jáudenes surrenders at 11:20 A.M. after a battle lasting two hours. In Puerto Rico, U.S. Army Brigadier General Schwan's command encounters Spanish Army resistance near the town of Las Marías. Word of the armistice has not yet reached Puerto Rico, and a brief skirmish ensues. It is the last battle of the war in Puerto Rico.
August 14 - The last battle of the Spanish–American War occurs off Caibarién, Cuba, when the armed supply ship USS Mangrove fires on two Spanish Navy gunboats. The Spanish surrender, and explain that an armistice has been signed.
September
September 13 - The Spanish national legislature, the Cortes, approves the Protocol of Peace by a vote of 161 to 48. But many deputies abstain, indicating a deep feeling within the Cortes that the war should continue to be prosecuted.
September 15 - The Malolos Congress, the assembly of the revolutionary government of the Philippines, convenes in Malolos, Philippines. It ratifies Aguinaldo's declaration of independence, and begins drafting a constitution for an independent Republic of the Philippines.
September 26 - The War Department Investigating Commission (also known as the "Dodge Commission" after its chairman, Major General [ret.] Grenville M. Dodge) begins investigating the conduct of the U.S. Department of War during the Spanish–American conflict. Vivid testimony by Major General Nelson A. Miles on December 21 about chemically adulterated beef bought by the department to feed soldiers in the field (the "United States Army beef scandal") leads to public outrage. The final report, issued on February 9, 1899, exonerates the War Department but subtly implies that Secretary of War Alger was an inefficient if not incompetent manager. Alger denies the implication, but on July 19, 1899, he resigns (effective August 1).
October
October 1 - The Paris Peace Conference begins in Paris, France. U.S. President McKinley instructs the American chief delegate, William R. Day, to seek U.S. possession of Guam, Puerto Rico, and the island of Luzon (not the entire Philippines).
October 18 - Spain officially transfers sovereignty of Puerto Rico to the United States.
October 24 - U.S. President McKinley has a dream in which he claims God told him that the United States should seize the entire Philippines: "nothing left for us to do but to take them all, to educate the Filipinos, and uplift and Christianize them."
October 26 - U.S. President McKinley instructs the American delegation at the Paris Peace Conference to seek possession of the entire Philippines: "The cession must be of the whole archipelago or none. ...latter is wholly inadmissible, and the former must therefore be required".
November
November 29 - The Malolos Congress ratifies the Malolos Constitution, a major step toward establishing the Philippines as an independent state.
December
December 10 - The Treaty of Paris is signed in Paris. Spain cedes Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States. Spain turns administration of Cuba over to the United States. The United States agrees to pay Spain $20 million in return for American possession of the Philippines.
December 21 - U.S. President McKinley issues the Proclamation of Benevolent Assimilation in which he declares the U.S. should annex the Philippines "with all possible dispatch" (e.g., by use of military force if necessary).
1899
January 21 - The Malolos Congress adjourns.
January 23 - The Philippine Republic, created by the Malolos Congress, comes into existence. Its capital is at Malolos and Emilio Aguinaldo is the first president.
February 4 - The Philippine–American War breaks out when U.S. soldiers fire on four Filipino soldiers who enter the "American Zone" in Manila. This ignites the Battle of Manila, and is the first military engagement of the second Philippine war for independence.
February 6 - The United States Senate ratifies the Treaty of Paris by a close vote of 57 to 27. (A two-thirds majority, or 56 votes, was needed to ratify.) An amendment requiring the United States to give the Philippines its independence fails after Vice President Garret Hobart casts the deciding vote against it. The Senate might have declined to ratify the treaty, but the outbreak of hostilities in Manila turns the tide of feeling in the treaty's favor.
March 19 - Exercising her right to "fulfil the crown's constitutional obligations and serve the national interest" by peacefully resolving political tension, Maria Cristina, Queen Regent of Spain, signs the Treaty of Paris personally. The Cortes was deeply divided over the terms of the treaty, and deadlocked over its ratification. With ratification in jeopardy, the Queen Regent dissolved the Cortes and exercised her imperial privilege — ratifying the treaty herself.
See also
Battles of the Spanish–American War
Commonwealth of the Philippines
Ostend Manifesto
Panama Canal Zone
Spain–United States relations
1897-99 Imperial German plans to attack the United States and then capture Puerto Rico and Cuba
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Spanish-American War
United States military history timelines
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican%20Spanish
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Dominican Spanish
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Dominican Spanish () is Spanish as spoken in the Dominican Republic; and also among the Dominican diaspora, most of whom live in the United States, chiefly in New York City, New Jersey, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Florida.
Dominican Spanish, a Caribbean variety of Spanish, is based on the Andalusian and Canarian Spanish dialects of southern Spain, and has influences from Native Taíno and other Arawakan languages. Speakers of Dominican Spanish may also use conservative words that are similar to older variants of Spanish. The variety spoken in the Cibao region is influenced by the 16th and 17th-century Spanish and Portuguese colonists in the Cibao valley, and shows a greater than average influence by the 18th-century Canarian settlers.
Despite the large share of African ancestry among Dominicans, the African element in the local Spanish is not as important as one might expect.
There is also a significant influence from African languages in the Spanish spoken by Haitian and Afro-Caribbean migrant descendants in the Dominican Republic, particularly in grammar and phonetics. However, second generation immigrants from Haiti use to speak very close to the Dominican standard speech, if not actually speaking it, assimilating into the mainstream speech.
History
Most of the Spanish-speaking settlers came from Andalusia (southern Spain) and the Canary Islands. When they first arrived in what is now the Dominican Republic, the first native people they had contact with were the Arawak-speaking Taino people.
Spanish, just as in other Latin American countries, completely replaced the indigenous languages (Taíno, Macorix and Ciguayo) of the Dominican Republic to the point where they became entirely extinct, mainly due to the fact that the majority of the indigenous population quickly died out only a few years after European contact.
However, when the Spanish arrived, they found the flora and fauna of the island, as well as various cultural artifacts, very different from those of Spain, so many of the words used by the natives to name these things were conserved and assimilated, thereby enriching Spanish lexicon. Some of these words include: ají, anón, batata, barbacoa, bejuco, bija, caiman, canoa, caoba, conuco, guanábana, guayaba, hamaca, hobo (jobo), hutía, iguana, jagua, maní, papaya (lechosa), sabana, yuca.
Dominican Spanish also includes words indirectly borrowed from African languages via Portuguese, such as cachimbo, which was borrowed from the Portuguese word "cacimba", having the latter being borrowed from the Bantu "cazimba". Many of these African influences are quite distant and left a minor impact on modern day Dominican Spanish, and usually these words are also used in other Spanish-speaking countries as far-away as Argentina, therefore it is not just a phenomenon restricted to the Dominican Republic but common in the Latin American Spanish (compared to European Spanish). Dominican Spanish has also received some limited influence from Haitian Creole, due to the Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo and continuing cross-border contacts. Haitian influence is stronger in border regions. Haitian Creole and Samaná English have also influenced the speech of Samaná Province further adding to the African influence found in the dialect.
Phonology
Like most other Spanish dialects, Dominican Spanish features yeísmo: the sounds represented by ll (the palatal lateral ) and y (historically the palatal approximant ) have fused into one. This merged phoneme is generally pronounced as a or . That is, in the Dominican Republic (as in most of Latin America and Spain), se cayó "he fell down" is homophonous with se calló "he became silent / he shut up".
Dominican Spanish has seseo (there is no distinction between and ). That is, caza ("hunt") is homophonous with casa ("house"). Seseo is common to nearly all of Hispanic America, the Canary Islands, and southern Spain.
Strong contraction in everyday speech is common, as in "voy a" into "vuá" or "voá", or "¿para adónde vas?" into "¿p'ónde va'?". Another example: "David 'tá 'co'ta'o", from "David está acostado" ("David is lying down / David is sleeping"), though vowel degemination is normal in most Spanish dialects, cf. Standard Peninsular "David est'acostado", normally pronounced with a single .
The fricative has a tendency to disappear or to become a voiceless glottal fricative at the end of syllables. The change may be realized only at the word level or it may also cross word boundaries. That is, las mesas son blancas "the tables are white" is pronounced (or , with a degeminated ), but in las águilas azules "the blue eagles", syllable-final in las and águilas might be resyllabified into the initial syllable of the following vowel-initial words and remain (), or become (it varies by speaker). Aspiration or disappearance of syllable-final is common to much of Hispanic America, the Canary Islands, and southern Spain. Syllable-final [s] is less frequently reduced in formal speech, like TV broadcasts.
Example 1: To say lo niño or los niño, instead of los niños
Example 2: To say lluvia ailada or lluvias ailada, instead of lluvias aisladas
Syllable-initial can occasionally be aspirated as well in rural parts of El Cibao. This occurs most often in the reflexive pronoun and in 'yes'.
In some areas, speakers tend to drop the final r sound in verb infinitives. The elision is considered a feature of uneducated speakers in some places, but it is widespread in others, at least in rapid speech.
Syllable-final r tends to be changed in many words by an i sound in the Northerly Cibao and in El Seibo Province and by an l (L) in the Eastern and in the capital city (Santo Domingo): the verb correr (to run) is pronounced correi and correl respectively, and perdón (forgiveness) becomes peidón and peldón. Final is also merged into in El Cibao and El Seibo. This substitution with the i is delicately (almost mutely) present in Andalusian Spanish, and also the l use is prototypical, and more marked, in Puerto Rican Spanish. It is believed to be of Andalusian origin.
The "d" is silent in the common word-ending -ado. For example, the words casado (married) and lado (side, way) are pronounced as casao and lao in Dominican Spanish.
In a few parts of the country, an "el" at the end of a word is pronounced as "err." For example, Miguel may be pronounced as Miguer in Dominican Spanish, a feature shared with Andalusian Spanish and in contrast to Puerto Rican Spanish, where the reverse occurs, e.g. pronouncing the name Arturo (Arthur) as Alturo.
Word-final is typically velarized at the end of a phrase or before another word starting in a vowel. Final may also be velarized word internally. In rural El Cibao, final may also be completely elided, typically nasalizing the preceding vowel, but occasionally it can be dropped entirely with no trace of nasalization. That total elision is most common among children.
The alveolar trill and even the tap can be replaced with an uvular trill among some rural speakers from El Cibao.
In rural parts of El Cibao, final unstressed vowels are often reduced in intensity and length, and post-tonic can be raised to , thus 'rooster' can be pronounced like . In , third person singular preterite form of 'to hear', the initial is often also raised to by rural Cibaeños: .
Other differences with Standard Spanish include adding the s erroneously, thus overcompensating the habit of omitting it.
Example 1:
standard: administraciones públicas [public administrations]
vernacular: aminitracione pública
hypercorrected: asministracione púsblica
Example 2:
standard: jaguar [jaguar]
vernacular: jagual / jaguai
hypercorrected: jasguar
The hypercorrected form is often part of a blatantly sarcastic mode of speech, commonly used for joking rather than everyday speech. It's often called 'speaking finely', with an extra 's' in . Among rural children in El Cibao, s-insertion is still common, which calls into question its status as a hypercorrection since these children have little exposure to standard forms of speech. Word-internally, s-insertion is most common before voiceless stop consonants, especially , and almost never occurs before nasals. Rural residents of El Cibao frequently insert an s after function words, as in 'of everything'. This is typically before stop consonants but can occasionally be before vowels, as in 'of animals'. Some speakers also use final s-insertion as a prosodic boundary marker.
There are also hypercorrections of the merger of and into . For example, 'Haiti' may be pronounced .
Grammar
Voseo is unknown in Dominican Spanish.
Some well-known grammatical features of Dominican Spanish include the use of overt dummy pronouns, as in 'there is rice', especially prominent in El Cibao, instead of , and double negation, as in 'I am not going'. Both of those are associated with more marginalized sociolects.
Pedro Henríquez Ureña claims that, at least until 1940, the educated population of the Dominican Republic continued to use the future subjunctive verb forms (). Educated Dominicans never used the conditional in place of the imperfect subjunctive, as in 'If I had seen', nor did they ever use the imperfect subjunctive instead of the conditional, as in 'then I would have said'. Clitic object pronouns could often be placed after a finite verb, especially in narration, as in instead of the typical 'arrives and gets dressed quickly'.
Like in other Caribbean varieties of Spanish, explicit, redundant subject pronouns are frequent in Dominican Spanish. Pronominal 'one' may be frequently used, in cases where speakers of other varieties would use impersonal or reflexive constructions. Personal subject pronouns can be used to refer to inanimate objects: 'She (the community) is big'.
Dominican Spanish allows for "preverbal placement of subjects with interrogatives and with non-finite clauses". In more normative speech, the subject would typically go after the verb instead. Some examples are: 'What do you guys want to eat?' and 'That's for Odalis to take it to Lari'.
Other prominent aspects of Dominican Spanish include focalizing constructions, and clause-final negation and affirmation:
'You had to come earlier (it was)'
'French, I don't know if it's easy to learn'
'Mom knew a lot'
Rural El Cibao
In addition to these traits, the following has been found in rural speech in El Cibao, among people who are functionally illiterate, by :
A change from to in the first-person plural () endings with antepenultimate stress, as in the past subjunctive, imperfect, and conditional tenses, ie: to , to , to . This is likely due to the influence of the clitic , and analogy with standard forms such as 'call us'.
Subjunctive forms used instead of the imperative, as in 'we're bringing five hundredweights of product', or 'something here that we call yagua'.
Substitution of 'he/she/it has' for 'I have', for example, 'I gave them a beating for that'.
General archaic, nonstandard forms of common verbs: 'There could be Haitians over there', with instead of , or 'I wanted to go' with instead of .
As in many other dialects, impersonal and may show third person plural agreement. What's more peculiar is that they may also be conjugated in other persons as well:
'It's been three months since it last rained'
'There were some who knew'
'It's been some time since I've gone over there'
'There are few of us families in Los Compos'
'There are two or three of us'
and , when modifying adjectives, often are inflected for gender, thus 'I have a half-bad belly'.
and can be used as adverbs without the suffix. Also, when used as adjectives, they don't always agree with plural subjects: 'it's learned easily', 'they're very difficult'.
The plural forms of nouns ending in stressed vowels typically are formed with or , instead of the standard : 'I don't go to the cabarets'. This is likely due to an analogy with words like 'happy', 'pen', pronounced and in the singular but and in the plural.
Those same -final words may receive a plural interpretation: 'those are pens'.
'well' may be used as a predicate adjective, as in 'they're good'.
and , typically meaning 'to know' and 'to cost', have acquired a modal meaning: 'It used to last up to 25 days', 'I'll have to go to the clinic'.
'anyone' can be used in reference to a first person subject, as in for 'I must go'.
Likely related to the frequent use of subject pronouns, in the Cibao region 'it/there' may be used as a dummy pronoun with "impersonal and meteorological verbs, unaccusative predicates, impersonal passives, and other constructions in which transitives are used intransitively":
'There are people who learn it (English) well'
'It's not raining here'
'Haitians come here'
'There's still a lot of time left'
'Because if some people from outside arrive'
'Haitians come here'
It's been suggested that functions as a discourse marker.
Also, among rural Cibaeño speakers at least, experiencers tend to become the subject rather than the object of certain verbs such as , , and :
, instead of 'I'd like to be a teacher'
for 'None of that's happened to me'
for 'Although I'll need that'
for 'The hummingbirds like coming to these flowers'
Cibaeños often drop the should occur before a definite animate direct object:
'Hearing Haitians'
'To understand people from France'
They also use a unique pattern of cliticization:
for 'We will have to give it to them'
for 'Go sow it'
Vocabulary
Dominican vocabulary
As in every dialect, Dominican Spanish has numerous vocabulary differences from other forms of the language. The Dominican Academy of Letters (Academia Dominicana de la Lengua) published in November 2013 a dictionary of Dominican terms (Diccionario del español dominicano) containing close to 11,000 words and phrases peculiar to the Dominican dialect. Here are some examples:
A slightly pejorative slang expression also common around most of the Caribbean basin is vaina. The Castilian meanings are "sheath", "pod", "shell", "shell casing", and "hull" (of a plant). It is descended from the Latin word "vāgīna", which meant "sheath".
In the Dominican Republic "vaina" is mainly a thing, a matter, or simply "stuff". For example, ¿Qué vaina es esa? means ¿Qué cosa es esa?, "What is that thing/stuff?".
Anglicisms—due to cultural and commercial influence from the United States and the American occupations of the Dominican Republic during 1916–1924 and 1965–1966—are extremely common in Dominican Spanish, more so than in any other Spanish variant except for Puerto Rican and perhaps Northern Mexican Spanish. A prime example of this is "vaguada", which is a corruption of the English "bad weather", though in Dominican Spanish the term has come to mean storm or torrential downpour, rather than a spot of unpleasant climate. Hence, a common Dominican expression: "Viene una vaguada", "here comes a vaguada", or "here comes a storm". Another excellent example of this is "boche", a corruption of the English "bull shit", though in Dominican Spanish the term has come to mean a reprimanding, fulmination, or harangue in general terms. Hence, a common Dominican expression: "Me echaron un boche", "they threw me a boche", or "they reprimanded me". Furthermore, is the Dominican Spanish word for SUV, "yipeta", "jeepeta", or rarely "gipeta". This term is a corruption of the American "Jeep", which was the primary mode of transport for the GIs throughout the country during the occupation in the 1960s. Dominican license plates for SUVs are marked with a "G" for "gipeta", a variant of, and pronounced like, "yipeta", before their serial number. The word "tichel", from "T-shirt", also refers to a rugby shirt, association football jersey, or undershirt, and similarly, "corn flakes" and its variant "con fléi" can refer to any breakfast cereal, in Dominican Spanish, be it puffed corn, bran flakes, or puffed wheat. The borrowing "polo shirt" is frequently pronounced polo ché.
Another phenomenon related to Anglicisms is the usage of brand names as common names for certain objects. For example, "Gillette" and its derivative yilé refer to any razor, and while the machete is known as machete, this being originally a Spanish word, it is sometimes referred to as a "colín", derived from "Collins & Co.", name of a former Connecticut toolmaker.
Similarities in Spanish dialects
Below are different vocabulary words to demonstrate the similarities between the dialects of the Dominican Republic and other Caribbean countries, including Puerto Rico, Cuba, Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama. The dialects of Andalusia and the Canary Islands, two regions of Spain that have been highly influential on the dialects of these countries, are also included.
Some words and names borrowed from Arawakan
References
Footnotes
Sources
Other links
Dominican Spanish Bilingual Dictionary English-Spanish
Learn Dominican Spanish
Pérez Guerra, Irene: "El arcaismo del español dominicano"
Dominican Spanish Lessons
Everyculture-Culture of Dominican Republic
Caribbean Spanish
Spanish
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%2080%20in%20Alabama
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U.S. Route 80 in Alabama
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U.S. Route 80 (US 80) is a major U.S. Highway in the American state of Alabama. The Alabama Department of Transportation internally designates the majority of US 80 throughout the state as State Route 8 (SR 8), save for parts of the route throughout Selma and near the Mississippi border. Serving as the main east to west highway through Alabama's Black Belt region, US 80 became well known as the main route for the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches; it was the route along which the Civil Rights demonstrators walked, from Selma to Alabama, and the Edmund Pettus Bridge in Selma was the site of Bloody Sunday. The highway was also once a major transcontinental highway (the Dixie Overland Highway) reaching from Tybee Island, Georgia, to San Diego, California, but has since been truncated to Dallas, Texas because it was largely replaced by the Interstate Highway System.
Route description
U.S. Route 80 (US 80) through Alabama is roughly long. The entirety of US 80 through Alabama is called the Dixie Overland Highway. The route also makes up the entirety or components of several byways and scenic trails, including the Black Belt Nature and Heritage Trail, the Selma to Montgomery March National Historic Trail and the Selma to Montgomery March Byway, an All-American Road under the National Scenic Byways program. US 80 also serves as the main route through Alabama's Black Belt region, named after the dark colored soil often used for farming and irrigation. Demopolis, Selma, Montgomery and Tuskegee are the four largest cities on the highway.
Mississippi to Selma
US 80 and US 11 cross the Mississippi-Alabama state line east of Toomsuba, Mississippi, sharing a concurrency starting in Meridian, Mississippi. The two U.S. Highways are joined by a hidden Alabama State Route 7 designation starting at the state line. Heading northeast, the route passes through the town of Cuba and intersections with Sumter County Routes 76 and 10. CR 10 shares a small concurrency with US 11/US 80 through Cuba. On the northern end of town, US 11 and US 80 meet at a junction with a four lane divided highway starting at Interstate 20 and Interstate 59 to the west. Though unsigned west of the junction, the route is part of SR 8, which is the hidden state route US 80 shares most of its routing through Alabama with. US 80 turns east onto SR 8, ending the concurrency with US 11.
Heading east, US 80 passes over a grade separated interchange with SR 17. The highway passes a junction with CR 13, the hamlet of Bellamy and CR 21 before reaching an intersection with SR 28 and CR 25. US 80, now multiplexed with SR 28, continues east across the Rooster Bridge over the Tombigbee River into Marengo County. Next to Moscow Church, SR 28 leaves US 80 heading southeast to Linden. Continuing east past CR 57 and CR 28, US 80 arrives in Demopolis at a junction with US 43 (SR 13). For a few blocks, US 80 and US 43 run concurrent, past Jefferson Road (CR 21). At the intersection with Pettus Street, US 43 goes southeast towards Linden while US 80 continues eastward past CR 2 and CR 77 into Hale County. US 80 curves around Prairieville, intersecting with CR 12 and SR 69. US 80 and SR 69 run concurrent for less than a mile, before SR 69 heads north through Prairieville. After passing Prairieville, US 80 re-enters Marengo County. Directly north of Faunsdale, the highway crosses an intersection with SR 25 before leaving Marengo County for a final time, entering Perry County.
Upon crossing the Perry county line, US 80 enters Uniontown, reducing to two lanes in width. Through town, US 80 is known as Washington Street. First intersecting with CR 53 at West Avenue, US 80 meets with the southern terminus of SR 61 at Water Street, then the southern terminus of SR 183 and the northern terminus of CR 1 at East Street. A short distance east of the city limits, US 80 returns to being a four lane divided highway. After spending less than in Perry County, US 80 enters Dallas County, passing CR 177 and CR 23 at Bellevue before meeting with SR 5 at an interchange in Browns. Continuing east passing CR 178, CR 179, CR 178 a second time, CR 3 in Massillon and CR 349, US 80 meets CR 25 and CR 29 in Marion Junction. East of Marion Junction, US 80 meets with CR 45 in Harrell and CR 29 near New Morning Star Church. Entering the outskirts of Selma, a large number of minor county routes intersect with US 80; with CR 44 and CR 27 (Westwood Drive) being the last major county route intersections before entering the city limits. CR 44 along with Cahaba Road and J.L. Chestnut Junior Boulevard provide an alternate route into downtown Selma.
East of the junction with SR 219, US 80 meets SR 14 at a "Y" intersection. The two routes are co-signed down Highland Avenue through the northern part of Selma. At the intersection with SR 22 at Broad Street, SR 8 temporarily leaves US 80 following US 80 Business through downtown Selma, then across the Edmund Pettus Bridge. The intersection also marks the western terminus of US 80 Truck. Mainline US 80 and US 80 Truck remain entirely concurrent along the Selma bypass route. East of the intersection with CR 65 at Marie Foster Street, US 80 and US 80 Truck turn south at the northern terminus of SR 41, heading south, then southwest around downtown Selma. The bypass has four major intersections, two of which are freeway grade interchanges with Race Street and Water Street (CR 48). The junctions with SR 140 and CR 56 are both at grade intersections. Immediately south of downtown Selma, US 80, US 80 Truck and SR 41 meet up with US 80 Bus. and SR 8 at a signalized intersection. Despite conflicting signage on the bypass route, US 80 Truck terminates at the intersection, as does US 80 Bus. US 80 and SR 8 continue head southeast towards Lowndes County, while SR 41 continues south towards Camden.
Selma to Montgomery
US 80 made up the majority of roadway used in the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches. The Selma to Montgomery March Byway starts at the First Baptist Church on the corner of Martin Luther King Junior Street and Jefferson Davis Avenue. The byway continues south until reaching Alabama Avenue near the Old Depot Museum then proceeds west on Alabama Avenue to US 80 Bus. at Broad Street. The Byway goes south across the Edmund Pettus Bridge and follows US 80 Bus. past the National Voting Rights Museum, then south to the intersection with US 80, US 80 Truck and SR 41. Between the eastern terminus of US 80 Bus. and Montgomery, the Byway follows US 80. The spot of the first campsite on the marching route is in the nearby suburb of Casey on the south side of US 80. Following junctions with CR 67, CR 69, CR 43, CR 7 and CR 19, the Byway continues east into Lowndes County. Going through Benton, US 80 passes the western terminus of CR 40, the Lowndes Interpretive Center located between CR 17 and CR 23, the Holy Ground Battlefield and the second campsite of the march. All three sites are located within the city limits of White Hall. Further to the east, adjacent to the Wright Chapel AME Zion Church, lies a memorial to Viola Liuzzo, a mother from Detroit, Michigan killed along US 80 by the Ku Klux Klan for her involvement in the 1965 marches.
US 80 then heads east through the southern edge of Lowndesboro and a shared junction with SR 97/CR 29. The Byway makes a curve to the northeast at the intersection with SR 21. Both US 80 and SR 21 run concurrently starting at this point. The Byway shares a short concurrency with CR 37 before crossing Pintlala Creek into Montgomery County. US 80/SR 21 intersects with CR 7 in Mount Sinai, also home to the final march campsite. At the current intersection with CR 403 is the proposed site for the interchange with SR 108 (Future I-85), also known as the Outer Loop Freeway. After the intersection with CR 17, the Byway enters Montgomery proper, intersecting with CR 103 and CR 15, before becoming a short one mile long freeway with an interchange at US 31. SR 21 and the Byway leave US 80 and head north concurrent with US 31. At South Boulevard, US 31 heads northwest, while SR 21 heads east. The Byway continues north on Mobile Highway, then curves right onto Fairview Avenue. It heads north on Oak Street just before I-65, then east on Jefferson Davis Avenue under I-65, going north on Holt Street. At Day Street (which eventually becomes I-85), it heads east for one block to Mobile Street, then goes northeast on Mobile, Goldthwaite and Montgomery Streets. In downtown Montgomery, the Byway makes a short jog down Court Street to head east on Dexter Avenue, passing the Civil Rights Memorial and ending at the Alabama State Capitol building. US 80 however, continues east one mile from US 31 to I-65. At a flyover interchange, US 80 overlaps I-65 north for one mile, before leaving the Interstate onto South Boulevard.
On South Boulevard, US 80 picks up a concurrency with US 82 (SR 6) and SR 21 again, heading east. US 331 and SR 9, a hidden state route designation, head north on Court Street to end at US 80/US 82/SR 21. Though the intersection of South and Court is the northern terminus of US 331, the SR 9 designation begins a concurrency with US 80 and US 82 heading east. At the intersection of Troy Highway, US 82 heads southeast away from Montgomery while US 231 (SR 53) comes in from the southeast on the same highway. Now concurrent with US 231, the concurrent highways curve to the northeast towards I-85. US 80 leaves US 231, SR 21 and hidden SR 9 at the interchange with I-85 Exit 6.
Montgomery to Georgia
Leaving Montgomery, US 80 is concurrent with I-85. There are interchanges at SR 271 and SR 126 as well as a flyover with a completed portion of the SR 108 Inner Loop Freeway. At Exit 16, US 80 leaves the Interstate, sharing a brief concurrency with SR 126 into Waugh, where SR 126 splits off heading west to Mount Meigs. This is the spot where US 80 picks up the route of the Old Federal Road. US 80 heads east passing CR 200 going into Macon County. US 80 has two junctions with CR 2 and CR 97 south of Tysonville before entering Shorter. After a junction with CR 28, US 80 has a junction with a section of Old Federal Road heading through the heart of Shorter, then reaches the southern terminus of SR 38, going east towards Tuskegee. There are intersections with CR 7 at Polecat Springs, CR 9 at Calebee, SR 85 and SR 13 at La Place, CR 29 east of La Place, CR 49 near Liverpool as well as CR 81, CR 18 and CR 67 right before entering the Tuskegee City limits. US 80 is known as Martin Luther king Highway after the late Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. On the west side of town, the highway serves as the southern terminus of CR 51 and northern terminus of CR 3. The intersections with Main Street, Westside Street and Fred Gray Street at the south end of the town square serves as the southern terminus of SR 81 as well as the western end of a concurrency with US 29 (SR 15), which comes in from the southeast on Main Street.
Both US 80 and US 29 head northeast out of Tuskegee, passing the southern terminus of CR 53 and the northern terminus of CR 63 near Pleasant Hill. Immediately after the northern terminus of CR 89, the two U.S. Highways reach an interchange at Alliance, serving as the eastern terminus of SR 186. US 29 continues northeast to Auburn, while US 80 goes southeast past CR 69, CR 24 and CR 22 before reaching a "Y" intersection with CR 26 at Society Hill. The intersection with CR 43 serves as the center of the small hamlet, before US 80 continues heading east into Lee County. US 80 travels a short distance of through the southernmost tip of Lee County. The first major intersection in is CR 029, followed by CR 011 and CR 034. US 80 intersects with SR 51 at a traffic signal in Marvyn. Going past CR 038, US 80 enters Russell County, the final county before reaching the Georgia state line. US 80 has several intersections with numbered county routes going east into Crawford. On the western end of town, at the intersection with SR 169 and CR 27, SR 169 forms a short concurrency with US 80 for eight blocks past CR 79 at Bleeker Road. SR 169 splits from US 80 on the east end of Crawford going southeast. Following an intersection with CR 94 and CR 35, the highway continues to Phenix City with no notable intersections until reaching the intersection with 14th Street and US 280 (SR 38)/US 431 (SR 1). US 80 turns to the north and overlaps both highways until reaching the western end of the J.R. Allen Parkway. US 80 turns east, becoming a four lane freeway. There are two interchanges on the Parkway in Alabama, at Summerville Road and Riverchase Drive. The junction between the Parkway and US 280/US 431 is an incomplete third interchange. US 80 crosses the Georgia state line at the western end of the Chattahoochee River bridge. This is the eastern end of the Alabama State Route 8 designation and western end of Georgia State Route 22/Georgia State Route 540. US 80,SR 22, and SR 540 continue east over the river on the J.R. Allen Parkway into Columbus, Georgia, and this marks the beginning of the Fall Line Freeway.
Old alignments
In its history as a designated highway through Alabama, the route of US 80 has gone through many changes. Prior to 1954, US 80 continued to follow US 11 northeast to Livingston, then southeast through Coatopa on present day SR 28 to modern US 80. Sumter County Route 25 and the road leading from SR 28 southwest to Mount Valley True Light Church on the Marengo County side of the river are the older routing of both US 80 and SR 28, once connected by the 1925 Rooster Bridge. Though the bridge itself was demolished in 1980, satellite images show the approach spans remain over both river banks, albeit only for short distances. In Praireville, Hale County Route 12 makes up part of an older two lane routing of US 80 through the small community.
US 80 passed through the center of Faunsdale in past years, the current highway bypasses the town altogether. Dallas County Route 29 and the eastern section of CR 44 make up the original alignment of US 80 between Marion Junction and Selma. Although the old steel highway bridge across the Cahaba River on CR 29 is still standing, it is currently closed to traffic, making that section of CR 29 impassible. The original alignment of US 80 took Washington Street and Old Montgomery Highway (CR 56) through the south side of Selma over an 1885 Wagon Road bridge. Though the bridge was torn down in 1940, a plaque stands at the current end of Washington Street in Lafayette Park, where the northern end of the bridge once was. The Bridge Keeper's house is still standing at the end of Washington Street as well. After 1940, the alignment of US 80 went over the Edmund Pettus Bridge; this alignment is currently Business US 80.
Originally, US 80 used Mobile Highway, Fairview Avenue, Perry Street, Dexter Avenue, Bainbridge Street, Madison Avenue and Atlanta Highway through Montgomery. By 1940, the highway traveled from Perry straight to Madison. Sections of present-day SR 126 are old curves and sections of US 80, especially the highway through Mount Meigs. Dallas County Route 22, also known as Glassy Mill Road, is another early segment of US 80, bypassed by the current route to Alliance. The pre-freeway route of US 80 through Phenix City took 14th Street through town, then went across the 14th Street Bridge. Following the old route exactly by highway is partially impossible as the 14th Street Bridge is now a pedestrian bridge.
History
A large section of U.S. Route 80 (US 80) in Alabama traces the general path of the Old Federal Road, originally constructed in 1805. The first automobile route to be established along the current route of US 80 was the Dixie Overland Highway by the Automobile Club of Savannah in 1914, which ran from San Diego, California to Savannah, Georgia. US 80 itself was established largely along the same route as the Dixie Overland Highway on November 11, 1926, with the same eastern and western terminals as its predecessor. In Alabama, the highway is best known for its role in the Civil Rights Movement as the location of both the Bloody Sunday events at the Edmund Pettus Bridge and the Selma to Montgomery marches led by civil rights activist Martin Luther King Jr. Both events occurred in March 1965. As a result, US 80 between the two cities was later designated as the Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail in an act passed by Congress in 1996. During the creation of the Interstate Highway System in the late 1950s, US 80 through Alabama was one of the few sections of the highway that would not be bypassed by the new system of nationwide freeways, save for small sections of I-65 and I-85 near Montgomery. However, large sections of US 80 have since been constructed into a four-lane divided highway.
Auto trail era
Much of present-day US 80 between Montgomery and the Georgia state line in Alabama follows the route of the Old Federal Road. Starting as a post road in 1805, the Old Federal Road was the first modern road across southern Alabama, then part of Mississippi Territory, connecting Fort Stoddert and Fort Mims to Montgomery and Fort Mitchell. The presence of the Old Federal Road also gave rise to many plantations, taverns, and post offices. The road became the site of many conflicts between the American Military and Native American tribes and would later be used as a means of deportation of Native Americans from southern Alabama. Through the 1830s and 1840s, the Old Federal Road would also be used as an immigration route for settlers entering Alabama and the American southeast. Much of the route would remain in use until the early to mid 1930s.
In July 1914, the Automobile Club of Savannah began planning a transcontinental auto trail to connect Savannah, Georgia to California. The Association managing the new auto trail was formed the same month, establishing the Dixie Overland Highway. By 1917, the highway had a set route from Arizona to Savannah through Alabama, following much of the Old Federal Road in both Alabama and Georgia. During a 1918 meeting of the Dixie Overland Highway Association, California politician Stanley Hufflund delivered a letter to the association on behalf of fellow politician Ed Fletcher, lobbying for the western terminus of the highway, then undecided, to be established in San Diego. Earlier lobbying and grass roots campaigns made by Fletcher had ensured the construction of a new state highway between San Diego and Yuma, Arizona, part of which was a 7 mile long plank road through previously impassible sand dunes. Although Fletcher was unable to attend, the Association gave serious consideration into the matter. In 1919, the Association agreed to make San Diego the Dixie Overland Highway's western terminus and elected Fletcher as president of the entire association. Through Alabama, the Dixie Overland Highway passed through Livingston, Selma, Montgomery and Tuskegee.
Following finalization of the route, the Dixie Overland Highway Association faced a major obstacle; the lack of a highway bridge over the Tombigbee River between Sumter and Marengo counties in Alabama. Demopolis local Frank Derby came up with an idea to raise funding for construction of a bridge. A rooster auction would be held in Demopolis, which catered to cockfighting. At the time, cockfighting was still a legal hobby and had yet to be outlawed. Derby gained support of local public figures in order to host the auction. A U.S. Senator from Alabama, working with Derby, convinced President Woodrow Wilson, French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando and British Prime Minister David Lloyd George to donate roosters. General John J. Pershing, Helen Keller, Roscoe Arbuckle and Mary Pickford donated hens and roosters as well. Derby had led a similar effort back in 1918 to auction off bulls at the benefit of the American Red Cross in Birmingham. The Rooster Auction attracted many visitors and hosted the largest barbecue in Alabama history. Despite having raised enough pledges for bridge construction funding, the money actually collected was not enough to build the structure. The state of Alabama and the federal government stepped in, funding the construction of the new bridge. Construction started in 1922 and the Memorial Bridge was opened on May 15, 1925. Locals however took to calling the new structure the Rooster Bridge after the auction. Due to state legislation passed in 1959, the highway bridge crossing the Tombigbee River near Demopolis is still called Rooster Bridge. By 1921, much of the Dixie Overland Highway had also attained the title of Jefferson Davis Highway, a name which sections of the highway in Alabama and Arizona retain to this day. By 1924, the entirety of the Dixie Overland Highway in Alabama had been designated as State Road 26 by the Alabama State Highway Department.
Early years of US 80
In 1925, multiple state highway departments across the United States lobbied the U.S Department of Agriculture to create a standardized national highway system to replace the auto trails. The Secretary of Agriculture appointed the Joint Board of Interstate Highways in April 1925, which was a cooperation between state highway departments and the Bureau of Public Roads, to develop a new system. Following several meetings with state highway officials across the country, the Joint Board settled on a numbering system with a standardized highway shield. This network of proposed designations would become the U.S. Highway System. Much of the Dixie Overland Highway between San Diego and Savannah received the proposed designation of U.S. Route 80. The Joint Board completed its proposal in October 1925, which the Secretary of Agriculture immediately submitted to the newly formed American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO). On November 11, 1926 AASHO approved the new highway system officially designating US 80 as an active highway. Although the auto trail era has long passed, the Alabama segment of US 80 continues to use the Dixie Overland Highway name to this day. Upon designation of US 80 as an active highway, most of the route in the state of Alabama was still unpaved and other sections of road remained much as they were was prior to adoption as a state highway. Only small sections of US 80 and SR 26 were paved in Demopolis, Selma and Montgomery respectively. By the fall of 1928, the state highway system in Alabama underwent a major highway renumbering. State Road 26 was re-designated State Route 8 between Mississippi and Phenix City, while the segment from the Mississippi state line through Cuba and Livingston was also designated as part of State Route 7. The section of highway between Tysonville and Tuskegee through Milstead was undergoing paving as was the route between Uniontown and Browns The route from Livingston to the Mississippi state line had already been paved. Much of the previously unimproved road was being improved with gravel or other secondary types of bituminous surfacing, leaving only a section between Tuskegee and Society Hill untouched by the State Highway Department. By 1929, a new section of US 80/SR 8 was constructed between Tuskegee and Tysonville bypassing the older route through Milstead. By 1930, paving was complete on US 80 between Uniontown and Browns.
By 1931, paving had commenced on the section of US 80 between Livingston and the Rooster Bridge. Paving was also completed on the highway from Montgomery to Tuskegee. A new less direct alignment of US 80 had been constructed between Tuskegee and Society Hill, bypassing the older unimproved route. Half of the new route was undergoing improvement at the time of opening. The total length of US 80 in Alabama that year averaged around . By 1933, paving was completed between Livingston and the Rooster Bridge. US 80 between Selma and Lowndes County was also fully paved. Further paving had been completed on US 80 from Lowndes County to Montgomery. The route from the Tuskegee Institute through Tysonville to Mount Meigs had also been bypassed by a more direct route through Shorter. The route through Shortleaf and Demopolis was bypassed by November 1934. The new route still passed through Demopolis, though around the south side of the city. US 43 was commissioned in Alabama along SR 40 and SR 13 to Mobile, sharing a short concurrency with US 80 and SR 8 through eastern Demopolis. By 1935, all of US 80 and SR 8 between Mississippi and Tuskegee was paved. The remainder of the highway to Georgia was still surfaced with gravel or sand. US 11 had been extended into Mississippi by 1936, sharing a concurrency with US 80 from Livingston to the Mississippi state line into Mississippi itself. A small section of US 80 between Phenix City and Georgia had also been paved. US 80 through Tuskegee had also been rerouted south of the Institute. In 1935, massive flooding on the Alabama River in Selma submerged the US 80 bridge under the surge, halting all traffic between Selma and Lowndes County. The bridge, built in 1885 was constructed without taking the maximum river flood height into account. Plans already in place for a large replacement steel and concrete bridge were expedited by the Alabama Highway Department. No major changes would be made to US 80 until 1940, when the route from Society Hill to Crawford was paved and the remainder of the highway between Phenix City and Tuskegee was also undergoing paving work. Finally in 1943, the entire highway had been paved from Mississippi to Georgia. The replacement bridge over the Alabama River in Selma was completed the same year and was officially named the Edmund Pettus Bridge after the Alabama statesman and American Civil War veteran Edmund W. Pettus. The 1885 bridge began demolition shortly after the Edmund Pettus Bridge opened. During the opening ceremony on May 24, 1940, Pettus' daughter in law cut the ribbon to officially open the bridge to traffic. Alabama governor Frank M. Dixon, attended the ceremony as well. In total, the construction of the Edmund Pettus Bridge cost $863,000 US.
Post-war changes
In 1947, a group of delegates from several towns along US 80 in the western United States had a meeting at the Pioneer Hotel in Tucson, Arizona, to discuss the future of US 80. Travel on the western segment of the highway had decreased dramatically since the end of the second World War. The delegates decided to form a new U.S. Highway 80 Association to promote the highway. Up until that point, the states of California, Arizona and New Mexico had promoted US 80 as the western extension of the Broadway of America, a transcontinental tourist highway ending in New York. The goal of the new association was to abandon the Broadway of America altogether and focus instead on promoting the entirety of US 80 between Savannah and San Diego as an all year scenic route. A secondary goal of the association was to make US 80 a formidable competitor to the famous US 66. In 1948, the newly formed western and central divisions of the new association, representing the highway from California to Texas, met with 75 representatives from Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia to form the eastern division of the association. Alabama officials representing Phenix City, Tuskegee, Montgomery, Selma and Demopolis were among the 75 persons to meet with the central and western US 80 delegates in Ruston, Louisiana to form the final part of the nascent association. The eastern division was formed and the association with its three divisions was formally organized in 1949. Though the eastern division was based in Ruston, Louisiana, it represented and promoted the highway through all four southern states US 80 passed through. The state of Alabama, Montgomery in particular, got heavily involved in promoting the highway for boosts in local tourism. Smaller US 80 statewide associations were founded to promote the highway in Alabama. In the coming decade, US 80 grew to become a very popular and heavily traveled highway. There even came a time where more people traveled into California on US 80 than on US 66. In 1955, US 80 and SR 8 underwent a major re-route, bypassing Coatopa, Livingston and York. Previously, only part of the new route had been in the state highway system as SR 162, between SR 17 and Bellamy. The old route between Cuba and Livingston remained part of US 11 while the section between Livingston and Moscow became SR 132. By 1958, large sections of US 80 between Selma and Montgomery, as well as a section immediately west of Tuskegee had been converted into a four lane divided highway.
Selma to Montgomery marches
The Alabama section of US 80 played an integral role in the events of the American Civil Rights Movement. Selma, like many cities and towns in the American southeast, was subject to Jim Crow laws, which enforced acts of racial segregation among the populace. Dating back to 1877, the Jim Crow laws were meant to separate the American black and white populations, while ensuring both had institutions and accommodations of equal quality – a notion commonly referred to as "separate but equal". In reality, the acts did little more than legally force the southeast's black population to reside in poor living conditions and also denied black citizens entry into most white establishments such as businesses and public institutions. Following the events surrounding the landmark ruling of the Supreme Court case of Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, desegregating American schools and the Montgomery bus boycott in 1955 and 1956 leading to a similar ruling regarding public bus segregation by the Supreme Court, marked the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement, meant to abolish American segregation. The movement lead to protests across the United States, including the March on Washington in 1963, where civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. Though the civil rights protests were often met with violent retaliation, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 ensured much of the goals the protesters and activists had pushed for became legal reality. However, remaining Jim Crow laws still prevented most black Americans in the southeast from voting. Initial efforts to surpass this problem during the Freedom Summer campaign in Mississippi was met with the murder of three activists involved in the project. Further retaliation by pro-segregationists, ranging from bombings to police brutality lead to an increase in protests against such violence as well as voting restrictions in the year 1965. In Dallas County, there were over 15,000 black citizens eligible for voter registration, but only 300 of those people were actually registered.
Following earlier failed demonstrations in Selma and the death of Jimmie Lee Jackson in Marion, Martin Luther King Jr. began working with other activists to create a march from Selma to the state capitol in Montgomery. The march was to follow the route of US 80 between the two cities. Despite King's being unable to attend due to illness and preferring to postpone the event, the first attempt at the march started without him on March 7, 1965, with 525 individuals in attendance. The march continued east on US 80 until reaching the south side of the Edmund Pettus Bridge over the Alabama River. The Alabama National Guard, under orders of Governor George Wallace, awaited the protesters wearing gas masks and brandishing weapons. Joining the Guard were local policemen and "possemen", civilians authorized to combat the protesters by local law enforcement. The resistance proceeded to violently beat the protesters with batons and tear gas, while others trampled protesters with horses while also spitting and cracking bullwhips on the demonstrators. Over 50 participants had to be taken to the hospital. News agencies such as the American Broadcasting Company however, had recorded the event on television cameras, then proceeded to interrupt regular programming to display the footage nationwide. The event would come to be known as "Bloody Sunday". News of the attacks led to public outrage across the United States. King organized a second protest on March 9, with the support of nearly 400 new demonstrators from across the nation, despite a court-issued restraining order. This time, the resistance on the other end of the bridge cleared an open pathway on US 80 for the protesters to proceed rather than continue to block the highway. King, fearing the move was a trap, cancelled the march.
Growing pressure and outrage caused President Lyndon Johnson to give a public address to Congress in support to the marchers. As well as the address, Johnson pressured Congress to pass legislation which would become the Voting Rights Act of 1965. This legislation abolished practices such as literacy tests, which had prevented the majority of black citizens in the southeast from voting. Though the legislation would not be passed until August 6. Judge Frank Minis Johnson overturned the earlier restraining order, ruling the protesters had every right to march along US 80 or any public under rights guaranteed by the First Amendment of the United States Constitution. A third attempt at the march led by King began on March 21, 1965, with almost 3,200 people attending. Along the march, demonstrators were met by widespread taunting including signs and posters directing verbal attacks towards the march as well as a radio store in Selma playing "Bye Bye Blackbird" towards the group. In Lowndes County, US 80 reduced from four lanes to two. Due to restrictions, the number of protesters through the county was greatly reduced to 300 persons. Despite the reduction, the march continued to push forward over the next four days. On March 25, the march reached the city limits of Montgomery. Upon entering the city, the number of demonstrators rose to 30,000 individuals. The marchers left US 80 and arrived at the state capitol on Dexter Street, where King gave his "How Long, Not Long" speech to a giant crowd on top of a flatbed trailer. President Johnson had arranged for the Alabama National Guard, United States Army, Federal Bureau of Investigation and the United States Marshals Service to protect the demonstrators from harm during the march along US 80.
In 1989, Representative John Lewis of Georgia, one of the marchers from the 1965 demonstrations, introduced the Selma to Montgomery National Trail Study Act, which enabled the National Park Service to study a potential designation of US 80 between Montgomery and Selma as a National Trail. The study was approved on July 3, 1990, signed into effect by President George H. W. Bush as Public Law 101-321. The National Park Service tasked historians Luke Lambert and Barbara Tagger to conduct the study. In April 1993, the study was completed and awaited Congressional approval. Congress approved of the designation, passing legislation to President Bill Clinton. President Clinton proceeded to sign Public Law 104-333 into effect on November 12, 1996, officially designating the 54-mile stretch of US 80 as the Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail. The stretch of road had previously been designated as a National Scenic Byway by the Secretary of Transportation on September 19, 1996. President Clinton himself joined a commemorative march with King's widow, Coretta Scott King, and several other civil rights activists on the 35th anniversary of Bloody Sunday.
Interstate era
With the coming of the Interstate Highway System in 1957, US 80's role was slated to change from major transcontinental highway to a lesser route on a national level. US 80 was to be replaced entirely by Interstates, except between Cuba, Alabama and Macon, Georgia; a short section of Interstate 65 and Interstate 85 were also slated to replace US 80 through Montgomery. By 1961, a section of I-85 meant to bypass US 80 through Mount Meigs between eastern Montgomery and Shorter was under construction. The freeway was completed in 1963 and US 80 moved onto the new highway, bypassing Mount Meigs altogether. Another section of I-85 meant to bypass US 80 from Shorter to Alliance was under construction between Shorter and Tuskegee. The entire proposed bypass was under construction the following year. I-85 from Shorter to Tuskegee was completed in 1965. I-65 in Montgomery had started construction, with construction commencing on I-85 between Atlanta Highway and Eastern Boulevard in Montgomery as well. Construction on the entirety of both Interstates in Montgomery was well under way in 1967. All of I-85 meant to bypass US 80 between eastern Montgomery and Alliance had been completed, though US 80 remained on its own route from Shorter to Alliance. I-65 north to US 80 in Montgomery (Fairview Avenue) was complete the next year, with I-85 still under construction between Atlanta Highway and the proposed junction with I-65 and likewise with I-65 between Fairview and proposed I-85. All of I-85 into downtown Montgomery was finished by 1972. I-20 and I-59 from the Mississippi state line to Cuba was also under construction as well as a four lane divided connecting road to US 80 and US 11. US 80 from the Dallas County line through Benton into north central Lowndes County began conversion into a four lane divided highway. I-65 had been completed to I-85 in downtown Montgomery by 1973. I-29/I-59 between Mississippi and Cuba had also been finished. SR 8 was moved off the US 80/US 11 concurrency at this time and onto the new four lane connecting road between US 80 and the new Interstate freeway, leaving only the hidden SR 7 designation on the U.S. Highway from Cuba to Mississippi. This also moved the western terminus of SR 8 to the new junction with I-20/I-59. The first segment of four lane highway conversion in Lowndes County between Selma and Montgomery had also been completed.
In 1975, work began on finishing the four lane divided highway through Lowndes County on either side of Lowndesboro. By 1979, all of US 80 between Selma and Montgomery had been converted into a four lane divided highway. Massive flooding throughout the western part of Alabama's Black Belt the same year caused floodwaters on the Tombigbee River to sweep the tugboat Cahaba upstream towards the Alabama River. The Cahaba collided with the Rooster Bridge and was sucked underwater by the torrent. Amazingly, the tugboat resurfaced on the other side of the bridge and righted itself back up. The bridge was closed to traffic right away to inspect it for damage. Despite the incident, plans were already in place to demolish the Rooster Bridge. Construction on a new set of four lane bridges upstream was being undertaken. Following completion of the new bridge, the original Rooster Bridge was demolished using dynamite in 1980, bringing an end to the local icon. By 1981, four lane work was undergoing on US 80 west of Selma. Four lane conversion had also begun between Demopolis and Faunsdale in 1983. By 1985, the route of US 80 and SR 8 through Montgomery had changed. Previously, US 80 and SR 8 had taken Mobile Highway to Fairview Avenue. From Fairview, eastbound US 80/SR 8 had taken Perry Street to Madison Avenue, while westbound traffic utilized Hull Street. The two highways then followed Madison Avenue and Atlanta Highway out of the city. The new route used South Boulevard and Eastern Boulevard to between Atlanta Highway and Mobile Highway to bypass downtown Montgomery entirely. Between 1986 and 1987, four lane conversion on sections of US 80 between Demopolis and Faunsdale and between Browns and Selma was completed, with a four lane bypass around Faunsdale under construction. The Faunsdale bypass was completed by 1989.
Elsewhere in the United States, the Interstate had brought the days of US 80 being a transcontinental highway to an end. California had formally decommissioned its segment of the highway between 1964 and 1969, followed by Arizona between 1977 and 1989 and New Mexico from 1989 to 1991. Though Texas decommissioned the majority of its section by 1991, the section from Dallas to Tybee Island remained and the routing has remained unaltered since. Today, I-20, I-10 and I-8 have taken the place of US 80's western segment. Though US 80 still exists between Dallas and Tybee Island, it has long since been replaced as a main highway through all of Mississippi and Louisiana by I-20 and between Macon and Savannah in Georgia by I-16. Alabama is a unique case, as US 80 still remains the main east west highway through Alabama's Black Belt, which is almost the entire highway within the state. Since 1987, the route between Cuba and Demopolis has been upgraded into a four lane highway, and US 80 was moved onto I-85 between Eastern Boulevard in Montgomery and I-85 Exit 16 east of Mount Meigs. US 80 has also been rerouted around Selma onto SR 41 and SR 14, while SR 8 continues to be routed on the older alignment through town. Today, the old Selma route, including the Edmund Pettus Bridge, is signed as US 80 Business.
Future
The Alabama Department of Transportation (ALDOT) is planning to construct a extension of I-85 from Montgomery to I-20/I-59 near Cuba, shadowing the path of US 80 near Demopolis, Uniontown and Selma. The project was first proposed in 2005 and is estimated to cost at least $2.4 billion. ALDOT contracted Volkert and Associates, an engineering company, to oversee the project. In 2010, Volkert completed an environmental impact study with a preferred alternative route highlighted for consideration. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) approved the study and preferred alternative route. Besides the environmental impact, the project will also have to minimize the overall impact on the Selma to Montgomery National Trail as well as the many Civil Rights cultural resources, historical sites and structures along US 80 between Selma and Montgomery. Likewise, a group known as the Youth Infrastructure Coalition is lobbying for the proposed extension to become part of a suggested I-14, which the coalition proposes should run from Texas to Georgia. The coalition also wants a new Interstate to be constructed along the general path taken by US 80 between Montgomery and Macon, Georgia. As of 2018 however, the coalition has not met with ALDOT to discuss the proposal. Despite the support for the proposal with the people of Selma, ALDOT put forward an official statement, explaining the coalition's proposed I-14 would be unlikely to gain serious consideration.
Major intersections
Notes
References
External links
Selma to Montgomery National Historic Trail - National Park Service - Webpage detailing information and directions regarding the National Historic Trail.
Selma to Montgomery March Byway - Federal Highway Administration - Official webpage for the All American Road Byway designation.
Across Alabama's Black Belt on U.S. Highway 80 - Promotional documentary for U.S. Route 80 in Alabama put together by the University of Alabama as part of the Alabama Experience series.
80
Alabama
Transportation in Sumter County, Alabama
Transportation in Marengo County, Alabama
Transportation in Hale County, Alabama
Transportation in Dallas County, Alabama
Transportation in Autauga County, Alabama
Transportation in Montgomery County, Alabama
Transportation in Elmore County, Alabama
Transportation in Macon County, Alabama
Transportation in Russell County, Alabama
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target%20audience
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Target audience
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A target audience is the intended audience or readership of a publication, advertisement, or other message catered specifically to said intended audience. In marketing and advertising, it is a particular group of consumer within the predetermined target market, identified as the targets or recipients for a particular advertisement or message. Businesses that have a wide target market will focus on a specific target audience for certain messages to send, such as The Body Shops Mother's Day advertisements, which were aimed at the children and spouses of women, rather than the whole market which would have included the women themselves. A target audience is formed from the same factors as a target market, but it is more specific, and is susceptible to influence from other factors. An example of this was the marketing of the USDA's food guide, which was intended to appeal to young people between the ages of 2 and 18.
The factors they had to consider outside of the standard marketing mix included the nutritional needs of growing children, children's knowledge and attitudes regarding nutrition, and other specialized details. This reduced their target market and provided a specific target audience to focus on. Common factors for target audiences may reduce the target market to specifics such as 'men aged 20–30 years old, living in Auckland, New Zealand' rather than 'men aged 20–30 years old'. However, just because a target audience is specialized doesn't mean the message being delivered will not be of interest and received by those outside the intended demographic. Failures of targeting a specific audience are also possible, and occur when information is incorrectly conveyed. Side effects such as a campaign backfire and 'demerit goods' are common consequences of a failed campaign. Demerit goods are goods with a negative social perception, and face the repercussions of their image being opposed to commonly accepted social values.
Defining the difference between a target market and a target audience comes down to the difference between marketing and advertising. In marketing, a market is targeted by business strategies, whilst advertisements and media, such as television shows, music and print media, are more effectively used to appeal to a target audience. A potential strategy to appeal to a target audience would be advertising toys during the morning children's TV programs, rather than during the evening news broadcast.
Target market
A target market is a select group of potential or current consumers, which a business decides to aim its marketing and advertising strategies at in order to sell a product or service. Defining a 'target market' is the first stage in the marketing strategy of a business, and is a process of market segmentation. Market segmentation can be defined as the division of a market into its select groups, based on a variety of factors such as needs, characteristics and behaviours, so that the application of the marketing mix can be appropriate to the individual. Segmentation of the market gives a business the ability to define its target market for its product or service, and apply the marketing mix to achieve the desired results.
A target market is a common tool utilised by many marketers and business to determine the set of customers they intend to focus on and serve their marketing messages to. It is defined by the Oxford Dictionary as "A particular group of consumers at which a product or service is aimed" (Oxford Dictionary, 2016). A target market is determined and defined by the goals set out in the marketing plan. From the marketing plan the marketer can establish the appropriate target audience necessary to successfully complete effective marketing communications (Percy, Rossiter, & Elliott, 2001, p. 65). Distinguishing the target market is a key decision for any businesses as it is the group of individuals whom the marketing is tailored for. Once a business has determined their target market an offering can be designed to satisfy the particular needs and wants of the particular audience (Hoyer, Macinnis, & Pieters, 2013, p. 7). The target audience is often segregated by factors such as demographic and psychographic differences. The audience within these target segments can have different regional, ethnic, lifestyle, and monetary and religious requirements. Tailoring the offering to a target market allows the marketer to satisfy the particular needs and wants of the consumers within this audience (Hoyer, Macinnis, & Pieters, 2013, p. 13).
The marketing mix is the combination of what are commonly called the '4 Ps'. These are price, place (distribution), product and promotion, in no particular order. The target market, defined by the market segmentation, requires a unique set of the 4 Ps to have the product or service effectively and efficiently marketed to it. For example, the marketing of a new women's perfume would require the segmentation of the market to focus almost exclusively on the female portion of the market, but would also have to consider the 4 Ps before it was determined. In the terms of perfume, this may include the price bracket of the product, where it was to be sold, the quality and aroma of the product, and how it was to be promoted. With all these considered, the product can be efficiently marketed. Therefore, the combination of the target market with the marketing mix is crucial to the success of the product or service.
Determining the target audience
A business must identify and understand its target audience if their marketing campaign is to be successful. It allows the business to craft their products or services to the wants and needs of customers, in order to maximise sales and therefore revenue. A successful marketing campaign connects with consumers on a personal dB level, which will help the business to develop long-term relationships with customers (Sherlock, 2014).
Not all consumers are the same. Determining the target audience is key to reaching the loyal and high-profit customers, in order to ensure a return on investment (Cahill, 1997, p. 10-11). To effectively determine the brand's target audience, marketing managers should consider the three main general aspects of target audience grouping: demographics, psychographics and consumer lifestyle (Percy, Rossiter, & Elliott, 2001, p. 65).
To determine the target audience, the business must first identify what problem their product or service solves, or what need or want it fulfills (Sherlock, 2014). The problem must be one that consumers are aware of and thus will be interested in solving. For example, a problem could be a lack of cheap air-conditioning units on the market. If a business enters the air-conditioning unit market selling their units at a low price, consumers who couldn't afford the other air-conditioning units will see this as a solution to the problem and will purchase the new units. The problem that the business solves can be identified by searching for similar businesses or business ideas. If the search is unsuccessful, then there remains a problem that the business can solve (Sherlock, 2014).
The business must determine what kind of people are facing the problem they identified. This is based on consumer demographic, psychographic, geographic information and behavior (Sherlock, 2014).
Demographic information
Demographic information involves statistical aspects of consumers such as gender, ethnicity, income, qualification and marital status (Sharma 2015). Demographic information is important to the business because it gives a basic background of the customers the business is intending to aim its marketing campaign at. This helps them to judge on a basic level how to communicate effectively with who they have identified as the target audience. Demographics are key because they provide the foundation of who the business will be targeting (Sherlock, 2014). Demographics is statistical information that does not require in-depth analysis to provide an answer, thus a business would use quantitative methods of data collection. This tiny method will provide a statistical approach to identifying the target audience.
Psychographic information
Psychographics is the use of sociological, psychological and anthropological factors, as well as consumer behavior, style of living and self-concept to determine how different market segment groups make decisions about a philosophy, person or product (Weinstein, 2014). Psychographic information can be utilized by the business to gain a deeper understanding of the consumer groups they intend to target, by analyzing the more intimate details of the consumer's lifestyle and thinking processes so as to gain an understanding of their preferences. Things like financials, interests, hobbies, and lifestyle will all be filtered by the business to create a target audience that will, in theory, be open to the product and will connect with the business through a marketing campaign aimed at them (Dowhan, 2013).
Behavioural information
Consumer behavior is the purchase decision process, what influences their purchase decision, what purposes they use the purchased good for, and their responses and attitudes to the product (Cheng et al., 2015). Cheng et al. explains that consumer's behavior is affected by messages sent by the business, which in turn affects their attitudes towards brands and products, and ultimately what products they choose to purchase (Cheng et al., 2015). When determining their target audience, a business must examine consumer behavior trends. Behavioral trends could include online purchasing instead of in-store purchasing, or modern consumers purchasing a new smartphone annually. They should then select a segment of consumers whose behavior aligns with the functionality and purpose of the product to be the intended audience for a marketing campaign. Target consumers can be identified by businesses as they will indicate that there is a demand for the product by their behavioral signals (Dowhan, 2013). Their interests, hobbies and past purchase activity provide a platform on which the business can base their marketing campaign (Dowhan, 2013).
Geographic information
Geographic information is essentially where the customer is located and is vital to the business when they are determining their target audience. This is because customers located in different geographic areas are going to encounter different things that influence their purchase decisions (Kahie, 1986). These can be any number of things, including resources, cultures, and climates, which can cause their behavior, psychographic information and influences to differ with those who are in same demographic but are geographically distant (Kahie, 1986). For example, a city or area with a heavy drinking culture will encounter high liquor sales, whereas a city or area with a minimal drinking culture will experience low liquor sales. Each country has consumers of the same demographic, but due to the cultural influence of the geographical area, their purchase decisions are different.
A basic example of a consumer profile is: males aged 35–40 who live in the US and have a university-level education (demographic), are a sociable extrovert from a top-middle economic class and live an active lifestyle (psychographic), lives in Nashville, Tennessee (geographic) and makes small and frequent purchases without considering the product's brand (behavioural). This profile will allow the business to tailor their marketing campaign to attract specific consumers.
There are many methods of demographic, psychographic, geographic and behavioral data collection. There are quantitative methods, being statistical processes such as surveys and questionnaires, and qualitative methods, being in-depth approaches such as focus groups or comprehensive interviews (Dudley et al. 2014). The different aspects of consumers are all essential to a business when it is planning a marketing campaign, as the information that the business gathers will determine what the most profitable target market for the campaign is, and how to reach this market.
The business must also look to their competitors to see what processes they are currently taking to try and solve the problem, and which consumers they are targeting (Sherlock, 2014). This will allow the business to get an idea of the type of consumer they will be targeting, and what the best way is to communicate with this type of consumer. This information can be used to allow the business to differentiate slightly from the competition in order to give them a competitive advantage once the marketing campaign begins.
Once the target audience has been identified, the business must then create content for the campaign that will resonate and effectively communicate with the consumer (Sherlock, 2014). Tracie Sherlock emphasizes that the level of content with which the business will be reaching the consumer should be of high quality, as 92% of marketers specify that high-level content is valuable for a campaign (Sherlock, 2014). This high level of content will help consumers to connect on a more personal level with the business and contribute to a successful communication process from the business to the target audience and then feedback from the target audience to the business.
Once the business has gathered data from consumers about their demographic, psychographic, geographic and behavioral situations, they can analyze this and use it to identify a rough target audience. This can be refined by the analysis of competitors' processes and targets, allowing the business to formulate a more segmented target audience. Then the segmented target audience can be refined into a clear objective of which consumers the business is targeting, thus creating the specific target audience for a marketing campaign.
Lifestyle
A lifestyle is defined as "a person's pattern of behavior" which is closely related to a consumer's personality and values (Hoyer, Macinnis, & Pieters, 2013, p. 401). The lifestyle of a customer is often determined by purchasing behavior and product preference (Lin, 2002, p. 250). This gives marketers an understanding of what type of lifestyle consumers live. A lifestyle is defined with three main sections: activities, interests, and opinions (AIO). If a marketer can conduct lifestyle research through previous purchasing behavior it gives an excellent understanding of AIOs enabling target audiences to be effectively determined (Hoyer, Macinnis, & Pieters, 2013, p. 401-403).
Vs. target market
Two key marketing terms are target audience and target market. Distinguishing the correct target market(s) and defining a target audience is a crucial step when owning a business. Although the two are very similar, it is essential to understand the differences.
A target audience is generally associated with a business's marketing message, which highlights advantages and benefits of a business's product or service. Examples of a target audience are "company employees, society as a whole, media officials, or a variety of other groups" (Tambien, E., n.d.). Tom Duncan, author of The Principles of Advertising and IMC, and founder of the Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) graduate program at the University of Colorado, defines target audience as "a group that has significant potential to respond positively to a brand message" (Northwestern University., n.d.) (Duncan, T., 2005). This 'group' is targeted through particular marketing communication channels such as advertising, which aim to create a positive interaction towards the brand (Tyson, R., 2014). If this is successful, the audience will play a huge role in influencing other potential customers to purchase the product or service. An example of this is when a child, part of a target audience, is positively reached through a communication channel such as a TV advertisement for toys. The child then shares this information with their parent, the target market, who will be influenced to go purchase the toy.
A target market is a selected group of consumers who share common needs or characteristics. Often these characteristics can be segmented into four different marketing groups, geographic, demographic, psychographic or behavioral (Kotler, P., Burton, S., Deans, K., Brown, L., & Armstrong, G., 2013). Once a company has defined their target market, they will aim their products, services and marketing activities towards these consumers in a way that will hopefully persuade them to purchase the product or service (Kotler, et al., 2013). The impact of this will result in either a gratifying or deficient marketing strategy.
Strategies for reaching target audiences
Reaching a target audience is a staged process, started by the selection of the sector of the target market. A successful appeal to a target audience requires a detailed media plan, which involves many factors in order to achieve an effective campaign.
The use of media is what differentiates target markets from target audiences. While target markets are marketed to with business strategies, the use of advertising and other media tools is what makes marketing to target audiences a more effective way of appealing to a select group of individuals. The effectiveness of a target audience campaign is dependent on how well the company knows their market; this can include details such as behaviours, incentives, cultural differences and societal expectations. Failure to identify these trends can lead to campaigns being targeted at the wrong audiences, and ultimately a loss of money or no change at all. An example of this type of failure was Chef Boyardee, who planned a campaign to appeal to teenage boys, the largest consumers of their product. What they hadn't considered however was that the purchasers of their goods may be different from the consumers, which was the case, as mothers were the leading purchasers, even though the boys were consuming the product. Factors like these are considered at a more in-depth level with a detailed media plan, one that cannot be found in a simpler target market strategy. Following through a media plan requires attention at every stage, and requires a range of factors to be considered. In order, these include:
Targets
Media types
Media tactics
Media vehicles
Media units
Media schedule
Media promotions
Media logistics
Contingency plans
Calendar
Budget and integrated marketing
Each of these sections goes into even more detail, such as media units, which includes such minute details as the length of a broadcast commercial or the size of a print advertisement.
A thoroughly followed, planned and implemented media plan is required to achieve outright success in a campaign. Therefore, ignoring any of the factors can lead to a miscommunication with consumers and ultimately a failure to fully reach the whole target audience effectively.
Effective marketing consists of identifying the appropriate target audience, and being able to appoint the correct marketing strategy in order to reach and influence them. Four key targeting strategies largely used within businesses are; undifferentiated (mass) marketing, differentiated (segmented) marketing, concentrated (niche) marketing, and lastly micro (local or individual) marketing (Kotler, et al., 2013).
Undifferentiated (mass) marketing is a strategy used to capture a whole audience, rather than focusing on the differences in segmented markets. A business will typically design one product line and focus on what consumer demands are most frequent, in order to create a marketing program that will appeal to the greatest amount of purchases. This strategy commonly uses mass distribution and advertising to help create an admirable product and is possibly one of the most cost effective. The narrow product line, undifferentiated advertising program and absence of segmented market research and planning, all contribute to keeping the costs down. Many do not believe in this strategy, due to the high amount of competition and the difficulty in creating a product that satisfies a majority of consumers (Kotler, et al., 2013).
A differentiated (segmented) marketing strategy is when a business chooses to target multiple segments of the audience, by creating a different variations of its product for each. An example of this is V energy drinks who offer a large range of products including; V regular, V sugar free, V zero, V double espresso (V-Energy.,n.d.). Typically when using this marketing strategy, recognition of the company is widened and repeat purchasing is strengthened, with customers gaining products that are more tailored to their needs. This strategy unfortunately is not cost effective and involves a lot of research and development, as well as a whole range of promotion that is unique to each specific product. Although this strategy often has more sales than those who use an undifferentiated marketing strategy. When considering this strategy one must consider the increased sales against the increased cost (Kotler, et al., 2013).
Concentrated (niche) marketing is a "market coverage strategy in which a company goes after a large share of one or a few sub-markets (Kotler, et al., 2013)." This strategy enables companies to create a strong market position without mass production, distribution or advertising. This strategy is usually beneficial as it does not involve a lot of competition. A business is able to gain greater knowledge of their distinct segment, as they are more focused on the segmentations needs and reputation that it acquires. Many businesses using this strategy are now turning to the web to set up their shop, not only because it is cost effective but allows them to become more recognisable (Kotler, et al., 2013).
A micro-marketing strategy (local or individual) targets very narrowly compared to an undifferentiated marketing strategy. Generally a business using this strategy will adjust its product, and marketing program to fit the needs of different market segments and niches. A good example of this is shown in the real-estate industry whose goal is often to determine what type of house the client is looking for. Micro-marketing includes both local and individual marketing. Often this strategy can be costly, due to the customization and shortage of an economy of scale (Kotler, et al., 2013).
Local marketing is "tailoring brands and promotions to the needs and wants of the local customer groups, cities, neighborhoods and even specific stores (Kotler, et al., 2013)." This type of marketing does have difficulties especially when it comes to manufacturing and marketing costs, meeting the mixed requirements for each market location and brand image familiarity. New developing technologies and fragmented markets regularly exceed these obstacles (Kotler, et al., 2013).
Individual marketing refers to accommodating merchandise and marketing programs, to the desired demands of individual customers. An example of this is Coca-Cola, who enables customers to personalise their Coke cans by being able to print their name or choice of text onto the can packaging (Coca-Cola., n.d.). Despite the extra costs for the business, allowing customer to design and create a product they desire to suit their own needs, can create value and loyalty towards the business. It is also a way the business can stand out against its competitors (Kotler, et al., 2013).
Strategies for reaching target markets
Marketers have outlined four basic strategies to satisfy target markets: undifferentiated marketing or mass marketing, differentiated marketing, concentrated marketing, and micromarketing/ nichemarketing.
Mass marketing is a market coverage strategy in which a firm decides to ignore market segment differences and go after the whole market with one offer. It is type of marketing (or attempting to sell through persuasion) of a product to a wide audience. The idea is to broadcast a message that will reach the largest number of people possible. Traditionally mass marketing has focused on radio, television and newspapers as the medium used to reach this broad audience.
For sales teams, one way to reach out to target markets is through direct marketing. This is done by buying consumer database based on the segmentation profiles you have defined. These database usually comes with consumer contacts (e.g. email, mobile no., home no., etc.). Caution is recommended when undertaking direct marketing efforts — check the targeted country's direct marketing laws.
Target audiences are formed from different groups, for example: adults, teens, children, mid-teens, preschoolers, men, or women.
To market to any given audience effectively, it is essential to become familiar with your target market; their habits, behaviors, likes, and dislikes. Markets differ in size, assortment, geographic scale, locality, types of communities, and in the different types of merchandise sold. Because of the many variations included in a market it is essential, since you cannot accommodate everyone's preferences, to know exactly who you are marketing to.
To better become acquainted with the ins and outs of your designated target market legend, a market analysis must be completed. A market analysis is a documented examination of a market that is used to enlighten a business's preparation activities surrounding decisions of inventory, purchase, workforce expansion/contraction, facility expansion, purchases of capital equipment, promotional activities, improvement of daily operations and many other aspects.
Strategic planning and segmentation
Marketing organisations undertaking a strategic plan need to use target marketing in their decisions (Dibb & Simkin 1998). Target marketing is also part of the segmentation process, where groups who share the same needs and wants are segmented into specific categories. According to Dibb and Simkin, (1998) the final process of target marketing is the design of marketing mix programme. The marketing mix tools are made up of four broad groups known as the 4 Ps: product, price, place, and promotion (Kotler et al., 2014). The use of the marketing mix programme will provide sufficient data and knowledge for appropriate marketing strategies to reach the specific target audience. Target marketing strategy can be segmentation: Market segmentation demonstrates dividing the market into distinct groups that may require different products or services (Kotler et al., 2014). Using the strategy of market segmentation can allow the marketer to have sufficient knowledge of the consumer's characteristics. Knowledge of consumers' demographic, geographic, psychographic and behavioral variables can enable relevant marketing processes to reach the target audience directly.
Geographic
Geographic segmentation is the marketer's appealing to particular geographic areas such as nations, regions, countries, cities or neighborhoods (Kotler et al., 2014). Particular knowledge of geographic preferences allows businesses and organisations to modify or change their product to allocate to their market, (Kotler et al., 2014).
Demographic
This divides the market into demographic field such as age, life cycle, gender, income, occupation, education, religion, and nationality (Kotler et al., 2014). Some companies offer different products and market strategies to allocate to various age and life cycles, other companies focus on specific age of life cycle groups. Kotler et al., (2014) states an example, Disney cruise lines primarily focus on families with children large or small, and most destinations offer children and parent orientated activities. This shows that the Disney cruise line company has a specific segment of their target market being families with children.
Psychographic
Customers may be sorted based on social class, lifestyle, or personality characteristics (Kotler et al., 2014). According to Kotler et al., (2014) people who in the same demographic area can have completely different psychographic characteristics. Marketers generally segment target markets into consumer lifestyles and their social class. Social class has a large effect on preferences for cars, clothes, home furnishings, leisure activities, reading habits, and retailers (Kotler et al., 2014).
Behavioral
Consumers are divided by their knowledge, attitudes, and use of, or response to, the product (Kotler et al., 2014). Marketers can group buyers according to the occasion when they made the purchase or used the product. For example, Kotler et al. (2014) suggests that air travel is generated by occasions relative to business, vacation, or family. Another way marketers can group buyers using behavioral variables is user status and usage rate. They can be segmented into nonusers, former users, potential users, first-time users and regular users of a product, (Kotler et al., 2014). Usage rate is the segmentation into light, medium and heavy product users. According to Kotler, et al., (2014) heavy product users are usually a small percentage of the market but account for a high percentage of total consumption. Loyalty status can prove to be very significant to a marketer's product or service. Kotler et al., (2014) expresses, a reason for increasing customer loyalty is that "loyal customers are pricing insensitive compared to brand-shifting ideas."
Marketing mix
To understand the effects of marketing on audience improvement, the basic marketing principles need to be outlined, and the role that marketing strategies play in building a target audience examined. According to, Galvin (1998), marketing is considered to be as simple as selling or promoting a product or service to a client, customer or consumer who is in need of the distinct product. It is also the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual customer and organisations (Galvin, 1998). As well as segmentation, the marketing mix is a significant marketing strategy to pinpoint the target audience and further market appropriately to that audience. The marketing mix involves designing the packaging, pricing of the product, distributing of the product, and promoting or communicating about the product (Galvin, 1998). These processes are known as the 4 Ps. The market strategy and the marketing mix allow room to create value for customers and build profitable customer relationships (Kotler et al., 2014). These customer relationships can create an idea of exactly what target audience applies to the specific product, if few or more consumers have similar characteristics and purchase the product regularly for similar behavioral reasons therefore the target audience may fit within that category.
Direct marketing
Direct marketing is targeting individual consumers to both obtain an immediate response and cultivate lasting consumer relationships, (Kotler et al., 2014). According to Evans, O'Malley and Patterson, (1995) the direct marketing industry has been the fastest growing sector of marketing communications. There are multiple forms of direct marketing such as direct mail, the telephone, direct-response television, e-mail, the Internet and other tools to connect with specific consumers (Kotler et al., 2014). Evans, O'Malley and Patterson (1995) and Kotler et al. (2014) also consider leaflet drops and samples to be a form of direct marketing. Using these direct forms of communication, customers of the product or service will receive personal, efficient and easily accessed information on the product. This could influence the customer to purchase the product or service. This is arguably the most straightforward and direct process for reaching the appropriate target audience (Evans, O'Malley & Patterson, 1995).
Communication strategies
Marketing communications channels have undergone huge changes, shifting away from traditional mass-market type advertisements such as television and radio. This is due to advancements in technology and the Internet era developing brand new communication channels such as web advertising, social media and blogs (Bruhn, Schoenmueller, & Schäfer, 2012, p. 770-772 ). Many businesses such as Coca-Cola are engaging with their target audience through these modern media channels, opening up a two-way communication from brand to consumer and consumer to brand. This approach generates the brand's following through social media vehicles, which are increasingly where consumers find brand content and information. By increasing engagement with target audiences, businesses have the opportunity to increase brand equity through both traditional media and social media (Bruhn, Schoenmueller, & Schäfer, 2012, p. 781-782).
Traditional communication
Traditional media vehicles such as television, radio and press have been utilised by marketers for many years but have limitations when trying to reach an individual target audience. The advantage traditional media gives businesses is the ability to reach a huge audience. This type of marketing is commonly known as mass marketing and accounted for 70% of media spending in 2013 (Hoyer, Macinnis, & Pieters, 2013, p. 118-120). These media vehicles are better suited to a brand's attempt to stay relevant or build brand awareness in the mass market it communicates with (Bruhn, Schoenmueller, & Schäfer, 2012, p. 781-782). Although traditional media is effective in generating brand awareness, in today's market more and more consumers are online, engaged in more than one media channel at a time. Traditional media cannot target this consumer effectively where an omni-channel marketing approach is needed (Brynjolfsson, 2013). Traditional media is considered expensive for smaller businesses with limited ability to market to the intended target audience; this mass marketing approach serves the message market widely rather than deeply with the intended audience (Bruhn, Schoenmueller, & Schäfer, 2012, p. 781-782 ). To reach today's target audience effectively, traditional media such as television advertisements must be implemented in an integrated marketing communications campaign rather than the sole media vehicle to deliver a brand's message (Hoyer, Macinnis, & Pieters, 2013, p. 3-7)
Online communications
Marketers can use online media to better reach their target audience. Once marketers understand the segments of their target market they can generate a marketing message suitable for the intended target audience. Communicating to consumers through tools such as web banners, social media and email, allows direct targeting to the consumer. This serves up a custom message to a consumer who is already engaged and interested in the offering. An example of this is remarketing, which allows advertisers to see a consumer's web history, tracking them online to see exactly which websites they have visited. The marketer then has a second chance to show the consumer a related product from a previously-visited website, which the consumer had turned down earlier (Libert, Grande, & Asch, 2015).
Social media such as Twitter, Snapchat discover, Instagram, YouTube and Facebook allow two-way communication between the business and consumer which cannot be achieved by traditional media. This communication benefits both the business using social media as a tool and the consumer, as they can build meaningful relationships with the business and other consumers, creating a community around the brand. This community can provide new insights for the business, identifying problems and offering solutions through social interactions (Tsimonis & Dimitriadis, 2014, p. 328-330). When businesses have a successful social platform which generates an interactive community around a brand, it enables better relationship building, which improves the brand's image and consumer-based brand equity (Bruhn, Schoenmueller, & Schäfer, 2012, p. 781-782).
Marketers can also use online media to target preexisting communities by introducing key leaders within those communities to their product or service, in the hope that they will in turn introduce their followers to the product.
The power of persuasion
The role that social influence and persuasion play has a sizable emphasis on target audience, and how the message is developed into society. How these messages are conveyed to the target audience, plays a key role tailored to the target audience to trigger deep or shallow processing, from using the best path to persuasion. The target audience analysis process requires a tremendous amount of work, to identify the characteristics of the broad target audience, refining this audience on several dimensions. The specific conformity of the target audience to the desired supporting psychological operations objective is the product of assiduous work, mainly of the target audience analysis phase of influence process, this validates the importance of this role to the overall operation enabling decision makers, to gain substantial objectives in the information environment (Topolniski, 2013).
See also
Consumer behaviour
Key demographic
Reader model
Target market
Product differentiation
Persona (user experience)
Notes
References
Ang, L. (2014). principles of integrated marketing communications. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Brynjolfsson, E. (2013, May 23). Competing in the Age of Omnichannel Retailing. Retrieved from http://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/competing-in-the-age-of-omnichannel-retailing/
Coca-Cola. (n.d.). Share a Coke - celebrate your loved ones with personalized bottles. Retrieved from: https://buy.shareacoke.com/
Duncan, T. (2005). Principles of advertising & IMC (2nd ed.). Chicago, IL: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Hoyer, W. D., Macinnis, D. J., & Pieters, R. (2013). Consumer Behavior (6th ed.).
Kotler et al. (2014). Marketing for hospitality and tourism, (6th ed.) Pearson New International Edition.
Kotler, P., Burton, S., Deans, K., Brown, L., & Armstrong, G. (2013). Market segmentation, targeting and positioning. In Marketing (9th ed.). NSW: Frenchs Forest, N.S.W., Pearson Australia.
Northwestern University. (n.d.). Tom Duncan - Medill - Northwestern University. Retrieved from http://www.medill.northwestern.edu/about/who-we-are/hall-of-achievement/tom-duncan.html
Oxford Dictionary. (2016). target market - definition of target market in English from the Oxford dictionary. Retrieved from [https://web.archive.org/web/20160415081844/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/target-market?q=target+market Article title]
Percy, L., Rossiter, J. R., & Elliott, R. H. (2001). Strategic advertising management. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Percy, Larry, Rossiter, John., R, Elliot, Richard. (2001). The audience considerations. Strategic Advertising Management. Retrieved from Strategic Advertising Management
Tyson, R. (2014, February 3). The Difference Between Your Target Market and Target Audience. Retrieved from: http://www.copypress.com/blog/how-to-resonate-with-your-target-market/
V Movement. (2016). V MoVement | V Energy. Retrieved from http://v-energy.com.au/world-of-v/v-movement
Market segmentation
Promotion and marketing communications
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juqu%20Mengxun
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Juqu Mengxun
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Juqu Mengxun (; 368–433) was a king of the Xiongnu-led Chinese Northern Liang dynasty, and the first from the Juqu clan. His cousin Juqu Nancheng () and he initially supported Duan Ye as prince of Northern Liang in 397 after rebelling against Later Liang, but in 401, Juqu Mengxun tricked Duan Ye into wrongly executing Juqu Nancheng, and then used that as an excuse to attack and kill Duan Ye, taking over the throne himself. While he maintained his own state, he also nominally served as a vassal of the Later Qin, Jin, and Northern Wei dynasties. He was considered a capable ruler when young, but in old age was considered cruel and arbitrary.
Under Later Liang and Duan Ye
Juqu Mengxun was born in 368, while the area that would later be his domain was under the rule of Former Liang, but little is known about his early years. He was of Xiongnu ancestry, and it was said that his ancestors served as the left Juqu (an office title of unclear responsibility) for Xiongnu Chanyus, and so they started using Juqu as the family name. Later, during Former Qin and Later Liang rule, Juqu Mengxun became known for broad knowledge in history and military tactics and thought to be both humorous and full of strategies, and became feared by the Former Qin governor Liang Xi () and the Later Liang emperor Lü Guang, and so he tried to divert attention from himself by drinking heavily and spending time on frivolous matters.
In 397, Lü Guang sent his brother Lü Yan () on an attack against Western Qin, but Lü Yan was killed in a trap set by the Western Qin prince Qifu Gangui. Juqu Mengxun's uncles Juqu Luochou () and Juqu Quzhou () were Lü Yan's assistants, and in light of Lü Yan's death, Lü Guang believed false accusations against them and executed them. Juqu Mengxun escorted their caskets back to their home territory of Zhangye (modern Zhangye, Gansu) and then persuaded the various Xiongnu tribes to rise against Later Liang. Initially, he was defeated by Lü Guang's son Lü Zuan and fled into the mountains, but he was soon joined in rebellion by his cousin Juqu Nancheng (), who sieged Jiankang (also in modern Zhangye) and persuaded Duan Ye the governor of Jiankang Commandery to accept leadership of the rebels, establishing Northern Liang. Soon, Lü Guang came under the greater threat of a rebellion by Guo Nen () and recalled Lü Zuan to face that threat, and Duan Ye's nascent state survived. Juqu Mengxun joined Duan Ye, and was made a major general of the state. In 398, Duan Ye sent him on an expedition against Lü Guang's nephew Lü Chun (), and Juqu Mengxun captured Lü Chun, causing all remaining Later Liang cities west of Zhangye to submit to Northern Liang, further enlarging Northern Liang territory. Duan Ye therefore created Juqu Mengxun the Marquess of Linchi. Lü Guang's son Lü Hong () soon abandoned Zhangye, and Duan Ye moved his capital to Zhangye, and tried to further pursue Lü Hong against Juqu Mengxun's advice. Lü Hong defeated him and nearly killed him, but Juqu Mengxun saved Duan Ye. In 399, when Duan Ye claimed the title of Prince of Liang, he made Juqu Mengxun one of his two prime ministers, sharing responsibilities with Liang Zhongyong (). Later that year, when Northern Liang was under attack by Lü Guang's crown prince Lü Shao and Lü Zuan, it was at Juqu Mengxun's suggestion that Duan Ye refused to engage, forcing Lü Shao and Lü Zuan to retreat when Southern Liang relief forces under Tufa Lilugu arrived. In 400, when the general Wang De () rebelled, Duan Ye sent Juqu Mengxun to attack him, and Juqu Mengxun defeated him and, while he fled, captured his wife and children.
By 401, however, Duan Ye was heavily apprehensive of Juqu Mengxun's strategies and abilities, and he considered sending Juqu Mengxun far away. Juqu Mengxun, knowing Duan Ye's suspicions, tried to hide his ambitions. However, at the same time, because he was often insulted by another official that Duan Ye heavily relied on, Ma Quan (), he falsely accused Ma of treason, and Duan Ye killed Ma. Juqu Mengxun then told Juqu Nancheng that he felt that Duan Ye lacked abilities and was an inappropriate ruler, trying to persuade Juqu Nancheng to rise against Duan Ye. When Juqu Nancheng refused, Juqu Mengxun requested to leave the capital to be the governor of Xi'an Commandery (also in modern Zhangye), and Duan Ye agreed. Juqu Mengxun then set a trap for both Juqu Nancheng and Duan Ye -- he made an appointment with Juqu Nancheng to offer sacrifices to the god of Lanmen Mountain (near Zhangye) on a vacation day, but submitting a false report through the official Xu Xian () that Juqu Nancheng was set to rebel and would start the rebellion on a day that he requested permission to sacrifice to the god of Lanmen Mountain. When Juqu Nancheng requested Duan Ye for such permission, Duan Ye arrested him and ordered him to commit suicide. Juqu Nancheng, who had realized Juqu Mengxun's plan by this point, told Duan Ye that this was a sign that Juqu Mengxun was about to rebel and that he should keep Juqu Nancheng alive, and then when Juqu Mengxun rebels he could counterattack. Duan Ye, not believing in Juqu Nancheng, executed him. Juqu Mengxun then cited Duan Ye's execution of Juqu Nancheng to ask his people to rise against Duan Ye, and the people indeed rose in rebellion, because of the high regard they had for Juqu Nancheng. The rebels quickly arrived at Zhangye, and it fell. Despite Duan Ye's pleas, Juqu Mengxun executed him. The Northern Liang officials all endorsed Juqu Mengxun to take over the throne, and he took throne with the title Duke of Zhangye.
Early reign
Juqu Mengxun, having taken the ducal title, promoted a number of officials who were considered capable, and it was said that the people of his state were pleased. He also nominally submitted to the Later Qin emperor Yao Xing as a vassal, although remaining in reality independent. However, he immediately faced the crisis that his Jiuquan (酒泉) and Liangning (涼寧) Commanderies (roughly modern Jiuquan, Gansu) rebelled against him and joined Western Liang. He became fearful, and he sent his brother Juqu Ru (沮渠挐) the Marquess of Dugu and official Zhang Qian (張潜) to meet Yao Xing's uncle Yao Shuode (姚碩德), who had just recently sieged Later Liang's capital Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei, Gansu) and forced the Later Liang emperor Lü Long to submit, offering to surrender his state to Later Qin. Yao Shuode was pleased, but upon return to Northern Liang, while Zhang recommended such surrender, Juqu Ru argued against it, and Juqu Mengxun, while remaining nominally a Later Qin vassal, executed Zhang and never actually surrendered his state. He also tried to make peace with Southern Liang's prince Tufa Lilugu, initially sending his son Juqu Xi'nian (沮渠奚念) as a hostage to Southern Liang, but Tufa Lilugu rejected Juqu Xi'nian, stating that he was too young to be a meaningful hostage and demanding Juqu Ru instead. After initially refusing, Juqu Mengxun gave in to Southern Liang demands after Tufa Lilugu defeated him in battle.
In 402, with Guzang under a severe famine, Juqu Mengxun attacked Later Liang, causing Lü Long to seek aid from Southern Liang, but before Southern Liang forces could arrive, Lü Long defeated Juqu Mengxun, and Juqu Mengxun made peace with Lü Long, offering him food for famine relief.
Around the new year 403, Liang Zhongyong, who continued to be a key official after Juqu Mengxun took over for Duan Ye, fled from his domain and joined Western Liang's prince Li Gao. Rather than killing Liang's wife and children as might be expected, Juqu Mengxun sent them to Liang, commenting, "I treated Liang like a brother, but he did not trust me. He did not betray me, but himself; I do not mind losing a man."
Later that year, because Juqu Mengxun and Tufa Lilugu were constantly attacking him and draining his state's resources, Lü Long felt he could not maintain his state any more, and he surrendered his state (now consisting of little more than Guzang) to Later Qin. He also persuaded the Later Qin general Qi Nan (齊難) to attack Juqu Mengxun, but Juqu Mengxun repelled Qi's attack and then made peace with Qi. Juqu Mengxun sent Juqu Ru (who must have somehow been returned from Southern Liang by this point) to the Later Qin capital Chang'an to declare his submission to Yao Xing. Later that year, having received reports that his two uncles and generals Juqu Qinxin (沮渠親信) and Juqu Kongdu (沮渠孔篤) were corrupt and harmful to the people, he forced to commit suicide. Meanwhile, he accepted the title that Yao Xing created him, the Marquess of Xihai, to show submission, despite his initial displeasure that Tufa Lilugu's brother and successor Tufa Rutan was created a duke while he was only created a marquess.
In 405, Li Gao moved his capital from Dunhuang (敦煌, in modern Dunhuang, Gansu) to Jiuquan, to be closer to Zhangye to exert pressure on Juqu Mengxun.
In spring 406, Tufa Rutan launched a major attack on Northern Liang, but Juqu Mengxun was able to hold Zhangye, forcing Tufa Rutan to withdraw. In fall 406, Juqu Mengxun made a surprise attack on Jiuquan, initially defeated Li Gao, but he could not successfully siege Jiuquan and was forced to withdraw.
In fall 407, Tufa Rutan made another attack on Northern Liang, but Juqu Mengxun was able to defeat him.
In 410, Tufa Rutan and his brother Tufa Juyan (禿髮俱延) launched successive attacks on Northern Liang, and Juqu Mengxun was not only able to repel them, but then proceeded to siege Guzang (where Tufa Rutan had moved his capital after receiving it as a bestowment from Yao Xing in 406). The people of Guzang, because Tufa Rutan had previously carried out massive executions after a failed rebellion, collapsed in fear, and more than 10,000 households surrendered to Northern Liang. Tufa Rutan, apprehensive of both Juqu Mengxun and a rebellion by Zhequ Qizhen (折屈奇鎮) in the south, made peace with Juqu Mengxun and moved his capital back south to Ledu (樂都, in modern Haidong Prefecture, Qinghai). As soon as he left Guzang, however, Hou Chen (侯諶) and Jiao Lang (焦朗) seized control of Guzang and nominally submitted to Juqu Mengxun, although they held Guzang themselves. In fall 410, Juqu Mengxun attacked Western Liang and defeated Li Gao's heir apparent Li Xin and captured the Western Liang general Zhu Yuanhu (朱元虎), and he subsequently made peace with Li Gao when Li Gao ransomed Zhu with silver and gold.
In spring 411, with Jiao Lang still holding Guzang, Juqu Mengxun sieged Guzang and captured him, but pardoned him. He left Juqu Ru in command at Guzang and then attacked Southern Liang, putting Ledu under siege, and only withdrew after Tufa Rutan sent his son Tufa Anzhou (禿髮安周) as a hostage. Tufa Rutan soon counterattacked, however, and initially was successful, but Juqu Mengxun trailed Tufa Rutan's forces and defeated him, again putting Ledu under siege and forcing Tufa Rutan to send another son, Tufa Ran'gan (禿髮染干) as a witness before withdrawing. In fall 411, Juqu Mengxun made a surprise attack on Western Liang, but was unsuccessful, and as he ran out of food supplies and withdrew, Li Gao sent Li Xin to attack him, defeating him.
In winter 412, Juqu Mengxun moved the capital from Zhangye to Guzang, and he claimed the greater title of Prince of Hexi.
Middle reign
In 413, Juqu Mengxun created his son Juqu Zhengde (沮渠政德) heir apparent. In the summer of that year, he repelled another attack from Tufa Rutan, and then again put Ledu under siege for 20 days, but could not capture it. He renewed the attack when Tufa Rutan's general Tufa Wenzhi (禿髮文支) surrendered to him, forcing Tufa Rutan to send Tufa Juyan as a hostage to him.
Also in 413, while Juqu Mengxun was sleeping, his eunuch Wang Huaizu (王懷祖) tried to assassinate him, but only hurt his foot. Juqu Mengxun's wife Princess Meng arrested Wang and had him beheaded. Also in 413, Juqu Mengxun's mother Lady Che died.
With Western Qin having destroyed Southern Liang in 414, Northern Liang and Western Qin began to have a series of wars, with Juqu Mengxun largely winning these battles against Western Qin's prince Qifu Chipan. In 416, after an inconclusive battle, Northern Liang and Western Qin entered into peace.
In 417, Juqu Mengxun tried to lay a trap for Li Xin (who had succeeded Li Gao after Li Gao's death that year) by having his general Juqu Guangzong (沮渠廣宗) pretending to surrender to Western Liang, while Juqu Mengxun lay in wait. However, Li Xin realized the trap and withdrew, and as Juqu Mengxun gave chase, Li Xin defeated him.
That year, Juqu Mengxun became fearful and angry when he heard that the Jin general Liu Yu had destroyed Later Qin and seized its territory, probably in fear that Liu Yu would next advance against his state. When his official Liu Xiang (劉祥) was making a report to him with a smile, Juqu Mengxun angrily stated, "How do you dare to smile upon hearing that Liu Yu had entered Hangu Pass!" and beheaded Liu Xiang. (This is despite Juqu Mengxun having made an overture in 415 agreeing to submit to Jin as a vassal.) His fears appeared to subside after Liu Yu left former Later Qin territory late in 417, and dissipate completely when the Xia emperor Helian Bobo crushed troops under Liu Yu's son Liu Yizhen (劉義真) in 418.
In 418, Juqu Mengxun made an attack on Western Liang, but Li Xin refused to engage him, and he withdrew. Later that year, he submitted to Jin as a vassal.
In 420, Juqu Mengxun set another trap for Li Xin. He pretended to attack Western Qin's city Haomen (浩亹, in modern Haidong Prefecture, Qinghai), but once reaching Haomen, immediately withdrew and hid his army at Chuanyan (川巖, near Zhangye). Li Xin, believing wrongly that Juqu Mengxun's defenses were down, decided to attack Zhangye, against the advice of Song Yao and Zhang Tishun, as well as his mother Princess Dowager Yin. As he approached Zhangye, Juqu Mengxun intercepted him and defeated him. His generals then advised him to quickly withdraw to Jiuquan, but Li Xin, stating that he had disobeyed his mother and would only be able to see her again after a victory, engaged Juqu Mengxun again, suffering an even greater defeat, and he was killed in battle. Juqu Mengxun quickly captured Jiuquan and most of Western Liang territory. He largely maintained a policy of trying to pacify the Western Liang people and incorporating capable Western Liang officials into his administration, including Li Gao's half-brother Song Yao (宋繇). In winter 420, Li Xin's brother Li Xun seized Dunhuang and tried to reestablish Western Liang rule, and Juqu Mengxun initially sent Juqu Zhengde to siege Dunhuang. In spring 421, he attacked Dunhuang himself, and when Li Xun tried to surrender, he refused. Li Xun's official Song Cheng (宋承) rebelled and offered the city to him, and Li Xun committed suicide, ending Western Liang; contrary to the pacification policy he carried out at Jiuquan, Juqu Mengxun slaughtered the populace of Dunhuang.
With Western Liang destroyed, Juqu Mengxun renewed his attacks against Western Qin, and while his initial attacks were repelled, his attacks had a draining effect on Western Qin, whose strength began to be sapped. At some point, he also encouraged Tufa Rutan's crown prince Tufa Hutai (禿髮虎台) to rebel against Western Qin, promising to lend him two commanderies and troops, but after Tufa Hutai's plot, which also included his sister Princess Tufa (Qifu Chipan's wife), was discovered, Qifu Chipan had Tufa Hutai and Princess Tufa executed. Some members of the Tufa clan fled to Northern Liang.
In 421, the general Tang Qi (唐契), a former Western Liang general and brother-in-law to Li Xin, rebelled at his post of Jinchang (晉昌, in modern Jiuquan, Gansu), and not until 423 did Juqu Zhengde defeat Tang, but Tang and his brother Tang He (唐和) and nephew Li Bao (李寶, Li Xin's son) fled to Yiwu (伊吾, in modern Kumul Prefecture, Xinjiang) and held out there.
Also in 423, Juqu Mengxun sent tributes to Jin's successor state, Liu Song, which Liu Yu had established in 420. Liu Yu's son Emperor Shao of Liu Song affirmed Juqu Mengxun's title of Prince of Hexi. In fall of that year, when Rouran attacked Northern Liang, Juqu Mengxun sent Juqu Zhengde to fight Rouran, but Juqu Zhengde was defeated and killed. Juqu Mengxun then created his next son Juqu Xingguo (沮渠興國) as heir apparent.
In 426, a decisive battle would largely end Western Qin as a threat to Northern Liang. Qifu Chipan and his crown prince Qifu Mumo were launching a major attack on Northern Liang. Juqu Mengxun sent messengers to persuade the Xia emperor Helian Chang (Helian Bobo's son and successor) to make a surprise attack on the Western Qin capital Fuhan (枹罕, in modern Linxia, Gansu). Helian Chang, in response, sent his general Hulu Gu (呼盧古) to attack Wanchuan and Wei Fa (韋伐) to attack Nan'an (南安, in modern Dingxi, Gansu), and while Western Qin was able to hold Wanchuan, Nan'an fell, at great loss. In winter 426, Xia forces commanded by Hulu and Wei attack Fuhan, forcing Qifu Gangui to move the capital to Dinglian (定連, also in Linxia), and Hulu and Wei then captured another important Western Qin city, Xiping (西平, in modern Xining, Qinghai), and while they then withdrew, Western Qin had been dealt a major blow. Later that year, with Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei having in turn defeated Helian Chang in battle, capturing Chang'an and nearly capturing the Xia capital Tongwan (統萬, in modern Yulin, Shaanxi) as well, Juqu Mengxun sent messengers to Northern Wei offering to submit as a vassal.
In 428, when Qifu Chipan died and was succeeded by Qifu Mumo, Juqu Mengxun made a major attack on Western Qin. Qifu Mumo sent back his general Juqu Chengdu (沮渠成都), whom Qifu Chipan captured in 422, to seek peace, and they entered into a peace agreement. However, just several months later, Juqu Mengxun renewed his attacks on Western Qin.
Late reign
In 429, Juqu Mengxun launched another major attack on Western Qin, but during the campaign, Juqu Xingguo was captured, and Juqu Mengxun was forced to withdraw, after his forces, aligned also with Tuyuhun forces commanded by Murong Muliyan (慕容慕利延), the brother of the khan Murong Mugui (慕容慕璝). He soon sent a large amount of grain to Qifu Mumo, requesting to ransom Juqu Xingguo, but Qifu Mumo refused, so Juqu Mengxun created Juqu Xingguo's younger brother, by the same mother, Juqu Puti (沮渠菩提), to be heir apparent. Qifu Mumo kept Juqu Xingguo as an official and married a sister to him.
In 431, with Xia's emperor Helian Ding (Helian Chang's brother and successor after Helian Chang was captured by Northern Wei in 428) having first destroyed Western Qin and killed Qifu Mumo and then having been defeated and captured by Murong Mugui), Juqu Mengxun, now with his territory directly in contact with Northern Wei, sent his son Juqu Anzhou to Northern Wei as a hostage to show his loyalty. In response, Northern Wei's Emperor Taiwu sent his official Li Shun (李順) to Northern Liang to bestow a number of high titles, including the title of Prince of Liang.
By 432, Juqu Mengxun, in his old age, was said to be arbitrary and cruel, with his subjects suffering the pain henceforth. When Li Shun again arrived in his territory, he initially refused to bow down to receive the Northern Wei emperor's edict, but upon Li Shun's warning that such disrespect will be punished, did so. In 433, he grew ill, and his nobles and officials believed Juqu Puti to be too young to succeed him, and so deposed Juqu Puti and replaced him as heir apparent with his older brother Juqu Mujian. Juqu Mengxun soon died, and Juqu Mujian succeeded him.
Personal information
Mother
Lady Che (d. 413)
Wife
Princess Meng
Children
Juqu Zhengde (沮渠政德), the Heir Apparent (created 413, killed in battle by Rouran forces 423)
Juqu Xingguo (沮渠興國), the Heir Apparent (created 423), later captured and detained by Western Qin's prince Qifu Mumo 429 (d. 431)
Juqu Puti (沮渠菩提), the Heir Apparent (created 429, deposed 433)
Juqu Mujian (沮渠牧犍), the Heir Apparent (created 433), later prince
Juqu Wuhui (沮渠無諱), later prince
Juqu Anzhou (沮渠安周), later prince
Juqu Yide (沮渠儀德)
Juqu Bing (沮渠秉) (brothers forced by Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei to kill him 444)
Juqu Donglai (沮渠董來)
Princess Xingping, later consort to Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei (forced to commit suicide 447)
Another daughter, older than Juqu Mujian
References
Northern Liang princes
368 births
433 deaths
Later Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms) people
Later Qin people
Jin dynasty (266–420) people
Northern Wei generals
People from Northwest China
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA%20World%20Cup%20hosts
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FIFA World Cup hosts
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Eighteen countries have been FIFA World Cup hosts in the competition's twenty-two tournaments since the inaugural World Cup in 1930. The organization at first awarded hosting to countries at meetings of FIFA's congress. The choice of location was controversial in the earliest tournaments, given the three-week boat journey between South America and Europe, the two centers of strength in football at the time.
The decision to hold the first cup in Uruguay, for example, led to only four European nations competing. The next two World Cups were both held in Europe. The decision to hold the second of these, the 1938 FIFA World Cup, in France was controversial, as the South American countries had been led to understand that the World Cup would rotate between the two continents. Both Argentina and Uruguay thus boycotted the tournament. The first tournament following World War II, held in Brazil in 1950, had three teams withdraw for either financial problems or disagreements with the organization.
In order to avoid any future boycotts or controversy, FIFA began a pattern of alternation between the Americas and Europe, which continued until the 2002 FIFA World Cup in Asia. The system evolved so that the host country is now chosen in a vote by FIFA's Congress. This is done under an exhaustive ballot system. The decision is currently made roughly seven years in advance of the tournament, though the hosts for the 2022 tournament were chosen at the same time as those for the 2018 tournament.
Only Mexico, Italy, France, Germany (West Germany until shortly after the 1990 World Cup) and Brazil have hosted the event on two occasions. Mexico City's Estadio Azteca and Rio de Janeiro's Maracanã are the only venues ever to have hosted two FIFA World Cup finals. Only the 2002 FIFA World Cup had more than one host, being split between Japan and South Korea, and in 2026 there will be three hosts: the United States, Canada, and Mexico.
Uruguay in 1930, Italy in 1934, England in 1966, West Germany in 1974, Argentina in 1978 and France in 1998 are the countries which organized an edition of the World Cup and won it.
Upon the selection of Canada–Mexico–United States bid for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, the tournament will be the first to be hosted by more than two countries. Mexico becomes the first country to host three men's World Cups and its Estadio Azteca, should it be selected, will become the first stadium to stage three World Cup tournaments.
List of hosts
1930 FIFA World Cup
Bids:
Before the FIFA Congress could vote on the first-ever World Cup host, a series of withdrawals led to the election of Uruguay. The Netherlands and Hungary withdrew, followed by Sweden withdrawing in favour of Italy. Then both Italy and Spain withdrew, in favour of the only remaining candidate, Uruguay. The FIFA Congress met in Barcelona, Spain on 18 May 1929 to ratify the decision, and Uruguay was chosen without a vote.
Results:
withdrew
withdrew
Notice that the celebration of the first World Cup coincided with the centennial anniversary of the first Constitution of Uruguay. For that reason, the main stadium built in Montevideo for the World Cup was named Estadio Centenario.
1934 FIFA World Cup
Bids:
Sweden decided to withdraw before the vote, allowing the only remaining candidate Italy to take the hosting job for the 1934 World Cup. The decision was ratified by the FIFA Congress in Stockholm, Sweden and Zürich, Switzerland on 14 May 1932. The Italian Football Federation accepted the hosting duties on 9 October 1932.
Results:
withdrew
1938 FIFA World Cup
Bids:
Without any nations withdrawing their bids, the FIFA Congress convened in Berlin, Germany on 13 August 1936 to decide the next host. Electing France took only one ballot, as France had more than half of the votes in the first round.
Results:
, 19 votes
, 3 votes
, 1 vote
Cancelled FIFA World Cups 1942 and 1946
Bids for 1942:
Cancelled FIFA election of the host due to outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939.
Bids for 1946:
none
1950 and 1954 FIFA World Cups
1950 bid
Bid:
Brazil, Argentina, and Germany had officially bid for the 1942 World Cup, but the Cup was cancelled after the outbreak of World War II. The 1950 World Cup was originally scheduled for 1949, but the day after Brazil was selected by the FIFA Congress on 26 July 1946 in Luxembourg City, Luxembourg, the World Cup was rescheduled for 1950.
Result:
1954 bid
Bid:
The 1954 World Cup hosting duty was decided on 26 July 1946, the same day that Brazil was selected for the 1950 World Cup, in Luxembourg City. On 27 July, the FIFA Congress pushed back the 5th World Cup finals, deciding it should take place in 1954.
Result:
1958 FIFA World Cup
Bid:
Argentina, Chile, Mexico, and Sweden expressed interest in hosting the tournament. Swedish delegates lobbied other countries at the FIFA Congress held in Rio de Janeiro around the opening of the 1950 World Cup finals. Sweden was awarded the 1958 tournament unopposed on 23 June 1950.
Result:
1962 FIFA World Cup
Bids:
West Germany withdrew before the vote, which took place in Lisbon, Portugal on 10 June 1956, leaving two remaining bids. In one round of voting, Chile won over Argentina.
Results:
, 31 votes
, 12 votes
withdrew
1966 FIFA World Cup
Bids:
Spain withdrew from the bidding prior to voting by the FIFA Congress, held in Rome, Italy on 22 August 1960. Again, there was only one round of voting, with England defeating West Germany.
Results:
, 34 votes
, 27 votes
withdrew
1970 FIFA World Cup
Bids:
The FIFA Congress convened in Tokyo, Japan on 8 October 1964. One round of voting saw Mexico win the hosting duties over Argentina.
Results:
, 56 votes
, 32 votes
withdrew
withdrew
withdrew
1974, 1978, 1982 FIFA World Cups
Three hosts for the 1974, 1978, and 1982 World Cups were chosen in London, England on 6 July 1966 by the FIFA Congress. Spain and West Germany, both facing each other in the running for hosting duties for the 1974 and 1982 World Cups, agreed to give one another a hosting job. Germany withdrew from the 1982 bidding process while Spain withdrew from the 1974 bidding process, essentially guaranteeing each a hosting spot. Mexico, who had won the 1970 hosting bid over Argentina just two years prior, agreed to withdraw and let Argentina take the 1978 hosting position.
1974 results
withdrew in exchange for 1982 hosting duties
withdrew
withdrew
1978 results
withdrew
withdrew
withdrew, as they had won hosting for 1970
1982 results
withdrew in exchange for 1974 hosting duties
withdrew
1986 FIFA World Cup
Bid:
Host voting, handled by the then-FIFA Executive Committee (or Exco), met in Stockholm, Sweden on 9 June 1974 and ratified the unopposed Colombian bid.
Result:
However, Colombia withdrew due to financial reasons on 5 November 1982, less than four years before the event was to start.
A call for bids was sent out again, and FIFA received intent from three nations:
In Zürich on 20 May 1983, Mexico won the bidding unanimously as voted by the executive committee, for the first time in FIFA World Cup bidding history (excluding nations who bid unopposed).
Results:
unanimous vote
0 votes
0 votes
1990 FIFA World Cup
Bids:
Iran
Except Italy and the Soviet Union, all nations withdrew before the vote, which was to be conducted by Exco in Zürich on 19 May 1984. Once again, only one round of voting was required, as Italy won more votes than the Soviet Union.
Results:
, 11 votes
, 5 votes
withdrew
withdrew
withdrew
withdrew
Iran withdrew
withdrew
withdrew
1994 FIFA World Cup
Bids:
Despite having three nations bidding, voting only took one round. The vote was held in Zürich (for the third straight time) on 4 July 1988. The United States gained a majority of votes of the Exco members.
Results:
, 10 votes
, 7 votes
, 2 votes
withdrew
1998 FIFA World Cup
Bids:
This vote was held in Zürich for the fourth straight time on 1 July 1992. Only one round of voting was required to have France assume the hosting job over Morocco.
Result:
, 12 votes
, 7 votes
withdrew
withdrew
withdrew
2002 FIFA World Cup
Bids:
/
On 31 May 1996, the hosting selection meeting was held in Zürich for the fifth straight time. A joint bid was formed between Japan and South Korea, and the bid was "voted by acclamation", an oral vote without ballots. The first joint bid of the World Cup was approved, edging out Mexico.
Results:
/ (joint bid, voted by acclamation)
The 2002 FIFA World Cup was co-hosted in Asia for the first time by South Korea and Japan (the opening match was held in South Korea and the final was held in Japan). Initially, the two Asian countries were competitors in the bidding process. But just before the vote, they agreed with FIFA to co-host the event. However, the rivalry and distance between them led to organizational and logistical problems. FIFA has said that co-hosting is not likely to happen again, and in 2004 officially stated that its statutes did not allow co-hosting bids. This policy has since been overturned as the 2026 World Cup will be hosted jointly by the United States, Mexico, and Canada.
2006 FIFA World Cup
Bids:
On 6 July 2000, the host selection meeting was held for the sixth straight time in Zürich. On 4 July 2000, Brazil withdrew its bid before the vote, and the field was narrowed to four. This was the first selection in which more than one vote round was required. Three rounds of votes were eventually needed. Germany was at least tied for first in each of the three votes, and ended up defeating South Africa by only one vote after an abstention (see below).
Controversy
The controversy over the decision to award the 2006 FIFA World Cup to Germany led to a further change in practice. The final tally was 12 votes to 11 in favour of Germany over the contenders South Africa, who had been favorites to win. New Zealand FIFA member Charlie Dempsey, who was instructed to vote for South Africa by the Oceania Football Confederation, abstained from voting at the last minute. If he had voted for the South African bid, the tally would have been 12–12, giving the decision to FIFA President Sepp Blatter, who, it was widely believed, would then have voted for South Africa.
Dempsey was among eight members of the executive committee to receive a fax by editors of the German satirical magazine Titanic on Wednesday, the night before the vote, promising a cuckoo clock and Black Forest ham in exchange for voting for Germany. He argued that the pressure from all sides including "an attempt to bribe" him had become too much for him.
On 4 August 2000, consequently, FIFA decided to rotate the hosting of the final tournaments between its constituent confederations. This was until October 2007, during the selection of the host for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, when they announced that they will no longer continue with their continental rotation policy (see below).
2010 FIFA World Cup
Bids:
/
The first World Cup bidding process under continental rotation (the process of rotating hosting of the World Cup to each confederation in turn) was the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the first World Cup to be held in Africa. On 7 July 2001, during the FIFA Congress in Buenos Aires, a decision was ratified, which was that the rotation will begin in Africa. On 23 September 2002, FIFA's executive committee confirmed that only African member associations, would be invited to submit bids to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
In January 2003, Nigeria entered the bidding process, but withdrew their bid in September. In March 2003, Sepp Blatter initially said Nigeria's plan to co host the 2010 FIFA World Cup with four African countries would not work. Nigeria had originally hoped to bid jointly with West African neighbours Benin, Ghana, and Togo.
After it was confirmed by FIFA that joint bidding would not be allowed in the future, Libya and Tunisia withdrew both of their bids on 8 May 2004. On 15 May 2004 in Zürich (the seventh consecutive time that a host selection has been made there), South Africa, after a narrow loss in the 2006 bidding, defeated perennial candidate Morocco to host, 14 votes to 10. Egypt received no votes.
Controversy
On 28 May 2015, media covering the 2015 FIFA corruption case reported that high-ranking officials from the South African bid committee had secured the right to host the World Cup by paying US$10 million in bribes to then-FIFA Vice President Jack Warner and to other FIFA Executive Committee members.
On 4 June 2015, FIFA executive Chuck Blazer, having co-operated with the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Swiss authorities, confirmed that he and the other members of FIFA's executive committee were bribed in order to promote the South African 1998 and 2010 World Cups. Blazer stated, "I and others on the FIFA executive committee agreed to accept bribes in conjunction with the selection of South Africa as the host nation for the 2010 World Cup."
On 6 June 2015, The Daily Telegraph reported that Morocco had received the most votes, but South Africa was awarded the tournament instead.
2014 FIFA World Cup
Bids:
&
FIFA continued its continental rotation procedure by earmarking the 2014 World Cup for South America. FIFA initially indicated that it might back out of the rotation concept, but later decided to continue it through the 2014 host decision, after which it was dropped.
Colombia had expressed interest in hosting the 2014 World Cup, but withdrew, undertaking the 2011 FIFA U-20 World Cup. Brazil also expressed interest in hosting the World Cup. CONMEBOL, the South American Football Federation, indicated their preference for Brazil as a host. Brazil was the only nation to submit a formal bid when the official bidding procedure for CONMEBOL member associations was opened in December 2006, as by that time, Colombia, Chile and Argentina had already withdrawn, and Venezuela was not allowed to bid.
Brazil made the first unopposed bid since the initial selection of the 1986 FIFA World Cup (when Colombia was selected as host, but later withdrew for financial problems). The FIFA Executive Committee confirmed it as the host country on 30 October 2007 by a unanimous decision.
Result:
2018 and 2022 FIFA World Cups
2018 Bids:
and
and
2022 Bids:
FIFA announced on 29 October 2007 that it will no longer continue with its continental rotation policy, implemented after the 2006 World Cup host selection. The newest host selection policy is that any country may bid for a World Cup, provided that their continental confederation has not hosted either of the past two World Cups. For the 2018 World Cup bidding process, this meant that bids from Africa and South America were not allowed.
For the 2022 World Cup bidding process, this meant that bids from South America and Europe were not allowed. Also, FIFA formally allowed joint bids once more (after they were banned in 2002), because there was only one organizing committee per joint bid, unlike Korea–Japan, which had two different organizing committees. Countries that announced their interest included Australia, England, Indonesia, Japan, Qatar, Russia, South Korea, United States, the joint bid of Spain and Portugal and the joint bid of Belgium and Netherlands.
The hosts for both World Cups were announced by the FIFA Executive Committee on 2 December 2010. Russia was selected to host the 2018 FIFA World Cup, making it the first time that the World Cup will be hosted in Eastern Europe and making it the biggest country geographically to host the World Cup. Qatar was selected to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, making it the first time a World Cup will be held in the Arab World and the second time in Asia since the 2002 tournament in South Korea and Japan. Also, the decision made it the smallest country geographically to host the World Cup. The event was hosted across five cities in Qatar: Lusail, Al Khor, Al Rayyan, Al Wakrah and Doha.
2026 FIFA World Cup
Under FIFA rules as of 2016, the 2026 Cup could not be in either Europe (UEFA) or Asia (AFC), leaving an African (CAF) bid, a North American (CONCACAF) bid, a South American (CONMEBOL) bid or an Oceanian (OFC) bid as other possible options. In March 2017, FIFA's president Gianni Infantino confirmed that "Europe (UEFA) and Asia (AFC) had been excluded from the bidding following the selection of Russia and Qatar in 2018 and 2022 respectively."
The bidding process was originally scheduled to start in 2015, with the appointment of hosts scheduled for the FIFA Congress on 10 May 2017 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. On 10 June 2015, FIFA announced that the bid process for the 2026 FIFA World Cup was postponed. However, following the FIFA Council meeting on 10 May 2016, a new bid schedule was announced for May 2020 as the last in a four-phase process.
On 14 October 2016, FIFA said it would accept a tournament-sharing bid by CONCACAF members Canada, Mexico and the United States.
On 10 April 2017, Canada, the United States, and Mexico announced their intention to submit a joint bid to co-host, with three-quarters of the games to be played in the U.S., including the final.
On 11 August 2017, Morocco officially announced a bid to host.
Therefore, the official 2026 FIFA World Cup bids were from two football confederations. The first one was from CONCACAF, which was triple bid by Canada, United States and Mexico, and the second one was from CAF with a bid by Morocco.
The host was announced on 13 June 2018 at the 68th FIFA Congress in Moscow, Russia. The United Bid from Canada, Mexico and the United States was selected over the Morocco bid by 134 votes to 65 with 1 selecting neither and 3 abstentions. This will be the first World Cup to be hosted by more than two countries. Mexico becomes the first country to host three men's World Cups and its Estadio Azteca, if selected, will become the first stadium to stage three World Cup tournaments. On the other hand, Canada becomes the fifth country to host both the men's and women's World Cups, after Sweden (Men's: 1958/Women's: 1995), United States (Men's: 1994/Women's: 1999, 2003), Germany (Men's: 1974, 2006/Women's: 2011), and France (Men's: 1938, 1998/Women's: 2019). The United States becomes the first country to host both men's and women's World Cup twice each.
2030 FIFA World Cup
The bidding process for this World Cup has yet to start. Some early bids for the 2030 FIFA World Cup – the Centennial World Cup – have however been proposed. The first proposed bid has been a collective bid by the members of the Argentine Football Association and Uruguayan Football Association into a proposed joint bid from Uruguay and Argentina. The second bid has been a proposed bid by The Football Association of England. Under FIFA rules as of 2017 that prohibit the previous two confederations hosting the next world Cup, the 2030 World Cup cannot be held in Asia (AFC) because the Asian Football Confederation is excluded from the bidding following the selection of Qatar in 2022, nor in North America because the CONCACAF countries of the United States, Canada and Mexico will host the 2026 World Cup. Also in June 2017, UEFA's president Aleksander Čeferin stated that Europe (UEFA) will definitely fight for its right to host the 2030 World Cup.
The Uruguay–Argentina proposed bid would not coincide with the centennial anniversary of the first FIFA World Cup final, and the bicentennial of the first Constitution of Uruguay, but if selected the tournament dates would coincide. The Uruguay-Argentina bid was officially confirmed on 29 July 2017. A joint bid was announced by the Argentine Football Association and the Uruguayan Football Association on 29 July 2017. Before Uruguay and Argentina played out a goalless draw in Montevideo, FC Barcelona players Luis Suárez and Lionel Messi promoted the bid with commemorative shirts. On 31 August 2017, it was suggested Paraguay would join as a third host. CONMEBOL, the South American confederation, confirmed the joint three-way bid in September 2017.
English FA vice chairman David Gill has proposed that his country could bid for 2030, provided the bidding process is made more transparent. "England is one of few countries that could stage even a 48-nation event in its entirety, while Football Association chief executive Martin Glenn made it clear earlier this year bidding for 2030 was an option." In June 2017, UEFA stated that "it would support a pan-British bid for 2030 or even a single bid from England." On 15 July 2018, Deputy Leader of the UK Labour Party, Tom Watson, said in an interview that he and his party backed a 2030 World Cup bid for the UK saying that "I hope it's one of the first things a Labour government does, which is work with our FA to try and put a World Cup bid together." On 16 July 2018, British Prime Minister Theresa May expressed her support of the bid and her openness about discussions with football authorities. Although there had been no prior discussion with the Football Association, the Scottish FA also expressed its interest about joining a Home Nations bid. Former Scottish First Minister Henry McLeish has called the Scottish government and the Scottish Football Association to bid for the 2030 FIFA World Cup with the other British nations.
On 17 June 2018, the Royal Moroccan Football Federation announced its co-bidding for the 2030 World Cup. There is a possibility for a joint bid with Tunisia and Algeria.
On 17 June 2018, the English Football Association announced that they are in talks with home nations over a UK-wide bid to host the 2030 World Cup. On 1 August 2018, it was reported that the FA was preparing a bid for England to host the World Cup in 2030. A decision is expected to be made in 2019, after the FA has conducted feasibility work on a potential bid. The Scottish Football Association considered the potential British bid as a great opportunity to get funds to renovate and redevelop Hampden Park in Glasgow, the Scotland national football team's home stadium. On 4 September 2018, it was announced that the Republic of Ireland was in talks exploring the possibility to join 2030 World Cup bid.
On 10 July 2018, Egypt's Sports Minister expressed interest in bidding.
Cameroonian presidential candidate Joshua Oish's political program includes nominating his country along with two sub-Saharan African countries to host the 2030 World Cup, according to Cameroonian channel CRTV.
On 12 September 2018, Prime Minister of Spain Pedro Sánchez discussed the possibility for Spain to bid with FIFA President Gianni Infantino and Royal Spanish Football Federation President Luis Rubiales. On 8 June 2019, Spain and Portugal expressed interest in co-hosting the 2030 FIFA World Cup.
On 2 November 2018, Prime Minister of Bulgaria Boyko Borisov stated that his Greek counterpart Alexis Tsipras had proposed a joint bid by Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia and Greece during the Balkan Four meeting in Varna. At the meeting of the Ministers of Youth and Sports of Serbia, Vanja Udovičić, Bulgaria's Krasen Kralev, Romania's Constantin Bogdan Matei and Deputy Minister of Culture and Sports of Greece, Giorgos Vasileiadis, it was officially confirmed that these four countries would submit a joint candidacy for the organization of the 2028 UEFA European Football Championship and the 2030 World Cup.
On 15 January 2019 FIFA president Gianni Infantino supported the Morocco, Portugal and Spain bid to host the 2030 World Cup, dealing a blow for England, Ireland, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales' hope, though it was still "very early" to speak of it.
Chile confirmed their bid to host with the group on 14 February 2019 as a joint communique from the confirmed nations joining Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay.
On 4 October 2023 it was announced that Spain, Portugal and Morocco would host the majority of the 2030 FIFA World Cup in a unanimous decision from the FIFA Council, with one "celebratory game" each being held in Uruguay, Argentina and Paraguay.
2034 FIFA World Cup
The bidding process for the 2034 World Cup began on 4 October 2023 and is set to use the same requirements as the 2030 World Cup. Due to FIFA's confederation rotation policy, only member associations from the Asian Football Confederation and Oceania Football Confederation are eligible to host. The deadline for confirmed interest from bidding associations is 31 October, 25 days after the bidding requirements were announced.
The first bid for the 2034 FIFA World Cup has been proposed as a collective bid by the members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations.
The idea of a combined ASEAN bid had been mooted as early as January 2011, when the former Football Association of Singapore President, Zainudin Nordin, said in a statement that the proposal had been made at an ASEAN Foreign Ministers meeting, despite the fact that countries cannot bid directly - this is up to national associations. In 2013, Nordin and Special Olympics Malaysia President, Datuk Mohamed Feisol Hassan, recalled the idea for ASEAN to jointly host a World Cup.
Under FIFA rules as of 2017, the 2030 World Cup cannot be held in Asia (AFC) as Asian Football Confederation members are excluded from the bidding following the selection of Qatar in 2022. Therefore, the earliest bid by an AFC member could be made for 2034.
Later, Malaysia withdrew from involvement, but Singapore and other ASEAN countries continued the campaign to submit a joint bid for the World Cup in 2034. In February 2017, ASEAN held talks on launching a joint bid during a visit by FIFA President Gianni Infantino to Yangon, Myanmar. On 1 July 2017, Vice General Chairman of the Football Association of Indonesia Joko Driyono said that Indonesia and Thailand were set to lead a consortium of Southeast Asian nations in the bid. Driyono added that due to geographical and infrastructure considerations and the expanded format (48 teams), at least two or three ASEAN countries combined would be in a position necessary to host matches.
In September 2017, the Thai League 1 Deputy CEO Benjamin Tan, at the ASEAN Football Federation (AFF) Council meeting, confirmed that his Association has "put in their interest to bid and co-host" the 2034 World Cup with Indonesia. On the same occasion, the General Secretary of the AFF, Dato Sri Azzuddin Ahmad, confirmed that Indonesia and Thailand will submit a joint bid. Indonesia is the only Southeast Asian country to have participated in the World Cup, when the territory was known as the Dutch East Indies.
However, in June 2018, FIFA executive committee member and crown prince and regent of Pahang, Tengku Abdullah who is also the former President of the Football Association of Malaysia (FAM) expressed interest in joining the three countries in hosting the World Cup together. The four countries have jointly hosted a football event before during the 2007 AFC Asian Cup: if the FAM agrees to rejoin the project, they would be the first to submit a four-country joint bid in the FIFA World Cup history.
The second bid is from Egypt. Its Sports and Youth Minister Ashraf Sobhy said that Egypt has considered a bid to host the 2034 FIFA World Cup. Such a bid should be prepared by the national football association rather than the country. This bid was abandoned when Morocco was announced to cohost the 2030 World Cup.
After its failed bid to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, Australia has considered a joint bid with neighbouring New Zealand, an OFC member with which they co-hosted the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup. Australia re-established this intention in August 2021, shortly after Brisbane's success in bidding to host the 2032 Summer Olympics. A joint bid with Indonesia and other ASEAN nations instead of New Zealand was also discussed by Football Australia. However, Indonesia has remained reluctant to the joint bid with Australia, considering the country is also taking part in the ASEAN bid for the same competition. An alternative suggestion is for Australia and New Zealand to partner alongside Malaysia and Singapore, instead of Indonesia even though both countries are also involved in the ASEAN bid as well.
Football Australia chief executive, James Johnson, said his organisation is "exploring the possibility" following FIFA's deadline for bids to be submitted by 31 October 2023. A major challenge to the bid however has been the need to construct more stadiums or expanded current stadiums to FIFA standards. Indonesia was in talks with Australia, Singapore, and Malaysia with a joint bid, though they pulled out on 18 October, backing the Saudi bid instead like much of the AFC. On 31 October, Football Australia put out a statement saying that they had decided against bidding, leaving Saudi Arabia as the sole bid.
After Saudi Arabia abandoned its 2030 bid alongside Greece and Egypt, they switched their focus to a solo 2034 bid. If the bid is successful, similar strategies to the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar may be used to mitigate the country's summer heat, though they have insisted on a plan to host in the summer. The country's bid was announced on 4 October 2023. On 5 October, AFC President Sheikh Salman bin Ibrahim Al Khalifa backed Saudi Arabia's bid. On the 9th, Saudi Arabia announced that it had submitted the official letter of intent, and signed the declaration to FIFA to bid to host the 2034 FIFA World Cup. Less than 72 hours after SAFF declared its intention to bid FIFA World Cup, over 100 FIFA Member Associations from across different continents have publicly pledged their support for the Kingdom.
AFC:
Abandoned bids:
AFC-UEFA
and
AFC:
, , , , , , , , and
, , and
AFC–OFC:
and
2038 FIFA World Cup
The bidding process for this World Cup has yet to start, nor has any information come out about how the bidding process will work. However, if FIFA's confederation exclusion process is still used for 2038, it is likely only North America and/or Oceania are allowed to host; South America, Europe and Africa can't bid due to the agreement to host the 2030 World Cup in Spain, Portugal and Morocco with celebratory games in Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, while Asia will host at least part of the 2034 World Cup.
Total bids by country
World Cup-winning bids are bolded. Withdrawn bids are italicized. Rejected bids, as well as planned but not-yet-official bids for 2030 and beyond, are not included.
Host country performances
Except in 1934, when Italy had to qualify for the main tournament, host nations have always been granted automatic spots in the World Cup.
It is widely considered that home advantage is a benefit in the World Cup, with the host team usually performing above average. In 13 of the 22 tournaments a host country has reached the last 4. Of the 8 teams that have won the tournament, all except Brazil and Spain have been champions while hosting, with England winning its only title as hosts. Further, Sweden got to its only final on home soil. Chile and South Korea had their only semi-final finishes at home, and Mexico (twice) and an independent Russia achieved their only finishes in the top eight while hosting. South Africa and Qatar are the only hosts to not go past the first round.
References
External links
FIFA World Cup Host Announcement Decision (PDF)
FIFA World Cup 2022
FIFA World Cup
FIFA World Cup-related lists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrum%20%28software%20development%29
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Scrum (software development)
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Scrum is an agile project management system commonly used in software development and other industries.
Scrum prescribes for teams to break work into goals to be completed within time-boxed iterations, called sprints. Each sprint is no longer than one month and commonly lasts two weeks. The scrum team assesses progress in time-boxed, stand-up meetings of up to 15 minutes, called daily scrums. At the end of the sprint, the team holds two further meetings: one sprint review to demonstrate the work for stakeholders and solicit feedback, and one internal sprint retrospective.
Scrum's approach to product development involves bringing decision-making authority to an operational level. Unlike a sequential approach to product development, scrum is an iterative and incremental framework for product development. Scrum allows for continuous feedback and flexibility, requiring teams to self-organize by encouraging physical co-location or close online collaboration, and mandating frequent communication among all team members. The flexible and semi-unplanned approach of scrum is based in part on the notion of requirements volatility, that stakeholders will change their requirements as the project evolves.
History
The use of the term scrum in software development came from a 1986 Harvard Business Review paper titled "The New New Product Development Game" by Hirotaka Takeuchi and Ikujiro Nonaka. Based on case studies from manufacturing firms in the automotive, photocopier, and printer industries, the authors outlined a new approach to product development for increased speed and flexibility. They called this the rugby approach, as the process involves a single cross-functional team operating across multiple overlapping phases, in which the team "tries to go the distance as a unit, passing the ball back and forth". The authors later developed scrum in their book, The Knowledge Creating Company.
In the early 1990s, Ken Schwaber used what would become scrum at his company, Advanced Development Methods. Jeff Sutherland, John Scumniotales, and Jeff McKenna developed a similar approach at Easel Corporation, referring to the approach with the term scrum. Sutherland and Schwaber later worked together to integrate their ideas into a single framework, formally known as scrum. Schwaber and Sutherland tested scrum and continually improved it, leading to the publication of a research paper in 1995, and the Manifesto for Agile Software Development in 2001. Schwaber also collaborated with Babatunde Ogunnaike at DuPont Research Station and the University of Delaware to develop Scrum. Ogunnaike believed that software development projects could often fail when initial conditions change, if the product management was not rooted in empirical practice.
In 2002, Schwaber with others founded the Scrum Alliance and set up the Certified Scrum accreditation series. Schwaber left the Scrum Alliance in late 2009 and subsequently founded Scrum.org which oversees the parallel Professional Scrum accreditation series. Since 2009, a public document called The Scrum Guide has been published and updated by Schwaber and Sutherland. It has been revised 6 times, with the current version being November 2020.The term scrum was previously trademarked by Schwaber, but the registration has lapsed. It has been speculated that Schwaber let it lapse with the intention of recognizing and enabling the wide community use of the term.
Scrum team
A scrum team is organized into at least three categories of individuals: the product owner, developers, and the scrum master. The product owner liaises with stakeholders, those who have interest in the project's outcome, to communicate tasks and expectations with developers. Developers in a scrum team organize work by themselves, with the facilitation of a scrum master. Scrum teams, ideally, should abide by the five values of scrum: commitment, courage, focus, openness, and respect.
Product owner
Each scrum team has one product owner. The product owner focuses on the business side of product development and spends the majority of time liaising with stakeholders and the team. The role is intended to primarily represent the product's stakeholders, the voice of the customer, or the desires of a committee, and bears responsibility for the delivery of business results. Product owners manage the product backlog, which is essentially the project's running to-do list, and are responsible for maximizing the value that a team delivers. They do not dictate the technical solutions of a team but may instead attempt to seek consensus among team members.
As the primary liaison of the scrum team towards stakeholders, product owners are responsible for communicating announcements, project definitions and progress, RIDAs (risks, impediments, dependencies, and assumptions), funding and scheduling changes, the product backlog, and project governance, among other responsibilities. Product owners can also cancel a sprint if necessary, without the input of team members.
Developers
In scrum, the term developer or team member refers to anyone who plays a role in the development and support of the product and can include researchers, architects, designers, programmers, etc.
Scrum master
Scrum is facilitated by a scrum master, whose role is to educate and coach teams about scrum theory and practice. Scrum masters have differing roles and responsibilities from traditional team leads or project managers. Some scrum master responsibilities include coaching, objective setting, problem solving, oversight, planning, backlog management, and communication facilitation. On the other hand, traditional project managers often have people management responsibilities, which a scrum master does not. Scrum teams do not involve project managers, so as to maximize self-organisation among developers.
Workflow
Sprint
A sprint (also known as an iteration, timebox or design sprint) is a fixed period of time wherein team members work on a specific goal. Each sprint is normally between one week and one month, with two weeks being the most common. Usually, daily meetings are held to discuss the progress of the project undertaken as well as difficulties faced by team members. The outcome of the sprint is a functional deliverable, or a product which has received some development in increments.
When a sprint is abnormally terminated, the next step is to conduct new sprint planning, where the reason for the termination is reviewed.
Each sprint starts with a sprint planning event in which a sprint goal is defined. Priorities for planned sprints are chosen out of the backlog. Each sprint ends with two events:
A sprint review (progress shown to stakeholders to elicit their feedback)
A sprint retrospective (identify lessons and improvements for the next sprints)
Scrum emphasizes actionable output at the end of each sprint, which brings the developed product closer to market success.
Sprint planning
At the beginning of a sprint, the scrum team holds a sprint planning event to:
Agree on the sprint goal, that is, what they intend to deliver by sprint end
Identifying product backlog items that contribute towards this goal
Form a sprint backlog by selecting which identified items should be completed in the sprint
The suggested maximum duration of sprint planning is eight hours for a four-week sprint.
Daily scrum
Each day during a sprint, the developers hold a daily scrum (often conducted standing up) with specific guidelines, and which may be facilitated by a scrum master. Daily scrum meetings are intended to be less than 15 minutes in length, taking place at the same time and location daily. The purpose of the meeting is to announce progress made towards the sprint goal and issues that may be hindering the goal, without going into any detailed discussion. Once over, individual members can go into a 'breakout session' or an 'after party' for extended discussion and collaboration. Scrum masters are responsible for ensuring that team members use daily scrums effectively, or, if team members are unable to use them, to provide alternatives to achieve similar outcomes.
Post-sprint events
Conducted at the end of a sprint, a sprint review is a meeting that has a team share the work they've completed with stakeholders and liaise with them on feedback, expectations, and upcoming plans. At a sprint review completed deliverables are demonstrated to stakeholders, who should also be made aware of product increments and works in progress. The recommended duration for a sprint review is one hours per week of sprint.
A sprint retrospective is a separate meeting that allows team members to internally analyze strengths and weaknesses of the sprint, future areas of improvement, and continuous process improvement actions.
Backlog refinement
Backlog refinement is a process by which team members revise and prioritize a backlog for future sprints. It can be done as a separate stage done before the beginning of a new sprint or as a continuous process that team members work on by themselves. Backlog refinement can include the breaking down of large tasks into smaller and clearer ones, the clarification of success criteria, and the revision of changing priorities and returns. It is recommended to invest of up to 10 percent of a team's sprint capacity on backlog refinement.
Artifacts
Artifacts are a means by which scrum teams manage product development by documenting work done towards the project. The main scrum artifacts used are the product backlog, sprint backlog, and increment.
Product backlog
The product backlog is a breakdown of work to be done and contains an ordered list of product requirements (such as features, bug fixes, non-functional requirements) that the team maintains for a product. The order of a product backlog corresponds to the urgency of the task. Common formats for backlog items include user stories and use cases. The product backlog may also contain the product owner's assessment of business value and the team's assessment of the product's effort or complexity, which can be stated in story points using the rounded Fibonacci scale. These estimates help the product owner to gauge the timeline and may influence the ordering of product backlog items.
The product owner maintains and prioritizes product backlog items based on considerations such as risk, business value, dependencies, size, and timing. High-priority items at the top of the backlog are broken down into more detail for developers to work on, while tasks further down the backlog may be more vague.
Sprint backlog
The sprint backlog is the subset of items from the product backlog intended for developers to address in a particular sprint. Developers fill this backlog with tasks they deem appropriate to fill the sprint, using past performance to assess their capacity for each sprint. The scrum approach has tasks on the sprint backlog not assigned to developers by any particular individual or leader. Team members self organize by pulling work as needed according to the backlog priority and their own capabilities and capacity.
Increment
An increment is a potentially releasable output of a sprint, which meets the sprint goal. It is formed from all the completed sprint backlog items, integrated with the work of all previous sprints. An ideal increment is complete, fully functioning, and in a usable condition.
Other artifacts
Burndown chart
Often used in scrum, a burndown chart is a publicly displayed chart showing remaining work. Updated every day, it provides quick visualizations for reference. The horizontal axis of the burndown chart shows the days remaining, while the vertical axis shows the amount of work remaining each day. During sprint planning, the ideal burndown chart is plotted. Then, during the sprint, developers update the chart with remaining work so the chart is updated day by day, showing a comparison between actual and predicted.
Release burn-up chart
Updated at the end of each sprint, the release burn-up chart shows progress towards delivering a forecast scope. The horizontal axis of the release burn-up chart shows the sprints in a release, while the vertical axis shows the amount of work completed at the end of each sprint.
Velocity
Some project managers believe that a team's total capability effort for a single sprint can be derived by evaluating work completed in the last sprint. The collection of historical "velocity" data is a guideline for assisting the team in understanding their capacity. Nonetheless, the concept of velocity has been controversial among scrum practitioners.
Limitations
Some have argued that scrum events, such as daily scrum and scrum review, hurt productivity and waste time that could be better spent on actual productive tasks. In practice, many scrum practitioners conduct events, like the daily scrum, as an extended discussion, without complying with the time-boxing requirement.
Scrum has also been observed to pose difficulties for a number of types of teams, including those which are part-time or geographically distant; which have members that are highly specialized and would be better off working by themselves or in working cliques; which have many external dependencies that disrupt planned short sprints of work from occurring; and which are unsuitable for incremental and development testing.
Adaptations
Scrum is frequently tailored or adapted in different contexts to achieve varying aims. A common approach to adapting scrum is the combination of scrum with other software development methodologies, as scrum does not cover the whole product development lifecycle. Various scrum practitioners have also suggested more detailed techniques for how to apply or adapt scrum to particular problems or organizations. Many refer to these techniques as 'patterns', an analogous use to design patterns in architecture and software.
Scrumban
Scrumban is a software production model based on scrum and kanban. To illustrate each stage of work, teams working in the same space often use post-it notes or a large whiteboard. Scrumban is especially suited for product maintenance with frequent and unexpected work items, such as production defects or programming errors. In such cases time-limited scrum sprints may not be as beneficial, although scrum's daily events and other practices can still be applied. At the same time, kanban models allow a team to visualize work stages and limitations.
Scrum of scrums
Scrum of scrums is a technique to operate scrum at scale, for multiple teams coordinating on the same product. Scrum-of-scrums daily scrum meetings involve ambassadors selected from each individual team, who may be either a developer or scrum master. As a tool for coordination, scrum of scrums allows teams to collectively work on team-wide risks, impediments, dependencies, and assumptions (RIDAs), which may be tracked in a backlog of its own.
Large-scale scrum
Large-scale scrum (LeSS) is a product development framework that scales scrum with varied rules and guidelines, developed by Bas Vodde and Craig Larman. There are two levels to the LeSS framework: the first LeSS level, designed for up to eight teams; and the second level, known as 'LeSS Huge', which can accommodate development involving hundreds of developers.
Criticism
A systematic review found "that Distributed Scrum has no impact, positive or negative on overall project success" in distributed software development.
Martin Fowler, one of the authors of the Manifesto for Agile Software Development, has critised what he calls "faux-agile" practices that are "disregarding agile's values and principles", and "the Agile Industrial Complex imposing methods upon people" contrary to the Agile principle of valuing "individuals and interactions over processes and tools" and allowing the individuals doing the work decide how the work is done, changing processes to suit their needs.
See also
Agile software development
Agile testing
Disciplined agile delivery
Comparison of scrum software
High-performance teams
Lean software development
Project management
Unified Process
Citations
References
Verheyen, Gunther (2013). Scrum – A Pocket Guide (A Smart Travel Companion) .
External links
Agile Alliance's Scrum library
A scrum process description by the Eclipse process framework (EPF) project
Agile software development
Software project management
Software development
Software development philosophies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tip%20of%20the%20tongue
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Tip of the tongue
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Tip of the tongue (also known as lethologica) is the phenomenon of failing to retrieve a word or term from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that retrieval is imminent. The phenomenon's name comes from the saying, "It's on the tip of my tongue." The tip of the tongue phenomenon reveals that lexical access occurs in stages.
People experiencing the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon can often recall one or more of the target word, such as the first letter, its syllabic stress, and words similar in sound, meaning, or both sound and meaning. Individuals report a feeling of being seized by the state, feeling something like mild anguish while searching for the word, and a sense of relief when the word is found. While many aspects of the tip-of-the-tongue state remain unclear, there are two major competing explanations for its occurrence: the direct-access view and the inferential view. Emotion and the strength of the emotional ties to what is trying to be remembered can also have an impact on the TOT phenomenon. The stronger the emotional ties, the longer it takes to retrieve the item from memory.
TOT states should be distinguished from FOK (feeling of knowing) states. FOK, in contrast, is the feeling that one will be able to recognize—from a list of items—an item that is currently inaccessible. There are still currently opposing hypotheses in the psychological literature regarding the separability of the process underlying these concepts. However, there is some evidence that TOTs and FOKs draw on different parts of the brain. TOTs are associated with the anterior cingulate, right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and right inferior cortex while FOKs are not. FOKs can be assessed through memory-monitoring testing in which a test subject is asked to "estimate the likelihood" of recognizing when "prompted with a cue" or information that they previously failed to remember. This test aims to measure a test subject's accuracy of memory monitoring during the "memory extraction stage".
An occasional tip-of-the-tongue state is normal for people of all ages; however, it becomes more frequent as people age. TOT can be referred as an actual medical condition, but only when it becomes frequent enough to interfere with learning or daily life. This disorder is called anomic aphasia when acquired by brain damage, usually from a head injury, stroke, or dementia.
The tip of the tongue phenomenon has implications for research in psycholinguistics, memory, and metacognition.
History
The term "tip of the tongue" is borrowed from colloquial usage, and possibly a calque from the French phrase avoir le mot sur le bout de la langue ("having the word on the tip of the tongue"). The tip of the tongue phenomenon was first described as a psychological phenomenon in the text The Principles of Psychology by William James (1890), although he did not label it as such.
Sigmund Freud also discussed unconscious psychological factors, such as unconscious thoughts and impulses that might cause forgetting familiar words.
The first empirical research on this phenomenon was undertaken by Harvard researchers Roger Brown and David McNeill and published in 1966 in the Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. Brown and McNeill wanted to determine whether the feeling of imminent retrieval experienced in the tip of the tongue state was based on actual retrieval ability or was just an illusion.
In their study, Brown and McNeill read out definitions (and only the definitions) of rare words to the study participants, and asked them to name the object or concept being defined. When the target word was later read by the experimenter participants were instructed to report whether they experienced a tip of the tongue state. Three types of positive TOT states were identified by Brown and McNeill:
The participant recognized the word read by the experimenter as the word he had been seeking.
The participant correctly recalled the word before it was read by the experimenter.
The subject recalled the word they were seeking before the target word was read by the experimenter, but the recalled word was not the intended target.
If a participant indicated a tip of the tongue state, they were asked to provide any information about the target word they could recall. Brown and McNeill found that participants could identify the first letter of the target word, the number of syllables of the target word, words of similar sound, words of similar meaning, syllabic pattern, and the serial position of some letters in the target word better than would be expected by chance. Their findings demonstrated the legitimacy of the feeling of knowing experienced in a tip of the tongue state. This study was the foundation for subsequent research about tip of the tongue phenomenon.
Universality
Tip of the tongue experiences occur in both men and women, and is known to occur in young adulthood, middle age, and older adulthood. TOT experiences in childhood have not been studied. Education level is not thought to be a factor in the experience of TOT states. Monolinguals, bilinguals, and multilinguals all experience tip of the tongue states, although with varying frequencies (see §Effects of bilingualism below).
Many languages other than English have equivalent colloquial terms for the tip of the tongue experience, suggesting that it is a common experience across cultures. In a study by B. L. Schwartz (1999), 45 of the 51 languages surveyed have an idiom referring to the tip of the tongue phenomenon that references the tongue, mouth, or throat as a metaphor. The direct English translations of these idioms are "on the tongue", "on the tip/point/head of the tongue", "on the top of the tongue", "on the front of the tongue", "sparkling at the end of the tongue", and "in the mouth and throat". Notably, the languages studied that did not have an equivalent idiom for the tip of the tongue were American Sign Language, Amharic, Icelandic, Kalenjin, and Kiswahili. However, tip of the finger experiences are reported by signers.
Causes
The causes of TOTs are largely unknown but numerous explanations have been offered. These explanations mainly fall within the realms of two overarching viewpoints: the direct-access view and the inferential view.
Direct-access view
The direct-access view posits that the state occurs when memory strength is not enough to recall an item, but is strong enough to trigger the state. That is, the rememberer has direct access to the target word's presence in memory, even though it cannot be immediately recalled. Theories of the causes of tip of the tongue phenomenon that adopt direct-access views include the blocking hypothesis, the incomplete-activation hypothesis, and the transmission-deficit model.
Blocking hypothesis
The blocking hypothesis states that retrieval cues elicit the retrieval of a word related to the target that then blocks the retrieval of the correct word and causes the tip of the tongue phenomenon to occur. In other words, TOTs occur when plausible but incorrect responses to a query come to mind quickly. The person recognizes that the related words are incorrect but cannot retrieve the correct word because it is inhibited. These related words are termed blockers because they block the ability to retrieve the correct word. This accounts for why TOTs predict memory performance. Once the inhibition of the correct word is removed or the blockers are forgotten, the TOT will be resolved. Evidence for this hypothesis is minimal as it is difficult to measure. Most research that takes on this approach give participants blockers and see if they produce TOT states. This method is controversial as it is unclear if the blockers given produce TOT states or act as retrieval cues.
The hypothesis that blockers act more like retrieval cues is mainly supported by the idea of phonological similarities between the target word and the blocker word. Phonological blockers are words that sound similar to the target word. According to Bown & Harley, "phonological neighbors (of blockers) usually act as support in lexical retrieval rather than as a hindrance". In contrast, an alternative argument suggests that phonological blockers hinder the ability to retrieve the target word causing a tip of the tongue state.
There is more support for the idea that blockers act as neither primers nor enhancers, but rather more like a side effect. In Metcalf & Kornell's research the incubation period helped participants to retrieve the word by the same amount for the original non-blocked TOTs and the blocked TOTs. This suggests that blockers have no effect on the retrieval or the causes of tip of the tongue states.
Incomplete-activation hypothesis
The incomplete activation hypothesis states that TOTs occur when the target word in memory is not sufficiently activated to be recalled but rememberers can sense its presence nonetheless. The accessibility of the target word fluctuates due to factors that increase its activation level, such as cues. The target word's activation level may fluctuate to a level that is high enough for it to be retrieved and the TOT state to be resolved.
Transmission-deficit model
The transmission deficit model is based on a multi-component theory of memory representation that suggests that semantic and phonological information is stored in memory and retrieved separately. The transmission deficit model posits that TOTs occur when there is activation of the semantic component of the target word memory but this activation does not pass on to the phonological level of the memory of the target word. Thus, TOTs are caused by the deficit in transmission of activation from the semantic memory store to the phonological memory store.
According to cognitive psychologists Deborah M. Burke, of Pomona College, and Donald G. MacKay, of the University of California, Los Angeles, this phenomenon occurs due primarily to three reasons, all based on weakened neural connection: the lack of frequent use of a word, the lack of recent use of a word, and aging.
Inferential view
The inferential view of TOTs claims that TOTs aren't completely inaccessible, but arise from clues about the target that the rememberer can piece together. This is to say that the rememberer infers their knowledge of the target word, and the imminence of retrieval depends upon the information that they are able to access about the target word from their memory. These views disregard the presence of the target word in memory as having an effect on creating tip of the tongue states.
Cue-familiarity theory
Cue-familiarity theory suggests that the strong feelings elicited by recognizing a familiar cue about the target word cause the tip of the tongue phenomenon. A familiar cue should create a TOT state, whether or not the target word is known. When one encounters a cue for a target word, the level of recognition is assessed, and a strong level of recognition will elicit a tip of the tongue state. It has been found that cues that are repetitive tend to create more TOTs than if one single cue is given. This might suggest that cue factors can play a role in causing TOT states.
Accessibility heuristic
The accessibility heuristic states that TOTs are elicited by the quantity and strength of the information that is retrieved from memory when the target word itself is not. When searching for a target word, the more information that is retrieved from memory, and the more the information retrieved is perceived to be related to the target word, the more likely a TOT state will be elicited.
Phenomenon in the brain
Neuroimaging techniques used in the study of TOT
The body of research on the neurological mechanisms of the tip of the tongue phenomenon is limited. The research in this area has used magnetoencephalography(MEG) and event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
Neurological activation in the TOT state
Several areas of the brain show increased activation in a TOT state. The following is a list of the specific structures that show increased activation during a tip of the tongue state:
Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
Posterior cingulate cortex (PCC)
Right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC)
Right inferior prefrontal cortex (RIPC)
Bilateral anterior frontal cortex
Posterior medial parietal cortex
Bilateral lateral parietal cortex
Bilateral superior prefrontal cortex
Supramarginal gyrus
Superior temporal gyrus
Supplementary motor area
Left insular cortex
It was also shown that in TOT state the activation of the parahippocampal gyrus is decreased.
Not much is known about the exact function of these areas in the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. The areas activated during TOT may vary depending on the nature of the target word. For example, if the target word is a person's name, the fusiform face area will likely show activation as the rememberer processes the person's face. Problems like this make it difficult to determine what areas are specifically implicated in TOT states, and which are a byproduct of other cognitive functions. However, some inferences can be made about the roles of these structures based on theories of their functions derived from other studies of these structures, unrelated to TOT. It is hypothesized that the anterior cingulate cortex and the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex operate as a circuit to detect conflict, and may perform this role in detecting the conflict between the feeling of knowing the target word and the recall failure. The anterior cingulate cortex is also implicated in emotion and may show activation because of the emotional response to the tip of the tongue state. The posterior medial parietal cortex, bilateral lateral parietal cortex, and the bilateral superior prefrontal cortex are involved in retrieval and evaluation, and therefore may play a role in the metacognitive processes involved in the tip of the tongue phenomenon such as the evaluation of one's own knowledge and the probability of retrieval.
Influential factors
Effects of bilingualism
There is a significant difference in the amount of TOTs experienced by monolinguals and bilinguals. Bilinguals seem to report the same amount of TOTs as monolinguals for proper names but significantly more TOTs for other words. Specifically, when adjusted for the degree of use of the dominant and less-dominant language, bilinguals have more TOTs with the less-dominant language. In a task of picture-naming, bilingual speakers were slower than monolinguals, even when they could use their first and dominant language. This could possibly be the result of bilinguals using the words less often than monolingual speakers.
Bilinguals also represent virtually twice as many words and additional cognitive mechanisms for activation and inactivation of languages. Such mechanisms introduce added processing burden that monolinguals do not face. In addition, even when a task seems monolingual, bilingual system is never functionally "off."
Effects of drugs
Lorazepam
Lorazepam is a type of benzodiazepine, a psychoactive drug used for the short-term treatment of anxiety, insomnia, acute seizures inducing a state of sedation in hospitalized patients, as well as sedation of aggressive patients. Research has been conducted to investigate the effects of lorazepam on TOT states in response to general knowledge question. In a recall task, participants who received lorazepam showed the same number of total recall answers to participants who had not received lorazepam. However, the lorazepam participants produced more incorrect recall responses to their TOT states. Lorazepam may inhibit the retrieval of the correct response. Participants under the influence of lorazepam did not experience the subjective feeling that they were in a TOT state (i.e., the feeling of being on the verge of recalling the word). These participants experienced the subjective feeling of a TOT state only after they were told that their response was incorrect. As a result, it appears that these participants are not aware that their answer is incorrect and only experience the subjective feeling of TOT states if they are told their answer is incorrect. Lorazepam may create conditions where alternative answers come to mind more easily. Furthermore, lorazepam suppresses emotions, which may be why participants taking this drug do not experience the subjective feelings that accompany TOT states; thus enabling the recall of alternative responses. These findings suggest that lorazepam does not increase the probability of TOT states but it does inhibit the retrieval of correct responses and the subjective feeling of TOT states, leading participants to give incorrect answers without being aware.
Caffeine
Caffeine can have multiple effects at the cellular level but is primarily notable for the alertness effect that it has on people. Research has been performed involving phonological priming and TOTs in which participants took either 200 mg of caffeine or a placebo. The participants answered 100 general knowledge questions, each with one correct answer. For each question, participants read 10 priming words that were displayed on a monitor for a short period of time. Each list of 10 priming words had between two and eight words that were phonologically related to the correct answer of the question, with the remaining words being unrelated. Caffeinated participants had fewer TOT experiences than the placebo group, suggesting better memory recall. However, in the unrelated condition, the caffeinated group did not do as well as the placebo group in their ability to retrieve words. The results suggest that this dose of caffeine (equivalent to two cups of coffee) can temporarily hinder a person's short-term recall of certain words. Moreover, the general advantageous effect of caffeine on attention can be ruled out.
Effects of age
Age is an important factor when considering TOT states. Throughout adulthood, the frequency of TOTs increases, especially during the advanced years. Compared with young adults, older adults generally report having more TOT states, fewer alternate words, and less phonological information about the target word. The underpinnings of TOT with regard to age have focused on neurological brain differences. Current research using neuroimaging compared the brain patterns of younger and older individuals experiencing TOT states. It appears that both older and younger individuals employ a similar network of brain regions during TOT states such as the prefrontal cortex, left insula, and sensorimotor cortex. However, older individuals show differences in activity in some areas compared to younger individuals. TOTs increase with age-related gray matter loss in the left insula for older individuals. This is accompanied by less activity in the left insula and is related to higher frequency of TOTs. Furthermore, it was found that older individuals have over-activation in their prefrontal cortex when experiencing TOT states. This may indicate a continued search when the retrieval process fails and a TOT state is experienced. More specifically, greater activation in the sensorimotor cortex in older individuals and less in younger adults may reflect differences in the knowledge that is used to retrieve the target information. Priming words during word retrieval tests generally reduces the frequency of TOTs and improves the retrieval of the target word and has been shown to have a larger benefit for older adults. This is consistent with the spreading activation model, where neural connections are strengthened when used more. Although older people experience more tip of the tongue states more often than any other category, recent studies have shown that frequent tip of the tongue states are not linked at all to dementia, which is common in the elderly. Despite the association of increased age with lower levels of episodic memory and more frequent TOT states, the two phenomena seem to be largely independent of one another.
Effects of emotion
It is well documented that emotion influences many memory variables such as the amount of memory recalled and attributions of nostalgia. The issue regarding emotion and TOT is how it influences the tip-of-the-tongue state and the information that is trying to be recalled. It is common for individuals to ascribe emotions to TOTs. It is suggested that the majority of individuals experience TOTs negatively. It has been shown that experiencing an emotion predicts TOT memory performance later. Emotional TOTs are more likely to be recalled later than TOTs that had no emotional experience attached. Emotion and TOT are related to the metacognitive theory that is mentioned above. In this theory, TOTs inform the cognitive system if the information one is trying to recall is accessible. Thus, emotions may play a role in experiencing TOT. Some research has shown that questions that elicit emotional arousal create TOTs more so than questions that are not emotionally arousing. It has also been found that emotional arousal can extend to subsequent questions or information being recalled even if they are not emotionally arousing themselves. It was found that emotional arousal increased the likelihood of experiencing TOT. Neuroimaging has also found activation in some areas that are associated with emotion; specifically in the anterior cingulate cortex.
Effects of disorders
If the inability to recall words, phrases, or names is a temporary but debilitating disorder, it is known as lethologica.
Anomic aphasia
Anomic aphasia is the inability to recall words and names and is a common symptom of patients with aphasia and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Research has been conducted to find out how these particular diseases affect TOTs in these individuals. In a study by Beeson, Holland, and Murray (1997), participants with Alzheimer's disease and three classic aphasic syndromes (Broca's, anomic, and conduction aphasia) were instructed to name famous people. Those with anomic aphasia showed to be superior to the other groups in their ability to name famous people that were presented. This finding was expected as the group has relatively mild aphasia. However, the Broca's conduction and AD groups did not differ in immediate or delayed naming of famous faces. All of the groups provided some basic identifying semantic information for at least half of the items presented, suggesting a fair number of items potentially in TOT. Conduction and Broca's groups showed strongest evidence of TOT, performing better than the other groups in identification of initial letters.
Dyslexia
Dyslexia, which is a reading disability in which a person is unable to read and interpret words, letters, and symbols, has also been known to have an effect on the frequency of TOT experiences. In one study, dyslexic children experienced TOT states more often than children who read normally as well as showed "more errors in the phonological ... step of word retrieval." However, dyslexic children were still able to recall the semantic meaning behind each word that induced a TOT state.
Effects of priming
Research on priming and practice use single word tests to assess for the presence of TOT states. The first letter of the target word or a similar-sounding word is given in order to prime for the target word. Evidence that comes from the usefulness of priming and practice in reducing TOT states is that most information in TOT states is low-frequency; that is, it has not been used or recalled for some time. The recency of information use can influence the retrieval process of that information. The presentation of a prime is only needed once for it to facilitate TOT state resolution. Support for priming has been found in that when individuals are given the first letter of the word they are trying to recall, they are more likely to overcome their TOT state. When the prime word has similar phonology to the target word, an increase in the frequency of TOT states and a higher frequency of correctly recalled words when the TOT state is resolved is observed. Incorrect words come to mind involuntarily that share similar phonological features with the target word. Thus, phonological similarity can both decrease and increase TOT states. However, it is possible to fix this problem by changing the syntactic class of the priming word. Priming words that are in the same syntactic class as the target word create no difference in TOT state resolution. The TOT state resolution was the same for priming words in the same syntactic class and unrelated priming words. If the priming word is being listed in conjunction with other unrelated priming words, then the position is of importance. The earlier in the list the priming word is, the less likely it is to help resolve the TOT state.
Effects of gestures
It is unknown whether gesturing is helpful in finding the elusive word in a TOT experience. It is difficult to determine if the participant is using gestures as their regular form of communication or if they are using gestures in order to help them overcome their TOT experience and retrieve the target word.
Effects of age of acquisition
The speed and accuracy with which speakers retrieve a word is influenced by the age in life at which that word was first learned. Specifically, early-acquired words tend to be named more quickly and accurately than late-acquired words (age of acquisition effect). It has been observed that the probability of experiencing a TOT state depends on the age at which the word is acquired in life: more TOT states are obtained with late-acquired than with early-acquired words.
See also
Memory and aging
Psycholinguistics
Neurolinguistics
Metamemory
Aphasia and in particular anomic aphasia
Neuroanatomy of memory
TOTimal
Presque vu
References
Cognitive psychology
Memory
Figures of speech
English-language idioms
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20nature
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Human nature
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Human nature comprises the fundamental dispositions and characteristics—including ways of thinking, feeling, and acting—that humans are said to have naturally. The term is often used to denote the essence of humankind, or what it 'means' to be human. This usage has proven to be controversial in that there is dispute as to whether or not such an essence actually exists.
Arguments about human nature have been a central focus of philosophy for centuries and the concept continues to provoke lively philosophical debate. While both concepts are distinct from one another, discussions regarding human nature are typically related to those regarding the comparative importance of genes and environment in human development (i.e., 'nature versus nurture'). Accordingly, the concept also continues to play a role in academic fields, such as both the natural and the social sciences, and philosophy, in which various theorists claim to have yielded insight into human nature. Human nature is traditionally contrasted with human attributes that vary among societies, such as those associated with specific cultures.
The concept of nature as a standard by which to make judgments is traditionally said to have begun in Greek philosophy, at least in regard to its heavy influence on Western and Middle Eastern languages and perspectives. By late antiquity and medieval times, the particular approach that came to be dominant was that of Aristotle's teleology, whereby human nature was believed to exist somehow independently of individuals, causing humans to simply become what they become. This, in turn, has been understood as also demonstrating a special connection between human nature and divinity, whereby human nature is understood in terms of final and formal causes. More specifically, this perspective believes that nature itself (or a nature-creating divinity) has intentions and goals, including the goal for humanity to live naturally. Such understandings of human nature see this nature as an "idea", or "form" of a human. However, the existence of this invariable and metaphysical human nature is subject of much historical debate, continuing into modern times.
Against Aristotle's notion of a fixed human nature, the relative malleability of man has been argued especially strongly in recent centuries—firstly by early modernists such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In his Emile, or On Education, Rousseau wrote: "We do not know what our nature permits us to be." Since the early 19th century, such thinkers as Darwin, Freud, Marx, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Sartre, as well as structuralists and postmodernists more generally, have also sometimes argued against a fixed or innate human nature.
Charles Darwin's theory of evolution has particularly changed the shape of the discussion, supporting the proposition that the ancestors of modern humans were not like humans today. As in much of modern science, such theories seek to explain with little or no recourse to metaphysical causation. They can be offered to explain the origins of human nature and its underlying mechanisms, or to demonstrate capacities for change and diversity which would arguably violate the concept of a fixed human nature.
Classical Greek philosophy
Philosophy in classical Greece is the ultimate origin of the Western conception of the nature of things.
According to Aristotle, the philosophical study of human nature itself originated with Socrates, who turned philosophy from study of the heavens to study of the human things. Though leaving no written works, Socrates is said to have studied the question of how a person should best live. It is clear from the works of his students, Plato and Xenophon, and also from the accounts of Aristotle (Plato's student), that Socrates was a rationalist and believed that the best life and the life most suited to human nature involved reasoning. The Socratic school was the dominant surviving influence in philosophical discussion in the Middle Ages, amongst Islamic, Christian, and Jewish philosophers.
The human soul in the works of Plato and Aristotle has a nature that is divided in a specifically human way. One part is specifically human and rational, being further divided into (1) a part which is rational on its own; and (2) a spirited part which can understand reason. Other parts of the soul are home to desires or passions similar to those found in animals. In both Aristotle and Plato's ideas, spiritedness (thumos) is distinguished from the other passions (). The proper function of the "rational" was to rule the other parts of the soul, helped by spiritedness. By this account, using one's reason is the best way to live, and philosophers are the highest types of humans.
Aristotle
Aristotle—Plato's most famous student—made some of the most famous and influential statements about human nature. In his works, apart from using a similar scheme of a divided human soul, some clear statements about human nature are made:
In contrast to other animals, humans have reason or language (logos) in their soul (psyche). According to Aristotle this means that the work (ergos) of a human is the actualization (energeia) of the soul in accordance with reason. Based upon this reasoning, the medieval followers of Aristotle formulated the doctrine that man is the "Rational Animal".
Man is a conjugal animal: An animal that is born to couple in adulthood. In doing so, man builds a household (oikos) and, in more successful cases, a clan or small village run upon patriarchal lines. However, humans naturally tend to connect their villages into cities (poleis), which are more self-sufficient and complete.
Man is a political animal: An animal with an innate propensity to develop more complex communities (i.e. the size of a city or town), with systems of law-making and a division of labor. This type of community is different in kind from a large family, and requires the use of human reason. Cities should not be run by a patriarch, like a village.
Man is a mimetic animal: Man loves to use his imagination, and not only to make laws and run town councils: "[W]e enjoy looking at accurate likenesses of things which are themselves painful to see, obscene beasts, for instance, and corpses.… [The] reason why we enjoy seeing likenesses is that, as we look, we learn and infer what each is, for instance, 'that is so and so.
For Aristotle, reason is not only what is most special about humanity compared to other animals, but it is also what we were meant to achieve at our best. Much of Aristotle's description of human nature is still influential today. However, the particular teleological idea that humans are "meant" or intended to be something has become much less popular in modern times.
Theory of four causes
For the Socratics, human nature, and all natures, are metaphysical concepts. Aristotle developed the standard presentation of this approach with his theory of four causes, whereby every living thing exhibits four aspects, or "causes:"
matter (hyle);
form (eidos);
effect (kinoun); and
end (telos).
For example, an oak tree is made of plant cells (matter); grows from an acorn (effect); exhibits the nature of oak trees (form); and grows into a fully mature oak tree (end). According to Aristotle, human nature is an example of a formal cause. Likewise, our 'end' is to become a fully actualized human being (including fully actualizing the mind). Aristotle suggests that the human intellect (, noûs), while "smallest in bulk", is the most significant part of the human psyche and should be cultivated above all else. The cultivation of learning and intellectual growth of the philosopher is thereby also the happiest and least painful life.
Chinese philosophy
Confucianism
Human nature is a central question in Chinese philosophy. From the Song dynasty, the theory of potential or of human beings became dominant in Confucianism. It is in contrast to the advocated by Xunzi.
Mencius
Mencius argues that human nature is good. He understands human nature as the innate tendency to an ideal state that's expected to be formed under the right conditions. Therefore, humans have the capacity to be good, even though they are not all good.
According to Mencian theory, human nature contains four beginnings () of morality:
a sense of compassion that develops into benevolence ();
a sense of shame and disdain that develops into righteousness ();
a sense of respect and courtesy that develops into propriety (); and
a sense of right and wrong that develops into wisdom ().
The beginnings of morality are characterized by both affective motivations and intuitive judgments, such as what's right and wrong, deferential, respectful, or disdainful.
In Mencius' view, goodness is the result of the development of innate tendencies toward the virtues of benevolence, righteousness, wisdom, and propriety. The tendencies are manifested in moral emotions for every human being. Reflection () upon the manifestations of the four beginnings leads to the development of virtues. It brings recognition that virtue takes precedence over satisfaction, but a lack of reflection inhibits moral development. In other words, humans have a constitution comprising emotional predispositions that direct them to goodness.
Mencius also addresses the question why the capacity for evil is not grounded in human nature. If an individual becomes bad, it is not the result of his or her constitution, as their constitution contains the emotional predispositions that direct to goodness, but a matter of injuring or not fully developing his or her constitution in the appropriate direction. He recognizes desires of the senses as natural predispositions distinct from the four beginnings. People can be misled and led astray by their desires if they do not engage their ethical motivations. He therefore places responsibility on people to reflect on the manifestations of the four beginnings. Herein, it is not the function of ears and eyes but the function of the heart to reflect, as sensory organs are associated with sensual desires but the heart is the seat of feeling and thinking. Mencius considers core virtues—benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom—as internal qualities that humans originally possess, so people can not attain full satisfaction by solely pursuits of self-interest due to their innate morality. Wong (2018) underscores that Mencius' characterization of human nature as good means that "it contains predispositions to feel and act in morally appropriate ways and to make intuitive normative judgments that can with the right nurturing conditions give human beings guidance as to the proper emphasis to be given to the desires of the senses."
Xunzi
Xunzi understands human nature as the basic faculties, capacities, and desires that people have from birth. He views it as the animalistic instincts exhibited by humans before education, which includes greed, idleness, and desires. He suggests that people can not get rid of these instincts, so the existence of this human nature necessitates education and cultivation of goodness.
Xunzi argues that human nature is evil and that any goodness is the result of human activity. It is human nature to seek profit, because humans desire for sensory satisfaction. He states that "Now the nature of man is evil. It must depend on teachers and laws to become correct and achieve propriety and righteousness and then it becomes disciplined." He underscores that goodness comes from the traits and habits acquired through conscious actions, which he calls artifice (). Therefore, morality is seen as a human artifice but not as a part of human nature. His claim that human nature is bad, according to Ivanhoe (1994), means that humans do not have a conception of morality and therefore must acquire it through learning, lest destructive and alienating competition inevitably arises from human desire.
Legalism
Legalism is based on a distrust of human nature. Adherents to this philosophy do not concern themselves with whether human goodness or badness is inborn, and whether human beings possess the fundamental qualities associated with that nature.
Legalists see the overwhelming majority of human beings as selfish in nature. They hold the view that human nature is evil. They believe that one should not expect that people will behave morally. For instance, due to the corrupt nature of humans, they did not trust that officials would carry out their duties in a fair and impartial manner. There is a perpetual political struggle, characterized by conflict among contending human actors and interests, where individuals are easily tempted due to their selfish nature at the expense of others.
According to Legalism, the selfishness in human nature can not be eliminated or altered by education or self-cultivation. It dismisses the possibility that people can overcome their selfishness and considers the possibility that people can be driven by moral commitment to be exceptionally rare. Legalists do not see the individual morality of both the rulers or the ruled as an important concern in a political system. Instead, Legalist thinkers such as Han Fei emphasize clear and impersonal norms and standards (such as laws, regulations, and rules) as the basis to maintain order.
In Han Fei's view, a core feature of human nature is that humans are selfish, but that their desires are satiable. He argues that competition for external goods produces disorder during times of scarcity due to this nature. If there is no scarcity, humans may treat each other well, but they will not become nice; it is that they do not turn to disorder when scarcity is absent. Han Fei also argues that people are all motivated by their unchanging selfish core to want whatever advantage they can gain from whomever they can gain such advantage, which especially comes to expression in situations where people can act with impunity.
Legalists posit that the selfishness in human nature can be an asset rather than a threat to a state. It is axiomatic in Legalism that the government can not be staffed by upright and trustworthy men of service, because every member of the elite—like any other member of society—will pursue their own interests and thus must be employed for their interests. Herein, individuals must be allowed to pursue their selfish interests exclusively in a manner that benefits rather than contradicts the needs of a state. Therefore, a political system that presupposes this human selfishness is the only viable system. In contrast, a political system based on trust and respect (rather than impersonal norms and standards) brings great concern with regard to an ongoing and irresolvable power struggle.
Legalists propose that control is a foundation of governing, which is achieved through reward and punishment. They view the usage of reward and punishment as effective political controls, as it is in human nature to have likes and dislikes. For instance, according to the Legalist statesman Shang Yang, it is crucial to investigate the disposition of people in terms of rewards and penalties when a law is established. He explains that a populace can not be driven to pursuits of agriculture or warfare if people consider these to be bitter or dangerous on the basis of calculations about their possible benefits, but people can be directed toward these pursuits through the application of positive and negative incentives. On the selfishness in human nature, Han Fei remarks that "Those who act as ministers fear the penalties and hope to profit by the rewards."
In Han Fei's view, the only realistic option is a political system that produces equivalents of junzi (君子, who are virtuous exemplars in Confucianism) but not actual junzi. This does not mean, however, that Han Fei makes a distinction between seeming and being good, as he does not entertain the idea that humans are good. Rather, as human nature is constituted by self-interest, he argues that humans can be shaped behaviorally to yield social order if it is in the individual's own self-interest to abide by the norms (i.e., different interests are aligned to each other and the social good), which is most efficiently ensured if the norms are publicly and impartially enforced.
Medieval and Renaissance philosophy
Medieval conceptions of man were particularly stimulated by two sources, viz. the Bible and the Classical philosophical tradition. In Scripture, two passages especially provided the foundation of a dynamic anthropology: Gen 1, 26 and Wis 2, 23 where it is said that man was created in the “image of God”. No theologian could dispense with a reflection on the foundations and consequences of the vision of man implied in this statement. While Bernard of Clairvaux considered that man was the image of God by inamissible free will (De gratia et libero arbitrio, IV, 9; IX, 28), the majority of authors envisaged a likeness between God and man that was based on reason. Thus, according to Thomas Aquinas, man can be called imago Dei by reason of his intellectual Nature, for “intellectual nature imitates God especially in that God knows himself and loves himself” (Summa theologiae I a, q. 93, a. 4). According to Bonaventure, all created being is a vestige of God, while beings endowed with intelligence are images of God since God is present in acts of memory, intellect and will as their principle. By an original fusion of Christology and the doctrine of man as image of God, Meister Eckhart wished to go beyond the traditional distinction between the Son, image of the Father, and man created in the image of God. The motif of man as a microcosm in which the universe is reflected is of ancient origin. This understanding of the human being enjoyed immense success in the 12th century when authors as different as Bernardus Silvestris and Godfrey of Saint Victor made use of it. Hildegard of Bingen and Honorius Augustodunensis developed a whole system of correspondences between “the little world” and the universe, the macrocosm, correspondences that also played a far from negligible role in medieval medicine and the doctrine of the four temperaments. The origin of the definition of man as a “rational animal” also went back to Antiquity. The problem of the relation between the Soul and the body which was implicitly contained in this definition, gave rise to very important debates after the arrival of Aristotle in the West and the Translation of Greek and Arabic philosophical texts. The dualist position whose cause was brilliantly defended by Bonaventure stated that man was composed of two substances , the soul being joined to the body “as mover”. It is patent that the postulate of ontological autonomy of the soul, supposed in this position, accords easily with the religious belief in the immortality of the soul. The Aristotelian doctrine of the soul as “act of the organic body” and hence as the form of the body seemed to pose more of a problem as a thesis on which to base immortality. In accepting Aristotelian hylomorphism, Thomas Aquinas insisted on the unity of the human composite. The intellective soul is hence the form by which “man is a being in act, a body, a living thing, an animal and a man” (Summa theologiae I a, q. 76, a. 6, ad 1). By the act of intellection, which, in its exercise, is independent of the body, Thomas tried to demonstrate that the soul is capable of existing without the body: “Hence the intellectual principle, in other words the spirit, the intellect, possesses by itself an activity in which the body has no part. Now nothing can act by itself that does not exist by itself. … It remains that the human soul, i.e. the intellect, the spirit, is an incorporeal and subsistent reality” (Summa theologiae I a, q. 75, a. 2). By the 14th century (William of Ockham, Jean Buridan), the philosophical proofs of the soul’s immortality were contested, but the debate was particularly lively in the 15th and early 16th centuries. Marsilio Ficino’s Platonic Theology (1474) can be understood as a vast defence of the immortality of the soul, while Pietro Pomponazzi († 1525) fought most vigorously against the very idea of any proof in favour of immortality. The rediscovery of the Aristotelian corpus favoured the discussion of another anthropological formula. In his Politics (I, 2; 1253 a 1-2), Aristotle advanced the idea that man was a “political animal”. This conception opened up the possibility of a political anthropology of which Marsilius of Padua and Dante Alighieri provide remarkable examples. Membership of the human community was perceived as a constitutive element of humanity. In this context, certain authors reflected on communication and discovered that language was also constitutive of humanity. It is proper to man, said Thomas Aquinas, to use words to express his thoughts: “It is true that the other animals communicate their passions, roughly, as the dog expresses his anger by barking … Hence, man is much more communicative towards others than any animal whatever that we see living gregariously, like the crane, the ant or the bee” (De regno, ch. 1). The theme of the dignity of man manifests yet another aspect of medieval anthropology. An astonishing expression of it appears in John Scotus Eriugena’s De divisione naturae (book IV) where it is said of man that “his substance is the notion by which he knows himself” (PL, 122, 770A). This optimism contrasts with the perspectives sketched out by Lotario dei Segni, the future Pope Innocent III, in the opusculum De Miseria Condicionis Humane (1195–119) which offers a striking picture of man’s weaknesses and infirmities. When in 1452 Giannozzo Manetti eulogized the beauty and excellence of man, body and Soul, he wished to reply to the lamentation of Innocent, whose work had an immense success. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola too, in his celebrated Discourse on the dignity of man, expounded a very high idea of man. Pico celebrated first the radical freedom of man, who is capable of choosing himself, i.e. of giving himself his own essence: “I have given you neither a determined place, nor a face of your own, says the creator, nor any particular gift, O Adam, so that your place, your face and your gifts you may will, conquer and possess by yourself. Nature encloses other species in laws established by me. But you, whom no boundary limits, by your own free will, in whose hands I have placed you, define yourself.” This anthropology, which has been celebrated as the beginning of modernity, is not in opposition to religion since this dignity of man belongs to him precisely because he is the image of God according to the biblical word. Yet, with an unprecedented intensity, Pico was able to give a luminous and powerful expression to this profound truth that “man outruns in advance all defined concept of man” (O. Boulnois).
Christian theology
In Christian theology, there are two ways of "conceiving human nature:" The first is "spiritual, Biblical, and theistic"; and the second is "natural, cosmical, and anti-theistic". The focus in this section is on the former. As William James put it in his study of human nature from a religious perspective, "religion" has a "department of human nature".
Various views of human nature have been held by theologians. However, there are some "basic assertions" in all "biblical anthropology:"
"Humankind has its origin in God, its creator."
"Humans bear the 'image of God'."
Humans are "to rule the rest of creation".
The Bible contains no single "doctrine of human nature". Rather, it provides material for more philosophical descriptions of human nature. For example, Creation as found in the Book of Genesis provides a theory on human nature.
Catechism of the Catholic Church, under the chapter "Dignity of the human person", provides an article about man as image of God, vocation to beatitude, freedom, human acts, passions, moral conscience, virtues, and sin.
Created human nature
As originally created, the Bible describes "two elements" in human nature: "the body and the breath or spirit of life breathed into it by God". By this was created a "living soul", meaning a "living person". According to Genesis 1:27, this living person was made in the "image of God". From the biblical perspective, "to be human is to bear the image of God."
Genesis does not elaborate the meaning of "the image of God", but scholars find suggestions. One is that being created in the image of God distinguishes human nature from that of the beasts. Another is that as God is "able to make decisions and rule" so humans made in God's image are "able to make decisions and rule". A third is that humankind possesses an inherent ability "to set goals" and move toward them. That God denoted creation as "good" suggests that Adam was "created in the image of God, in righteousness".
Adam was created with ability to make "right choices", but also with the ability to choose sin, by which he fell from righteousness into a state of "sin and depravity". Thus, according to the Bible, "humankind is not as God created it."
Fallen human nature
By Adam's fall into sin, "human nature" became "corrupt", although it retains the image of God. Both the Old Testament and the New Testament teach that "sin is universal." For example, Psalm 51:5 reads: "For behold I was conceived in iniquities; and in sins did my mother conceive me." Jesus taught that everyone is a "sinner naturally" because it is humanity's "nature and disposition to sin". Paul, in Romans 7:18, speaks of his "sinful nature".
Such a "recognition that there is something wrong with the moral nature of man is found in all religions." Augustine of Hippo coined a term for the assessment that all humans are born sinful: original sin. Original sin is "the tendency to sin innate in all human beings". The doctrine of original sin is held by the Catholic Church and most mainstream Protestant denominations, but rejected by the Eastern Orthodox Church, which holds the similar doctrine of ancestral fault.
"The corruption of original sin extends to every aspect of human nature": to "reason and will" as well as to "appetites and impulses". This condition is sometimes called "total depravity". Total depravity does not mean that humanity is as "thoroughly depraved" as it could become. Commenting on Romans 2:14, John Calvin writes that all people have "some notions of justice and rectitude ... which are implanted by nature" all people.
Adam embodied the "whole of human nature" so when Adam sinned "all of human nature sinned." The Old Testament does not explicitly link the "corruption of human nature" to Adam's sin. However, the "universality of sin" implies a link to Adam. In the New Testament, Paul concurs with the "universality of sin". He also makes explicit what the Old Testament implied: the link between humanity's "sinful nature" and Adam's sin In Romans 5:19, Paul writes, "through [Adam's] disobedience humanity became sinful." Paul also applied humanity's sinful nature to himself: "there is nothing good in my sinful nature."
The theological "doctrine of original sin" as an inherent element of human nature is not based only on the Bible. It is in part a "generalization from obvious facts" open to empirical observation.
Empirical view
A number of experts on human nature have described the manifestations of original (i.e., the innate tendency to) sin as empirical facts.
Biologist Richard Dawkins, in his The Selfish Gene, states that "a predominant quality" in a successful surviving gene is "ruthless selfishness". Furthermore, "this gene selfishness will usually give rise to selfishness in individual behavior."
Child psychologist Burton L. White finds a "selfish" trait in children from birth, a trait that expresses itself in actions that are "blatantly selfish".
Sociologist William Graham Sumner finds it a fact that "everywhere one meets "fraud, corruption, ignorance, selfishness, and all the other vices of human nature". He enumerates "the vices and passions of human nature" as "cupidity, lust, vindictiveness, ambition, and vanity". Sumner finds such human nature to be universal: in all people, in all places, and in all stations in society.
Psychiatrist Thomas Anthony Harris, on the basis of his "data at hand", observes "sin, or badness, or evil, or 'human nature', whatever we call the flaw in our species, is apparent in every person." Harris calls this condition "intrinsic badness" or "original sin".
Empirical discussion questioning the genetic exclusivity of such an intrinsic badness proposition is presented by researchers Elliott Sober and David Sloan Wilson. In their book, Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior, they propose a theory of multilevel group selection in support of an inherent genetic "altruism" in opposition to the original sin exclusivity for human nature.
20th-century liberal theology
Liberal theologians in the early 20th century described human nature as "basically good", needing only "proper training and education". But the above examples document the return to a "more realistic view" of human nature "as basically sinful and self-centered". Human nature needs "to be regenerated ... to be able to live the unselfish life".
Regenerated human nature
According to the Bible, "Adam's disobedience corrupted human nature" but God mercifully "regenerates". "Regeneration is a radical change" that involves a "renewal of our [human] nature". Thus, to counter original sin, Christianity purposes "a complete transformation of individuals" by Christ.
The goal of Christ's coming is that fallen humanity might be "conformed to or transformed into the image of Christ who is the perfect image of God", as in 2 Corinthians 4:4. The New Testament makes clear the "universal need" for regeneration. A sampling of biblical portrayals of regenerating human nature and the behavioral results follow.
being "transformed by the renewing of your minds" (Romans 12:2)
being transformed from one's "old self" (or "old man") into a "new self" (or "new man") (Colossians 3:9–10)
being transformed from people who "hate others" and "are hard to get along with" and who are "jealous, angry, and selfish" to people who are "loving, happy, peaceful, patient, kind, good, faithful, gentle, and self-controlled" (Galatians 5:20–23)
being transformed from looking "to your own interests" to looking "to the interests of others" (Philippians 2:4)
Early modern philosophy
Although this new realism applied to the study of human life from the beginning—for example, in Machiavelli's works—the definitive argument for the final rejection of Aristotle was associated especially with Francis Bacon. Bacon sometimes wrote as if he accepted the traditional four causes ("It is a correct position that "true knowledge is knowledge by causes." And causes again are not improperly distributed into four kinds: the material, the formal, the efficient, and the final") but he adapted these terms and rejected one of the three: But of these the final cause rather corrupts than advances the sciences, except such as have to do with human action. The discovery of the formal is despaired of. The efficient and the material (as they are investigated and received, that is, as remote causes, without reference to the latent process leading to the form) are but slight and superficial, and contribute little, if anything, to true and active science.This line of thinking continued with René Descartes, whose new approach returned philosophy or science to its pre-Socratic focus upon non-human things. Thomas Hobbes, then Giambattista Vico, and David Hume all claimed to be the first to properly use a modern Baconian scientific approach to human things.
Hobbes famously followed Descartes in describing humanity as matter in motion, just like machines. He also very influentially described man's natural state (without science and artifice) as one where life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short". Following him, John Locke's philosophy of empiricism also saw human nature as a tabula rasa. In this view, the mind is at birth a "blank slate" without rules, so data are added, and rules for processing them are formed solely by our sensory experiences.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau pushed the approach of Hobbes to an extreme and criticized it at the same time. He was a contemporary and acquaintance of Hume, writing before the French Revolution and long before Darwin and Freud. He shocked Western civilization with his Second Discourse by proposing that humans had once been solitary animals, without reason or language or communities, and had developed these things due to accidents of pre-history. (This proposal was also less famously made by Giambattista Vico.) In other words, Rousseau argued that human nature was not only not fixed, but not even approximately fixed compared to what had been assumed before him. Humans are political, and rational, and have language now, but originally they had none of these things. This in turn implied that living under the management of human reason might not be a happy way to live at all, and perhaps there is no ideal way to live. Rousseau is also unusual in the extent to which he took the approach of Hobbes, asserting that primitive humans were not even naturally social. A civilized human is therefore not only imbalanced and unhappy because of the mismatch between civilized life and human nature, but unlike Hobbes, Rousseau also became well known for the suggestion that primitive humans had been happier, "noble savages".
Rousseau's conception of human nature has been seen as the origin of many intellectual and political developments of the 19th and 20th centuries. He was an important influence upon Kant, Hegel, and Marx, and the development of German idealism, historicism, and romanticism.
What human nature did entail, according to Rousseau and the other modernists of the 17th and 18th centuries, were animal-like passions that led humanity to develop language and reasoning, and more complex communities (or communities of any kind, according to Rousseau).
In contrast to Rousseau, David Hume was a critic of the oversimplifying and systematic approach of Hobbes, Rousseau, and some others whereby, for example, all human nature is assumed to be driven by variations of selfishness. Influenced by Hutcheson and Shaftesbury, he argued against oversimplification. On the one hand, he accepted that, for many political and economic subjects, people could be assumed to be driven by such simple selfishness, and he also wrote of some of the more social aspects of "human nature" as something which could be destroyed, for example if people did not associate in just societies. On the other hand, he rejected what he called the "paradox of the sceptics", saying that no politician could have invented words like honourable' and 'shameful,' 'lovely' and 'odious,' 'noble' and 'despicable, unless there was not some natural "original constitution of the mind".
Hume—like Rousseau—was controversial in his own time for his modernist approach, following the example of Bacon and Hobbes, of avoiding consideration of metaphysical explanations for any type of cause and effect. He was accused of being an atheist. He wrote:
After Rousseau and Hume, the nature of philosophy and science changed, branching into different disciplines and approaches, and the study of human nature changed accordingly. Rousseau's proposal that human nature is malleable became a major influence upon international revolutionary movements of various kinds, while Hume's approach has been more typical in Anglo-Saxon countries, including the United States.
According to Edouard Machery, the concept of human nature is an outgrowth of folk biology and in particular, the concept of folk essentialism – the tendency of ordinary people to ascribe essences to kinds. Machery argues that while the idea that humans have an "essence" is a very old idea, the idea that all humans have a unified human nature is relatively modern; for a long time, people thought of humans as "us versus them" and thus did not think of human beings as a unified kind.
Contemporary philosophy
The concept of human nature is a source of ongoing debate in contemporary philosophy, specifically within philosophy of biology, a subfield of the philosophy of science. Prominent critics of the concept – David L. Hull, Michael Ghiselin, and David Buller; see also – argue that human nature is incompatible with modern evolutionary biology. Conversely, defenders of the concept argue that when defined in certain ways, human nature is both scientifically respectable and meaningful. Therefore, the value and usefulness of the concept depends essentially on how one construes it. This section summarizes the prominent construals of human nature and outlines the key arguments from philosophers on both sides of the debate.
Criticism of the concept of human nature (Hull)
Philosopher of science David L. Hull has influentially argued that there is no such thing as human nature. Hull's criticism is raised against philosophers who conceive human nature as a set of intrinsic phenotypic traits (or characters) that are universal among humans, unique to humans, and definitive of what it is to be a member of the biological species Homo sapiens. In particular, Hull argues that such "essential sameness of human beings" is "temporary, contingent and relatively rare" in biology. He argues that variation, insofar as it is the result of evolution, is an essential feature of all biological species. Moreover, the type of variation which characterizes a certain species in a certain historical moment is "to a large extent accidental" He writes:Periodically a biological species might be characterized by one or more characters which are both universally distributed among and limited to the organisms belonging to that species, but such states of affairs are temporary, contingent and relatively rare.Hull reasons that properties universally shared by all members of a certain species are usually also possessed by members of other species, whereas properties exclusively possessed by the members of a certain species are rarely possessed by all members of that species. For these reasons, Hull observes that, in contemporary evolutionary taxonomy, belonging to a particular species does not depend on the possession of any specific intrinsic properties. Rather, it depends on standing in the right kind of relations (relations of genealogy or interbreeding, depending on the precise species concept being used) to other members of the species. Consequently, there can be no intrinsic properties that define what it is to be a member of the species Homo sapiens. Individual organisms, including humans, are part of a species by virtue of their relations with other members of the same species, not shared intrinsic properties.
According to Hull, the moral significance of his argument lies in its impact on the biologically legitimate basis for the concept of "human rights". While it has long been argued that there is a sound basis for "human rights" in the idea that all human beings are essentially the same, should Hull's criticism work, such a basis – at least on a biological level – would disappear. Nevertheless, Hull does not perceive this to be a fundamental for human rights, because people can choose to continue respecting human rights even without sharing the same human nature.
Defences of the concept of human nature
Several contemporary philosophers have attempted to defend the notion of human nature against charges that it is incompatible with modern evolutionary biology by proposing alternative interpretations. They claim that the concept of human nature continues to bear relevance in the fields of neuroscience and evolutionary biology. Many have proposed non-essentialist notions. Others have argued that, even if natural selection has shown that any attempt to base species membership on "intrinsic essential properties" is untenable, essences can still be "relational" – this would be consistent with the interbreeding, ecological, and phylogenetic species concepts, which are accepted by modern evolutionary biology. These attempts aim to make natural selection compatible with a certain conception of human nature which is stable across time.
"Nomological" account (Machery)
Philosopher of science Edouard Machery has proposed that the above criticisms only apply to a specific definition (or "notion") of human nature, and not to "human nature in general". He distinguishes between two different notions:
An essentialist notion of human nature – "Human nature is the set of properties that are separately necessary and jointly sufficient for being a human." These properties are also usually considered as distinctive of human beings. They are also intrinsic to humans and inherent to their essence.
A nomological notion of human nature – "Human nature is the set of properties that humans tend to possess as a result of the evolution of their species."
Machery clarifies that, to count as being "a result of evolution", a property must have an ultimate explanation in Ernst Mayr's sense. It must be possible to explain the trait as the product of evolutionary processes. Importantly, properties can count as part of human nature in the nomological sense even if they are not universal among humans and not unique to humans. In other words, nomological properties need not be necessary nor sufficient for being human. Instead, it is enough that these properties are shared by most humans, as a result of the evolution of their species – they "need to be typical". Therefore, human nature in the nomological sense does not define what it is to be a member of the species Homo sapiens. Examples of properties that count as parts of human nature on the nomological definition include: being bipedal, having the capacity to speak, having a tendency towards biparental investment in children, having fear reactions to unexpected noises. Finally, since they are the product of evolution, properties belonging to the nomological notion of human nature are not fixed, but they can change over time.
Machery agrees with biologists and others philosophers of biology that the essentialist notion of human nature is incompatible with modern evolutionary biology: we cannot explain membership in the human species by means of a definition or a set of properties. However, he maintains that this does not mean humans have no nature, because we can accept the nomological notion which is not a definitional notion. Therefore, we should think of human nature as the many properties humans have in common as a result of evolution.
Machery argues that notions of human nature can help explain why that, while cultures are very diverse, there are also many constants across cultures. For Machery, most forms of cultural diversity are in fact diversity on a common theme; for example, Machery observes that the concept of a kinship system is common across cultures but the exact form it takes and the specifics vary between cultures.
Problems with the nomological account
Machery also highlights potential drawbacks of the nomological account. One is that the nomological notion is a watered-down notion that cannot perform many of the roles that the concept of human nature is expected to perform in science and philosophy. The properties endowed upon humans by the nomological account do not distinguish humans from other animals or define what it is to be human. Machery pre-empts this objection by claiming that the nomological concept of human nature still fulfils many roles. He highlights the importance of a conception which picks out what humans share in common which can be used to make scientific, psychological generalizations about human-beings. One advantage of such a conception is that it gives an idea of the traits displayed by the majority of human beings which can be explained in evolutionary terms.
Another potential drawback is that the nomological account of human nature threatens to lead to the absurd conclusion that all properties of humans are parts of human nature. According to the nomological account, a trait is only part of human nature if it is a result of evolution. However, there is a sense in which all human traits are results of evolution. For example, the belief that water is wet is shared by all humans. However, this belief is only possible because we have, for example, evolved a sense of touch. It is difficult to separate traits which are the result of evolution and those which are not. Machery claims the distinction between proximate and ultimate explanation can do the work here: only some human traits can be given an ultimate explanation, he argues.
According to the philosopher Richard Samuels the account of human nature is expected to fulfill the five following roles:
an organizing function that demarks a territory of scientific inquiry
a descriptive function that is traditionally understood as specifying properties that are universal across and unique to human being
a causal explanatory function that offers causal explanation for occurring human behaviours and features
a taxonomic function that specifies possessing human nature as a necessary and sufficient criterion for belonging to the human species
Invariances that assume the understanding that human nature is to some degree fixed, invariable or at least hard to change and stable across time.
Samuels objects that Machery's nomological account fails to deliver on the causal explanatory function, because it claims that superficial and co-varying properties are the essence of human nature. Thus, human nature cannot be the underlying cause of these properties and accordingly cannot fulfill its causal explanatory role.
Philosopher Grant Ramsey also rejects Machery's nomological account. For him, defining human nature with respect to only universal traits fails to capture many important human characteristics. Ramsey quotes the anthropologist Clifford Geertz, who claims that "the notion that unless a cultural phenomenon is empirically universal it cannot reflect anything about the nature of man is about as logical as the notion that because sickle-cell anemia is, fortunately, not universal, it cannot tell us anything about human genetic processes. It is not whether phenomena are empirically common that is critical in science...but whether they can be made to reveal the enduring natural processes that underly them." Following Geertz, Ramsey holds that the study of human nature should not rely exclusively on universal or near-universal traits. There are many idiosyncratic and particular traits of scientific interest. Machery's account of human nature cannot give an account to such differences between men and women as the nomological account only picks out the common features within a species. In this light, the female menstrual cycle which is a biologically an essential and useful feature cannot be included in a nomological account of human nature.
Ramsey also objects that Machery uncritically adopts the innate-acquired dichotomy, distinguishing between human properties due to enculturation and those due to evolution. Ramsey objects that human properties do not just fall in one of the two categories, writing that "any organismic property is going to be due to both heritable features of the organism as well as the particular environmental features the organism happens to encounter during its life."
"Causal essentialist" account (Samuels)
Richard Samuels, in an article titled "Science and Human Nature", proposes a causal essentialist view that "human nature should be identified with a suite of mechanisms, processes, and structures that causally explain many of the more superficial properties and regularities reliably associated with humanity." This view is "causal" because the mechanisms causally explain the superficial properties reliably associated with humanity by referencing the underlying causal structures the properties belong to. For example, it is true that the belief that water is wet is shared by all humans yet it is not in itself a significant aspect of human nature. Instead, the psychological process that lead us to assign the word "wetness" to water is a universal trait shared by all human beings. In this respect, the superficial belief that water is wet reveals an important causal psychological process which is widely shared by most human beings. The explanation is also "essentialist" because there is a core set of empirically discoverable cognitive mechanism that count as part of the human nature. According to Samuels, his view avoids the standard biological objections to human nature essentialism.
Samuels argues that the theoretical roles of human nature includes: organizing role, descriptive functions, causal explanatory functions, taxonomic functions, and invariances.
In comparison with traditional essentialist view, the "causal essentialist" view does not accomplish the taxonomic role of human nature (the role of defining what it is to be human). He claims however, that no conception could achieve this, as the fulfillment of the role would not survive evolutionary biologists’ objections (articulated above by in "Criticisms of the concept of human nature"). In comparison with Machery's nomological conception, Samuels wants to restore the causal-explanatory function of human nature. He defines the essence of human nature as causal mechanisms and not as surface-level properties. For instance, on this view, linguistic behaviour is not part of human nature, but the cognitive mechanisms underpinning linguistic behaviour might count as part of human nature.
"Life-history trait cluster" account (Ramsey)
Grant Ramsey proposes an alternative account of human nature, which he names the "life-history trait cluster" account. This view stems from the recognition that the combination of a specific genetic constitution with a specific environment is not sufficient to determine how a life will go, i.e., whether one is rich, poor, dies old, dies young, etc. Many ‘life histories’ are possible for a given individual, each populated by a great number of traits. Ramsey defines his conception of human nature in reference to the “pattern of trait clusters within the totality of extant possible life-histories”. In other words, there are certain life histories, i.e., possible routes one's life can take, for example: being rich, being a PhD student, or getting ill. Ramsey underlines the patterns behind these possible routes by delving into the causes of these life histories. For example, one can make the following claim: “Humans sweat when they get exhausted" or one can also propose neurological claims such as “Humans secrete Adrenaline when they are in flight-fight mode.” This approach enables Ramsey to go beyond the superficial appearances and understand the similarities/differences between individuals in a deeper level which refers to the causal mechanisms (processes, structures and constraints etc.) which lie beneath them. Once we list all the possible life-histories of an individual, we can find these causal patterns and add them together to form the basis of individual nature.
Ramsey's next argumentative manoeuvre is to point out that traits are not randomly scattered across potential life histories; there are patterns. “These patterns” he states “provide the basis for the notion of individual and human nature”. While one's ‘individual nature’ consists of the pattern of trait clusters distributed across that individual's set of possible life histories, Human Nature, Ramsey defines as “the pattern of trait clusters within the totality of extant human possible life histories”. Thus, if we were to combine all possible life histories of all individuals in existence we would have access to the trait distribution patterns that constitute human nature.
Trait patterns, on Ramsey's account, can be captured in the form of conditional statements, such as "if female, you develop ovaries" or "if male, you develop testes." These statements will not be true of all humans. Ramsey contends that these statements capture part of human nature if they have a good balance of pervasiveness (many people satisfy the antecedent of the conditional statement), and robustness (many people who satisfy the antecedent go on to satisfy the consequent).
Human nature and human enhancement
The contemporary debate between so-called “bioconservatives” and “transhumanists” is directly related to the concept of human nature: transhumanists argue that "current human nature is improvable through the use of applied science and other rational methods." Bioconservatives believe that the costs outweigh the benefits: in particular, they present their position as a defense of human nature which, according to them, is threatened by human enhancement technologies. Although this debate is mainly of an ethical kind, it is deeply rooted in the different interpretations of human nature, human freedom, and human dignity (which, according to bioconservatives, is specific to human beings, while transhumanists think that it can be possessed also by posthumans). As explained by Allen Buchanan, the literature against human enhancement is characterized by two main concerns: that "enhancement may alter or destroy human nature" and that "if enhancement alters or destroys human nature, this will undercut our ability to ascertain the good," as "the good is determined by our nature."
Bioconservatives include Jürgen Habermas, Leon Kass, Francis Fukuyama, and Bill McKibben. Some of the reasons why they oppose (certain forms of) human enhancement technology are to be found in the worry that such technology would be “dehumanizing” (as they would undermine the human dignity intrinsically built in our human nature). For instance, they fear that becoming “posthumans” could pose a threat to “ordinary” humans or be harmful to posthumans themselves.
Jürgen Habermas makes the argument against the specific case of genetic modification of unborn children by their parents, referred to as “eugenic programming” by Habermas. His argument is two-folded: The most immediate threat is on the “ethical freedom” of programmed individuals, and the subsequent threat is on the viability of liberal democracy. Reasoning of the former can be formulated as the following: Genetic programming of desirable traits, capabilities and dispositions puts restrictions on a person's freedom to choose a life of his own, to be the sole author of his existence. A genetically-programmed child may feel alienated from his identity, which is now irreversibly co-written by human agents other than himself. This feeling of alienation, resulted from“contingency of a life's beginning that is not at [one's] disposal,” makes it difficult for genetically-modified persons to perceive themselves as moral agents who can make ethical judgement freely and independently – that is, without any substantial or definitive interference from another agent. Habermas proposes a second threat – the undermining power of genetic programming on the viability of democracy. The basis of liberal democracy, Habermas rightfully claims, is the symmetrical and independent mutual recognition among free, equal and autonomous persons. Genetic programming jeopardizes this condition by irreversibly subjecting children to permanent dependence on their parents, thus depriving them of their perceived ability to be full citizens of the legal community. This fundamental modification to human relationship erodes the foundation of liberal democracy and puts its viability in danger.
The most famous proponent of transhumanism, on the other hand, is Oxford Swedish philosopher Nick Bostrom. According to Bostrom, "human enhancement technologies should be made widely available," as they would offer enormous potential for improving the lives of human beings, without "dehumanizing" them: for instance, improving their intellectual and physical capacities, or protecting them from suffering, illnesses, aging, and physical and cognitive shortcomings. In response to bioconservatives, transhumanists argue that expanding a person's "capability set" would increase her freedom of choice, rather than reducing it.
Allen Buchanan has questioned the relevance of the concept of human nature to this debate. In "Human Nature and Enhancement", he argued that good but also bad characteristics are part of human nature, and that changing the "bad" ones does not necessarily imply that the "good" ones will be affected. Moreover, Buchanan argued that the way we evaluate the good is independent of human nature: in fact, we can "make coherent judgements about the defective aspects of human nature, and if those defects were readied this need not affect our ability to judge what is good". Buchanan's conclusion is that the debate on enhancement of human beings would be more fruitful if it was conducted without appealing to the concept of human nature.
Tim Lewens presented a similar position: since the only notions of human nature which are compatible with biology offer "no ethical guidance in debates over enhancement", we should set the concept of human nature aside when debating about enhancement. On the other hand, "folk", neo-Aristotelian conceptions of human nature seem to have normative implications, but they have no basis in scientific research. Grant Ramsey replied to these claims, arguing that his "life-history trait cluster" account allows the concept of human nature "to inform questions of human enhancement".
Appeals to nature often fall foul of the naturalistic fallacy, whereby certain capacities or traits are considered morally 'good' in virtue of their naturalness. The fallacy was initially introduced by G. E. Moore in 1903, who challenged philosopher's attempts to define good reductively, in terms of natural properties (such as desirable). Reliance on 'the natural' as a justification for resisting enhancement is criticised on several grounds by transhumanists, against the bioconservative motivation to preserve or protect 'human nature'.
For example, Nick Bostrom asserts "had Mother Nature been a real parent, she would have been in jail for child abuse and murder" thus not worthy of unqualified protection. Similarly, Arthur Caplan opposes naturalistic objections to life extension enhancements, by claiming that:The explanation of why ageing occurs has many of the attributes of a stochastic or chance phenomenon. And this makes ageing unnatural and in no way an intrinsic part of human nature. As such, there is no reason why it is intrinsically wrong to try to reverse or cure ageing.
Scientific understanding
Science writer and journalist Matt Ridley argued that understanding human nature, and its evolution over time, requires "understanding how human sexuality evolved."
Instinctual behaviour
Instinctual behaviour, an inherent inclination towards a particular complex behaviour, has been observed in humans. Emotions such as fear are part of human nature (see Fear § Innate fear for example). However they are also known to have been malleable and not fixed (see neuroplasticity and Fear § Inability to experience fear).
Congenital fear of snakes and spiders was found in six-month-old babies. Infant cry is a manifestation of instinct. The infant cannot otherwise protect itself for survival during its long period of maturation. The maternal instinct, manifest particularly in response to the infant cry, has long been respected as one of the most powerful. Its mechanism has been partly elucidated by observations with functional MRI of the mother’s brain.
The herd instinct is found in human children and chimpanzee cubs, but is apparently absent in young orangutans.
Squeamishness and disgust in humans is an instinct developed during evolution to protect the body and avoid infection by various diseases.
Socioeconomic context
The socioeconomic environment of humans are a context which affect their brain development. It has been argued that H. sapiens is unsustainable by nature – that unsustainability is an inevitable emergent property of his unaltered nature. It has also been argued that human nature is not necessarily resulting in unsustainability but is embedded in and affected by a socioeconomic system that is not having an inevitable structure – that the contemporary socioeconomic macrosystem affects human activities. A paper published in 1997 concluded that humanity suffer consequences of a "poor fit" between inherited natures and "many of the constructed environments in organizational society". Designing a "cultural narrative" explicitly for living on a finite planet may be suitable for overriding "outdated" innate tendencies.
Human nature – which some have argued to vary to some extent per individual and in time, not be static and, at least in the future, to some extent be purposely alterable – is one of the factors that shape which, how and when human activities are conducted. The contemporary socioeconomic and collective decision-making mechanisms are structures that may affect the expression of human nature – for instance, innate tendencies to seek survival, well-being, respect and status that some consider fundamental to humans may result in varying product-designs, types of work, public infrastructure-designs and the distribution and prevalence of each. As with the nature versus nurture debate, which is concerned whether – or to which degrees – human behavior is determined by the environment or by a person's genes, scientific research is inconclusive about the degree to which human nature is shaped by and manageable by systemic structures as well as about how and to which degrees these structures can and should be purposely altered swiftly globally.
See also
Aggressionism
Amity-enmity complex
Common sense
Cultural universal
Cynicism
Dehumanization
Diathesis-stress model
Differential susceptibility hypothesis
Emotion
Homo sapiens
Human condition
Humanism
Instinct § In humans
Nature
Norm (philosophy)
Norm (sociology)
Normality (behavior)
Psychology
References
Further reading
External links
Humans
Philosophical anthropology
Evolutionary psychology
Personal life
Human behavior
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Ariel (The Little Mermaid)
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Ariel is a fictional character in the Walt Disney Pictures animated film The Little Mermaid (1989). Ariel is voiced by Jodi Benson in all official animated appearances. Ariel is the youngest daughter of King Triton and Queen Athena of an underwater kingdom of merfolk called Atlantica. She is often rebellious, and in the first film, she longs to be a part of the human world. She marries Prince Eric, whom she rescued from a shipwreck, and together they have a daughter, Melody.
The character is based on the title character of Hans Christian Andersen's 1837 fairy tale "The Little Mermaid" but was developed into a different personality for the 1989 animated film adaptation. Ariel has received a mixed reception from critics; some publications such as Time criticize her for being too devoted to Eric whereas others, such as Empire, praise the character for her rebellious personality, a departure from previous Disney Princesses' roles. Halle Bailey portrays a live-action version of the character in the 2023 live-action adaptation of the original 1989 film.
Development
Ariel was based on the title character of Hans Christian Andersen's "The Little Mermaid", but co-director and writer Ron Clements felt that the mermaid in the original story was too tragic and rewrote the character, resulting in Ariel.
Jodi Benson, who was predominantly a stage actress, was chosen to voice Ariel because the directors felt "it was really important to have the same person doing the singing and speaking voice". Clements stated that Benson's voice had a unique "sweetness" and "youthfulness". When recording the vocals for "Part of Your World", Benson asked that the lights in the studio be dimmed, to create the feeling of being deep under the sea. "Part of Your World", which was referred to by songwriter Howard Ashman as the "I Want" song, was originally going to be cut from the final film, owing to Jeffrey Katzenberg's belief that it slowed the story down, but Ashman and Keane fought to keep it in.
Ariel's original design was developed by animator Glen Keane. Her appearance was based on a number of inspirational sources, Christie Brinkley, Alyssa Milano (who was 16 at the time in addition to hosting the making of the special on Disney Channel), and model-comedian Sherri Stoner, who provided live-action references for the animators during the development of the film. She would later do the live-action references for Belle (Paige O'Hara) in Beauty and the Beast. The movement of Ariel's hair underwater was based on footage of astronaut Sally Ride while she was in space. Extra reference was given by filming Stoner swimming in a pool, which also helped guide Ariel's aquatic movement.
A challenge in animating Ariel for the 1989 film was the color required to show Ariel in the changing environments, both under the sea and on land, for which the animators required thirty-two color models, not including costume changes. The sea-green color of Ariel's mermaid tail was a hue specially mixed by the Disney paint lab; the color was named "Ariel" after the character. The choice of red as Ariel's hair color was the subject of dispute between the filmmakers and studio executives who wanted the character to have blonde hair. It was noted that red hair contrasted better with Ariel's green tail, red was easier to darken than yellow, and Disney's live-action branch Touchstone Pictures had recently released Splash that had a blonde mermaid; Ariel's red hair was ultimately kept.
In an interview, Jodi Benson stated that for Ariel's Beginning, the writers revised the script multiple times to make sure Ariel retained her relevance in a more modern context. Benson complained to them that they wrote Ariel out of character and suggested they bring her back to her roots.
Characteristics
Ariel is the youngest of King Triton and Queen Athena's seven daughters. She is often seen in the company of Flounder, her best friend, and Sebastian, her father's advisor who is often assigned to keep an eye on her. In the television series and first film, Ariel has a fascination with the human world and often goes off to find human artifacts that she displays in a secret grotto. Ariel, a free spirit, is often rebellious, wandering off on her own to explore her surroundings, and frequently disobeys the orders of her father or Sebastian, causing conflict between the characters. In The Little Mermaid, she is depicted as being willing to do anything to be with Prince Eric, even giving up her voice to become human. Clements described her as a typical teenager, prone to errors of judgment. She also is incredibly curious, and her curiosity often leads her into dangerous situations.
Ariel is kind and caring to others no matter what their circumstances, as depicted in the television series. In an early episode, Ariel helps an orphaned merboy who had fallen in with a bad crowd. In another episode, Ariel befriends a supposed bad luck creature and protects it from Ursula and other merfolk who wish it harm. Ariel appears as an adult in Return to the Sea and gives birth to a daughter named Melody, becoming the first, and currently, only, Disney princess to become a mother. Ariel is protective of her daughter, as Triton was of Ariel in the first film. After Morgana threatens Ariel and King Triton, Prince Eric and Ariel build a wall around the palace to protect Melody from Morgana and other terrors of the ocean. Although it protected her, it could not protect her curiosity. Ariel's Beginning depicts her personality as it was in the original film after Jodi Benson had advocated returning the character to her roots. Ariel is, once again, a rebellious free spirit, and after her father decrees music to be banned in Atlantica she runs away with Sebastian and his band.
Appearances
The Little Mermaid
Ariel first appears in The Little Mermaid (1989), in which she is shown as being adventurous and curious about the world of humans, a fascination which annoys both her father King Triton and his court composer Sebastian, as merfolk are not allowed to make contact with the human world. She and Flounder go in search of human objects, which they take to a seagull named Scuttle for appraisal. Ariel falls in love with a human prince named Prince Eric after saving him from drowning, and visits the sea witch, Ursula, who agrees to turn her into a human in exchange for her voice. Ariel must make Prince Eric fall in love with her and romantically kiss her within three days, lest she belong to Ursula forever.
Unknown to Ariel, this agreement is part of Ursula's bigger plan to trap Ariel's father, King Triton and steal his magical trident. After being transformed, Ariel found that she can no longer breathe, nor swim. Sebastian and Flounder take her to the surface. She is soon found by Eric and is taken back to his castle. Ariel almost manages to obtain the "kiss of true love", but is stopped by Ursula's underhanded tactics. On the second day, Ursula transforms herself into a human, calling herself "Vanessa" and using Ariel's voice, bewitches Eric to make him marry her on the third day. After learning from Scuttle that the woman is Ursula in disguise, Ariel disrupts the wedding and regains her voice, but the sun sets as Ariel and Prince Eric are about to kiss, transforming Ariel back into a mermaid. After transforming herself back into her true witch form, Ursula takes Ariel back into the ocean, where she is met by King Triton and Sebastian.
Triton trades himself for Ariel, enabling Ursula to steal his crown and enabling her to claim his trident, which angers Ariel, who will not allow Ursula to destroy merfolk and humans. In the battle that follows, Ariel is trapped at the bottom of a whirlpool. Before Ursula can kill her, Eric impales Ursula with a derelict ship's splintered prow. After Ursula dies, her spell is broken, and King Triton and the merfolk are transformed back to normal merpeople. At the end of the film, after King Triton uses his magical trident to transform Ariel into a human, she leaves the sea to live in the human world. She and Eric marry and live happily ever after.
Television series
A prequel television series that originally aired from 1992 to 1994, depicts Ariel's life as a mermaid under the sea with Sebastian, Flounder, and her father. Ariel appears in all 31 episodes of the series, which is set an unspecified time before the first film. The series follows Ariel's adventures with her friends and family and sometimes has Ariel foiling the attempts of enemies that are intent on harming her or the kingdom of Atlantica.
Ariel's relationships with various characters from the film are highlighted and expanded, such as the love and occasional conflict between Ariel and her father, how Ariel met Flounder and Scuttle, the relationships between Ariel and her sisters, and Ariel's early fear and avoidance of Ursula the sea witch. Other recurring new characters are also introduced, such as orphaned merboy Urchin and mute mermaid Gabriella that become Ariel's friends, as well as the Evil Manta, Lobster Mobster and Da Shrimp, who are Ariel's enemies. Ariel's mother is absent, having already died prior to the events of the series, though she is occasionally mentioned in vague terms. In one episode Ariel comes across Hans Christian Andersen, author of "The Little Mermaid", while he was traveling underwater in a primitive submarine. In the fictionalized encounter she saves Andersen's life, inspiring him to write the story.
Some episodes of the series are musical and feature original songs performed by the characters. A soundtrack containing some of these songs was released in 1992 under the title "Splash Hits".
The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea
In The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea (2000), Ariel, now the princess consort of Eric's kingdom has given birth to a daughter named Melody. When Melody's safety is threatened by Ursula's sister Morgana after using her as a hostage to get Triton's trident, Ariel and her husband Eric decide they must keep Melody away from the sea. So they build a large wall to separate it from the castle.
But Melody's love of the sea proves too strong and she visits Morgana, who turns her into a mermaid temporarily. King Triton uses his trident to transform Ariel back into her own mermaid form to find and rescue Melody. Morgana tricks Melody into taking part in a plot to steal her grandfather King Triton's trident. Together with Tip the Penguin and Dash the Walrus she goes to Atlantica and succeeds in acquiring the trident. Ariel arrives as they return with it to Morgana, and tries to persuade Melody to give back the trident. Morgana then reveals her true intentions. She calmly mentions that the spell that turned Melody into mermaid will wear off by sundown, then uses the trident's magic to lord over the ocean, rising to the surface to gloat. Scuttle, Triton, Sebastian, and Eric arrive, and a battle ensues against Morgana and her minions. Soon after the sunset, Morgana's spell wears off, and Melody returns to human form. Ariel saves Eric from Cloak and Dagger who tied him and pulled it into the depths and Melody manages to grab the trident and returns it to King Triton, who then punishes Morgana by sending her to the bottom of the ocean frozen in a block of ice.
Triton returns Ariel to human form, the wall separating Eric's castle from the sea is torn down, and contact between humans and merfolk is restored.
The Little Mermaid: Ariel's Beginning
The prologue of The Little Mermaid: Ariel's Beginning (2008) shows Ariel as a young mermaid, living happily with her father, King Triton, her mother, Queen Athena, and her six older sisters. As Ariel and her family relax in a lagoon, a pirate ship approaches and everyone flees except Athena, who returns to recover a music box Triton had given her and is killed when the ship crushes her. Afterwards, a devastated King Triton bans all music from Atlantica and throws the music box deep into the ocean. Ariel and her sisters grow up forgetting music and living under their father's strict rules, enforced by Marina del Rey, their governess.
Ariel meets Flounder and follows him to a secret underground club where Sebastian and his band play music. There she sings the song "I Remember", which reminds her of her distant past surrounded by love and music, and of her mother. Ariel introduces her sisters to the club, but eventually they are caught thanks to Marina, who had followed them. Sebastian and his band are imprisoned and the club is closed under Triton's orders. After arguing with Triton, Ariel breaks the band out of prison and escapes with them.
With Sebastian's assistance, Ariel finds her mother's music box, and they decide to return it to Triton. On their way back to Atlantica, they encounter Marina, and a struggle ensues in which Ariel is knocked unconscious, witnessed by Triton. Ariel makes a full recovery, and a remorseful Triton allows music back into Atlantica.
In other media
Tie-in music albums
In addition to the film's official soundtrack, two original music albums were released by Walt Disney Records as part of the franchise: Sebastian from The Little Mermaid (1990) and The Little Mermaid: Songs from the Sea (1992). The former is a cover album mainly focusing on Samuel E. Wright as Sebastian, with Jodi Benson as Ariel providing supporting vocals, while the latter is a concept album of original songs that depict a day in Ariel's life under the sea.
Printed media
Ariel appears in a number of printed media that have been released as part of the franchise. A series of twelve prequel novels were published in 1994 by Disney Press, following young Ariel's adventures living under the sea with her sisters and father. The titles are: Green-Eyed Pearl and Nefazia Visits the Palace by Suzanne Weyn; Reflections of Arsulu and The Same Old Song by Marilyn Kaye; Arista's New Boyfriend and Ariel the Spy by M. J. Carr; King Triton, Beware!, The Haunted Palace and The Boyfriend Mix-Up by Katherine Applegate; The Practical-Joke War by Stephanie St. Pierre; The Dolphins of Coral Cove by K. S. Rodriguez; and Alana's Secret Friend by Jess Christopher.
In 1992, Disney Comics released a four-issue The Little Mermaid Limited Series comic book series. In 1994 Marvel Comics released its own title, Disney's The Little Mermaid, which ran for twelve issues.
Ariel appears as a minor character in the 2016 young adult novel Poor Unfortunate Soul: A Tale of the Sea Witch by Serena Valentino, which is part of a Disney Villains series and is mainly about Ursula the Sea Witch. She is also a main character in the 2018 young adult novel Part of Your World by Liz Braswell, which is part of a Disney Twisted Tales series and is set in an alternate universe where Ariel was unable to stop Ursula's wedding to Eric.
Disney Princess
In 2000, Ariel became an official member of the newly launched Disney Princess line, an umbrella franchise that includes various Disney princesses under its banner. Ariel is one of the original 8 characters that were included at the franchise's launch. The franchise is directed at young girls and covers a wide variety of merchandise, including but not limited to magazines, music albums, toys, video games, clothes, and stationery.
This franchise includes illustrated novels starring the various princesses, two of which are about Ariel: The Birthday Surprise and The Shimmering Star Necklace. Both novels are written by Gail Herman, and contain original stories about Ariel's life as a human and Eric's wife, but still maintaining close relationships with her father and sisters under the sea. The franchise also includes illustrated short stories about Ariel's life as a human, such as Ariel and the Aquamarine Jewel, Ariel's Dolphin Adventure, and Ariel's Royal Wedding.
Jodi Benson provides Ariel's voice for her appearances in the Disney Princess music albums, DVDs, and video games. The first original song released for this franchise is "If You Can Dream", which featured Cinderella, Aurora, Ariel, Belle, Pocahontas, Jasmine and Mulan singing together. Other original songs that feature Ariel are "I Just Love Getting Dressed for Tea", "Manners and Etiquette", "The Princess Dance" and "Happy Birthday, Princess" from Disney Princess Tea Party (2005); "Christmas Is Coming!", "Christmas in the Ocean", "Ariel's Christmas Island" and "The Twelve Days of Christmas" from Disney Princess Christmas Album (2009); and "Ariel's Sing-Along Sea Song: the Crab Song" from Disney Princess Party (2010).
Broadway musical
Ariel appears in the Broadway adaptation of the 1989 film, which ran at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre with previews from November 3, 2007, leading to opening night on January 10, 2008. This original production closed on August 30, 2009, but other US and international productions have followed since. The character of Ariel for the stage adaptation was originated by Sierra Boggess, who received a nomination for the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Musical for her performance. Jodi Benson, the original voice actress for Ariel, attended the musical's opening night.
In order to portray the characters underwater, the actors wore Heelys wheeled footwear, which simulate the gliding action of swimming creatures. The actors playing Ariel and the other merfolk had wire-frame tails attached to their hips. Subsequent productions feature different designs for Ariel and the merfolk; the Dutch and Japanese productions use wirework and aerial stunts to create the illusion of underwater swimming.
Disney Parks
Ariel makes regular appearances in the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, having a special location called Ariel's Grotto at most of them. Ariel's Grotto was torn down at Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom owing to the Fantasyland expansion. In May 2023, the version of Ariel from live-action film adaptation began making appearances at the Disney Parks. "The Little Mermaid" mini-land can be found in the Magic Kingdom's New Fantasyland. It includes a replica of Prince Eric's Castle, a dark ride called Ariel's Undersea Adventure, a market called "Prince Eric's Village Market", and Ariel's meeting grotto. She has a major role in Mickey's PhilharMagic and stars in her own live stage shows at Disney's Hollywood Studios and Tokyo DisneySea. A dark ride based on the movie was designed for Disneyland Paris but never built. A re-designed version of the attraction, called Ariel's Undersea Adventure, was built as part of the major expansion for Disney California Adventure Park. She also has her own hotel at the Disney's Art of Animation Resort. There is a land in Tokyo DisneySea titled "Mermaid Lagoon". It features many rides and attractions themed around the Little Mermaid. A clone of the dark ride found in Disney California Adventure Park and Magic Kingdom was to be a part of Fantasyland in Hong Kong Disneyland but was never built. A clone of the dark ride was also supposed to be in Tokyo DisneySea but was canceled due to budget reasons.
Video games and television
Not long after the film was released, late Muppet creator Jim Henson proposed a live-action show based on the film, titled Little Mermaid's Island. Ariel was to be portrayed by Marietta DePrima, and she would interact with various puppet characters created by Jim Henson's Creature Shop. Two episodes of this series were filmed but not aired due to complications after Henson's death.
Ariel appears in various video games based on the films, including the two adaptations of the first film (one for NES and Game Boy, known as The Little Mermaid, and one for Sega consoles called Ariel the Little Mermaid) and the popular Kingdom Hearts series. In the first Kingdom Hearts, Ariel's story has an unrelated plot to that of the movie. Ariel also makes an appearance in the sequel, Kingdom Hearts II, where its storyline loosely follows the plotline of the 1989 film. Ariel makes another appearance in Kingdom Hearts III as a summon for Sora.
Once Upon a Time
A live-action version of Ariel appeared in the ABC television series Once Upon a Time, where she was played by JoAnna Garcia.
Concert
In 2016 a stripped-down concert version of The Little Mermaid was staged at the Hollywood Bowl, featuring the songs from the film and four songs from the Broadway musical. Sara Bareilles performed the role of Ariel for the first two nights of the concert (June 4 and 5), while Jodi Benson, the original voice actress for Ariel, reprised her role for the June 6 performance.
Ralph Breaks the Internet
Ariel, alongside other Disney Princesses, appeared in the film, as was announced at the 2017 D23 Expo.
The Little Mermaid Live!
In 2019 ABC aired a musical television special performed with a live audience, where footage of the 1989 film was interwoven with live musical performances of songs from the film and Broadway stage musical. Auliʻi Cravalho performed as Ariel in this production, and Jodi Benson introduced the show.
Live-action film adaptation
In May 2016, Deadline Hollywood reported that Disney was in early development for a live-action adaptation of the film. In 2019, Halle Bailey was cast in the starring role as Ariel. The film was released on May 26, 2023.
Lego Disney Princess: The Castle Quest
Ariel appears as one of the main characters in Lego's animated special Lego Disney Princess: The Castle Quest, released on Disney+ on August 18, 2023.
Reception and legacy
Ariel has received mixed reception from critics. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times praised the character, writing that "Ariel is a fully realized female character who thinks and acts independently, even rebelliously, instead of hanging around passively while the fates decide her destiny." James Bernardelli of Reelviews wrote that Ariel can be viewed as a template for future Disney heroes and heroines. He also praised Jodi Benson's vocal performance for the character. In an article for Empire, Levi Buchanan stated that Ariel is "powerful and self-reliant." Janet Maslin of The New York Times complimented Ariel, stating that "teenagers will appreciate the story's rebellious heroine" and went on to praise Ariel's wit. Josh Tyler of Cinema Blend wrote favorably about Ariel, although he believed that the character was eroticized, stating "The scene where Ursula rips out her throat and gives her extremely naked parts below the waist is almost titillating, though I'm sure to little kids it seems entirely innocent." Similarly, reviewer John Puccio said that "Ariel is perhaps the sexiest-looking animated character the Disney artists have ever drawn." In his review of Ariel's Beginning, James Plath of DVD Town wrote, "For little girls, Ariel is one of the most beloved of Disney princesses, and she holds a warm place in the hearts of parents as well." Rory Aronsky of Film Threat praised Jodi Benson's vocal performance in Ariel's Beginning, writing that "Benson adds more to the appeal of Ariel for older fans, and younger girls just learning about her, as well as generations not born yet who will undoubtedly become attached to her, ensuring the continued existence of the franchise."
In their review of The Little Mermaid, the staff of TV Guide wrote that Ariel resembled "a big-haired, denatured Barbie doll, despite her hourglass figure and skimpy seashell brassiere."
Tamara Weston of Time wrote that while Ariel is less passive and more strong-willed than her predecessors, she still "gives up her voice to be with a man" who comes to her rescue at the film's climax. Hal Hinson of The Washington Post wrote that it would be difficult for children to relate to Ariel's "feelings of disenchantment and longing for another world" and that she "doesn't have much personality." However, he also wrote a positive statement about Ariel, saying it was "refreshing ... to see a heroine who has some sense of what she wants and the resources to go after it." Nell Minow of Common Sense Media had a mixed view of Ariel, praising her for being "adventuresome, rebellious, and brave," but also criticizing that she "gives up everything – her family, her home, her voice – for love, even though her trust in the sea witch puts everyone she loves in danger." Daphne Lee of The Star called Ariel "annoying" and went on to state that she "is a silly girl who gives up her voice and her family for a man she knows next to nothing about."
It was largely the results of these initial negative reviews regarding Ariel, that resulted in then-Disney Animation chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg deciding to add in a "feminist twist" to the next Disney fairy tale adaptation, Beauty and the Beast, and by extension make the film's female protagonist, Belle, into a feminist, as well as hire Linda Woolverton to act as the main screenwriter for the film. Despite her mixed critical reception, Ariel remains popular with audiences and is considered one of Disney's most iconic and beloved animated characters, with her specific color combination of red hair, lavender seashells, and green tail making her distinctly identifiable. A poll in the Internet Movie Database showed Ariel to be the second most alluring animated character after Jessica Rabbit. In August 2011, Jodi Benson was honored as a Disney Legend for her work as Ariel and her other projects at Disney. Although Belle is still often regarded and praised as Disney's first true feminist princess, fans and critics state that Ariel is because of her desire for independence, as well as being the first Disney princess to save her prince's life in her film.
Halle Bailey's portrayal as Ariel in the 2023 film was generally well-received by critics. Maureen Lee Lenker of Entertainment Weekly described Bailey's performance as "breathtaking" while also saying that "her altogether human performance that makes it impossible not to fall in love with her. Her Ariel is less a tempestuous teenager with a crush than she is a blossoming and curious young woman." When describing Bailey's rendition of "Part of Your World", Lee Lenker wrote that Bailey, "transmogrifies the already classic tune into something as otherworldly as undiscovered sea life." Peter Debruge of Variety said, "Halle Bailey is all the reason that any audience should need to justify Disney revisiting this classic." Brian Truitt of USA Today wrote that "Halle Bailey splendidly buoys this "Mermaid" as the naive underwater youngster with dreams of exploring the surface." In her review for Total Film, Molly Edwards wrote that Bailey gave a "pitch-perfect performance" while adding that she "shines as Ariel." The Seattle Times Moira MacDonald gave a rave review of Bailey's performance, saying that "her singing voice has both sweetness and power, and her smile is the sort on which dreams dance."
A bi-annual convention called ArielCon is dedicated to the character. Ariel is an official "ambassador" for the "Keep Our Oceans Clean" campaign by Environmental Defense, The National Maritime Sanctuary, and The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. From 2007 onwards, Disney launched an advertising campaign called Disney Dreams Portraits featuring celebrities dressed up as various Disney characters and photographed Annie Leibovitz; Julianne Moore was photographed as Ariel for this campaign.
"Hipster Ariel" has become a popular internet meme, utilizing a screenshot of Ariel with photoshopped glasses accompanied by a humorous caption. The popularity of the Hipster Ariel meme also led Funko to produce a line of Funko Pop figures based on the Hipster Disney Princess meme. Ariel's distinct appearance makes her the subject of "look-alike" events and competitions.
References
External links
Ariel at Disney.com
The Little Mermaid (franchise) characters
Disney Princess characters
Fictional Atlanteans
Fictional mermen and mermaids
Fictional queens
Film characters introduced in 1989
Teenage characters in television
Teenage characters in musical theatre
Female characters in musical theatre
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre%20for%20Contemporary%20Photography
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Centre for Contemporary Photography
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The Centre for Contemporary Photography (CCP), in Fitzroy, Melbourne, Victoria, is a venue for the exhibition of contemporary photo-based arts, providing a context for the enjoyment, education, understanding and appraisal of contemporary practice.
History
Established in 1986 as the Victorian Centre for Photography (VCP) by representatives of the photographic community on advice of Bernie O’Regan (1938–1996) who completed a study of its feasibility in the previous year, the VCP's first space was a shopfront on Rathdowne Street in Carlton, an inner suburb of Melbourne. It was supported by funding from the Victorian Ministry for the Arts and from the Australia Council for the Arts and issued an irregular newsletter to members. The organisation developed from a small community operation for local photographers and developed to encompass photographers Australia-wide and international in its program of exhibitions and publications. A major contribution was the survey exhibition and publication The Thousand Mile Stare which toured the nation through 1988 to 1989 which has become a reference point in the late twentieth history of Australian photography.
VCP moved to larger quarters at 205 Johnston Street, Fitzroy and shortly after changed its name to Centre for Contemporary Photography in the early 1990s to reflect its contemporary orientation. In 2005, CCP relocated to 404 George Street, Fitzroy, in purpose-designed premises by Sean Godsell Architects.
As a not-for-profit exhibition and resource centre, CCP has played a role in the support of photo-based arts across its spectrum and public engagement with photography. Major artists who have exhibited at CCP include Leah King-Smith, Gregory Crewdson, Robert Rooney, Kohei Yoshiyuki, Taryn Simon, Jane Burton, John Stezaker and Patricia Piccinini. As well as extensively showcasing contemporary fine art, its exhibitions are inclusive of indigenous photography, traditional genres such as portraiture, documentary and photojournalism in particular through its Leica/CCP Documentary Photography Award, pioneering digital imaging and video
The organisation celebrated its 30th year in July 2016 with an exhibition From Silver Gelatin to Instagram: Celebrating 30 Years of the CCP of work donated from prominent Australian photographers to raise funds after it became one of 62 arts institutions to lose federal funding, prior to which it received forty percent of its total income from the State of Victoria through Creative Victoria and the Commonwealth Government through the Australia Council and further support through the Visual Arts and Crafts Strategy, an initiative of the Australian and State and Territory Governments, with the remainder self-generated through membership and initiatives including an annual fundraiser exhibition of a work or suite of images donated by significant Australian artists.
Management
Directors
Deborah Ely (1988-1991)
Susan Fereday (1992-1995)
Stuart Koop (1995-1999)
Tessa Dwyer
Charlotte Day (1999–2001).
Naomi Cass 2001–June 2018)
Adam Harding (from August 2018–2022)
Daniel Boetker-Smith 2022 -present.
Volunteers who have since moved into or contributed significantly to the field include the art historian Professor Daniel Palmer, now Associate Dean, Research and Innovation the School of Art, RMIT University; Michelle Mountain now Exhibition Manager and Curator at TarraWarra Museum of Art; and Pippa Milne, now Senior Curator at Monash Gallery of Art.
Board of Management
The CCP is overseen by a Board of Management, currently Patrick Pound (Chair), Michael McCormack (Dep. Chair), Nicole Bradshaw (Treasurer), Myles Russell-Cook, Isobel Crombie, Ying Ang, Neil Hugh Kenna, Hoda Afshar, Mark Simpson.
Exhibitions
CCP's exhibition program is presented across five exhibition spaces, including the Night Projection Window, viewed from 9 pm to 2 am, and includes a diverse range of photo-based arts from emerging to established artists. The program includes individual, group and curated exhibitions representing local, interstate and international photography, from emerging and established artists, as well as curators and writers. Its CCP Salon, with sponsors including Leica and Ilford, is an open-entry competition for more than $20,000 worth of prizes over 23 categories, and visitors are invited to vote. Admission to CCP is free. In 2017 there were 92,898 visitors to the Fitzroy venue.
Education
CCP presents Artist Floor Talks by exhibiting artists each Saturday following exhibition openings. CCP also presents education programs including practical photography courses, and annual series of public lectures; past speakers have included Geoffrey Batchen, Martin Parr and Victor Burgin.
Publications
In April 2009, CCP began publishing Flash, a quarterly online journal. Flash includes reviews, interviews and commentary on photography and video in Australia by a diverse group of established and emerging writers. Edited from 2010 to 2015 by Kyla McFarlane, Flash is a free journal.
The centre has published the following catalogues and books:
Koop, Stuart & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (1992). Shot. CCP, Fitzroy
CCP (1993). Immortality : a re-examination of the hero : 7 April to 9 May 1993, CCP Melbourne. The , Melbourne
CCP (1993). Please allow me to introduce myself... : 15 May -13 June 1993, an exhibition of video installations. CCP, Fitzroy, [Vic.]
Tyndall, Peter & Stokes, Christine & Courier (Ballarat, Vic.) & CCP (1993). Photos from the Courier, collected by Peter Tyndall : CCP, Fitzroy 3065, 18 June - 18 July 1993.
Fereday, Susan, 1959- & CCP & NETS Victoria (1993). Arranging nature : Elizabeth Butler, Gillian Dallwitz, Naomi Kumar, Donna Larcom, Tony Nott, James Packer, June Savage. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Drummond, Rozalind, 1956-; Koop, Stuart; Centre for Contemporary Photography (1993), Reflex, Centre for Contemporary Photography, ISBN 978-0-646-16319-2
Stoney, Elisabeth & Green, Janina (1993). Home hygiene : filth and transfiguration. Mac Advice, Melbourne, Vic.
Baraki, Bashir, 1943- & CCP (1994). Evolution + change : 8 April-7 May 1994, Centre for Contemporary Photography : Christine Adams, Warren Breninger, Vince Dziekan, Ewa Narkiewicz, Robert Randall, Alex Syndikas. The e, Fitzroy, Vic
Koop, Stuart & Fereday, Susan, 1959- & CCP (1994). IPSO photo : Chris Fortescue, Margaret Roberts, Marie Sierra-Hughes, Philip Watkins, CCP, 30 September – 29 October 1994. CCP, Melbourne.
Institute of Modern Art (Brisbane, Qld.) & CCP (1994). Heritage, history, memory and the temptation of myth. CCP, [Fitzroy, Vic.]
McLeish, Rod & Moore, Ross, 1954-. Walking the labyrinth (1994). Naked and unashamed. CCP, [Fitzroy, Vic.]
Jones, Brett & Stubbs, Sarah (1995). Infotainment : scenes from others' lives. CCP [Fitzroy, Vic.]
Higginbotham, Julie & Richardson, Leonie & CCP (1995). Stenopaeics. CCP, [Fitzroy, Vic.]
Koop, Stuart & Victoria. Arts Victoria & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (1995). Post : photography post photography. CCP, CCP, Fitzroy [Vic.]
Riva, Jacqueline & CCP (1995). Familiar : 6 October-4 November 1995. A Constructed World Inc. in association with the CCP, [Melbourne, Vic.]
Victorian College of the Arts. School of Art (host institution.) & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (host institution.) (1995). MCMXCV graduate photography exhibition. [Southbank, Vic.] Victorian College of the Arts
Fereday, Susan & Waverley City Gallery (Vic.) & CCP (1995). Likeness : 46 photographs from the Waverley City Gallery, Monash City Council collection. CCP, Melbourne, Vic.
(1996). Sitters. Helen Schutt Access Gallery, CCP, [Melbourne]
Pennings, Mark W & Seward, Andrew & Holt, Richard, 1961- & CCP (1996). After image : painting photography. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic
Koop, Stuart & CCP (1996). Rumble. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Morse, Peter & CCP (1996). Default : Marion Harper, May 10 - June 8, 1996. CCP, [Fitzroy, Vic]
Papapetrou, Polixeni & CCP (1996). Curated bodies. CCP, [Melbourne ]
(1996). XLR8 : summersalon : 1996 2–24 February. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Bok, Marco & CCP & Documentary Photography Exhibition and Award (1st : 1997) (1997). Leica CCP Documentary Photography Exhibition and Award. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Koop, Stuart & CCP (1997). A small history of photography. CCP, Melbourne, Vic.
Duncan, Colin & CCP (1997). Interiors : an exhibition. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Foley, Fiona & Lowe, Geoff, 1952- & Whanki Museum (Seoul, Korea) & Asialink (Firm) & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (1997). Sense : Australia-Korea cultural exchange : an Asialink project. Asialink Center ; Seoul : Whanki Museum ; Fitzroy, Vic. : Center for Contemporary Photography, Carlton, Vic.
Raxworthy, Julian & CCP (1997). Inactivity. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Ludeman, Brenda & Lewens, Carolyn & CCP (1997). Countenance : Carolyn Lewens. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic
Johnston, Kylie & Tomlinson, Nicole & CCP (1997). Closure. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Antonsson, Lotta & Sander, Katya (1997). (Alikeness) : starring Lotta Antonsson.... CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Deftereos, Greg & McQuire, Scott & CCP (1998). Mnemosyne, or do humans dream in negative strips?. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (1998). Sub zero : Summer salon '98 : 6–28 February. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Anderson, Charles & Carter, Paul, 1951- & CCP & Anna Schwartz Gallery (1998). Dis/appearance Waiting Room #4 : Nulbildung. [Charles Anderson & Paul Carter], [Melbourne]
Verdon, James & CCP (1999). Self remembering - optimal viewing distance. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
French, Blair & French, Blair, 1967- & Canberra Contemporary Art Space & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2000). Perfect strangers : Dean Beaubois, Deej Fabyc, Alex Kershaw, Sandy Nicholson, Deborah Ostrow, Elvis Richardson, Silvia Vélez, Justene Williams. CCP, [Fitzroy, Vic]
Rosetzky, David & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2000). Custom made. CCP, [Fitzroy, Vic]
Grocott, Lisa & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2000). Lisa Grocott. CCP, [Fitzroy, Vic.]
CCP (2000). Mathieu Gallois : flight 934-B. Melbourne, Victoria, CCP.
CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2001). Internationally unknown artists, 2–18 November 2000. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2001). Click. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Day, Charlotte, (curator.) & Stanhope, Zara, (curator.) & CCP & Adam Art Gallery (2001). Happiness : Parallel words. Adam Art Gallery ; Fitzroy : CCP, Wellington, New Zealand.
Koop, Stuart & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2002). Value added goods : essays on contemporary photography, art & ideas. CCP, Melbourne, Vic.
CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2002). X 02 H21/2. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2002). Gloss : an exhibition & magazine project. CCP, [Fitzroy, Vic.]
Palmer, Daniel (2002). Insert meaning here. Fitzroy CCP.
Martin, Meredith & Macarow, Keely & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2003). Elastic : national digital media exhibition 2003-2004. CCP, [Fitzroy, Vic.]
Lee, Brendan, 1963- & Bullock, Natasha & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2003). Art + film. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Bolis, Jenny & Gordon, Alis & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2003). Buildings are lonely people [catalogue]. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Loder, Nicola & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2003). Wild thing. CCP, [Fitzroy, Vic.]
Bailey, Donna & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2003). Just a girl : Donna Bailey. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Blakely, Angela & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2003). Keep passing the open windows : a photodocumentary on suicide + grief. CCP, [Fitzroy, Vic.]
CCP Public Image : 2004 Lecture Series.
Knight, Paul & Bullock, Natasha & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2004). Paul Knight : photographs. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Purdy, Susan & Latrobe Regional Gallery. (host institution.) & CCP (host institution.) (2004). Susan Purdy : new branches on an old tree. [Fitzroy, Victoria CCP.
Clarke, Maree & Evans, Megan & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2005). Black on white : an exhibition of photographs by Aboriginal artists representing non-aboriginalty. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Curtis, Andrew & Neville, Greg & Criterion Gallery & Christine Abrahams Gallery & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2005). Underpin. A. Curtis, [Victoria]
Sleeth, Matthew & Palmer, Daniel & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2005). The great leap forward : Matthew Sleeth and Selina Ou. CCP, [Fitzroy, Vic.]
Walker, Lyndal & Strahan, Lucinda & CCP & PICA (2005). Stay young : Lyndal Walker. PICApress, Perth, W.A.
CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2006). CCP : 8 September - 21 October 2006 : Beverley Veasey, Family resemblance, Rapt! 20 contemporary artists from Japan. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Gill, Simryn & Palmer, Daniel & Carter, Jenni & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2006). Simryn Gill : 32 volumes. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Hipkins, Gavin & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2006). Gavin Hipkins : the village. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Henderson, Derek & CCP (2006). 20 years. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2006). In cold light. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Chew, Rebecca & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2006). Family resemblance : Tim Gresham, Renee So, Michelle Ussher. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Chew, Rebecca & Cass, Naomi & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2007). Echo : sounding out contemporary photography. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Wise, Kit & Evans, Rhiannon & Byrne, Lisa & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2007). Kit Wise : rhapsodia. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Thomas, David (2007). Composite realities amid time and space : recent art and photography. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Zahalka, Anne & Rees, Karra & Palmer, Daniel & Rose, Julie & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2007). Hall of mirrors : Anne Zahalka, portraits 1987-2007. CCP, [Fitzroy, Vic.]
Rees, Karra & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2008). CCP : one of us cannot be wrong. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Corridore, Michael & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2008). Michael Corridore : angry black snake, 2004-2007. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Silver, Tim & Keehan, Reuben & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2008). Tim Silver : the Tuvaluan Project. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Noble, Anne & Cass, Naomi & McFarlane, Kyla & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2008). Ice blink : Antarctic photographs : Anne Noble. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
O'Brien, Conor & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2008). Hold on to Each Other (1st ed). Serps Press, North Fitzroy
Jeffs, Peter & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2008). Peter Jeffs : time and distance. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
O'Brien, Conor & Black&Blue Gallery & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2008). There stands the glass. Serps Press, [Melbourne]
CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2009). Tracey Moffat, Clare Rae/Colour Factory Award, CCP Documentary Photography Award, Anne Ferran, Laith McGregor, Emil Toonen. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Nichols, Mac & Nichols, Jonathan & CCP (2009). Mac : 030409 - 230509. CCP, Fitzroy, Victoria.
Gill, Simryn & Cass, Naomi & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2009). Simryn Gill : inland. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2009). Peter Fitzpatrick, Sanja Pahoki, On the Line, Boris Eldagsen, Alan Constable : 23 January-21 March 2009. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Tai, Hanna & Finch, Maggie & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2009). Hanna Tai : trees in space : the reorder of things. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
CCP (2009). Bianca Hester, Louis Porter, Arlo Mountford, Simon Zoric, Catherine Connolly, Larissa Hjorth. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Button, Jane (2009). Forms in flux : the shifting sites of photographic practice.
Hjorth, Larissa & Victorian Centre for Photography (2009). CU : the presents of co-presence. CCP, Fitzroy, Victoria.
CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) & Feary, Mark (2010). Autumn masterpieces : highlights from the permanent collection 19 March to 16 May 2010. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Mould, Jeremy & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2010). Event Horizon : exhibition held at Centre for Contemporary Photography, Fitzroy, Victoria, 21 May - 18 July 2010. CCP, Fitzroy.
Fox, Robin & Plagne, Francis & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2010). Robin Fox : proof of concept. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
McFarlane, Kyla & Consandine, Cate, 1970- & Knight, Paul, 1976- & Maynard, Ricky, 1953- & Nicholson, Tom, 1973- et al. (2011). Without words. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Beehre, Mark & Whitman, Walt, (author.,) & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2011). Men undressed. [Fitzroy, Vic] CCP.
Cass, Naomi & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2011). In camera and in public : Denis Beaubois, Luc Delahaye, Cherine Fahd, Percy Grainger, Bill Henson, Sonia Leber & David Chesworth, Walid Raad, Kohei Yoshiyuki, ASIO surveillance photographs. CCP, Fitzroy, Vic.
Pettifer, Drew & Finch, Maggie, (author.) & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2011). Hand in glove. Fitzroy, Vic. CCP
Davison, Mark & Gattineau, Tobias & Monash University & CCP & Photography as Crime Symposium (2011 : Melbourne, Vic.) (2011). Taking photographs 'in public' : what's lawful and what's not?. Monash University, [Clayton, Vic.]
Mangan, Nicholas & Taylor, Warren, (artist.) & CCP (host institution) & 3-Ply (2012). Some kinds of duration. Melbourne 3-Ply
Hutchison, Eliza & Clemens, Justin, (author.) (2012). Hair in the gate, a biograph. Fitzroy, VIC. CCP.
McFarlane, Kyla, (curator.) & Brown, Jane, (photographer.) & Coulter, Ross, (photographer.) & Erkan, Yavuz, 1982-, (photographer.) & Hazewinkel, Andrew, (photographer.) et al. (2013). CCP Declares : on the nature of things. CCP, Fitzroy, VIC.
Papapetrou, Polixeni & CCP (2013). A performative paradox. Fitzroy, Vic CCP
Rooney, Robert, 1937–2017, (artist.) & Pound, Patrick, (author.) & Finch, Maggie, (author.) & CCP (host institution) & Tolarno Galleries (sponsoring body) (2013). Robert Rooney : the box brownie years 1956-58. CCP, Fitzroy, VIC.
Rosetzky, David & Cass, Naomi, (curator.) & McFarlane, Kyla, (curator.) & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (2013). True self : David Rosetzky : selected works. CCP, Fitzroy, Victoria
Burns, Karen & Scicluna, Jo, (artist,) (Artist) & Smith, Vivian Cooper, (designer.) & CCP (issuing body) & Yarra (Shire, Vic.) (sponsoring body) (2013). Jo Scicluna: when our horizons meet. Fitzroy, VIC CCP.
Cass, Naomi, (curator.) & McFarlane, Kyla, (curator.) & CCP (2014). The Sievers project : Jane Brown, Cameron Clarke, Zoe Croggon, Therese Keogh, Phuong Ngo, Meredith Turnbull, Wolfgang Sievers. CCP, Fitzroy, Victoria
Bryant, Jan (Jan P.), (curator.) & Guiton, Jean-François, 1953-, (artist.) & Green, Tamsin, (artist.) & Monteith, Alex, 1977-, (artist.) & Pfeifer, Mario, (artist.) et al. (2014). A taste of ashes fills the air : Jean-François Guiton, Tamsin Green, Alex Monteith, Mario Pfeifer. Fitzroy, Victoria, Australia CCP.
Wall, Sarah, (curator.) & Lantieri, Laura, (curator.) & CCP (issuing body.) (2015). Lit from the top : sculpture through photography : Paul Adair, Fleur van Dodewaard, Andrew Hazewinkel, Georgia Hutchison & Arini Byng, Stéphanie Lagarde, Stein Rønning. Fitzroy, VIC, Australia CCP
Hjorth, Larissa & CCP (issuing body.) (2015). The art of play. Fitzroy, Vic CCP
Corompt, Martine, (artist.) & Brophy, Philip, (artist.) & Rees, Karra, (curator.) & CCP (Fitzroy, Vic.) (host institution.) (2015). Torrent. Fitzroy, Vic. CCP.
Cass, Naomi, (curator.) & CCP (issuing body.) (2016). The documentary take : Centre for Contemporary Photography, Melbourne Festival, 1 October - 13 November 2016 : Destiny Deacon and Virginia Fraser, Simryn Gill, Ponch Hawkes, Sonia Leber and David Chesworth, Louis Porter, Patrick Pound, Charlie Sofo and David Wadelton. Fitzroy, [Victoria] CCP.
Milne, Pippa & Cass, Naomi, (writer of foreword.) & Johnson, Joseph, (book designer.) & CCP (issuing body.) (2016). CCP declares : on the social contract. [Fitzroy, Victoria] CCP.
Andrew, Brook & Consandine, Cate, 1970-, (artist.) & Garrett, Stephen, 1968-, (artist.) & Morgan, Luke, (author.) & Cass, Naomi, (writer of introduction.) et al. (2016). The wandering eye I. Fitzroy [Victoria] CCP.
McCulloch, Samantha, (curator.) & Wilkinson, Frances, (curator.) & CCP (2016). Shadow sites : Léuli Eshraghi, Catherine Evans, Grace Herbert, Sophie Neate, James Tylor, Rudi Williams, Elmedin Žunić. Melbourne CCP
Brown, Jane E & Haslem, Wendy, (writer of catalogue essay.) & CCP (issuing body.) (2016). Black ships. Fitzroy, VIC CCP.
Wadelton, David & CCP (issuing body.) (2016). The Northcote Hysterical Society. Fitzroy, VIC CCP
Cass, Naomi, (curator.) & Milne, Pippa, (curator.) & CCP (issuing body.) (2017). An unorthodox flow of images CCP Melbourne Festival 2017. Fitzroy, [Victoria] CCP.
Noble, Anne & CCP (2017). No vertical song. [Fitzroy, Melbourne] CCP.
Rae, Clare & Bright, Susan, 1969-, (writer of foreword.) & Syvret, Gareth, (writer of added commentary.) & Rule, Dan, (editor.) & Brewer, Narelle, (book designer.) (2018). Never standing on two feet. Perimeter Editions, Melbourne, Australia.
See also
Australian Centre for Photography
Queensland Centre for Photography
Brummels Gallery
The Photographers' Gallery and Workshop
Church Street Centre for Photography
References
External links
CCP website
CCP Artabase page
1986 establishments in Australia
Art galleries established in 1986
Photography museums and galleries in Australia
Contemporary art galleries in Australia
Art museums and galleries in Melbourne
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvel%3A%20Ultimate%20Alliance
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Marvel: Ultimate Alliance
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Marvel: Ultimate Alliance is a 2006 action role-playing video game, developed by Raven Software for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Xbox and Xbox 360, and published by Activision. The game was ported to the PlayStation Portable and Wii by Vicarious Visions, and to Microsoft Windows by Beenox. A different Game Boy Advance version was developed by Barking Lizards Technologies. A re-release version based on Xbox 360's latest edition was ported by Zoë Mode for Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One, and was released in July 2016.
Ultimate Alliance is set within the fictional Marvel Universe and features many of the superheroes, supervillains, and supporting characters that appear in publications by Marvel Comics. It shares many similarities with Raven Software's previous Marvel titles, X-Men Legends and X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse, in that it allows players to select from its vast cast to create the ultimate superhero team. The game features an original plot in which the heroes of the Marvel Universe must join forces to defeat Doctor Doom and his Masters of Evil and foil their plans for global domination.
Upon release, the game was met with largely positive reviews from critics, who praised its simple but entertaining gameplay, and its impressive selection of Marvel characters. A sequel, Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2, was developed for multiple platforms by Vicarious Visions, n-Space and Savage Entertainment and released in 2009. A third game, Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order, was developed by Koei Tecmo's Team Ninja and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo Switch in July 2019.
Gameplay
Consoles, PC and PSP
Players can select teams of four from a range of more than twenty-two playable characters (although some characters are not initially available and need to be unlocked, or exclusive to specific versions), allowing them to create their own superhero teams or recreate famous teams from the publications. Bonuses are also available if forming certain groups (e.g. the Avengers, Defenders, Fantastic Four, Marvel Knights, X-Men). The game has alternative endings, dictated by the number of optional missions the player completes. Included are trivia, artwork, and "simulator discs", which unlock non-story-related missions for characters.
Each character also has a variety set of four alternate costumes that offer different advantages, with the latter three costumes must be unlocked through specific conditions. Some of the costumes change the character's appearance to that of a different Marvel Universe, including Iron Man as War Machine, Thor as Beta Ray Bill, Spider-Woman as Spider-Girl and Julia Carpenter from Secret Wars, Ghost Rider as Phantom Rider, and Ms. Marvel as Sharon Ventura.
The PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions are virtually identical, with no major differences. Both platforms include Colossus, Moon Knight, and five additional comic book missions. Activision released eight additional downloadable characters on the Xbox 360 via the Xbox Live Marketplace on April 26, 2007 in a set of packs: a Hero Pack, consisting of Cyclops, Nightcrawler, Hawkeye, and the Hulk, and a Villain Pack, which includes Magneto, Sabretooth, Venom, and a playable Doctor Doom. Both packs are also available in a bundle pack for 800 MSP, which adds 12 new achievements to the game. The Gold Edition was released for the Xbox 360 in May 2007 which includes the standard game bundled with all downloadable content. The Platinum Hits version was released for the Xbox 360 in September 2007. The set includes all the Gold Edition of the game and a bonus DVD. As of December 2009, the DLC was removed from the Xbox LIVE Marketplace by Activision, meaning the only way to play as the downloadable characters was to purchase the Gold Edition or the Platinum Hits version. The Xbox 360 Games on Demand version now bundles the full game with all previously downloadable content.
The Wii version has a few features unique to itself including specific motion-sensitive controls for normal moves, motion-sensitive controlled special attacks (the attacks are unique for each character, but not the motions), and access to any special move at any time. This version contains no online play but has a local multiplayer mode in which up to four players may play at once. It also features the characters Colossus and Moon Knight, as well as five additional comic book missions.
While the graphics are virtually identical to PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, the PC version is customizable, and many characters (including those who are exclusive to specific versions) and their modifications can be obtained from community sites for play within the game. The PC version's graphics vary depending on the customization of a user's settings. The PC version also features "intuitive mouse controls" and works with a gamepad. A number of custom characters (including Jean Grey, Psylocke, Scarlet Witch, War Machine, Vision, Dazzler, and Punisher) are available.
The re-release version of the game which came to Xbox One, PlayStation 4 and Microsoft Windows via Steam is solely based on Xbox 360’s Gold Edition. However, the re-release was initially released with the contents which were exclusive to seventh-generation consoles (PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and Wii), but without the DLC featured originally on Xbox 360. On August 30, 2016, an update was released on these three systems which contained the eight downloadable characters previously featured on the Xbox 360.
The PSP version features simplified graphics, different characters, and extra features including the four exclusive playable Marvel characters Black Widow, Captain Marvel, Hawkeye, and Ronin. Other things unique to this version are 6 exclusive comic book missions including one which contains Swordsman, an exclusive prequel mission, and three exclusive single-player gameplay modes. Added features include online play, microphone support (voice chat), and online-recordable player statistics. The PlayStation 2 version of the game has the same features as the next-gen versions of the game, albeit without Colossus, Moon Knight and the five bonus simulator missions. In August 2007, a Greatest Hits version was released which included a bonus DVD containing a making-of featurette. The Xbox version of the game has no changes from the standard PlayStation 2 edition. However, it is possible to play as Colossus and Moon Knight via a glitch which can be accessed through a series of steps.
Game Boy Advance
The Game Boy Advance version of Ultimate Alliance features significant differences from the other console versions. Most notably, the basic gameplay takes the form of a 2D side-scrolling beat’em up game with minor RPG elements, such as the ability to alter the player characters' stats. The graphics are simplified for this system and the selection of characters has also been reduced. Some additional gameplay modes were added to this version of the game including a S.H.I.E.L.D. Simulator, Time Challenges, Scavenger Hunts, and a Survival mode. Teams for this port consist of three characters and a non-playable fourth character called a "striker", who can be summoned to perform a powerful attack directed toward on-screen enemies.
Plot
The game begins with Doctor Doom and the Masters of Evil launching an attack on the S.H.I.E.L.D. Helicarrier U.N.N. Alpha. Nick Fury sends out a distress call to all available superheroes for assistance. Captain America, Spider-Man, Thor and Wolverine respond to the call. Along with the other heroes, they save the Helicarrier from the forces led by Scorpion, Bullseye, Winter Soldier, Radioactive Man, and Fin Fang Foom. In the wake of the attack, Nick Fury is given permission to start a task force to confront the Masters of Evil and Iron Man allows them to use Stark Tower as their headquarters.
Fury asks the heroes to investigate an odd message received from Dum Dum Dugan on the Omega Base, a S.H.I.E.L.D. mobile research facility. The team defeats supervillains MODOK, Crimson Dynamo, and Mysterio as well as A.I.M. Agents and failed Super Soldier experiments to prevent the Omega Base from crashing into a dam and launching several gamma bombs.
With their mission successful, the heroes travel to Atlantis, where the inhabitants are being mind-controlled by Attuma, who has usurped Namor from his throne. With the help of nano-technology that enables them to breathe and move freely underwater, the heroes fight the mind-controlled Atlanteans, destroy the towers which are guarded by Warlord Krang and Byrrah, rescue Namor, and defeat Attuma and Tiger Shark. After defeating Attuma, the heroes encounter Mandarin, who unleashes the Kraken, which the team defeats by toppling pillars on it.
They then travel to the Valley of Spirits to confront Mandarin in his palace. After his defeat, he reveals that he attempted to take command of the Masters of Evil and, upon failing, left the group. He suggests that the Mandarin they saw in the catacombs was actually Loki, Thor's adoptive brother and the god of mischief.
Upon returning to base, the team learns that Nightcrawler and Jean Grey have been kidnapped. Due to the involvement of mystical forces, Fury has the team relocated to the Sanctum Sanctorum, offered as a temporary headquarters by a grateful Doctor Strange, who they rescued in the Valley of Spirits. Professor X tracks Nightcrawler to Castle Doom, but upon trying to transport the heroes there they are sent to Murderworld by a spell from Baron Mordo. After defeating a mind-controlled Jean Grey, Rhino, and Shocker, the heroes battle a large mech, piloted by Arcade.
Victorious, the heroes learn that Doctor Doom has used Nightcrawler to access Mephisto's Realm, and the team is sent in pursuit. Upon arriving, minions of Mephisto kidnap Jean Grey and Nightcrawler. Mephisto's son Blackheart puts them in separate cages above the Infinity Vortex, stating one must be saved and the other sacrificed before the team can defeat Mephisto. During their battle with Mephisto the sacrificed hero returns, resurrected by Mephisto, but now under his control. As a final effort, the resurrected hero sacrifices their life to defeat Mephisto and allow the team to escape.
Meanwhile, in Asgard, a massive army of Super Soldiers attacks and imprisons the Asgardian gods. The heroes travel to Valhalla to liberate it from its invading force and free Heimdall (who is guarded by Rhino and Shocker), Tyr (who is guarded by Scorpion and Lizard), and Balder (who is guarded by Enchantress and Executioner). Then they fight the Wrecking Crew and undead soldiers unleashed by Hela to open Bifrost Bridge in order for reinforcements to arrive. Looking for Odin in Niffleheim following a fight with Kurse and Ulik, they find his shattered Twilight Sword and learn from Ymir that Doctor Doom and Loki have taken Odin to Raven's Spire. After Loki is seemingly defeated at Raven's Spire, the team frees the Destroyer Armor to use against Doctor Doom. Loki, disguised as Fury, reveals himself and his plot to have the heroes free the armor for nefarious purposes. As heroes defeat Loki and the armor, Doctor Doom appears and reveals that he has stolen Odin's power. He uses it to attempt to eliminate the heroes, but Uatu the Watcher saves them and transports them to the Inhumans' base on the moon.
Uatu reveals that Doom's unrestricted use of Odin's power will eventually destroy the universe and that the only way to defeat him is to acquire a piece of the M'Kraan Crystal and steal the Muonic Inducer from Galactus (who is currently attacking the Skrull homeworld).
The team is sent to the Shi'ar Empire where they fight Deathbird and the Imperial Guard in order to restore Lilandra Neramani to the throne and gain a portion of the M'Kraan Crystal. After retrieving the crystal, the heroes travel to the Skrull homeworld. With the help of the Silver Surfer, the heroes disable Galactus and steal the Muonic Inducer.
Meanwhile, Doctor Doom conquers Earth, corrupting and creating clones of many of the heroes who attempted but failed to stop him, such as Colossus and Cyclops. In a final effort, the team travels to Latveria to confront Doom. The heroes use the M'Kraan Crystal and Muonic Inducer to weaken Doom. As the heroes weaken Doom, he is blasted by a bolt of lightning sent by a rejuvenated Odin, leaving nothing but his mask behind.
As the heroes meet on the repaired Helicarrier, Fury asks Thor to thank Odin for undoing the damages to which Thor states that Odin is currently busy punishing Doctor Doom and Loki. Fury informs the heroes that the team must disband and asks if S.H.I.E.L.D. can count on them when another threat happens. Captain America assures Nick that the world can count on them.
Meanwhile, Galactus vows revenge on the heroes who stole from him and plans to destroy Earth.
Characters
Marvel: Ultimate Alliance features over 140 characters, including playable characters, bosses, and other non-player characters. The primary version of the game developed by Raven Software version features 23 default playable characters, with some systems have additional playable characters not present in other versions. However, the Gameboy Advance version features 10 playable characters and 6 striker characters.
Black Panther
Black Widow
Blade
Captain America
Captain Marvel
Colossus
Cyclops
Daredevil
Deadpool
Doctor Doom
Doctor Strange
Elektra
Ghost Rider
Hawkeye
Human Torch
Hulk
Iceman
Invisible Woman
Iron Man
Luke Cage
Magneto
Mister Fantastic
Moon Knight
Ms. Marvel
Namor
Nick Fury
Nightcrawler
Jean Grey
Ronin
Sabretooth
Silver Surfer
Spider-Man
Spider-Woman
Storm
Thing
Thor
Venom
Wolverine
Development and marketing
Most versions of Ultimate Alliance were developed using Vicarious Visions' Alchemy engine, which was purchased from the now-defunct Intrinsic Graphics in May 2003. Raven Software developed the primary version of the game on the PS2, PS3, Xbox and Xbox 360. Vicarious Visions simultaneously ported the game to the PSP, and later to the Wii to coincide with its launch, and Beenox ported the game to Windows. During early development Ultimate Alliance used cel-shading technology, similar to Raven's previous Marvel Comics games, X-Men Legends and X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse; however, this was dropped at some point during development. Barking Lizards Technologies used their Whiptail engine to develop the GBA version independently. The game was originally known as Marvel Legends, and had an internal working title of Marvel Comics RPG. At one point, both Link from The Legend of Zelda series and Samus Aran from the Metroid series were planned to be playable characters for the Wii version; however, both characters were removed prior to release. The music for the game was composed by Mark Griskey, Chance Thomas and Cris Velasco. Over 50 minutes of music was composed by the trio, including gameplay and cutscene tracks.
Marvel: Ultimate Alliance was first released on October 24, 2006 in North America. Regional releases followed throughout 2006 and 2007. The standard edition of Ultimate Alliance was also released as a companion with Forza Motorsport 2 in specially marked Xbox 360 consoles in 2007. The Gold Edition of the game was released on May 22, 2007 exclusively for the Xbox 360. This version included the two DLC packs available at the time. A 2016 version was released for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows on July 26, 2016. In July 2018, the remaster of the game, along with the re-released sequel, were removed due to licensing issues from Activision. The game is currently not available to buy and download from either console or PC marketplaces, unless the user already bought the game.
Reception and awards
Reviews for Raven and Vicarious Visions' version of Marvel Ultimate Alliance received generally favorable reviews from critics. The PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions received 78% and 82% at GameRankings, and 78/100 and 82/100 at Metacritic, respectively. The Windows version received an 83% at GameRankings and 82/100 at Metacritic. GameRankings' scores for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable, Wii and Xbox versions were 82%, 82%, 74%, and 83%, while Metacritic scored those same consoles 81/100, 81/100, 73/100 and 83/100, respectively.
Several reviewers praised the character cast, with 1UP.com Scott Sharkey stating "even if your favorite character isn't playable, there's a good chance they'll show up at some point through the course of the story as an NPC". GameSpot Ryan Davis applauded the Xbox 360's graphics, saying that it "features a lot of great lighting, particle, and bump-mapping effects absent from the other versions". He went on to comment: "Even without those advanced graphical effects, the PC and Xbox versions still look pretty sharp". Game Informer thought the game improved upon the "excellent X-Men Legends games from which it was born", giving the game a 9.25/10.
The Game Boy Advance version received the poorest reception. GameSpot thought poorly of the game, calling "uninteresting and sloppy", and rating the game a 2.5/10 "terrible". IGN also disliked the game, giving it a 2.0/10. Reviewer Chris Adams stated: "Everything is awful. From sprites to backgrounds to effects, it shames the Marvel license". Gamer 2.0 gave the game an 8.1/10, however, citing a large number of bonus missions and unlockables as incentive to play.
Sequels
A sequel to Marvel: Ultimate Alliance was announced by Activision on February 8, 2008. It was released in North America on September 15, 2009, and follows closely the events of the Civil War storyline: an explosion in Stamford, Connecticut caused by a supervillain prompts a Superhuman Registration Act. In the game, players are able to choose between the Pro-Registration side, headed by Iron Man, or the Anti-Registration side, headed by Captain America up to the point where the heroes end up uniting against a new common enemy called The Fold.
Marvel Ultimate Alliance 3: The Black Order was announced at The Game Awards on December 6, 2018. The game was developed by Koei Tecmo's Team Ninja and published by Nintendo for Nintendo Switch on July 19, 2019. The game is a reboot of the series, set in a different continuity from the first two games, and involves a team of heroes uniting to prevent Thanos and the Black Order from collecting the Infinity Stones.
Notes
References
External links
2006 video games
Action role-playing video games
Activision games
Beenox games
Cooperative video games
Crossover role-playing video games
Game Boy Advance games
Marvel Entertainment franchises
Marvel Ultimate Alliance
Multiplayer and single-player video games
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation 3 games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation Portable games
Superhero crossover video games
Vicarious Visions games
Video games based on Marvel Comics
Video games developed in Canada
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video games scored by Alexander Brandon
Video games scored by Chance Thomas
Video games scored by Cris Velasco
Video games scored by Mark Griskey
Video games set in a fictional country
Video games set in Atlantis
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Video games developed in the United States
Barking Lizards games
Zoë Mode games
Raven Software games
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Annapolis%20%28AGMR-1%29
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USS Annapolis (AGMR-1)
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USS Annapolis (AGMR-1) was the former (ex-Sunset Bay) and a of the United States Navy.
Reclassified as AGMR-1 on 1 June 1963, renamed USS Annapolis on 22 June 1963, and then commissioned on 7 March 1964 with Captain John J. Rowan becoming its first commanding officer. Captain Rowan also served as the pre-commissioning officer when the ship was removed from the Naval Fleet Reserve in Bayonne, New Jersey and then converted at the New York Navy Shipyard.
Service history
Conversion
Her new hull classification as AGMR (Auxiliary General Major Relay) reflected her ability to serve as a floating communications station on the move. This capability allowed Annapolis to position herself at any ocean global position to provide major communication services without the construction and expense of a ground-based, communications facilities.
The conversion from CVE to AGMR involved the modification of the flight deck to include a hurricane bow, removal of Second World War armament and the addition of four radar controlled twin 3-inch 50 caliber anti-aircraft gun mounts, two per side.
The flight deck was converted to an antenna array with two directional and two omnidirectional antennas. The aircraft hangar bay was converted into communication spaces although one aircraft elevator was retained to allow servicing of equipment and boat storage. In the communication spaces were installed 24 radio transmitters with low through ultra-high frequencies. To provide the necessary cooling of equipment in the communications spaces, three 120-ton air conditioning units were installed with 130 tons dedicated for the communications spaces. The remaining air conditioning tonnage was routed to the other interior spaces of the ship.
All the WWII boilers and steam turbines were retained. However, the original boiler and engine room designs were modified in 1966. The original design prevented both screws from being used if one of the boilers needed maintenance while underway. This was due to the WWII design calling for the ship to have two separate and distinct engineering plants; one for each screw. Because of this, when one boiler was taken down while underway, the ship had to go to single-screw operation. Due to an event in 1966 on the DMZ, the ship's chief engineer, the boiler technicians (BT), and machinist mates (MM) redesigned the steam lines to allow for a steam cross-connect whereby the ship could operate both shafts from a single fire-room when boiler maintenance was needed while underway. After approval by the Bureau of Ships, the necessary modifications were installed at United States Fleet Activities Sasebo during the ship's maintenance period in the latter part of 1966.
The WWII equipped bridge was retained although new gyrocompass' and modern surface radar were installed. Also retained were her huge fuel storage capacity which gave her the ability to sail around the world without refueling. The WWII galley retained both cooking capabilities but only one food serving line was used during Annapolis' service life.
All of the WWII era crew's berthing spaces remained, including the [rope laced canvas] on a pipe frame sleeping racks with each topped with a foam rubber mattress supported by chains attached to the overhead (ceiling). Most racks were three-high in sleeping compartments but there were a few two-high depending on space availability. Most berthing compartments contained 20-50 racks while at least one berthing compartment contained well over 100 racks.
Annapoliss original plans called for her to be the first sea vessel to have satellite communications that would provide direct communications to military commanders in the Pacific and Washington DC, but she sailed from Norfolk, VA without that capability. The new satellite technology was delivered to Annapolis in late 1966 while she was at anchor at U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay, Philippines. Installation begin while in port, but the final installation and operational tests occurred at sea. This included the installation of the satellite dish antenna off the coast of Vietnam and was performed by the ship-fitters in the Engineering Department.
Commissioning
Annapolis was commissioned at the Brooklyn Navy Yard on 7 March 1964 with commissioning ceremonies officiated by Capt John Rowan. Local dignitaries and officials of the Navy also attended. The New York Times reported that she "would not 'stay put' but would follow the fleet in world-wide operations." Immediately after commissioning Annapolis moved to Naval Station Norfolk to undergo a shakedown and operational training period. In June 1965, Annapolis departed Norfolk for duty in Vietnam by way of Europe and the Suez Canal. Annapolis was assigned Long Beach, California as home port on 28 June 1965.
Deployment
Annapolis spent her entire 5-year active service at and around the DMZ of Vietnam. She did visit United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka in Japan for drydock and maintenance, United States Fleet Activities Sasebo in Japan, Hong Kong, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, Singapore, Perth, Australia, Keelung, Taiwan, and White Beach, Okinawa (Uruma, Okinawa) but the majority of port calls being U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay, Philippines. Since the ship was assigned non-rotational deployment, that is, permanently assigned to support operations in Vietnam, the individual crew members were assigned and transferred on a 12-14-month deployment although it is known that some received assignments much longer. It is also known that some of the crew members requested back-to-back tours on Annapolis.
Vietnam
Arriving off the coast of Vietnam, Annapolis immediately begin providing communication services between naval units and shore communication facilities. As other ships and shore installations learned of her capability, they begin to rely on her more than was anticipated.
In late 1966, the first ship-to-shore satellite radio message ever transmitted and received was between Annapolis in South China Sea and Pacific Fleet Headquarters at Pearl Harbor. With the exception of periodic visits in the Western Pacific, mainly Subic Bay, she continued this important service into November 1969. Annapolis assured a smooth and steady flow of information and relaying operational orders. Until her sister ship, , joined her in Vietnam in the latter part of 1967, Annapolis averaged 55 days at sea between port calls due to the high communication demands required during the Vietnam War.
Annapolis while on station off the coast of Vietnam did drop anchor every 10–15 days for a few hours outside Cam Ranh Bay to receive mail and transfer priority crew. During those brief stops, Navy swift boats would come alongside to receive much appreciated ice cream in 3-gallon containers that were prepared by the ships cooks the night before.
In addition to providing communications support, Annapolis provided rescue at sea operations. Once after a Hong Kong flagged merchant ship sank and rescuing one seaman, then searching for a downed pilot above the DMZ. Annapolis also provided assistance during the fire by providing fire fighting foam via Forrestals helicopters.
On 23 January 1968 after crossing the equator south of Singapore while sailing for a port call to Perth, Australia, Annapolis received emergency orders to return to Vietnam at the best speed possible. had been boarded by the North Korean navy, and Annapolis was to return to Vietnam to relieve Arlington, so that Arlington could make a flank speed sail to Korea to assist in that incident. It was probably the fastest speed Annapolis ever made with rumors of her making almost . Those on board at the time remember the stern of the ship vibrating feverishly while the engineering crew made maximum effort to keep the flank speed for the return trip, reducing the return by almost 24 hours.
Decommissioning
Annapolis was decommissioned 20 December 1969 at Naval Station Norfolk, transferred to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet and immediately towed to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard where she was placed in mothballs. The ship was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register 15 October 1976 and sold for scrap on 1 November 1979. She never saw her home port of Long Beach, CA.
Prototype Communications
Annapolis was not the first ship to have satellite transmission capability. That title goes to the with its 30-foot parabolic antenna in a 53-foot radome, which was not suitable for combat fleet operations. Annapolis was the first Navy fleet operational ship with that capability.
In many ways, the new satellite capability on the Annapolis paved the way for future communications in the Navy and later for worldwide communications. During this infancy, satellites were low orbiting meaning that satellites were available only for short durations; often measured in 5-15 minute intervals. Geostationary satellites were not available for military use until some years later. Although the satellite tracking capability was a success, it did have its problems in these early periods. The use of unproven gyroscopes to keep the satellite dish stable due to the ship's rolling and pitching in stormy and salty conditions while tracking the low orbiting satellites was a challenge for the electronics crew, often spending many hours tweaking and adjusting the equipment. During UNREP (Underway replenishment) operations with another ship, the satellite equipment was secured due to safety concerns because of its high power emissions.
Often overlooked, Annapolis relayed Sitreps (situation reports) of the North Vietnamese military operations directly to the commanders in Washington DC via satellite with some political interest situations reported to the White House. The Tet Offensive and Battle of Khe Sanh are just two of those battles that Sitreps were relayed by Annapolis. With this new capability the Sitreps and progreps (progress reports) were reported often in minutes whereas regular communications of the times were often measured in hours at best.
Annapolis can be considered a prototype ship or even an experiment for future naval communications, and proving her capability during the Vietnam War. Although Annapolis was not the first ship to have an antenna array on the flight deck, with that distinction going to , it does have the distinction for having the first satellite communications afloat capability, a very large communications center to support global communications, and the ability to stay on station for long periods. As such, it can be assumed that the lessons learned from Annapolis and her sister ship set the stage for the US Navy's new generation of command ships, the and . When those two ships were commissioned, much of the same technologies that Annapolis carried were installed, which is a tribute to the Navy planners and engineers of Annapolis.
Incidents at Sea
Like any other ship, Annapolis had her own incidents at sea during her short career. Below is a short list of some of those incidents and is not all inclusive:
1. In October 1965, Ensign Leonard Anderson was reported missing when he failed to report for a mid-watch on the bridge while the ship was underway off the coast of Vietnam. He was declared lost at sea after three days of searching by Annapolis and a number of other Navy ships in the area.
2. During VERTREP (vertical replenishment via helicopter) operations off the coast of Vietnam in 1966, a rotor blade of a helicopter struck Annapoliss first omnidirectional antenna on the flight deck and crashed resulting in the loss of the pilot.
3. In 1966 while making almost flank speed in the South China Sea, Annapolis rammed several large teak logs causing damage to shaft bearings and both of her screws (propellers). This required a diversion from operations off the coast of Vietnam and she limped at 4-5 knots to United States Fleet Activities Yokosuka, Japan for dry dock repairs. Both screw were so severely damaged that replacement screws were removed from a mothballed ship in the States then shipped to Yokosuka and installed.
4. In the summer of 1966, Annapolis entered port with one of its three air conditioning units inoperative. A second unit failed while in port. A copper nickel line set was flown in with a manufacturer technical representative from the States and he provided technical direction on the repairs. As soon as the first unit was repaired, the third unit failed. Annapolis ended up having an extended stay in Subic due to the multiple problems with the air conditioning units. During this time the crew carried their mattresses each night and slept topside while in port due to intolerable conditions within the interior spaces of the ship.
5. In 1966 during a boiler maintenance period and underway on one screw while sailing near the DMZ, four unidentified contacts appeared on radar and were closing on the ship at high speed. The ship went to general quarters (battle stations). It turned out to be four Nasty-class patrol boats returning from a raid above the DMZ. From that point on, the ship never went to a boiler maintenance period on a single screw operation again while off the coast of Vietnam.
6. In 1967, the air conditioning system (second occurrence) for the forward third of the ship had a major catastrophic failure. The Repair Division did all they could to reroute air flow from other parts of the ship but cooling the forward third of the ship was out of the question. Although it was very uncomfortable working within the spaces during the day, it was impossible to sleep in the berthing compartments due to the ensuing heat and humidity. Many of the crew during this period carried their mattresses each night to the fo'c'sle (forecastle) and topside to the flight deck, and slept there for about 15 nights until replacement components were VERTREP’ed and installed.
7. Also in 1967, while steaming slow speed off the coast of Vietnam on a moonless night in choppy seas after mid-night, a large Vietnamese fishing boat collided with Annapolis. The impact was near the bow on the starboard side of the ship and the fishing boat then bounced and ricocheted along the entire length of the starboard side of the ship sounding like a bucket of large stones in a concrete mixer. In an effort to evade the oncoming boat, the officer of the deck gave the order to come "hard to port" when the turn should have been "hard to starboard" to allow the ship's stern to swing to port and away from the fishing boat. Instead the stern swung to starboard further complicating the collision causing all the commotion and noise that was heard throughout the ship. The fishing boat had been underway without navigational lights and only showed up on the ship's radar at the last moment. Since it was in restricted waters near the DMZ and acted suspiciously even after the collision, Annapolis reported its position and continued on her patrol leaving the disabled suspicious fishing boat adrift.
8. Annapolis also in 1967 had a diesel fuel line rupture in the engineering spaces resulting in diesel fuel being sprayed on an exhaust manifold. This caused large amount of dense smoke but no fire. However, several of the engineering crew were quickly overcome with smoke and were rescued by a damage control party.
9. In late 1967, Annapolis was almost rammed by the destroyer . The destroyer was making an approach on Annapolis starboard side to conduct an UNREP maneuver. Its approach was too fast and too close to the aft-starboard gun mount and came within a few feet of colliding with Annapolis.
Awards
USS Gilbert Islands (CVE-107)
American Campaign Medal
Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with three battle stars
World War II Victory Medal
Navy Occupation Service Medal with "Asia" and "Europe" clasps
National Defense Service Medal
Korean Service Medal
USS Annapolis (AGMR-1)
Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation
National Defense Service Medal (2nd award)
Vietnam Service Medal with eight campaign stars
Republic of Vietnam Meritorious Unit Citation (Gallantry Cross Medal with Palm)
Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal
Notes
References
Notes
Sources
(Annapolis)
(Gilbert Islands)
External links
USS Annapolis Association
Ships of the U.S. Navy, 1940-1945: CVE-107 USS Gilbert Islands
Plane Fun
Commencement Bay-class escort carriers
World War II escort aircraft carriers of the United States
Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States
Ships built in Los Angeles
1944 ships
ja:ギルバート・アイランズ (護衛空母)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early%20Modern%20Romania
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Early Modern Romania
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The Early Modern Times in Romania started after the death of Michael the Brave, who ruled in a personal union, Wallachia, Transylvania, and Moldaviathree principalities in the lands that now form Romania for three months, in 1600. The three principalities were subjected to the Ottoman Empire, and paid a yearly tribute to the Ottoman Sultans, but they preserved their internal autonomy. In contrast, Dobruja and the Banat were fully incorporated into the Ottoman Empire.
The Eastern Orthodox princes of Wallachia and Moldavia ruled their realms with absolute power, but the boyars took control of state administration in the 1660s and 1670s. The growing influence of Greeks (who administered state revenues and seized landed estates) caused bitter conflicts in both principalities. Due to extensive taxation, the peasants often rebelled against their lords. The long reign of Matei Basarab in Wallachia and of Vasile Lupu in Moldavia contributed to the development of local economy (especially mining and commerce). Most princes of Wallachia and Moldavia also paid tribute to the princes of Transylvania. The latter administered their realm in cooperation with the Diet, composed of the representatives of the Hungarian noblemen, the Transylvanian Saxons, and the Székelys and of delegates appointed by the monarchs. In the principality, Catholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Unitarianism enjoyed an official status. Romanians had no representatives in the Diet and their Eastern Orthodox religion was only tolerated. The three outstanding princesthe Calvinist Stephen Bocskai, Gabriel Bethlen, and George I Rákócziexpanded their countries and defended the liberties of the Estates in Royal Hungary against the Habsburgs in the first half of the 17th century.
During this period the lands inhabited by Romanians were characterised by the slow disappearance of the feudal system, by the leadership of some rulers like Dimitrie Cantemir in Moldavia, Constantin Brâncoveanu in Wallachia, Gabriel Bethlen in Transylvania, the Phanariot Epoch, and the appearance of the Russian Empire as a political and military influence.
Background
The lands that now form Romania were divided among various polities in the Middle Ages. Banat, Crişana, Maramureş and Transylvania were integrated into the Kingdom of Hungary. Wallachia and Moldavia developed into independent principalities in the 14th century. Dobruja emerged as an autonomous realm after the disintegration of Bulgaria in the 1340s.
In accordance with the Byzantine political traditions, the princes of Wallachia and Moldavia were autocrats who ruled with absolute power. Any male member of the royal families could be elected prince, which caused internal strives, giving pretext to the neighboring powers for intervention. Most princes of Wallachia accepted the suzerainty of the kings of Hungary; the Moldavian monarchs preferred to yield to the kings of Poland. Royal councilswhich consisted of the logofăt, the vornic, and other high officialsassisted the monarchs, but the princes could also discuss the most important matters at the assembly of the Orthodox clergy, the boyars and the army. The Orthodox Church, especially the monasteries, held extensive domains in both principalities. The boyars were landowners who enjoyed administrative and judicial immunities. A group of free peasants (known as răzeşi in Wallachia and moşneni in Moldavia) existed in each principality, but the princes' most subjects were serfsthe rumâni in Wallachia, and the vecini in Moldaviawho paid tithes or provided specific services to their lords. Gypsy slaves also played an eminent role in the economy, especially as black-smiths, basket-makers, and goldwashers.
The Kingdom of Hungary were divided into counties. The heads of most counties were directly subordinated to the sovereign, with the exception of the seven Transylvanian counties which were under the authority of a higher royal official, the voivode. Assemblies of noblemen were the most important administrative bodies in the counties; in Transylvania, the voivodes held joint assemblies. In theory, all noblemen enjoyed the same privileges, for instance, they were exempted of taxes. However, the so-called conditional noblesincluding the Romanian cneazes and the nobles of the Churchdid not have the same liberties: they paid taxes or rendered specific services either to the monarch or to their lords. The Transylvanian Saxons, whose territories were divided into seats, formed an autonomous community which remained independent of the authority of the voivodes. The Hungarian-speaking Székelys, who lived in the easternmost part of Transylvania, were also organized into seats. On 16 September 1437 the Transylvanian noblemen and the heads of the Saxon and Székely communities concluded an alliancethe Union of the Three Nationsagainst the Hungarian and Romanian peasants who had risen up in open rebellion. This Union developed into the constitutional framework of the administration of Transylvania in the next decades. Within the peasantry, Romanians had a special position, for instance, they did not pay the ecclesiastic tithe, payable by all Catholic peasants.
The expansion of the Ottoman Empire reached the Danube around 1390. The Ottomans invaded Wallachia in 1390 and occupied Dobruja in 1395. Wallachia paid tribute to the Ottomans for the first time in 1417, Moldavia in 1456. However, the two principalities were not annexed, their princes were only required to assist the Ottomans in their military campaigns. The most outstanding 15th-century Romanian monarchsVlad the Impaler of Wallachia and Stephen the Great of Moldaviawere even able to defeat the Ottomans in major battles. In Dobruja, which was included in the Silistra Eyalet, Nogai Tatars settled and the local Gypsy tribes converted to Islam.
The disintegration of the Kingdom of Hungary started with the Battle of Mohács on 29 August 1526. The Ottomans annihilated the royal army and Louis II of Hungary perished. Rivalries between the partisans of the two newly elected kingsJohn Zápolya and Ferdinand of Habsburgcaused a civil war. Ferdinand I's attempt to reunite the country after Zápolya's death provoked a new Ottoman campaign. The Ottomans seized Buda, the capital of Hungary, on 29 August 1541, but the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent granted the lands east of the river Tisza to Zápolya's infant son, John Sigismund Zápolya. The war between the two kings continued, enabling the Ottomans to expand their rule. The greater part of Banat fell to the Ottomans and was transformed into an Ottoman province centered in Timişoara in 1552.
Reformation spread in the lands under the rule of John Sigismund. The Diet of Turda of 1568 declared that the "faith is a gift of God", allowing each village to freely elect their pastors. In practise, only four denominationsCatholicism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Unitarianismenjoyed a privileged status. Orthodoxy and Judaism were only tolerated, and all other denominations were forbidden. The Reformation also contributed to the spread and development of vernacular literature. The first Romanian book (a Lutheran cathecism) was printed in Sibiu in 1544. Decrees passed at the Diet of Transylvania were published in Hungarian from 1565. John Sigismund renounced the title of king and adopted the new title of "Prince of Transylvania and parts of the Kingdom of Hungary" on 16 August 1570.
The Romanian historian Nicolae Iorga described Wallachia and Moldavia as Byzantium after Byzantium. Indeed, especially after the disintegration of the Kingdom of Hungary, Byzantine cultural influence increased in both principalities. Their rulers, who remained the only Orthodox monarchs in Southeastern Europe, adopted the elements of the protocol of the one-time imperial court of Constantinople and supported Orthodox institutions throughout the Ottoman Empire. The international status of the two principalities also changed in the 1530s and 1540s. Although neither Wallachia nor Moldavia were integrated into the Dar al-Islam, or "The Domain of Islam", the influence of the Ottoman Empire increased and the princes were prohibited to conclude treaties with foreign powers. The Ottomans also hindered the princes from coining money, for which the use of foreign currency (especially Ottoman, Polish, Austrian, Venetian and Dutch coins) became widespread in Moldavia and Wallachia.
A new warthe so-called Fifteen Years' Warbroke out between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburgs in 1591. Sigismund Báthory, prince of Transylvania, entered into an alliance with Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor in 1595. Michael the Brave, prince of Wallachia, accepted Báthory's suzerainty, agreeing that the Diet of Transylvania would introduce taxes in Wallachia. Ştefan Răzvan, prince of Moldavia, also swore loyalty to Báthory who thus became the sovereign of the three principalities. However, Ştefan Răzvan was soon dethroned, the Ottomans routed the Christian army in the Battle of Mezőkeresztes in October 1596 and Báthory abdicated in favor of Emperor Rudolph in April 1598. Michael the Brave accepted the emperor's suzerainty, but Sigismund Báthory's cousin, Andrew Báthory, who seized Transylvania with Polish assistance, yielded to the Ottomans in the name of the three principalities in 1599.
Michael the Brave invaded Transylvania and defeated Andrew Báthory in the Battle of Şelimbăr on 28 October 1599. He entered Alba Iulia where the Diet recognized him as the Emperor's lieutenant. Michael the Brave also occupied Moldavia in May 1600, uniting the three principalities under his rule. However, the Transylvanian noblemen rose up against Michael the Brave and defeated him in the Battle of Mirăslău on 18 September 1600. The Poles invaded Moldavia and Wallachia, assisting Ieremia Movilă and Simion Movilă to seize these principalities. Michael the Brave tried to return with Emperor Rudolph's assistance, but he was murdered on 19 August 1601 near Câmpia Turzii at the orders of Giorgio Basta, the commander of the imperial troops. The noblemen and nearly contemporaneous Hungarian and Saxon historians described Michael the Brave as a tyrant, willing to destroy the landowners with the assistance of Romanian and Székely commoners. On the other hand, the personal union of Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia under his rule "became a symbol of Romanian national destiny" (the unification of the lands inhabited by Romanians) in the 19th century.
End of the Fifteen Years War (1601–1606)
In Transylvania, extensive taxation, unpaid mercenaries' plundering raids, and attempts to spread Catholicism characterized the rule of Rudolph II's representatives. The Ottomans supported pretenders, including Sigismund Báthory and Mózes Székely, who tried to expel the imperial troops. In Wallachia, Radu Șerbanthe father-in-law of Michael the Brave's sonseized the throne with Rudolph II's support in July 1602. A year later, he invaded Transylvania, defeated Mózes Székely and administered the principality in Emperor Rudolph's name until Giorgio Basta returned in September. Moldavia remained under the rule of Ieremia Movilă who attempted to forge a reconciliation between the Ottomans and Poland.
An Italian imperial commander, Giacomo Belgiojoso, accused a wealthy Calvinist landowner, Stephen Bocskay, of treachery and ordered the forfeiture of his estates in Crişana in October 1604. Bocskay hired at least 5,000 Hajduksa group of mainly Calvinist runaway serfs and noblemen who had settled in the borderlands and rose up in open rebellion. After Sultan Ahmed I appointed Bocskay prince of Transylvania, the Three Nations swore loyalty to him on 14 September 1605. Bocskay's army invaded Royal Hungary and Austria, forcing the Habsburgs to sign the Peace of Vienna on 23 June 1606. Rudolph II confirmed Bocskay's title of prince of Transylvania and granted four counties in Upper Hungary to him.
The Fifteen Years' War ended with the Peace of Zsitvatorok, which was signed in November 1606. According to the treaty, Rudolph II acknowledged that the princes of Transylvania were subjected to the Sultans. Bocskay, who had realized that only the autonomous status of Transylvania guaranteed the preservation of the liberties of the noblemen in Royal Hungary, emphasized that "as long as the Hungarian Crown is with a nation mightier than ours, with the Germans, ... it will be necessary and expedient to have a Hungarian prince in Transylvania". Bocskay died childless on 29 December 1606.
Social changes after 1601
During Michael the Brave's brief tenure and the early years of Turkish suzerainty, the distribution of land in Wallachia and Moldavia changed dramatically. Over the years, Wallachian and Moldavian princes made land grants to loyal boyars in exchange for military service so that by the 17th century hardly any land was left to be granted. Boyars in search of wealth began encroaching on peasant land and their military allegiance to the prince weakened. As a result, serfdom spread, successful boyars became more courtiers than warriors, and an intermediary class of impoverished lesser nobles developed. Would-be princes were forced to raise enormous sums to bribe their way to power, and peasant life grew more miserable as taxes and exactions increased. Any prince wishing to improve the peasants' lot risked a financial shortfall that could enable rivals to out-bribe him at the Porte and usurp his position.
According to the treaties (Capitulations) between the Romanian Principalities (Wallachia and Moldavia), Turkish subjects were not allowed to settle in the Principalities, to own land, to build houses or mosques, or to marry. In spite of this restrictions imposed on the Turks, the princes allowed Greek and Turkish merchants and usurers to exploit the principalities' riches.
The three principalities under Ottoman rule
Principality of Transylvania (1606–1688)
Long winters and rainy summers with frequent floodings featured the "Little Ice Age" in 17th-century Transylvania. Because of the short autumns, arable lands on the plateaus were transformed into grazing lands. The Fifteen Years' War had caused a demographic catastrophe. For instance, the population decreased with about 80% in the lowland villages and with about 45% in the mountains in Solnocul de Mijloc and Dăbâca Counties during the wars; the two most important Saxon centers, Sibiu and Brașov, lost more than 75% of their burghers. The Diets often passed decrees that prescribed the return of runaway serfs to their lords or granted a six-year tax holiday for new settlers, but such decrees became rare from the 1620s, suggesting that a demographic regeneration had occurred in the meantime. Nevertheless, epidemicsmeasles and bubonic plaguewhich returned in each decade killed many peoples during the century.
Bocskay designated a wealthy baron from Upper Hungary, Valentin Drugeth, as his successor. The Ottomans supported Drugeth, but a member of the royal Báthory family, Gabriel Báthory, also claimed the throne. Taking advantage of the two claimants' rivalry, the Diet elected Sigismund Rákóczi prince in early 1607. A year later, Gabriel Báthory made an alliance with the Hajduks, forced Rákóczi to renounce and seized the throne. Upon the Hajduk's demand, he promised that he would never secede from the Holy Crown of Hungary. Radu Șerban of Wallachia and Constantin Movilă of Moldavia swore loyalty to Báthory. Báthory's erratic behavior alienated both his subjects and the neighboring powers: he captured Sibiu and Brașov, and invaded Wallachia without the Sultan's approval. The Sublime Porte decided to dethrone him and dispatched Gabriel Bethlen to accomplish this task. Bethlen invaded Transylvania accompanied by Ottoman, Wallachian and Crimean Tatar troops. The Three Nations proclaimed him prince on 23 September 1613 and the Hajduks murdered his opponent.
Transylvania prospered during Bethlen's reign. He did not restrict the liberties of the Three Nations, but exercised royal prerogatives to limit their influence on state administration. From 1615 at least two-thirds of those who attended the Diet were delegates appointed by him. He introduced a mercantilist economic policy, encouraging the immigration of Jews and Baptist craftsmen from the Holy Roman Empire, creating state monopolies and promoting export. The Diet controlled only about 10% of state revenuesaround 70,000 florins from the annual income of about 700,000 florinsfrom the 1620s. Bethlen set up a permanent army of mercenaries. He forbade Székely communers from choosing serfdom to avoid military service in 1619 and increased the tax payable by Székely serfs in 1623. He often granted nobility to serfs, but the Diet of 1619 requested him to stop this practise. The Diet also prohibited the Romanians from bearing arms in 1620 and 1623. Bethlen set up the first academy in Transylvania, promoted the building of schools and his subjects' studies abroad (especially in England), and punished those landowners who denied an education to children of serfs. Laws prohibiting religious innovations were repeated in 1618 and the Diet obliged the Sabbatariansa community who adopted Jewish customsto join one of the four official denominations. He planned to convert the Romanians to Calvinism and tried to convince Cyril Lucaris, Patriarch of Constantinople, to assist him, but the latter refused, emphasizing the "blood ties" between the Romanians of Transylvania, Wallachia and Moldavia. During the Thirty Years' War, Bethlen made an alliance with the Protestant Union and invaded Royal Hungary three times between 1619 and 1626. He was elected king of Hungary in August 1620, but a year later he renounced this title. In exchange, he received seven counties in Upper Hungary to rule during his lifetime.
Bethlen died on 15 November 1629. Conflicts between his widow and brotherCatherine of Brandenburg and Stephen Bethlenenabled George Rákóczi, Sigismund Rákóczi's son, to claim the throne for himself. Rákóczi was proclaimed prince on 1 December 1630. He did not continue Bethlen's mercantilism: state monopolies were abolished and taxes were lowered. Instead, he expanded his own estates: he held 10 domains in 1630, but 18 years later he owned more than 30 large domains in Transylvania and Upper Hungary. Rákóczi often accused his opponents of high treason, which enabled him to seize their property. Especially Sabbatarian landowners were exposed to persecution. For the Sabbatarians' teachings were based on Anti-Trinitarian theology, Rákóczi introduced a state control over the Unitarian Church in 1638. Rákóczi invaded Royal Hungary and Moravia in 1644, but the Ottomans ordered him to retreat. Even so, Ferdinand III of Hungary agreed to grant him seven counties in Upper Hungary. Transylvania was included in the Peace of Westphalia among the allies of England and Sweden.
George I Rákóczi who died on 11 October 1648 was succeeded by his son, George II Rákóczi. During his reign, the codification of the laws of the principality was accomplished with the publication of a law book (the so-called Approbatae) in 1653. The Approbatae ordered the landowners to capture all runaway commoners (especially the Ruthenians, Romanians and Wallachians who wandered in the country) and to force them to settle in their estates as serfs, prohibited the Romanians and the peasants to bear arms and obliged all Romanians to pay the tithe. The Approbatae also contained derogatory statements about the Romanians, stating that they were "admitted into the county for the public good". Rákóczi who planned to acquire the Polish throne intervened in the Second Northern War on behalf of Sweden and invaded Poland in early 1657. The Poles routed Rákóczi and his Moldavian and Wallachian allies, forcing them to withdraw. On their route, a Crimean Tatar army annihilated Rákóczi's troops, capturing many of the leading noblemen.
Rákóczi's action infuriated the new Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, Köprülü Mehmed Pasha, who ordered his deposition in October 1657. In the next years, princes supported by the OttomansFrancis Rhédey, Ákos Barcsay, and Michael I Apafi and their opponentsGeorge II Rákóczi and John Keményfought against each other. During this period the Ottomans captured Ineu, Lugoj, Caransebeș, and Oradea, and destroyed Alba Iulia, the capital of the principality, and Crimean Tatars plundered the Székely Land. Although internal order was restored after John Kemény's death in a battle on 23 January 1662, Transylvania could never act as an independent state thereafter.
Michael Apafi, who had been elected prince upon the Ottomans' demand on 14 September 1661, closely cooperated with the Diet throughout his reign. He was the first prince to have invited the Orthodox bishop of Transylvania to the Diet. Apafi declared salt mining a state monopoly and introduced a system of tax farming, which increased state revenues. Upon his initiative, the decrees issued between 1653 and 1668 were revised and published in a new law code (the Compilatae) in early 1669. Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor suspended the constitution of Royal Hungary and dismissed two-thirds of the Hungarian soldiers from the border forts. The dismissed soldiersknown as Kurucsought refuge in Transylvania. Louis XIV of France, who waged a war against the emperor along the Rhine, agreed to pay a subsidy to Apafi for his support of these outlaws in 1677 and 1678. Apafi was forced to join the Ottoman army marching against Vienna in summer 1683, but he returned to Transylvania soon after the Ottomans were defeated on 12 September. Upon Pope Innocent XI's initiative, Leopold I, John III Sobieski, King of Poland, and the Republic of Venice formed the Holy League against the Ottoman Empire in early next year. After the envoys of Apafi and Leopold I signed a treaty in Cârțișoara in spring 1685, Transylvania became a secret member of the alliance. According to the treaty, Apafi accepted the suzerainty of the Hungarian Crown, but Leopold I promised to respect the autonomous status of Transylvania. These provisions were repeated in a new agreement which was signed in Vienna on 28 June 1686, but the new treaty also prescribed that imperial troops should be garrisoned in Deva and Cluj. Although the Diet refused to confirm the agreement, Apafi allowed the imperial troops to winter in Transylvania after a series of victories of the united army of the Holy League in autumn 1687. Even so, Apafi did not fail to send the yearly tribute to the Sublime Porte at the end of the year. Antonio Caraffa, commander of the imperial troops, forced the Three Nations to acknowledge the Habsburgs' hereditary rule and to allow to garrison imperial troops in the main towns. The burghers of Baia Mare, Brașov, Bistrița, and Sibiu denied to yield, but Caraffa submitted them by force in February 1688. Leopold I was only willing to confirm the freedom of religion when Transylvanian delegates reminded him to his previous promises.
New species of domesticated plants were introduced in Transylvania in the 17th century. Maize, which was first recorded in 1611, became a popular food in this period. Tobacco was cultivated from the second half of the century, but the Diet passed decrees to regulate smoking already in 1670. Hops was introduced in the mountainous parts in the late 17th century. Mining, which had declined in the previous centuries, flourished during Gabriel Bethlen's reign. The Diet of 1618 decreed that both local and foreign miners could freely open new mines and exempted them of taxation. Besides gold, silver and iron, mercury extracted at Abrud and Zlatna became an important source of state revenues. Settlements destroyed during the Fifteen Years' War were restored between 1613 and 1648. Because of the spread of Renaissance architecture, the towns lost their medieval character in this period. For instance, squares decorated with fountains or statues and parks were established in Alba Iulia and Gilău, Cluj. The villages also transformed: traditional huts disappeared and the new houses were divided into several rooms. Excursions in the countryside became popular among townspeople in this century.
Wallachia (1606–1688)
Radu Șerban concluded treaties with Sigismund Rákóczi and Gabriel Bethlen. However, the latter invaded Wallachia, forcing Radu Șerban to flee in December 1610. For Radu Șerban had adopted an anti-Ottoman policy, the Sublime Porte assisted Radu Mihnea in seizing the throne in 1611. Most boyars supported the new prince, which enabled him to repel Radu Șerban's attacks between 1611 and 1616. The immigration of Greeks on a grand scale started during Radu Mihnea's reign. Their financial background enabled them to buy landed property and acquire boyar status.
The Sublime Porte transferred Radu Mihnea to Moldavia and appointed Alexandru Iliaș prince of Wallachia in 1616. Two years later, the new ruler's blatant favoritism towards the Greeks caused an uprising during which the discontented native noblemen, who were led by Lupu Mehedițeanu, murdered Greek landowners and merchants. The turmoil enabled Gabriel Movilă to seize the throne. He was expelled in 1620 by Radu Mihnea, who thus united Wallachia and Moldavia under his rule. The Ottoman Sultan Osman II invaded Poland and laid siege to Hotin (now Khotyn in Ukraine) in September 1621. After the Poles relieved the fort, Radu Mihnea who had accompanied the Sultan mediated a peace treaty between the two parties. Radu Mihnea appointed his son, Alexandru Coconul, prince of Wallachia in 1623. Four years later Alexandru Iliaș seized the throne for the second time.
During the reign of Leon Tomșa, who mounted the throne in 1629, a new anti-Greek uprising started. On 19 July 1631 the rebellious boyars, who were supported by George I Rákóczi, forced Leon Tomșa to expel all Greeks who had not married a local woman and did not held landed property in Wallachia. The prince also exempted the boyars of taxation and confirmed their property rights. A year later, the Sublime Porte dethroned Leon Tomșa and appointed Alexandru Iliaș's son, Radu Iliaș, prince. In fear of growing Greek influence, the boyars offered the throne to one of their number, Matei Brâncoveanu, in August 1632. Matei Brâncoveanu, who had fled to Transylvania during Leon Tomșa's reign, returned to Wallachia and defeated Radu Iliaș at Plumbuita in October. He convinced the Sublime Porte to confirm his rule; in exchange, he had to increase the amount of the yearly tribute from 45,000 to 135,000 thalers. Stating that he was a grandson of a former prince, Neagoe Basarab, he changed his name and reigned as Matei Basarab from September 1631.
Matei Basarab closely cooperated with the boyars throughout his reign. He regularly convoked their assembly and strengthened the boyars' control of the peasants who worked on their estates. Uppon his initiative, the copper mine at Baia de Aramă and the iron mine at Baia de Fier were reopened, and two paper mills and a glasswork were built. He stopped farming out the revenues from salt mining and custom duties and introduced a new system of taxation. The latter reform increased the tax burden to such an extent that many of the serfs fled from Wallachia. In response, Matei Basarab levied the taxes that the serfs who left the village would have paid upon those who stayed behind. Increasing state revenues enabled him to finance the erection or renovation of 30 churches and monasteries in Wallachia and on Mount Athos. He established the first institution of higher educationa college in Târgoviștein Wallachia in 1646. He set up an army of mercenaries. Matei Basarab concluded a series of treaties with George I and II Rákóczi between 1635 and 1650, promising to pay a yearly tribute. In exchange, both princes assisted him against Vasile Lupu of Moldavia who made several attempts to expand his authority over Wallachia. Excessive taxation and the prince's failure to satisfy his soldiers' demands for higher salary caused a revolt at the end of his rule. He died on 9 April 1654.
Ten days later, the boyars elected Constantin ȘerbanRadu Șerban's illegitimate sonprince. Upon the boyars' demand, the new ruler dismissed many soldiers, causing a new riot in February 1655. The discontented musketeers and local guardsthe seimeni and dorobanțijoined the rebellious serfs and attacked boyars' courts. The prince sought the assistance of George II Rákóczi and George Stephen of Moldavia. Their united army routed the rebels on the Teleajen River on 26 June, but smaller groups of the dismissed soldiers continued to fight until their leader, Hrizea of Bogdănei, was killed in 1657. Constantin Șerban acknowledged George II Rákóczi's suzerainty in 1657. After Rákóczi's fall, the Sublime Porte dethroned Constantin Șerban and installed Mihnea III, who was allegedly Radu Mihnea's son, as the new prince in early 1658. However, the latter formed an anti-Ottoman alliance with George II Rákóczi and Constantin Șerban, who had in the meantime seized Moldavia. He defeated the Ottomans at Frătești on 23 November 1659, but a joint invasion of the Ottomans and the Crimean Tatars forced him to flee to Transylvania.
The boyars, who were sharply opposed to Mihnea III's anti-Ottoman policy, exerted a powerful influence on state administration after his fall. The boyars formed two parties, which were centered around the Cantacuzino and Băleni families. George Ghica was proclaimed prince in December 1659, but he soon renounced in favor of his son, Gregory. The young prince governed with Constantine Cantacuzino's assistance. Gregory Ghica took part in the Ottoman campaign against Royal Hungary in 1663 and 1664. However, the Ottomans received information of his secret correspondence with the Habsburgs, forcing him to flee for Vienna. The Sublime Porte appointed Radu Leon, who was Leon Tomșa's son, prince. He favored the Greeks, but the boyars forced him to repeat his father's decree against them. He was dethroned in March 1669, and the Catacuzinos' puppet, Anthony of Popeşti, was declared prince. The Sublime Porte reinstalled George Ghica on the throne in 1672. He accompanied the Ottomans against Poland in 1673, but let himself captured by the Poles, which contributed to the Ottomans' defeat in the Battle of Khotyn on 11 November 1673. The Ottomans dethroned Ghica and appointed George Ducasa Greek from Istanbulprince. Ghica promoted new boyar familiesthe Cuparescu from Moldavia and the Leurdenito counterbalance the Cantacuzinos' influence. However, the Sublime Porte transferred Ducas to Moldavia and appointed the wealthy Șerban Cantacuzino prince.
The new prince who wanted to restore the monarchs' absolut power captured and executed many members of the Băleni family. He set up a school for higher education and invited Orthodox scholars from the Ottoman Empire to teach philosophy, natural sciences and classical literature. He supported the Ottomans during the siege of Vienna in 1683, but also negotiated with the Christian powers. In fear of the Habsburgs' attempts to promote Catholicism, Cantacuzino tried to forge an alliance with Russia. After imperial troops took control of Transylvania in 1688, Cantacuzino was willing to accept Leopold I's suzerainty in exchange for the Banat and the acknowledgement of his descendants' hereditary rule in Wallachia, but his offers were refused. The negotiations were still in progress when Cantacuzino died unexpectedly in October.
The spread of hansinns protected by wallsin the 17th century shows the important role of commerce. For instance, according to foreign travelers' accounts, there were seven hans in Bucharest in 1666. Șerban Cantacuzino, who especially promoted commerce, had new roads and bridges built throughout the country. Maize was also introduced in Wallachia upon his initiative. Lofty mansions built for the Cantacuzinos at Măgureni and Filipești in the middle of the century show the boyars' increasing wealth.
Moldavia (1606–1687)
Ieremia Movilă, who gave his daughters to Polish magnates in marriage, held firm to his alliance with Poland, but never turned against the Ottoman Empire. He achieved that both Poland and the Ottomans acknowledged his family's hereditary right to the throne, but after his death in summer 1606, the boyars tried to hinder his son, Constantine, from seizing the throne. The young prince, whose mother was famed for her political skills, only mounted the throne at the end of 1607. Constantin Movilă strengthened his alliance with Poland, Transylvania and Wallachia, which irritated the Ottomans. The Sublime Porte replaced him with Stephen II Tomșa in September 1611. After Constantin Movilă's unsuccessful attempt to return with Polish support, Stephen Tomșa introduced a policy of terror, executing many boyars. The boyars rose up in open rebellion with Polish assistance and dethroned the prince in favor of Alexander Movilă in November 1615. The Ottomans stepped in, assisting Radu Mihnea, who had pacified Wallachia, to seize the throne in 1616.
Moldavia was included in the Peace of Busza, signed in September 1617, between Poland and the Ottoman Empire, which obliged Poland to cede the fortress of Hotin to Moldavia and to give up supporting Radu Mihnea's opponents. In the same year, peasant uprisings started in many places because of the increased taxation. The Sublime Porte granted Moldavia to Gaspar Graziani, a Venetian adventurer, in 1619. He attempted to forge an anti-Ottoman alliance with Poland and the Habsburgs, but a group of boyars murdered him in August 1620. In the following one and half decades six princesAlexandru Iliaș, Stephen Tomșa, Radu Mihnea, Miron Barnovschi-Movilă, Alexandru Coconul, and Moise Movilăsucceeded on the throne. Barnovschi-Movilă ordered that runaway serfs be returned to their lords. An uprising of the peasantry forced Alexandru Iliaș to abdicate in 1633, and the mob massacred many of his Greek courtiers.
A period of stability commenced when Vasile Lupu mounted the throne in 1634. He was of Albanian origin and received a Greek education, but he was proclaimed prince after an anti-Greek rebellion. Lupu Vasile regarded himself as the Byzantine emperors' successor and introduced an authoritarian regime. He gained the support of both the pro-Polish and the pro-Ottoman boyars, but also strengthened the Greeks' position through farming out state revenues and supporting their acquisition of landed property. He set up a college in Iași in 1639 and promoted the establishment of the first printing press in Moldavia three years later. He was planning to unite Moldavia and Transylvania under his rule and invaded Matei Basarab's Moldavia four times between 1635 and 1653, but achieved nothing. He attacked the Cossacks and the Crimean Tatars who marched through Moldavia after their campaigns against Poland in 1649. In retaliation, the Cossacks and the Tatars jointly invaded Moldavia in the next year. Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky persuaded Vasile Lupu to marry his daughter, Ruxandra, to the Hetman's son, Tymofiy in 1652. Vasile Lupu was overthrown in a military coup that logofăt George Stephen organized against him with Transylvanian and Wallachian assistance in early 1653. Tymofiy Khmelnytsky supported him to return, but their troops were defeated in the Battle of Finta on 27 May.
George Stephen dismissed Vasile Lupu's relatives from the highest offices. He spent enormous sums to pay his mercenaries, but could not hinder the latter from pillaging the countryside or fighting against each other. Although the Sublime Porte forbade him to support George II Rákóczi, he sent a troop of 2,000 to accompany Rákóczi to Poland. In retaliation, the Porte dethroned George Stephen and placed George Ghica on the throne in 1659.
17th–18th centuries
Although centuries of continued attacks and raids from Turks, Tatars, Poles, Hungarians, and Cossacks, had crippled Moldavia and Wallachia and caused economical and human losses, the two countries were relatively adapted to this type of warfare. During the second half of the 17th century, Poland suffered a similar series of attacks: Swedish, Cossack and Tartar attacks ultimately left Poland in ruin, and it lost its place as a Central European power (see The Deluge).
Catholic Poland and Hungary, which despite being Christian countries, constantly tried to take control of the Eastern Orthodox Moldavia and Wallachia. A new possible ally was Russia, which apparently posed no danger to Moldavia, for geographic and religious reasons.
During the early 17th century, Moldavia had unfortunate experiences in their efforts for Russian assistance from Ivan III and Alexis Michaelovitch against the Turks and Tatars. Under Peter the Great, Russia's strength and influence had grown, and it seemed to be an excellent ally for Moldavia. Numerous Moldavians and Wallachians enlisted in Peter's army, which contained one squadron made up only of Romanian cavalry. Under Constantin Cantemir, Antioh Cantemir and Constantin Brâncoveanu, Moldavia and Wallachia hoped that with Russian help they might drive out the Turks from the border cities (Chilia, Cetatea Albă).
Charles XII of Sweden, after his defeat in 1709 at the Battle of Lesnaya, sought refuge in Tighina, a border fort of the Turkish vassal state of Moldavia, guarded by Ottoman troops. As a response, Peter came to Iaşi in 1710. There he re-signed the Russian-Moldavian treaty of alliance (previously signed at Lutsk on 24 April 1711), which provided for the hereditary leadership his close friend Dimitrie Cantemir (son of Constantin Cantemir and brother of Antioh Constantin) who was supposed to bear the title of Serene Lord of the land of Moldavia, Sovereign, and Friend (Volegator) of the land of Russia, but not as a subject vassal, as under the Ottomans. Although at that time Russia's western border was the Southern Bug River, the treaty stipulated that the Dniester should be the boundary between Moldavia and the Russian Empire and that the Budjak would belong to Moldavia. The country was to pay not a cent of tribute. The Tsar bound himself not to infringe the rights of the Moldavian sovereign, or whoever might succeed him. Considering him the savior of Moldavia, the boyars held a banquet in honor of the Tsar and to celebrate the treaty.
In response, a great Ottoman army approached along the Prut and, at the Battle of Stanilesti in June 1711, the Russian and Moldavian armies were crushed. The war was ended by the Treaty of the Pruth on July 21, 1711. The Grand Vizier imposed drastic terms. The treaty stipulated that Russian armies would abandon Moldavia immediately, renounce its sovereignty over the Cossacks, destroy the fortresses erected along the frontier, and restore Otchakov to the Porte. Moldavia was obliged to assist at and to support all expenses for the reinforcements and supplies that traversed Moldavian territory. Prince Cantemir, many of his boyars and much of the Moldavian army had to take refuge in Russia.
As a result of their victory of the 1711 war, the Turks placed a garrison in Hotin, rebuilt the fortress under the direction of French engineers, and made the surrounding region into a sanjak. Moldavia was now shut in by Turkish border strips at Hotin, Bender, Akkerman, Kilia, Ismail and Reni. The new sanjak was the most extensive on Moldavian territory, comprising a hundred villages and the market-towns of Lipcani-Briceni and Suliţa Noua. Under the Turks, Bessarabia and Transnistria witnessed a constant immigration from Poland and Ukraine, of Ukrainian speaking landless peasants, largely fugitives from the severe serfdom that prevailed there, to the districts of Hotin and Chişinău.
The existing Moldavians in the Russian armies were joined by newly joined Moldavian and Wallachian Hussars (Hansari in the Romanian language) from the 1735–39 war. When Field Marshal Burkhard Christoph von Münnich entered Iaşi, the capital of Moldavia, Moldavian auxiliary troops on Turkish service changed side and joined the Russians. They were officially constituted into the "Regiment number 96 – Moldavian Hussars" ("Moldavskiy Hussarskiy Polk"), under Prince Cantemir, on October 14, 1741. They took part in the 1741–43 war with Sweden, and the 1741 and 1743 campaigns at Wilmanstrand and Helsinki. During the Seven Years' War they fought at the Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf (1757), Battle of Zorndorf (1758), Battle of Kunersdorf (1759) and the 1760 capturing of Berlin.
Phanariots
An important demand of the Treaty of Prut was that Moldavia and Wallachia would have only appointed rulers. The Phanariots would be appointed as Hospodars from 1711 to 1821. The late 18th century is regarded as one of the darkest time in Romanian history. The main goal of most Phanariots was to get rich and then to retire.
Under the Phanariots, Moldavia was the first state in Eastern Europe to abolish serfdom, when Constantine Mavrocordatos, summoned the boyars in 1749 to a great council in the church of the Three Hierarchs in Iași. In Transylvania, this reform did not take place until 1784, as a consequence of the bloody revolt of the Romanian peasantry under Horea, Cloşca and Crişan. Bessarabia was now still more attractive to the Polish and Russian serfs. The former had to serve their masters free for 150 days every year, and the latter were virtually slaves. Clandestine immigration from Poland and the Ukraine flowed particularly to the boundaries of Bessarabia, around Hotin and Cernăuţi.
Russian expansion
By the late 18th century and early 19th century, Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania found themselves as a clashing area for three neighboring empires: the Habsburg Empire, the newly appeared Russian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire.
In 1768, a six-year war broke out between Russia and Turkey (see Russo-Turkish War (1768–74)). The Russians took Hotin, Bender and Iaşi, and occupied Moldavia the whole extent of the war. In 1772, the partition of Poland gave Galicia and Lodomeria to Austria, and Volhynia and Podolia to Russia, so that Moldavia was now in immediate contact with the Austrian and Russian Empires. In the Peace of Kuchuk-Kainarji (1774) Turkey ceded to Russia the country between Dnieper and Bug, but retained the Bessarabian border fortresses and their sanjaks. Moldavia kept its independence, under Turkish suzerainty, as before. Catherine self-assumed the right of protecting the Christians of the Romanian Principalities.
In 1775, Empress Maria Theresa of the Habsburg monarchy took advantage of the situation and occupied the northern extremity of Moldavia, called Bucovina, marching the Austrian armies through Cernăuţi and Suceava, considered the holy city of Moldavia, as it preserved the tombs of Stephen the Great and other Moldavian rulers. The occupation was acknowledged with a treaty between the Habsburg Empire and the Ottoman Empire, despite the protests of Grigore Ghica, the Hospodar of Moldavia. Grigore Ghica was assassinated in 1777, at Iaşi, by Austrian paid Turkish troops.
In 1787, Russia and Austria declared war on Turkey (see Russo-Turkish War (1787–92)). Empress Catherine wished to install Grigori Alexandrovich Potemkin as Prince of Dacia, a Russian vassal state corresponding to the ancient Roman Dacia, and thus to approach her final goal, Constantinople. In 1788 war started, but Turkey's preparations were inadequate and the moment was ill-chosen, now that Russia and Austria were in alliance. After a long list of failures, the Ottomans were forced to surrender. The Peace Treaty was signed at Iaşi (see the Treaty of Jassy) in January 1792. It stipulated that the Moldavia shall remain a Turkish vassal, that Dniester was the frontier between Moldavia and the Russian Empire, and that the Budjak shall pass under Russian control.
In 1806, Napoleon I of France encouraged Czar Alexander Pavlovitch to begin another war with Turkey. Russian troops occupied again Moldavia and Wallachia under General Kutuzov who was made Governor-General of the Romanian Principalities. The foreign consuls and diplomatic agents had to leave the capital cities of Iaşi and Bucharest. After the Russians broke the truce with a surprise attack, the Ottomans entered peace negotiations. At Giurgiu and at Bucharest (see Treaty of Bucharest (1812)), the Russians annexed the Budjak and the eastern part of Moldavia, which was called Bessarabia.
Bessarabia and Bukovina
Bessarabia, which according to the official Russian census of 1816, 92.5% of the population was Romanian (419,240 Romanians, 30,000 Ukrainians, 19,120 Jews, 6,000 Lipovans), would be held by Russia until 1918. During this time, the percentage of the Romanian population of the area decreased because of the politics of colonization pursued by the Russian government. In the first years following the annexation, several thousand peasant families fled beyond the Pruth out of fear that the Russian authorities would introduce serfdom. This was one of the reasons behind the decision of the Russian government not to extend the regime of serfdom into Bessarbia.
During the first fifteen years after the annexation, Bessarabia enjoyed some measure of autonomy on the basis of "Temporary Rules for the Government of Bessarabia" of 1813 and more fundamentally, "the Statute for the Formation of Bessarbian Province" that was introduced by Alexander I during his personal visit to Chisinau in the spring of 1818. Both documents stipulated that the dispensation of justice is made on the basis of local laws and customs as well as the Russian laws. Romanian was used alongside Russian as the language of administration. The province was placed under the authority of a viceroy who governed together with the Supreme Council formed in part through election from the ranks of the local nobility. A considerable number of positions in the district administration were likewise filled through election. Bessarbia's autonomy was considerably reduced in 1828 when, on the representation of the governor general of New Russia and the viceroy of Bessarabia Prince Mikhail Vorontsov, Nicholas I adopted a new statute which abolished the Supreme Council and reduced the number of elected positions in the local administration.
In parallel, the Russian government pursued the policy of colonization. On 26 June 1812, Tsar Alexander I promulgated the Special Colonization Status of Bessarabia. Bulgarians, Gagauz, Germans, Jews, Swiss and French colonists were brought in. In 1836, the Russian language was imposed as official administration, school and church. Initially an aspect of administrative unification of Bessarabia with the rest of the empire, the promotion of the Russian language in the public sphere became a full-fledged policy of Russification by the end of the 19th century, when the Russian government adopted repressive policies towards local Romanian intellectuals.
Bukovina (including North Bukovina) at that time (1775) had a population of 75,000 Romanians and 12,000 Ukrainians, Jews and Poles. It was annexed to the Habsburg-held province of Galicia, and colonized by Ukrainians, Germans, Hungarians, Jews and Armenians. They were granted free lands and exclusion from paying any taxes. Between 1905 and 1907, 60,000 Romanians were promised more land, and were sent to Siberia and the Central Asian provinces. Instead, further Belarusians and Ukrainians were brought in. The official languages in school and administration were German and Polish.
Transylvania
The Habsburgs
In 1683 Jan Sobieski's Polish army crushed an Ottoman army besieging Vienna, and Christian forces soon began the slow process of driving the Turks from Europe. In 1688 the Transylvanian Diet renounced Ottoman suzerainty and accepted Austrian protection. Eleven years later, the Porte officially recognized Austria's sovereignty over the region. Although an imperial decree reaffirmed the privileges of Transylvania's nobles and the status of its four "recognized" religions, Vienna assumed direct control of the region and the emperor planned annexation.
The Romanian majority remained segregated from Transylvania's political life and almost totally enserfed; Romanians were forbidden to marry, relocate, or practice a trade without the permission of their landlords. Besides oppressive feudal exactions, the Orthodox Romanians had to pay tithes to the Roman Catholic or Protestant church, depending on their landlords' faith. Barred from collecting tithes, Orthodox priests lived in penury, and many labored as peasants to survive.
Under Habsburg rule, Roman Catholics dominated Transylvania's more numerous Protestants, and Vienna mounted a campaign to convert the region to Catholicism. The imperial army delivered many Protestant churches to Catholic hands, and anyone who broke from the Catholic Church was liable to receive a public flogging. The Habsburgs also attempted to persuade Orthodox clergymen to join the Romanian Greek-Catholic Church, which retained Orthodox rituals and customs but accepted four key points of Catholic doctrine and acknowledged papal authority.
Jesuits dispatched to Transylvania promised Orthodox clergymen heightened social status, exemption from serfdom, and material benefits. In 1699 and 1701, Emperor Leopold I decreed Transylvania's Orthodox Church to be one with the Roman Catholic Church; the Habsburgs, however, never intended to make Greek-Catholicism a "received" religion and did not enforce portions of Leopold's decrees that gave Greek-Catholic clergymen the same rights as Roman Catholic priests. Despite an Orthodox synod's acceptance of union, many Orthodox clergy and faithful rejected it.
In 1711, having suppressed an eight-year rebellion of Hungarian nobles and serfs, the Austrian empire consolidated its hold on Transylvania, and within several decades the Greek-Catholic Church proved a seminal force in the rise of Romanian nationalism. Greek-Catholic clergymen had influence in Vienna; and Greek-Catholic priests schooled in Rome and Vienna acquainted the Romanians with Western ideas, wrote histories tracing their Daco-Roman origins, adapted the Latin alphabet to the Romanian language (see Romanian alphabet), and published Romanian grammars and prayer books. The Romanian Greek-Catholic Church's seat at Blaj, in southern Transylvania, became a center of Romanian culture.
The Romanians' struggle for equality in Transylvania found its first formidable advocate in a Greek-Catholic bishop, Inocenţiu Micu-Klein, who, with imperial backing, became a baron and a member of the Transylvanian Diet. From 1729 to 1744, Klein submitted petitions to Vienna on the Romanians' behalf and stubbornly took the floor of Transylvania's Diet to declare that Romanians were the inferiors of no other Transylvanian people, that they contributed more taxes and soldiers to the state than any of Transylvania's "nations", and that only enmity and outdated privileges caused their political exclusion and economic exploitation. Klein fought to gain Greek-Catholic clergymen the same rights as Roman Catholic priests, reduce feudal obligations, restore expropriated land to Romanian peasants, and bar feudal lords from depriving Romanian children of an education.
The bishop's words fell on deaf ears in Vienna; and Hungarian, German, and Szekler deputies, jealously clinging to their noble privileges, openly mocked the bishop and snarled that the Romanians were to the Transylvanian body politic what "moths are to clothing". Klein eventually fled to Rome where his appeals to the Pope proved fruitless. He died in a Roman monastery in 1768. Klein's struggle, however, stirred both Greek-Catholic and Orthodox Romanians to demand equal standing. In 1762 an imperial decree established an organization for Transylvania's Orthodox community, but the empire still denied Orthodoxy equality even with the Greek-Catholic Church.
The Revolt of Horea, Cloşca and Crişan
Emperor Joseph II (ruled 1780–90), before his accession, witnessed the serfs' wretched existence during three tours of Transylvania. As emperor he launched an energetic reform program. Steeped in the teachings of the French Enlightenment, he practised "enlightened despotism," or reform from above designed to preempt revolution from below. He brought the empire under strict central control, launched an education program, and instituted religious tolerance, including full civil rights for Orthodox Christians. In 1784, Transylvanian serfs under Horea, Cloşca and Crişan, convinced they had the Emperor's support, rebelled against their feudal masters, sacked castles and manor houses, and murdered about 100 nobles. Joseph ordered the revolt repressed, but granted amnesty to all participants except their leaders, whom the nobles tortured and put to death in front of peasants brought to witness the execution. Joseph, aiming to strike at the rebellion's root causes, emancipated the serfs, annulled Transylvania's constitution, dissolved the Union of Three Nations, and decreed German as the official language of the empire. Hungary's nobles and Catholic clergy resisted Joseph's reforms, and the peasants soon grew dissatisfied with taxes, conscription, and forced requisition of military supplies. Faced with broad discontent, Joseph rescinded many of his initiatives toward the end of his life.
Joseph II's Germanization decree triggered a chain reaction of national movements throughout the empire. Hungarians appealed for unification of Hungary and Transylvania and Magyarization of minority peoples. Threatened by both Germanization and Magyarization, the Romanians and other minority nations experienced a cultural awakening. In 1791 two Romanian bishops—one Orthodox, the other Greek-Catholic—petitioned Emperor Leopold II (ruled 1790–92) to grant Romanians political and civil rights, to place Orthodox and Greek-Catholic clergy on an equal footing, and to apportion a share of government posts for Romanian appointees; the bishops supported their petition by arguing that Romanians were descendants of the Romans and the aboriginal inhabitants of Transylvania. The Emperor restored Transylvania as a territorial entity and ordered the Transylvanian Diet to consider the petition. The Diet, however, decided only to allow Orthodox believers to practise their faith; the deputies denied the Orthodox Church recognition and refused to give Romanians equal political standing alongside the other Transylvanian nations.
Leopold's successor, Francis I (1792–1835), whose almost abnormal aversion to change and fear of revolution brought his empire four decades of political stagnation, virtually ignored Transylvania's constitution and refused to convoke the Transylvanian Diet for twenty-three years. When the Diet finally reconvened in 1834, the language issue reemerged, as Hungarian deputies proposed making Magyar (Hungarian) the official language of Transylvania. In 1843 the Hungarian Diet passed a law making Magyar Hungary's official language, and in 1847 the Transylvanian Diet enacted a law requiring the government to use Magyar. Transylvania's Romanians protested futilely.
At the end of the 17th century, following the defeat of the Turks, Hungary and Transylvania become part of the Habsburg monarchy. The Austrians, in turn, rapidly expanded their empire: in 1718 an important part of Wallachia, called Oltenia, was incorporated into the Austrian Empire as the Banat of Craiova and was only returned in 1739.
Towards independence
See also
List of Wallachian rulers (up to 1859)
List of Moldavian rulers (up to 1859)
List of Transylvanian rulers (up to 1918)
References
Bibliography
Charles Upson Clark: Bessarabia: Russia and Roumania on the Black Sea ;
Stanislaw Schwann: Marx-Engels Archives, International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam, the Netherlands;
Karl Marx – Însemnări despre români, Ed. Academiei RPR, București, 1964
Pop, Ioan Aurel, Istoria Transilvaniei medievale: de la etnogeneza românilor până la Mihai Viteazul ("Histori of medieval Transylvania, from the ethno-genesis the Romanians until Mihai Viteazul"), Cluj-Napoca.
Iorga Nicolae: "Byzance après Byzance. Continuation de l'"Histoire de la vie Byzantine"", Institut d'Etudes Byzantines, Bucharest 1935;
Chris Hellier "Monasteries of Greece"; Tauris Editions, London 1995;
History of Romania by period
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111th Attack Squadron
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The 111th Attack Squadron (111 ATKS) is a unit of the Texas Air National Guard 147th Attack Wing located at Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base, Houston, Texas. The 111th is equipped with the General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV).
The squadron is a descendant organization of the World War I 111th Aero Squadron, established on 14 August 1917. It was reformed on 29 June 1923, as the 111th Observation Squadron, and is one of the 29 original National Guard Observation Squadrons of the United States Army National Guard formed before World War II.
The 111th Attack Squadron is the oldest unit of the Texas Air National Guard, with over 95 years of service to the State of Texas and the United States.
History
World War I
The Texas Air National Guard began as the 111th Aero Squadron on 14 August 1917 at Kelly Field in San Antonio, TX. The unit, composed of teamsters and laborers, was on special duty at Kelly Field and was known as the "Post Headquarters Squadron." The squadron was demobilized 19 August 1919.
Texas National Guard
The unit was reorganized with the establishment of a permanent air service in 1920, forming in the old Houston Light Guard Armory. The 111th Observation Squadron received Federal Recognition on 29 June 1923, as part of the 36th Division, Texas Air National Guard.
The squadron had no airplanes, so the hot summer of 1923 was devoted to close-order drill and classroom sessions. That was remedied, however, in September of that year when the 111th became airborne in the Curtiss JN-6H Jenny.
In September 1927 the Curtiss JN-6Hs were retired and the squadron gained Consolidated PT-1s and several other trainers until June 1928 when new Douglas O-2H observation aircraft arrived. During the next 10 years, the 111th performed outstanding civic service to the State of Texas, dropping medicine and relief supplies to many of the towns that were isolated by floodwaters, tornados, and fires. New Douglas O-38 observation planes were received in January 1931. By 1938 the squadron was flying both Douglas Douglas O-43As and North American O-47s.
World War II
With the onset of World War II, the unit was called into federal service 25 November 1940 and trained with the 36th Division at Brownwood Airfield Texas until Pearl Harbor was bombed, it was sent to the Mexican border, Fort Clark Springs Texas. The border patrol was short, and on 14 February 1942, the squadron left Texas for Daniel Field in Augusta, Georgia, and became part of the 68th Observation Group. Pilots trained on Douglas O-43A, Vultee/Stinson O-49/L-1 Vigilant and Douglas A-20B Havoc aircraft in preparation for deployment to the European Theater of Operations (ETO).
In 1942 the ground echelon and some pilots made their way to Scotland then England in preparation for landing on the Algerian beaches as part of Operation Torch, their shiny new P-39 Airacobras had to be assembled and tested before flying from England to Algeria. Some of the pilots of the 68th Group flew their A-20s directly across the Atlantic on the "Southern Route" and immediately began flying over the Mediterranean in anti-submarine patrols, sinking at least one submarine. As the invasion force moved inland, the three squadrons of the group divided up the A-20s and P-39s by squadron and the 111th took on the Fighter Reconnaissance role in the P-39.
In March 1943, the 111th left the 68th Group to defend against a possible invasion of French Morocco from Spanish Morocco while the rest of the group was selected to support the Tunisian Campaign of the Army's II Corps. In June 1943 the newly redesignated 111th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, flying Allison engined F-6A or F-6B Mustangs (taken from a British order of Mk IAs), became the eyes of the 7th Army in Sicily, Operation Husky. They were temporarily assigned to the 5th Army in Italy for the invasion of Salerno, "the 111th Fighter Reconnaissance Squadron had been trained to spot naval gunfire". They returned in July 1944 in time to support the 7th Army's invasion of southern France, Operation Dragoon. In addition to the older F-6A/F-6B Mustangs, they began receiving F-6C Mustangs (the photo recon version of the P-51C). The 111th remained with the 7th Army through the end of the war. From VE Day until December 1945, the Squadron served in the occupation force, and conducted postwar photo-mapping of the devastation in France.
During 23 months of continuous combat flying, from June 1943 through May 1945, the 111th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron flew 3,840 reconnaissance missions. While keeping Army Headquarters informed of enemy movements, the 111th destroyed 44 enemy aircraft, damaged 29 others and claimed 12 probable kills. The squadron received eight Battle Stars, a Distinguished Unit Citation, and the French Croix de Guerre for its World War II accomplishments.
Texas Air National Guard
The wartime 111th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron was re-designated as the 111th Fighter Squadron, and was allotted to the Texas Air National Guard, on 24 May 1946. It was organized at the Houston Municipal Airport and was extended federal recognition on 27 January 1947 by the National Guard Bureau. The 111th Fighter Squadron was bestowed the lineage, history, honors, and colors of the 111th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron and all predecessor units. The squadron was assigned to the Texas Air National Guard 136th Fighter Group and was equipped with F-51D Mustangs.
The mission of the squadron was the air defense of Texas. During the postwar years, the 111th primarily trained over the southern and eastern parts of the state; the 181st Fighter Squadron, based at Love Field, Dallas, and covered the south east, and the 182d Fighter Squadron, based at Brooks AFB, near San Antonio covered the Hill Country and west Texas.
Korean War activation
As a result of the Korean War, the Texas Air National Guard was federalized and placed on active-duty status on 10 October 1950, being assigned to Ninth Air Force, Tactical Air Command (TAC). TAC ordered the 136th Fighter Group to Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, where the unit was re-designated to a Fighter-Bomber unit, and its status was changed to a Wing. At Langley, the 136th Fighter-Bomber Wing consisted of the following units:
111th Fighter-Bomber Squadron
182d Fighter-Bomber Squadron
154th Fighter-Bomber Squadron (Arkansas ANG).
At Langley AFB, the 136th trained with their F-51D Mustangs. Unfortunately losing two 111th FBS pilots in a training accident on 15 December. A third pilot was killed on 27 January 1951 in another accident. In February 1951, the aged F-51Ds that the unit had been flying since its activation in 1947 were replaced by F-84E Thunderjets, and the squadron began transition training on the jet fighter-bomber. Most of the training took place at Langley, although some pilots were sent to Shaw AFB, South Carolina. Maintenance crews, all new to jet aircraft, were trained at Langley and engine specialists were sent to the Allison plant in Indianapolis. Assigned to the Arkansas ANG 154th FBS at the time was a Navy exchange pilot, future NASA astronaut Lt. Walter Schirra (who happened to be the only pilot assigned to the 136th at the time who was a qualified jet pilot).
In May 1951, less than seven months later, the Wing was deployed to Japan, being attached to Far East Air Force and stationed at Itazuke Air Force Base, the first echelon of the 136th arriving on 18 May. The 136th replaced the Strategic Air Command 27th Fighter-Escort Wing, which had deployed to Far East Air Force in the early days of the Korean War. At Itazuke, the squadrons took over the F-84Es of the 27th FEW, which remained in place, its aircraft being reassigned from SAC to Far East Air Force inventory records. On 2 June, the final elements of the 136th arrived in Japan, the National Guardsmen officially relieved the 27th FBW and the SAC airmen departed for the United States. The 136th was the first Air National Guard Wing in history to enter combat.
From Japan the Wing engaged in combat operations over South Korea, however flying in the North Pacific area was a challenge to the wing, losing seven F-84Es in non-combat operations and three in combat. On 26 June, in one of the largest air-to-air battles in Korea, two 182d FBS pilots, Captain Harry Underwood and 1st LT Arthur Olighter shot down an enemy MiG-15 that broke through an F-86 Sabre escort of four B-29s. Two other 111th FBS pilots, 1st Lt John Morse and John Marlins scored probables in the same encounter. These were the first combat victories by Air National Guard pilots. On 3 July the 136th sent their aircraft to North Korea, attacking FLAK batteries in downtown Pyongyang while other aircraft attacked North Korean airfields.
However, the short-legged F-84 had limited combat time over Korea, therefore on 16 November 1951 the Wing moved to Taegu Air Force Base (K-2) in South Korea for its combat operations. In 1952, the 136th was re-equipped with the F-84G Thunderjet, designed for tactical close air support of ground forces.
The squadron flew over 6,000 escort, interdiction, and close air support sorties for the United Nations Troops and 111th Fighter-Bomber Squadron pilots destroyed at least two Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 fighter jets.
The 111th Fighter-Bomber Squadron returned to the Houston Municipal Airport without aircraft or personnel in July 1952 and began to rebuild. In July 1956 the F-80 Shooting Stars of the 111th Fighter Squadron went on "Dawn to Dusk" alert at the Houston Municipal Airport.
Air Defense Command
With the 111th's return from the Korean War, the 111th was re-equipped with the Very Long Range (VLR) F-51H Mustang, which had been developed to escort B-29 Superfortress bombers in the Pacific Theater from the Mariana Islands to the Japanese Home Islands. The F-51H would allow the squadron to intercept any unidentified aircraft over any part of Texas. The squadron became part of Air Defense Command (ADC) and resumed its postwar mission of Texas air defense.
It wasn't until 1955 that the squadron received jets from ADC, receiving F-80B and F-80C Shooting Stars and being re-designated as a Fighter-Interceptor Squadron. The 111th received F-80C-11 (modified F-80A to F-80C standards) Shooting Stars on 1 July 1955, and on 1 July 1956 the 111th FIS commenced to participate in the active ADC runway alert program at Ellington AFB.
With the squadron's conversion from the obsolescent F-80-day fighters to the all-weather/day/night F-86D Sabre Interceptor in 1957, plans were made to reorganize the 600-man Augmented Squadron to an Air Defense Command group structure. On 1 July 1957, the 111th was authorized to expand to a group level, and the 147th Fighter-Interceptor Group was established by the National Guard Bureau. The 111th FIS becoming the group's flying squadron. Other squadrons assigned into the group were the 147th Headquarters, 147th Material Squadron (Maintenance), 147th Combat Support Squadron, and the 147th USAF Dispensary. In June 1959 the squadron traded their F-86Ds for the upgraded F-86L Sabre Interceptor with uprated afterburning engines and new electronics.
In August 1960 the unit became one of the first to transition to the F-102A Delta Dagger Mach-2 all-weather interceptor and began a 24-hour alert to guard the Texas Gulf coast. On 1 January 1970, the squadron was re-designated as the 111th Combat Crew Training Squadron and served as the Air National Guard's RTU (Replacement Training Unit) for the TF/F-102A. In 1971, when the active-duty force ceased F-102A training and closed Perrin AFB, Texas on 30 June 1971, the Houston-based 111th FIS became the Replacement Training Unit (RTU) for all Air Defense Command F-102 pilots, and the squadron received several TF-102A dual-seat trainers which were transferred from Perrin AFB while also retaining the T-33A instrument training function.
One pilot who flew TF/F-102As with the 111th was 1st Lt. George W. Bush, a future Governor of Texas and future President of the United States. George W. Bush's military service began in 1968 when he enlisted in the Texas Air National Guard after graduating with a bachelor's degree in history from Yale University. After being accepted into the ANG, Airman Basic Bush was selected to attend pilot training even though his test scores were the lowest acceptable for that position. His six weeks of basic training was completed at Lackland AFB in Texas during July and August 1968. Upon its completion, Bush was promoted to the officer's rank of second lieutenant required for pilot candidates. He spent the next year in flight school at Moody AFB in Georgia from November 1968 to November 1969. Bush then returned to Ellington AFB in Texas to complete seven months of combat crew training on the F-102 from December 1969 to June 1970. This period included five weeks of training on the T-33 Shooting Star and 16 weeks aboard the TF-102A Delta Dagger two-seat trainer and finally the single-seat F-102A. Bush graduated from the training program in June 1970. Lt. Bush remained in the Texas ANG as a certified F-102 pilot who participated in frequent drills and alerts through April 1972. Lt. Bush was honorably discharged from the Air National Guard in October 1973 at the rank of First Lieutenant. An ANG physical dated 15 May 1971 indicates that he had logged 625 flight hours by that time, and he ultimately completed 326 hours as pilot and 10 as co-pilot while serving with the 111th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron.
In May 1971, the 111th added F-101B/F Voodoos and became the RTU tar the twin seat F-101F type, while continuing as the F-102 Delta Dagger RTU. In January 1975, after 14 years of service, the unit's F-102s were retired, but the unit maintained a full fleet of F-101s.
The 111th also operated detachment 1 of the 147th FIW at New Orleans. The detachment was apart from the squadron in that it maintained constant alert status whilst facing towards Cuba.
Tactical Air Command
In October 1979, in as part of the inactivation of Aerospace Defense Command, the USAF gained command responsibilities which shifted to Tactical Air Command (TAC) and a sub-organization equivalent to a numbered air force designated as Air Defense, Tactical Air Command (ADTAC). In 1982, the F-101s were retired and ADTAC re-equipped the 111th with the McDonnell F-4C Phantom II and continued its air defense mission. Most of the F-4Cs the squadron received were Vietnam War veteran aircraft. In November 1986, the F-4Cs were replaced by later-model F-4Ds.
In December 1989 the 111th FIS started receiving block 15 F-16C/D Fighting Falcon aircraft to replace their F-4Ds. The last F-16 arrived in April 1990.
Post Cold War era
In 1992, only a few years following the acceptance of their block 15s, they converted to the ADF variant of the block 15. On 15 March 15, 1992 the 111th FIS was re-designated the 111th Fighter Squadron when its parent 147th Fighter Group converted to the USAF Objective Organization plan. Also in 1992 the 111th FS celebrated their 75th anniversary. To commemorate this F-16A ADF #82-1001 was painted in special markings including a big Texas flag painted on the fuselage underside. During September 1995, the 111th FS ended its alert detachment in New Orleans with the F-101 Voodoo, also the 147th was upgraded to a Wing, with the 111th Fighter Squadron being assigned to the new 147th Operations Group.
In late 1996 the 111th started to retire their ADF F-16s to AMARC. To replace these aircraft the squadron received the block 25 F-16C/D Fighting Falcon. Transition started in September 1996 and was completed by February 1997. This brought a change in role which officially happened in October 1998. The role went from air-to-air to an air-to-ground mission. After returning from an Operation Southern Watch mission at Prince Sultan Air Base, Saudi Arabia in October 2000, the squadron added Precision Guided Munitions to its arsenal.
Global War on Terrorism
Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks, four 111th Fighter Squadron aircraft were launched to escort President George W. Bush, onboard Air Force 1 from Florida to Louisiana, Nebraska and finally back to Washington DC that same day. December 2001 saw the 111th deploy to Atlantic City, New Jersey, to fly Air Defense Combat Air Patrol missions over New York, Philadelphia and Washington DC in support of Operation Noble Eagle.
In August 2005 components of the 111th Fighter Squadron and 147th Fighter Wing deployed to Balad Airbase, Iraq to conduct combat operations in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom and the Global War on Terrorism. The men and women of the 111th FS/147th FW once again distinguished themselves by flying 462 sorties and almost 1,900 hours in a two-month span; with a perfect record of 100% maintenance delivery (zero missed sorties), 100% mission effectiveness, and 100% weapons employment/hits under the most challenging combat conditions.
In April 2007, components of the 111th Fighter Squadron and 147th Fighter Wing again deployed to Balad Airbase, Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom and the Global War on Terrorism, where the men and women of the 111th FS/147th FW continued their distinguished combat tradition. On this deployment the 111th Fighter Squadron flew 348 tasked sorties, plus six no-notice Close Air Support (CAS) alert scrambles and four short-notice (less than 30-minute & not on the ATO) pre-planned alert launches. With an average combat sortie lasting almost 4.42 hours, the unit accumulated a total of 1537.1 combat hours. Maintenance delivery effectiveness for this deployment was an astonishing 102% due to the inclusion of the unscheduled CAS scrambles. Mission effectiveness and weapons employment were both once again a perfect 100%.
90th Anniversary
In November 2007, an F-16C Fighting Falcon from the Texas Air National Guard's 111th Fighter Squadron received a special paint job in honor of the squadron's 90th anniversary.
All the colors and markings have specific meanings, reflecting the unit's nine-decade history. The rudder is painted like a JN-4 Jenny, which the squadron flew in the 1920s. The schemes for the wings and flaps recall the paint schemes of the pre-World War II era.
The blue fuselage represents the Korean War, in which the squadron earned credit for two air victories. The gray underside represents the jet age.
The "N5 A" was the insignia the squadron's P-51 Mustangs sported during World War II, in which the squadron claimed 44 air victories. Also representing World War II is the star on the fuselage, while the star on the wing represents the pre-World War II era.
"Ace in the Hole" and the star on the tail replicate the markings of the squadron's F-84s during the Korean War. The ventral fin, partially obscured, reads "Est. 1917."
BRAC 2005 reorganization
During the 2005 Base Realignment and Closure Commission, it was recommended that the F-16 block 25s be retired. Texas Governor, Rick Perry, reacted quickly and made sure the unit could remain alive and did so by securing MQ-1 Predator operations. This is an unmanned aircraft and although not exactly what the 111th FS had hoped for, it would keep the unit going well into the future.
As was earlier planned in 2005, the 111th FS gave up its last two F-16s on 7 June 2008 and F-16 operations drew to a close. The MQ-1 replaced the F-16 and the parent wing was renamed the 147th Reconnaissance Wing that same month.
Lineage
Organized as 111th Aero Squadron** on 14 August 1917
Re-designated as 111th Aero Squadron (Supply) on 1 September 1917
Re-designated 632d Aero Squadron (Supply) on 1 February 1918
Demobilized on 19 August 1919
Re-constituted and consolidated (1936) with 111th Observation Squadron which, having been allotted to Texas NG, was activated on 29 June 1923
Ordered to active service on 25 November 1940
Re-designated: 111th Observation Squadron (Medium) on 13 January 1942
Re-designated: 111th Observation Squadron on 4 July 1942
Re-designated: 111th Reconnaissance Squadron (Fighter) on 31 May 1943
Re-designated: 111th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron on 13 November 1943
Inactivated on 15 December 1945
Re-designated: 111th Fighter Squadron, and allotted to Texas ANG, on 24 May 1946.
Extended federal recognition on 27 January 1947
Federalized and ordered to active service on: 10 October 1950
Re-designated: 111th Fighter-Bomber Squadron, 19 April 1951
Released from active duty and returned to Texas state control, 10 July 1952
Re-designated: 111th Fighter-Bomber Squadron, 10 July 1952
Re-designated: 111th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, 1 July 1955
Re-designated: 111th Combat Crew Training Squadron, 1 January 1970
Re-designated: 111th Fighter Interceptor Squadron, 1 October 1982
Re-designated: 111th Fighter Squadron, 10 March 1992
Components designated as: 111th Expeditionary Fighter Squadron when deployed as part of an Air and Space Expeditionary unit after June 1996
Re-designated: 111th Reconnaissance Squadron, 1 July 2008
Re-designated: 111th Attack Squadron', 2017
** This unit is not related to another 111th Aero Squadron (Service) that was activated in April 1918 at Rich Field, Waco, Texas.
Assignments
Post Headquarters, Kelly Field, 14 August 1917 – 19 August 1919
Texas National Guard (divisional aviation, 36th Division), 29 June 1923
Eighth Corps Area, 25 November 1940
United States Third Army, c. Dec 1940
VIII Army Corps, c. Mar 1941
United States Third Army, c. Jun 1941
III Air Support Command, 1 September 1941
Attached to: 68th Observation Group from Feb 1942
Eighth Air Force, 16 March 1942
68th Observation (later Reconnaissance; Tactical Reconnaissance) Group, 29 March 1942
Attached to: XII Air Support [later Tactical Air] Command, 12–31 Mar 1943, 20 June 1943 – 26 May 1944
Attached to: 3d Air Defense [later 64th Fighter] Wing for operations, Jun–Sep 1943
XII Tactical Air Command, 26 May 1944
Attached to Provisional Reconnaissance Group, 16 October 1944
69th Tactical Reconnaissance (later Reconnaissance) Group, 20 April 1945
10th Reconnaissance Group, 2 Jul – 15 December 1945.
136th Fighter Group, 27 January 1947
136th Fighter-Interceptor Group, 20 July 1952
136th Fighter-Bomber Group, 1 January 1953
147th Fighter-Interceptor Group, 1 July 1957
147th Fighter Group, 10 March 1992
147th Operations Group, 1 October 1995–present
Stations
Kelly Field, Texas, 14 August 1917 – 19 August 1919
Ellington Field, Texas, 29 June 1923
Houston Municipal Airport, Texas, 1927
Brownwood Army Airfield, Texas, 12 January 1941
Camp Clark, Texas, Dec 1941
Daniel Field, Georgia, 19 February 1942
Morris Field, North Carolina, 9 Jul – 22 September 1942
RAF Wattisham (AAF-377), England, 3–21 Oct 1942
Saint-Leu Airfield, Algeria, 10 November 1942
Oran Tafaraoui Airport, Algeria 16 November 1942
Oujda Airfield, French Morocco, 19 December 1942
Detachment operated from Oran Es Sénia Airport, Algeria 11–27 Feb 1943
Guercif Airfield, French Morocco, 4 April 1943
Nouvion Airfield, Algeria, 27 May 1943
Air echelon at Bou Ficha Airfield, Tunisia, c. 20 Jun – 2 July 1943
Tunis Airfield, Tunisia, 3 July 1943
Air echelon at: Korba Airfield, Tunisia, 2–14 Jul 1943
Air echelon at: Ponte Olivo, Sicily, 14–16 Jul 1943
Ponte Olivo Airfield, Sicily, 16 July 1943
Gela Airfield, Sicily, 19 July 1943
Termini Airfield, Sicily, 11 August 1943
Detachment operated from Gela Airfield, Sicily, to 2 September 1943
San Antonio Airfield, Sicily, 1 September 1943
Sele Airfield, Italy, 16 September 1943
Detachment operated from: San Antonio Airfield, Sicily, to 30 September 1943
Detachment operated from: Capodichino Airport, Naples, Italy, 30 Sep-14 Oct 1943
Pomigliano Airfield, Italy, 5 October 1943
Detachment operated from: Santa Maria Airfield, Italy, 18 Apr – 6 June 1944
Santa Maria Airfield, Italy, 9 May 1944
Nettuno Airfield, Italy, 6 June 1944
Galera Airfield, Italy, 11 June 1944
Voltone Airfield, Italy, 18 June 1944
Follonica Airfield, Italy, 2 July 1944
Borgo Airfield, Corsica, 21 Ju1 1944
Detachment operated from: Santa Maria Airfield, Italy, 21 Jul – 9 August 1944
Detachment operated from: St Maxime and Grimaud, France, 15–21 Aug 1944
Detachment operated from: St. Raphael/Frejus Airfield (Y-12), France, after 21 August 1944
St. Raphael/Frejus Airfield (Y-12), France, 27 August 1944
Valance Airfield (Y-23), France, 5 September 1944
Satolas-et-Bonce Airfield (MTO), France, 9 September 1944
Dijon Airfield (Y-9), France, 23 September 1944
Nancy-Azelot Airfield (Y-80), France, 30 October 1944
Haguenau Airfield (Y-39), France, 2 April 1945
AAF Station Fürth, Germany, 1 July 1945
Creil, France, 15 Oct-15 Dec 1945
Houston Municipal Airport, Texas, 27 January 1947
Ellington Air Force Base, Houston, Texas, 1956
Ellington Air National Guard Base, Houston, Texas, 1 July 1976
Designated: Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base, Houston, Texas, 1991–Present
Known deployments
Korean War Federalization
Operated from: Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, 24 October 1950 – 13 May 1951
Operated from: Itazuke Air Base, Japan, 15 May 1951
Operated from: Taegu Air Base (K-2), South Korea, 16 November 1951 – 9 July 1952
Operation Southern Watch (AEF)
Operated from: Ahmad al-Jaber Air Base, Kuwait 1997 (6 F-16s)
Operation Southern Watch (AEF)
Operated from: Prince Sultan Air Base, Saudi Arabia, October-15 November 2000
Operation Iraqi Freedom (AEF)
Operated from: Balad Air Base, Iraq, August–October 2005
Operated from: Balad Air Base, Iraq, April–June 2007
Aircraft
Included JN-4, TW-3, PT-1, PT-3, BT-1, 0-2, and 0-17 during period 1923–1931
Douglas O-38, 1931–1935
Douglas O-43, 1935–1942
North American O-47, C. 1939–1942
O-49 Vigilant, 1941–1942
Douglas O-9, 1941–1942
O-59 Grasshopper, 1941–1942
F-3A Havoc, 1942–1943
P-39F-2 Airacobra, 1943
Spitfire PR XI, 1943
F-4 Lightning, 1943
F-6 Mustang, 1943–1945
A-36 Apache, 1943–1944
UC-64A Norseman, 1945
L-5 Sentinel, 1945
F-51D Mustang, 1947–1951
F-84E Thunderjet, 1951–1952
F-84G Thunderjet, 1952
F-51H Mustang, 1952–1955
F-80 Shooting Star, 1955–1957
F-86D Sabre Interceptor, 1957–1959
F-86L Sabre Interceptor, 1959–1960
TF/F-102A Delta Dagger, 1960–1975
F-101B/F Voodoo, 1971–1982
RF-4C Phantom II, 1974
F-4C Phantom II, 1982–1987
F-4D Phantom II, 1987–1989
Block 15 F-16A/B Fighting Falcon, 1989–1996
Block 25 F-16C/D Fighting Falcon, 1996–2008
MQ-1B Predator, 2008–2017
MQ-9 Reaper, 2017-Present
Support Aircraft
C-26B Metroliner (1991–2007)
C-26A Metroliner (1989–1995)
C-131B Samaritan (1978–1989) (Miss Piggy)
VT-29D Samaritan (1974–1978)
Cessna U-3A (1970–1974)
C-54 Skymaster (1967–1974)
T-33A Shooting Star (1951–1987), (1957–1962) (18 aircraft for the Jet Instruction School)
C-47 Skytrain (1947–1967)
B-26 Invader (1947–1950) (Target tug)
L-5 Sentinel (1947–1951)
Republic P-43 Lancer (1942) (State-side training)
P-40 Warhawk (1942) (State-side training)
BC-1A Texan (1940–1941)
O-17 Courier (1928–1933) – supplemented O-2Hs, later modified-the PT-3 standard and kept as trainers
PT-1 Trusty (1927)
Huff-Daland TW-5 (1924–1926)
PT-1 Trusty (1924–1926)
Vought VE-7 Bluebird (1924–1926)
Airco DH-4B (1924–1926) – single aircraft assigned-the Unit Instructor
See also
List of American aero squadrons
List of observation squadrons of the United States Army National Guard
References
Air Defense Aircraft
Ross, Steven T. U.S. War Plans 1938–1945. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner, 2002. .
Rottman, Gordon L. Korean War Order of Battle: United States, United Nations, and Communist Ground, Naval, and Airforces, 1950–1953. Westport Connecticut: Praeger, 2002. .
Scutts, Jerry. Mustang Aces of the Ninth & 15th Airforces and the RAF. London: Osprey, 1995. .
Tucker, Spencer C., Kim, Jinwung, Nichols, Michael R., Pierpaoli, Paul G. Jr., Roberts, Priscilla D. and Zehr, Norman R., eds. Encyclopedia of the Korean War: A Political, Social, and Military History. Oxford, UK: ABC-Clio Inc., 2000. .
Rogers, B. (2006). United States Air Force Unit Designations Since 1978.
Cornett, Lloyd H. and Johnson, Mildred W., A Handbook of Aerospace Defense Organization 1946–1980, Office of History, Aerospace Defense Center, Peterson AFB, CO (1980).
Maurer, Maurer. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force: World War II''. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Office of Air Force History, 1982.
External links
147th Fighter Wing History
Texas Military Museum
Squadrons of the United States Air National Guard
Military units and formations in Texas
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Ellington Airport (Texas)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Christian%20thought%20on%20persecution%20and%20tolerance
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History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance
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The history of Christian thought has included concepts of both inclusivity and exclusivity from its beginnings, that have been understood and applied differently in different ages, and have led to practices of both persecution and toleration. Early Christian thought established Christian identity, defined heresy, separated itself from polytheism and Judaism and developed the theological conviction called supersessionism. In the centuries after Christianity became the official religion of Rome, some scholars say Christianity became a persecuting religion. Others say the change to Christian leadership did not cause a persecution of pagans, and that what little violence occurred was primarily directed at non-orthodox Christians.
After the fall of the Roman Empire, Christian thought focused more on preservation than origination. This era of thought is exemplified by Gregory the Great, Saint Benedict, Visigothic Spain, illustrated manuscripts, and progress in medical care through monks. Although the roots of supersessionism and deicide can be traced to some second century Christian thought, Jews of the Middle Ages lived mostly peacefully alongside their Christian neighbors because of Augustine of Hippo's teaching that they should be left alone. In the Early Middle Ages, Christian thought on the military and involvement in war shifted to accommodate the crusades by inventing chivalry and new monastic orders dedicated to it. There was no single thread of Christian thought throughout most of the Middle Ages as the church was largely democratic and each order had its own doctrine.
The High Middle Ages were pivotal in both European culture and Christian thought. Feudal kings began to lay the foundation of what would become their modern nations by centralizing power. They gained power through multiple means including persecution. Christian thought played a supportive role, as did the literati, a group of ambitious intellectuals who had contempt for those they thought beneath them, by verbally legitimizing those attitudes and actions. This contributed to a turning point in Judeo-Christian relations in the 1200s. Heresy became a religious, political, and social issue which led to civil disorder and the Medieval Inquisitions. The Albigensian Crusade is seen by many as evidence of Christianity's propensity for intolerance and persecution, while other scholars say it was conducted by the secular powers for their own ends.
The Late Middle Ages are marked by a decline of papal power and church influence with accommodation to secular power becoming more and more of an aspect of Christian thought. The modern Inquisitions were formed in the Late Middle Ages at the special request of the Spanish and Portuguese sovereigns. Where the medieval inquisitions had limited power and influence, the powers of the modern "Holy Tribunal" were taken over, extended and enlarged by the power of the state into "one of the most formidable engines of destruction which ever existed." During the Northern Crusades, Christian thought on conversion shifted to a pragmatic acceptance of conversion obtained through political pressure or military coercion even though theologians of the period continued to write that conversion must be voluntary.
By the time of the early Reformation (1400–1600), the conviction developed among the early Protestants that pioneering the concepts of religious freedom and religious toleration was necessary. Scholars say tolerance has never been an attitude broadly espoused by an entire society, not even western societies, and that only a few outstanding individuals, historically, have truly fought for it. In the West, Christian reformation figures, and later Enlightenment intellectuals, advocated for tolerance in the century preceding, during, and after the Reformation and into the Enlightenment. Contemporary Christians generally agree that tolerance is preferable to conflict, and that heresy and dissent are not deserving of punishment. Despite that, the systematized government-supported persecution of minorities invented in the West in the High Middle Ages for garnering power to the state has spread throughout the world. Sociology indicates tolerance and persecution are products of context and group identity more than ideology.
Early Christian thought from the first century to Constantine
Historical background
In its first three centuries, Christian thought was just beginning to define what it meant to be a Christian, distinct from paganism and Judaism, through its definitions of orthodoxy and heterodoxy. Early Christian writers worked to reconcile the Jewish founding story, the Christian gospel of the Apostles, and the Greek tradition of knowing the divine through reason, but the substance of Christian orthodoxy was increasingly found in the homogeneous canon of writings believed to be apostolic (written by the apostles), that had circulated widely as such, and the writings of the church fathers that were based on them.
Persecution and tolerance are both the result of alterity, the state of otherness, and the question of how to properly deal with those who are 'outside' the defined identity. Like the other Abrahamic religions, Christian thought has included, from its beginnings, two ideals which have affected Christian responses to alterity: inclusivity (also called universality) and exclusivity, or as David Nirenberg describes them, our "mutual capacities for coexistence and violence." There is an inherent tension in all the Abrahamic traditions between exclusivity and inclusivity which is theologically and practically dealt with by each in different ways.
Justo L. González traces three veins of Christian thought that began in the second century. Out of Carthage, Tertullian the lawyer (155–200 CE) wrote of Christianity as revelation of the law of God. From the pluralistic city of Alexandria, Origen wrote of the commonalities between philosophy and theology, reason and revelation, seeing Christianity as the intellectual pursuit of transcendent truth. In Asia Minor and Syria, Irenaeus saw Christianity as God working in human history through its pastoral work of reaching people with God's love. Each vein of thought has continued throughout Christian history, and have impacted attitudes toward and practices of tolerance and persecution.
Inclusivity, exclusivity and heresy
Early Christian communities were highly inclusive in terms of social stratification and other social categories, much more so than were the Roman voluntary associations. Heterogeneity characterized the groups formed by Paul the Apostle, and the role of women was much greater than in either of the forms of Judaism or paganism in existence at the time. Early Christians were told to love others, even enemies, and Christians of all classes and sorts called each other "brother" and "sister". These concepts and practices were foundational to early Christian thought, have remained central, and can be seen as early precursors to modern concepts of tolerance.
Though tolerance was not a fully developed concept, and was held with some ambivalence, Guy Stroumsa says Christian thought of this era promotes inclusivity, yet invents the concept of heresy at the same time. Tertullian, a second-century Christian intellectual and lawyer from Carthage, advocated for religious tolerance primarily in an effort to convince pagan readers that Christianity should be allowed into the religious "market-place" that historian John North proposes second century Rome had become. On the other hand, Stroumsa argues that Tertullian knew co-existence meant competition, so he attempted to undermine the legitimacy of the pagan religions by comparing them to Christianity at the same time he advocated for tolerance from them. Justin Martyr (100–165 CE) wrote his First Apology (155–157 CE) against heretics, and is generally attributed with inventing the concept of heresy in Christian thought. Historian Geoffrey S. Smith argues that Justin writes only to answer objections his friends are facing and to defend these friends from ill treatment and even death. He quotes Justin in a letter to the emperor as saying he is writing: "On behalf of those from every race of men who are unjustly hated and ill-treated, being one of them myself." However, Alain Le Boulluec argues it is within this period that use of the term "heretic" in Christian thought and writings changes from neutral to derogatory.
Supersessionism
Supersessionist thought is defined by "two core beliefs: (1) that the nation of Israel has forfeited its status as the people of God through disobedience; and (2) the New Testament church has therefore become the true Israel and inheritor of the promises made to the nation of Israel." It has three forms: punitive, economic, and/or structural supersessionism. Punitive supersessionism is the 'hard' form of supersessionism, and is seen as punishment from God. Economic supersessionism is a moderate form concerning God's economy: His plan in history to transfer the role of the "people of God" from an ethnic group to a universal group. The third form involves the New Testament having priority over the Old Testament by ignoring or replacing the original meaning of Old Testament passages. For example, within the early church, the rise of the use of Greek philosophical interpretation and allegory allowed inferences to be drawn such as the one Tertullian drew when he allegorically interpreted the statement "the older will serve the younger", concerning the twin sons of Isaac and Rebekah (Genesis 25.23), to mean that Israel would serve the church.
There is no agreement on when supersessionism began. Michael J. Vlach says that some claim it began in the New Testament, some say it began with the church fathers, others place its beginnings after the Bar Kokhba revolt in CE135. The destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in CE70 and again in CE135 had a profound impact on Jewish–Christian relations. Many saw the Jewish–Christians as traitors for not supporting their brethren, and Vlach says supersessionism grew out of those events. Scholars such as W. C. Kaiser Jr. see the fourth century, after Constantine, as supersessionism's true beginning, because that is when a shift in Christian thought on eschatology took place. The church took its universally held traditional interpretation of Revelation 20:4-6 (Millennialism) and its hope of the thousand-year reign of the Messiah on earth, centered in Jerusalem, ruling with the redeemed Israel, and replaced it with a "historicized and allegorized version, that set up the church" as the metaphorical Israel instead.
Tracing the roots of supersessionism to the New Testament is problematic since "there is no consensus" that supersessionism is a biblical doctrine at all. Vlatch says one's position on this is determined more by one's beginning assumptions than it is by any biblical hermeneutic. Arguments in favor of supersessionism have traditionally been based on implications and inferences rather than biblical texts. Vlatch asserts that the church has also "always had compelling scriptural reasons, in both Testaments, to believe in a future salvation and restoration of the nation Israel." Therefore, supersessionism has never been an official doctrine and has never been universally held. Supersessionism's alternative is chiliasm, also known as Millennialism. These are both the belief that Christ will return to earth in visible form and establish a kingdom to last 1000 years. This was the traditional and more universally held view of the first two centuries, and has remained an aspect of Christian thought throughout its history. Steven D. Aguzzi says supersessionism was still considered a "normative view" in the writings of the early church fathers, such as Justin, Barnabas and Origen, and has also been a part of Christian thought for much of the church's history.
Evaluation
Supersessionism is significant in Christian thought because "It is undeniable that anti-Jewish bias has often gone hand-in-hand with the supersessionist view." Many Jewish writers trace anti-semitism, and the consequences of it in World War II, to this particular doctrine among Christians. Twentieth-century Jewish civil rights leader Leonard P. Zakim asserts that, despite the many possible destructive consequences of supersessionism, as theology professor Padraic O'Hare writes: supersessionism alone is not yet anti-semitism. John Gager makes a distinction between nineteenth century anti-Semitism and second century anti-Judaism, and many scholars agree, yet there are those who see early anti-Judaism and later anti-Semitism as the same. sees the development of anti-semitism as part of the paradigm shift that occurred in early modernity. Gerdmar argues the shift resulted from the new scientific focus on the Bible and history that replaced the primacy of theology and tradition. Christopher Leighton associates anti-Judaism with the origins of Christianity, and anti-semitism with "modern nationalism and racial theories".
Deicide
Deicide as the prime accusation against the Jews appears, for the first time, in a highly rhetorical second century poem by Melito, of which only a few fragments have survived. In the fourth century, Augustine refuted the accusation, saying the Jews could not be guilty of deicide as they did not believe Christ was God. Melito's writings were not influential, and the idea was not immediately influential, but the accusation returned in fourth century thinking and sixth century actions and again in the Middle Ages.
Constantine
Christian thought was still in its infancy in 313 when, following the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, Constantine I, (together with his co-emperor Licinius), issued the Edict of Milan granting religious toleration to the Christian faith. The Edict did not only protect Christians from religious persecution, but all religions, allowing anyone to worship whichever deity they chose. After 320, Constantine supported the Christian church with his patronage, had a number of basilicas built for the Christian church, and endowed it with land and other wealth. He outlawed the gladiatorial shows, destroyed temples and plundered more, and used forceful rhetoric against non-Christians. But he never engaged in a purge. "He did not punish pagans for being pagans, or Jews for being Jews, and did not adopt a policy of forced conversion."
While not making a direct personal contribution to Christian thought, the first Christian Roman emperor had a powerful impact on it through the example of his own conversion, his policies, and the various councils he called. Christian thought at the time of Constantine believed that victory over the "false gods" had begun with Jesus and ended with the conversion of Constantine as the final fulfillment of heavenly victory—even though Christians were only about fifteen to eighteen percent of the empire's population.
After Constantine, Christianity gradually became the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. In the view of many historians, the Constantinian shift turned Christianity from a persecuted religion into a persecuting religion. However, the claim that there was a Constantinian shift has been disputed. Theologian Peter Leithart argues that there was a "brief, ambiguous 'Constantinian moment' in the early fourth century", but that there was "no permanent, epochal 'Constantinian shift. According to Michele R. Salzman, fourth century Rome featured sociological, political, economic and religious competition, producing tensions and hostilities between various groups, but that Christians focused on heresy more than pagans.
Antiquity: from Constantine to the fall of empire
Historical background
Historians and theologians refer to the fourth century as the "golden age" of Christian thought. Figures such as John Chrysostom, Ambrose, Jerome, Basil, Gregory of Nazianus, Gregory of Nyssa, and the prolific Augustine, all made a permanent mark on Christian thought and history. They were primarily defenders of orthodoxy. They wrote philosophy and theology as well as apologetics and polemics. Some had a long-term effect on tolerance and persecution in Christian thought.
Fourth century Christian thought
Fourth century Christian thought was dominated by its many conflicts defining orthodoxy versus heterodoxy and heresy. In what remained of the Eastern Roman empire, known as Byzantium, the Arian controversy began with its debate of Trinitarian formulas which lasted 56 years. It gradually trickled over into the Latin West so that by the fourth century, the center of the controversy was the "champion of orthodoxy", Athanasius. Arianism was the reason for calling the Council of Nicea. Athanasius was ousted from his bishopric in Alexandria in 336 by the Arians, forced into exile, and lived much of the remainder of his life in a cycle of forced movement. The controversy became political after Constantine's death. Athanasius died in 373, while an Arian emperor ruled, but his orthodox teaching was a major influence in the West, and on Theodosius, who became emperor in 381. Also in the East, John Chrysostom, Bishop of Constantinople, who is best known for his brilliant oratory and his exegetical works on moral goodness and social responsibility, also wrote Discourses Against the Jews which is almost pure polemic, using replacement theology that is now known as supersessionism. However, Chrysostom did not advocate for killing heretics, even though he did advocate censoring them; he writes, "He [Christ] doth not therefore forbid our checking heretics, and stopping their mouths, and taking away their freedom of speech, and breaking up their assemblies and confederacies, but our killing and slaying them".
By 305, after the Diocletian persecution of the third century, many of those who had recanted during the persecution, wanted to return to the church. The North African Donatists refused to accept them back as clergy and remained resentful toward the Roman government. Catholics wanted to wipe the slate clean and accommodate the new government. The Donatists withdrew and began setting up their own churches. For decades, Donatists fomented protests and street violence, refused compromise, attacked random Catholics without warning, doing serious and unprovoked bodily harm such as beating people with clubs, cutting off their hands and feet, and gouging out eyes. By the time Augustine became coadjutor Bishop of Hippo in 395, the Donatists had been a multi-level problem for many years. Augustine held that belief cannot be compelled, so he appealed to them verbally, using popular propaganda, debate, personal appeal, General Councils, and political pressure. All attempts failed.
The empire responded to civil unrest with force, and in 408 in his Letter 93, Augustine began defending persecution of the Donatists by the imperial authorities saying that, "if the kings of this world could legislate against pagans and poisoners, they could do so against heretics as well." He continued saying that belief cannot be compelled, however, he also included the idea that, while "coercion cannot transmit the truth to the heretic, it can prepare them to hear and receive the truth." Augustine did not advocate religious violence, as such, but he supported the power of the state to use coercion against those he saw as behaving as enemies. His authority on this question was undisputed for over a millennium in Western Christianity, and according to Brown "it provided the theological foundation for the justification of medieval persecution."
Augustine had advocated fines, imprisonment, banishment, and moderate floggings; when the state's persecution of individual Donatists became extreme, he attempted to mitigate the punishments, and he always opposed the execution of heretics. According to Henry Chadwick, Augustine "would have been horrified by the burning of heretics."
In 385, Priscillian, a bishop in Spain, was the first Christian to be executed for heresy, though this sentence was roundly condemned by prominent church leaders like Ambrose. Priscillian was also accused of gross sexual immorality and acceptance of magic, but politics may have been involved in his sentencing.
Anti-paganism in late antique Roman empire
Polytheism began declining by the second century, long before there were Christian emperors, but after Constantine made Christianity officially accepted, it declined even more rapidly, and there are two views on why. According to the Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity, scholars of Antiquity fall into two categories, holding either the "catastrophic" view, or the "long and slow" view of polytheism's decline and end. The traditional "catastrophic" view has been the established view for 200 years; it says polytheism declined rapidly in the fourth century, with a violent death in the fifth, as a result of determined anti-pagan opposition from Christians, particularly Christian emperors. Contemporary scholarship espouses the "long slow" view, which says anti-paganism was not a primary concern of Christians in antiquity because Christians believed the conversion of Constantine showed Christianity had already triumphed. Michele R. Salzman indicates that, as a result of this "triumphalism", heresy was a higher priority for Christians in the fourth and fifth centuries than was paganism. This produced less real conflict between Christians and pagans than was previously thought. Archaeologists Luke Lavan and Michael Mulryan indicate that contemporary archaeological evidence of religious conflict exists, as the catastrophists assert, but not to the degree or intensity previously thought.
Laws such as the Theodosian decrees attest to Christian thought of the period, giving a "dramatic view of radical Christian ambition". Peter Brown says the language is uniformly vehement and the penalties are harsh and frequently horrifying. Salzman says the law was intended as a means of conversion through the "carrot and the stick", but that it is necessary to look beyond the law to see what people actually did. Authorities, who were still mostly pagan, were lax in imposing them, and Christian bishops frequently obstructed their application. Anti-paganism existed, but according to , Michele Salzman, and Marianne Sághy who quote Alan Cameron: the idea of religious conflict as the cause of a swift demise of paganism is pure historiographical construction. Lavan says Christian writers gave the narrative of victory high visibility, but that it does not necessarily correlate to actual conversion rates. There are many signs that a healthy paganism continued into the fifth century, and in some places, into the sixth and beyond.
According to Brown, Christians objected to anything that called the triumphal narrative into question, and that included the mistreatment of non-Christians. Temple destructions and conversions are attested, but in small numbers. Archaeology indicates that in most regions away from the imperial court, the end of paganism was both gradual and untraumatic. The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity says that "Torture and murder were not the inevitable result of the rise of Christianity." Instead, there was fluidity in the boundaries between the communities and "coexistence with a competitive spirit." Brown says that "In most areas, polytheists were not molested, and, apart from a few ugly incidents of local violence, Jewish communities also enjoyed a century of stable, even privileged, existence." Having, in 423, been declared by the emperor Theodosius II not to exist, large bodies of polytheists all over the Roman empire were not murdered or converted under duress so much as they were simply left out of the histories the Christians wrote of themselves as victorious.
The Early Medieval West (c. 500 – c. 800)
Historical background
After the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, life in the West returned to an agrarian subsistence style of living, becoming somewhat settled sometime in the 500s. Christian writers of the period were more concerned with preserving the past than in composing original works. The Germanic tribes which had overthrown Rome became the new rulers, dividing the empire between them. Gregory the Great became Pope in 590AD, and he sent out multiple missionaries who peacefully converted Britain, Ireland, Scotland and more. Learning was kept alive in the monasteries they built which became the sole source of education for the next few centuries. Patrick Wormald indicates the Irish and English missionaries sent out to those territories that would become the Holy Roman empire and then Germany, thought of the pagans on the continental mainland with "interest, sympathy and occasionally even admiration."
In most of history, victors of war imposed their religion on the newly subjugated people, however, the Germanic tribes gradually adopted Christianity, the religion of defeated Rome, instead. This brought, in its wake, a broad process of cultural change that lasted for the next 500 years. What had been formed by the unity of the classical world and Christianity, was now transplanted into Germanic tribal culture, thereby forming a new synthesis that became western European Christendom. The church had immense influence during this time due to the endless commitment and work of the clergy and the "powerful effect of the Christian belief system" amongst the people.
Erigina was not a major theologian, but in 870, he wrote On the Division of Nature which foresaw the modern view of predestination denying that God has foreordained anyone to sin and damnation. His mixture of rationalism and Neo-Platonic mysticism would prove influential to later Christian thought, though his books were banned by the Roman Catholic church in 1681.
Partial inclusivity of the Jews
According to Anna Sapir Abulafia, "Most scholars would agree that, with the marked exception of Visigothic Spain (in the seventh century), Jews in Latin Christendom lived relatively peacefully with their Christian neighbors through most of the Middle Ages." Scattered violence toward Jews occasionally took place during riots led by mobs, local leaders, and lower level clergy without the support of church leaders or Christian thought. Jeremy Cohen says historians generally agree this is because Catholic thought on the Jews before the 1200s was guided by the teachings of Augustine. Augustine's position on the Jews, with its accompanying argument for their "immunity from religious coercion enjoyed by virtually no other community in post-Theodosian antiquity" was preceded by a positive evaluation of the Jewish past, and its relationship to divine justice and human free will. Augustine rejected those who argued that the Jews should be killed, or forcibly converted, by saying that Jews should be allowed to live in Christian societies and practice Judaism without interference because they preserved the teachings of the Old Testament and were living witnesses of the truths of the New Testament.
Gregory the Great is generally seen as an important Pope in relation to the Jews. He denigrated Judaism but followed Roman Law and Augustinian thought with regard to how the Jews should be treated. He wrote against forced baptism. In 828, Gregory IV wrote a letter to the Bishops in Gaul and the Holy Roman empire warning that Jews must not be baptized by force. Gregory X repeated the ban. Even Pope Innocent III, who generally found the behavior of Jews in Christian society to be "intolerable", still agreed that the Jews should not be killed or forcibly converted when he called for the Second Crusade.
Jews and their communities were always vulnerable. Random ill treatment, and occasionally real persecution, did occur. However, their legal status, while it was inferior, was not insecure as it became later in the High Middle Ages. They could appeal to the authorities, and did, even on occasion appealing to the Pope himself. While the difficulties were not negligible, they were also not general enough to fundamentally impact the nature of Jewish life.
Inclusive Benedict
St. Benedict (480–547) was another major figure who impacted pre-modern ideals of tolerance in Christian thought. Considered the father of western monasticism, he wrote his Rule around three values: community, prayer, and hospitality. This hospitality was extended to anyone without discrimination. "Pilgrims and visitors from every rank of society from crowned heads to poorest peasants, came in search of prayers or alms, protection and hospitality."
Exclusive Spain
Visigothic leaders in Spain subjected the Jews to persecution and efforts to convert them forcibly for a century after 613. Norman Roth says Byzantine legal codes were the method used to reinforce anti-Jewish attitudes. The Breviarium of Alaric summarizes the most significant anti-Jewish legislation of the Byzantine codes, and it was written in the sixth century.
Early Middle Ages (c. 800 – c. 1000)
Historical background
Christian thought from its early days had generally frowned upon participation in the military, but that became increasingly difficult to maintain in the Middle Ages. Chivalry, a new ideal of the religious warrior who fought for justice, defended truth, and protected the weak and the innocent formed. Such a knight was ordained only after proving his spiritual and martial worth: robed in white, he would swear an oath before a cleric to uphold these values and defend the faith.
Massacre of Verden
While contemporary definitions of religious persecution typically do not include actions taken during war, the Massacre of Verden represents an event that is still often seen as persecution by Christians. The massacre took place in 782, in what had been Roman Gaul, and would one day be modern France.
Charlemagne had become King of the Franks in 771, and ruled most of western Europe of the time. He advocated Christian principles, including education, openly supported Christian missions, and had at least one Christian advisor. But he also spent his entire life fighting to defend his empire and his faith. The Franks had been fighting the Saxons since the time of Charlemagne's grandfather. Charlemagne himself began to fight the Saxons in earnest in 772, defeating them and taking hostages in a battle on the upper Weser. "Time and again the Saxon chiefs, worn down by war, sued for peace, offered hostages, accepted baptism and agreed to allow missionaries to go about their work without hindrance. But vigilance slackened, Charles was engaged on some other front, rebellions broke out, Frankish garrisons were attacked and massacred, and monasteries were pillaged". Repeatedly, Saxons rose, pillaged and looted and killed, were defeated, and rose again, until after 779, Charlemagne felt he had pacified the region and gained genuine oaths of loyalty from the Saxon leaders. In 782, Charles and the Saxons assembled at Lippe, where he appointed "several Saxon nobles as Counts as a reward for their loyalty".
Shortly thereafter, in that same year of 782, Widukind the Saxon leader, persuaded a group of Saxons who had submitted to Charlemagne, to break their oaths and rebel. Charlemagne was once again elsewhere, so the Saxons went to battle with the part of the Frankish army that had been left behind and the "Franks were killed almost to a man". They killed two of the King's chief lieutenants as well as some of his closest companions and counsellors. "In great anger at this breach of the treaty just made", Charlemagne gathered his forces, returned to Saxony, conquered the Saxon rebels, again, giving them the option to convert or die. The Saxons largely refused, and though no one knows the number for sure, it is said 4,500 unarmed prisoners were murdered in what is called the Massacre of Verden. Massive deportations followed, and death was decreed as the penalty for any Saxon who refused baptism thereafter. After this, Charlemagne transported ten thousand families from the most turbulent district into the heart of his own territory, and the Saxons were finally settled.
Historian Matthias Becher asserts that the number 4,500 is exaggerated, and that these events demonstrate the brutality of war of the period. Yet it is clear something untoward occurred, since Alcuin of York, Charlemagne's Christian advisor who was not present in Verden, later wrote the king a rebuke concerning them, saying that: "Faith must be voluntary not coerced. Converts must be drawn to the faith not forced. A person can be compelled to be baptized yet not believe. An adult convert should answer what he truly believes and feels, and if he lies, then he will not have true salvation."
Crusades
From the beginning, the crusades have been seen from different points of view. Darius von Güttner-Sporzyński explains that scholars continue to debate crusading and its impact so scholarship in this field is continually undergoing revision and reconsideration. Many early crusade scholars saw crusade histories as simple recitations of how events actually transpired, but by the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, scholarship was increasingly critical and skeptical of that perspective. Simon John writes that Christopher Tyerman is in the forefront of contemporary scholarship when he says that the "earliest of crusade histories can not be regarded by scholars even in part as 'mere recitation of events.' Instead, they should be treated in their entirety as 'essays in interpretation'."
At the time of the First Crusade, there was no clear concept in Christian thought of what a crusade was beyond that of a pilgrimage. Hugh S. Pyper says the crusades are representative of the "powerful sense in Christian thought of the time of the importance of the concreteness of Jesus' human existence... The city [of Jerusalem's] importance is reflected in the fact that early medieval maps place [Jerusalem] at the center of the world."
By 1935, Carl Erdmann published Die Entstehung des Kreuzzugsgedankens (The Origin of the Idea of Crusade), stressing that the crusades were essentially defensive acts on behalf of fellow Christians and pilgrims in the East who were being attacked, killed, enslaved or forcibly converted. Crusade historian Jonathan Riley-Smith says the crusades were products of the renewed spirituality of the central Middle Ages. Senior churchmen of this time presented the concept of Christian love for those in need as the reason to take up arms. The people had a concern for living the vita apostolica and expressing Christian ideals in active works of charity, exemplified by the new hospitals, the pastoral work of the Augustinians and Premonstratensians, and the service of the friars. Riley-Smith concludes, "The charity of St. Francis may now appeal to us more than that of the crusaders, but both sprang from the same roots." Constable adds that those "scholars who see the crusades as the beginning of European colonialism and expansionism would have surprised people at the time. [Crusaders] would not have denied some selfish aspects... but the predominant emphasis was on the defense and recovery of lands that had once been Christian and on the self-sacrifice rather than the self-seeking of the participants."
At the opposite end is the view voiced by Steven Runciman in 1951 that the "Holy War was nothing more than a long act of intolerance in the name of God..." Giles Constable says this view is common among the populace. According to political science professor Andrew R. Murphy, concepts of tolerance and intolerance were not starting points for thoughts about relations for any of the various groups involved in or affected by the crusades. Instead, concepts of tolerance began to grow during the crusades from efforts to define legal limits and the nature of co-existence. Angeliki Laiou says that "many scholars today reject [Runciman's type of] hostile judgment and emphasize the defensive nature of the crusades" instead.
The crusades made a powerful contribution to Christian thought through the concept of Christian chivalry, "imbuing their Christian participants with what they believed to be a noble cause, for which they fought in a spirit of self-sacrifice. However, in another sense, they marked a qualitative degeneration in behavior for those involved, for they engendered and strengthened hostile attitudes..." Ideas such as Holy War and Christian chivalry, in both Christian thought and culture, continued to evolve gradually from the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries. This can be traced in expressions of law, traditions, tales, prophecy, and historical narratives, in letters, bulls and poems written during the crusading period. "The greatest of all crusader historians, William, archbishop of Tyre wrote his Chronicon from the point of view of a Latin Christian born and living in the East". Like others of his day, he did not start with a notion of tolerance, but he did advocate for, and contribute to, concepts that led to its development.
High Middle Ages (c. 1000–1200)
Historical background
In the pivotal twelfth century, Europe began laying the foundation for its gradual transformation from the medieval to the modern. Feudal lords slowly lost power to the feudal kings as kings began centralizing power into themselves and their nation. Kings built their own armies, instead of relying on their vassals, thereby taking power from the nobility. They started taking over legal processes that had traditionally belonged to local nobles and local church officials; and they began using these new legal powers to target minorities. According to R.I. Moore and other contemporary scholars such as John D. Cotts, and Peter D. Diehl "the growth of secular power and the pursuit of secular interests, constituted the essential context of the developments that led to a persecuting society." Some of these developments, such as centralization and secularization, also took place within the church whose leaders bent Christian thought to aid the state in the production of new rhetoric, patterns, and procedures of exclusion and persecution. According to Moore, the church "played a significant role in the formation of the persecuting society but not the leading one."
By the 1200s, both civil and canon law had become a major aspect of ecclesiastical culture, dominating Christian thought. Most bishops and Popes were trained lawyers rather than theologians, and much of the Christian thought of this period became little more than an extension of law. According to the Oxford Companion to Christian Thought, by the High Middle Ages, the religion that had begun by decrying the power of law () had developed the most complex religious law the world has ever seen, a system in which equity and universality were largely overlooked.
Mendicant orders
New religious orders, that were founded during this time, each represent a different branch of Christian thought with its own distinct theology. Three of those new orders would have a separate but distinct impact on Christian thought on tolerance and persecution: the Dominicans, the Franciscans, and the Augustinians.
Dominican thought reached beyond a simple anti-heretical discourse into a broader and deeper ideology of sin, evil, justice, and punishment. They conceived themselves as fighting for truth against heterodoxy and heresy. St. Thomas Aquinas, perhaps the most illustrious of Dominicans, supported tolerance as a general principle. He taught that governing well included tolerating some evil in order to foster good or prevent worse evil. However, in his Summa Theologica II-II qu. 11, art. 3, he adds that heretics—after two fruitless admonitions—deserve only excommunication and death.
The Christian thought of St. Francis was pastoral. He is recognized for his commitment to issues of social justice and his embrace of the natural world but, during his lifetime, he was also a strong advocate of conversion of the Muslims, though he believed he would likely die for it. Francis was motivated by an intense devotion to the humanity of Christ, a regard for his sufferings, and by identifying the sufferings of ordinary people with the sufferings of Christ. Through the teachings of the Franciscans, this thinking emerged from the cloister, reoriented much Christian thought toward love and compassion, and became a central theme for the ordinary Christian.
Although the debate over defining the Augustinianism of the High Middle Ages has been ongoing for three quarters of a century, there is agreement that the Order of the Hermits of St. Augustine supported the development of church hierarchy and embraced concepts such as the primacy of the Pope and his perfection. The question of church authority in the West had remained unsettled until the eleventh century when the church hierarchy worked to centralize power into the Pope. Although centralization of power was never fully achieved within the church, the era of "papal monarchy" began, and the church gradually began to resemble its secular counterparts in its conduct, thought, and objectives.
Inquisitions, authority and exclusion
The medieval inquisitions were a series of separate inquisitions beginning from around 1184. The label Inquisition is problematic because it implies "an institutional coherence and an official unity that never existed in the Middle Ages." The inquisitions were formed in response to the breakdown of social order associated with heresy. Heresy was a religious, political, and social issue, so "the first stirrings of violence against dissidents were usually the result of popular resentment." There are many examples of this popular resentment involving mobs murdering heretics. Leaders reasoned that both lay and church authority had an obligation to step in when sedition, peace, or the general stability of society was part of the issue. In the Late Roman Empire, an inquisitorial system of justice had developed, and that system was revived in the Middle Ages using a combined panel (a tribunal) of both civil and ecclesiastical representatives with a bishop, his representative, or sometimes a local judge, as inquisitor. Essentially, the church reintroduced Roman law in Europe in the form of the Inquisition when it seemed that Germanic law had failed.
The revival of Roman law made it possible for Pope Innocent III (1198–1216) to make heresy a political question when he took Roman law's doctrine of lèse-majesté, and combined it with his view of heresy as laid out in the 1199 decretal Vergentis in senium, thereby equating heresy with treason against God.
Much of the papal reform of the eleventh century was not moral or theological reform so much as it was an attempt to impose this kind of Roman authority over the vast variety of local legal traditions that had existed up through the early Middle Ages. However, no pope ever succeeded in establishing complete control of the inquisitions. The institution reached its apex in the second half of the thirteenth century. During this period, the tribunals were almost entirely free from any higher authority, including that of the pope, and it became almost impossible to prevent abuse.
New persecution of minorities
The process of centralizing power included the development of a new kind of persecution aimed at minorities. R. I. Moore says the European nation-states had not exhibited a "habit" of persecuting minorities before the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Jews, lepers, heretics and gays were the first minorities to be persecuted, and they were followed in the next few centuries by Gypsies, beggars, spendthrifts, prostitutes, and discharged soldiers. They were all vulnerable to whatever degree they existed "outside" the community. Religious persecution had certainly been familiar in the Roman empire, and remained so throughout the history of the Byzantine Empire, but it had largely faded away in the West before reappearing in the eleventh century. The various persecutions of minorities became established over the next hundred years. In this it was "determined, not only over whom, but also by whom, the [increasing] power of government was to be exercised."
For example, Peter Comestor (d. 1197) was the first influential scholar to interpret biblical injunctions against sodomy as injunctions against homosexual intercourse. The Third Lateran council of 1179 then became the first ecclesiastical council to rule that men who engaged in homosexual activity should be deprived of office or excommunicated. However, "the real impetus of the attack on homosexuality did not come from the church." The Fourth Lateran council reduced those penalties, and though Gregory IX (1145–1241) ordered the Dominicans to root out homosexuality from the territory that later became the nation of Germany, a century earlier, the kingdom of Jerusalem had spread a legal code ordaining death for "sodomites". From the 1250s onwards, a series of similar legal codes in the nation-states of Spain, France, Italy and Germany followed this example. "By 1300, places where male sodomy was not a capitol offense had become the exception rather than the rule."
Centralization of power led all of Europe of the High Middle Ages to become a persecuting culture. Christian thought, along with the intellectuals of the day who published their pejorative views of minorities in writing, helped make persecution a tool of the process of centralization as well as its inevitable result. Together, secular rulers and writers, along with Christian leadership and thought, created a new rhetoric of exclusion, legitimizing persecution based on new attitudes of stereotyping, stigmatization and even demonization of the accused. Moore says this contributed to "deliberate and socially sanctioned violence ... directed, through established governmental, judicial and social institutions, against groups of people defined by general characteristics such as race, religion or way of life. Membership in such groups in itself came to be regarded as justifying these attacks."
Instead of having to face one's accuser, new laws allowed the state to be the defendant and bring charges on its own behalf. The Assize of Arms of 1252 appointed constables to police breaches of the peace, and deliver offenders to the sheriff. In France, the constabulary was regularized in 1337 as a military body used to enforce the new laws. There were new funds to pay them as cities introduced several direct taxes: head taxes for the poor, and net-worth taxes or, occasionally, crude income taxes for the rich. New gold coins, trade and the new banks also made private policing possible. The inquisitions were a new legal method that allowed the judge to investigate on his own initiative without requiring a victim (other than the state) to press charges. Together, these enabled secular leaders to gain power by making others powerless.
During the fourteenth century, the kings in France and England were successful at centralizing power in their nations, and many other countries wanted to imitate them and their governing style. Other countries were not alone in that: the church wanted to imitate the secular kings as well. The primary success of the fourteenth century popes was in amassing power into the papal position, making any pope similar to a secular king. This is often called the papal monarchy or the papal-monarchial idea. As part of that process, popes in this century reorganized the financial system of the church. The poor had previously been allowed to offer their tithes 'in kind', in goods and services instead of cash, but these popes revamped the system to only accept money. The popes then had a steady cash flow, along with papal states: property the church owned that was ruled only by the pope and not a king. This gave them almost as much power as any king. They governed as the secular powers governed: with "royal [papal] secretaries, efficient treasuries, national [papal] judiciaries, and representative assemblies". The pope became a pseudo-monarch, and the church became secular, but the popes were so greedy, worldly, and politically corrupt, that pious Christians became disgusted, thereby undermining the papal authority that centralization was supposed to establish.
Persecution of the Jews
Historians agree that the period which spanned the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries was a turning point in Jewish-Christian relations. Bernard of Clairvaux, (1090–1153) pillar of European monasticism and powerful twelfth century preacher, provides a perfect example of a Christian thinker who was balancing on a precipice, preaching hateful images of Jews but sounding Scripture based admonitions that they must be protected despite their nature." Low level discussions of religious thought had long existed between Jews and Christians. These interchanges attest to neighborly relations as Jews and Christians both struggled to fit the "other" into their sense of the demands of their respective faiths, and balance the human opponents who were facing them, with the traditions which they had inherited. By the thirteenth century, that changed in both tone and quality, growing more polemical.
In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council, known as the Great Council, met and accepted 70 canons (laws). It hammered out a working definition of Christian community, stating the essentials of membership in it, thereby defining the "other" within Christian thought for the next three centuries. The last three canons required Jews to distinguish themselves from Christians in their dress, prohibited them from holding public office, and prohibited Jewish converts from continuing to practice Jewish rituals. As Berger has articulated it: "The other side of the coin of unique toleration was unique persecution." There was an increased and focused effort to convert and baptize Jews rather than tolerate them.
Trial of the Talmud
As their situation deteriorated, many Jews became enraged and polemics between the two faiths sunk to new depths. As Inquisitors learned how the central figures in Christianity were mocked, they went after the Talmud, and other Jewish writings. The Fourth Lateran council, in its 68th canon, placed on the secular authorities the responsibility for obtaining an answer from the Jews to the charge of blasphemy. For the first time in their history, Jews had to answer in a public trial the charges against them. There is no consensus in the sources as to who instigated the trial against the Talmud, but in June 1239, Gregory IX (1237–1241) issued letters to various archbishops and kings across Europe in which he ordered them to seize all Jewish books and take them to the Dominicans for examination. The order was only heeded in Paris where, on June 25, the royal court was opened to hear the case. Eventually, each side claimed victory; a final verdict of guilt and condemnation was not announced until May 1248, but the books had been burned six years before.
One result of the trial was that the people of Europe thought that, even if they had once had an obligation to preserve the Jews for the sake of the Old Testament, Talmudic Judaism was so different from its biblical sources that the old obligations no longer applied. In the words of Hebrew University historian Ben-Zion Dinur, from 1244 on the state and the church would "consider the Jews to be a people with no religion (benei bli dat) who have no place in the Christian world."
Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600
The situation of the Jews differed from that of other victims of persecution because of their relationship with civic authorities and money. They often filled the role of financial agent or manager for the lords; they and their possessions were considered the property of the king in England; and they were often exempted from taxes and other laws because of the importance of their usury. This attracted unpopularity, jealousy and resentment from non-Jews.
As feudal lords lost power, the Jews became a focus of their opponents. J. H. Mundy has put it: "The opponents of princes hated the Jews" and "almost every medieval movement against princely or seignorial power began by attacking Jews." Opposition to the barons in England led to the Jewish expulsion in 1290. The expulsion from France in 1315 coincided with the formation of the league against arbitrary royal government.
As princes consolidated power to themselves with the institution of general taxation, they were able to be less monetarily dependent on the Jews. They were then less inclined to protect them, and were instead more inclined to expel them and confiscate their property for themselves.
Townspeople also attacked Jews. "Otto of Friesing reports that Bernard of Clairvaux in 1146 silenced a wandering monk at Mainz who stirred up popular revolt by attacking the Jews, but as the people gained a measure of political power around 1300, they became one of Jewry's greatest enemies."
Local anti-Jewish movements were often headed by local clergy, especially its radicals. The Fourth Lateran council of 1215 required Jews to restore 'grave and immoderate usuries.' Thomas Aquinas spoke against allowing the Jews to continue practicing usury. In 1283, the Archbishop of Canterbury spearheaded a petition demanding restitution of usury and urging the Jewish expulsion in 1290.
Emicho of Leiningen, who was probably mentally unbalanced, massacred Jews in Germany in search of supplies, loot, and protection money for a poorly provisioned army. The York massacre of 1190 also appears to have had its origins in a conspiracy by local leaders to liquidate their debts along with their creditors. In the early fourteenth century, systematic popular and judicial attack left the European Jewish community impoverished by the next century.
Although subordinate to religious, economic and social themes, racist concepts also reinforced hostility.
Anti-semitism
The term anti-semitism was coined in the nineteenth century, however, many Jewish intellectuals have insisted that modern anti-semitism which is based on race, and the religiously based anti-Judaism of the past, are two different forms of a single historical phenomenon. Other scholars such as John Gager make a clear distinction between anti-Judaism and anti-semitism. Craig Evans defines anti-Judaism as opposition to Judaism as a religion, while anti-semitism is opposition to the Jewish people themselves. Langmuir insists that anti-semitism did not become widespread in popular culture until the eleventh century when it took root among people who were being buffeted by rapid social and economic changes. sees the development of anti-semitism as part of the paradigm shift of early modernity that replaced the primacy of theology, and the tradition of Augustine, with the primacy of human reason.
Some have linked anti-semitism to Christian thought on supersessionism. Perhaps the greatest Christian thinker of the Middle Ages was Thomas Aquinas who continues to be highly influential in Catholicism. There is disagreement over where exactly Aquinas stood on the question of supersessionism. He did not teach punitive supersessionism, but did speak of Judaism as fulfilled and obsolete. Aquinas does appear to believe the Jews had been cast into spiritual exile for their rejection of Christ, but he also says Jewish observance of Law continues to have positive theological significance. For all the destructive consequences of supersessionism, Padraic O'Hare writes that supersessionism alone is not yet anti-semitism. He cites Christopher Leighton who associates anti-Judaism with the origins of Christianity, and anti-semitism with "modern nationalism and racial theories".
The Latin word deicidae was a translation of the Greek word that first appeared in Melito of the second century. Augustine had long ago rejected the concept, but the accusation began to flourish, within the altered situation of the High Middle Ages, when it was used to legitimize crimes against the Jews. The debate within Christian thought over the transubstantiation of the communion host helped foster the legend that Jews desecrated it. The ritual murder legend can also be tied to the accusation of Jewish deicide. By 1255, when Jews were charged with Hugh of Lincoln's ritual murder, it was not the first time they had been charged with such a crime. At other times, such allegations were rejected after full investigations had been conducted.
Heresy
There is a vast array of scholarly opinions on heresy, including whether it actually existed. Russell says that, as the church became more centralized and hierarchical, it was able to more clearly define orthodoxy than it ever had been before, and concepts of heresy developed along with it as a result. Mitchell Merback speaks of three groups involved in the persecution of heresy: the civil authorities, the church and the people. Historian R. I. Moore says the part the church played in turning dissent into heresy has been overestimated. According to Moore, the increased significance of heresy in the High Middle Ages reflects the secular powers' recognition of the devastating nature of the heretic's political message: that heretics were independent of the structures of power. James A. Brundage writes that the formal prosecution of heresy was codified in civil law, and was generally left to the civil authorities before this period. Russell adds that heresy became common only after the Third Lateran Council in 1179.
The dissemination of popular heresy to the laity (non-clergy) was a new problem for the bishops of the eleventh and twelfth centuries; heresy had previously been an accusation made solely toward bishops and other church leaders. The collection of ecclesiastical law from Burchard of Worms around 1002 did not include the concept of popular heresy in it. While there were acts of violence in response to heresy undertaken by secular powers for their own reasons, Christian thought on this problem (at the beginning of the High Middle Ages) still tended to coincide with Wazo of Liège who said reports of heresy should be investigated, true heretics excommunicated, and their teachings publicly rebuked.
By the end of the eleventh century, Christian thought had evolved a definition of heresy as the "deliberate rejection of the truth". This shifted attitudes concerning the church's appropriate response. The Council of Montpellier in 1062, and the Council of Toulouse in 1119, both demanded that heretics be handed over to secular powers for coercive punishment. As most bishops thought this would be participation in shedding blood, the church refused until 1148 when the notorious and violent Eon de l'Etoile was so delivered. Eon was found mad, but a number of his followers were burned.
Albigensian Crusade
Cathars, also known as Albigensians, were the largest of the heretic groups of the late 1100s and early 1200s. Catharism may reach back to the age of Constantine in the East, but there is consensus among most modern scholars that Catharism as an identifiable historical movement did not emerge in Europe until around 1143, when the first confirmed report of a group at Cologne is reported by the cleric Eberwin of Steinfeld Abbey. From 1125 to 1229, Cistercian monks left their isolation and served as itinerant preachers traversing town and country in anti-heretical campaigns aimed increasingly against the Albigensians. The Dominicans, founded in 1206, followed in this practice and approach. In 1209, after decades of having called upon secular rulers for aid in dealing with the Cathars and getting no response, Pope Innocent III and the king of France, Philip Augustus, began the military campaign against them. Scholars disagree, using two distinct lines of reasoning, on whether the brutal nature of the war that followed was determined more by the Pope or by King Philip and his proxies.
According to historian Elaine Graham-Leigh, Pope Innocent believed the tactical, as well as policy and strategic decisions, should be solely "the papal preserve". J. Sumption and Stephen O'Shea paint Innocent III as "the mastermind of the crusade".
Markale suggests the true architect of the campaign was the French king Philip Augustus, stating that "it was Phillip who actually petitioned Innocent for permission to conduct the Crusade." Historian Laurence W. Marvin says the Pope exercised "little real control over events in Occitania." Konrad Repgen writes: "The Albigensian war was indisputably a case of the interlinking of religion and politics."
Massacre at Béziers
On 22 July 1209, in the first battle of the Albigensian Crusade, mercenaries rampaged through the streets of Béziers, killing and plundering. Those citizens who could, sought refuge in the churches and cathedrals, but there was no safety from the raging mob. The doors of the churches were broken open, and all inside were slaughtered.
Some twenty years later, a story that historian Laurence W. Marvin calls apocryphal, arose about this event claiming the papal legate, Arnaud Amaury, the leader of the crusaders, was said to have responded: "Kill them all, let God sort them out." Marvin says it is unlikely the legate ever said any thing at all. "The speed and spontaneity of the attack indicates that the legate probably did not know what was going on until it was over." Marvin adds they did not kill them all at any rate: "clearly most of Bezier's population and buildings survived" and the city "continued to function as a major population center" after the campaign.
Other scholars say the legate probably did say it, that the statement is not inconsistent with what was recorded by the contemporaries of other church leaders, or with what is known of Arnaud Amaury's character and attitudes toward heresy. Religious toleration was not considered a virtue by the people or the church of the High Middle Ages. Historians W A Sibly and M D Sibly point out that: "contemporary accounts suggest that, at this stage, the crusaders did not intend to spare those who resisted them, and the slaughter at Béziers was consistent with this."
The Pope's response was not prompt, but four years after the massacre at Béziers, in a 1213 letter to Amaury, the pope rebuked the legate for his "greedy" conduct in the war. He also canceled crusade indulgences for Languedoc, and called for an end to the campaign. The campaign continued anyway. The Pope was not reversed until the Fourth Lateran council re-instituted crusade status two years later in 1215; afterwards, the Pope removed it yet again. Still, the campaign did not end for another 16 years. It was completed in what Marvin refers to as "an increasingly murky moral atmosphere" since there was technically no longer any crusade, no dispensational rewards for fighting it, the papal legates exceeded their orders from the Pope, and the army occupied lands of nobles who were in the good graces of the church.
Late Middle Ages (c. 1200 – c. 1400)
Historical background
"People living during what a modern historian has termed the 'calamitous' fourteenth century were thrown into confusion and despair". Plague, famine and war ravaged most of the continent. Add to this, social unrest, urban riots, peasant revolts and renegade feudal armies. From its pinnacle of power in the 1200s, the church entered a period of decline, internal conflict, and corruption and was unable to provide moral leadership. In 1302, Pope Boniface VIII (1294–1303) issued Unam sanctam, a papal bull proclaiming the superiority of the Pope over all secular rulers. Philip IV of France responded by sending an army to arrest the Pope. Boniface fled for his life and died shortly thereafter. "This episode revealed that the popes were no match for the feudal kings" and showed there had been a marked decline in papal prestige. George Garnett says the implementation of the papal monarchial idea had led to the loss of prestige, as the more efficient the papal bureaucratic machine became, the further it alienated the people, and the further it declined. Theologian Roger Olson says the church reached its nadir from 1309 to 1377 when there were three different men claiming to be the rightful Pope. "What the observer of the papacy witnessed in the second half of the thirteenth century was a gradual, though clearly perceptible, decomposition of Europe as a single ecclesiastical unit, and the fragmentation of Europe into independent, autonomous entities which were soon to be called national monarchies or states. This fragmentation heralded the withering away of the papacy as a governing institution operating on a universal scale." ...The [later] Reformation only administered the coup de grâce."
According to Walter Ullmann, the church lost "the moral, spiritual and authoritative leadership it had built up in Europe over the centuries of minute, consistent, detailed, dynamic forward-looking work. ... The papacy was now forced to pursue policies which, in substance, aimed at appeasement and were no longer directive, orientating and determinative." Ullmann goes on to explain that Christian thought of this age lost its objective standpoint, which had been based on Christianity's view of an objective world order and the Pope's place in that order. This was now replaced by the subjective point of view with the man taking precedence over the office. In the turmoil of nationalism and ecclesiastical confusion, some theologians began aligning themselves more with their kings than with the church. Devoted and virtuous nuns and monks became increasingly rare. Monastic reform had been a major force in the High Middle Ages but is largely unknown in the Late Middle Ages.
This led to the development in Christian thought of lay piety—the Devotio Moderna—the new devotion, which worked toward the ideal of a pious society of ordinary non-ordained people and, ultimately, to the Reformation and the development of the concepts of tolerance and religious freedom.
Response to reform
Advocates of lay piety who called for church reform met strong resistance from the Popes. John Wycliffe (1320–1384) urged the church to give up ownership of property, which produced much of the church's wealth, and to once again embrace poverty and simplicity. He urged the church to stop being subservient to the state and its politics. He denied papal authority. John Wycliff died of a stroke, but his followers, called Lollards, were declared heretics. After the Oldcastle rebellion many of its adherents were killed.
Jan Hus (1369–1415) accepted some of Wycliff's views and aligned with the Bohemian Reform movement which was also rooted in popular piety and owed much to the evangelical preachers of fourteenth century Prague. In 1415, Hus was called to the Council of Constance where his ideas were condemned as heretical and he was handed over to the state and burned at the stake. It was at the same Council of Constance that Paulus Vladimiri presented his treatise arguing that Christian and pagan nations could co-exist in peace.
The Fraticelli, who were also known as the "Little Brethren" or "Spiritual Franciscans", were dedicated followers of Saint Francis of Assisi. These Franciscans honored their vow of poverty and saw the wealth of the church as a contributor to corruption and injustice when so many lived in poverty. They criticized the worldly behavior of many churchmen. Thus, the Brethren were declared heretical by John XXII (1316-1334) who was called "the banker of Avignon".
The leader of the brethren, Bernard Délicieux (c. 1260–1270 1320) was well known as he had spent much of his life battling the Dominican-run inquisitions. After torture and threat of excommunication, he confessed to the charge of interfering with the inquisition, and was defrocked and sentenced to life in prison, in chains, in solitary confinement, and to receive nothing but bread and water. The judges attempted to ameliorate the harshness of this sentence due to his age and frailty, but Pope John XXII countermanded them and delivered the friar to Inquisitor Jean de Beaune. Délicieux died shortly thereafter in early 1320.
Modern inquisitions
Although inquisitions had always included a political aspect, the Inquisitions of the Late Middle Ages became more political and highly notorious. "The long history of the Inquisition divides easily into two major parts: its creation by the medieval papacy in the early thirteenth century, and its transformation between 1478 and 1542 into permanent secular governmental bureaucracies: the Spanish, Portuguese, and Roman Inquisitions... all of which endured into the nineteenth century."
Historian Helen Rawlings says, "the Spanish Inquisition was different [from earlier inquisitions] in one fundamental respect: it was responsible to the crown rather than the Pope and was used to consolidate state interest." It was authorized by the Pope, yet the initial inquisitors proved so severe that the Pope almost immediately opposed it, to no avail. Early in 1483, the king and queen established a council, the Consejo de la Suprema y General Inquisición, to govern the inquisition and chose Tomas de Torquemada to head it as inquisitor general. In October 1483, a papal bull conceded control to the crown. According to José Cassanova, the Spanish Inquisition became the first truly national, unified and centralized state institution. After the 1400s, few Spanish inquisitors were from the religious orders.
The Portuguese Inquisition was also fully controlled by the crown from its beginnings. The crown established a government board, known as the General Council, to oversee it. The Grand Inquisitor, who was chosen by the king, was always a member of the royal family. The first statute of limpieza de sangre (purity of blood) appeared in Toledo in 1449 and was later adopted in Portugal as well. Initially, these statutes were condemned by the church, but in 1555, the highly corrupt Pope Alexander VI approved a "blood purity" statute for one of the religious orders. In his history of the Portuguese Inquisition, Giuseppe Marcocci says there is a deep connection between the rise of the Felipes in Portugal, the growth of the inquisition, and the adoption of the statutes of purity of blood which spread and increased and were more concerned with ethnic ancestry than religion.
Historian T. F. Mayer writes that "the Roman Inquisition operated to serve the papacy's long standing political aims in Naples, Venice and Florence." Under Paul III and his successor Julius III, and under most of the popes thereafter, the Roman Inquisition's activity was relatively restrained and its command structure was considerably more bureaucratic than those of other inquisitions. Where the medieval Inquisition had focused on heresy and the disturbance of public order, the Roman Inquisition was concerned with orthodoxy of a more intellectual, academic nature. The Roman Inquisition is probably best known for its condemnation of the difficult and cantankerous Galileo which was more about "bringing Florence to heel" than about heresy.
Northern (Baltic) crusades
The Northern (or Baltic Crusades), went on intermittently from 1147 to 1316, and according to Eric Christiansen, they had multiple causes. Christiansen writes that, from the days of Charlemagne, the free pagan people living around the Baltic Sea in northern Europe raided the countries that surrounded them: Denmark, Prussia, Germany and Poland. In the eleventh century, various German and Danish nobles responded militarily to put a stop to it and make peace. They did achieve peace for a time, but it did not last; there was insurrection, which created a desire for more military response in the twelfth century.
Another factor adding to the desire for military action was the result of the longstanding German tradition of sending Christian missionaries to the area northeast of Germany, known as the Wendish, meaning Slavic "frontier", which often resulted in the untimely death of said missionaries.
Dragnea and Christiansen indicate the primary motive for war was the noble's desire for territorial expansion and material wealth in the form of land, furs, amber, slaves, and tribute. The princes wanted to subdue these pagan peoples, through conquering and conversion, but ultimately, they wanted wealth. Iben Fonnesberg-Schmidt says, the princes were motivated by their desire to extend their power and prestige, and conversion was not always an element of their plans. When it was, conversion by these princes was almost always as a result of conquest, either by the direct use of force or indirectly when a leader converted and required it of his followers as well. There were often severe consequences for populations that chose to resist. For example, the conquest and conversion of Old Prussia resulted in the death of much of the native population, whose language subsequently became extinct.
According to Mihai Dragnea, these wars were part of the political reality of the twelfth century.
The Popes became involved when Pope Eugenius III (1145–1153) called for a Second Crusade in response to the fall of Edessa in 1144 and the Saxon nobles refused to go to the Levant. In 1147, with Eugenius' Divini dispensatione, the German/Saxon nobles were granted full crusade indulgences to go to the Baltic area instead of the Levant. Eugenius' involvement did not lead to continuous papal support of these campaigns however. For the rest of the period after Eugenius, papal policy varied considerably. For example, Pope Alexander III, who was Pope from 1159 to 1181, did not issue a full indulgence or put the Baltic campaigns on an equal footing with the crusades to the Levant. According to Iben Fonnesberg-Schmidt, after the Second crusade, the campaigns were planned, financed and carried out by princes, local bishops and local archbishops rather than Popes until the arrival of the Teutonic order. The idea to employ crusaders seems to have originated with the local bishops. The nature of the campaigns changed when the Teutonic Order arrived in the region in 1230. The Danes regained influence in Estonia, the papacy became more involved, and the campaigns intensified and expanded.
Forced conversion and Christian thought
The Wendish crusade offers insights into new developments in Christian thought, particularly with respect to forced conversions. Ideas of peaceful conversion were rarely realized in these crusades because the monks and priests had to work with the secular rulers on their terms, and the military leaders seldom cared about taking the time for peaceful conversion. "While the theologians maintained that conversion should be voluntary, there was a widespread pragmatic acceptance of conversion obtained through political pressure or military coercion." The church's acceptance of this led some commentators of the time to endorse and approve it, something Christian thought had not done previously. Dominican friars helped with this ideological justification. By portraying the pagans as possessed by evil spirits, they could assert the pagans were in need of conquest, persecution and force to free them; then they would become peacefully converted. Another example of how the use of forced conversion was justified to make it compatible with previous Church doctrine on the subject, can be found in a statement by Pope Innocent III in 1201:
[T]hose who are immersed even though reluctant, do belong to ecclesiastical jurisdiction at least by reason of the sacrament, and might therefore be reasonably compelled to observe the rules of the Christian Faith. It is, to be sure, contrary to the Christian Faith that anyone who is unwilling and wholly opposed to it should be compelled to adopt and observe Christianity. For this reason a valid distinction is made by some between kinds of unwilling ones and kinds of compelled ones. Thus one who is drawn to Christianity by violence, through fear and through torture, and receives the sacrament of Baptism in order to avoid loss, he (like one who comes to Baptism in dissimulation) does receive the impress of Christianity, and may be forced to observe the Christian Faith as one who expressed a conditional willingness though, absolutely speaking, he was unwilling ...
Eric Christiansen writes that "These crusades can only be properly understood in light of the Cistercian movement, the rise of papal monarchy, the mission of the friars, the coming of the Mongol hordes, the growth of the Muscovite and Lithuanian empires, and the aims of the Conciliar movement in the fifteenth century." The Conciliar movement arose out of the profound malaise within western Christendom over schism and corruption in the church. It asked: where did ultimate authority in the church reside? Did it reside in the Pope, the body of cardinals who elected him, the bishops, or did it reside in the Christian community at large?
Conditional toleration and segregation
Conditional toleration that included discrimination was common everywhere in Europe of the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance era. Prior to the Thirty Years' War there was conditional toleration between Catholics and Protestants. While Frankfurt's Jews flourished between 1453 and 1613, their success came despite significant discrimination. They were restricted to one street, had rules concerning when they could leave it, and had to wear a yellow ring as a sign of their identity while outside. But within their community they also had some self-governance, their own laws, elected their own leaders, and had a Rabbinical school that became a religious and cultural center. "Officially, the medieval Catholic church never advocated the expulsion of all the Jews from Christendom, or repudiated Augustine's doctrine of Jewish witness... Still, late medieval Christendom frequently ignored its mandates..."
Political authorities of the day maintained order by keeping groups separated both legally and physically in what would be referred to in contemporary society as segregation. By the Late Middle Ages: "The maintenance of civil order through legislated separation and discrimination was part of the institutional structure of all European states ingrained in law, politics, and the economy."
The Early Modern Era (1500–1715)
Early Reformation (1500–1600)
Protestant Christians pioneered the concept of religious toleration. There was a concerted campaign for tolerance in mid-sixteenth century northwestern Switzerland in the town of Basle. Sebastian Castellio (1515–1563), who was among the earliest of the reformers to advocate both religious and political tolerance, had moved to Basle after he was exiled from France. Castellio's argument for toleration was essentially theological: "By casting judgment on the belief of others, don't you take the place of God?" However, since he also pled for social stability and peaceful co-existence, his argument was also political. Making similar arguments were Anabaptist David Joris (1501 - 1556) from the Netherlands and the Italian reformer Jacobus Acontius (1520–1566) who also gathered with Castellio in Basle. Other advocates of religious tolerance, Mino Celsi (1514–1576) and Bernardino Ochino (1487–1564), joined them, publishing their works on toleration in that city. By the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries, persecutions of unsanctioned beliefs had been reduced in most European countries.
One of the leading secular skeptics of tolerance in the sixteenth century was Leiden professor Justus Lipsius (1547–1606). He published Politicorum libri sex in 1589 which argued in favor of the persecution of religious dissenters. Lispius believed that plurality would lead to civil strife and instability, and said: "it is better to sacrifice one than to risk the collapse of the whole Commonwealth." Dirck Coornhurt responded by eloquently defending religious liberty using his belief that free access to what he saw as the ultimate truth in the scriptures would bring about harmony and stability.
Historians indicate that Lispius was not out of step with religious leaders in recognizing the problematic nature of reconciling religious tolerance with political reality. Luther saw this as well. He was fully in favor of religious toleration in 1523 writing that secular authorities should never fight heresy with the sword. Yet, after the Peasants War in Germany in 1524, Luther determined that lay authorities had an obligation to step in when sedition, peace, or the stability of society was part of the issue, thus he unintentionally echoed Augustine and Aquinas.
Geoffrey Elton says that the English reformer John Foxe (1517–1587) demonstrated his deep faith in religious toleration when he attempted to stop the execution of the English Catholic Edmund Campion and the five Dutch Anabaptists who had been sentenced to be burned in 1575.
Toleration from the Reformation to the Early Modern Era (1500–1715)
While the Protestant Reformation changed the face of Western Christianity forever, it still embraced Augustine's acceptance of coercion, and many regarded the death penalty for heresy as legitimate. Martin Luther had written against persecution in the 1520s, and had demonstrated genuine sympathy towards the Jews in his earlier writings, especially in Das Jesus ein geborener Jude sei (That Jesus was born as a Jew) from 1523, but after 1525 his position hardened. In Wider die Sabbather an einen guten Freund (Against the Sabbather to a Good Friend), 1538, he still considered a conversion of the Jews to Christianity as possible, but in 1543 he published On the Jews and their Lies, a "violent anti-semitic tract". John Calvin helped to secure the execution for heresy of Michael Servetus, although he unsuccessfully requested that he should be beheaded instead of being burned at the stake.
In England, John Foxe, John Hales, Richard Perrinchief, Herbert Thorndike and Jonas Proast all only saw mild forms of persecution against the English Dissenters as legitimate. Most dissenters disagreed with the Anglican Church only on secondary matters of worship and ecclesiology, and although this was a considered a serious sin, only a few seventeenth century Anglican writers thought that this 'crime' deserved the death penalty. The English Act of Supremacy significantly complicated the matter by securely welding Church and state.
The Elizabethan bishop Thomas Bilson was of the opinion that men ought to be "corrected, not murdered", but he did not condemn the Christian Emperors for executing the Manichaeans for "monstrous blasphemies". The Lutheran theologian Georgius Calixtus argued for the reconciliation of Christendom by removing all unimportant differences between Catholicism and Protestantism, and Rupertus Meldenius advocated in necessariis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibus caritas (in necessary things unity; in uncertain things freedom; in everything compassion) in 1626.
The English Protestant "call for toleration"
In his book on the English Reformation, the late A. G. Dickens argued that from the beginning of the Reformation there had "existed in Protestant thought in Zwingli, Melanchthon and Bucer, as well as among the Anabaptists a more liberal tradition, which John Frith was perhaps the first to echo in England". Condemned for heresy, Frith was burnt at the stake in 1533. In his own mind, he died not because of the denial of the doctrines on purgatory and transubstantiation but "for the principle that a particular doctrine on either point was not a necessary part of a Christian's faith". In other words, there was an important distinction to be made between a genuine article of faith and other matters where a variety of very different conclusions should be tolerated within the church. This stand against unreasonable and profligate dogmatism meant that Frith, "to a greater extent than any other of our early Protestants", upheld "a certain degree of religious freedom".
Frith was not alone. John Foxe, for example, "strove hard to save Anabaptists from the fire, and he enunciated a sweeping doctrine of tolerance even towards Catholics, whose doctrines he detested with every fibre of his being".
In the early seventeenth century, Thomas Helwys was a principal formulator of that distinctively Baptist request: that the church and the state be kept separate in matters of law, so that individuals might have a freedom of religious conscience. Helwys said the King "is a mortal man, and not God, therefore he hath no power over the mortal soul of his subjects to make laws and ordinances for them and to set spiritual Lords over them". King James I had Helwys thrown into Newgate prison, where he had died by 1616 at about the age of forty.
By the time of the English Revolution, Helwys' stance on religious toleration was more commonplace. While accepting their zeal in desiring a "godly society", some contemporary historians doubt whether the English Puritans during the English Revolution were as committed to religious liberty and pluralism as traditional histories have suggested. However, historian John Coffey's recent work emphasizes the contribution of a minority of radical Protestants who steadfastly sought toleration for heresy, blasphemy, Catholicism, non-Christian religions, and even atheism. This minority included the Seekers, as well as the General Baptists and the Levellers. Their witness of these groups together demanded the church be an entirely voluntary, non-coercive community able to evangelize in a pluralistic society governed by a purely civil state.
In 1644 the "Augustinian consensus concerning persecution was irreparably fractured." This year can be identified quite exactly, because 1644 saw the publication of John Milton's Areopagitica, William Walwyn's The Compassionate Samaritane, Henry Robinson's Liberty of Conscience and Roger William's The Bloudy Tenent of Persecution. These authors were Puritans or had dissented from the Church of England, and their radical Protestantism led them to condemn religious persecution, which they saw as a popish corruption of primitive Christianity. Other non-Anglican writers advocating toleration were Richard Overton, John Wildman and John Goodwin, the Baptists Samuel Richardson and Thomas Collier and the Quakers Samuel Fisher and William Penn. Anglicans who argued against persecution were: John Locke, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, James Harrington, Jeremy Taylor, Henry More, John Tillotson and Gilbert Burnet.
All of these individuals considered themselves Christians or were actual churchmen. John Milton and John Locke are the predecessors of modern liberalism. Although Milton was a Puritan and Locke an Anglican, Areopagitica and A Letter concerning Toleration are canonical liberal texts. Only from the 1690s onwards did the philosophy of Deism emerge, and with it a third group that advocated religious toleration. But, unlike the radical Protestants and the Anglicans, the deists also rejected biblical authority; this group prominently includes Voltaire, Frederick II of Prussia, Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, Thomas Jefferson and the English-Irish philosopher John Toland. When Toland published the writings of Milton, Edmund Ludlow and Algernon Sidney, he tried to downplay the Puritan divinity in these works.
In 1781, the Holy Roman Emperor, Joseph II, issued the Patent of Toleration which guaranteed the practice of religion by the Evangelical Lutheran and the Reformed Church in Austria. For the first time after the Counter-Reformation, the political and legal process of religious equality officially began.
Following the debates that started in the 1640s, the Church of England was the first Christian church to grant adherents of other Christian denominations freedom of worship with the Act of Toleration 1689, which nevertheless still retained some forms of religious discrimination and did not include toleration for Catholics. Even today, only individuals who are members of the Church of England at the time of the succession may become the British monarch.
Witches (1450–1750)
Renaissance, Reformation and witch hunts occurred in the same centuries. Stuart Clark indicates that is no coincidence, that instead, these different aspects of a single age are representative of a world in the process of revolutionizing its way of thinking and understanding. Clark says that understanding one aspect of the age, such as the witch hunts, can lead to a greater understanding of another, such as the development of tolerance.
Until the 1300s, the official position of the Roman Catholic Church was that witches did not exist. In medieval canon law, Christian thought on this subject is represented by a passage called the Canon Episcopi. Alan Charles Kors explains that the Canon is skeptical that witches exist while still allowing the existence of demons and the devil. By the mid-fifteenth century, popular conceptions of witches changed dramatically, and Christian thought denying witches and witchcraft was being challenged by the Dominicans and being debated within the church. While historians have been unable to pinpoint a single cause of what became known as the "witch frenzy", all have acknowledged that a new but common stream of thought developed in society, as well as in some parts of the church, that witches were both real and malevolent.
Scholarly views on what caused this change fall into three categories: those who say the learned in the church spread it, those who say popular tradition did so, and those who say witchcraft was actually being practiced. Of these three possibilities, Ankarloo and Clark indicate the main pressure to prosecute witches came from the common people, and trials were mostly civil trials. Everywhere in Europe, the higher up in either the ecclesiastical or the secular court system a case went, the more reluctance and reservations there were, with most cases ending up dismissed. In regions that were the most centralized, appellate jurisdictions acted in a restraining capacity, but areas of weak regimes, lacking strong legal or political control, were a disaster for witches. Witch trials were more prevalent in regions where the Catholic church was weakest (Germany, Switzerland and France), while in areas with a strong church presence (Spain, Poland and Eastern Europe) the witch craze was negligible.
Eventually, Christian thought solidified behind Cautio Criminalis (Precautions for Prosecutors) which was written by Friedrich Spee, in 1631. As a Jesuit priest, he personally witnessed witch trials in Westphalia. Driven by his priestly charge of enacting Christian charity, he describes the inhumane torture of the rack with the graphic language of the truly horrified saying, "it makes my blood boil." As a professor, Spee sought to expose the flawed arguments and methods used by the Dominican witch-hunters along with any authority who allowed it, including the emperor. Spee's primary methods for doing so were sarcasm, ridicule and piercing logic. The moral impression of his book was great, and it brought about the abolition of witch trials in a number of places, and led to its gradual decline in others. Witch trials became scant in the second half of the seventeenth century and eventually simply subsided. No one can explain, definitively, why they ended any more than they can explain why they began.
Modern era
Roman Catholic policy
In 1892, Pope Leo XIII (1810–1903) confirmed Aquinas' view of tolerance as a necessary aspect of governing well in Acta Leonis XIII 205.
On 7 December 1965 the Catholic Church's Vatican II council issued the decree "Dignitatis humanae" which dealt with the rights of the person and communities to social and civil liberty in religious matters. The Vatican II document Nostra Aetate absolved the Jewish people of any charge of deicide and affirmed that God has always remained faithful to his covenant with Israel.
In 1987, Pope John Paul II appealed to the world to recognize religious freedom as a fundamental human right. Pope John was quoted by the Los Angeles Times as saying: "Religious freedom, an essential requirement of the dignity of every person, is a cornerstone of the structure of human rights, and for this reason, an irreplaceable factor in the good of individuals and of the whole of society as well as of the personal fulfillment of each individual." On 12 March 2000, he prayed for forgiveness because "Christians have often denied the Gospel; yielding to a mentality of power, they have violated the rights of ethnic groups and peoples, and shown contempt for their cultures and religious traditions."
Protestant Christian thought
After World War II and the Holocaust, many Protestant theologians began to reassess Christian theology's negative attitudes towards the Jews, and as a result, felt compelled to reject the doctrine of supersessionism. Numerous leading Christian thinkers continue to find "keys to truth" in ancient writings such as Augustine's Confessions, and Aquinas' Summa. Modern discussions of the Kingdom of God are still influenced by the nineteenth century view of the eschatological Jesus.
Colin Gunton and Richard Swinburn use traditional motifs in order to creatively reinterpret atonement theories in ways which are not reliant on beliefs rejected by most contemporary Christians such as demonology or the belief in witches. They do not employ the morally objectionable transfer of liability and still effectively convey their belief that Christ's death is more than just a moral example.
Today's debates over inclusivity reach to the heart of what it means to be a Christian both theologically and practically. Bruce L. McCormack says that is why Karl Barth's theology of neo-orthodoxy remains popular even in the "post-modern" twenty-first century. Though Barth advocates the exclusive Christ-centered discipleship of orthodoxy, his view is also inherently inclusive, since, in his view, every human is among those God has set apart for that discipleship.
Contemporary global persecution and sociology
"The exceptional character of persecution in the Latin west since the twelfth century has lain not in the scale or savagery of particular persecutions, ... but in its capacity for sustained long-term growth. The patterns, procedures and rhetoric of persecution, which were established in the twelfth century, have given it the power of infinite and indefinite self-generation and self-renewal."
Tolerance, as a value, has grown out of humanity's experiences with social conflict and persecution, and is part of the legacy garnered from this. But there are also ideals similar to the concept of modern tolerance throughout the history of Christian thought (and philosophy and other religious thought) that can be seen as the long and somewhat torturous "prehistory" of tolerance. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 included the first statement of freedom of religion in modern history. In the twenty-first century, nearly all contemporary societies in the world include religious freedom in their constitutions or other national proclamations in support of human rights. However, at the symposium on law and religion in 2014, Michelle Mack said: "Despite what appears to be near-universal expression of commitment to religious human rights, ... violations of freedom of religion and belief, including acts of severe persecution, occur with fearful frequency." In 1981, Israeli scholar Yoram Dinstein wrote that freedom of religion is "the most persistently violated human right in the annals of the species". In 2018, the U.S. Department of State, which releases annual reports in which it documents varying types of restrictions which are imposed on religious freedom around the world, detailed country by country, the violations of religious freedom which are taking place in approximately 75% of the 195 countries in the world.
R.I. Moore says that persecution during the Middle Ages "provides a striking illustration of classic deviance theory as it was propounded by the father of sociology, Emile Durkheim". Strong social-group identities, with attitudes of group loyalty, solidarity, and highly perceived benefits of belonging, make it likely that an individual or a group will become intolerant when identity is threatened. This indicates intolerance is more of a social process, tied to social identity, than an ideological one.
Contemporary persecution is often part of a larger conflict involving emerging states, and established states in the process of redefining their national identity. For example, Christianity in Iraq dates from the Apostolic era in what was then Persia; the U.S. Department of State identified 1.4 million Christians in Iraq in 1991 when the Gulf War began. By 2010, the number of Christians dropped to 700,000 and it is currently estimated there are between 200,000 and 450,000 Christians left in Iraq. During that period, actions against Christians included the burning and bombing of churches, the bombing of Christian owned businesses and homes, kidnapping, murder, demands for protection money, and anti-Christian rhetoric in the media with those responsible saying they wanted to rid the country of its Christians.
Serbia has been Christian since the Christianization of Serbs by Clement of Ohrid and Saint Naum in the ninth century. Within a relatively peaceful Serbia, the province of Kosovo has long been a site of ethnic and religious tensions. In the 1990s, it drew attention for frequent discrimination and acts of violence toward Albanians: 90 percent of Kosovo's Albanian population is Muslim. Eventually, Kosovo erupted in a full-scale ethnic cleansing resulting in armed intervention by the United Nations in 1999. Serbs attacked Albanian villages, killed and brutalized inhabitants, burned down houses and forced them to leave. By the end of 1998, approximately 3000 Islamic Albanians had been killed and more than 300,000 expelled. By the end of the "action", around 800,000 of the roughly two million Albanians, fled.
See also
Criticism of Christianity
History of Christianity
History of Christian theology
Christianity in the 4th century
Christianity and violence
Role of Christianity in civilization
Notes
References
Further reading
Chris Beneke (2006): Beyond toleration. the religious origins of American pluralism, Oxford University Press
Alexandra Walsham (2006): Charitable hatred. Tolerance and intolerance in England, 1500–1700, Manchester University Press
Religious persecution
Christianization
Christianity and violence
Persecution by Christians
Christian ethics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonas%20Daukantas
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Simonas Daukantas
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Simonas Daukantas (; 28 October 1793 – 6 December 1864) was a Lithuanian/Samogitian historian, writer, and ethnographer. One of the pioneers of the Lithuanian National Revival, he is credited as the author of the first book on the history of Lithuania written in the Lithuanian language. Only a few of his works were published during his lifetime and he died in obscurity. However, his works were rediscovered during the later stages of the National Revival. His views reflected the three major trends of the 19th century: romanticism, nationalism, and liberalism.
Daukantas was born in Samogitia to a Lithuanian family. Likely a son of free peasants, he later produced proof of his noble birth to get university degree and a promotion in his government job. He attended schools in Kretinga and Žemaičių Kalvarija and was noted as an excellent student. Daukantas studied law at the University of Vilnius, though his interest lay in philology and history. After the graduation, he worked as a civil servant of the Russian Empire from 1825 to 1850. He first worked at the office of the Governor-General of Livonia, Estonia and Courland in Riga then moved to Saint Petersburg to work at the Governing Senate. At the Senate, he had the opportunity to study the Lithuanian Metrica, the state archive of the 14–18th century legal documents of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1850, Daukantas retired from his job due to poor health and moved back to Samogitia where he lived in Varniai under the care of bishop Motiejus Valančius for a few years. He hoped to publish some of his works with bishop's help, but the bishop prioritized religious work and they began to quarrel. In 1855, Daukantas moved to in present-day Latvia and later to Papilė where he died in obscurity in 1864.
While Daukantas knew seven languages, he published exclusively in Lithuanian. He was a prolific writer and worked on a wide range of books – studies on the history of Lithuania, publications of primary historical sources, collections of Lithuanian folklore, Polish–Lithuanian dictionaries, Latin textbook for schoolchildren, primer of the Lithuanian language, Catholic prayer book, agricultural manuals for peasants, translations of classical Roman texts, novel for youth inspired by Robinson Crusoe. However, only a few of these works were published during his lifetime. Of the four studies on history, he managed to publish only one, The Character of the Ancient Lithuanians, Highlanders, and Samogitians, in 1845. While he was a well read erudite who spent considerable time and effort in obtaining primary sources, his historical works are highly influenced by romantic nationalism and didactically idealize the past. He used poetic descriptions, rhetorical elements, and emotional language that brought his history works closer to a literary work. His histories are valued not for their scientific content, but for their contribution to the development of the Lithuanian national identity. After the closing of Vilnius University in 1832, Lithuanians did not have a professionally trained historian until 1904 and used Daukantas' histories extensively. Daukantas identified language as the determining factor of nationality and articulated the nationalist anti-Polish sentiment that became the fundamental ideas of the Lithuanian National Revival and that survive in Lithuanian historiography into the 21st century.
Biography
Origins and primary education
Daukantas was born on 28 October 1793 in near Lenkimai in Samogitia. He was the oldest of seven children (two sons and five daughters). With Daukantas' help, his brother Aleksandras later studied medicine at Vilnius University. Baptismal records of the two sons (but not of the daughters) specified that they were children of Lithuanian nobles. There was an academic debate whether this information was accurate or falsified to provide the sons with better opportunities in life, a common practice among wealthier peasants at the time. An analysis of inventories of Skuodas Manor revealed that the family were free peasants – different from serfs in that they had some personal freedoms and paid quit-rent instead of performing corvée. When the manor was confiscated from the Sapiehas for their participation in the Uprising of 1831, the family was turned into serfs. However, Eimantas Meilus argued that inventories alone do not prove that the family was not of noble origin as many poorer nobles were equated to peasants and paid quit-rent to wealthier manors. The family worked about 1.5 voloks of land and pasture and raised cash for quit-rent by selling flax in Riga or Liepāja. According to the epitaph engraved on the gravestone of Daukantas' mother, she and her husband participated in a battle near Liepāja during the Kościuszko Uprising against the partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In 1799–1800, his father was mentioned as manor's forester.
Daukantas' education was financed by his uncle, priest Simonas Lopacinskis (died in 1814). Daukantas attended a two-year primary school in Kretinga. When the school was visited by an inspector from Vilnius University in 1808, Daukantas was listed among 16 exemplary second-year students (out of total 68 students). The school curriculum included lessons on Polish and Latin grammar, geography, arithmetic, religion and morality. At some point, Daukantas enrolled into a four-grade six-year (the last two grades took two years to finish) school in Žemaičių Kalvarija. Another inspector listed him as one of four best students in the last fourth grade in 1814. The school curriculum was dictated by Vilnius University and included natural law (textbook by Hieronim Stroynowski), classical antiquity, rhetoric, geography, geometry, algebra, physics, natural sciences (textbook by Stanisław Bonifacy Jundziłł), gardening. However, since all teachers were Dominican friars, students had to attend daily masses and go to confession every month. The subjects were taught in Polish and the use of Samogitian (Lithuanian), even among students, was prohibited in November 1806. The official rationale was to facilitate the learning of Polish. However, as later attested by Motiejus Valančius, neither students nor teachers knew Polish well and Daukantas never learned proper Polish pronunciation.
In 1814, Daukantas with 10 rubles in his pocket and a bag of clothes on his back traveled on foot from Samogitia to Vilnius to attend Vilnius Gymnasium. The school year started on 1 September, but Daukantas was registered only on 26 September as a fifth-year student. That school year, the school had 423 students, mostly sons of nobles and officials. The gymnasium, together with Vilnius in general, was recovering after the French invasion of Russia in 1812. Its original premises were occupied by a war hospital and so it temporarily shared rooms with Vilnius University. In June–July 1815, the gymnasium organized an annual public examination of its students attended by members of the clergy and university professors. Daukantas was listed among 14 students who distinguished themselves during this event. He successfully graduated from the gymnasium in early summer 1816.
University education
In fall 1816, Daukantas began studies at the Faculty of Literature and Liberal Arts at Vilnius University, then known as the Imperial University of Vilna. Adam Mickiewicz transferred to the faculty at the same time. Daukantas was interested in philology and studied Latin, Russian, and Polish literature, French language, rhetoric, poetry, natural and land law (leges patrias). His professors included of classical philology and of poetry and rhetoric. In 1817, Daukantas applied for a Candidate of Philosophy degree, but was rejected because he did not provide required certificates and did not complete a thesis. After another year of studies, Daukantas transferred to the Faculty of Moral and Political Sciences in fall 1818. These studies could secure a more promising career as a judge or a government official. He attended lectures of , who formed Daukantas as a historian. Onacewicz studied at the University of Königsberg and had access to the archives of the Teutonic Order and spent a year studying archives at the estate of Nikolay Rumyantsev in Gomel. He collected enough information to establish a course on the history of Lithuania as a separate subject from the history of Poland. Another key professor was who taught law and studied Lithuanian Statutes, Casimir's Code, and Lithuanian Chronicles.
On 12 July 1819, Daukantas was granted the Candidate of Law degree in canon and Roman law. To get the diploma, Daukantas needed to provide proof of his noble status. He provided a large parchment, signed by Michał Józef Römer as marshal of the szlachta of the Vilna Governorate on 24 August 1820, that described an extensive genealogy of Daukantai family of that traced back to the late 1500s. While the document is authentic, historian Vytautas Merkys concluded that Daukantas altered the genealogy to attach his own family to the noble Daukantai family, another known practice among peasants that shared surnames with noble families. Daukantas received his diploma on 25 January 1821.
He continued his studies and took canon law, Roman civil law, criminal law, land law, political economy, history, logic and metaphysics. From fall 1820, Daukantas stopped attending lectures except for land law. He stopped taking classes in spring 1822. In all classes he received "good" or "very good" evaluations except in logic and metaphysics taught by Anioł Dowgird where his knowledge was rated as "satisfactory". In spring 1821, Daukantas submitted an application for a master's degree. The oral exams took place in October–November 1821. He had to answer questions on a wide variety of subjects, from the law and history of Ancient Rome and impostors of Dmitry of Uglich to theory of taxes and specifics of Russian economy as well as thoughts of Montesquieu and Adam Smith. In July 1822, Daukantas defended his thesis on the power of the head of a family according to the natural, Roman, and land law. He was granted the master's degree in canon and Roman law on 15 July 1822.
However, Daukantas had to wait until 1825 to get his diploma. The degree needed a confirmation by the Ministry of Religious Affairs and Public Education. The university prepared the papers in August 1822, but they were returned because they needed translation into Russian. The translated documents were not sent out until March 1824. Part of the delay was caused by suppression of the Filomat and Filaret secret student societies (Daukantas' name was included on a list of potential members, but there is no evidence that he ever joined them). Discovered in May 1823, members of these societies were tried and sentenced for anti-Tsarist activities. Until resolution of the trials, students were prohibited from leaving Vilnius and the university ceased issuing graduation certificates. The process was delayed again due to the replacement of Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, curator of the , with Nikolay Novosiltsev. The papers had to be reviewed by the new curator who approved Daukantas' degree in February 1825 followed by the ministry's approval in March. Finally, the university issued the diploma on 30 April 1825.
There is no reliable information on Daukantas' activities while he waited for his diploma. Earlier biographers claimed that he studied at the University of Dorpat, but researchers Vaclovas Biržiška and found no record of Daukantas among Dorpat students. Jonas Šliūpas claimed that Daukantas visited France, Germany, England, while other authors claimed that he studied historical documents at the Königsberg archives, but there is no record that he was issued a passport that would have allowed him to leave Vilnius. Daukantas likely joined a small circle of Samogitian students that promised to promote Lithuanian language and culture signifying the early stages of the Lithuanian National Revival. There a popular legend that he went to the Gate of Dawn and promised to write only in Lithuanian. Already in 1822, he wrote Darbai senųjų lietuvių ir žemaičių (Deeds of the Ancient Lithuanians and Samogitians), an 855-page manuscript on the history of Lithuania. While it was not published until 1929, two copies of the manuscript are known. Researcher Roma Bončkutė proposed that Daukantas was inspired to write the work after reading The Seasons by Kristijonas Donelaitis, first published by Ludwig Rhesa in 1818. In 1824, Daukantas translated 111 fables of Phaedrus, but they remained unpublished until 1846.
Civil servant
With his master's diploma in hand, Daukantas searched for a position in a government office. In September 1825, he was issued a passport that allowed him to travel to the Governorates of Livonia and Saint Petersburg. He found a post at the office of the Governor-General of Livonia, Estonia and Courland in Riga. All government officials in the Russian Empire were divided into 14 categories, from imperial ministers to train conductors (see: Table of Ranks). In 1826, Daukantas was recognized as a titular councillor, 9th category official. For a promotion to collegiate assessor he needed to prove his noble status and have three years of experience. In February 1826, Tsar Nicholas I of Russia ordered to prepare a new law that would require all nobles to prove their social status. While the law was adopted only in May 1834, it became a lot more difficult to prove one's noble birth. Daukantas and his brother Aleksandras, then a student at Vilnius University, had to resubmit all documents proving their genealogy to a special commission of Vilna Governorate. The commission recognized both brothers as nobles and forwarded documents to under the Governing Senate in January 1832. In May 1833, Heroldia recognized Daukantas as noble, but not his brother. Daukantas was promoted to the 8th category in April 1834.
During the Uprising of 1831, Daukantas was in Riga – he was not granted vacations between December 1829 and July 1834. In 1833, he received two awards of 75 and 110 rubles for excellent work. We was interested in the history of Lithuania, but could not get access to the archives of Riga magistrate. After the promotion, he decided to change his position and move to Saint Petersburg. He applied for a job at the first (administrative) department of the Governing Senate. After a background check to ensure that he did not participate in the uprising, Daukantas started his new job in March 1835. He worked on paperwork related to ports and Russian Imperial Navy. In March 1837, he transferred to the third department which dealt with all kinds of cases, complaints, and appeals from eastern governorates of the Russian Empire, including Vilna and Kovno. Daukantas was attracted to this position because the office used Lithuanian Metrica, a collection of the 14–18th century legal documents of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. He became an assistant of Franciszek Malewski. His annual salary was 286 rubles with additional 57 rubles for food. It was a small pay and Daukantas earned additional money by helping various people to locate needed genealogical and other documents in the Metrica. In July 1839, Daukantas received an award equal to his annual pay for helping create a practical index of the Metrica. However, he did not receive either Order of Saint Anna (2nd class) or the Order of Saint Stanislaus (2nd class) which were generally awarded after 12 and 15 years of employment.
In February 1841, Daukantas' brother Aleksandras was implicated in an anti-Tsarist organization established by Szymon Konarski. After an interrogation, he attempted suicide and was brought to a hospital in Kherson. He died in the hospital on 5 October 1841. More repressions and restrictions, including stricter censorship, followed after the Revolutions of 1848. Afraid of attracting police attention and losing his job, Daukantas kept his historical research a secret and always asked friends and acquaintances not to publish or mention his name. He used numerous non-repeating pen names and a few times published works without any name, though some researchers suggested that he also did that to create an impression that there were many Lithuanian writers. Even when sending a copy of Būdas senovės lietuvių, kalnėnų ir žemaičių to Teodor Narbutt, Daukantas described the work as if written by an unknown person.
Collaboration with other historians
In Saint Petersburg, Daukantas worked on his studies on the history of Lithuania and was close friends with his former professor and who both lived in an apartment provided by the Rumyantsev Museum. They both died in February 1845 and Daukantas deeply mourned his friends. When Vilnius Theological Academy was moved to Saint Petersburg in 1842, it brought more Lithuanian intellectuals to Saint Petersburg. Daukantas is often crediting for inspiring Motiejus Valančius, future Bishop of Samogitia, to write his works in Lithuanian. The small Samogitian circle was ruined when and Valančius returned to Lithuania in 1844–1845. However, Daukantas and Valančius continued to correspond and collaborate. It is likely that Valančius wrote his fundamental work on the history of the Diocese of Samogitia in Lithuanian and not in Polish because of Daukantas' influence. In this work, Valančius cited Daukantas' manuscript of Istorija žemaitiška four times and Lithuanian Metrica (copies of which he could have obtained only from Daukantas) another four times, though likely used Daukantas and his sources more frequently as Valančius mentioned a total of 19 Samogitian cities and towns that had received royal privileges.
Teodor Narbutt, author of the nine-volume History of Lithuania, began corresponding with Daukantas in March 1842. They exchanged books and materials. In total, Narbutt wrote 19 letters to Daukantas, and Daukantas wrote 20 letters to Narbutt. Their main concern was to obtain and publish historical documents and other primary sources related to the history of Lithuania. Daukantas was particularly wary of falsified or altered sources being published by various Polish historians. Their plan to publish primary sources was an intentional and principled decision to publish Lithuanian documents separately from Polish historians who began publishing Sources for the History of Poland (Źródła do dziejów Polski). Daukantas sent to Narbutt about 800 copies of various documents made during the years by himself or by Onacewicz, including a copy of Die Littauischen Wegeberichte. In particular, he highly valued a copy of a manuscript by Albert Wijuk Kojałowicz that cataloged and described various coat of arms of Lithuanian nobility. When Narbutt promised to find a way to publish the manuscript, Daukantas lent him the copy for a few months with strict orders to supervise the publication so that no Polish publishers could make any changes or alterations to the original text. Narbutt harbored plans to publish the Bychowiec Chronicle as the first volume of a series of primary source publications, but Daukantas lost his patience after receiving only promises of ever grander plans. Their collaboration broke down in 1844. Narbutt never published or returned the documents received from Daukantas who was angry over losing most valuable pieces of his collection and continued to demand their return until 1858. After Narbutt's death, his sons gifted some of the primary sources collected by their father, including 158 pages copied by Daukantas, to a library in Lviv (present-day Stefanyk National Science Library).
Retirement
In an 1846 letter to Narbutt, Daukantas complained of poor health which he attributed to long hours spent in cold and damp archives of the Russian Senate. He complained that he had difficulty walking, but dismissed doctors' diagnosis of podagra. In summer 1850, he requested a three-month vacation to improve his health. In September, he obtained an official certificate from a German doctor in Telšiai that at the age of 58 and troubled by many ailments he was unfit to continue his work in Saint Petersburg. Daukantas was officially retired in February 1851 and allotted an annual pension of 42.90 silver rubles, but it was not enough to live on and he needed further financial support. His move to Lithuania coincided with the consecration of his old friend Motiejus Valančius as Bishop of Samogitia in March 1850. Daukantas lived in Varniai where Valnčius resided and which was becoming a cultural center in Samogitia. He received a salary of 200 rubles from Valančius and worked on his historical studies that he hoped to publish with Valančius' help. However, soon the relationship soured perhaps because Valančius prioritized religious work and literature and would assign tasks which had little to do with Lithuanian cultural work that Daukantas desired. Also, Valančius had a more critical approach to writing history and reportedly criticized Daukantas' overly idealized work and carefully controlled the language of Daukantas' historical works.
In summer 1855, Daukantas moved from Varniai. Historians usually cite the conflict between Daukantas and Valančius as the reason for the move, but ill health and fear of police persecution probably also contributed. Due to the Crimean War, Russian police became more vigilant and they came across Būdas senovės lietuvių, kalnėnų ir žemaičių that Daukantas had published in 1845. The censors reevaluated the book and deemed it inappropriate due to its anti-serfdom rhetoric. The police tracked down Daukantas and knew that he moved from Varniai to Courland. However, the book was already sold out and the investigation concluded with an order to keep an eye on bookstores in case a new edition of the book appeared. The book was one of the first books added to a list of prohibited books compiled in October 1855.
Daukantas moved to () in present-day Latvia to live with Petras Smuglevičius, a medical doctor and a relative of painter Franciszek Smuglewicz. Smuglevičius was accused of belonging to a secret student society, arrested for a year, later acquitted, but still lived under police supervision. He was very supportive of Lithuanian cultural activities. In early 1858, Mikalojus Akelaitis also moved in to live with Smuglevičius. Akelaitis treated Daukantas as a fatherly figure and they supported each other's work. Daukantas continued to work on his historical studies, writing to linguist Friedrich Kurschat in hopes of obtaining books by Ludwig Rhesa and Daniel Klein and copies of historical sources from Johannes Voigt. He compiled a collection of historical documents, privileges from 1387–1561 that he had inherited from , and made one last attempt to collect the document he loaned to Teodor Narbutt. Daukantas supported the establishment of the Museum of Antiquities in Vilnius and corresponded with Eustachy Tyszkiewicz hoping to transfer some of his collected historical documents to the museum. Akelaitis, Valančius, and Daukantas wanted to establish Pakeleivingas, a Lithuanian-language periodical aimed at the ordinary village people, but could not get government's permission. Daukantas had four manuscripts ready to be published (two booklets with agricultural advice, Lithuanian reworking of Robinson Crusoe, and a second edition of a Lithuanian primer), but they all remained unpublished due to lack of funds.
Around summer 1859, Daukantas left Jaunsvirlauka and briefly lived with various friends and relatives. In October 1861, he moved to Papilė to live with Ignotas Vaišvila, a parish priest. His health continued to deteriorate. Daukantas and Valančius exchanged final bitter letters in 1861, completely severing their friendship. One of these letters was later published in Aušra. It is unclear what Daukantas did during the January Uprising of 1863–1864, but several of his friends were arrested, imprisoned, or exiled to Siberia. Vaišvila was arrested, but released. Daukantas died on 6 December 1864 and was buried on the summit of the Papilė hill fort without much ceremony. Vaišvila put a simple engraved stone on the grave; twenty years later, he replaced it with an engraved ledger gravestone commissioned in Riga which survives to this day. In 1925, Antanas Raudonis, a former Lithuanian book smuggler and an amateur sculptor, added a cross that is shaped as an oak stump with a growing shoot.
Works
Historical studies
Publication history
Daukantas wrote four original books on the history of Lithuania. Only one of them was published during his lifetime. In his research, Daukantas was hindered by inaccessibility of sources, lack of funds, absent institutional support (i.e. no government institution or university to assist him). It was a lonely, costly, and frustrating undertaking. Book publishing was an expensive undertaking. For example, Daukantas had to pay 2,000 silver rubles to the publisher of his 120-page Latin grammar. The only person known to have provided financial assistance to Daukantas is Ksaveras Kanapackis, who is listed as sponsor of ten books by Daukantas.
He wrote his first historical work, Darbai senųjų lietuvių ir žemaičių (Deeds of the Ancient Lithuanians and Samogitians), in 1822 while still a student at Vilnius University. The work starts with the 7th century BC and ends with the death of King Jogaila (Władysław II Jagiełło) in 1434. The work was discovered in 1919 and first published in 1929. The work was dedicated not to historians or learned men, but to Lithuanian mothers who taught their children and told them deeds of their ancestors. Thus he recognized and acknowledged women's role in educating the younger generation.
His second and largest historical work, Istorija žemaitiška (Samogitian History), was completed by 1834. The manuscript had 1,106 pages. It appears that Daukantas hoped to publish it around 1848 as he ordered a clean copy, which was discovered in 1983. The work ended with the death of Sigismund II Augustus in 1572. Istorija žemaitiška under the title Lietuvos istorija (History of Lithuania) was published in two volumes in 1893 and 1897 in the United States. In 1850, Daukantas reworked it as Pasakojimas apie veikalus lietuvių tautos senovėje (Story of the Deeds of the Ancient Lithuanians) which ended with the death of Grand Duke Vytautas in 1430. He hoped to publish it with the help of Motiejus Valančius and two copies with various corrections were produced. In 1882, Jonas Šliūpas made another copy with hopes of publishing it, but the first 96 pages up to year 1201 were printed by Jonas Kriaučiūnas at the press of Martynas Jankus in 1893 and the work was first published in full only in 1976. It was the only manuscript that Daukantas signed in his real name (though he also used pen name Jonas Einoras).
His third historical book was Būdas senovės lietuvių, kalnėnų ir žemaičių (The Character of the Ancient Lithuanians, Highlanders, and Samogitians). He created the word kalnėnai (highlanders) to refer to Aukštaitija. Russian censors considered the manuscript in May 1844, but due to difficulties finding censors who knew Lithuanian, the work approved only in March 1845. The book was published in Saint Petersburg in February 1846. It was republished in the United States in 1892 and in Lithuania in 1935. It was the first history of the culture of Lithuania. Excerpts were translated to Polish in Rocznik Literacki in 1850 and to German in Mitteilungen der Litauischen literarischen Gesellschaft in 1885. The content was arranged not chronologically as in other works but thematically with chapters covering subjects such as religion, customs, commerce, geography. The short chapter on numismatics, which discussed the Lithuanian long currency and earliest coins of the Grand Duchy, retained its scientific relevance until the 1930s. The book described material and spiritual life of Lithuanians in poetic, literary language. Excerpts of this work are often included in reading materials for Lithuanian literature lessons in Lithuanian schools.
Content
Daukantas was one of the first to clearly distinguish a nation from a state. He believed that a nation is defined by its language and customs, not statehood. His histories were not about a territory that no longer existed (and that was mourned by Adam Mickiewicz), but about the living nation. As long as Lithuanian language and customs (folklore, songs, tales, proverbs) existed, the Lithuanian nation would also survive. Daukanatas proposed than developing culture and pursuing education, not just military or political means, were forms of resistance. Therefore, he associated the Lithuanian national identity not with the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but with the Lithuanian language, folk culture, and customs – an idea that was further pursued by the Lithuanian National Revival and led to the formation of the independent Lithuania in 1918. He further held liberal ideas that people were born with inalienable rights and that there was a social contract between a nation and the state. He thought that peasants and other commoners were the core of a nation thus going against the Polish trend to emphasize the nation of nobles.
His primary goal was to inspire love of the homeland and Lithuanian national pride among the common folk. He used poetic and lively descriptions, rhetorical elements, monologues and dialogues, and emotional language that brought his history works closer to a literary work. Particularly artistic are wild forest and battle scenes. Daukantas painted an idealized image of ancient Lithuanians who embodied stoic values and lived peacefully in their vast forests until the nobility adopted foreign customs, became lazy, and started exploiting the common folk. This depiction echoed ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Johann Gottfried Herder that the savage, unspoiled by the civilization, was inherently noble and good. He depicted Grand Duke Vytautas as the great Lithuanian hero while King Jogaila, who initiated the Polish–Lithuanian union in 1385, was a symbol of all ills and evils that later befell Lithuania. He blamed Poland and Polish nobility for Lithuania losing its statehood, moral enslavement of Lithuanians, and falsification and distortions of Lithuania's history. Poland brought economic decline and moral decay to Lithuania – the opposite of the common Polish claim that they "civilized" the pagan barbarians. Such strong anti-Polish sentiment was a radical and daring development among Lithuanians at the time when Polish intellectuals considered the Polish–Lithuanian union to be sacred, but it paved the way for separating the dual Polish-Lithuanian identity into the modern Polish and Lithuanian national identities. Daukantas identified language as the determining factor of nationality. After the publication of Aušra in 1883, such anti-Polish attitudes became increasingly common among Lithuanian activists.
Daukantas idealized and idolized the past. Virgil Krapauskas asserted that Daukantas' letters to Narbutt showed Daukantas to be a better scholar than his works – in the letters Daukantas emphasized the need for better methods of collecting, publishing and analyzing primary sources, though his works remained highly romantic and didactic. Daukantas spent considerable effort in tracking down various historical documents, but he believed that where historical records are missing, historians should use their imagination to fill in the gaps. If a source was favorable to Lithuania, he did not evaluate it critically and readily accepted a number of legends. For example, he elaborated on the theory that Lithuanians were descendants of Herules that he took from Albert Wijuk Kojałowicz (though he rejected the legend about Roman Palemonids), praised ancient democracy of Prussian king Widewuto, and used a loose translation of the short story Żiwila by Adam Mickiewicz. But he was critical of sources that portrayed Lithuania in a negative light. For example, he was one of the first to criticize the Teutonic account of the Battle of Strėva as a crushing defeat of Lithuanian forces or argue that the Lithuanian returned to the Battle of Grunwald and continued to fight. While Daukantas' scholarship was poor and does not stand up to modern standards, it was on par with his contemporaries.
Sources cited
Overall, Daukantas' historical works were mostly influenced by the two-volume Historiae Lituanae by Albert Wijuk Kojałowicz (published in 1650 and 1669) from which he borrowed the structure, content, rhetorical and stylistic elements. He also borrowed poetic elements from Kristijonas Donelaitis Daukantas cited his sources erratically and inconsistently. Darbai senųjų lietuvių ir žemaičių had 254 references: 89 to works by August von Kotzebue, 62 to Albert Wijuk Kojałowicz, 29 to Nikolay Karamzin, 15 to , and 10 to Teodor Narbutt, in total 31 authors. Istorija žemaitiška cited 320 references; the number of different authors grew to about 70, mostly German historians. There was a shift in references used: von Kotzebue (18 references) fell out of favor and was replaced by Johannes Voigt (75 references) while Hlebowicz was not cited at all. At times, he went beyond citing sources and outright plagiarized works by Kojałowicz, Kotzebue, Voigt. Daukantas also added a number of citations to primary sources, including the Lithuanian Chronicles, Livonian Rhymed Chronicle, chronicles by Wigand of Marburg, Peter von Dusburg, Lucas David. Towards the end of the manuscript, the citations became scarcer and rarer. There were only five references, including two to Jan Łasicki, for 227 pages covering the period from 1440 to 1572.
In Būdas senovės lietuvių, kalnėnų ir žemaičių, Daukantas cited a few documents from the Lithuanian Metrica, but perhaps was afraid to cite it more often as it could have attracted unwanted attention from the Tsarist authorities that he was using his access to the Metrica for non-work related purposes (the Metrica was carefully guarded to avoid any alterations or falsifications). In this work, Daukantas expanded his bibliography by adding references to De moribus tartarorum, lituanorum et moscorum, Livonian Chronicle of Henry, works by Alexander Guagnini and Jan Łasicki, and others. He also used Lithuanian folklore, etymologies, and semantics as a source. While Daukantas cited a wide range of works and authors, including some classical historians such as Tacitus or Ptolemy, he avoided citing Polish historians who supported the union between Poland and Lithuania and considered Lithuania to be just a region of Poland. In particular, he disliked and barely cited Jan Długosz. Overall, Daukantas was an erudite and well-read person, familiar with both classical and new western sources. He knew seven languages: Lithuanian, Russian, Polish, Latin, German, Latvian, and French.
Dictionaries
In addition to the brief Latin–Lithuanian dictionary published in 1838, Daukantas compiled three other dictionaries, but they were not published. Lithuanians still used the Polish–Latin–Lithuanian dictionary by Konstantinas Sirvydas first published in 1620. Therefore, Daukantas was not the only Lithuanian to start a new Polish–Lithuanian dictionary. Mikalojus Akelaitis, Laurynas Ivinskis, Dionizas Poška, Simonas Stanevičius, Kiprijonas Nezabitauskis, and others are known to have started compiling a dictionary but their works were similarly not published. Daukantas' entries did not provide lexicographic information (for example, gender of nouns) and had very few illustrative examples of how a certain word is used in a sentence. These lexicographic weaknesses reveal Daukantas' tendency to focus solely on words at the price of grammar, syntax, or style. He wanted to demonstrate that Lithuanian language is rich in words and is an equal of other languages, but neglected practical aspects of the dictionaries.
Sometime in 1838–1846, Daukantas worked on a Polish–Lithuanian dictionary that possibly contained about 23,000 words. Only a fragment with 2,244 words has been preserved. The Polish list of words was borrowed from a dictionary published by Jan Litwiński in 1815. Around 1842–1850, he worked on compiling a Lithuanian–Latin dictionary. The unfinished work contains 3,977 words and stops at the word Gwĩldós. Around 1850–1855, Daukantas compiled a three-volume 2,280-page Polish–Lithuanian dictionary. It is unfinished and, according to the count by Jonas Kruopas, contains 56,567 Polish words but only 37,677 Lithuanian equivalents. For the base list of Polish words, Daukantas used the Polish–French dictionary by published in 1847. The manuscript of the last dictionary was transferred by Daukantas' relatives to the Lithuanian Scientific Society in 1911. There it was studied by Kazimieras Būga who picked out Lithuanian words, sometimes not known from anywhere else, for his planned Academic Dictionary of Lithuanian. The three volumes of the Polish–Lithuanian dictionary were first published in 1993–1996.
Books for students
From his own experience, Daukantas understood that Lithuanian students struggled learning Latin because they had to use Polish textbooks and many Lithuanians did not speak Polish before entering school. Therefore, in 1837, he published a 120-page grammar book on Latin. It started with a basic introduction to the Lithuanian grammar on which then Latin grammar rules were built on. Thus, at the same time, it was one of the first textbooks of Lithuanian grammar. In 1838, Daukantas published Epitome historiae sacrae by the French author Charles François Lhomond and added a 42-page Latin–Lithuanian dictionary with about 2,350 Latin words and 250 word combinations and 3,880 Lithuanian words and 260 word combinations. The book was meant as a supplemental Latin reading for school students. It was a popular work that was frequently published with a dictionary. Daukantas did not compile the Latin list of words, but translated it from a Polish edition.
In 1841, Tsarist authorities, looking to weaken the Polish culture, allowed Samogitian Diocese to establish parish schools that could teach Lithuanian language. In 1842, Daukantas published 1,500 copies of Abėcėlė lietuvių, kalnėnų ir žemaičių kalbos (Alphabet of Lithuanian, Highlander, and Samogitian Language). The primer included 18 pages dedicated to Russian language and sample reading material that was not religious. While the book included the traditional prayers and catechism, it also added short moral teachings (e.g. to respect your parents), seven fables, and 298 Lithuanian proverbs. Some of these proverbs were rather crude and vulgar and had to be manually scratched out. However, it was not popular. In a letter to Motiejus Valančius, Daukantas bitterly complained that less than 400 copies were sold in two years. In 1849, Daukantas prepared a second edition of the primer that removed the non-religious texts, but the manuscript remained unclaimed at the censor's office. Another edition was prepared in 1862 which returned the original text except for a few vulgar proverbs, but it could not be published due to the Lithuanian press ban.
Daukantas prepared five other books for school students, but only two were published during his lifetime. He published a translation of fables by Phaedrus (he had them first translated in 1824) and a translation of biographies from De viris illustribus by Cornelius Nepos, both in 1846. He published the fables with hopes of awakening an interest in Lithuanian folk tales. He twice translated and reworked Robinson der Jüngere by Joachim Heinrich Campe (inspired by Robinson Crusoe) – first in 1846 as 397-page Rubinaičio Peliūzės gyvenimas (The Life of Rubinaitis Peliūžė; first published in 1984) and then in 1855 as 495-page Palangos Petris (Petris of Palanga; manuscript lost). He adapted the text by changing names to Lithuanian names, geographic names to locations in Lithuania, aboriginal gods to pagan Lithuanian gods, and borrowing historical details from the Couronian colonization of the Americas, but otherwise remained faithful to Campe's text. He also translated a work by the Roman historian Justin.
Other works
Daukantas was passionate about the Lithuanian language and its purity. He was concerned that religious books, by far the most popular Lithuanian books at the time, were often translated by foreigners with poor knowledge of Lithuanian. As such, prayer book language was full of loanwords and barbarisms from various Slavic languages. Therefore, in 1843, he undertook to prepare a prayer book – a rare feat for a layperson – in correct Lithuanian. He took prayers from various popular books of the time and submitted his manuscript to bishop . The manuscript received the approval from the diocese only in 1847, but for some unknown reason was not published.
Daukantas was the first to collect examples of all genres (songs, proverbs, fairy-tales, etc.) of Lithuanian folklore. He added Lithuanian proverbs to several of his works, but earlier works used proverbs already published by other authors. In total, he had prepared 932 proverbs for publication. Around 1834–1835, Daukantas started one of the first collections of Lithuanian fairy tales, fables, humorous stories. The handwritten collection was discovered by Jonas Jablonskis and published in full in 1932. Daukantas more frequently collected Lithuanian folk songs – about 850 songs collected by Daukantas are preserved, mostly at the Martynas Mažvydas National Library of Lithuania. In 1846, he published a collection of 118 songs and 190 proverbs. Daukantas edited the songs freely, sometimes merging two songs together. It was a popular book, only a few copies survive in Lithuanian libraries and all of those show heavy use. About 70 of these songs were republished by Georg Heinrich Ferdinand Nesselmann in 1853 and six by August Schleicher in 1857. Daukantas worked perhaps on three more volumes, but they remained unpublished. Since Daukantas spent most of his time outside of Lithuania, he had to rely on local helpers (members of the intelligentsia or students) to visit the common villagers, write down samples of folklore, and send them to Daukantas. This way, the songs were collected by about 40 different people. His collection of folklore was published in two volumes in 1983–1984.
In 1847, Daukantas began translating and publishing booklets with agricultural advice in hopes that Lithuanian peasants could improve their economic conditions via more efficient and profitable farming methods. They were the first practical steps towards the idea that economic development would lead to the development of the national consciousness. He published works on tobacco and on hops in 1847. Next year, he re-published a book on beekeeping – it was already published in Lithuanian in 1801 and 1820. In 1849, Daukantas published three booklets – on fruit trees by , on tree seeds, and on fire prevention (it was first published in Lithuanian in 1802). The last book on fodder grasses was published in 1854. Daukantas had two more texts translated from Russian and Polish, but they were not published. Daukantas added original introductions to these texts where he often returned to history. For example, the books about tree seeds and beekeeping talked about the ancient forests of Lithuania.
Language and style
Daukantas was passionate about the purity of the Lithuanian language. To him it was the primary proof of the language's worth and importance at the time when it was marginalized and pushed out of public life by Polish and Russian. Language's practical use (ease of understanding, clear meaning, convenience) was of little importance. In the early works, Daukantas wrote in the heavy Samogitian dialect (dounininkai sub-dialect) using plentiful diacritics and archaic words, some even borrowed from Latvian or Prussian. Even his contemporaries, including fellow Samogitians Motiejus Valančius and Kajetonas Nezabitauskis, complained that they had difficulty understanding the language. After 1845, when he started publishing popular booklets with agricultural advice, his language became less heavy, more similar to the Aukštaitian dialect. His orthography is extremely varied and inconsistent, even in the same manuscript, as he experimented wanting to eliminate features of Polish and to include features of Prussian Lithuania orthography.
Daukantas had to create numerous neologisms. The three volume Polish–Lithuanian dictionary contained about 3,800 neologisms. As one of the first to write a grammar in Lithuanian, he had to create a number of grammatical terms. Of the many neologism, a few became widely accepted and used in the modern standard Lithuanian, including laikrodis (clock), prekyba (trade), vaistininkas (pharmacist), vietovė (location), būdvardis (adjective), while many other were rejected, including aušrėnai (Balts), laikoskaitlis (chronology), rūdarbis (tailor). He did not consider Latvian to be a foreign language and often borrowed its words, for example asinas from Latvian asins for blood, muižė from Latvian muiža for manor. One of such borrowed words, valstybė for state or polity, became a standard Lithuanian word. Daukantas was an amateur linguist and frequently offered etymologies that were based on similar sounding words instead of the scientific comparative method.
Legacy
While Daukantas died in obscurity and most of his works unpublished, growing Lithuanian National Revival celebrated his patriotism. Already in the first issue of Aušra, the first Lithuanian-language newspaper, Jonas Šliūpas started publishing multi-part biography of Daukantas and raised the idea of publishing his works. Two historical studies by Daukantas were first published in Vienybė lietuvninkų and later in separate books by Lithuanian Americans in the 1890s. Daukantas' life and work were studied by Eduards Volters, who presented a paper to the Imperial Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences in 1887, Jonas Jablonskis, who published an article in Varpas in 1893, and by Mečislovas Davainis-Silvestraitis, who published a collection of documents about Daukantas in the United States in 1898. In 1893, Lithuanian newspapers commemorated the 100th birth anniversary. On that occasion, Davainis-Silvestraitis brought a painter to talk to people who knew Daukantas while he was alive and create his portrait. The resulting portrait, though of low artistic quality, was published in United States in an album compiled by Antanas Milukas.
In 1901, Juozas Tumas-Vaižgantas discovered the only known contemporary portrait, painted around 1850. Based on this portrait, Petras Rimša created a plaster relief in 1905. In 1910, Daukantas' relatives transferred his manuscripts and library to the Lithuanian Scientific Society which promoted further study of his life and work. Historian Augustinas Janulaitis published an extensive biography of Daukantas in 1913 and his surviving correspondence in 1922. Daukantas works were added to the Lithuanian school curriculum of Lithuanian literature. In 1924, Lithuanian teachers began raising funds for a monument to Daukantas. A bronze sculpture was designed by Vincas Grybas and erected in Papilė in 1930. Since that time, Daukantas life and works were subjects of numerous academic studies. Two volumes of his selected works were published in 1955 followed by reprints or first publications of his other works. His biography was published as separate monographs by Vytautas Merkys (1972, second edition 1991) and Saulius Žukas (1988).
In 1927, a bronze bust by sculptor Juozas Zikaras was erected in the garden of the Vytautas the Great War Museum in Kaunas (the bust was destroyed by Soviet authorities and restored in 1988). In 1983, Akmenė District Municipality turned the former clergy house in Papilė where Daukantas spent his last years into a memorial museum. From 1993 to the introduction of the euro in 2015, Daukantas was featured on 100 litas banknotes. A monument by sculptor Regimantas Midvikis in his native Lenkimai was unveiled in 1993. The Simonas Daukantas Award was established in 1989 for accomplishments in historical studies, literary work, or other cultural work. Awarded every two years, it is administered by the Skuodas District Municipality since 2003. Its past recipients included historians Vytautas Merkys, Alfredas Bumblauskas, Edvardas Gudavičius, linguist Giedrius Subačius. His place in Lithuanian history is also commemorated by Daukantas Square, facing the Presidential Palace in Vilnius. Seimas (Lithuanian parliament) declared 2018 as the year of Daukantas.
Works published by Daukantas
References
In-line
Bibliography
External links
Full-text of Būdas senovės lietuvių, kalnėnų ir žemaičių
1793 births
1864 deaths
Amateur linguists
People from Skuodas District Municipality
Samogitian Roman Catholics
Historians of Lithuania
19th-century Lithuanian historians
Lithuanian lexicographers
Vilnius University alumni
People from Papilė
19th-century lexicographers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gareth%20Ainsworth
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Gareth Ainsworth
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Gareth Ainsworth (born 10 May 1973) is an English professional football manager and former player who last managed club Queens Park Rangers.
A former youth player at Blackburn Rovers, the midfielder, who was known for his crossing ability, moved to Preston North End in 1992 after impressing at non-League Northwich Victoria. He signed for Cambridge United, who in turn loaned him back to Northwich, and returned to Preston in 1993, establishing himself in the first team during his second spell. Sold on to Lincoln City in 1995, his performances earned him a place on the PFA Third Division Team of the Year in 1996–97, resulting in a £500,000 move to Port Vale. After being named as the Port Vale F.C. Player of the Year in 1998, Ainsworth was sold to Premier League club Wimbledon for £2 million. He was dogged by injuries at the club, and following loan spells with Preston and Walsall, he moved to Cardiff City in March 2003. He signed with Queens Park Rangers in June 2003, where he spent seven years. During his time at QPR, he helped the club to promotion from the Second Division in 2003–04, and twice served as caretaker manager.
He joined Wycombe Wanderers in February 2010, following a short loan period. He was named in the PFA League Two Team of the Year in 2010–11, as Wycombe won promotion. He was appointed manager in November 2012, after a short period as caretaker manager. He retired from regular playing appearances to concentrate on management in April 2013, but remained registered as a player. He led the club to promotion from League Two at the end of the 2017–18 season and then from League One in 2020, securing a place in the Championship for the first time in the club's history. He left Wycombe in February 2023 to become head coach of QPR, where he would remain for eight months.
Early life
Ainsworth was born in Blackburn. His mother worked as a professional singer during the 1960s while his father worked in several different jobs including a bookmakers, a driving instructor and a factory clerk. His parents were avid music fans and his mother taught Ainsworth to sing as a child. He is a supporter of Blackburn Rovers and became a season ticket holder at the age of six. He attended St Augustine's Roman Catholic High School in Billington.
Playing career
Early career
Ainsworth started his career as a trainee with Second Division club Blackburn Rovers, but despite forming a useful partnership with Peter Thorne he was not offered professional terms at the end of his two-year training period. He had been hopeful of earning a professional contract but was informed of his release by manager Don Mackay on his 18th birthday. He later described his release from his hometown club as "devastating" and admitted walking into the car park at the ground and crying.
He dropped into the Football Conference with Northwich Victoria, scoring his first goal in the 3–1 home victory over Cheltenham Town on 26 October 1991. His form attracted the attention of Third Division club Preston North End and, in January 1992, they offered him a second chance at the professional game. Released at the end of the 1991–92 season, Ainsworth joined First Division Cambridge United under the management of John Beck. Ainsworth had a spell on loan with former club Northwich Victoria, making his second debut for the "Vics" in a 2–1 home victory over Bromsgrove Rovers on 5 September 1992. Beck was sacked by Cambridge in October 1992 but was swiftly appointed manager at Preston North End, and in December returned to the Abbey Ground to sign Ainsworth.
Preston North End
Ainsworth's second spell with Preston lasted three years. On 6 April 1993, he spent 13 minutes in goal after goalkeeper Simon Farnworth was knocked unconscious, Ainsworth conceded one goal as Preston played out a 2–2 at Port Vale. Preston reached the Third Division play-off final in 1994, and Ainsworth played in the Wembley final, but could not prevent Wycombe Wanderers winning the game 4–2. Preston reached the play-offs again the following year, but exited at the semi-final stage with a 2–0 aggregate defeat to Bury.
Beck left Preston following the disappointments at the play-offs, and was appointed manager at Third Division rivals Lincoln City.
Lincoln City
In October 1995, Beck signed Ainsworth for a third time, this time for a fee of £25,000. In 1996–97, Ainsworth scored 22 goals to make him the division's second-highest goalscorer after Wigan Athletic's Graeme Jones. For this achievement he was named on the PFA's Third Division Team of the Year. He won the club's Player of the Year award for both the 1995–96 and 1996–97 campaigns. A popular player at Sincil Bank, Ainsworth was voted fourth in the club's top 100 legends after a poll conducted in May 2007. He later said that "It was the club where I played my best football, probably of my whole career".
Port Vale
In September 1997 he signed for John Rudge's First Division Port Vale for a club record £500,000 fee; he was signed to replace Jon McCarthy and Steve Guppy, wingers who had been sold for a combined £2.35 million earlier in the year. He became the club's Player of the Year for his performances in the 1997–98 season, helping the "Valiants" to narrowly avoid relegation above Manchester City and local rivals Stoke City. He was though criticized for an 'ugly' tackle on Sheffield United's Dane Whitehouse in November that resulted in the player's early retirement due to a serious leg injury sustained from the challenge. The club turned down a £1 million bid from Leeds United in summer 1998. However Vale chairman Bill Bell did later accept an offer from another club, reportedly behind Rudge's back, who was scouting in Sweden at the time.
Wimbledon
He moved to Premier League side Wimbledon in November 1998 for a £2 million fee, again a club record for Port Vale. His time at Wimbledon would be dominated by struggles against injury. He played just eight times in the 1998–99 season, failing to score. He was limited to just two appearances in 1999–2000, though in the first of these, a 3–3 draw with Newcastle United at St James' Park, he scored two goals, including a last minute equaliser. At the end of the season the "Dons"' were relegated into the First Division.
He regained his fitness by January 2001, and managed twelve league and six FA Cup games in 2000–01. After missing the entire first half of the 2001–02 campaign, he returned to fitness only to find that he had lost his first team place due to the form of promising youngster Jobi McAnuff. Ainsworth was told that he was to be released in summer 2002, and was allowed to join former club Preston North End on loan in April 2002. He played five games for Preston, scoring one goal against Coventry City. He returned to Wimbledon to find that he was to be offered a new contract, after the club announced it was considering a potentially lucrative move to Milton Keynes.
After six appearances for the "Dons" in 2002–03, he was allowed to join Walsall on loan in December. He scored for the "Saddlers" against Nottingham Forest, but his loan deal was not extended. He scored twice in nine games upon his return to Wimbledon, before March 2003, when he moved to Second Division club Cardiff City on a short-term deal for a "small fee". The "Bluebirds" won promotion to the First Division as play-off winners, though Ainsworth played no part in the victory over Queens Park Rangers in the final at the Millennium Stadium. His stay with the club was brief, as manager Lennie Lawrence told him that he could not guarantee him a first team spot. Both before and after his release from Cardiff he was linked with a permanent move back to Walsall, but manager Colin Lee had limited funds available for new players.
Queens Park Rangers
Ainsworth signed for Second Division club Queens Park Rangers in July 2003. He scored twice on his debut, in a 5–0 win over Blackpool on 9 August 2003. Sixteen days later he made it five goals in four games with a brace against Rushden & Diamonds, one a volley from , and another a powerful drive from the same distance. QPR won promotion to the First Division as Second Division runners-up at the end of the 2003–04 season.
Despite suffering with a knee injury in 2004–05 that limited him to 23 appearances, manager Ian Holloway offered him a new contract at the end of the season after telling the media that "he's an important player to have around". During the disappointing campaign of 2005–06, Ainsworth came second in the Player of the Year awards behind Danny Shittu, and finished joint-top-scorer on eleven goals with Marc Nygaard.
During the 2006–07 season, Ainsworth struggled with injuries, and his season ended in April after a scan revealed that he had broken his leg in a win over Luton Town. During the 2007–08 season, he assisted new manager Luigi De Canio in addition to his 25 games, and stated his intention to move into coaching once his player career is over.
In May 2008, Ainsworth accepted a player coach role under new QPR boss Iain Dowie. Dowie was sacked in October 2008, and Ainsworth was appointed as caretaker manager. On taking up the reins, Ainsworth announced that "QPR is very strong with the result of what happened and will stay strong, nothing is going to break us". During his time in charge QPR managed to test Manchester United at Old Trafford in a League Cup encounter that was only settled by a 76th minute Carlos Tevez goal. This performance caused Ainsworth to believe that the club could achieve promotion to the Premier League. He remained on the club's coaching staff after Paulo Sousa was appointed as manager in November. Sousa's reign did not last long however, and on 9 April 2009, Ainsworth again took the role of caretaker manager.
He was considered for the vacant management position at former club Lincoln City in September 2009.
Wycombe Wanderers
On 20 November 2009 Ainsworth joined League One club Wycombe Wanderers on a month-long loan. He went on to sign an eighteen-month contract with Wycombe in February 2010. He scored his first goal for the club in a 2–2 draw with Exeter City on 20 March 2010. However the club were relegated at the end of the season.
The club achieved promotion out of League Two at the first attempt in 2010–11, after finishing in the third automatic promotion spot, a single point ahead of Shrewsbury Town. Ainsworth scored eleven goals in 46 appearances, and captained Wycombe to the 3–1 victory over Southend United that ensured the club promotion on 7 May 2011. Later that month Ainsworth signed a new one-year contract with the club. For his performances he was named on the PFA League Two Team of the Year. However the "Chairboys" were relegated straight back down in 2011–12, with Ainsworth scoring twice in 32 games.
He retired from professional football on 27 April 2013, after playing his final game against his former club, Port Vale at Adams Park, although he agreed to sign a two-year contract to remain as Wycombe manager. On 30 August 2016, Ainsworth came on as a substitute in the EFL Trophy against Northampton Town, and provided an assist for Garry Thompson in a 3–0 victory. Ainsworth later combined managerial duties at Wycombe with playing for Woodley United.
Managerial career
Wycombe Wanderers
Following the sacking of Gary Waddock, Ainsworth was appointed as Wycombe Wanderers's caretaker manager on 24 September 2012. Before he took charge, Wycombe had picked up just four points from their seven league games.
After a loss and a draw, he led the team to victory over Torquay United on 6 October, and provided the cross himself for the opening goal of the game. In October, he signed Portuguese winger Bruno Andrade on loan from QPR. A further win over Fleetwood Town, Andrade scoring the only goal of the game, lifted the club out of the relegation zone. Ainsworth was appointed as the club's manager on a permanent basis on 8 November. In December 2012, the "Chairboys" gained ten out of a possible 15 points to rise ten points clear of the relegation zone – Ainsworth was recognised for this achievement by being nominated for the division's manager of the month award. In April 2013, Ainsworth signed a new two-year managerial contract, and also announced his retirement as a player.
Ainsworth lost striker Joel Grant to Championship club Yeovil Town at the start of the 2013–14 season, and signed attackers Jon-Paul Pittman, Steven Craig, and Paris Cowan-Hall to replace him. Defenders Dave Winfield and Charles Dunne also left Wycombe for clubs in higher divisions (though Dunne was loaned back to Wycombe for the season as part of the transfer). He signed right-back Nick Arnold and midfielder Billy Knott on loan. In the January transfer window he sold 18-year-old centre-back Kortney Hause to Wolverhampton Wanderers, and signed 19-year-old former Arsenal winger Anthony Jeffrey on a free transfer. Wycombe ended an eight match run without a win with a 1–0 victory over league leaders Chesterfield on 22 February, earning Ainsworth a mention as the Football League manager of the week. On the final day of the season Wycombe needed to win at Torquay United and hope results went their way elsewhere in order to stay up; they won their match 3–0 and finished outside of the relegation zone on goal difference.
He completely restructured the defence with free signings in preparation for the 2014–15 season, bringing in Joe Jacobson, Peter Murphy, Sido Jombati, and Aaron Pierre, whilst also bringing in striker Paul Hayes from Scunthorpe United. He was named as Football League manager of the week after Wycombe reached the top of the table with a 1–0 home win over Hartlepool United on 3 January. He won the League Two Manager of the Month award for March 2015 after Wycombe picked up fourteen points in six tough unbeaten games. Hayes finished as top-scorer as Wycombe went on to end the campaign in fourth place, one point behind automatically promoted Bury. They reached the play-off final at Wembley Stadium, where they lost out on penalties to Southend United following a 1–1 draw. Ainsworth signed a new five-and-a-half-year contract in January 2015 and was named as that season's LMA Manager of the Year for League Two.
Wycombe finished the 2015–16 season in 13th place, and Ainsworth admitted that the club was in a precarious financial position despite taking Premier League club Aston Villa to a replay in the Third Round of the FA Cup. He won the League Two Manager of the Month award for a second time having guided the team from 21st to sixth-place with four successive victories and only one goal conceded in November 2016. Ainsworth was named as the EFL's manager of the week on 3 January 2017, after his side recorded two consecutive victories to begin the year fifth in the table. Wanderers ended the 2016–17 season in ninth place, one point and two places outside of the play-offs. They also enjoyed more cup runs, exiting the FA Cup at the fourth round with a 4–3 defeat to Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane and losing 2–1 at Coventry City in the semi-finals of the EFL Trophy. He won League Two's Manager of the Month award for January 2018 after having led his side to four wins in four games. The following month, he was named as EFL manager of the week after making a triple substitution with his team down to ten men and trailing 3–2 to Carlisle United, which inspired his team to turn the game around and make an "extraordinary triumph" to win 4–3.
In an interview later that month, Ainsworth stated that the set-up at the club was a "very unique model of just the first team but it works", as his team of mainly older veteran players were in the top two of League Two despite operating without an academy, reserve team or goalkeeping coach. He was named as the EFL's manager of the week after overseeing a 2–1 win at Chesterfield in the last week of April despite his team initially going one goal down away from home. Wycombe ended the 2017–18 season in the third automatic promotion spot, leaving Ainsworth to state that "For us and Accrington to be in the top three this season, it's turned the finances of this league on its head". In June 2018, Gareth Ainsworth extended his contract by another three years to remain as Wycombe boss.
He was reported to be on the manager shortlist at former club Queens Park Rangers in April 2019. Wycombe ended the 2018–19 season in 17th-place, three points clear of the relegation zone. He was given permission to speak with divisional rivals Sunderland and was also linked with a move to Millwall in October 2019, but remained at Wycombe, stating that it would take "something special" for him to leave. He was named as the League One Manager of the Month for November 2019 after his team picked up ten points from four games without conceding a goal. He signed another new contract in February 2020, which was described simply as "long-term". The 2019–20 season was ended early due to the COVID-19 pandemic in England, though Wycombe qualified for the play-offs in third-place after the table was concluded on points per game basis. Wycombe eliminated Fleetwood Town in the semi-finals and recorded a 2–1 victory over Oxford United in the final itself to secure a place in the Championship for the first time in the club's history. The play-offs were behind closed doors due to the pandemic and Ainsworth credited Wycombe's success to the noise and support created by the club's substitutes, support staff and directors.
Wycombe took their fight against to avoid relegation out of the Championship until the last day of the 2020–21 season, and were relegated in 22nd-place despite beating Middlesbrough 3–0 on the final day of the campaign; Ainsworth stated that "It might seem a strange thing to say because we’ve been relegated, but finishing third from bottom in the Championship is one of the proudest moments in my career". He was linked with the vacant management position at former club Preston North End.
Ainsworth won the League One Manager of the Month award for April 2022 after his team picked up 17 points and scored 13 goals from seven games. Wycombe finished sixth in League One at the end of the 2021–22 season and qualified for the play-offs, advancing past Milton Keynes Dons with a 2–1 aggregate victory in the semi-finals. He admitted that his side were underdogs for the final against Sunderland in what would also be Adebayo Akinfenwa last game as a professional. Sunderland won the match 2–0, but Ainsworth said he was proud of his players and said "I think the quality today told, just in the final third [it] just escaped them today". After the end of the 2021–22 season, Ainsworth was heavily linked to a move to former side Queens Park Rangers, but instead signed a contract extension with Wycombe.
Queens Park Rangers
On 21 February 2023, Ainsworth was appointed as Queens Park Rangers head coach on a three-and-a-half-year deal. QPR ended the 2022–23 Championship season in 20th-place. He spoke of wanting “big changes” at the club in the summer and signing "pacy forward players" who could fit into his "very up and at ’em" style of play. Later that year, on 28 October, Ainsworth was dismissed from his position following a 2–1 home loss against Leicester City – the club's sixth consecutive defeat, as QPR sat second-to-last in the league table after 14 matches during the 2023–24 season.
Style of play
Ainsworth was able to play on the right wing or as an attacking midfielder, and had good crossing ability; he was also known as a pacey player in his 20s and early 30s. Port Vale manager John Rudge said that Ainsworth "wasn't a typical winger. He was very strong and powerful as well as really quick. It wasn't the full backs tackling him, he would tackle them!"
Management style
Ainsworth is a very attack-minded manager, and likes his teams to play aggressively and with a high pressing style. He has specialised in building teams on a tight budget, recruiting older players overlooked by rival managers who had seen them as "has-beens".
Personal life
During his playing days Ainsworth picked up the nickname "Wild Thing" due to his appearance and his rock star ambitions; he was in a band called APA with Wimbledon teammates Chris Perry and Trond Andersen. He later joined the band Dog Chewed the Handle, named after a Terrorvision song, after answering an advert in Loot. Prior to the audition, Ainsworth hid his footballing career from his bandmates until he had been accepted. The band were invited to support Bad Manners on tour but were forced to turn down the offer due to clashes with Ainsworth's footballing career. The band later split, with Ainsworth and another member forming a new band, Road to Eden. By November 2019, he was fronting The Cold Blooded Hearts. They have an album, The Cold Light of Day, out July 2023, produced by Yes keyboardist Geoff Downes.
He is considered a cult hero at Preston, Wimbledon, QPR, Port Vale, Lincoln City, and Wycombe Wanderers.
On 21 October 2010, he represented the English Football League at the unveiling of the Footballers' Battalions memorial on the site of the Battle of the Somme. He graduated from the University of Liverpool with a Diploma in Professional Studies in Football Management in December 2019.
Ainsworth is married to Donna, who is from Venezuela. He has three children. He is a practising Catholic.
Career statistics
Playing statistics
Managerial statistics
Honours
As a player
Queens Park Rangers
Second Division second-place promotion: 2003–04
Wycombe Wanderers
League Two third-place promotion: 2010–11
Individual
PFA Team of the Year: 1996–97 Third Division, 2010–11 League Two
Lincoln City Player of the Year: 1995–96, 1996–97
Port Vale Player of the Year: 1997–98
As a manager
Wycombe Wanderers
League One play-offs: 2020
League Two third-place promotion: 2017–18
Individual
LMA League Two Manager of the Year: 2014–15
League One Manager of the Month: November 2019, April 2022
League Two Manager of the Month: March 2015, November 2016, January 2018
References
External links
1973 births
Living people
Footballers from Blackburn
English men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Northwich Victoria F.C. players
Blackburn Rovers F.C. players
Preston North End F.C. players
Cambridge United F.C. players
Lincoln City F.C. players
Port Vale F.C. players
Wimbledon F.C. players
Walsall F.C. players
Cardiff City F.C. players
Queens Park Rangers F.C. players
Wycombe Wanderers F.C. players
Woodley United F.C. players
Premier League players
English Football League players
Men's association football player-managers
English football managers
Queens Park Rangers F.C. managers
Wycombe Wanderers F.C. managers
English Football League managers
Association football coaches
Alumni of the University of Liverpool
English Roman Catholics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20live%20action%20role-playing%20games
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History of live action role-playing games
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Live action role-playing games, known as LARPs, are a form of role-playing game in which live players/actors assume roles as specific characters and play out a scenario in-character. Technically, many childhood games may be thought of as simple LARPs, as they often involve the assumption of character roles. However, the scope of this article concerns itself mainly with LARPing in a technical sense: the organized live-action role-playing games whose origins are closely related to the invention of tabletop role-playing games in America in the 1970s.
Live-action role playing appears to have been "invented" several times by different groups relying on local ideas and expertise. Sometimes such groups were inspired by reports of LARPs elsewhere. Such a multifarious process has led to an extremely diverse range of LARP practices and histories. By the 1980s, LARPs had spread to many countries and organizations, and different styles of play had been developed. During the 1990s, Mind's Eye Theatre was the first published LARP system to achieve popular status. Also during the 1990s, the hobby began to attract critical and academic analysis. For example, the 2003 Knutepunkt conference published a book entitled, As LARP Grows Up (subtitled Theory and Methods in LARP), to propose future directions for LARPs.
Early history
It is likely that childhood LARP games date back to pre-history, with well-known games such as "cowboys and Indians," "house," and "doctor" stemming from earlier historical and pre-historical equivalents throughout many other cultures ("Athenians and Spartans", "hunting deer", etc.). Childhood LARPs tend to consist of very simple or no rules and reflect the surrounding culture.
Live-action role playing as practiced by adults has also existed for millennia in the form of historical reenactment. The ancient Romans recreated mythical scenes and naval battles in the Colosseum regularly. Likewise, the Han Chinese and medieval Europeans occasionally enjoyed organizing events in which participants pretended to be from an earlier age. Entertainment appears to have been the primary purpose of these activities. However, it appears that historical re-enactment only became a hobby in the 20th century.
Likewise, adults have used live-action role playing as an educational or practice exercise for centuries, with mock combats being an important part of military training, and mock treatments and trials used to teach doctors and lawyers. It's unclear to what extent these have been considered "games." The Prussian term for live-action military training exercises is kriegspiel or "Wargames," a term that has entered English as well, although the contemporary military prefers to call them military exercises to distinguish them from games.
Another early stream of LARP tradition is the improvisational theatre tradition. This goes back in some sense to the Commedia dell'arte tradition of 16th century. Modern improvisational theatre began in the classroom with the "theatre games" of Viola Spolin and Keith Johnstone in the 1950s. Viola Spolin, who was one of the founders of the famous comedy troupe The Second City, insisted that her exercises were games, and that they involved role-playing as early as 1946, but thought of them as training actors and comics rather than as being primarily aimed at being fun in their own right.
G. K. Chesterton's 1905 book The Club of Queer Trades includes a story describing a commercial organization which stages LARP-like adventures for the entertainment of its customers. It's possible that this may have helped to suggest later ideas for commercial LARPs.
In the 1920s, Model League of Nations clubs formed around the United States, creating a style of live-action role playing that was not thought of as a game per se but was thought of as a recreational pastime. There is some evidence that Assassin-style LARP games may have been played in New York City by adults in the early 20th century as well. The 1920s also saw the beginning of role playing used for psychotherapeutic purposes, often called psychodrama. It was championed in the US by Jacob L. Moreno It was not thought of as a game, but the psychodrama tradition probably influenced LARP games as they later developed.
The 1960s saw the creation of fantasy LARPs (as distinct from pure historical re-enactments), which probably originate with the founding of the Society for Creative Anachronism in Berkeley, California on May 1, 1966. A similar group, the Markland Medieval Mercenary Militia, began holding events on the University of Maryland, College Park in 1969. These groups were largely dedicated to accurately recreating medieval history and culture with only mild fantasy elements, and were probably influenced by historical re-enactment.
In the 1970s, after the publication of the early tabletop role-playing game (Dungeons & Dragons) in 1974, Fantasy LARPs began springing up in many places somewhat independently.
American history
American LARPs have no single point of origin, although many of the groups still in operation can claim a lengthy history.
Among the live-combat groups, Dagorhir Outdoor Improvisational Battle Games (Dagorhir) was founded by Bryan Weise in the Washington, D.C. area in 1977. The International Fantasy Gaming Society (IFGS), also live-combat but with a complex rules system more clearly influenced by Dungeons and Dragons, was started in 1981 in Boulder, Colorado. (IFGS took its name from a fictional group in the novel Dream Park by Larry Niven and Steven Barnes, which described highly realistic, futuristic LARPs.) At about the same time (but before 1981), the Assassins' Guild was created at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to pursue "killer" or "assassin"-style live-combat games with toy guns, but also to encourage creative design in LARPs. Assassination style LARPs spread to many other college campuses, even spawned two movies TAG: The Assassination Game in 1982, and Gotcha in 1985. Amtgard (a spin off of Dagorhir) was founded in 1983 in El Paso, Texas and has hundreds of active groups in the US and Canada. While NERO International has over 50 chapters in the US and Canada, it was founded in 1988. In 1994 L’aventure du Duché de Bicolline was founded in Quebec, Canada.
Theatre Style LARP began in America at around the same time. In 1981, the Society for Interactive Literature (SIL) was founded by Walter Freitag, Mike Massimilla and Rick Dutton at Harvard University. The club's first public event was in February 1983, at the Boskone science fiction convention. A substantial part of the SIL membership broke off from that organization in 1991 and formed the Interactive Literature Foundation (ILF), which in 2000 changed its name to the Live Action Role-Players Association LARPA. The mid-Atlantic and northeastern US has been a center for Theatre Style events, especially the Intercon LARP conventions.
The northeastern LARP scene, founding place of the Realms of Wonder, SIL, NERO, Empires in Flames, and the MIT Assassin's Guild, continues to have an active LARP scene, due to the large number of college campuses present. Other universities along the East Coast have been strong "incubation" sites for northeastern LARPs. Early (pre-internet) campus-based LARPs formed in isolation, developing their own style of games with little crossover with other styles or regions. The existence of larger regional organizations, of published LARPs, and of the internet has helped to create a field of "LARP theory" and deliberate experimentation with LARP forms.
The region also plays host to many, smaller, fantasy-based LARPs, such as Lione Rampant, Quest Interactive Productions, Legends Roleplaying, Mythical Journeys and Chimera Entertainment's nTeraction (now Accelerant), all formed in the 1980s and 1990s by fantasy enthusiasts with a love for character roleplay and adventure, but without large player bases or complex rule systems. Quest is the oldest of these groups, dating back to 1986. Some of the other LARPs were formed as splinter groups of larger, more franchised LARPs, such as NERO. Such LARP groups tend to run in the spring and autumn, utilizing summer camp facilities (such as 4H and group campgrounds) in their off-seasons.
The Southeast is also home to a very large LARP community. The various Fantasy-based games are also splinters off NERO as well as one another, forming a relatively extensive list: SOLAR (the Southern Organization for Live Action Reenactments), Red Button Productions, and the experimental fantasy LARP Forest of Doors , among others. Many of these LARPs are run out of State Parks like in other areas, most often Hard Labor Creek State Park in Rutledge, Georgia, A.H. Stephens State Park, or Indian Springs State Park. Several World of Darkness-based games are also run out of Atlanta, as well as a Science Fiction Stargate-genre LARP, Stargate Atlanta FTX. The Neighboring state of Tennessee has chapters of Heroic Interactive Theatre, including a Steampunk game, World of Hashonen. Amtgard and NERO also run games in Georgia, Florida and Tennessee.
Since 1999, the mid-Atlantic US has been a center for a number of crossover Theatre Style/Adventure Style events or "campaigns," which fall outside the medieval fantasy genre which tends to characterize a majority of Live Combat LARPs. An initial impetus for this was the attempt of various fantasy groups to adapt the Call of Cthulhu as a LARP genre, however the genre has expanded to substantially wider horizons. The progenitor LARP in this genre was Mike Young's Dark Summonings Campaign, followed by transitional LARPs including the Mersienne Medieval Fantasy Campaign (medieval fantasy), Outpost Chi (science fiction), 1948: Signals, 1936: Horror, as well as the heavily Call of Cthulhu based Altered Realities Campaign and the Victorian "steampunk" Brassy's Men Campaign. Together this network of current and previous events make up a substantial and innovative body of work which characterizes a vibrant mid-Atlantic US LARP Community. The rise of many campaigns all drawing from the same community has tended to preempt growth of non-campaign games, though, and to some degree push out the 'less dedicated' gamers due to the higher commitment needed.
UK history
Treasure Trap and successors
Treasure Trap, formed in 1982 at Peckforton Castle in Cheshire, is recognised as the first LARP game in the UK. It featured rubber-weapon combat, heroic adventures and fantasy monsters. Over its three-year history, it garnered moderate attention from the press (even being featured on Blue Peter) and established a large, enthusiastic player-base. When it closed, numerous systems sprang up around the country to replace it.
Many of these systems copied most of the format, rules and setting of the original Treasure Trap. However, they were mostly independent of each other; despite their shared heritage, there was no shared world. Fools and Heroes was an exception: many branches of the same game were opened in different areas of the country.
These systems varied in their size and complexity. Some were established by university societies, and organised around the modest budgets of students. Others tried to expand the scope and size of the games - for example, Heroquest (founded in 1986) continues to run adventures lasting from 5 to 11 days and runs several events per month across the UK.
Weapon design
LARP weapon design advanced considerably after the innovation in 1986 of latex-coated weapons by Second skin (larp). This allowed a much greater level of detail and artistry in weapon design than the prior gaffer tape models. Over the next decade, home-made gaffer weapons were largely supplanted by professionally made latex ones. Some larps, such as Orions Sphere, use nerf guns as well as traditional weapons.
Festival LARP and Conventions
In the early 1990s, Summerfest, originally a meeting of the various Fools and Heroes branches, had gained an attendance of over a thousand players. This led to a style of LARP known as 'fest' LRP: unlike small games (often less than 50 players) fests often centre around warring factions and huge battles.
The Lorien Trust, formed in 1992, epitomised this principle with its flagship annual event The Gathering, which features battles with over a thousand players on each side, as well as complex politics, an SFX-driven magic ritual circle, a licensed tavern, and a large marketplace for the out-of-character sale of costumes, prosthetics, weapons, props and accessories. It quickly grew to become the largest festival LARP game in the UK, and has continued to be a significant influence in UK LARP design.
While the majority of LARP games were either 'medieval fantasy' or Vampire, a growing number of new games were experimenting with other genres, from science fiction to wild west to Celts to pirates. Some, such as Shards, deliberately crossed genres and worlds. Others, including Lorien Trust, would allow players to introduce virtually any concept to the game in a style known as 'Open World'.
The early 1990s also saw the introduction of White Wolf Publishing's Mind's Eye Theatre LARP, which introduced a largely new set of players to live roleplaying. Unlike most UK LARPs, it was based on indoor social interaction with minimal costuming requirements, and a combat/magic/interaction system based on rock-paper-scissors. There was some antipathy between Vampire and Fantasy LARPers, although some groups discarded the MET rules and used conventional LARP ideas (such as rubber weapons) instead.
Roleplaying conventions such as Gen Con UK, Dragonmeet and Continuum also became a venue for LARP games, usually 'Freeforms' with little emphasis on either combat or character development, but more on plot development, and player interaction.
The evident size of the UK LARP player-base suggested that there might be a market for LARP-related periodicals, and so professionally produced magazines such as The Scribe and The Adventurer were printed, including reviews, advice, photos and humour. These helped to expose players to the wide variety of games out there. However, none of these magazines got sufficient sales to survive, and the UK LRP community instead turned to emerging internet communities. Initially, these groups concentrated on specific local games until Starburst journalist Ed Fortune formed Pagga.com in 2000 as an attempt to form a wider online LRP community. The website closed in 2006 but spawned various online forums and a regular UK LARP convention, LarpCon UK.
Successors to the Lorien Trust
The Lorien Trust had a number of internal conflicts, and some of these led to new systems. In 1995, a large group broke away from LT to create Curious Pastimes, initially a spin-off of the LT's Erdreja campaign. Its principal event, Renewal, runs on the same weekend as The Gathering and is similarly themed, although the battles are mostly PvM rather than PvP. Renewal typically has around 700 players.
A later breakaway in from the LT in 1998 was the Omega LRP team. Their Phoenix campaign, however, was completely different from the LT, being 'Closed World', with an emphasis on community-building and trade, and a professed intention of 'Player-led plot', bucking the current trend of powerful NPCs controlling everything. The campaign ran for 5 years, until a group of PCs effectively destroyed the world. It had about 400 players.
Some of the Omega staff and players went on to create the Maelstrom campaign for Profound Decisions Ltd in 2004. This colonialism fantasy game sought to set new standards in player empowerment, and explicitly limited the power of NPCs and plotwriters. It supported a high degree of political, economic, sociological, technological and magical complexity. Maelstrom had around 800 players.
Later games designed by Profound Decisions include Odyssey, a tightly plotted and highly immersive fest larp set in a mythological version of the ancient world, which sought to combine traditional linear LARP "encounters" alongside the main festival roleplaying.
Profound Decisions continued UK LARP development and community growth with Empire LRP which as of 2019 has over 2,000 players at each of its four annual events.
As the LARP community has grown and the costs involved with running events have fallen, new LARP games are continually in development. Variations on combat including guns using Airsoft and NERF weaponry have appeared in a number of games, and there has been a wide expansion in the types of game being run, with games touching on sci-fi, survival horror, and steampunk amongst other genres.
Russian history
LARP has been played in Russia since at least the 1980s. The Russian word for LARP translates simply as "role-playing", since tabletop RPGs were unknown in Russia at the time LARP was invented or introduced there. Russian live role-playing is often practised under the banner of "Tolkienism" or Tolkien fandom, though it is definitely no longer confined to Tolkien or fantasy only. Regional traditions vary greatly in their history and practice, though the now defunct Soviet "Young Pioneers" organisation and the networks between former members seems to have played some role in spreading and coordinating the idea of live role-playing. Much more involvement is usually attributed to SF fandom clubs, which flourished in Russia in that period.
Earliest documented mentions of LARP-like activities in Russia relate to the yearly memorial reenactment of the Battle of Borodino, where military history clubs, not satisfied with reenacting this battle only, tried various other takes on the subject—the first recorded one, in 1988, being the people dressing up as soldiers of Red Army. According to witness reports, in 1989 Tolkien fans came to the Borodino reenactment in fantasy costumes, which jumpstarted the movement and led to the first recorded large-scale LARP in Russia, the National Hobbit Games, which ran in August 1990 near river Mana in the vicinity of Krasnoyarsk. Since then, such events occur yearly and the tradition became very widely developed.
Russia probably has the biggest and most varied LARP-scene in the world, with a wide range of genres and playstyles. By now, the number of players is estimated to be somewhere between 50000 and 100000. The biggest plays number more than 1000 players. The largest project ever - "the Witcher: Something More" (2005) gathered more than 3200 participants, but many smaller plays (50-200 participants) are also common.
Nordic history
In the early 1980s, the Swedish LARP group Gyllene Hjorten started a LARP campaign that is still ongoing. This is probably the first LARP event in the Nordic countries. LARP in Finland started in 1985 and Norway was initiated in 1989, more or less simultaneously by groups in Oslo and Trondheim. The first Danish games were also played in the late 1980s.
The Nordic LARP traditions, though usually invented independently of each other, have developed striking similarities and are also notably different from English language and German language LARPs. These differences are most obvious in the Nordic LARPs' skepticism towards game mechanics, a tendency to limit combat and magic - seeing these as "spice" rather than a necessary ingredient in LARP - and an emphasis on immersive environments where anachronisms and out of play elements (off-elements, such as visible cars or paved roads in a historical or fantasy setting) are avoided. The setting and roles may be given to the participants by the organizers, or suggested by the player to organizers, in either case usually based on a dialogue between the player and organizer. "character sheets", in the manner of tabletop RPGs, are for the most part not used.
When the game starts it lives its own life, wholly directed by the players (some predetermined events are often scheduled). A typical Swedish or Norwegian game lasts 2–5 days and has anywhere from fifty to hundreds of participants. A typical Danish or Finnish game lasts between four hours and a few days. Rules are designed for combat injury simulation and normally emphasize roleplaying of damage rather than abstract hitpoints (though this was not always so), featuring either padded weapons or blunt steel weapons. Each gaming organization uses custom rules, but simplicity and similarities make this less cumbersome than it would at first seem.
The annual Knutepunkt conference, first held in 1997, has been a vital institution in establishing a Nordic live role-playing identity, and in establishing the concept of "Nordic LARP" as a unique approach. A live-roleplaying avant-garde movement, which pursues radical experimentation and the recognition of role-playing as a form of art, has been connected to the Knutepunkt conferences. The scope of the Knutepunkt conference has expanded rather rapidly over the last few years with participants showing up from numerous non-Scandinavian countries. The last 2 or 3 years has seen participants from USA, Germany, France, Italy and Russia as well as from the main Nordic countries.
German history
The history of German LARP is most easily found by going to the German LARP calendar,Larp Kalender
The first LARP that was catalogued is Samhain's Quest II (by Felix Völzmann today known as Maximus Sturm) on April 14, 1995, although Draccon 1 in 1991 is generally held to be the first event of significance. LarpWiki.de has a page on history .
The largest LARP events in Germany, which are also among the largest in the world, currently are the annual events "Conquest of Mythodea" and the "Drachenfest", with around 7000 and 5000 participants respectively.
South African history
LARP in South Africa is mostly single evening events of fewer than four hours in length, with 8 to 20 players. Larger, longer-term campaigns are occasionally run, most using World of Darkness: Vampire.
There is a heavy emphasis on roleplaying. In the single evening events this means that there is little use of non player characters, costumes are the norm, and simple game mechanics are used. The standard conflict-resolution systems are symbolic, usually involving dice and very simplified character proficiency statistics. Special abilities are generally handled using cards that the player using the ability shows to those affected by it. Players are usually given detailed character sheets, sometimes of up to eight pages. These included background, goals and knowledge of other characters.
Cape Town is reputed to be the LARPing capital of South Africa, and there is a large archive of LARPs written by Capetonian designers (see under External Links). In recent years, there has been an increase in LARP activity in other communities, such as Johannesburg.
Large LARP events around Johannesburg known as MEAD happen every 3 months involving hundreds of players.
The Meadal Universe is based on the SOLAR system in America and is growing, having passed the 150 player mark recently. The LARP started in 2008, and is the longest-running LARP in South Africa.
In July 2011 a second boffer larp setting was created, Tales of Teana which also runs in Johannesburg, Gauteng. Tales of Teana is affiliated with MEAD, however the larp has a completely separate organization team and runs under the NERO International system in a world called Teana. Game-play takes place in the human kingdom of Arnhelm with the rest of the world largely inhabited by non-human races. The first Teana game was scheduled for April 2012.
New Zealand history
New Zealand has an established and growing community of LARPers.
An assassin-style LARP was run by KAOS in 1981, and other LARPs have been run in New Zealand since the early-1980s, though at the time the term "wide game" or "council game" was generally used because the term LARP had not been introduced. "Live Dungeons" based on Dungeons & Dragons were run by Auckland University roleplaying clubs in the old military tunnels at North Head, Stoney Batter on Waiheke, and Shakespear Park on Whangaparaoa peninsula, from 1982 through to at least 1985. At NatCon 84 in Nelson, a game based around the ruling council of the city of New Pavis in Glorantha dealing with the approaching Lunar Army was run.
Several major events were held during the 1990s, the largest probably being the Aliens Apocalypse event run in 1999 as the culmination of a series of games based around the Aliens movies.
Several long-term campaigns have been and are currently running. Typical genres include vampire, medieval fantasy, science fiction (including popular single-evening events of live Paranoia and post-apocalyptic settings), horror, and 1920s/1930s gangsters.
Emphasis in long-term campaigns varies depends on the setting. For example, Mordavia is a medieval dark fantasy which emphasises roleplaying very strongly, where Skirmish is more combat-based, and games such as Vampire: The Requiem are strongly political.
Most games are non-contact using Mind's Eye Theatre or similar systems, whilst a few encourage live combat with foam weapons. Magical and other special effects are usually narrated, but are sometimes symbolised by reading of scrolls, throwing of spell packets, and circles outlined in rope for traps and magical portals. In a few one-off LARPS, significant special effects have been produced, often with the help of local professionals, such as Weta Workshop, and lighting and sound are often used to assist mood.
Level of costume varies. Large one-off games usually see a lot of work put in by players with appropriate skills, or professional costumes are hired or borrowed. In long-term campaigns, great care is often taken on player character costumes, as the character (personality, abilities, and background) will most often be invented by the player themselves. Non-player character costume is sometimes less detailed, but favourite monsters or villains may reappear frequently as they become well loved by the players.
There are LARP communities in all the major cities, especially Auckland and Wellington, and larps regularly feature at New Zealand roleplaying conventions. KapCon in Wellington has hosted large theatre-style games since 2001. There are also now larp-only conventions - Chimera in Auckland and Hydra in Wellington. These typically run both indoor theatre-style and outdoor live-combat games, with a large "flagship" event on the Saturday night to provide a unifying experience for all participants.
The New Zealand Live Action Role Playing Society is an umbrella organisation created to promote and support LARP throughout New Zealand. It is a parent organisation of Mordavia, and is affiliated with other groups such as Skirmish.
References
Live-action
Live-action role-playing games
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Shlach
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Shlach, Shelach, Sh'lah, Shlach Lecha, or Sh'lah L'kha ( or —Hebrew for "send," "send to you," or "send for yourself") is the 37th weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the fourth in the Book of Numbers. Its name comes from the first distinctive words in the parashah, in Numbers 13:2. Shelach () is the sixth and lecha () is the seventh word in the parashah. The parashah tells the story of the twelve spies sent to assess the promised land, commandments about offerings, the story of the Sabbath violator, and the commandment of the fringes (, tzitzit).
The parashah constitutes Numbers 13:1–15:41. It is made up of 5,820 Hebrew letters, 1,540 Hebrew words, 119 verses, and 198 lines in a Torah Scroll (Sefer Torah). Jews generally read it in June or early July.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Numbers 13:1–20
In the first reading, God told Moses to send one chieftain from each of the 12 tribes of Israel to scout the land of Canaan, and Moses sent them out from the wilderness of Paran. Among the scouts were Caleb, son of Jephunneh from the Tribe of Judah and Hosea (Hoshea), son of Nun from the Tribe of Ephraim. Moses changed Hosea's name to Joshua. Moses asked for an assessment of the geographical features of the land, the strength and numbers of the population, the agricultural potential and actual performance of the land, civic organization (whether their cities were like camps or strongholds), and forestry conditions. He also asked them to be positive in their outlook and to return with samples of local produce.
Second reading—Numbers 13:21–14:7
In the second reading, they scouted the land as far as Hebron. At the wadi Eshcol, they cut down a branch with a single cluster of grapes so large that it had to be borne on a carrying frame by two of them, as well as some pomegranates and figs. At the end of 40 days, they returned and reported to Moses, Aaron, and the whole Israelite community at Kadesh, saying that the land did indeed flow with milk and honey (date honey) but that the people who inhabited it were powerful, the cities were fortified and very large, and that they saw the Anakites there. Caleb hushed the people and urged them to go up and take the land. But the other scouts spread calumnies about the land, calling it "one that devours its settlers." They reported that the land's people were giants and stronger than the Israelites. The whole community broke into crying, railed against Moses and Aaron, and shouted: "If only we might die in this wilderness!" Moses and Aaron fell on their faces, and Joshua and Caleb rent their clothes.
Third reading—Numbers 14:8–25
In the third reading, Joshua and Caleb exhorted the Israelites not to fear and not to rebel against God. Just as the community threatened to pelt them with stones, God's Presence appeared in the Tabernacle. God complained to Moses: "How long will this people spurn Me," and threatened to strike them with pestilence and make of Moses a nation more numerous than they. But Moses told God to think of what the Egyptians would think when they heard the news, and how they would think God powerless to bring the Israelites to the Promised Land. Moses asked God to forbear, quoting God's self-description as "slow to anger and abounding in kindness, forgiving iniquity and transgression." In response, God pardoned, but also swore that none of the men who had seen God's signs would see the Promised Land, except Caleb and Joshua.
Fourth reading—Numbers 14:26–15:7
In the fourth reading, God swore that all of the men 20 years old and up, except Caleb and Joshua, would die in the wilderness. God said that the Israelites' children would enter the Promised Land after roaming the wilderness, suffering for the faithlessness of the present generation, for 40 years, corresponding to the number of days that the scouts scouted the land. The scouts other than Caleb and Joshua died of plague. Early the next morning, the Israelites set out to the Promised Land, but Moses told them that they would not succeed without God in their midst. But they marched forward anyway, and the Amalekites and the Canaanites dealt them a shattering blow at Hormah. God told Moses to tell Israelites that when they entered the Promised Land and would present an offering to God, the person presenting the offering was also to bring flour mixed with oil and wine.
Fifth reading—Numbers 15:8–16
In the fifth reading, God told Moses to tell Israelites that when they would present a bull for a burnt offering to God, the person presenting the offering was also to bring flour mixed with oil and wine. And when a resident alien wanted to present an offering, the same law would apply.
Sixth reading—Numbers 15:17–26
In the sixth reading, when the Israelites ate bread of the land, they were to set aside a portion, a dough offering (, challah), as a gift to God. If the community unwittingly failed to observe any commandment, the community was to present one bull as a burnt offering with its proper meal offering and wine, and one he-goat as a sin offering, and the priest would make expiation for the whole community and they would be forgiven.
Seventh reading—Numbers 15:27–41
In the seventh reading, if an individual sinned unwittingly, the individual was to offer a she-goat in its first year as a sin offering, and the priest would make expiation that the individual might be forgiven. But the person who violated a commandment defiantly was to be cut off from among his people. Once the Israelites came upon a man gathering wood on the Sabbath day, and they brought him before Moses, Aaron, and the community and placed him in custody. God told Moses that the whole community was to stone him to death outside the camp, so they did so. God told Moses to instruct the Israelites to make for themselves fringes (, tzitzit) on each of the corners of their garments. They were to look at the fringes, recall the commandments, and observe them.
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to the following schedule:
In ancient parallels
The parashah has parallels in these ancient sources:
Numbers chapter 13
Numbers 13:22 and 28 refer to the "children of Anak" (, yelidei ha-anak), Numbers 13:33 refers to the "sons of Anak" (, benei anak), and Deuteronomy 1:28, 2:10–11, 2:21, and 9:2 refer to the "Anakim" (). John A. Wilson suggested that the Anakim may be related to the Iy-‘anaq geographic region named in Middle Kingdom Egyptian (19th to 18th century BCE) pottery bowls that had been inscribed with the names of enemies and then shattered as a kind of curse.
Numbers 13:27 and 14:8, as well as Exodus 3:8 and 17, 13:5, and 33:3, Leviticus 20:24, and Deuteronomy 6:3, 11:9, 26:9 and 15, 27:3, and 31:20 describe the Land of Israel as a land flowing "with milk and honey." Similarly, the Middle Egyptian (early second millennium BCE) tale of Sinuhe Palestine described the Land of Israel or, as the Egyptian tale called it, the land of Yaa: "It was a good land called Yaa. Figs were in it and grapes. It had more wine than water. Abundant was its honey, plentiful its oil. All kind of fruit were on its trees. Barley was there and emmer, and no end of cattle of all kinds."
In inner-biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Numbers chapter 13
Joshua 14:7–12 presents Caleb's recollection at age 85 of the incident of the scouts in Numbers 13–14.
Numbers chapter 14
Benjamin Sommer read Exodus 34:6–7 and Numbers 14:18–20 to teach that God punishes children for their parents' sins as a sign of mercy to the parents: When sinning parents repent, God defers their punishment to their offspring. Sommer argued that other Biblical writers, engaging in inner-Biblical interpretation, rejected that notion in Deuteronomy 7:9–10, Jonah 4:2, and Psalm 103:8–10. Sommer argued that Psalm 103:8–10, for example, quoted Exodus 34:6–7, which was already an authoritative and holy text, but revised the morally troubling part: Where Exodus 34:7 taught that God punishes sin for generations, Psalm 103:9–10 maintained that God does not contend forever. Sommer argued that Deuteronomy 7:9–10 and Jonah 4:2 similarly quoted Exodus 34:6–7 with revision. Sommer asserted that Deuteronomy 7:9–10, Jonah 4:2, and Psalm 103:8–10 do not try to tell us how to read Exodus 34:6–7; that is, they do not argue that Exodus 34:6–7 somehow means something other than what it seems to say. Rather, they repeat Exodus 34:6–7 while also disagreeing with part of it.
Numbers chapter 15
In Psalm 50, God clarifies the purpose of sacrifices, as discussed in Numbers 15:1–31. God states that correct sacrifice was not the taking of a bull out of the sacrificer's house, nor the taking of a goat out of the sacrificer's fold, to convey to God, for every animal was already God's possession. The sacrificer was not to think of the sacrifice as food for God, for God neither hungers nor eats. Rather, the worshiper was to offer to God the sacrifice of thanksgiving and call upon God in times of trouble, and thus God would deliver the worshiper and the worshiper would honor God.
Psalm 107 enumerates four occasions on which a thank offering (, zivchei todah), as described in Leviticus 7:12–15 (referring to a , zevach todah) would be appropriate:
passage through the desert,
release from prison,
recovery from serious disease, and
surviving a storm at sea.
The Hebrew Bible reports several instances of sacrifices before God explicitly called for them in Leviticus 1–7. While Leviticus 1:3–17 and Leviticus 6:1–6 set out the procedure for the burnt offering (, olah), before then, Genesis 8:20 reports that Noah offered burnt-offerings (, olot) of every clean beast and bird on an altar after the waters of the Flood subsided. The story of the Binding of Isaac includes three references to the burnt offering (, olah). In Genesis 22:2, God told Abraham to take Isaac and offer him as a burnt-offering (, olah). Genesis 22:3 then reports that Abraham rose early in the morning and split the wood for the burnt-offering (, olah). And after the angel of the Lord averted Isaac's sacrifice, Genesis 22:13 reports that Abraham lifted up his eyes and saw a ram caught in a thicket, and Abraham then offered the ram as a burnt-offering (, olah) instead of his son. Exodus 10:25 reports that Moses pressed Pharaoh for Pharaoh to give the Israelites "sacrifices and burnt-offerings" (, zevachim v'olot) to offer to God. And Exodus 18:12 reports that after Jethro heard all that God did to Pharaoh and the Egyptians, Jethro offered a burnt-offering and sacrifices (, olah uzevachim) to God.
While Leviticus 2 and Leviticus 6:7–16 set out the procedure for the meal-offering (, minchah), before then, in Genesis 4:3, Cain brought an offering (, minchah) of the fruit of the ground. And then Genesis 4:4–5 reports that God had respect for Abel and his offering (, minchato), but for Cain and his offering (, minchato), God had no respect.
And while Numbers 15:4–9 indicates that one bringing an animal sacrifice needed also to bring a drink offering (, nesech), before then, in Genesis 35:14, Jacob poured out a drink offering (, nesech) at Bethel.
More generally, the Hebrew Bible addressed "sacrifices" (, zevachim) generically in connection with Jacob and Moses. After Jacob and Laban reconciled, Genesis 31:54 reports that Jacob offered a sacrifice (, zevach) on the mountain and shared a meal with his kinsmen. And after Jacob learned that Joseph was still alive in Egypt, Genesis 46:1 reports that Jacob journeyed to Beersheba and offered sacrifices (, zevachim) to the God of his father Isaac. And Moses and Aaron argued repeatedly with Pharaoh over their request to go three days' journey into the wilderness and sacrifice (, venizbechah) to God.
The Hebrew Bible also includes several ambiguous reports in which Abraham or Isaac built or returned to an altar and "called upon the name of the Lord." In these cases, the text implies but does not explicitly state that the Patriarch offered a sacrifice. And at God's request, Abraham conducted an unusual sacrifice at the Covenant between the Pieces in Genesis 15:9–21.
The consistent application of the law regarding sacrifices to both Israelites and the strangers dwelling amongst them (Numbers 15:16|}}) reflects the same principle in the Passover regulations in the Book of Exodus (Exodus 12:49|}}).
The ordinances for seeking forgiveness of unintentional sin (Numbers 15:22–29) are a shorter form of the ordinances set out in more detail ordinances in Leviticus 4.
The requirement to wait because God had not yet revealed how violators of the Sabbath should be treated (Numbers 15:34|}}) is similar to the requirement in Numbers 9:8|}}, where Moses commanded the community to wait until he heard the law concerning the Second Passover.
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Numbers chapter 15
Pseudo-Philo read the commandment to wear tzitzit in Numbers 15:37–40 together with the story of Korah’s rebellion that follows immediately after in Numbers 16:1–3. Pseudo-Philo reported that God commanded Moses about the tassels, and then Korah and the 200 men with him rebelled, asking why that unbearable law had been imposed on them.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Numbers chapter 13
Resh Lakish interpreted the words "Send you men" in Numbers 13:2 to indicate that God gave Moses discretion over whether to send the spies. Resh Lakish read Moses' recollection of the matter in Deuteronomy 1:23 that "the thing pleased me well" to mean that agreeing to send the spies pleased Moses well but not God.
Rabbi Isaac said that the spies' names betrayed their lack of faith, and that Sethur's name (in Numbers 13:13) meant that he undermined (sathar) the works of God. And Rabbi Joḥanan said that the name of Nahbi the son of Vophsi (in Numbers 13:14) meant that he hid (hikbi) God's words.
Reading Numbers 13:2, "Send you men," a Midrash contrasted the two righteous men Phinehas and Caleb, the spies whom Joshua sent in Joshua 2:1, who risked their lives in order to perform their mission, with the messengers whom Moses sent, who the Midrash taught were wicked men.
A Midrash read Numbers 13:2, "Send you men," together with Proverbs 10:26, "As vinegar to the teeth, and as smoke to the eyes, so is the sluggard to them that send him." The Midrash taught that God could see from the first that the spies were going to slander the land, as Jeremiah 9:2 says, "And they bend their tongue, their bow of falsehood." The Midrash compared God's words in Numbers 13:2 to the case of a rich man who had a vineyard. Whenever he saw that the wine was good, he would direct his men to bring the wine into his house, but when he saw that the wine had turned to vinegar, he would tell his men to take the wine into their houses. Similarly, when God saw the elders and how worthy they were, God called them God's own, as God says in Numbers 11:16, "Gather to Me 70 men," but when God saw the spies and how they would later sin, God ascribed them to Moses, saying in Numbers 13:2, "Send you men."
A Midrash contrasted Numbers 13:2, "Send you men," with Proverbs 26:6, "He that sends a message by the hand of a fool cuts off his own feet, and drinks damage." The Midrash asked whether the spies were men or fools. The Midrash noted that Numbers 13:2 says, "Send you men," and wherever Scripture uses the word "men," Scripture implies righteous people, as in Exodus 17:9, "And Moses said to Joshua: 'Choose us out men'''"; in 1 Samuel 17:12, "And the man was an old man (and thus wise) in the days of Saul, coming among men (who would naturally be like him)"; and in 1 Samuel 1:11, "But will give to Your handmaid seed who are men." If Numbers 13:2 thus implies that the spies were righteous people, could they still have been fools? The Midrash explained that they were fools because they spread an evil report about the land, and Proverbs 10:18 says, "He that utters a slander is a fool." The Midrash reconciled the two characterizations by telling that the spies were great men who then made fools of themselves. It was concerning them that Moses said in Deuteronomy 32:20, "They are a very contrary generation, children in whom is no faithfulness." For the Midrash taught that the spies had been chosen out of all Israel by the command of both God and Moses; as Moses said in Deuteronomy 1:23, "And the thing pleased me well; and I took twelve men of you," implying that they were righteous in the opinion of both Israel and in Moses. Yet Moses did not want to send them on his own responsibility, so he consulted God about each individual, mentioning the name and tribe of each, and God told Moses that each was worthy. The Midrash explained that one can infer that God told Moses that they were worthy, because Numbers 13:3 reports, "And Moses sent them from the wilderness of Paran according to the commandment of the Lord." Afterwards, at the end of 40 days, they changed and made all the trouble, causing that generation to be punished; thus Deuteronomy 32:20 says, "For they are a very contrary (tahpukot) generation," since when they were selected they were righteous and then they changed (nitapeku). Accordingly, Numbers 13:2 says, "Send you men," and afterwards Numbers 13:16 says, "These are the names of the men."
A Midrash taught that one should become an explorer for wisdom, as Numbers 13:2 uses the term. Reading Ecclesiastes 1:13, "And I applied my heart to seek and to search out by wisdom," the Midrash asked what it means "to search out (la-tur) by wisdom." The Midrash explained that it means to search for wisdom, to become an explorer of wisdom, as the word is employed in Numbers 13:2, "Send you men, that they may spy out (yaturu) the land of Canaan." Thus Ecclesiastes 1:13 teaches that one should sit in the presence of one who teaches Scripture well or expounds Mishnah well and become a scout to discover knowledge.
The Avot of Rabbi Natan found a reference to the episode of the spies in the listing of places in Deuteronomy 1:1, which the Avot of Rabbi Natan read to allude to how God tested the Israelites with ten trials in the Wilderness, all of which they failed. According to the Avot of Rabbi Natan, in Deuteronomy 1:1, the words "In the wilderness" allude to the Golden Calf, as Exodus 32:8 reports. "On the plain" alludes to how they complained about not having water, as Exodus 17:3 reports. "Facing Suf" alludes to how they rebelled at the Sea of Reeds (or some say to the idol that Micah made). Rabbi Judah cited Psalm 106:7, "They rebelled at the Sea of Reeds." "Between Paran" alludes to the Twelve Spies, as Numbers 13:3 says, "Moses sent them from the wilderness of Paran." "And Tophel" alludes to the frivolous words (, tiphlot) they said about the manna. "Lavan" alludes to Koraḥ's mutiny. "Ḥatzerot" alludes to the quails. And in Deuteronomy 9:22, it says, "At Tav'erah, and at Masah, and at Kivrot HaTa'avah." And "Di-zahav" alludes to when Aaron said to them: "Enough (, dai) of this golden (, zahav) sin that you have committed with the Calf!" But Rabbi Eliezer ben Ya'akov said it means "Terrible enough (, dai) is this sin that Israel was punished to last from now until the resurrection of the dead."
Rava noted that Numbers 13:22 literally reads "they went up into the South, and he came to Hebron," and deduced from the change in the number of the pronoun that Caleb separated himself from the spies' plan and prostrated himself in prayer on the graves of the patriarchs in Hebron.
Interpreting the names Ahiman, Sheshai, and Talmai in Numbers 13:22, a Baraita taught that Ahiman was the most skilful of the brothers, Sheshai turned the ground on which he stepped into pits, and Talmai turned the ground into ridges when he walked. It was also taught that Ahiman built Anath, Sheshai built Alush, and Talmai built Talbush. They were called "the children of Anak" (the giant) because they seemed so tall that they would reach the sun.
A Baraita interpreted the words "and Hebron was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt" in Numbers 13:22 to mean that Hebron was seven times as fertile as Zoan. The Baraita rejected the plain meaning of "built," reasoning that Ham would not build a house for his younger son Canaan (in whose land was Hebron) before he built one for his elder son Mizraim (in whose land was Zoan), and Genesis 10:6 lists (presumably in order of birth) "the sons of Ham: Cush, and Mizraim, and Put, and Canaan." The Baraita also taught that among all the nations, there was none more fertile than Egypt, for Genesis 13:10 says, "Like the garden of the Lord, like the land of Egypt." And there was no more fertile spot in Egypt than Zoan, where kings lived, for Isaiah 30:4 says of Pharaoh, "his princes are at Zoan." And in all of Israel, there was no more rocky ground than that at Hebron, which is why the Patriarchs buried their dead there, as reported in Genesis 49:31. But rocky Hebron was still seven times as fertile as lush Zoan.
The Gemara interpreted the words "between two" in Numbers 13:23 to teach that the scouts carried the large cluster of grape on two staffs. Rabbi Isaac said that the scouts carried the grapes with a series of balancing poles. The Gemara explained that eight spies carried the grape-cluster, one carried a pomegranate, one carried a fig, and Joshua and Caleb did not carry anything, either because they were the most distinguished of them, or because they did not share in the plan to discourage the Israelites.
Rabbi Joḥanan said in the name of Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai that the words "And they went and came to Moses" in Numbers 13:26 equated the going with the coming back, indicating that just as they came back with an evil design, they had set out with an evil design.
The Gemara reported a number of Rabbis' reports of how the Land of Israel did indeed flow with "milk and honey," as described in Exodus 3:8 and 17, 13:5, and 33:3, Leviticus 20:24, Numbers 13:27 and 14:8, and Deuteronomy 6:3, 11:9, 26:9 and 15, 27:3, and 31:20. Once when Rami bar Ezekiel visited Bnei Brak, he saw goats grazing under fig trees while honey was flowing from the figs, and milk dripped from the goats mingling with the fig honey, causing him to remark that it was indeed a land flowing with milk and honey. Rabbi Jacob ben Dostai said that it is about three miles from Lod to Ono, and once he rose up early in the morning and waded all that way up to his ankles in fig honey. Resh Lakish said that he saw the flow of the milk and honey of Sepphoris extend over an area of sixteen miles by sixteen miles. Rabbah bar Bar Hana said that he saw the flow of the milk and honey in all the Land of Israel and the total area was equal to an area of twenty-two parasangs by six parasangs.
Rabbi Joḥanan said in the name of Rabbi Meir that the spies began with a true report in Numbers 13:27 and then spoke ill in Numbers 13:28, because any piece of slander needs some truth in the beginning to be heard through to the end.
Rabbah interpreted Numbers 13:30 to report that Caleb won the people over with his words, for he saw that when Joshua began to address them, they disparaged Joshua for failing to have children. So Caleb took a different tack and asked, "Is this all that Amram's son [Moses] has done to us?" And as they thought that Caleb was about to disparage Moses, they fell silent. Then Caleb said, "He brought us out of Egypt, divided the sea, and fed us manna. If he were to ask us to get ladders and climb to heaven, should we not obey? And then Caleb said the words reported in Numbers 13:30, "We should go up at once, and possess the land, for we are well able to overcome it."
Reading Psalm 76:6, "The stout-hearted are bereft of sense, they sleep their sleep," a Midrash taught that the expression "bereft of sense" applied to Moses and Aaron. They sent the spies, who slandered the land, so that they did not know what to do. Moses and Aaron lost courage, but Caleb immediately rose and silenced all of the people, as Numbers 13:30 reports, "And Caleb stilled (vayahas) the people." He stood on a bench and silenced them, saying, "Silence (has)!" and they became silent to hear him. Caleb told them in Numbers 14:7, "The land . . . is an exceeding good land." God therefore said to Moses, "I am exceedingly grateful to him [Caleb]," as may be inferred from Deuteronomy 1:36, "Except (zulati) Caleb the son of Jephunneh, he shall see it . . . because he has wholly followed the Lord.” The word zulati signified lazeh itti, “this one was with Me,” more than the 600,000 other Israelites, who could not find your hands and feet, but failed in courage. Thus Psalm 76:6 says, “The stout-hearted are bereft of sense.” The Midrash taught that it came to this because the messengers that Moses and Aaron sent were fools. Of such as these Proverbs 26:6 observes, “He that sends a message by the hand of a fool cuts off his own feet, and drinks damage.”
Rabbi Hanina bar Papa read the spies to say in Numbers 13:31 not "they are stronger than we" but "they are stronger than He," questioning God's power.
The Mishnah noted that the evil report of the scouts in Numbers 13:32 caused God to seal the decree against the Israelites in the wilderness in Numbers 14:22–23. The Mishnah thus deduced that one who speaks suffers more than one who acts.
Rav Mesharsheya said that Numbers 13:33 proved that the spies were liars, for though they might well have known that they saw themselves as grasshoppers, they had no way of knowing how the inhabitants of the land saw them.
Numbers chapter 14
The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer told that God spoke to the Torah the words of Genesis 1:26, "Let us make man in our image, after our likeness." The Torah answered that the man whom God sought to create would be limited in days and full of anger, and would come into the power of sin. Unless God would be long-suffering with him, the Torah continued, it would be well for man not to come into the world. God asked the Torah whether it was for nothing that God is called (echoing Numbers 14:18) "slow to anger" and "abounding in love." God then began to collect the dust from the four corners of the world—red, black, and white—and made the first human.
The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer told that God had spoken the words of Numbers 14:20 to Moses before, after the incident of the Golden Calf. The Pirke De-Rabbi Eliezer told that after the incident of the Golden Calf, Moses foretold that he would behold God's Glory and make atonement for the Israelites' iniquities on Yom Kippur. On that day, Moses asked God to pardon the iniquities of the people in connection with the Golden Calf. God told Moses that if he had asked God then to pardon the iniquities of all Israel, even to the end of all generations, God would have done so, as it was the appropriate time. But Moses had asked for pardon with reference to the Golden Calf, so God told Moses that it would be according to his words, as Numbers 14:20 says, "And the Lord said, 'I have pardoned according to your word.'"
A Baraita taught that when Moses ascended to receive the Torah from God, Moses found God writing "longsuffering" among the words with which Exodus 34:8 describes God. Moses asked God whether God meant longsuffering with the righteous, to which God replied that God is longsuffering even with the wicked. Moses exclaimed that God could let the wicked perish, but God cautioned Moses that Moses would come to desire God's longsuffering for the wicked. Later, when the Israelites sinned at the incident of the spies, God reminded Moses that he had suggested that God be longsuffering only with the righteous, to which Moses recounted that God had promised to be longsuffering even with the wicked. And that is why Moses in Numbers 14:17–18 cited to God that God is "slow to anger."
Rabbi Simeon son of Rabbi Ishmael interpreted the term "the Tabernacle of the testimony" in Exodus 38:21 to mean that the Tabernacle was God's testimony to the whole world that God had in Numbers 14:20 forgiven Israel for having made the Golden Calf. Rabbi Isaac explained with a parable. A king took a wife whom he dearly loved. He became angry with her and left her, and her neighbors taunted her, saying that he would not return. Then the king sent her a message asking her to prepare the king's palace and make the beds therein, for he was coming back to her on such-and-such a day. On that day, the king returned to her and became reconciled to her, entering her chamber and eating and drinking with her. Her neighbors at first did not believe it, but when they smelled the fragrant spices, they knew that the king had returned. Similarly, God loved Israel, bringing the Israelites to Mount Sinai, and giving them the Torah, but after only 40 days, they sinned with the Golden Calf. The heathen nations then said that God would not be reconciled with the Israelites. But when Moses pleaded for mercy on their behalf, God forgave them, as Numbers 14:20 reports, "And the Lord said: ‘I have pardoned according to your word.'" Moses then told God that even though he personally was quite satisfied that God had forgiven Israel, he asked that God might announce that fact to the nations. God replied that God would cause God's Shechinah to dwell in their midst, and thus Exodus 25:8 says, "And let them make Me a sanctuary, that I may dwell among them." And by that sign, God intended that all nations might know that God had forgiven the Israelites. And thus Exodus 38:21 calls it "the Tabernacle of the testimony," because the Tabernacle was a testimony that God had pardoned the Israelites' sins.
The Mishnah deduced from Numbers 14:22 that the Israelites in the wilderness inflicted ten trials on God, one of which was the incident of the spies. And the Mishnah deduced further from Numbers 14:22 that those who speak ill suffer more than those who commit physical acts, and thus that God sealed the judgment against the Israelites in the wilderness only because of their evil words at the incident of the spies.
Reading Numbers 14:26, a Midrash taught that in 18 verses, Scripture places Moses and Aaron (the instruments of Israel's deliverance) on an equal footing (reporting that God spoke to both of them alike), and thus there are 18 benedictions in the Amidah.
Because with regard to the ten spies in Numbers 14:27, God asked, "How long shall I bear with this evil congregation?" the Mishnah deduced that a "congregation" consists of no fewer than ten people. Expounding on the same word "congregation," Rabbi Halafta of Kefar Hanania deduced from the words "God stands in the congregation of God" in Psalm 82:1 that the Shechinah abides among ten who sit together and study Torah.
Similarly, the Jerusalem Talmud read the reference to "congregation" in Numbers 14:27 to support the proposition that ten comprise a congregation. Rabbi Abba and Rabbi Yasa said in the name of Rabbi Joḥanan that Scripture uses the word "congregation" in Numbers 35:24–25, "The congregation shall judge, and the congregation shall rescue," and also in Numbers 14:27, "How long shall this wicked congregation murmur against me?" and argued that just as the word "congregation" in Numbers 14:27 refers to ten persons (the twelve spies minus Joshua and Caleb), the word "congregation" in Numbers 35:24–25, must refer to ten persons, and thus judgments needed to take place in the presence of ten.
Similarly, the Gemara cited Numbers 14:27 to support the proposition that we need ten people in expressions of sanctity. Rabbi Ḥiyya bar Abba said that Rabbi Joḥanan said that God's words in Leviticus 22:32, "I shall be hallowed among the children of Israel," indicate that any expression of sanctity requires at least ten people. Rabbi Ḥiyya taught that this can be inferred by means of a verbal analogy (gezera shava) between two places that use the word "among." Leviticus 22:32 says, "And I shall be hallowed among the children of Israel," and Numbers 16:21, speaking about Korah's congregation, says, "Separate yourselves from among this congregation." Just as with regard to Korah the reference was to ten, so too, with ragrd to hallowing the name of God, the reference is to a quorum of ten. The connotation of ten associated with the word "among" in the portion of Korah was, in turn, inferred by means of another verbal analogy between the word “congregation” written there and the word "congregation" written in reference to the ten spies who slandered the Land of Israel, as Numbers 14:27 says, "How long shall I bear with this evil congregation?" In the case of the spies, it was a congregation of ten people, as there were twelve spies altogether, and Joshua and Caleb were not included in the evil congregation. So, the Gemara reasoned, in the case of Korah, the reference must also be to a congregation of ten people.
Noting that in the incident of the spies, God did not punish those below the age of 20 (see Numbers 14:29), whom Deuteronomy 1:39 described as "children that . . . have no knowledge of good or evil," Rabbi Samuel bar Naḥmani taught in Rabbi Jonathan's name that God does not punish for the actions people take in their first 20 years.
Rav Hamnuna taught that God's decree that the generation of the spies would die in the wilderness did not apply to the Levites, for Numbers 14:29 says, "your carcasses shall fall in this wilderness, and all that were numbered of you, according to your whole number, from 20 years old and upward," and this implies that those who were numbered from 20 years old and upward came under the decree, while the tribe of Levi—which Numbers 4:3, 23, 30, 35, 39, 43, and 47 say was numbered from 30 years old and upward—was excluded from the decree.
A Baraita taught that because of God's displeasure with the Israelites, the north wind did not blow on them in any of the 40 years during which they wandered in the wilderness. The Tosafot attributed God's displeasure to the incident of the spies, although Rashi attributed it to the Golden Calf.
Rabbi Akiva interpreted Numbers 14:35 to teach that the generation of the wilderness have no share in the World To Come and will not stand at the last judgment. Rabbi Eliezer said that it was concerning them that Psalm 50:5 said, "Gather my saints together to me; those who have made a covenant with me by sacrifice."
A Midrash noted that Numbers 14:36 says that in the incident of the spies, "the men ... when they returned, made all the congregation to murmur against him." The Midrash explained that that is why the report of Numbers 27:1–11 about the daughters of Zelophehad follows immediately after the report of Numbers 26:65 about the death of the wilderness generation. The Midrash noted that Numbers 26:65 says, "there was not left a man of them, save Caleb the son of Jephunneh," because the men had been unwilling to enter the Land. But the Midrash taught that Numbers 27:1 says, "then drew near the daughters of Zelophehad," to show that the women still sought an inheritance in the Land. The Midrash taught that in that generation, the women built up fences that the men broke down.
The Mishnah deduced from Numbers 14:37 that the spies have no portion in the World To Come, as the words "those men ... died" in Numbers 14:37 indicated that they died in this world, and the words "by the plague" indicated that they died in the World To Come.
Rabbah in the name of Resh Lakish deduced from Numbers 14:37 that the spies who brought an evil report against the land died by the plague, and died because of the evil report that they had brought.
Numbers chapter 15
The Mishnah exempted the meal offering that accompanied the drink offering in Numbers 15:4–5 from the penalty associated with eating piggul, offerings invalidated for improper intent. And the Mishnah ruled that these meal-offerings required oil but not frankincense.
The Mishnah told that when Hillel the Elder observed that the nation withheld from lending to each other and were transgressing Deuteronomy 15:9, "Beware lest there be in your mind a base thought," he instituted the prozbul, a court exemption from the Sabbatical year cancellation of a loan. The Mishnah taught that any loan made with a prozbul is not canceled by the Sabbatical year. The Mishnah recounted that a prozbul would provide: "I turn over to you, so-and-so, judges of such and such a place, that any debt that I may have outstanding, I shall collect it whenever I desire." And the judges or witnesses would sign below.
Tractate Challah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of separating a portion of bread, a dough offering (, challah), for the priests in Numbers 15:17–21.
The Mishnah taught that five types of grain are subject to the law of challah: wheat, barley, spelt, oats, and rye. Quantities of dough made from these different grains are counted together. They were also subject to the prohibition of the consumption of new produce before the waiving of the first sheaf, and to the prohibition of reaping prior to Passover. If they took root prior to the waiving of the first sheaf, the waiving of the first sheaf released them for consumption. But if not, they were prohibited until the next waiving of the first sheaf. The Mishnah taught that rice, millet, poppy seed, sesame, and legumes are exempt from challah (for though they are sometimes made into dough, they are not capable of leavening), as are less than five-fourths of a kav, or about 3½ pounds (the minimum subject to challah) of the five kinds of grain subject to challah. Sponge-biscuits, honey cakes, dumplings, pancakes, and dough made from a mixture of consecrated and unconsecrated grain are also exempt from challah.
The Mishnah taught that the minimum measure of challah is one twenty-fourth part of the dough (or in the case if the minimum amount subject to challah, about 2¼ ounces). If one makes dough for oneself or for a wedding banquet, the minimum is still one twenty-fourth (and no distinction is made based on volume of dough intended for private consumption). If one makes dough to sell in the market, the minimum is one forty-eighth. If dough is rendered unclean either unwittingly or by force of unavoidable circumstances, it is one forty-eighth, but if it was rendered unclean deliberately, it is one twenty-fourth, so that one who sins shall not profit from sin. The Mishnah taught that one cannot designate all of one's dough as challah, but must leave some that is not challah.
The School of Rabbi Ishmael taught that whenever Scripture uses the word "command (, tzav)" (as Numbers 15:23 does), it denotes exhortation to obedience immediately and for all time. A Baraita deduced exhortation to immediate obedience from the use of the word "command" in Deuteronomy 3:28, which says, "charge Joshua, and encourage him, and strengthen him." And the Baraita deduced exhortation to obedience for all time from the use of the word "command" in Numbers 15:23, which says, "even all that the Lord has commanded you by the hand of Moses, from the day that the Lord gave the commandment, and onward throughout your generations."
A Baraita taught that Rabbi Eliezer, the son of Rabbi Jose, said that he refuted the sectarian books that maintained that resurrection is not deducible from the Torah. To support the proposition that the Torah does refer to the resurrection of the dead, Rabbi Eliezer cited Numbers 15:31, which says, "Because he has despised the word of the Lord, and has broken his commandment, that soul shall utterly be cut off (, hikareit tikareit); his iniquity shall be upon him." Rabbi Eliezer reasoned that as this person would be utterly be cut off in this world (meaning that he would die), the person's iniquity would need to be upon him in the next world (in the life after death). Rav Papa asked Abaye whether Rabbi Eliezer could not have deduced both this world and the next from the words "he shall be utterly cut off." The answer was that they would have replied that the Torah employed human phraseology. Similarly, the Tannaim disputed: Rabbi Akiva taught that the words, "That soul shall utterly be cut off (, hikareit)," mean that he shall be cut off in this world and (, tikareit) in the next. Rabbi Ishmael noted that Numbers 15:30 previously stated, "he reproaches the Lord, and that soul shall be cut off," and asked whether Rabbi Akiva's reasoning thus implied the existence of three words. Rather, Rabbi Ishmael taught that the words of Numbers 15:30, "and [that soul] shall be cut off," imply in this world, whereas the words of Numbers 15:31, "be cut off (, hikareit)," imply in the next world. As for the repetition in Numbers 15:31 (, tikareit), Rabbi Ishmael attributed that to the Torah's use of human phraseology. The Gemara taught that both Rabbi Ishmael and Rabbi Akiva utilize the concluding words of Numbers 15:31, "his iniquity shall be upon him," for the purpose taught in a Baraita: One might think that the sinner would be cut off even if the sinner repented. Therefore, Numbers 15:31 says, "his iniquity is upon him," meaning that God decreed that the sinner shall be cut off only if the sinner's iniquity is still in him (and the sinner dies unrepentant).
Rabbi Ishmael taught that Scripture speaks in particular of idolatry, for Numbers 15:31 says, "Because he has despised the word of the Lord." Rabbi Ishmael interpreted this to mean that an idolater despises the first word among the Ten Words or Ten Commandments in Exodus 20:2–3 and Deuteronomy 5:6–7, "I am the Lord your God . . . . You shall have no other gods before Me."
Rav Ḥisda taught that one walking in a dirty alleyway should not recite the Shema, and one reciting the Shema who comes upon a dirty alleyway should stop reciting. Of one who would not stop reciting, Rav Adda bar Ahavah quoted Numbers 15:31 to say: "he has despised the word of the Lord." And of one who does stop reciting, Rabbi Abbahu taught that Deuteronomy 32:47 says: "through this word you shall prolong your days."
Noting that the words "in the wilderness" appeared both in Numbers 15:32 (which tells the story of the Sabbath violator) and in Numbers 27:3 (where Zelophehad's daughters noted that their father Zelophehad had not taken part in Korah's rebellion) and Rabbi Akiva taught in a Baraita that Zelophehad was the man executed for gathering sticks on the Sabbath. Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra answered Akiva that Akiva would have to give an account for his accusation. For either Akiva was right that Zelophehad was the man executed for gathering sticks on the Sabbath, and Akiva revealed something that the Torah shielded from public view, or Akiva was wrong that Zelophehad was the man executed for gathering sticks on the Sabbath, and Akiva cast a stigma upon a righteous man. But the Gemara answered that Akiva learned a tradition from the Oral Torah (that went back to Sinai, and thus the Torah did not shield the matter from public view). The Gemara then asked, according to Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra, of what sin did Zelophehad die (as his daughters reported in Numbers 27:3 that "he died in his own sin")? The Gemara reported that according to Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra, Zelophehad was among those who "presumed to go up to the top of the mountain" in Numbers 14:44 (to try and fail to take the Land of Israel after the incident of the spies).
Tractate Shabbat in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Sabbath in Exodus 16:23 and 29; 20:8–11; 23:12; 31:13–17; 35:2–3; Leviticus 19:3; 23:3; Numbers 15:32–36; and Deuteronomy 5:12.
The Sifra taught that the incidents of the blasphemer in Leviticus 24:11–16 and the wood gatherer in Numbers 15:32–36 happened at the same time, but the Israelites did not leave the blasphemer with the wood gatherer, for they knew that the wood gatherer was going to be executed, as Exodus 31:14 directed, "those who profane it [the Sabbath] shall be put to death." But they did not know the correct form of death penalty for him, for God had not yet been specified what to do to him, as Numbers 15:34 says, "for it had not [yet] been specified what should be done to him." With regard to the blasphemer, the Sifra read Leviticus 24:12, "until the decision of the Lord should be made clear to them," to indicate that they did not know whether or not the blasphemer was to be executed. (And if they placed the blasphemer together with the wood gatherer, it might have caused the blasphemer unnecessary fear, as he might have concluded that he was on death row. Therefore, they held the two separately.)
The Sifri Zutta taught that the passage of the wood-gatherer in Numbers 15:32–36 is juxtaposed to the passage on the fringes in Numbers 15:37–41 to show that a corpse should be buried wearing fringes.
A Midrash asked to which commandment Deuteronomy 11:22 refers when it says, "For if you shall diligently keep all this commandment that I command you, to do it, to love the Lord your God, to walk in all His ways, and to cleave to Him, then will the Lord drive out all these nations from before you, and you shall dispossess nations greater and mightier than yourselves." Rabbi Levi said that "this commandment" refers to the recitation of the Shema (Deuteronomy 6:4–9), but the Rabbis said that it refers to the Sabbath, which is equal to all the precepts of the Torah.
The Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva taught that when God was giving Israel the Torah, God told them that if they accepted the Torah and observed God's commandments, then God would give them for eternity a most precious thing that God possessed—the World To Come. When Israel asked to see in this world an example of the World To Come, God replied that the Sabbath is an example of the World To Come.
Already at the time of the Mishnah, Numbers 15:37–41 constituted the third part of a standard Shema prayer that the priests recited daily, following Deuteronomy 6:4–9 and Deuteronomy 11:13–21. The Mishnah instructed that there is a section break in the Shema between reciting Deuteronomy 11:13–21 and reciting Numbers 15:37–41 during which one may give and return greetings out of respect. And similarly, there is a section break between reciting Numbers 15:37–41 and reciting emet veyatziv. But Rabbi Judah said that one may not interrupt between reciting Numbers 15:37–41 and reciting emet veyatziv ("true and enduring . . ."). The Mishnah taught that the reciting of Deuteronomy 11:13–21 precedes the reciting of Numbers 15:37–41 in the Shema because the obligation of Deuteronomy 11:13–21 applies day and night, while the obligation of Numbers 15:37–41 to wear tzizit applies only during the day.
In the Mishnah, Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah argued that Jews must mention the Exodus every night—as one does when one recites the third paragraph of the Shema, Numbers 15:37–41—but did not prevail in his argument that this was a Biblical obligation until Ben Zoma argued that Deuteronomy 16:3, which commands a Jew to remember the Exodus "all the days of your life," uses the word "all" to mean both day and night.
The Gemara asked why the Rabbis included Numbers 15:37–41 in the recitation of Shema, as it contains matter unrelated to the rest of the Shema. Rabbi Judah bar Ḥaviva taught that Numbers 15:37–41 includes five elements, including the primary reason for its inclusion, the Exodus from Egypt: The commandment of ritual fringes, mention of the Exodus from Egypt, the acceptance of the yoke of the commandments, admonition against the opinions of the heretics, admonition against thoughts of the transgressions of licentiousness, and admonition against thoughts of idolatry. The Gemara granted that Numbers 15:37–41 mentions three of these explicitly: Numbers 15:39 mentions the yoke of the commandments when it says: “And you shall look upon them and remember all the commandments of the Lord and you shall do them.” Numbers 15:38 mentions the ritual fringes when it says: “And they will make for themselves ritual fringes.” And Numbers 15:41 mentions the Exodus from Egypt when it says: “I am the Lord, your God, who took you out from the Land of Egypt.” But the Gemara asked where we derive the other elements mentioned above: Admonition against the opinions of the heretics, admonition against thoughts of transgressions of licentiousness, and admonition against thoughts of idolatry. In response, the Gemara cited a Baraita that derived these elements from allusions in Numbers 15:39, “You shall stray neither after your hearts nor after your eyes, after which you would lust.” The Baraita taught that “after your hearts” refers to following opinions of heresy that may arise in one's heart. The Gemara offered as proof Psalm 14:1, which says, “The fool said in his heart: ‘There is no God’; they have been corrupt, they have acted abominably; there is none who does good.” The Baraita taught that “after your eyes” in Numbers 15:39 refers to following thoughts of transgressions of licentiousness, that a person might see and desire, as Judges 14:3 says, “And Samson said to his father, ‘That one take for me, for she is upright in my eyes.’” And the Baraita taught that the passage in Numbers 15:39, “you shall stray after,” refers to promiscuity, which the prophets used as a metaphor for idol worship, as Judges 8:33 says, “The children of Israel again went astray after the Be’alim.”
It was taught in a Baraita that Rabbi Meir used to ask why Numbers 15:38 specified blue from among all the colors for the fringes. Rabbi Meir taught that it was because blue resembles the color of the sea, and the sea resembles the color of the sky, and the sky resembles the color of the Throne of Glory, as Exodus 24:10 says, "And there was under His feet as it were a paved work of sapphire stone," and Ezekiel 1:26 says, "The likeness of a throne as the appearance of a sapphire stone." (And thus, when one sees the blue thread of the fringe, it will help call to mind God.) And it was taught in a Baraita that Rabbi Meir used to say that the punishment for failing to observe the white threads of the fringes is greater than for failing to observe the blue threads. The Gemara illustrated this by a parable: A king gave orders to two servants. He asked one servant to bring a seal of clay, and he asked other to bring a seal of gold. And they both failed in their tasks. The Gemara argued that the servant deserving the greater punishment was the one whom the king directed to bring a seal of clay. (For clay is easier to get than gold. Thus the punishment for failing to get the simple white fringe should be greater than the penalty for failing to get the rare blue thread.)
The Tosefta taught that for the blue color to be valid, it had to come from the particular shell that was used for that purpose.
The Mishnah taught that the absence of one of the four fringes required in Numbers 15:38 invalidates the others, as the four together form one precept. Rabbi Ishmael, however, said that the four are four separate precepts.
Noting that Numbers 15:39 says "a fringe" in the singular, the Sifri Zutta deduced that the obligation to wear fringes with a blue thread is a single religious obligation, not two.
In Numbers 15:39, the heart lusts. A Midrash catalogued the wide range of additional capabilities of the heart reported in the Hebrew Bible. The heart speaks, sees, hears, walks, falls, stands, rejoices, cries, is comforted, is troubled, becomes hardened, grows faint, grieves, fears, can be broken, becomes proud, rebels, invents, cavils, overflows, devises, desires, goes astray, is refreshed, can be stolen, is humbled, is enticed, errs, trembles, is awakened, loves, hates, envies, is searched, is rent, meditates, is like a fire, is like a stone, turns in repentance, becomes hot, dies, melts, takes in words, is susceptible to fear, gives thanks, covets, becomes hard, makes merry, acts deceitfully, speaks from out of itself, loves bribes, writes words, plans, receives commandments, acts with pride, makes arrangements, and aggrandizes itself.
Like Pseudo-Philo (see "In early nonrabbinic interpretation" above), the Jerusalem Talmud read the commandment to wear tzitzit in Numbers 15:37–40 together with the story of Korah's rebellion that follows immediately after in Numbers 16:1–3. The Jerusalem Talmud told that after hearing the law of tassels, Korah made some garments that were completely dyed blue, went to Moses, and asked Moses whether a garment that was already completely blue nonetheless had to have a blue corner tassel. When Moses answered that it did, Korah said that the Torah was not of Divine origin, Moses was not a prophet, and Aaron was not a high priest.
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Numbers chapter 14
The Zohar found in God's Attributes as expressed in Numbers 14:18 components of God's essential Name. In the Zohar, Rabbi Simeon taught from the Book of Mystery that the Divine Name has both a revealed and a concealed form. In its revealed form, it is written as the four-letter Name of God, the Tetragrammaton, but in its undisclosed form it is written in other letters, and this undisclosed form represents the most Recondite of all. In the Zohar, Rabbi Judah taught that even the revealed form of the Name is hidden under other letters (as the name ADoNaY, , is hidden within ADNY, ) in order to screen the most Recondite of all. In the letters of God's Name are concealed 22 attributes of Mercy, namely, the 13 attributes of God in Exodus 34:6–7 and nine attributes of the Mikroprosopus, the lesser revealed aspect of God. They all combine in one composite Name. When people were more reverent, the priests openly enunciated the Name in the hearing of all, but after irreverence became widespread, the Name became concealed under other letters. At the time when the Name was disclosed, the priest would concentrate his mind on its deep and inner meaning, and he would utter the Name in such a way as to accord with that meaning. But when irreverence became common in the world, he would conceal all within the written letters. The Zohar taught that Moses uttered the 22 letters in two sections, first in Exodus 34:6–7 in the attributes of God, and second in Numbers 14:18, when he uttered nine attributes of Mercy that are inherent in the Mikroprosopus, and which are radiated from the light of God. All this the priest combined together when he spread forth his hands to bless the people pursuant to Numbers 6:23–26, so that all the worlds received God's blessings. It is for this reason that Numbers 6:23 says simply "saying" (, amor), instead of the imperative form "say" (, imri), in a reference to the hidden letters within the words of the Priestly Blessing. The word , amor has in its letters the numerical value of 248 minus one ( equals 1; equals 40; equals 6; equals 200; and 1 + 40 + 6 + 200 = 247), equal to the number of a man's bodily parts, excepting the one part on which all the rest depend. All these parts thus receive the Priestly Blessing as expressed in the three verses of Numbers 6:24–26.
Rashi taught that it was on the first day of Elul that God told Moses, in the words of Exodus 34:2, “In the morning you shall ascend Mount Sinai,” to receive the second tablets, and Moses spent 40 days there, as reported in Deuteronomy 10:10, “And I remained upon the mountain just as the first days.” And on Yom Kippur, God was placated toward Israel and told Moses, in the words of Numbers 14:20, “I have forgiven, as you have spoken.”
Maimonides taught that the Sages said that inspiration does not come to a prophet when the prophet is sad or languid. Thus Moses did not receive any revelation when he was in a state of depression that lasted from the murmurings of the Israelites upon the evil report of the spies until the death of the warriors of that generation.
Numbers chapter 15
Maimonides wrote that he was at a loss why God commanded the offering of wine in Numbers 15:5–11, since idolaters brought wine as an offering. But Maimonides credited another person with suggesting the reason that meat is the best nourishment for the appetite, the source of which is the liver; wine supports best the vital faculty, whose center is the heart; and music is most agreeable to the psychic faculty, the source of which is the brain. Thus, Maimonides wrote, each of a person's faculties approached God with that which it liked best. And thus the sacrifice consisted of meat, wine, and music.
Interpreting the laws of separating a portion of bread (challah) for the priests in Numbers 15:17–21, Maimonides taught that by Rabbinic decree, challah should continue to be separated in the Diaspora, so that the Jewish people will not forget the laws of challah. Anyone who separates challah—both in the Land of Israel and in the Diaspora—should recite the blessing: "Blessed are You . . . Who sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us to separate challah." And Maimonides taught that it is permitted to eat first and then separate the challah in the Diaspora, for the fundamental obligation is Rabbinic in origin.
In his letter to Obadiah the Proselyte, Maimonides relied on Numbers 15:15 to addressed whether a convert could recite declarations like "God of our fathers." Maimonides wrote that converts may say such declarations in the prescribed order and not change them in the least, and may bless and pray in the same way as every Jew by birth. Maimonides reasoned that Abraham taught the people, brought many under the wings of the Divine Presence, and ordered members of his household after him to keep God's ways forever. As God said of Abraham in Genesis 18:19, "I have known him to the end that he may command his children and his household after him, that they may keep the way of the Lord, to do righteousness and justice." Ever since then, Maimonides taught, whoever adopts Judaism is counted among the disciples of Abraham. They are Abraham's household, and Abraham converted them to righteousness. In the same way that Abraham converted his contemporaries, he converts future generations through the testament that he left behind him. Thus Abraham is the father of his posterity who keep his ways and of all proselytes who adopt Judaism. Therefore, Maimonides counseled converts to pray, "God of our fathers," because Abraham is their father. They should pray, "You who have taken for his own our fathers," for God gave the land to Abraham when in Genesis 13:17, God said, "Arise, walk through the land in the length of it and in the breadth of it; for I will give to you." Maimonides concluded that there is no difference between converts and born Jews. Both should say the blessing, "Who has chosen us," "Who has given us," "Who have taken us for Your own," and "Who has separated us"; for God has chosen converts and separated them from the nations and given them the Torah. For the Torah has been given to born Jews and proselytes alike, as Numbers 15:15 says, "One ordinance shall be both for you of the congregation, and also for the stranger that sojourns with you, an ordinance forever in your generations; as you are, so shall the stranger be before the Lord." Maimonides counseled converts not to consider their origin as inferior. While born Jews descend from Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, converts derive from God, through whose word the world was created. As Isaiah said in Isaiah 44:5: "One shall say, I am the Lord's, and another shall call himself by the name of Jacob."
Noting the universal application of the laws of the fringes (, tzitzit) in Numbers 15:38, Maimonides taught that God designed the wearing of tzitzit as a more enduring form of worship than the practice of sacrifices, which Maimonides taught were a transitional step to wean the Israelites off of the worship of the times and move them toward prayer as the primary means of worship. Maimonides noted that in nature, God created animals that develop gradually. For example, when a mammal is born, it is extremely tender, and cannot eat dry food, so God provided breasts that yield milk to feed the young animal, until it can eat dry food. Similarly, Maimonides taught, God instituted many laws as temporary measures, as it would have been impossible for the Israelites suddenly to discontinue everything to which they had become accustomed. So God sent Moses to make the Israelites (in the words of Exodus 19:6) "a kingdom of priests and a holy nation." But the general custom of worship in those days was sacrificing animals in temples that contained idols. So God did not command the Israelites to give up those manners of service, but allowed them to continue. God transferred to God's service what had formerly served as a worship of idols, and commanded the Israelites to serve God in the same manner—namely, to build to a Sanctuary (Exodus 25:8), to erect the altar to God's name (Exodus 20:21), to offer sacrifices to God (Leviticus 1:2), to bow down to God, and to burn incense before God. God forbad doing any of these things to any other being and selected priests for the service in the temple in Exodus 28:41. By this Divine plan, God blotted out the traces of idolatry, and established the great principle of the Existence and Unity of God. But the sacrificial service, Maimonides taught, was not the primary object of God's commandments about sacrifice; rather, supplications, prayers, and similar kinds of worship are nearer to the primary object. Thus God limited sacrifice to only one temple (see Deuteronomy 12:26) and the priesthood to only the members of a particular family. These restrictions, Maimonides taught, served to limit sacrificial worship, and kept it within such bounds that God did not feel it necessary to abolish sacrificial service altogether. But in the Divine plan, prayer and supplication can be offered everywhere and by every person, as can be the wearing of tzitzit (Numbers 15:38) and tefillin (Exodus 13:9, 16) and similar kinds of service.
Rashi explained that in Numbers 8:8, God required the people to bring a young bull as an offering, because Numbers 15:22–26 required such an offering to make atonement when the community had committed idolatry (and they were atoning for the sin of the Golden Calf).
Yehuda Halevi taught that one wears the fringes lest one be entrapped by worldly thoughts, as Numbers 15:39 says, "That you may not go astray after your heart and after your eyes."
In his Mishneh Torah, Maimonides detailed the laws of the fringes set forth in Numbers 15:37–41. Maimonides taught that the tassel on the fringes of a garment is called tzitzit, because it resembles the locks of hair on one's head, as Ezekiel 8:3 says, "And he took me by the locks (, be-tzitzit) of my head." The Torah does not set a fixed number of strands for the tassel. They take a strand of wool, called techelet, that is dyed sky-blue and wind it around the tassel. The Torah does not set a fixed number of times that this strand should be wound around the tassel. Numbers 15:38, which states, "And you shall make tassels . . . and you shall place on the tassels of the corner a strand of techelet," contains two commandments: (1) to make a tassel on the fringe of a four-cornered garment, and (2) to wind a strand of techelet around the tassel. The absence of techelet, however, does not prevent one from fulfilling the commandment with white strands, as a person who does not have techelet should make tzitzit from white strands alone. Whether the tzitzit a person wears on a garment are white, techelet, or a combination of the two, it is a single commandment, as Numbers 15:39 states, "And they shall be tzitzit for you." The presence of four tzitzit is necessary for the commandment to be fulfilled. Maimonides taught that tzitzit must be made by a Jew, as Numbers 15:38 says: "Speak to the children of Israel . . . and you shall make tzitzit for yourselves."
Maimonides taught that techelet refers to wool dyed light blue, the color of the sky opposite the sun on a clear day. The term refers to a specific dye, and use of any other dye is unfit even though it is sky-blue in color. The techelet of tzitzit is dyed by soaking wool in lime. Afterwards, it is taken and washed until it is clean and then boiled with bleach to prepare it to accept the dye. They take the blood of a chilazon fish, found in the Mediterranean Sea, whose color is like the color of the sea and whose blood is black like ink, and place the blood in a pot together with herbs, boil it, and insert the wool until it becomes sky-blue. Maimonides taught that one may buy techelet from an outlet that has established a reputation for authenticity without question, and one may rely on its reputation until a reason for suspicion arises. When a garment is entirely red, green, or any other color other than white, its white strands should be made from the same color as the garment itself. If the garment is techelet, its white strands should be made from any color other than black.
Maimonides taught that a garment to which the Torah obligates a person to attach tzitzit must have three characteristics: (1) it must have four or more corners; (2) it must be large enough to cover both the head and most of the body of a child who is able to walk on his own in the marketplace without having someone watch him; and (3) it must be made of either wool or linen. For a garment of wool, the white strands should be made of wool. For a garment of linen, the white strands should be made of linen. For garments of other fabrics, the white strands should be made from the same fabric as the garment. Numbers 15:39, which says, "And you shall see them," implies that the obligation to wear tzitzit applies during the day, but not at night. Nevertheless, a blind man is obligated to wear tzitzit, for even though he does not see them, others see him wearing them. One is permitted to wear tzitzit at night, provided he does not recite a blessing. One should recite the blessing over tzitzit in the morning when the sun has risen so that one can tell the strands of techelet from those that are white. The blessing is: "Blessed are you, God, our Lord, King of the universe, who has sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us to wrap ourselves with tzitzit." One should recite the blessing anytime he wraps himself in tzitzit during the day. Maimonides taught that the Torah does not require women and children to wear tzitzit, but the Rabbis oblige every boy who knows how to dress himself to wear tzitzit so as to teach him to fulfill commandments. Women who wish to wrap themselves in tzitzit may do so without reciting a blessing, and no one should prevent them. Maimonides taught that there is no obligation to attach tzitzit to a garment that remains folded in place, without a person wearing it. The garment does not require tzitzit. Rather, the person wearing the garment has the obligation. Maimonides taught that even though a person is not obligated to buy a tallit and wrap himself in it so that he must attach tzitzit to it, it is not proper for a person to release himself from the commandment. He should always try to be wrapped in a garment that requires tzitzit so as to fulfill the commandment. In particular, Maimonides taught that one should take care to be wrapped in a tallit during prayer, and it is very shameful for a Torah scholar to pray without being wrapped in a tallit. And Maimonides taught that a person should always be careful regarding the commandment of tzitzit, because Numbers 15:39, which says "And you shall see them and remember all the commandments of God," implies that the commandment of tzitzit is considered equal to all the commandments and all the commandments are considered dependent on it.
Citing Numbers 15:39, Baḥya ibn Paquda taught that not to seek after your own heart is a leading example of a negative duty of the heart. Baḥya also cited Numbers 15:39 for the proposition that a tainted motive renders even numerous good deeds unacceptable.
The Sefer ha-Chinuch cited Numbers 15:39 for the commandment not to wander after the thoughts of the heart and the vision of the eyes. The Sefer ha-Chinuch interpreted this negative commandment to prevent one from dedicating one's thoughts to opinions that are antithetical to those on which the Torah is built, as that may lead one to apostasy. Rather, if the spirit to pursue these bad opinions should arise, one should minimize one's thinking about them, and redouble one's efforts to contemplate the ways of the Torah. Similarly, one should not pursue the things one sees, including the desires of this world. The Sefer ha-Chinuch taught this commandment is a fundamental principle in Judaism, as evil thoughts are the progenitors of impurities, and actions follow them. The Sefer ha-Chinuch taught that the more one allows oneself to be governed by one's desires and allows them to become habit, the stronger one's evil inclination becomes. But if one conquers one's evil inclination and closes one's eyes from seeing evil one time, it will be easier to do so many times. The Sefer ha-Chinuch taught that this commandment is practiced in all places and at all times by both men and women. But the Sefer ha-Chinuch taught that they did not administer lashes for this negative commandment, because there is no specific thing for which the transgressor can be warned, as people are made in such a way that it is impossible for their eyes not to sometimes see more than what is fitting, and it is similarly impossible for human thought not to sometimes go beyond what is fitting, so it is impossible to limit people with clear boundaries.
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Numbers chapter 13
Shlomo Luntschitz (the Kli Yakar) reported a Midrash that taught that God told Moses that with God's knowledge of the future, God knew that it would be better to send women who cherish the Land because they would not count its faults. But, God told Moses (in the words of Numbers 13:2), "for you (, lecha)," with the knowledge Moses had, if he thought that these men were fit and the Land was dear to them, then Moses could send men. Therefore, God told Moses (once again, in the words of Numbers 13:2), "send for yourselves (, shelach-lecha)," according to the level of knowledge that Moses had, men. But according to God's level of knowledge, it would have been better, God said, to send women.
Nathan MacDonald reported some dispute over the exact meaning of the description of the Land of Israel as a "land flowing with milk and honey," as in Numbers 13:27 and 14:8, as well as Exodus 3:8 and 17, 13:5, and 33:3, Leviticus 20:24, and Deuteronomy 6:3, 11:9, 26:9 and 15, 27:3, and 31:20. MacDonald wrote that the term for milk (, chalav) could easily be the word for "fat" (, chelev), and the word for honey (, devash) could indicate not bees' honey but a sweet syrup made from fruit. The expression evoked a general sense of the bounty of the land and suggested an ecological richness exhibited in a number of ways, not just with milk and honey. MacDonald noted that the expression was always used to describe a land that the people of Israel had not yet experienced, and thus characterized it as always a future expectation.
Numbers chapter 15
The Rabbis, seeking to preserve the commandment of separating a portion of bread (challah) for the priests in Numbers 15:17–21, created a symbolic observance under which a small portion of each batch of dough is to be twisted off and burned in an open flame. From this act of twisting a piece of dough comes the custom of braiding the Sabbath loaf as a reminder that challah was taken, and hence, also, comes the name "challah" for the Sabbath loaf.
In 1950, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of Conservative Judaism ruled: “Refraining from the use of a motor vehicle is an important aid in the maintenance of the Sabbath spirit of repose. Such restraint aids, moreover, in keeping the members of the family together on the Sabbath. However where a family resides beyond reasonable walking distance from the synagogue, the use of a motor vehicle for the purpose of synagogue attendance shall in no wise be construed as a violation of the Sabbath but, on the contrary, such attendance shall be deemed an expression of loyalty to our faith. . . . [I]n the spirit of a living and developing Halachah responsive to the changing needs of our people, we declare it to be permitted to use electric lights on the Sabbath for the purpose of enhancing the enjoyment of the Sabbath, or reducing personal discomfort in the performance of a mitzvah.”
Gunther Plaut argued that Exodus 35:3 includes the words "throughout your settlements" to make clear that the injunction not to kindle fire on the Sabbath applied not only during the building of the Tabernacle, to which the prohibition primarily related. Thus Numbers 15:32, reporting a man gathering sticks on the Sabbath, recorded a violation of Exodus 35:3.
Bernard Bamberger noted that Numbers 15:32–34 is one of four episodes in the Torah (along with Leviticus 24:12 and Numbers 9:6–8 and 27:1–5) in which Moses had to make a special inquiry of God before he could give a legal decision. Bamberger reported that the inability of Moses to handle these cases on his own troubled the Rabbis.
Baruch Spinoza wrote that because religion only acquires the force of law by means of the sovereign power, Moses was not able to punish those who, before the covenant, and consequently while still in possession of their rights, violated the Sabbath (in Exodus 16:27), but Moses was able to do so after the covenant (in Numbers 15:36), because all the Israelites had then yielded up their natural rights, and the ordinance of the Sabbath had received the force of law.
In April 2014, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of Conservative Judaism ruled that women are now equally responsible for observing commandments as men have been, and thus that women are responsible for observing the commandment in Numbers 15:37–40 to wear tzitzit.
Robert Alter translated Numbers 15:38 to call for "an indigo twist" on the Israelites’ garments. Alter explained that the dye was not derived from a plant, as is indigo, but from a substance secreted by the murex, harvested off the coast of Phoenicia. The extraction and preparation of this dye were labor-intensive and thus quite costly. It was used for royal garments in many places in the Mediterranean region, and in Israel it was also used for priestly garments and for the cloth furnishings of the Tabernacle. Alter argued that the indigo twist betokened the idea that Israel should become (in the words of Exodus 19:6) a "kingdom of priests and a holy nation" and perhaps also that, as the covenanted people, metaphorically God's firstborn, the nation as a whole had royal status. Similarly, Nili Fox wrote that it is no accident that the violet-blue wool cord that Numbers 15:37–40 required be attached to the fringes is identical to the cord that hangs from the priest's headdress in Exodus 28:37. Fox argued that the tzitzit on the Israelites’ garments identified them as being holy to God and symbolically connected them to the priests. Thereby, the Israelites pledged their loyalty to God as well as to the priests who oversaw the laws. And similarly, Terence Fretheim argued that tassels, worn by royalty in the ancient Near East, were to be attached to each corner of everyone's garments, with a blue(-purple) cord on each, as a public sign of Israel's status as a holy people and a reminder of what that entailed.
James Kugel wrote that early interpreters saw in the juxtaposition of the law of tzitzit in Numbers 15:37–40 with the story of Korah's rebellion in Numbers 16:1–3 a subtle hint as to how Korah might have enlisted his followers. Forcing people to put a special blue tassel on their clothes, ancient interpreters suggested Korah must have argued, was an intolerable intrusion into their lives. Korah asked why, if someone's whole garment was already dyed blue, that person needed to add an extra blue thread to the corner tassel. But this question, ancient interpreters implied, was really a metaphorical version of Korah's complaint in Numbers 16:3: "Everyone in the congregation [of Levites] is holy, and the Lord is in their midst. So why then do you exalt yourselves above the assembly of the Lord?" In other words, Korah asserted that all Levites were part of the same garment and all blue, and asked why Moses and Aaron thought that they were special just because they were the corner thread. In saying this, Kugel argued, Korah set a pattern for would-be revolutionaries thereafter to seek to bring down the ruling powers with the taunt: "What makes you better than the rest of us?" Kugel wrote that ancient interpreters thus taught that Korah was not really interested in changing the system, but merely in taking it over. Korah was thus a dangerous demagogue.
Commandments
According to Maimonides and the Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 2 positive and 1 negative commandments in the parashah.
To set aside a portion of dough for a Kohen
To have tzitzit on four-cornered garments
Not to stray after the whims of one's heart or temptations one sees with his eyes
In the liturgy
Numbers 14:19–20 are recited immediately following the Kol Nidre prayer on Yom Kippur. The leader recites verse 19, then the leader and congregation recite verse 20 three times.
Some Jews read how the generation of the Wilderness tested God ten times in Numbers 14:22 as they study Pirkei Avot chapter 5 on a Sabbath between Passover and Rosh Hashanah.
The rebellious generation and their Wilderness death foretold in Numbers 14:35 are reflected in Psalm 95:10–11, which is in turn the first of the six Psalms recited at the beginning of the Kabbalat Shabbat prayer service.
Numbers 15:37–41 is the third of three blocks of verses in the Shema, a central prayer in Jewish prayer services. Jews combine Deuteronomy 6:4–9, Deuteronomy 11:13–21, and Numbers 15:37–41 to form the core of K'riat Shema, recited in the evening (Ma'ariv) and morning (Shacharit) prayer services.
Reuven Hammer noted that Mishnah Tamid recorded what was in effect the first siddur, as a part of which priests daily recited Numbers 15:37–41.
Observant Jewish men (and some women, although the law does not require them to do so) don a tallit daily, often at the very beginning of the day, in observance of Numbers 15:38, and say an accompanying blessing
Jews recite the conclusion of Numbers 15:41 in the Kedushah section of the Mussaf Amidah prayer on Sabbath mornings.
The Weekly Maqam
In the Weekly Maqam, Sephardi Jews each week base the songs of the services on the content of that week's parashah. For parashah Shlach, Sephardi Jews apply Maqam Hijaz, the maqam that expresses mourning and sadness, which is appropriate because the parashah contains the episode of the spies and the punishment of Israel.
Haftarah
The haftarah for the parashah is Joshua 2:1–24.
Summary of the haftarah
Joshua secretly dispatched two spies from Shittim, instructing them to view the land and Jericho, and they went to the house of a harlot named Rahab. That night, the king of Jericho received word that Israelite men had come to search out the land, and the king sent a demand to Rahab to deliver the men who had come to her house. But Rahab hid the men among stalks of flax on her roof, saying that when it was dark the men had left, and she did not know where they went. The king's men left the city in pursuit of the spies on the road to the Jordan River, and the people of the city shut the city gate after them.
Rahab promptly went up to the spies on the roof and told them that she knew that God had given the Israelites the land, and that the people lived in terror of the Israelites, having heard how God dried up the Red Sea before them and how the Israelites had destroyed the forces of Sihon and Og. So Rahab asked the spies to swear by God, since she had dealt kindly with them, that they would also deal kindly with her father's house and give her a token to save her family from the coming invasion. The spies told her that if she would not tell of their doings, then when God gave the Israelites the land, they would deal kindly with her. She let them down by a cord through her window, as her house was on the city wall. She told them to hide in the mountain for three days. They told her that when the Israelites came to the land, she was to bind in her window the scarlet rope by which she let the spies down and gather her family into her house for safety, as all who ventured out of the doors of her house would die. She agreed, sent them on their way, and bound the scarlet line in her window.
The spies hid in the mountain for three days, and the pursuers did not find them. The spies returned to the Israelite camp and told Joshua all that had happened, saying that surely God had delivered the land into their hands and the inhabitants would melt away before them.
Connection between the haftarah and the parashah
Both the parashah and the haftarah deal with spies sent to scout out the land of Israel, the parashah in connection with the ten scouts sent to reconnoiter the whole land, and the haftarah in connection with the two spies sent to reconnoiter Jericho. Joshua participated in both ventures, as a scout in the parashah, and as the leader who sent the spies in the haftarah. In the parashah, God complained about how the Israelites did not believe the "signs" (, otot) that God had sent, and in the haftarah, Rahab asked the spies for a true "sign" (, ot) so that she might believe them.
Whereas in the parashah, the spies were well-known men, in the haftarah, Joshua dispatched the spies secretly. Whereas in the parashah, Moses sent a large number of 12 spies, in the haftarah, Joshua sent just 2 spies. Whereas in the parashah, many of the spies cowered before the Canaanites, in the haftarah, the spies reported that the Canaanites would melt before the Israelites. Whereas in the parashah, the spies reported their findings publicly, in the haftarah, the spies reported directly to Joshua.
The haftarah in classical Rabbinic interpretation
A Midrash taught that no other people sent to perform a religious duty and risk their lives on a mission could compare with the two spies whom Joshua sent. The Rabbis taught that the two were Phinehas and Caleb. The Midrash noted that Joshua 2:1 says, "Joshua the son of Nun sent out of Shittim two spies secretly" (, cheresh). The Midrash read the word , cheresh ("secretly"), as , chares, "earthenware", to teach that the two spies took with them earthenware pots and cried, "Here are pots! Whoever wishes, let him come and buy!" so that no one might detect them or say that they were spies.
The Rabbis taught that Rahab was one of the four most beautiful women who ever lived, along with Sarah, Abigail, and Esther. The Rabbis taught that Rahab inspired lust by the mere mention of her name. Rabbi Isaac taught that saying Rahab's name twice would cause a man immediately to lose control. Rav Nachman protested that he said Rahab's name twice and nothing happened to him. Rabbi Isaac replied that he meant that this would happen to any man who knew her.
A Midrash explained that Joshua 2:4 speaks of Rahab's hiding "him" instead of "them" because Phinehas, as a prophet, had the power to make himself invisible.
A Midrash deduced from Joshua 2:4 and 1 Chronicles 4:22 that Rahab lied to the king, and was prepared to be burned to death in punishment for doing so, for she attached herself to Israel.
A Midrash taught that for hiding the spies, God rewarded the convert Rahab with priestly descendants.
Reading Joshua 2:9, a Midrash noted that Rahab, like Israel, Jethro, and the Queen of Sheba, came to the Lord after hearing of God's miracles.
Rabbi Eleazar recounted that Rahab knew in Joshua 2:10–11 that the Canaanites had lost heart because they had lost their virility.
The Rabbis taught that Rahab's attribution in Joshua 2:11 of God's presence to both heaven and earth demonstrated greater faith in God than Jethro or Naaman, but not as much as Moses.
Rabbi Samuel son of Naḥman faulted Joshua in Joshua 2:12–14 for keeping faith with Rahab in disobedience to God's command in Deuteronomy 20:17 to "utterly destroy" all of the Canaanites.
The Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael taught that as the events of Joshua 2:15 took place, Rahab converted to Judaism, at the end of her fiftieth year. She said before God that she had sinned in three ways. And she asked to be forgiven on account of three things—on account of the red cord, the window, and the wall. "Then," in the words of Joshua 2:15, "she let them down by a cord through the window, for her house was upon the side of the wall, and she dwelt upon the wall."
A Midrash deduced from Joshua 2:16 that Rahab received a prophetic vision of what the spies' pursuers would do.
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Biblical
Genesis 6:1–4 (Nephilim).
Exodus 6:8 (God lifted up God's hand); 13:21–22 (pillar of fire); 14:24 (pillar of fire); 20:4 (20:5 in JPS) (punishing children for fathers' sin); 34:7 (punishing children for fathers' sin).
Leviticus 24:10–16 (inquiry of God on the law).
Numbers 9:1–14 (inquiry of God on the law); 27:1–11 (inquiry of God on the law).
Deuteronomy 1:19–45 (the scouts); 5:9 (punishing children for fathers' sin); 9:23 (rebellion).
Joshua 6:24–25. (Rahab and her descendants).
Isaiah 56:6–7 (keeping the Sabbath); 66:23 (universally observed Sabbath).
Jeremiah 31:29–30 (not punishing children for fathers' sin).
Ezekiel 18:1–4 (not punishing children for fathers' sin); 20:5 (God lifted up God's hand).
Nehemiah 9:12 (pillar of fire); 9:15 (God lifted up God's hand); 9:17. ("slow to anger"); 9:19 (pillar of fire).
Psalms 19:13 (God clears from hidden faults); 22:9 (God's delight); 25:13 (his seed shall inherit the land); 37:11 (shall inherit the land); 44:2–4 (not by their own sword did they get the land); 72:19 (earth filled with God's glory); 78:12, 22 (Zoan; they didn't believe); 95:9–11 (that generation should not enter); 103:8 (God full of compassion, gracious, slow to anger, plenteous in mercy); 106:24–27, 39 (spurning the desirable land; they went astray); 107:40 (God causes princes to wander in the waste); 118:8–12 (with God's help, victory over the nations); 145:8 (God gracious, full of compassion; slow to anger, of great mercy); 147:10–11 (God's delight).
Early nonrabbinic
Philo. Allegorical Interpretation 3:61:175; On the Birth of Abel and the Sacrifices Offered by Him and by His Brother Cain 33:107; On the Posterity of Cain and His Exile 17:60; 35:122; On the Giants 11:48; On the Migration of Abraham 12:68; 21:122; On the Change of Names 21:123; 46:265; On Dreams, That They Are God-Sent 2:25:170; On the Virtues 32:171; Questions and Answers on Genesis 1:100. Alexandria, Egypt, early 1st Century C.E. In, e.g., The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge, pages 70, 107, 137, 144, 155, 259, 265, 351, 360, 364, 400, 657, 813. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1993.
Pseudo-Philo 15:1–7; 57:2. 1st Century C.E. In, e.g., The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, Edited by James H. Charlesworth, volume 2, pages 322–23, 371. New York: Doubleday, 1985.
Matthew 1:5–6. Circa 80–90 C.E. (Rahab).
Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 1:8:3 ; 3:14:1 –15:3 ; 4:1:1–3 . Circa 93–94 C.E. In, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, pages 39, 99–102. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987.
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Berakhot 2:2; Challah 1:1–4:11; Shabbat 1:1–24:5; Sanhedrin 1:6; 10:3; Eduyot 1:2; Avot 3:6; 5:4; Horayot 1:4; 2:6; Zevachim 4:3; 12:5; Menachot 3:5; 4:1; 5:3; 9:1; Arakhin 3:5; Keritot 1:1–2; Tamid 5:1. Land of Israel, circa 200 C.E. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 5, 147–58, 179–208, 585, 605, 640, 679, 685, 691, 694, 705, 726, 739–40, 742, 751, 813, 836–37, 869. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Tosefta: Challah 1:1–2:12; Shabbat 1:1–17:29; Sotah 4:13–14; 7:18; 9:2; Sanhedrin 13:9–10; Eduyot 1:1; Horayot 1:4; Bekhorot 3:12; Arakhin 2:11. Land of Israel, circa 300 C.E. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 331–40, 357–427, 848–49, 865, 873; volume 2, pages 1190–91, 1245, 1296, 1479, 1500. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Sifre to Numbers 107:1–115:5. Land of Israel, circa 250–350 C.E. In, e.g., Sifré to Numbers: An American Translation and Explanation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 2, pages 133–84. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986.
Sifra 34:4; 242:1:12. Land of Israel, 4th Century C.E. In, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, page 214; volume 3, pages 283–84. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
Jerusalem Talmud: Berakhot 75b; Demai 1a–77b; Terumot 1a–107a; Maaser Sheni 4a, 5a, 53b–54a; Challah 9b, 23b, 29a, 33a; Orlah 18a, 20a; Bikkurim 1a–26b; Pesachim 42b, 58a; Yoma 11a; Yevamot 51b–52a, 65b, 73b–74a; Ketubot 36a; Gittin 27b; Sanhedrin 11a, 60b, 62b, 68a–b. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 4, 7–8, 10–12, 18–19, 21, 30–31, 39, 44–45. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2006–2018. And reprinted in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael Pisha 1, 5; Beshallah 1–2; Vayassa 3; Amalek 1–3; Bahodesh 9. Land of Israel, late 4th Century. In, e.g., Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael. Translated by Jacob Z. Lauterbach, volume 1, pages 2–3, 26, 117–18, 124, 129, 237; volume 2, pages 255, 266–67, 273, 341. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1933, reissued 2004.
Sifri Zutta Shelah. Land of Israel, late 4th century CE. In, e.g., Sifré Zutta to Numbers. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 135–60. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 2009.
Genesis Rabbah 1:4; 11:2; 14:1; 17:8; 43:9; 47:1; 58:4; 85:9; 91:3; 97 (NV). Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 6–7, 80, 111, 138–39, 358–59, 399; volume 2, pages 510–11, 795, 833–34, 896–99, 903. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon 12:3; 20:1, 5; 37:1; 44:1; 45:1; 54:2. Land of Israel, 5th Century. In, e.g., Mekhilta de-Rabbi Shimon bar Yohai. Translated by W. David Nelson, pages 40, 81, 85, 160, 184, 193, 248. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2006.
Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 11b, 12b, 24a–b, 32a; Shabbat 9b, 15a, 20b, 22a, 23b, 27b, 32a–b, 68b, 89a–b, 96b, 132a, 137a, 153b; Eruvin 83a, 92b; Pesachim 6a, 37a, 38a, 50b, 77a, 93b, 101a, 119b; Yoma 7a, 10a, 15b, 26b, 36b, 44a, 57a, 61b; Sukkah 9a, 35a–b, 41b–42a; Beitzah 12b, 21a; Taanit 5b, 22a, 24a, 29a; Megillah 7b, 15a, 31b; Moed Katan 9a, 19a; Chagigah 5b, 9b, 14b; Yevamot 4b, 5b, 9a, 46b, 72a, 90b; Ketubot 6b, 16b, 25a, 72a, 111b–12a; Nedarim 12a, 20b, 25a; Nazir 58a; Sotah 11b, 17a, 22a, 30a, 32b, 34a–35a, 46b; Gittin 46a, 61a; Kiddushin 29a, 33b, 37a–b, 46b, 53a, 73a; Bava Kamma 2a, 13a, 71a, 92b, 94a, 110b, 114b, 119b; Bava Metzia 61b; Bava Batra 4a, 15a, 73b–74a, 117b, 118b–19a, 121a–b; Sanhedrin 6b, 8a, 12a, 19b, 41a, 43a, 61b, 64b, 78b, 88b, 90b, 99a–b, 104b, 107a, 108a, 109b–10b, 111b, 112b; Makkot 13b, 17b, 18b, 23b; Shevuot 7b, 10a, 11b, 13a, 22a, 26b, 29a, 39a; Horayot 2a, 3b, 4b–5b, 7a–9a, 13a; Zevachim 8b, 18b, 39b, 41a, 45a, 47a, 78a, 90b, 91b, 111a; Menachot 5b–6a, 9b, 12b, 14a, 15b, 18b, 20a, 27a, 28a, 38a, 39b, 40b, 41b–43a, 44a–45a, 51a, 53b, 59a, 66a, 67a, 70b, 73b–74a, 77b, 79a, 90b–92a, 104a, 107a, 109a; Chullin 2b, 14a, 23a, 89a, 95b, 104a, 135b–36a; Bekhorot 12b, 30b; Arakhin 11b, 15a; Temurah 3a; Keritot 2a, 3a–b, 7b, 8b–9a, 25b; Meilah 10b, 15b; Niddah 47a. Sasanian Empire, 6th Century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006.
Medieval
Avot of Rabbi Natan, 9:2; 20:6; 34:1; 36:4, 7. Circa 700–900 C.E. In, e.g., The Fathers According to Rabbi Nathan. Translated by Judah Goldin, pages 54, 96–97, 136, 149, 152. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955.
Solomon ibn Gabirol. A Crown for the King, 27:334–35. Spain, 11th Century. Translated by David R. Slavitt, 44–45. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Rashi. Commentary. Numbers 13–15. Troyes, France, late 11th Century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 4, pages 147–88. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 205–24. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001.
Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 2:50; 3:11, 38. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, pages 115, 147, 169. New York: Schocken, 1964.
Numbers Rabbah 1:11; 2:19; 3:7; 4:14, 20; 7:4; 8:6; 9:18; 10:2; 13:15–16; 14:1, 3–4; 15:24; 16:1–17:6; 18:3, 6, 21; 19:20–21; 20:23; 21:10. 12th Century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Numbers. Translated by Judah J. Slotki, volume 5, pages 18, 57, 79, 112, 130, 183, 229, 275, 339, 344; volume 6, pages 534, 564, 566, 573, 584, 670, 673–707, 709, 715, 735, 738, 769–70, 820, 836. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Numbers (Ba-Midbar). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, pages 101–25. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 1999.
Benjamin of Tudela. The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela. Spain, 1173. In The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela: Travels in the Middle Ages. Introductions by Michael A. Singer, Marcus Nathan Adler, A. Asher, page 91. Malibu, California: Joseph Simon, 1983. (giants).
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Tzitzit (The Laws of Tzitzit). Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Tefillin UMezuzah V'Sefer Torah: The Laws (Governing) Tefillin, Mezuzah, and Torah Scrolls: and Hilchot Tzitzit: The Laws of Tzitzit. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 7, pages 192–235. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1990.
Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed, part 1, chapters 30, 39, 65; part 2, chapter 36; part 3, chapters 29, 32, 34, 39, 41, 46. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer, pages 39–40, 54, 97, 320, 325, 329, 339, 348, 363, 366. New York: Dover Publications, 1956.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 4, pages 915–32. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Naḥmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah: Numbers. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 4, pages 118–57. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1975.
Zohar 3:156b–176a. Spain, late 13th Century. In, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Bamidbar/Numbers. Translated by Eliyahu Touger; edited and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 4, pages 1507–45. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1079–100. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 713–28. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492–1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 4: Bamidbar/Numbers. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 116–59. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015. And excerpted in, e.g., Abarbanel on the Torah: Selected Themes. Translated by Avner Tomaschoff, pages 382–94. Jerusalem: Jewish Agency for Israel, 2007.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 708–29. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 842–64. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 255–59. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004.
Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:36. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, page 464. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982.
Shabbethai Bass. Sifsei Chachamim. Amsterdam, 1680. In, e.g., Sefer Bamidbar: From the Five Books of the Torah: Chumash: Targum Okelos: Rashi: Sifsei Chachamim: Yalkut: Haftaros, translated by Avrohom Y. Davis, pages 207–69. Lakewood Township, New Jersey: Metsudah Publications, 2013.
Chaim ibn Attar. Ohr ha-Chaim. Venice, 1742. In Chayim ben Attar. Or Hachayim: Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 4, pages 1442–96. Brooklyn: Lambda Publishers, 1999.
Samson Raphael Hirsch. Horeb: A Philosophy of Jewish Laws and Observances. Translated by Isidore Grunfeld, pages 9–12, 180–86, 196–203. London: Soncino Press, 1962. Reprinted 2002. Originally published as Horeb, Versuche über Jissroel's Pflichten in der Zerstreuung. Germany, 1837.
Samuel David Luzzatto (Shadal). Commentary on the Torah. Padua, 1871. In, e.g., Samuel David Luzzatto. Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 1043–59. New York: Lambda Publishers, 2012.
Samson Raphael Hirsch. The Jewish Sabbath. Frankfurt, before 1889. Translated by Ben Josephussoro. 1911. Reprinted Lexington, Kentucky: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2014.
Yehudah Aryeh Leib Alter. Sefat Emet. Góra Kalwaria (Ger), Poland, before 1906. Excerpted in The Language of Truth: The Torah Commentary of Sefat Emet. Translated and interpreted by Arthur Green, pages 235–42. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1998. Reprinted 2012.
Hermann Cohen. Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss, pages 125, 127, 214, 217. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. Originally published as Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums. Leipzig: Gustav Fock, 1919.
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 116–19. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Julius H. Greenstone. Numbers: With Commentary: The Holy Scriptures, pages 127–64. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1939. Reprinted by Literary Licensing, 2011.
Thomas Mann. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated by John E. Woods, page 577. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brüder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.
Morris Adler, Jacob B. Agus, and Theodore Friedman. “Responsum on the Sabbath.” Proceedings of the Rabbinical Assembly, volume 14 (1950), pages 112–88. New York: Rabbinical Assembly of America, 1951. In Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement 1927–1970, volume 3 (Responsa), pages 1109–34. Jerusalem: The Rabbinical Assembly and The Institute of Applied Hallakhah, 1997.
Abraham Joshua Heschel. The Sabbath. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1951. Reprinted 2005.
Abraham Joshua Heschel. Man's Quest for God: Studies in Prayer and Symbolism, page 36. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1954.
Raphael Loewe. "Divine Frustration Exegetically Frustrated—Numbers 14:34." In Words and Meanings: Essays Presented to David Winton Thomas. Edited by Peter R. Ackroyd and Barnabas Lindars, pages 137–58. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968.
Ivan Caine. “Numbers in the Joseph Narrative.” In Jewish Civilization: Essays and Studies: Volume 1. Edited by Ronald A. Brauner, page 4. Philadelphia: Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, 1979. (Numbers 14:34).
Jacob Milgrom. "Of Hems and Tassels: Rank, authority and holiness were expressed in antiquity by fringes on garments." Biblical Archaeology Review, volume 9, number 3 (May/June 1983).
Philip J. Budd. Word Biblical Commentary: Volume 5: Numbers, pages 140–78. Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1984.
Mayer Rabinowitz. "An Advocate's Halakhic Responses on the Ordination of Women." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1984. HM 7.4.1984a. In Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, pages 722, 727, 733 note 28. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005. (defining a minyan based on the community who heard the spies' evil report).
Joel Roth. "On the Ordination of Women as Rabbis." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1984. HM 7.4.1984b. In Responsa: 1980–1990: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by David J. Fine, pages 736, 750, 782 note 82. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2005. (defining a minyan based on the ten spies who brought the evil report).
Pinchas H. Peli. “Pompous Delegation, Tragic End.” In Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 169–72. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
Phyllis Bird. “Harlot as Heroine: Narrative Art and Social Presupposition in Three Old Testament Texts,” Semeia, volume 46 (1989): pages 119–39. (Rahab).
Jacob Milgrom. The JPS Torah Commentary: Numbers: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation, pages 100–28, 387–414. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1990.
Yair Zakovitch. "Humor and Theology or the Successful Failure of Israelite Intelligence: A Literary-Folkloric Approach to Joshua 2." In Text and Tradition: The Hebrew Bible and Folklore. Edited by Susan Niditch, page 75. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990.
Baruch A. Levine. Numbers 1–20, volume 4, pages 345–402. New York: Anchor Bible, 1993.
Mary Douglas. In the Wilderness: The Doctrine of Defilement in the Book of Numbers, pages xix, 54, 59, 84, 88, 103, 106–07, 110–12, 121–26, 137, 145, 147, 150–51, 164, 188–90, 194, 201, 210, 212, 232. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Reprinted 2004.
Ilana Pardes. "Imagining the Promised Land: The Spies in the Land of the Giants." History & Memory, volume 6, number 2 (Fall-Winter 1994): pages 5–23.
Peter Barnes. "Was Rahab's Lie a Sin?" Reformed Theological Review, volume 54, number 1 (1995): pages 1–9.
Judith S. Antonelli. "Women and the Land." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 352–56. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah, pages 215–19. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 357–65. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
Shoshana Gelfand. "May Women Tie Tzitzit Knots?" New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 1997. OH 14:1.1997. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 3–8. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002.
Sorel Goldberg Loeb and Barbara Binder Kadden. Teaching Torah: A Treasury of Insights and Activities, pages 248–53. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
Susan Freeman. Teaching Jewish Virtues: Sacred Sources and Arts Activities, pages 85–101. Springfield, New Jersey: A.R.E. Publishing, 1999. (Numbers 14:18).
Lisa A. Edwards. "The Grasshoppers and the Giants." In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 279–85. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Dennis T. Olson. "Numbers." In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 174–75. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Francine Rivers. Unashamed: Rahab. Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers, 2000. (novel about Rahab).
Elie Kaplan Spitz. "Mamzerut." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2000. EH 4.2000a. In Responsa: 1991–2000: The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement. Edited by Kassel Abelson and David J. Fine, pages 558, 562–63, 576, 580–81. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2002. (evolution of interpretation of visiting the sins of the father on the children, the punishment of Sabbath violation, and the blue thread of the tzitzit).
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 6–15. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Louis H. Feldman. "Philo's Version of the Biblical Episode of the Spies." Hebrew Union College Annual, volume 73 (2002): pages 29–48.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 229–33. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Tikva Frymer-Kensky. "The Guardian at the Door: Rahab." In Reading the Women of the Bible: A New Interpretation of Their Stories, pages 34–44. New York: Shocken Books. 2002,
Ari Greenspan. "The Search for Biblical Blue." Bible Review, volume 19, number 1 (February 2003): pages 32–39, 52.
Alan Lew. This Is Real and You Are Completely Unprepared: The Days of Awe as a Journey of Transformation, pages 38–39, 41–43. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 2003.
Rose Mary Sheldon. "Spy Tales." Bible Review, volume 19, number 5 (October 2003): pages 12–19, 41–42.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 745–61. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
John Crawford. "Caleb the Dog: How a Biblical Good Guy Got a Bad Name." Bible Review, volume 20, number 2 (April 2004): pages 20–27, 45.
Nili S. Fox. "Numbers." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 309–15. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Pamela Wax. "Haftarat Shelach Lecha: Joshua 2:1–24." In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 175–79. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004.Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 249–54. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
Frank Anthony Spina. "Rahab and Achan: Role Reversals." In The Faith of the Outsider: Exclusion and Inclusion in the Biblical Story, pages 52–71. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2005. (discussing the Haftarah).
Francine Rivers. The Warrior: Caleb. Wheaton, Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers, 2005. (novel about Caleb).
Aaron Wildavsky. Moses as Political Leader, pages 129–33. Jerusalem: Shalem Press, 2005.
W. Gunther Plaut. The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 977–1000. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
Aaron Sherwood. “A Leader's Misleading and a Prostitute's Profession: A Re-examination of Joshua 2.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 31, number 1 (September 2006): pages 43–61. (haftarah).
Suzanne A. Brody. "I'm still groping" and "Espionage Reports." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, pages 16, 96. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 159, 329–30, 332, 376. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Walter Brueggemann. Great Prayers of the Old Testament, pages 11–23. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press, 2008. (prayer of Numbers 14:13–23).
Tzvi Novick. "Law and Loss: Response to Catastrophe in Numbers 15." Harvard Theological Review, volume 101, number 1 (January 2008): pages 1–14.The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 869–92. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
Camille Shira Angel. "Ruach Acheret—Ruach Hakodesh/Different Spirit—Sacred Spirit: Parashat Shelach (Numbers 13:1–15:41)." In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 199–201. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
R. Dennis Cole. "Numbers." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 358–63. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 213–18. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Carolyn J. Sharp. “Rahab the Clever.” In Irony and Meaning in the Hebrew Bible, pages 97–103. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 2009.
Tessa Afshar. Pearl in the Sand. Chicago: Moody Publishers, 2010. (novel about Rahab).
Jonathan P. Burnside. “'What Shall We Do with the Sabbath-Gatherer?' A Narrative Approach to a 'Hard Case' in Biblical Law (Numbers 15:32–36).” Vetus Testamentum, volume 60, number 1 (2010): pages 45–62.
Julie Cadwallader-Staub. Joy. In Face to Face: A Poetry Collection. DreamSeeker Books, 2010. ("land of milk and honey").
Howard J. Curzer. “Spies and Lies: Faithful, Courageous Israelites and Truthful Spies.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 35, number 2 (December 2010): pages 187–95.
Idan Dershowitz. “A Land Flowing with Fat and Honey.” Vetus Testamentum, volume 60, number 2 (2010): pages 172–76.
Terence E. Fretheim. "Numbers." In The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version with the Apocrypha: An Ecumenical Study Bible. Edited by Michael D. Coogan, Marc Z. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, pages 208–13. New York: Oxford University Press, Revised 4th Edition 2010.The Commentators' Bible: Numbers: The JPS Miqra'ot Gedolot. Edited, translated, and annotated by Michael Carasik, pages 90–114. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2011.
Jonah Kain. Spies in the Promised Land. Amazon Digital Services, 2011. (novel about Caleb).
Joe Lieberman and David Klinghoffer. The Gift of Rest: Rediscovering the Beauty of the Sabbath. New York: Howard Books, 2011.
Calum Carmichael. The Book of Numbers: A Critique of Genesis, pages 54–89. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.
William G. Dever. The Lives of Ordinary People in Ancient Israel: When Archaeology and the Bible Intersect, page 46. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2012.
Shmuel Herzfeld. "Finding Happiness in Front of Us." In Fifty-Four Pick Up: Fifteen-Minute Inspirational Torah Lessons, pages 209–15. Jerusalem: Gefen Publishing House, 2012.
Chanan Morrison. The Splendor of Tefillin: Insights into the Mitzvah of Tefillin From the Writings of Rabbi Abraham Isaac HaKohen Kook. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2012.
Daniel S. Nevins. "The Use of Electrical and Electronic Devices on Shabbat." New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2012.
Shlomo Riskin. Torah Lights: Bemidbar: Trials and Tribulations in Times of Transition, pages 89–126. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2012.
DovBer Pinson. Tefillin: Wrapped in Majesty. Brooklyn: IYYUN Publishing, 2013.
Amiel Ungar. "Tel Aviv and the Sabbath." The Jerusalem Report, volume 24, number 8 (July 29, 2013): page 37.
Anthony J. Frendo. "Was Rahab Really a Harlot?" Biblical Archaeology Review, volume 39, number 5 (September/October 2013): pages 62–65, 74–76.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 199–203. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg. Bewilderments: Reflections on the Book of Numbers, pages 119–69. New York: Schocken Books, 2015.
David Booth, Ashira Konigsburg, and Baruch Frydman-Kohl. “Modesty Inside and Out: A Contemporary Guide to Tzniut,” page 11. New York: Rabbinical Assembly, 2016. (Numbers 15:39 and moderating that at which we gaze).
"The Hittites: Between Tradition and History." Biblical Archaeology Review, volume 42, number 2 (March/April 2016): pages 28–40, 68.
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 233–37. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Kenneth Seeskin. Thinking about the Torah: A Philosopher Reads the Bible, pages 135–52. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 124–35. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 123–26. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Pekka Pitkänen. “Ancient Israelite Population Economy: Ger, Toshav, Nakhri and Karat as Settler Colonial Categories.” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 42, number 2 (December 2017): pages 139–53.
Jonathan Sacks. Numbers: The Wilderness Years: Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 145–84. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2017.
Andrew Tobolowsky. "The Problem of Reubenite Primacy: New Paradigms, New Answers." Journal of Biblical Literature, volume 139, number 1 (2020): pages 27–45.
Jaeyoung Jeon. "The Scout Narrative (Numbers 13) as a Territorial Claim in the Persian Period." Journal of Biblical Literature'', volume 139, number 2 (2020): pages 255–74.
External links
Texts
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Hear the parashah chanted
Hear the parashah read in Hebrew
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, California
Academy for Jewish Religion, New York
Aish.com
American Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies
Chabad.org
Hadar Institute
Jewish Theological Seminary
MyJewishLearning.com
Orthodox Union
Pardes from Jerusalem
Reconstructing Judaism
Union for Reform Judaism
United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
Yeshiva University
Weekly Torah readings in Sivan
Weekly Torah readings from Numbers
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4746813
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical%20banking
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Ethical banking
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An ethical bank, also known as a social, alternative, civic, or sustainable bank, is a bank concerned with the social and environmental impacts of its investments and loans. The ethical banking movement includes: ethical investment, impact investment, socially responsible investment, corporate social responsibility, and is also related to such movements as the fair trade movement, ethical consumerism, and social enterprise.
Other areas of ethical consumerism, such as fair trade labelling, have comprehensive codes and regulations which must be adhered to in order to be certified. Ethical banking has not developed to this point; because of this it is difficult to create a concrete definition that distinguishes ethical banks from conventional banks. Ethical banks are regulated by the same authorities as traditional banks and have to abide by the same rules. While there are differences between ethical banks, they do share a desire to uphold principles in the projects they finance, the most frequent including: transparency and social and/or environmental values. Ethical banks sometimes work with narrower profit margins than traditional ones, and therefore they may have few offices and operate mostly by phone, Internet, or mail. Ethical banking is considered one of several forms of alternative banking.
History
In England, King Offa of Mercia in 791, then King Alfred the Great (849-899), as well as King Edward the Confessor (1042-1066), outlawed usurers.
Mainstream financial banks have had varying relationships with corporate social responsibility and ethical investment. However, a clearer movement has emerged since the 1990s. With changing social demands, and as more is known about the effects that banks can have through their lending policies, banks have begun to feel pressure from the general public, NGOs, governments, regulatory bodies and others to consider their social and environmental impact.
Environmentally and socially conscious business practices
In general, banks play an intermediary role in the economy; because of this, the possibility for banks to contribute to sustainable development is extensive. Banks have efficient and tested credit approval systems, which gives them a comparative advantage in knowledge (regarding sector-specific information, legislation and market developments). Banks are experienced and capable of weighing risks and attaching a price to these risks; because of this banks can fulfill an important role in reducing the information asymmetry between market parties and allow them to make better decisions. When depositors allow a bank to invest for them they may assume that the bank will attempt to select investments to maximize their returns. However, if clients are concerned with more than the simple monetary return and they, for instance, are interested in the costs to society and to the environment, then they may turn to an ethical bank which takes their ethics and morality into account when investing.
Some businesses externalize costs onto the environment and society. Aiming to create a more equitable distribution of costs in society, banks can raise interest rates or apply tariffs on loans given to clients and projects with high external costs. This would mean that companies would pay more if their business caused extensive environmental damage; taking some of the cost off of society as a whole and putting it on the company. This sort of tariff differentiation could stimulate the internalization of environmental costs in market prices. Through such price differentiation, banks have the potential to foster sustainability..
Banks may be able to support progress toward sustainability by society as a whole—for example, by adopting a 'carrot-and-stick' approach, where environmental and social front-runners would pay less interest than the market price for borrowing capital, while environmental laggards would pay a much higher interest rate. Banks can also develop more sustainable products, such as environmental, social, or ethical investment funds. By investing selectively based on values, ethical banks can promote socially/environmentally responsible companies and penalize those who do not conform to these standards. But there is a risk that banks could simply adopt certain practices that make them appear ethical (see greenwashing) while not adopting other practices that would have a greater impact.
Ethical initiatives
Numerous ethical banks (as well as some conventional banks) allow customers to contribute to organizations that have positive societal/environmental impacts either in the local community or in developing countries. Examples include an evaluation of the energy efficiency of a home and potential improvements in this; carbon-offsets; credit cards that benefit charities or lower interest rate loans for low emission cars.
Community involvement
Ethical banks excel in community involvement, as do other financial institutions such as credit unions. Community involvement is not limited to ethical banks as conventional banks also partake in such actions. The following are a few examples of community involvement done by ethical banks, credit unions, and conventional banks:
Affordable housing projects (ex. Vancity & Citizens bank)
Projects to improve financial literacy in the community
Give local scholarships & sponsorships.
Financially support community events (for ex. each year TD Canada trust donates to a local cause).
Environmental standards for lending
The environment is a key focus for ethical banks as well as for some conventional banks that believe adopting more environmentally ethical practices to be to their advantage. Banks operating in this field are often referred to as sustainable or green banks.
In general, bankers "consider themselves to be in a relatively environmentally friendly industry (in terms of emissions and pollution). However, given their potential exposure to risk, they have been surprisingly slow to examine the environmental performance of their clients. A stated reason for this is that such an examination would 'require interference' with a client's activities." While the desire not to interfere with the business of the client is valid, it could also be noted that banks are required to interfere in the business of their clients regularly to ensure that the clients’ business plan is viable before issuing them a loan. The kind of analysis that all banks partake in is termed a single bottom line analysis (this analysis only considers financial performance). It is arguable whether or not performing a triple bottom line analysis (an analysis that takes into account environmental, social, and financial performance) would be any more intrusive.
Internal vs. external banking ethics
Conventional banks deal with mostly internal ethics, ethical banks add to internal concerns by applying external ethics.
Internal ethics: processes in banks
Internal ethics are concerned with the well being of employees, employee and customer satisfaction, benefits, wages, unionization, fair sex and race representation, and the banks environmental standing. Environmentally, the potential combined effect of banks switching to more environmentally friendly practices (i.e. less paper use, less electrical use, solar power, energy efficient light bulbs, more conscientious employee travel policies with concern to commuting and air travel) is huge. However, when compared with many other sectors of the economy banks do not incur the same burden of energy, water and paper use. Many times such energy efficient changes are not based on moral concern but on cost efficiency.
External ethics: products of the banks’ relationships/products
External ethics are concerned with the wider ramifications of banks actions. External ethics looks at the impacts that their business practices, such as who they loan to or invest in, will have on society and the environment. In applying external ethics, one looks at how the products of banks can be used unethically, for example how borrowers use the money that is lent out by the bank.
Discussion
Banks are often reluctant to broaden the scope of their external ethical policies because of the significant nature of the changes. However, by incorporating ethics that account for societal costs in their practices, banks may improve their reputation.
Ethical banking is a relatively new sector and this relatively undeveloped nature causes some problems. These problems can be divided into two categories: the first concerns depositors, and the second concerns ethical banks.
In the first category lies the issue of understanding how ethical banks measure or qualify their ethical policies. For example, when Vancity/Citizen Bank states ‘we seek to work with organizations that demonstrate a commitment to ethical business practices,’ the depositor is unable to understand what ‘seek’ means. These claims do not reveal to potential depositors how the bank evaluates or uses these statements. Even when given the opportunity to view an accountability report, it is difficult to truly understand what their screening processes are. For example, the Van City Accountability Report for 2006/07 (for Van City credit union and Citizens Bank in Canada) states:
the Ethical Policy requires that all business accounts are screened at the time of account opening by the staff person dealing with the member. Social and environmental risks of larger business banking loans (non-credit-scored loans) are assessed at the time of the loan application, guided by the Ethical Policy and Lending Policies.
This statement does not give the reader the information they need to understand the criteria used in assessing clients. However, statistics, such as that given by the Cooperative Bank (UK), stating that in 2003 they reviewed 225 potentially problematic financial opportunities and of these 20% were found to be in conflict with their ethical statements and were subsequently denied further business, costing the bank 6,887,000 pounds, give the consumer the impression that the banks’ proposed ethics, however ambiguous, are being taken seriously.
Another issue in this category is that of codes of conduct. Many ethical banks, as well as conventional banks, voluntarily join larger bodies that put forth certain regulations that, according to the rules set by the body, should be followed by members. Such outside bodies could act as overarching institutions that could guarantee a certain level of conformance with certain regulations. An example of this in the United States is the Food and Drug Administration. Depositors who use ethical banks do not have this assurance because there is no external regulatory body that sets minimum acceptable legal standards.
In the second category, ethical banks face obstacles such as losing business and consumer support to conventional banks, and having to regulate above and beyond the present international legal systems.
According to Cowton, C. J., and P. Thompson, "banks that had signed the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Statement, a voluntary industry code that promulgated environmental stewardship, transparency, and sustainable development, did not act significantly different than the non-signatories." They concluded that, for codes to be more effective; regulators, monitors, and methods of enforcement need to be in place. This problem is similar to the problems faced by the fair trade movement. Both the fair trade movement and ethical banks rely on people to pay extra for known ethical goods. There is a limit to how much more people will pay for that guarantee, after that point, further initiatives will undercut the banks income and therefore are likely to not be followed.
Losing business to banks that do not screen so strictly is a problem for ethical banks. Many times, ethical banks must work with much lower budgets because of this. Ethical banks exclusion of unethical borrowers often results in the borrowers going to other banks, this brings up the importance of industry wide regulations. One way of raising the industry wide regulations would be for citizens to apply pressure on banks. Without this rise, it is difficult to impede unethical businesses from finding a bank to finance their projects. A rise in regulations that deal with moral topics is not out of the question. The current industry wide codes, for example, prohibit the financing of illegal drug production. This reflects the prominent societal morals against such drugs.
Ethical banks cannot solely rely upon the legal system to determine whether or not a potential client has acted unethically or whether or not their future plans are unethical. This is because of the wide range of laws throughout the world. While a business may be lawful in the international setting, this does not mean that the laws were up to the moral standards in which the bank originates. For example, extensive pollution and labor laws that would not be considered lawful in many developed countries are allowed in many lesser-developed countries.
Bank regulations and the free market
One argument against regulating banks is that the regulations would violate the proper functioning of the free market economy. Severyn T. Bruyn suggested that the extreme disconnection between market actions and morals was never the intent of the market economy's founding thinkers, specifically Adam Smith and that putting standards and regulations in place that rest on the basic morals of society should not conflict with the free market, but are actually an important part of the proper functioning of the free market.
Rudolf Steiner suggested that capitalism has the task of funding economic initiatives; capital should be directed into directions productive for society. He proposed that rather than prices being set through either the total control of government regulation, or the total lack of control of a free market, each industry could have self-regulating associations of producers, wholesale and retail businesses, and consumers. These associations would determine prices fair to all three groups. The state would not interfere with purely economic decisions but would be responsible for protecting human rights (this could include a minimum wage and safety in the workplace) and equality of its citizens' rights. (See Steiner's Threefold Social Order.)
Differences from credit unions
Credit unions are not banks but they offer many of the same services as banks (e.g. investment opportunities, commercial and business loans, checking & savings accounts, etc.). Credit unions are member-owned rather than shareholder-owned. This gives each member equal vote in the decision-making process. When a credit union has surplus, the profits made will either be invested into the community or will go back to the members in the form of "patronage rebates" (i.e. cheques). Credit unions focus on the members because they are also the owners, and on the communities in which they are situated. Credit unions put a higher focus on local community development than banks do. Most credit unions lend strictly to people and businesses in the community where the union is located. This fact leads credit unions to affect communities more positively than regular banks.
However, credit unions do not necessarily have the same potential to cause widespread change in business practices as ethical banks do. This is because credit unions largely avoid the problem of funding unethical corporate/business activities by focusing on funding local businesses, which are easier to monitor and arguably less capable of generating wide-reaching social and environmental benefit.
Alliances and networks
Global Alliance for Banking on Values
The Global Alliance for Banking on Values (GABV) is a membership organization founded in March 2009 by BRAC Bank in Bangladesh, GLS Bank in Germany, ShoreBank in the US, and Triodos Bank in the Netherlands. It is currently made up of 27 of the world’s leading sustainable banks, from Asia, Africa, Latin America to North America and Europe.
Fossil Free Banking Alliance
The Fossil Free Banking Alliance is an initiative launched by Bank.Green to identify and promote retail banks that refuse to do business with the fossil fuel industry. The alliance was established to fill the gap in the market for a centralized list of such banks. Currently the alliance is made up of retail banks such as: The Co-operative Bank, Beneficial State, Areti Bank and more. These banks have voluntarily undergone the Fossil Free Certified process, which involves submitting a signed declaration and evidence of their commitment to not financing fossil fuel companies or projects. The certification process is free of charge, and no bank can buy certification from the alliance. The Fossil Free Banking Alliance aims to help climate-conscious individuals discover the best bank for them, support banks in attracting like-minded employees, and raise awareness about the role of banks in financing the fossil fuel industry.
See also
Bankers' bank
Carbon Disclosure Project
Climate ethics
Corporate social responsibility
Equator Principles
Socially responsible investing
Sustainable finance
References
Further reading
Ben Cohen and Mal Warwick, Values-Driven Business,
Christopher J. Cowton & Paul Thompson, "Do Codes Make a Difference? The Case of Bank Lending and the Environment", Journal of Business Ethics, v.24, n.2 (March 2000)
Clark Schultz, "What is the Meaning of Green Banking", Green Bank Report
Paul Thompson & Christopher J. Cowton, "Bringing the Environment into Bank Lending: Implications for Environmental Reporting", British Accounting Review, v.36, n.2, pp. 197–218 (June 2004).
San-José, L. de al. (2011). Are ethical banks different? A comparative analysis using the radical affinity, Journal of Business Ethics
External links
FEBEA, European Federation of Ethical and Alternative Banks
INAISE, International Association of Investors in the Social Economy
GABV, Global Alliance for Banking on Values
"At Estonia's Bank Of Happiness, Kindness Is The Currency" National Public Radio, July 18, 2013.
Banks
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4746838
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado%20Fuel%20and%20Iron
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Colorado Fuel and Iron
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The Colorado Fuel and Iron Company (CF&I) was a large steel conglomerate founded by the merger of previous business interests in 1892. By 1903 it was mainly owned and controlled by John D. Rockefeller and Jay Gould's financial heirs. While it came to control many plants throughout the country, its main plant was a steel mill on the south side of Pueblo, Colorado and was the city's main industry for most of its history. From 1901 to 1912, Colorado Fuel and Iron was one of the Dow Jones Industrials. The steel-market crash of 1982 led to the decline of the company. After going through several bankruptcies, the company was acquired by Oregon Steel Mills in 1993, and changed its name to Rocky Mountain Steel Mills. In January 2007, Rocky Mountain Steel Mills, along with the rest of Oregon Steel's holdings, were acquired by EVRAZ Group, a Russian steel corporation, for $2.3 billion.
Through the process of vertical integration, the company came to own more than just the main steel plant. Over the course of a century, CF&I operated coal mines throughout southern Colorado, as well as iron mines in Wyoming and Utah, limestone quarries, smaller mines for other materials going into the steel making process, and the Colorado and Wyoming Railway. In Redstone, Colorado, hundreds of coking ovens converted coal into coke.
The Mcnally, Cameron, Robinson and Walsen Mines located in the area of Walsenburg, Colorado, were just a few of the mines owned by the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company.
The Colorado Supply company store was also owned and operated by CF&I. They also came to control many furnaces throughout the country, including E. G. Brooke in Birdsboro, Pennsylvania.
Founding and early history
The first, and only until World War II, integrated iron and steel mill west of St. Louis was built in 1881 in Pueblo on the south side of the Arkansas River by the Colorado Coal and Iron Company (CC&L), an affiliate of the narrow-gauge Denver and Rio Grande Railway Company (D&RG), controlled by General William Jackson Palmer and Dr. William Abraham Bell. Its purpose in part was to manufacture rails for the railway. Local resources included water from the Arkansas River, coal from Trinidad, limestone from a few miles south of Pueblo, and iron ore from the San Luis Valley with rail transportation provided by the D&RG. Manufacturing using blast furnaces and the Bessemer process began April 12, 1881. Products included rails, pig iron, iron and steel bars and plates, and cut nails and spikes.
The original steel works were one of the projects of the Central Colorado Improvement Company, founded by General William J. Palmer in 1872, with plans "to purchase lands, minerals springs, coal and iron and other mines and quarries in Colorado Territory, and the establishment and building up of colonies, towns, coal mining, iron making and manufacturing works, and to build canals and wagon roads." The work on the mill began—under the original name for the steel producer: Colorado Coal and Steel Works—with excavation of the foundation for the first blast furnace in February 1880, on a prairie south of what would later become South Pueblo. A neighborhood of makeshift homes arose near the works, initially called Taylorville, then Steelworks, then, as more permanent dwellings were constructed, Bessemer in 1881. Initial capacity of the mill in 1881-82 was per year from the first blast furnace, while a second furnace was being built, and the mill employed 300-400. The first steel rails were produced in April 1882 for the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad's Silverton Branch.
The market for steel was slow due to intense competition from eastern mills, and the mill was often idle. The company turned to production of coke and coal opening additional mines near Trinidad and others near Canon City, Walsenburg, and Crested Butte. Coke ovens were built at El Moro north of Trinidad and at Crested Butte.
In the early 1890s, demand for fuel fell, and the company faced stiff competition from the Colorado Fuel Company, which was closely associated with and provided coal to the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad (CB&Q). John C. Osgood, who with other investors from Iowa and Colorado, the Iowa Group, had founded Colorado Fuel Company in 1883, which acquired substantial coal reserves in Las Animas and Garfield Counties by purchasing existing facilities. Other properties were acquired in Garfield, Huerfano, Las Animas, and Pitkin counties. On Osgood's initiative these two companies merged in 1892 to form Colorado Fuel and Iron with members of the Iowa Group in control.
Often idle during the decades of the 1880s and 1890s due to stiff competition and the effects of the panic of 1893, the steel mill at Pueblo was small and obsolete. Due to economic conditions it was not possible to modernize it until 1899 when substantial improvements were made. including a rolling mill, additional blast furnaces, a modern Bessemer converter, open hearth furnaces, a wire mill, and supporting facilities. The mill was renamed the Minnequa Works in 1901.
Iron ore
Early sources of iron ore were hematite from the Calumet Mine north of Salida, Colorado, limonite from the Orient Mine on the west slope of the Sangre de Cristo Range east of Villa Grove and iron and magnesium rich ore which was a byproduct of silver mining at Leadville. Additional iron ore was obtained from New Mexico and Wyoming and reserves purchased in Utah. Company towns were built at isolated facilities such as Orient and Calumet. Deeper ores from Calumet contained greater quantities of silicon, which interfered with the iron making process. Calumet was closed in 1899 and production shifted to the Sunrise Mine near Hartville, Wyoming about 100 miles north of Cheyenne which the company had leased in 1898. The Colorado and Wyoming Railway Company was organized as subsidiary to transport the ore. Orient was abandoned in 1905 but some ore continued to be mined and sold to the company by contractors until 1922 when it reopened, only to be permanently closed at the beginning of the Great Depression due to falling demand.
Production, which began in 1899 at the Sunrise Mine in Wyoming, was initially by open-pit mining at a cost of 15 cents a ton. By 1900, daily production was 2,000 tons. Purchase of the property was completed in 1904. Shortages of ore continued to plague operations at the refurbished Minnequa Works in Pueblo and some ore was obtained from the 86, Jim Fair, and Union mines near Fierro and Hanover in Grant County, New Mexico. Substantial reserves were purchased near Cedar City in Iron County, Utah but remained unmined.
Limestone
Limestone was initially obtained from a quarry a few miles south of Pueblo at Lime near the St. Charles River and later from a high-grade low-phosphorus deposit of limestone and dolomite near Howard.
Coal and coke
In 1903 CF&I was the largest producer of coal in the Rocky Mountain west with 23 mines in Las Animas, Huerfano, Fremont, Gunnison, Garfield, and Pitkin County, Colorado producing 53% of the coal mined in Colorado and its 9 coking plants producing 89% of its coke. Steam coal for use in boilers and locomotives was produced in the Huerfano district, coal for home heating in the Canon district, and anthracite at Crested Butte. Demand for coke by the precious metals smelting industry fell off as first silver production was impacted by the panic of 1893 and then gold production fell off in the first decade of the 20th century and used refining techniques which did not require large quantities of coke. The large copper smelting companies operating in the area, Phelps Dodge and The American Smelting and Refining Company, invested in their own coal mines and coking plants in Colfax County, New Mexico and Cokedale, Colorado.
Education
In 1901, in an effort to deal with its mostly immigrant workforce, CF&I formed the Sociological Department. Their main focus was to better the lives of the workers and their families and to shape their political and economic views. The Sociological Department began educating the miners through night school to teach them English. The Sociological Department began to set standards for education by regulating the curriculum and getting miners' children involved.
Richard Corwin came up with the idea that Kindergarten would be the best way to help the immigrant children become better citizens. Through the Kindergarten program, children were taught English and the importance of industrial labor in hopes of making them good future employees.
Also part of the multi-pronged efforts to promote support for the Company in the latter-half of 1914, several schools were constructed, including one in Primero.
Land
In 1900, anticipating high demand for coal, the extensive and coal rich lands of the Colorado portion of the Maxwell Land Grant near Trinidad in Las Animas County were purchased through its subsidiary, the Rocky Mountain Coal and Iron Company. Following this purchase mines and coking plants and railway connections were constructed by the Colorado and Wyoming Railway Company in 1901 and 1902 west of Trinidad, and facilities built for workers under the direction of Dr. Richard W. Corwin chief surgeon of CF&I.
20th century
The facility operated a number of blast furnaces until 1982. The main blast furnace structures were torn down in 1989, but due to asbestos content many of the adjacent stoves and support buildings still remain. The stoves and foundations for some of the furnaces can be easily seen from Interstate 25, which runs parallel to the plant's west boundary.
Gould and Rockefeller era
In 1902, facing cash flow problems, Osgood turned to George Jay Gould a principal stockholder of the Denver and Rio Grande for a loan. Gould, via Frederick Taylor Gates, Rockefeller's financial adviser, brought John D. Rockefeller, creator of the Standard Oil monopoly, in to help finance the loan. Analysis of the company's operations by John D. Rockefeller Jr. showed a need for substantially more funds which were provided in exchange for acquisition of CF&I's subsidiaries such as the Colorado and Wyoming Railway Company, the Crystal River Railroad Company, and possibly the Rocky Mountain Coal and Iron Company. Control was passed from the Iowa Group to Gould and Rockefeller interests in 1903 with Gould in control and Rockefeller and Gates representing a minority interests. Osgood left the company in 1904 and devoted his efforts to operating competing coal and coke operations.
An experienced manager, Frank J. Hearne, retired president of National Tube Company, one of the predecessors of U.S. Steel was brought in September, 1903 to manage the enterprise. In 1904 the assets of the firm and its subsidiaries were consolidated as Colorado Industrial Company whose stock was wholly owned by the shareholders of CF&I, mainly Gould and Rockefeller. This put all properties of the firm under a single management. Gross sales were substantially increased but increasing profit proved elusive due to competition from eastern produces. Income in 1907 was $1.07 million on sales of $23.8 million in 1907.
In November, 1903 the United Mine Workers struck the coal mines near Walsenburg and Trinidad. The strike, which lasted 11 months, produced no gains and demoralized the miners, was fought vigorously with strikebreakers and reduced steel production. The company was able to maintain coal inventory for sale to the company's customers, thus preventing state interference due to a shortage of coal.
Following the strike substantial investments were made to the mill including purchase of water rights in the Arkansas River and a reservoir at the site of Sugar Loaf Dam west of Leadville. Previously the mill had relied on the scant and variable flow of the St. Charles River, storing water in Lake Minnequa.
Gates, Rockefeller's financial advisor, had little confidence in Jesse Floyd Welborn who had been elected by Gould and his allies to succeed Hearne as manager in 1907. Welborn had risen within the company from a clerk, knew the operation well, and had the confidence of the company's staff. When Gould suffered severe financial losses due to the Panic of 1907 his need for funds resulted in transfer of his interests to Rockefeller. Gates preferred Lamont M. Bowers, his aunt's husband, with extensive management experience. Welborn was advised to take guidance from Bowers, who was hired as Welborn's subordinate. Welborn had little choice but to defer to Bowers which resulted in Welborn, the president of the company, being only a figurehead and sometimes resulted in him having to make decisions he would not have made on his own motion.
Effectively in charge from 1908 to early 1915, Bowers applied his managerial skills to making the company profitable, reducing employment rolls, closing marginal operations, and reducing improvements and the companies sociological and medical programs. His efforts were successful; profits increased and dividends were paid. The steel mill operated at full capacity and was slightly expanded. Greater profits proved elusive, however, due to eastern competition and limited transportation facilities such as a perennial shortage of railway cars to ship coal.
There was a series of disastrous explosions from 1904 to 1910 at the coal mines near Trinidad which resulted in substantial casualties. Attempts to prevent such disasters resulted in substantial improvements in mine safety techniques by the company and by the coal mining industry generally such as increased mine ventilation, sprinkler systems to keep coal dust wet, and liberal spreading of rockdust to dilute explosive coal dust. Concern over mine safety resulted in creation of the United States Bureau of Mines in 1907 and enactment of improved mine safety regulations in Colorado.
Labor
CF&I's early labor relations were set in the context of the volatile and violent Colorado Labor Wars. Over the course of its history, the company has had numerous major labor disputes. CF&I was accused of brutality against the UMWA in a strike called by that organization in 1903-04. The best known strike culminated in the infamous Ludlow Massacre at the Ludlow Depot, a stop on the Colorado and Southern Railroad which was near several coal mines, in 1914. Evidence from CF&I's archives reveals that the company infiltrated, propagandized against, and attempted to disrupt the Industrial Workers of the World.
The labor force of CF&I was made up in large part of immigrants, many from eastern and southern Europe. Although experienced miners from Cornwall were encouraged to immigrate and were taken on particularly at the Sunrise Mine, much of the workforce was inexperienced and not fluent in English. This complicated communication of mine and industrial safety information. Due to their lack of sophistication it was possible to influence how the workers voted. Fraudulent voting of this nature was employed extensively by company operatives to accomplish various personal and company goals.
Lamont M. Bowers, effectively the chief executive officer of CF&I, in addition to his paternalistic concern regarding vices such as drinking, gambling, and prostitution which might affect the health of CF&I workers, and also company profits, and his efforts to clean up the mining towns and support enactment of prohibition in Colorado, was strongly anti-union and refused to recognize or negotiate with the United Mine Workers during the period leading up to the major strike of 1913-14. The effects of that prolonged and violent strike ended his career with the firm.
Strike of 1913–14
The strike, called in September, 1913, by the United Mine Workers over the issue of union representation, was against coal mine operators in Huerfano and Las Animas counties in southern Colorado where the majority of CF&I's coal and coke production was located, and was fought by the coal mine operators association and its steering committee which included Welborn, president of CF&I, who was spokesman for the coal operators. Bowers, Rockefeller's man, remained in the background. Few of the miners actually belonged to the union or participated in the strike call, but the majority honored it. Scabs were threatened and sometimes attacked. Both sides purchased substantial arms and ammunition. Most dangerous on the union side were Greek immigrants who were experienced veterans of the Balkan Wars. On October 26, 1913, Elias M. Ammons, the democratic governor of Colorado, responded to the widespread violence by ordering out the Colorado National Guard.
Striking miners were forced to abandon their homes in company towns and lived in tent cities erected by the union such as the tent city at Ludlow, a railway stop north of Trinidad.
Under the protection of the National Guard, some miners returned to work and some strikebreakers imported from the eastern coalfields joined them as Guard troops protected their movements. In February, 1914 a substantial portion of the troops were withdrawn, but a sizable contingent remained at Ludlow. On April 20, 1914 a general fire-fight occurred between strikers and troops. The camp burned, and 15 women and children in the camp were burned to death.
In the aftermath of the battle, bands of miners attacked coal company facilities in the area. Lieutenant Governor of Colorado Stephen R. Fitzgarrald again ordered National Guard troops into the coal fields, but guerrilla warfare by the striking miners continued, and the government troops were beaten back. The governor requested assistance from Woodrow Wilson and units of the United States Army were deployed to the coalfields. There was a substantial increase in coal production in succeeding months.
Attempts at negotiating a settlement in November, 1913 had been unsuccessful due to the coal operators refusal to talk to union representatives or to consider recognition of the union. After the violence in the Spring of 1914, United States Secretary of Labor William Bauchop Wilson attempted mediation. Further efforts by state and federal officials and experienced third parties who were brought in were also unsuccessful. Finally after George Alfred Carlson, a Republican, won the gubernatorial election of 1914, on December 10, 1914 the union called off the strike due to a depletion of strike funds.
Costs to both mine operators and the union were high. Due to reduced demand for coal resulting from an economic downturn many of CF&I's coal mines never reopened and many men were thrown out of work. The union was forced to discontinue strike benefits in February, 1915. There was destitution in the coal fields. With the help of funds from the Rockefeller Foundation relief programs were organized by the Colorado Committee on Unemployment and Relief, a state agency created by Governor Carlson, offering work to unemployed miners building roads and doing other useful projects.
The casualties suffered at Ludlow were successfully labeled a massacre and mobilized public opinion against the Rockefellers and the coal industry. The United States Commission on Industrial Relations conducted extensive hearings singling out John D. Rockefeller Jr. and the Rockefellers' relationship with Bowers for special attention. Bower was relieved of duty and Welborn restored to control in 1915 and industrial relations improved.
Colorado Industrial Plan
In October, 1915 John D. Rockefeller Jr. with the assistance of William Lyon Mackenzie King, director of the Rockefeller Foundation and head of its Department of Industrial Research, introduced the Colorado Industrial Plan, an internal system of worker representation which included guarantees of basic decency in working conditions and in company towns.
Segundo, Colorado, was an example of a company town where CF&I offered adequate housing for its workers and promoted upward mobility through its sponsorship of a YMCA Center, elementary school, and some small businesses, as well as a company store. However air pollution was a constant health threat and the houses lacked indoor plumbing. As demand for metallurgical coke declined, the mine laid off workers and Segundo's population declined. After a major fire in 1929, CF&I left and Segundo became practically a ghost town.
1927–1928 Colorado Coal Strike
The CF&I held pervasive spying on workers in the years following up to and during the General Colorado coal strike of 1927, which remains one of the few historically persevered record of company spying on labor organizing, given the secretive nature and risk of bad publicity it brings.
Bankruptcy 1990
On November 7, 1990 CF&I filed for protection under Chapter 11.
Strike of 1997–2004
In 1997, the steelworkers union in Pueblo voted to strike over alleged unfair labor practices. The old CF&I facility, under new ownership, hired permanent replacement workers, leading to further tension between the new employer and the union.
However, in September 2004, local unions 2102 and 3267 won both the strike and the unfair labor practice charges. All of the striking steel workers were returned to their jobs, and the company was forced to repay a record amount of back pay to all of the striking steel workers for the seven years of the strike.
The site today
In addition to the blast furnace/open hearth steelmaking process, CF&I also used the basic oxygen furnace (BOF) process for a number of years. This process was later replaced by electric arc furnaces (EAF). Currently, one EAF is used at the facility to convert over a million tons of scrap per year into steel billets of various sizes. The billets are then distributed to the three steel finishing facilities (rail mill, rod & bar mill, seamless tube mill) for processing into the various finished products.
Several of the administration buildings, including the main office building, dispensary, and tunnel gatehouse have been purchased by the Steelworks Center of the West to house their Steelworks Museum and the Steelworks Archives.
Out of the many production and fabrication mills which once existed on the site, only the steel production (electric furnaces, used for scrap recycling), rail, rod & bar, and seamless tube mills are still in operation. The wire mill was sold in the late 1990s to Davis Wire, which produced products such as fence and nails under the CF&I brand name until 2014 when it was closed. The mill was able to produce rail lengths of up to 480 feet (up from the current 80 feet), lengths currently possible only in a few European plants.
See also
Steelworks Museum
References
Scamehorn, H. Lee, Mill and Mine: The CF&I in the Twentieth Century, University of Nebraska Press, (April 1, 1992), hardcover, 271 pages,
External links and further reading
Bessemer Historical Society
Steelworks Museum of Industry and Culture
CF&I Archives
https://web.archive.org/web/20080513082329/http://www.osm.com/LocationsFacilities/RockyMountainSteelMills/tabid/71/Default.aspx
West, George P.; United States Commission on Industrial Relations; Report on the Colorado strike (1915)
Ironworks and steel mills in the United States
History of Colorado
Pueblo, Colorado
1883 establishments in Colorado
1990 disestablishments in Colorado
Manufacturing companies established in 1883
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1990
Former components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average
Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1990
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Colorado
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist%20ethics
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Buddhist ethics
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Buddhist ethics are traditionally based on what Buddhists view as the enlightened perspective of the Buddha. The term for ethics or morality used in Buddhism is Śīla or sīla (Pāli). Śīla in Buddhism is one of three sections of the Noble Eightfold Path, and is a code of conduct that embraces a commitment to harmony and self-restraint with the principal motivation being nonviolence, or freedom from causing harm. It has been variously described as virtue, moral discipline and precept.
Sīla is an internal, aware, and intentional ethical behavior, according to one's commitment to the path of liberation. It is an ethical compass within self and relationships, rather than what is associated with the English word "morality" (i.e., obedience, a sense of obligation, and external constraint).
Sīla is one of the three practices foundational to Buddhism and the non-sectarian Vipassana movement; sīla, samādhi, and paññā as well as the Theravadin foundations of sīla, dāna, and bhavana. It is also the second pāramitā. Sīla is also wholehearted commitment to what is wholesome. Two aspects of sīla are essential to the training: right "performance" (caritta), and right "avoidance" (varitta). Honoring the precepts of sīla is considered a "great gift" (mahadana) to others, because it creates an atmosphere of trust, respect, and security. It means the practitioner poses no threat to another person's life, property, family, rights, or well-being.
Moral instructions are included in Buddhist scriptures or handed down through tradition. Most scholars of Buddhist ethics thus rely on the examination of Buddhist scriptures, and the use of anthropological evidence from traditional Buddhist societies, to justify claims about the nature of Buddhist ethics.
Foundations
The source for the ethics of Buddhists around the world are the Three Jewels of the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. The Buddha is seen as the discoverer of liberating knowledge and hence the foremost teacher. The Dharma is both the teachings of the Buddha's path and the truths of these teachings. The Sangha is the community of noble ones (ariya), who practice the Dhamma and have attained some knowledge and can thus provide guidance and preserve the teachings. Having proper understanding of the teachings is vital for proper ethical conduct. The Buddha taught that right view was a necessary prerequisite for right conduct, sometimes also referred to as right intention.
The Four Noble Truths
The foundation of Buddhist ethics is the Four Noble Truths, which are:
dukkha (suffering, incapable of satisfying, painful) is an innate characteristic of existence with each rebirth;
samudaya (origin, cause) of this dukkha is the "craving, desire or attachment";
nirodha (cessation, ending) of this dukkha can be attained by eliminating all "craving, desire, and attachment";
magga (path, Noble Eightfold Path) is the means to end this dukkha.
The Four Noble Truths express the central problem motivating Buddhist ethics, the need for liberation from suffering. According to the first Noble Truth, worldly existence is fraught with suffering (dukkha). Dukkha is seen to arise from craving, and putting an end to craving can lead to liberation (Nirvana). The way to put an end to craving is by following the Noble Eightfold Path taught by the Buddha, which includes the ethical elements of right speech, right action and right livelihood. From the point of view of the Four Noble Truths, an action is seen as ethical if it is conductive to the elimination of dukkha. Understanding the truth of dukkha in life allows one to analyze the factors for its arising, that is craving, and allows us to feel compassion and sympathy for others. Comparing oneself with others and then applying the Golden Rule is said to follow from this appreciation of dukkha. From the Buddhist perspective, an act is also moral if it promotes spiritual development by conforming to the Eightfold Path and leading to Nirvana. In Mahayana Buddhism, an emphasis is made on the liberation of all beings and bodhisattvas are believed to work tirelessly for the liberation of all.
Karma and rebirth
The principle governing suffering and liberation from it is the law of karma, often understood to involve rebirth. Karma literally means "action" and can also refer to the consequences of action. Suffering, both in the present and the future, is perpetuated by wrong action and ended by right action. The Buddha is recorded to have stated that right view consisted in believing that (among other things): "'there is fruit and ripening of deeds well done or ill done': what one does matters and has an effect on one's future; 'there is this world, there is a world beyond': this world is not unreal, and one goes on to another world after death" (MN 117, Maha-cattarisaka Sutta). Although the doctrine of rebirth has been avowed by many Buddhists, it is rejected by many East Asian Buddhists, and some scholars regard it as inessential to Buddhist ethics.
In the Buddhist conception, Karma can refer to a certain type of moral action which has moral consequences on the actor. The core of karma is the mental intention, and hence the Buddha stated 'It is intention (cetana), O monks, that I call karma; having willed one acts through body, speech, or mind' (AN 6.63). Therefore, accidentally hurting someone is not bad Karma, but having hurtful thoughts is. Buddhist ethics sees these patterns of motives and actions as conditioning future actions and circumstances – the fruit (Phala) of one's present actions, including the condition and place of the actor's future life circumstances (though these can also be influenced by other random factors). One's past actions are said to mold one's consciousness and to leave seeds (Bīja) which later ripen in the next life. The goal of Buddhist practice is generally to break the cycle, though one can also work for rebirth in a better condition through good deeds.
The root of one's intention is what conditions an action to be good or bad. There are three good roots (non-attachment, benevolence, and understanding) and three negative roots (greed, hatred and delusion). Actions which produce good outcomes are termed "merit" (puñña – fruitful, auspicious) and obtaining merit (good karma) is an important goal of lay Buddhist practice. The early Buddhist texts mention three 'bases for effecting karmic fruitfulness' (puñña-kiriya-vatthus): giving (dana), moral virtue (sila) and meditation (bhāvanā). One's state of mind while performing good actions is seen as more important than the action itself. The Buddhist Sangha is seen as the most meritorious "field of merit". Negative actions accumulate bad karmic results, though one's regret and attempts to make up for it can ameliorate these results.
Precepts
The foundation of Buddhist ethics for laypeople is The Five Precepts which are common to all Buddhist schools. The precepts or "five moral virtues" (pañca-silani) are not commands but a set of voluntary commitments or guidelines, to help one live a life in which one is happy, without worries, and able to meditate well. The precepts are supposed to prevent suffering and to weaken the effects of greed, hatred and delusion. They were the basic moral instructions which the Buddha gave to laypeople and monks alike. Breaking one's sīla as pertains to sexual conduct introduces harmfulness towards one's practice or the practice of another person if it involves uncommitted relationship. When one "goes for refuge" to the Buddha's teachings one formally takes the five precepts, which are:
I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking life;
I undertake the training rule to abstain from taking what is not given;
I undertake the training rule to abstain from sexual misconduct;
I undertake the training rule to abstain from false speech;
I undertake the training rule to abstain from liquors, wines, and other intoxicants, which are the basis for heedlessness.
Buddhists often take the precepts in formal ceremonies with members of the monastic Sangha, though they can also be undertaken as private personal commitments. Keeping each precept is said to develop its opposite positive virtue. Abstaining from killing for example develops kindness and compassion, while abstaining from stealing develops non-attachment. The precepts have been connected with utilitarianist, deontological and virtue approaches to ethics. They have been compared with human rights because of their universal nature, and some scholars argue they can complement the concept of human rights.
Undertaking and upholding the five precepts is based on the principle of non-harming (Pāli and ). The Pali Canon recommends one to compare oneself with others, and on the basis of that, not to hurt others. Compassion and a belief in karmic retributionform the foundation of the precepts.
The first precept consists of a prohibition of killing, both humans and all animals. Scholars have interpreted Buddhist texts about the precepts as an opposition to and prohibition of capital punishment, suicide, abortion and euthanasia. The second precept prohibits theft. The third precept refers to adultery in all its forms, and has been defined by modern teachers with terms such as sexual responsibility and long-term commitment. The fourth precept involves falsehood spoken or committed to by action, as well as malicious speech, harsh speech and gossip. The fifth precept prohibits intoxication through alcohol, drugs or other means. Early Buddhist texts nearly always condemn alcohol, and so do Chinese Buddhist post-canonical texts. In practice however, many lay Buddhists do not adhere to this precept and drinking is common in many Buddhist majority countries. Buddhist attitudes toward smoking differ per time and region, but are generally permissive. In modern times, traditional Buddhist countries have seen revival movements to promote the five precepts. As for the West, the precepts play a major role in Buddhist organizations.
There is also a more strict set of precepts called the eight precepts which are taken at specific religious days or religious retreats. The eight precepts encourage further discipline and are modeled on the monastic code. In the eight precepts, the third precept on sexual misconduct is made more strict and becomes a precept of celibacy. The three additional rules of the Eight Precepts are:
"I accept the training rule to abstain from food at improper times." (e.g. no solid foods after noon, and not until dawn the following day)
"I accept the training rule (a) to abstain from dancing, singing, instrumental music, and shows, and (b) from the use of jewelry, cosmetics, and beauty lotions."
"I accept the training rule to abstain from the use of high and luxurious beds and seats."
Novice-monks use the ten precepts while fully ordained Buddhist monks also have a larger set of monastic precepts, called the Prātimokṣa (227 rules for monks in the Theravādin recension). Monks are supposed to be celibate and are also traditionally not allowed to touch money. The rules and code of conduct for monks and nuns is outlined in the Vinaya. The precise content of the scriptures on vinaya (vinayapiṭaka) differ slightly according to different schools, and different schools or subschools set different standards for the degree of adherence to the vinaya.
In Mahayana Buddhism, another common set of moral guidelines are the Bodhisattva vows and the Bodhisattva Precepts or the "Ten Great Precepts". The Bodhisattva Precepts which is derived from the Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra include the Five precepts with some other additions such as the precept against slandering the Buddha's teachings. These exist above and beyond the existing monastic code, or lay follower precepts. The Brahmajala Sutra also includes a list of 48 minor precepts which prohibit the eating of meat, storing of weapons, teaching for the sake of profit, abandoning Mahayana teachings and teaching non Mahayana Dharma. These precepts have no parallel in Theravāda Buddhism.
Ten wholesome actions
Another common formulation of Buddhist ethical action in the early Buddhist texts is the "path of the ten good actions" or "ten skilled karma paths" (Pali: dasa-kusala-kammapatha, Sanskrit: daśa-kuśala-karmapatha) which are "in accordance with Dharma".
These are divided into three bodily actions (kaya kamma), four verbal actions (vaci kamma) and three mental actions (mano kamma) all of which are said to cause "unskillful qualities to decline while skillful qualities grow". These ten paths are discussed in suttas such as Majjhima Nikaya MN 41 (Sāleyyaka Sutta), and MN 114:
Bodily actions:
"Someone gives up killing living creatures", they "renounce the rod and the sword", "They're scrupulous and kind, living full of compassion for all living beings."
"They give up stealing. They don't, with the intention to commit theft, take the wealth or belongings of others from village or wilderness."
"They give up sexual misconduct. They don't have sexual relations with women who have their mother, father, both mother and father, brother, sister, relatives, or clan as guardian. They don't have sexual relations with a woman who is protected on principle, or who has a husband, or whose violation is punishable by law, or even one who has been garlanded as a token of betrothal."
Verbal actions:
"A certain person gives up lying. They're summoned to a council, an assembly, a family meeting, a guild, or to the royal court, and asked to bear witness: 'Please, mister, say what you know.' Not knowing, they say 'I don't know.' Knowing, they say 'I know.' Not seeing, they say 'I don't see.' And seeing, they say 'I see.' So they don't deliberately lie for the sake of themselves or another, or for some trivial worldly reason."
"They give up divisive speech. They don't repeat in one place what they heard in another so as to divide people against each other. Instead, they reconcile those who are divided, supporting unity, delighting in harmony, loving harmony, speaking words that promote harmony."
"They give up harsh speech. They speak in a way that's mellow, pleasing to the ear, lovely, going to the heart, polite, likable and agreeable to the people."
"They give up talking nonsense. Their words are timely, true, and meaningful, in line with the teaching and training. They say things at the right time which are valuable, reasonable, succinct, and beneficial."
Mental actions:
"It's when someone is content. They don't covet the wealth and belongings of others: 'Oh, if only their belongings were mine!' They have a kind heart and loving intentions: 'May these sentient beings live free of enmity and ill will, untroubled and happy!'"
"It's when someone is content, and lives with their heart full of contentment. They are loving, and live with their heart full of love. They're kind, and live with their heart full of kindness."
"It's when someone has such a view: 'There is meaning in giving, sacrifice, and offerings. There are fruits and results of good and bad deeds. There is an afterlife. There are duties to mother and father. There are beings reborn spontaneously. And there are ascetics and brahmins who are well attained and practiced, and who describe the afterlife after realizing it with their own insight.'"
These ten paths are also commonly taught in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism as foundational ethical teachings.
Bases of meritorious actions
Yet another common ethical list in the Pali tradition is the "ten bases of meritorious action" (Dasa Puñña-kiriya Vatthu). As noted by Nyanatiloka Thera, some texts (Itivuttaka 60) only mention three of these but later Pali commentaries expanded these to ten, and the list of ten is a popular list in Theravada countries. Ittivuttaka #60 says:"Bhikkhus, there are these three grounds for making merit. What three? The ground for making merit consisting in giving, the ground for making merit consisting in virtue, and the ground for making merit consisting in mind-development. These are the three.One should train in deeds of merit, that yield long-lasting happiness: Generosity, a balanced life, developing a loving mind. By cultivating these three things, deeds yielding happiness, the wise person is reborn in bliss, in an untroubled happy world."According to Nyanatiloka, Digha Nikaya 30 also mentions several related meritorious behaviors. D.N. 30 mentions various exemplary meritorious actions done by the Buddha such as:"...good conduct by way of body, speech, giving and sharing, taking precepts, observing the sabbath, paying due respect to mother and father, ascetics and brahmins, honoring the elders in the family, and various other things pertaining to skillful behaviors.""Truth, principle, self-control, and restraint; giving, harmlessness, delighting in non-violence...""giving and helping others, kindly speech, and equal treatment, such action and conduct as brought people together..."The later expanded listing of ten bases is as follows:
Giving or charity (dāna), This is widely done by giving "the four requisites" to monks; food, clothing, shelter, and medicine. However giving to the needy is also a part of this.
Morality (sīla), Keeping the five precepts, generally non-harming.
Mental cultivation (bhāvanā).
Paying due respect to those who are worthy of it (apacāyana), showing appropriate deference, particularly to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, and to seniors and parents. Usually done by placing the hands together in Añjali Mudrā, and sometimes bowing.
Helping others perform good deeds (veyyāvacca), looking after others.
Sharing of merit after doing some good deed (anumodana)
Rejoicing in the merits of others (pattanumodana), this is common in communal activities.
Teaching the Dhamma (dhammadesana), the gift of Dhamma is seen as the highest gift.
Listening to the Dhamma (dhammassavana)
Straightening one's own views (ditthujukamma)
Key values and virtues
Following the precepts is not the only dimension of Buddhist morality, there are also several important virtues, motivations and habits which are widely promoted by Buddhist texts and traditions. At the core of these virtues are the three roots of non-attachment (araga), benevolence (advesa), and understanding (amoha).
One list of virtues which is widely promoted in Buddhism are the Pāramitās (perfections) – Dāna (generosity), Sīla (proper conduct), Nekkhamma (renunciation), Paññā (wisdom), Viriya (energy), Khanti (patience), Sacca (honesty), Adhiṭṭhāna (determination), Mettā (Good-Will), Upekkhā (equanimity).
The Four divine abidings (Brahmaviharas) are seen as central virtues and intentions in Buddhist ethics, psychology and meditation. The four divine abidings are good will, compassion, empathetic joy, and equanimity. Developing these virtues through meditation and right action promotes happiness, generates good merit and trains the mind for ethical action.
An important quality which supports right action is Heedfulness (Appamada), a combination of energy/effort (Viriya) and Mindfulness. Mindfulness is an alert presence of mind which allows one to be more aware of what is happening with one's intentional states. Heedfulness is aided by 'clear comprehension' or 'discrimination' (Sampajañña), which gives rise to moral knowledge of what is to be done. Another important supporting quality of Buddhist morality is Trust or Confidence in the teachings of the Buddha and in one's own ability to put them into practice. Wisdom and Understanding are seen as a prerequisite for acting morally. Having an understanding of the true nature of reality is seen as leading to ethical actions. Understanding the truth of not-self for example, allows one to become detached from selfish motivations and therefore allows one to be more altruistic. Having an understanding of the workings of the mind and of the law of karma also makes one less likely to perform an unethical action.
The Buddha promoted 'self-respect' (Hri) and Regard for consequences (Apatrapya), as important virtues. Self-respect is what caused a person to avoid actions which were seen to harm one's integrity and Ottappa is an awareness of the effects of one's actions and sense of embarrassment before others.
Giving (Dāna) is seen as the beginning of virtue in Theravada Buddhism and as the basis for developing further on the path. In Buddhist countries, this is seen in the giving of alms to Buddhist monastics but also extends to generosity in general (towards family, friends, coworkers, guests, animals). Giving is said to make one happy, generate good merit as well as develop non-attachment, therefore it is not just good because it creates good karmic fruits, but it also develops one's spiritual qualities. In Buddhist thought, the cultivation of dana and ethical conduct will themselves refine consciousness to such a level that rebirth in one of the lower hells is unlikely, even if there is no further Buddhist practice. There is nothing improper or un-Buddhist about limiting one's aims to this level of attainment.
An important value in Buddhist ethics is non-harming or non-violence (ahimsa) to all living creatures from the lowest insect to humans which is associated with the first precept of not killing. The Buddhist practice of this does not extend to the extremes exhibited by Jainism (in Buddhism, unintentional killing is not karmically bad), but from both the Buddhist and Jain perspectives, non-violence suggests an intimate involvement with, and relationship to, all living things.
The Buddha also emphasized that 'good friendship (Kalyāṇa-mittatā), good association, good intimacy' was the whole, not the half of the holy life (SN 45.2). Developing strong friendships with good people on the spiritual path is seen as a key aspect of Buddhism and as a key way to support and grow in one's practice.
In Mahayana Buddhism, another important foundation for moral action is the Bodhisattva ideal. Bodhisattvas are beings which have chosen to work towards the salvation of all living beings. In Mahayana Buddhist texts, this path of great compassion is promoted as being superior to that of the Arhat because the Bodhisattva is seen as working for the benefit of all beings. A Bodhisattva is one who arouses a powerful emotion called Bodhicitta (mind of enlightenment) which is a mind which is oriented towards the awakening of oneself and all beings.
Issues
Killing
The first precept is the abstaining from the taking of life, and the Buddha clearly stated that the taking of human or animal life would lead to negative karmic consequences and was non conductive to liberation. Right livelihood includes not trading in weapons or in hunting and butchering animals. Various suttas state that one should always have a mind filled with compassion and loving kindness for all beings, this is to be extended to hurtful, evil people as in the case of Angulimala the murderer and to every kind of animal, even pests and vermin (monks are not allowed to kill any animal, for any reason). Buddhist teachings and institutions therefore tend to promote peace and compassion, acting as safe havens during times of conflict. In spite of this, some Buddhists, including monastics such as Japanese warrior monks have historically performed acts of violence. In China, the Shaolin Monastery developed a martial arts tradition to defend themselves from attack.
In Mahayana Buddhism, the concept of skillful means (upaya) has in some circumstances been used to excuse the act of killing, if it is being done for compassionate reasons. This form of "compassionate killing" is allowed by the Upaya-kausalya sutra and the Maha-Upaya-kausalya sutra only when it "follows from virtuous thought." Some texts acknowledge the negative karmic consequences of killing, and yet promote it out of compassion. The Bodhisattva-bhumi, a key Mahayana text, states that if a Bodhisattva sees someone about to kill other Bodhisattvas, they may take it upon themselves to kill this murderer with the thought that:
"If I take the life of this sentient being, I myself may be reborn as one of the creatures of hell. Better that I be reborn a creature of hell than that this living being, having committed a deed of immediate retribution, should go straight to hell."
If then, the intention is purely to protect others from evil, the act of killing is sometimes seen as meritorious.
War
The Buddhist analysis of conflict begins with the 'Three Poisons' of greed, hatred and delusion. Craving and attachment, the cause of suffering, is also the cause of conflict. Buddhist philosopher Shantideva states in his Siksasamuccaya: "Wherever conflict arises among living creatures, the sense of possession is the cause". Craving for material resources as well as grasping to political or religious views is seen as a major source of war. One's attachment to self-identity, and identification with tribe, nation state or religion is also another root of human conflict according to Buddhism.
The Buddha promoted non-violence in various ways, he encouraged his followers not to fight in wars and not to sell or trade weapons. The Buddha stated that in war, both victor and defeated suffer: "The victor begets enmity. The vanquished dwells in sorrow. The tranquil lives happily, abandoning both victory and defeat" (Dhammapada, 201). Buddhist philosopher Candrakīrti wrote that soldiery was not a respectable profession: "the sacrifice of life in battle should not be respected, since this is the basis for harmful actions." The Mahayana Brahmajala Sutra states that those who take the Bodhisattva vows should not take any part in war, watch a battle, procure or store weapons, praise or approve of killers and aid the killing of others in any way. In his Abhidharma-kosa, Vasubandhu writes that all soldiers in an army are guilty of the killing of the army, not just those who perform the actual killing. Modern Buddhist peace activists include The 14th Dalai Lama, Thich Nhat Hanh, Sulak Sivaraksa, A. T. Ariyaratne, Preah Maha Ghosananda and Nichidatsu Fujii.
While pacifism is the Buddhist ideal, Buddhist states and kingdoms have waged war throughout history and Buddhists have found ways to justify these conflicts. The 5th Dalai Lama who was installed as the head of Buddhism in Tibet by Gushri Khan after the Oirat invasion of Tibet (1635–1642), praised the acts of the Khan and said that he was an emanation of the great Bodhisattva Vajrapani. Under the fifth Dalai Lama and the powerful Gelug Regent Sonam Chophel (1595–1657), treasurer of the Ganden Palace, the Tibetan kingdom launched invasions of Bhutan (c. 1647, ending in failure) and Ladakh (c. 1679, which regained previously lost Tibetan territory) with Mongol aid.
Another example is that of Buddhist warrior monks in feudal Japan who sometimes committed organized acts of war, protecting their territories and attacking rival Buddhist sects. During the late Heian Period, the Tendai school was a particularly powerful sect, whose influential monasteries could wield armies of monks. A key text of this sect was the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, which contains passages allowing the use of violence for the defense of the Dharma. The Ashikaga period saw military conflict between the Tendai school, Jōdo Shinshū school and the Nichiren Buddhists. Zen Buddhism was influential among the samurai, and their Bushido code.
During World War II almost all Japanese Buddhists temples (except the Soka Gakkai) strongly supported Japanese imperialism and militarization. The Japanese Pan-Buddhist Society (Myowa Kai) rejected criticism from Chinese Buddhists, stating that "We now have no choice but to exercise the benevolent forcefulness of 'killing one in order that many may live'" (issatsu tashō) and that the war was absolutely necessary to implement the dharma in Asia.
Abortion
There is no single Buddhist view concerning abortion, although traditional Buddhism rejects abortion because it involves the deliberate destroying of a human life and regards human life as starting at conception. Further, some Buddhist views can be interpreted as holding that life exists before conception because of the never ending cycle of life. The traditional Buddhist view of rebirth sees consciousness as present in the embryo at conception, not as developing over time. In the Vinaya (Theravada and Sarvastivada) then, the causing of an abortion is seen as an act of killing punishable by expulsion from the monastic Sangha. The Abhidharma-kosa states that 'life is there from the moment of conception and should not be disturbed for it has the right to live'.
One of the reasons this is seen as an evil act is because a human rebirth is seen as a precious and unique opportunity to do good deeds and attain liberation. The Jataka stories contain tales of women who perform abortions being reborn in a hell. In the case where the mother's life is in jeopardy, many traditional Buddhists agree that abortion is permissible. This is the only legally permissible reason for abortion in Sri Lanka, and is also a view accepted in the Tibetan tradition, as argued by Ganden Tri Rinpoche. In the case of rape, however, most Buddhists argue that following an act of violence by allowing 'another kind of violence towards another individual' would not be ethical. Aborting a fetus that is malformed is also seen as immoral by most Buddhists.
Those practicing in Japan and the United States are said to be more tolerant of abortion than those who live elsewhere. In Japan, women sometimes participate in Mizuko kuyo (水子供養 — lit. Newborn Baby Memorial Service) after an induced abortion or an abortion as the result of a miscarriage; a similar Taiwanese ritual is called yingling gongyang. In China abortion is also widely practiced, but in Tibet it is very rare. Thus while most Buddhists would agree that abortion is wrong, they are less likely to push for laws banning the practice. The Dalai Lama has said that abortion is "negative", but there are exceptions. He said, "I think abortion should be approved or disapproved according to each circumstance."
While abortion is problematic in Buddhism, contraception is generally a non-issue.
Suicide and euthanasia
Buddhism understands life as being pervaded by Dukkha, as unsatisfactory and stressful. Ending one's life to escape present suffering is seen as futile because one will just be reborn again, and again. One of the three forms of craving is craving for annihilation (vibhava tanha), and this form of craving is the root of future suffering. Dying with an unwholesome and agitated state of mind is seen as leading to a bad rebirth, so suicide is seen as creating negative karma. Ending one's life is also seen as throwing away the precious opportunity to generate positive karma. While suicide does not seem to be interpreted as a breaking of the first precept (not killing other beings) it is still seen as a grave and unwholesome action.
In Theravada Buddhism, for a monk to praise the advantages of death, including simply telling a person of the miseries of life or the bliss of dying and going to heaven in such a way that he/she might feel inspired to commit suicide or simply pine away to death, is explicitly stated as a breach in one of highest vinaya codes regarding the prohibition of harming life, hence it will result in automatic expulsion from Sangha.
Buddhism sees the experience of dying as a very sensitive moment in one's spiritual life, because the quality of one's mind at the time of death is believed to condition one's future rebirth. The Buddhist ideal is to die in a calm but conscious state, while learning to let go. Dying consciously, without negative thoughts but rather joyously with good thoughts in mind is seen as a good transition into the next life. Chanting and reciting Buddhist texts is a common practice; in Tibet the Bardo Thodol is used to guide the dying to a good rebirth.
Traditional Buddhism would hold Euthanasia, where one brings about the death of a suffering patient (whether or not they desire this) so as to prevent further pain, as a breach of the first precept. The argument that such a killing is an act of compassion because it prevents suffering is unacceptable to traditional Buddhist theology because it is seen to be deeply rooted in delusion. This is because the suffering being who was euthanized would just end up being reborn and having to suffer due to their karma (even though not all suffering is due to karma), and hence killing them does not help them escape suffering. The Abhidharma-kosa clearly states that the killing of one's sick and aged parents is an act of delusion. The act of killing someone in the process of death also ruins their chance to mindfully experience pain and learn to let go of the body, hence desire for euthanasia would be a form of aversion to physical pain and a craving for non-becoming. According to Kalu Rinpoche however, choosing to be removed from life support is karmically neutral. The choice not to receive medical treatment when one is terminally ill is then not seen as morally reprehensible, as long as it does not arise from a feeling of aversion to life. This would also apply to not resuscitating a terminal patient.
However, there are exceptions to the injunction against suicide. Several Pali suttas contain stories where self-euthanizing is not seen as unethical by the Buddha, showing that the issue is more complex. These exceptions, such as the story of the monk Channa and that of the monk Vakkali, typically deal with advanced Buddhist practitioners. In these exceptional cases, both Channa and Vakkali are both said to be enlightened arhats and euthanized themselves in a calm and detached state of mind.
In East-Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, the practice of Self-immolation developed. In China, the first recorded self-immolation was by the monk Fayu (d. 396). According to James A. Benn, this tended to be much more common during times of social and political turmoil and Buddhist persecution. It was often interpreted in Buddhist terms as a practice of heroic renunciation. This practice was widely publicized during the Vietnam war and have also continued as a form of protest by Tibetans against the Chinese government.
Capital punishment
Buddhism places great emphasis on the sanctity of life and hence in theory forbids the death penalty. However, capital punishment has been used in most historically Buddhist states. The first of the Five Precepts (Panca-sila) is to abstain from destruction of life. Chapter 10 of the Dhammapada states:
"Everyone fears punishment; everyone fears death, just as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill. Everyone fears punishment; everyone loves life, as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill".
Chapter 26, the final chapter of the Dhammapada, states "Him I call a brahmin who has put aside weapons and renounced violence toward all creatures. He neither kills nor helps others to kill". These sentences are interpreted by many Buddhists (especially in the West) as an injunction against supporting any legal measure which might lead to the death penalty. However, almost throughout history, countries where Buddhism has been the official religion (which have included most of the Far East and Indochina) have practiced the death penalty. One exception is the abolition of the death penalty by the Emperor Saga of Japan in 818. This lasted until 1165, although in private manors executions conducted as a form of retaliation continued to be performed.
Animals and the environment
Buddhism does not see humans as being in a special moral category over animals or as having any kind of God given dominion over them as Christianity does. Humans are seen as being more able to make moral choices, and this means that they should protect and be kind to animals who are also suffering beings who are living in samsara. Buddhism also sees humans as part of nature, not as separate from it. Thich Nhat Hanh summarizes the Buddhist view of harmony with nature thus:
We classify other animals and living beings as nature, acting as if we ourselves are not part of it. Then we pose the question 'How should we deal with Nature?' We should deal with nature the way we should deal with ourselves! We should not harm ourselves; we should not harm nature...Human beings and nature are inseparable.
Early Buddhist monastics spent a lot of time in the forests, which was seen as an excellent place for meditation and this tradition continues to be practiced by the monks of the Thai Forest Tradition.
Vegetarianism
There is a divergence of views within Buddhism on the need for vegetarianism, with some schools of Buddhism rejecting such a claimed need and with most Buddhists in fact eating meat. Many Mahayana Buddhists – especially the Chinese, Vietnamese and most Korean traditions – strongly oppose meat-eating on scriptural grounds.
The first precept of Buddhism focuses mainly on direct participation in the destruction of life. This is one reason that the Buddha made a distinction between killing animals and eating meat, and refused to introduce vegetarianism into monastic practice. While early Buddhist texts like the Pali Canon frown upon hunting, butchering, fishing and 'trading in flesh' (meat or livestock) as professions, they do not ban the act of eating meat. Direct participation also includes ordering or encouraging someone to kill an animal for you.
The Buddhist king Ashoka promoted vegetarian diets and attempted to decrease the number of animals killed for food in his kingdom by introducing 'no slaughter days' during the year. He gave up hunting trips, banned the killing of specific animals and decreased the use of meat in the royal household. Ashoka even banned the killing of some vermin or pests. His example was followed by later Sri Lankan kings. One of Ashoka's rock edicts states:
Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice...Formerly, in the kitchen of Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, hundreds of thousands of animals were killed every day to make curry. But now with the writing of this Dhamma edict only three creatures, two peacocks and a deer are killed, and the deer not always. And in time, not even these three creatures will be killed.
Many Buddhists, especially in East Asia, believe that Buddhism advocates or promotes vegetarianism. While Buddhist theory tends to equate killing animals with killing people (and avoids the conclusion that killing can sometimes be ethical, e.g. defense of others), outside of the Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese and some Japanese monastic traditions, most Buddhists do eat meat in practice; there is however, a significant minority of Buddhist laypersons in the aforementioned traditions that maintain vegetarianism on a set schedule and a smaller minority who are full-time Buddhist vegetarians. There is some controversy surrounding whether or not the Buddha himself died from eating rancid pork. While most Chinese and Vietnamese monastics are vegetarian, vegetarian Tibetans are rare, due to the harsh Himalayan climate. Japanese lay people tend to eat meat, but monasteries tend to be vegetarian. The Dalai Lama, after contracting Hepatitis B, was advised by doctors to switch to a high animal-protein diet. The Dalai Lama eats vegetarian every second day, so he effectively eats a vegetarian diet for 6 months of the year. In the West, vegetarianism among Buddhists is also common.
In the Pali version of the Tripitaka, there are number of occasions in which the Buddha ate meat as well as recommending certain types of meat as a cure for medical conditions. On one occasion, a general sent a servant to purchase meat specifically to feed the Buddha. The Buddha declared that:
The Buddha held that because the food is given by a donor with good intentions, a monk should accept this as long as it is pure in these three respects. To refuse the offering would deprive the donor of the positive karma that giving provides. Moreover, it would create a certain conceit in the monks who would now pick and choose what food to eat. The Buddha did state however that the donor does generate bad karma for himself by killing an animal. In Theravada Buddhist countries, most people do eat meat, however.
While there is no mention of Buddha endorsing or repudiating vegetarianism in surviving portions of Pali Tripitaka and no Mahayana sutras explicitly declare that meat eating violates the first precept, certain Mahayana sutras vigorously and unreservedly denounce the eating of meat, mainly on the ground that such an act violates the bodhisattva's compassion. The sutras which inveigh against meat-eating include the Mahayana version of the Nirvana Sutra, the Shurangama Sutra, the Brahmajala Sutra, the Angulimaliya Sutra, the Mahamegha Sutra, and the Lankavatara Sutra, as well as the Buddha's comments on the negative karmic effects of meat consumption in the Karma Sutra. In the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, which presents itself as the final elucidatory and definitive Mahayana teachings of the Buddha on the very eve of his death, the Buddha states that "the eating of meat extinguishes the seed of Great Kindness", adding that all and every kind of meat and fish consumption (even of animals found already dead) is prohibited by him. He specifically rejects the idea that monks who go out begging and receive meat from a donor should eat it: ". . . it should be rejected . . . I say that even meat, fish, game, dried hooves and scraps of meat left over by others constitutes an infraction . . . I teach the harm arising from meat-eating." The Buddha also predicts in this sutra that later monks will "hold spurious writings to be the authentic Dharma" and will concoct their own sutras and lyingly claim that the Buddha allows the eating of meat, whereas in fact he says he does not. A long passage in the Lankavatara Sutra shows the Buddha speaking out very forcefully against meat consumption and unequivocally in favor of vegetarianism, since the eating of the flesh of fellow sentient beings is said by him to be incompatible with the compassion that a Bodhisattva should strive to cultivate. In several other Mahayana scriptures, too (e.g., the Mahayana jatakas), the Buddha is seen clearly to indicate that meat-eating is undesirable and karmically unwholesome.
Environment
Forests and jungles represented the ideal dwelling place for early Buddhists, and many texts praise the forest life as being helpful to meditation. Monks are not allowed to cut down trees as per the Vinaya, and the planting of trees and plants is seen as karmically fruitful. Because of this, Buddhist monasteries are often small nature preserves within the modernizing states in East Asia. The species ficus religiosa is seen as auspicious, because it is the same kind of tree that the Buddha gained enlightenment under.
In Mahayana Buddhism, some teachings hold that trees and plants have Buddha nature. Kukai held that plants and trees, along with rocks and everything else, were manifestations of the 'One Mind' of Vairocana and Dogen held that plant life was Buddha nature.
In pre-modern times, environmental issues were not widely discussed, though Ashoka banned the burning of forests and promoted the planting of trees in his edicts. Bhikkhu Bodhi, an American Theravada monk, has been outspoken about the issue of environmental crisis. Bodhi holds that the root of the current ecological crisis is the belief that increased production and consumption to satisfy our material and sensual desires leads to well-being. The subjugation of nature is directly opposed to the Buddhist view of non-harming and dwelling in nature. Buddhist activists such as Ajahn Pongsak in Thailand and the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement have worked for reforestation and environmental protection. The Dalai Lama also professes the close relationship of human beings and nature, saying that since humans come from nature, there is no point in going against it. He advocates that a clean environment should be considered a basic human right and that it is our responsibility as humans to ensure that we do all we can to pass on a healthy world to those who come after us.
Gender issues
In pre-Buddhist Indian religion, women were seen as inferior and subservient to men. Buddha's teachings tended to promote gender equality as the Buddha held that women had the same spiritual capacities as men did. According to Isaline Blew Horner, women in Buddhist India: "commanded more respect and ranked as individuals. They enjoyed more independence, and a wider liberty to guide and follow their own lives." Buddha gave the same teachings to both sexes, praised various female lay disciples for their wisdom and allowed women to become monastics (Bhikkhunis) at a time when this was seen as scandalous in India, where men dominated the spiritual professions. The two chief female disciples of the Buddha were Khema and Uppalavanna. The Buddha taught that women had the same soteriological potential as men, and that gender had no influence on one's ability to advance spiritually to nirvana. In the early Buddhist texts, female enlightened Arhats are common. Buddhist nuns are however bound by an extra 8 precepts not applicable to Buddhist monks called The Eight Garudhammas. The authenticity of these rules is highly contested; they were supposedly added to the (bhikkhunis) Vinaya "to allow more acceptance" of a monastic Order for women, during the Buddha's time but can be interpreted as a form of gender discrimination. Alan Sponberg argues that the early Buddhist sangha sought social acceptance through 'institutional androcentrism' as it was dependent on material support from lay society. Because of this Sponberg concludes: "For all its commitment to inclusiveness at the doctrinal level, institutional Buddhism was not able to (or saw no reason to) challenge prevailing attitudes about gender roles in society."
The pre-Mahayana texts also state that while women can become Arhats, they cannot become a Samyaksambuddha (a Buddha who discovers the path by himself), Chakravartins (Wheel turning king), a Ruler of heaven, a Mara devil or a Brahama god.
The Therigatha is a collection of poems from elder Buddhist nuns, and one of the earliest texts of women's literature. Another important text is the Therī-Apadāna, which collects the biographies of eminent nuns. One such verses are those of the nun Soma, who was tempted by Mara when traveling in the woods. Mara states that women are not intelligent enough to attain enlightenment, Soma replies with a verse which indicates the insignificance of gender to spirituality:
"What does womanhood matter at all
When the mind is concentrated well,
When knowledge flows on steadily
As one sees correctly into Dhamma.
One to whom it might occur,
'I'm a woman' or 'I'm a man'
Or 'I'm anything at all' —
Is fit for Mara to address."
In Mahayana Buddhism, Bodhisattvas such as Tara and Guanyin are very popular female deities. Some Buddhist Tantric texts include female consorts for each heavenly Buddha or Bodhisattva. In these Tantric couples, the female symbolizes wisdom (prajna) and the male symbolizes skillful means (upaya). The union of these two qualities is often depicted as sexual union, known as yab-yum (father-mother).
In East Asia, the idea of Buddha nature being inherent in all beings is taken to mean that, spiritually at least, the sexes are equal, and this is expressed by the Lion's Roar of Queen Srimala sutra. Based on this ideal of Buddha nature, the Chinese Chan (Zen) school emphasized the equality of the sexes. Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163) of the Chinese Linji school said of women in Buddhism: "For mastering the truth, it does not matter whether one is male or female, noble or base." The Japanese founder of Soto Zen, Dogen wrote: "If you wish to hear the Dharma and put an end to pain and turmoil, forget about such things as male and female. As long as delusions have not yet been eliminated, neither men nor women have eliminated them; when they are all eliminated and true reality is experienced, there is no distinction of male and female."
The attitude of Buddhists towards gender has been varied throughout history as it has been influenced by each particular culture and belief system such as Confucianism (which sees women as subservient) and Hinduism. The Theravadin commentator Buddhaghosa (5th century CE) for example, seems to have been influenced by his Brahmin background in stating that rebirth as a male is higher than rebirth as a female. Some Mahayana sutras such as the 'Sutra on Changing the Female Sex' and the 'Questions of the Daughter Pure Faith' also echo this idea. For various historical and cultural reasons such as wars and invasions, the orders of ordained Buddhist nuns disappeared or was never introduced in Southeast Asia and Tibet, though they slowly started being reintroduced by nuns such as Ayya Khema, Dhammananda Bhikkhuni, Tenzin Palmo and Thubten Chodron. Until very recently, China, Taiwan and Korea were the only places where fully ordained bhiksuni lineages still existed. An international conference of Buddhist nuns was held in February 1987 at Bodh Gaya and saw the formation of 'Sakyadhita' (Daughters of the Buddha) the International Association of Buddhist Women which focuses on helping Buddhist nuns throughout the world.
Relationships
The Buddha placed much importance on the cultivation of good will and compassion towards one's parents, spouse, friends and all other beings. Buddhism strongly values harmony in the family and community. Keeping the five precepts and having a generous attitude (Dana) is seen as the foundation for this harmony. An important text, seen as the lay people's Vinaya (code of conduct) is the Sigalovada Sutta which outlines wrong action and warns against the squandering of wealth. The Sigalovada Sutta outlines how a virtuous person "worships the six directions" which are parents (East), teachers (South), wife (West), and friends and colleagues (North), and the two vertical directions as: ascetics and Brahmins (Up) and the Servants (Down). The text elaborates on how to respect and support them, and how in turn the Six will return the kindness and support. The relationships are based on reciprocation, and it is understood one has no right to expect behavior from others unless one also performs good acts in his favor.
Parents for example, are to be respected and supported with the understanding that they are to have provided care and affection to oneself. In marriage, the sutta states that a householder should treat his wife by "being courteous to her, by not despising her, by being faithful to her, by handing over authority to her, by providing her with adornments." while in return the wife "performs her duties well, she is hospitable to relations and attendants, she is faithful, she protects what he brings, she is skilled and industrious in discharging her duties." The Buddha also stated that a wife and husband are to be each other's best friend (parama sakha). While monogamy is the predominant model for marriage, Buddhist societies have also practiced and accepted polygamy and polyandry. Buddhism sees marriage not as sacred but as a secular partnership and hence has no issue with divorce.
Sexuality
The Third (or sometimes Fourth) of the Five Precepts of Buddhism states that one is to refrain from "sexual misconduct", which has various interpretations, but generally entails any sexual conduct which is harmful to others, such as rape, molestation and often adultery, although this depends on the local marriage and relationship customs. Buddhist monks and nuns of most traditions are not only expected to refrain from all sexual activity but also take vows of celibacy.
Sexual orientation
Among the Buddhist traditions there is a vast diversity of opinion about homosexuality, and in interpreting the precedents which define "sexual misconduct" generally. Though there is no explicit condemnation of homosexuality in Buddhist sutras, be it Theravada, Mahayana or Mantrayana, societal and community attitudes and the historical view of practitioners have established precedents. Some sangha equate homosexuality with scriptural sexual misconduct prohibited by the Five Precepts. Other sangha hold that if sexuality is compassionate and/or consensual and does not contravene vows, then there is no karmic infraction, irrespective of whether it is same-sex or not. Buddhist communities in Western states as well as in Japan generally tend to be accepting of homosexuality. In Japan, homosexual relations among Buddhist samurai and clergy were actually quite common. Male homosexuality between clergy was especially common in the Tantric Shingon school.
According to the Pāli Canon & Āgama (the Early Buddhist scriptures), there is no saying that same or opposite gender relations have anything to do with sexual misconduct, and some Theravada monks express that same-gender relations do not violate the rule to avoid sexual misconduct, which means not having sex with someone underage (thus protected by their parents or guardians), someone betrothed or married and who have taken vows of religious celibacy.
Some later traditions, like Shantideva and Gampopa, feature restrictions on non-vaginal sex (including homosexuality). A medieval commentary of the Digha Nikaya mentions examples of immorality in society, and one of the examples is homosexuality, whereas this has no basis in the Sutta. Other Buddhist texts such as the Abhidharma-kosa and the Jataka tales make no mention of homosexuality in this regard. According to Jose Ignacio Cabezon, Buddhist cultures' attitudes towards homosexuality have generally been neutral.
While both men and women can be ordained, hermaphrodites are not allowed by the Vinaya. According to the ancient texts this is because of the possibility that they will seduce monks or nuns.
The Vinaya also prevents pandakas from becoming monastics, which have been defined as "without testicles" and generally referred to those who lacked the normal (usually physical) characteristics of maleness (in some cases it refers to women who lack the normal characteristics of femaleness). This rule was established by the Buddha after a pandaka monk broke the Vinaya precepts by having relations with others. Therefore, it seems that pandakas were initially allowed into the Sangha. Later Buddhist texts like the Milinda Panha and the Abhidharma-kosa see pandakas as being spiritually hindered by their sexuality and mental defilements.
Economic ethics
Buddha's teachings to laypeople included advice on how to make their living and how to use their wealth. The Buddha considered the creation of wealth to be praiseworthy, so long as it was done morally, in accordance with right livelihood, one of the elements of the Noble Eightfold Path, and which refers to making one's living without killing, being complicit in the suffering of other beings (by selling weapons, poison, alcohol or flesh) or through lying, stealing or deceit.
The Sigalovada Sutta states that a master should look after servants and employees by: "(1) by assigning them work according to their ability, (2) by supplying them with food and with wages, (3) by tending them in sickness, (4) by sharing with them any delicacies, (5) by granting them leave at times" (Digha Nikaya 31). Early Buddhist texts see success in work as aided by one's spiritual and moral qualities.
In the Adiya Sutta the Buddha also outlined several ways in which people could put their 'righteously gained' wealth to use:
Providing 'pleasure & satisfaction' to themselves, their mother & father, their children, spouse, slaves, servants, & assistants.
Providing 'pleasure & satisfaction' to their friends and associates.
Warding off calamities coming from fire, flood, kings, thieves, or hateful heirs, and keeps himself safe.
Performs five oblations/offerings: to relatives, guests, the dead, kings, & devas.
Giving of offerings to priests (brahmins) and contemplatives (monks).
The Buddha placed much emphasis on the virtue of giving and sharing, and hence the practice of donating and charity are central to Buddhist economic ethics. Even the poor are encouraged to share, because this brings about greater spiritual wealth: "If beings knew, as I know, the results of giving & sharing, they would not eat without having given, nor would the stain of selfishness overcome their minds. Even if it were their last bite, their last mouthful, they would not eat without having shared, if there were someone to receive their gift." The modern growth of Engaged Buddhism has seen an emphasis on social work and charity. Buddhist aid and activist organizations include Buddhist Global Relief, Lotus Outreach, Buddhist Peace Fellowship, Piyarra Kutta, International Network of Engaged Buddhists, The Tzu Chi Foundation, Nonviolent Peaceforce, and Zen Peacemakers.
Buddhist texts promote the building of public works which benefit the community and stories of Buddhist Kings like Ashoka are used as an example of lay people who promoted the public welfare by building hospitals and parks for the people. The Buddha's chief lay disciple, the rich merchant Anathapindika ('Feeder of the Poor') is also another example of a virtuous layperson who donated much of his wealth for the benefit of others and was thus known as the "foremost disciple in generosity". Early Buddhist texts do not disparage merchants and trade, but instead promote enterprise as long as it is done ethically and leads to the well-being of the community. The gold standard for rulers in Buddhism is the ideal wheel turning king, the Chakravartin. A Chakravartin is said to rule justly, giving to the needy and combating poverty so as to prevent social unrest. A Chakravartin does not fight wars for gain but only in defense of the kingdom, he accepts immigrants and refugees, and builds hospitals, parks, hostels, wells, canals and rest houses for the people and animals. Mahayana Buddhism maintains that lay Bodhisattvas should engage in social welfare activities for the good and safety of others. In the lands of Southern Buddhism, Buddhist monasteries often became places were the poor, destitute, orphaned, elderly can take shelter. Monasteries often provided education and took care of the sick, and therefore are also centers of social welfare for the poor.
Robert Thurman, in his discussion of Nagarjuna's Precious Garland Ratnavali sees the Mahayana Buddhist tradition as politically supporting 'a welfare state ...a rule of compassionate socialism'. Prominent Buddhist socialists include the 14th Dalai Lama, Buddhadasa, B. R. Ambedkar, U Nu, Girō Seno'o and Lin Qiuwu. Others such as Neville Karunatilake, E. F. Schumacher, Padmasiri De Silva, Prayudh Payutto and Sulak Sivaraksa have promoted a Buddhist economics that does not necessarily define itself as socialist but still offers a critique of modern consumer capitalism. E. F. Schumacher in his "Buddhist economics" (1973) wrote: "Buddhist economics must be very different from the economics of modern materialism, since the Buddhist sees the essence of civilisation not in a multiplication of human wants but in the purification of human character."
While modern economics seeks to satisfy human desires, Buddhism seeks to reduce our desires and hence Buddhist economics would tend to promote a sense of anti-consumerism and simple living. In his Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place, Prayudh Payutto writes that consumption is only a means to an end which is 'development of human potential' and 'well being within the individual, within society and within the environment'. From a Buddhist perspective then, 'Right consumption' is based on well-being while 'wrong consumption' is the need to 'satisfy the desire for pleasing sensations or ego-gratification'. Similarly, Sulak Sivaraksa argues that "the religion of consumerism emphasizes greed, hatred and delusion" which causes anxiety and that this must be countered with an ethic of satisfaction Modern attempts to practice Buddhist economics can be seen in the Sarvodaya Shramadana Movement and in the Gross National Happiness economics of Bhutan.
While Buddhism encourages wealth gained ethically, it sees greed and craving for riches as negative, and praises contentment as 'the greatest wealth'. Poverty and debt are seen as causes of suffering, immorality, and social unrest if they prevent one from having basic necessities and peace of mind. For laypeople, Buddhism promotes the middle way between a life of poverty and a materialistic or consumerist life in which one is always seeking to enrich oneself and to buy more things. For Buddhist laypersons then, to be Buddhist does not mean to reject all material things, but, according to Sizemore and Swearer: "it specifies an attitude to be cultivated and expressed in whatever material condition one finds oneself. To be non-attached is to possess and use material things but not to be possessed or used by them. Therefore, the idea of non-attachment applies all across Buddhist society, to laymen and monk alike."
See also
Ahimsa
Buddhism and violence
Buddhist monasticism
Culture of Buddhism
Eight precepts
Five precepts
Noble Eightfold Path
Sacca-kiriya
Three Refuges
Threefold Training
Citations
References
Bodhi, Bhikkhu (2005), "In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pali Canon", Simon and Schuster
External links
Everyman's Ethics: Four discourses by the Buddha by Narada Thera (BPS Wheel Publication No. 14)Ethics in Buddhist Perspective by K.N. Jayatilleke (BPS Wheel Publication No. 175 / 176)Nourishing the Roots and Other Essays on Buddhist Ethics'' by Bhikkhu Bodhi (BPS Wheel Publication No. 259 / 260)
and , Surendranath Dasgupta, 1940
Ethics in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism
Sila as explained in the Buddhist Encyclopedia.
Ethics
Ethics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri%20Lankan%20cricket%20team%20in%20England%20in%202006
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Sri Lankan cricket team in England in 2006
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Sri Lanka toured England for cricket matches during the 2006 international cricket season. England were back home for the first time since September and looked to maintain their Test standards, which saw them keep their second place in the ICC Test Championship in India, and the teams were also competing for sixth place in the ICC ODI Championship as both England and Sri Lanka were coming off the back of two lost ODI tours on the Asian sub-continent, against India and Pakistan respectively. To add to problems, both teams were likely to be missing some key members of the team as England were without some of their squad for their previous tour and, two days before Sri Lanka departed for England, it was revealed that skipper Marvan Atapattu would stay at home for the tour due to back problems that had forced him to skip his previous tour too. Jehan Mubarak was brought in as his replacement.
Schedule
Squads
Tour matches
Three-day match: Sri Lankans v British Universities
Three-day match: Sri Lankans v Derbyshire
Four-day match: Sri Lankans v England A
Four-day match: Sri Lankans v Sussex
Test series
1st Test
Day One
England won the toss and decided to bat. Flintoff handed Sajid Mahmood his first Test cap, while Chamara Kapugedera made his Test debut for Sri Lanka. Marcus Trescothick opened for England for the first time since last year, alongside Andrew Strauss. 20 minutes before lunch Muttiah Muralitharan was brought in for his first over at Lord's, the 23rd of the England innings, with the seamers not having taken a wicket. However, in the fourth over of Muralitharan's innings Jayawardene had Strauss caught off Muralitharan, putting the English at 86 for one at lunch. The afternoon session started with Alastair Cook, playing in his first home Test, coming in to face his first ball in home Test cricket; after leaving that one alone, he proceeded to 44 not out by tea, while Trescothick was on 95 not out. Trescothick got his hundred by "slogging" Muralitharan for a single, but in the next over he, too, perished through being caught by Jayawardene. England batted through to stumps and lost only one further wicket, with Cook caught behind off Farveez Maharoof's bowling for 89, and England closed with nightwatchman Matthew Hoggard at the crease and the overnight total 318 for three. Sri Lanka, however, had taken a catch off a no-ball, a close lbw against Kevin Pietersen turned down off Chaminda Vaas, and Alastair Cook a couple of inches from being run out.
Day Two
The day began with Hoggard staying in the crease opposite Pietersen for 37 balls before being bowled by Vaas. This gave way to Paul Collingwood, who had made his first Test century in the first Test of the 2005–06 India tour. Collingwood contributed 57 to a partnership of 173 between the two before Pietersen fell at 158 trapped lbw by Vaas, and Collingwood a few balls later fell in the same fashion by Muralitharan. With England six down, Andrew Flintoff and Geraint Jones were the new batsmen, and the two made scores 33 and 11 respectively before Flintoff declared following his second six, off Muralitharan. The umpires called tea time early due to the declaration and the touring team came back out with their openers Mubarak and Tharanga. However, Mubarak quickly went back, after he was bowled by Hoggard without a run scored by any of the batsmen. Tharanga went five overs later, though with a more successful partnership of 21, the same number of runs the third Sri Lankan, Kumar Sangakkara, managed to make before caught off Sajid Mahmood, his first Test dismissal. At this time, they were 81 for two: fifteen minutes later, the scoreboard read 85 for six, with three batsmen out for ducks including debutante Kapugedera who fell on his first Test ball. The day's play was curtailed by bad light, which left Sri Lanka at 91 for six, fourteen of which came off English extras, while Mahmood's debut figures read three for nine.
Day Three
It started with the clement weather of the last few days overshadowed by clouds and the forecast of rain. With Mahmood unable to add to his tally from yesterday, conceding 41 runs on the day. Sri Lanka batted through ten overs, but Farveez Maharoof gave a return catch to Hoggard, and two overs later Flintoff makes a breakthrough, getting Jayawardene out with a catch by wicket-keeper Geraint Jones. However, the ninth-wicket stand between Vaas and Nuwan Kulasekara gave the most runs of the entire innings, as the two add 62 in just over an hour. After lunch, however, they were out in the space of three deliveries, and Sri Lanka were all out for 192.
Flintoff enforced the follow on, and once again Mubarak was out in single figures to Hoggard, the total 10 for one. However, Tharanga and Sangakkara built Sri Lanka's largest partnership of the match thus far, both making half-centuries and sharing a stand of 109. Eventually both batsmen were caught by Jones off spinner Monty Panesar, with Sangakkara's innings lasting four and a half hours for 65 runs, but at this point England required seven wickets and had two days to do it in.
Day Four
Nightwatchman Farveez Maharoof frustrated the England bowlers. He was dropped on 30 by Paul Collingwood, and went on to bat through 40 overs and 166 minutes, as Sri Lanka went through the entire morning session without loss. England then got two wickets in five overs, both courtesy of Sajid Mahmood, but that only brought in Tillakaratne Dilshan. Another 20 overs followed without a wicket, with Mahela Jayawardene completing his century, before being caught behind for 119 four overs before the close of play on day four, as 24 overs were cut due to bad light.
Day Five
Sri Lanka then lost both their last specialist batsmen, Kapugedera and Dilshan, but were leading by 62 runs at that time. The ninth-wicket partners Vaas and Kulasekara, however, had already showed their batting skills by having the highest partnership of the first innings, and they were eight runs away from achieving that again in the second. Batting through 189 minutes, the pair secured the draw for Sri Lanka, with Kulasekara even hitting a couple of sixes as he ended with 64 when Pietersen held a catch off Hoggard's bowling. However, by then it was too late, as Sri Lanka led by 167 runs and there was only half an hour left to score those runs in. Indeed, the tenth-wicket stand frustrated England until stumps: Muralitharan faced out that half-hour, scoring one run, while Vaas got his half-century before the close of play.
2nd Test
Day One
Sri Lanka won the toss and skipper Mahela Jayawardene chose to bat; it seemed that they made the wrong choice as England crippled them to 82/8 with the help of a swinging wicket, before Chaminda Vaas and Lasith Malinga put up a half century partnership and the team were all out for 141. Matthew Hoggard's swinging and cult-hero Monty Panesar put on impressive shows but regular ODI player, Liam Plunkett, was the real boon of the side. Before the end of the first day, England had all but closed the deficit as stumps was called at 138/3, Marcus Trescothick and Andrew Strauss putting on a 56 partnership before Alastair Cook came out, soon followed by big-hitter Kevin Pietersen who was 30 at stumps aided by a 6, and went on to score another Test century the next day - the only batsmen in the first innings to hit more than 30. Despite the hot-headed player's skills, England were not fully confident at the slip, Cook being saved by a dropped ball by the Sri Lanka skipper and Muttiah Muralitharan proved quite a threat.
Day Two
Pietersen opened the second day, 80 minutes late thanks to rain, with nightwatchmen Hoggard, the latter putting on his normal single figures, this time 3 runs, but holding the line for 36 balls. Once normal play resumed with Paul Collingwood England continued to dominate, setting their targets high with a 69 partnership before Collingwood gloved Murali to short leg for 238/5 and was replaced by skipper Andrew Flintoff who was surprisingly tame. Pietersen went on to hit three 4s in as many balls before hitting a reverse-sweeper 6 but then being bowled lbw by Murali, achieving three Test centuries in consecutive Tests. After the departure of their number four, England crumbled hopelessly from 290/6 to 295 all out just before tea. The mood in the English camp was swiftly revitalised by the hot drinks as Hoggard bowled Upul Tharanga for a golden duck, having been bowled for nothing in the first innings. Two more men went to see the tourists at 43/3 with a 111 run deficit and before the close of play Geraint Jones redeemed his missed catch to Thilan Samaraweera by stumping soon after, unbeaten opener Michael Vandort remained at the crease for 30 when play closed at 7:30 due to the missed play earlier.
Day Three
After persistent rain over Birmingham, play was started at 4:45 and the fifth wicket held up for 125, helping them take the lead. Both batsmen fought off good efforts by Panesar and Plunkett but eventually it was Hoggard who made the only breakthrough on a day where Sri Lanka stood tall for a short day at 194/5.
Day Four
With the new ball due six overs into the fourth day Sri Lankan wickets fell thick and fast, half the team falling before lunch, the last of which being opener Michael Vandort who narrowly missed out on being the fifth batsmen ever to hold his wicket throughout an entire innings. England took to the crease just before lunch with a very slow run rate that came only from Strauss - Trescothick fell after nine runs, none of them contributed by him. The third man, Alastair Cook held out for the rest of the innings though achieving 34 not out; during this time Strauss fell to a controversial catch, replays showed it popped off his pads. Pietersen, wanting to end the Test quickly, took the wicket with his usual speed, taking 13 runs off 25 balls his confidence assured by a catch by the tourists' skipper to be called a no ball, and a further two no balls which he took boundaries off. However, his cockiness proved his downfall as he lashed out at a ball from Murali, the only bowler to take wickets in the second innings, and was caught plumb. Collingwood soon fell for 3 and it seemed as if the easy target of 78 was going to be more of a struggle but Cook, remaining from the second partnership, took two runs and two byes and skipper Flintoff, who done nothing with his first three balls, drove Murali down the ground to long on for four on his fourth ball to win the match, and his third in a row as English skipper.
3rd Test
Day One
Sri Lanka came into the third Test looking to level the series, and Mahela Jayawardene won the toss and again chose to bat. Nuwan Kulasekara and Thilan Samaraweera were dropped from the side, and Sanath Jayasuriya and Chamara Kapugedera came in. This was a return to test cricket for Jayasuriya following a previously announced retirement.
As at Edgbaston, Sri Lanka struggled batting first and Andrew Flintoff and Jon Lewis (who was in the side on debut replacing Sajid Mahmood) took 5 wickets between them to leave Sri Lanka on 139/8. However, England were unable to finish things off and Chaminda Vaas, who had shown resistance batting throughout the series, added 92 runs with the last two wickets. Muttiah Muralitharan hit 3 fours and 1 six in a very useful cameo, which included some remarkable shots. This late flurry of runs would prove critical in the match.
England's openers began the reply tentatively, and by the end of the first day, England were 53/2 in reply to Sri Lanka's 231.
Day Two
Sri Lanka came out on the second day with a very positive approach, which was noticeable from the start of the day's play. Their body language was positive, and Mahela Jayawardene displayed good strategic application with the field placings he set, and frustrated England's batsmen in the process. A key point was the dismissal of Kevin Pietersen for 41, given that he had scored big centuries in the first innings of the previous two tests. Andrew Flintoff was dismissed cheaply and Sri Lanka had gained momentum in reducing England to 118/5.
The remaining batsmen struggled, with Paul Collingwood taking nearly 4 hours to score the innings highest score of 48. Jon Lewis hit a quickfire 20 to boost the score to almost parity with Sri Lanka as England were bowled out for 229. Although Sri Lanka lost Michael Vandort in the first over of their second innings, they reached 45/1 by the close of play on the second day.
Day Three
Sri Lanka showed application in their approach to batting, knowing that they did not need to score at a quick rate given the amount of time remaining in the match. Kumar Sangakkara and Chamara Kapugedera both scored 50s, and Jayawardene and Upul Tharanga scored 45 and 46 respectively. By the end of the day, their score had progressed to 286/7, a lead of 288.
Day Four
England took the final three Sri Lankan wickets, but not without their score progressing to 322 – thanks to the efforts of Lasith Malinga, who scored 22, and Chaminda Vaas who was unbeaten on 34. England had only managed to dismiss him twice in the entire series.
For England, Monty Panesar took his first five wicket haul, recording figures of 5/78. This left England needing 325 to win, a record for Trent Bridge.
England started their chase confidently, albeit with some slices of luck. Marcus Trescothick and Andrew Strauss progressed the score to 84 before the first wicket fell, to Muttiah Muralitharan. From that point on, Muralitharan assumed total control of the match, and of England's batsman.
He proceeded to take the next 6 wickets, reducing England to 132/7, and at that point, would have harboured hopes of capturing all 10 wickets. However, the next wicket to fall was to a run out. But this did not deter him, and he took a further wicket – that of Jon Lewis to leave the score at 153/9. England were on the verge of defeat, still needing 172 to win with one wicket remaining.
All was left to do was for Monty Panesar to dispel the popular belief that he was incapable of batting – he proceeded to attack Muralitharan's bowling – hitting 3 fours and one remarkable swept six on the way to a career best 26. In the end, Muralitharan did not claim his wicket – with Jayasuriya being the one to dismiss him lbw.
England had been bowled out for 190 – pretty much by one man. Muralitharan's figures of 8/70 earned him man of the match, and were his second best bowling figures recorded. Sri Lanka won the match by 134 runs and squared the series. They would go on to carry this momentum into the one day series that followed.
Limited Over Matches
Tour Match: Sri Lanka v Essex (9 June)
Essex 174-4 (38) beat Sri Lanka 172 (43.3) by 6 wickets.
Tour Match: Sri Lanka v Somerset (11 June)
Somerset 332-6 (50) beat Sri Lanka 281 (46.3) by 51 runs
Twenty20 International Match
First ODI
Second ODI
Third ODI
Fourth ODI
Fifth ODI
Sri Lanka completed their 5-0 rout of England's underperforming one day side in a dramatic and brutal fashion. Although England had recorded their highest score of the series batting first - 321/7, the Sri Lankans were enjoying such a rich streak of success that this normally challenging total posed no real threat.
England batted first having won the toss, and looked to be putting themselves in a strong position, guided by a century from Marcus Trescothick. Alastair Cook and Vikram Solanki also had scores in the 40s, and 321/7 seemed a reasonable total at the halfway stage.
However, any hopes that the 5-0 whitewash would be averted were quickly dispelled by Sanath Jayasuriya and Upul Tharanga, who both launched into the bowling attack which they knew had had its confidence already battered from the previous encounters of the series.
The first ten overs of the Sri Lankan reply yielded an amazing 133 runs. Andrew Strauss kept turning to different bowlers, even calling on the spin of Jamie Dalrymple as early as the 8th over in a futile attempt to stem the flow of runs. But Jayasuriya and Tharanga were unstoppable, and although their scoring rates tapered off slightly when fielding restrictions were lifted, they continued on their merry way and racked up an enormous partnership of 286, which was broken in the 32nd over - with only 36 more needed to win at this point.
Jayasuriya brought up his century in 72 balls, and Tharanga in 82. Tharanga was caught and bowled by Dalrymple for 109 with the score on 286/1, and Jayasuriya went 4 balls later for an outstanding 152 off just 99 balls.
Kumar Sangakkara and Mahela Jayawardene had over 17 overs left to score the remaining 33 runs, and the victory was completed soon after. The target of 322 was chased down with 12.3 overs to spare, and the whitewash complete.
Notes
External sources
Tour home at ESPN Cricinfo
CricketArchive
References
2006 in English cricket
International cricket competitions in 2006
2006
2006 in Sri Lankan cricket
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henley%20branch%20line
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Henley branch line
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The Henley branch line is a branch railway line between Twyford in Berkshire and Henley-on-Thames in Oxfordshire. It was built by the Great Western Railway in 1857. Train services are provided by the present day Great Western Railway train operating company.
The railway provides access to the River Thames and the Thames Path and is heavily used during the Henley Royal Regatta. It is sometimes referred to as the Regatta Line, and was branded as such by First Great Western and Oxfordshire County Council in 2006.
At periods other than the Regatta, many of the line's users are commuters to London, and students attending the nearby Henley College.
Route
From a junction with the Great Western Main Line at Twyford railway station, the line turns north and goes under the A4 main road; the first station is at Wargrave. From there, the line crosses the River Thames into Oxfordshire and proceeds to Shiplake, the second stop on the line. Finally it continues to the town of Henley-on-Thames, where the line terminates.
The speed limit is along most of line, except for the Shiplake bridge, which is for multiple units ( for any other type of train), and the approach to Twyford, which is .
Electrification
This line is long and is not currently electrified. Electrification of the branch was announced in July 2012 and was started in April 2015; as of that time, markings have been placed next to the track where the overhead wire masts are to go and a significant number of trees have been trimmed or removed; re-signalling was also carried out during this time. This is in conjunction with the electrification of the Great Western Main Line.
It was announced on 8 November 2016 that the electrification of the branch was being delayed, without a revised forecast date.
Train services
The current (2022) passenger train service pattern on the line provides trains at about 30 minute intervals off peak. The first train out from Henley is at 06:05 and the last train back at 00:18. The Saturday service is also half-hourly until around 20:15, after which a largely hourly service is operated. This is also the case with the Sunday service, with half-hourly services until 19:15.
Additional services are provided during Henley Regatta at the beginning of July, with longer trains. All services are operated by Great Western Railway (GWR), using Class 165 and 166 Turbo diesel multiple units. Upon completion of electrification, Class 387 trains will be used, while the Turbos will be displaced to other parts of the GWR network.
History
Henley had long flourished due to its location on the River Thames, and the road bridge there which formed a focus of road traffic. By the seventeenth century it was an established coaching stop, and it was only in the railway age that the dominance of the town was brought into question.
First proposals
The Great Western Railway opened its main line as far as a temporary wooden terminus at Twyford on 1 July 1839, extending to Reading on 30 March 1840. Twyford was the nearest station to Henley, but customary transport routes using the River Thames continued in use for the time being. Meanwhile a number of railway schemes to connect the town were put forward, but the most realistic was from the Great Western Railway itself, and after a rejection in the 1846 session of Parliament, a Bill for the branch line was passed on 22 July 1847.
It is likely that the Great Western Railway proposed the branch line as a tactical measure to exclude proposed railways from what was their intended exclusive area of influence. The financial situation became very difficult in the following years with money difficult to raise, lessening GWR's desire to build the line. In 1852 the possibility of incursion by competing companies was again in evidence and the powers for construction were due to expire in 1854, so the GWR made application for an extension of time.
Interested parties in Henley were growing impatient at the lack of progress toward connecting their town to the railway network, and a meeting was held on 28 October 1852, chaired by the Mayor of Henley, at which it was urged that the railway should be built without delay. A deputation went to Paddington to press the matter with the Chairman of the GWR, and the outcome of that meeting was that the GWR agreed to build the line if the townspeople themselves contributed £15,000; if they did so the line would be built and 3% on their subscriptions would be guaranteed by the GWR.
A subscription list was opened and about half the required subscription was taken; but the local people also requested a change in the planned course of the line to run on a more westerly alignment, to enable a direct approach to the Market Place. This risked delay while the line was resurveyed, and time was already tight to achieve deposition of a Bill in the 1853 session. Accordingly it was agreed that the originally intended route should be held to. (The deposited plans showed the termination of the line as being at Friday Street, but in fact the line ended some distance south of that place.)
The railway authorised
The Bill for time extension was presented to Parliament and it received the Royal Assent on 4 August 1853; it included powers to raise additional capital. The line was to be a single line, although bridges and earthworks were to be constructed for later doubling. (This was not actually done.) The track gauge was to be the broad gauge, consistent with the main line at Twyford.
Colonel Yolland of the Board of Trade carried out the necessary inspection for approval for opening, on 25 May 1857. The condition of the line was good, except that the station buildings were incomplete and a turntable was still to be finished, and Yolland recommended that approval for opening be given, subject to the use of tank engines in the absence of the turntable, and the adoption of one engine in steam working, There was a separate bay platform for branch trains at Twyford, approached by a sharp curve; there was one intermediate station at Shiplake.
Opening
The line opened to the public on Monday 1 June 1857. It had cost £79,000 to build (a considerable overspend), and the local people had only subscribed £9,575. The first train was hauled by a 2-4-0T engine named Virgo.
The initial timetable allowed for five return trains daily.
By 1858 the public timetable showed seven weekday and three Sunday passenger trains each way, and by 1868 the service timetable showed seven passenger trains and a goods trains every weekday, and on Sundays four passenger trains each way.
Wooden structures
There were three timber viaducts on the line: the most important was the Thames crossing between Wargrave and Shiplake; it was constructed of three main spans of 40 feet using A-frames by which the clearance beneath the truss is maximised. There were 16 approach spans between and span. It was replaced by a masonry and iron structure between 1895 and 1898.
Lashbrook Viaduct was in length; it was replaced at the same time as the Thames bridge. Wargrave flood arches consisted of seven spans; also replaced between 1895 and 1898; it was then constructed with three brick spans and from that time became known as Wargrave viaduct.
There was also a timber overbridge on the line at Wargrave Lane, rebuilt in 1894.
Gauge conversion
It was becoming plain that the broad gauge was to be changed to the use of narrow gauge, later called standard gauge. The gauge conversion was carried out in a single night, on 24 and 25 March 1876.
An engineer involved in the gauge conversion wrote about it:
I found myself at nine o'clock one evening in the company of two permanent way inspectors in a packer's hut midway between Twyford and Henley. The slopes of the railway were covered with men, but all one could hear was the distant sound of an engine shunting in Henley station yard. At length there came a whistle and we could hear the approaching train, followed by a kind of roar which developed into, "Now, all together, over," with a grunt like a miner's, when he brings his sledge down on the drill. Directly the train had passed, every one was alive. Each inspector had four gangs of five and twenty men in his mile. Two of the twenty five went ahead knocking out the fastening, two pairs followed cutting the transoms which had already been marked, and two more followed the main gang refixing the bolts and straps. By midnight the line on our two miles had been slewed in from 7 feet inches to the 4 feet inches gauge, and we retired to our hut to feed and, as we hoped, to sleep. But not so; one of the inspectors, being of the opinion that if we did not keep awake we should catch cold, threw a fog signal into the fire and we promptly moved out. I then walked towards Twyford, where progress had been slower, as the line was curved and the rails had to be cut in many places. At 4 a.m. we were about again, but there was not sufficient light for an hour to lift and pack the rails, though we managed to get a train through by eight o' clock.
Development at Henley
In this period Henley was gaining increasing ascendancy as a favourite leisure resort, and also as a residential area. This brought considerable traffic, and began to pose operating difficulties for the railway. In 1881 the platforms at Henley were extended in length, and additional siding accommodation was provided.
1890s events
The timber buildings of Shiplake station were destroyed in a disastrous fire on 26 August 1891.
The main line in the area had become seriously congested, and an additional two tracks were installed, on the south side of the line. This "quadrupling" was opened for goods trains in November 1892 and for passenger trains on 30 April 1893.
In 1894 Henley-in-Arden station (in Warwickshire) was opened, and to avoid confusion, Henley station was renamed Henley-on-Thames from 1 January 1895.
There had been some difficulties with the undulating gradient on the line as originally constructed, and in 1895 works were carried out between Twyford and Shiplake to improve matters. In the same year further work was carried out at Henley-on-Thames providing further siding accommodation and extending the platforms, responding to the very considerable increase in patronage as Henley town developed as a Thames resort
In July 1896 the decision was taken to double the line, at an estimated cost of £21,275; as part of the work Shiplake station was provided with an island platform. The works were inspected by Colonel York of the Board of Trade on 12 July 1897 and opened as a double line on 14 July 1897, just in time for the regatta. In fact the double track consisted of a new single line and the old single line. After the regatta, the original single line was taken out of use and the operation on the branch reverted temporarily to single line working on the new track, while the old single line was modernised. The work was finally completed on 11 July 1898.
Train services at the end of the nineteenth century
In 1898 a writer described the new train services at Henley:
Since May 1st of this year, Henley, until lately on a single-line branch, seems almost to be on a short main line of its own, since no less than seven down trains from London (all fast or semi-fast) now make it their terminal point, with no shunting or delay at Twyford; four up trains, all fast, start from Henley for Paddington. The best of these in each direction is, of course, the new direct express, with no intermediate stop, which now runs seven days a week.
There was a down non-stop train leaving Paddington at 10:00 am weekdays, 10:05 am on Sundays, and making the journey in 50 minutes; in the up direction it left Henley at 9:15 pm weekdays, 9:00 pm on Sundays, and with a stop at Westbourne Park made the journey in 52 minutes.
Besides this excellent express and the through trains above-named, through coaches are worked from Paddington on two other trains daily, and also (by a "slip" at Twyford) on Wednesday nights only, by the 12.10 midnight. The 8.50 a.m. up branch train from Henley, which meets a direct fast to Paddington at Twyford, also works through vehicles to London. In the opposite direction there is a through train from Reading at 10.13 a.m., in connection with expresses from Wolverhampton (slip at 9.43) and Cheltenham (slip at 9.56), returning from Henley at 5.55 p.m., "reversing", of course, at Twyford.
The twentieth century
From 1900 there were further new direct expresses non-stop to and from Paddington in 50 minutes; by 1902 there were five through trains from Paddington, one of them slipped at Twyford. About 20 trains a day ran each way on the branch for most of the twentieth century.
A new station at Wargrave opened on 1 October 1900 with two platforms; a new road from the station site to the village had to be built.
The old turntable at Henley was proving inadequate as engine dimensions increased, and a new turntable was brought into use in 1903.
The station canopies at Henley had been in length, but in 1904 another were added to those on the Up platform.
ATC trials
The Great Western Railway developed a system referred to as Automatic train control (ATC). In its developed form it gave drivers an audible and visual indication in the cab of the aspect of a distant signal as it was approached or passed. If a warning was given and not acknowledged by the driver, the train brakes would be applied. Track equipment near the distant signals operated detection equipment on the locomotive.
The prototype system was trialled on the Henley branch at the end of 1905. The system was found to be successful, and in due course it was implemented all over the GWR system.
Train services
In 1910 there had been twenty passenger trains each way every weekday on the line, and seven on Sundays. By 1922 this had been increased to 34 down and 30 up with 14 and 15 respectively on Sundays.
A railmotor service from Reading was introduced in 1914, and later this was changed to an auto-trailer with an 0-4-2T locomotive. The through trains to London were generally worked by main line tender engines, in later years of the Hall or Castle class.
The first AEC diesel railcar of the GWR operated some trips on the line on or after 5 February 1934.
From 1948
The railways of Great Britain were taken into national ownership in 1948; the former GWR lines were now part of British Railways.
There was a water tower at Henley to provide steam engine water, and for many years it had been powered by steam from a locomotive given that duty. In 1950 an electric pump system was installed, but on regatta days a steam engine was stationed there to pump water as the many visiting engines all requiring water overwhelmed the capacity of the electric pump.
The boom in railway use at Henley declined after World War II, and the line was reduced to single track in two stages on 11 and 20 June 1961.
In 1962 a pioneering solid state interlocking was installed on the branch. The Railway Magazine carried a description of the new signalling equipment:
A new signalling installation, believed to be the first in the world to include electronic interlocking equipment, was brought into use recently at Henley-on Thames... The branch was reduced to single track, with a passing loop at Shiplake in 1961. The line is continuously track circuited, and there are acceptance switches or levers at Twyford, Shiplake, and Henley. The equipment is designed to perform the basic functions of railway signalling apparatus by controlling the interlocking of signals, so that correct distances are maintained between trains that follow or cross or approach each other. This is done by means of computor [sic] techniques using arrangements of plug-in electronic "bogie" units, in which transistors and magnetic cores perform "logical" switching operations. There are no magnetic relays of conventional type... The installation at Henley is operated from a mosaic-type signalling panel, of the pattern already standard on the Western Region, controlling 36 routes on the "entrance-exit" principle with a switch at the entrance point of the route and a pushbutton at its exit. Track, signal, point, and other miscellaneous indications are also shown on the panel in the usual way. For reasons of economy, all points and facing point locks are worked manually from the existing lever frame, from which all the mechanical interlocking has been removed.
The use of steam traction was also being phased out at this time, and the last steam trains ran on the branch on 14 June 1963. This was followed by the elimination of goods traffic, which ended on 7 September 1964.
In 1968 the passing loop at Shiplake was removed, and at Henley the platform accommodation was reduced from three to two on 16 March 1969.
The station buildings at Henley were now unnecessarily large, and they were demolished in 1975. The present building was erected in 1985, as part of a joint development with Hallmark Cards Ltd; that company erected an office building on part of the site vacated when the railway line was shortened by 200 feet; the new station premises had a single platform.
The station buildings at Wargrave and Shiplake were demolished in 1985, being replaced by simple shelters.
Network SouthEast introduced the Thames Turbo trains which ply the line.
The passenger train service is operated by First Great Western which, since September 2015 has traded as Great Western Railway.
Stations
Stations on the line are:
; main line station;
; opened 1 October 1900;
;
Henley; renamed 1895.
Regatta Line branding
As is common for branch lines, the Regatta Line brand has been introduced to ally public awareness of the train services with a tourist/educational stop along its course. The name refers to Henley Royal Regatta, an internationally important rowing competition for which the town of Henley-on-Thames is famed, and supplemented since the late 20th century by the country's River and Rowing Museum, Henley Women's Regatta and Henley Town & Visitors Regatta. The logo depicts a number of rowing oars, again to reflect the connection with the Regatta, plus a stylised image of Henley Bridge – only three of the five arches of this 18th-century stone-built bridge are shown. The blue colouring signifies the river, and the purple is one of First Group's corporate colours.
Notes
References
External links
National Rail
Great Western Railway
Railway lines in South East England
Rail transport in Berkshire
Rail transport in Oxfordshire
Henley-on-Thames
Railway lines opened in 1857
1857 establishments in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokiri
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Pokiri
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Pokiri () is a 2006 Indian Telugu-language action thriller film written and directed by Puri Jagannadh. The film was produced by Jagannadh and Manjula Ghattamaneni by their respective production companies Vaishno Academy and Indira Productions. The film stars Mahesh Babu, Ileana D'Cruz, Prakash Raj, Nassar, Ashish Vidyarthi and Sayaji Shinde. In the film, a local goon whose killer instincts earns him not only his girlfriend's disapproval and a corrupt cop's enmity, but also the attention of a wanted crime boss.
The film was made on a budget of around 12 crore. principal photography commenced in November 2005 and lasted until April 2006. Most of the film was shot in and around Hyderabad and Chennai, except for a song which was shot at the province of Phuket in Thailand and the city of Bangkok. Shyam K. Naidu was the film's cinematographer, and it was edited by Marthand K. Venkatesh. The soundtrack and film score were composed by Mani Sharma.
Pokiri was released on 27 April 2006. The film grossed 70 crore worldwide and was declared an Industry Hit while remaining as the highest-grossing Telugu film for three years until it was surpassed by Magadheera in 2009. The film was also one of the fourteen southern Indian films to be screened at the International Indian Film Academy Awards (IIFA) Film festival, along with V. V. Vinayak's Tagore in 2006. The film won five Nandi Awards and two Filmfare Awards. It was remade in Tamil as Pokkiri (2007), in Hindi as Wanted (2009) and in Kannada as Porki (2010). It was also going to be remade in Urdu but was delayed due to some issues.
Plot
In Hyderabad, two rival mafia gangs headed by Dubai-based don Ali Bhai and Narayana resort to criminal activities such as extortion, contract and coercion to take control of the city. The new DCP Sayyad Mohammad Pasha Qadri, focuses on making the city a better place by working on arresting all of them. Pandu, a thug working for money and living in Hyderabad along with his friends, is hired by Narayana to beat up Ali Bhai's henchmen Mallesh. Pandu later joins Ali Bhai's gang for monetary reasons, where falls in love with Shruti, an aerobics master, who initially rejects his advances.
Shruti lives with her widowed mother and brother and her neighbor Brahmi, a software engineer who pesters her to marry him. A corrupt SI named Pasupathy, who works for Ali Bhai, lusts after Shruti. He is determined to make her his mistress, undeterred by Shruti's multiple rejections. After killing Narayana's henchman, Pandu is confronted by Pasupathy and is able to prevent Shruti from being molested. Shruthi meets him the next day to thank him, and Pandu introduces himself as a self-employed person who undertakes any activity for money. They develop unspoken feelings for each other angering Pasupathy. Surya Narayana, Shruti's employer suggests that she marry the man she loves.
To escape from Pasupathy's advances, Shruthi meets Pandu and proposes to him. After an attack by Narayana's henchmen, Pandu brutally dispatches all the goons, where he reveals himself as a remorseless assassin and suggests that she might want to rethink her proposal. After Shruti distances herself from Pandu, Pasupathy frames her with a mock assault by a few gangsters unbeknownst to her family and the local residents, intending to ruin her life and subsequently force her to be his mistress. Learning this, Pandu beats up Pasupathy and warns him that he will face dire consequences if he is found guilty of being involved.
Meanwhile, Ali Bhai visits Hyderabad and assassinates Narayana, where he meets Pandu to discuss the murder of a minister by blowing up children's balloons. Pandu rejects the plan as it would involve killing innocents. In the middle of their argument, the police raids the club and arrests Ali Bhai. However, Ali Bhai's gang members retaliate by kidnapping Qadri's daughter, drugging her and creating a lascivious video of her which they threaten to release to the media if Ali Bhai is not released, forcing the embattled Qadri to release Ali Bhai. However in her drugged state, Qadri's daughter reveals that her father had placed an undercover officer as a mole in Ali Bhai's gang. The gang members find out that an IPS officer by the name of Krishna Manohar, the son of a retired Inspector Suryanarayana, has gone undercover to finish off the syndicate gangs and is now a part of their gang. Ali Bhai kills Ajay, believing he is Krishna Manohar.
However, it is revealed that Ajay was actually Suryanarayana's adopted son. Ali Bhai then kills Suryanarayana to lure the real Krishna Manohar. When Krishna Manohar actually turns up, everyone, especially Shruti and Pasupathy are shocked to see that he is Pandu. After Suryanarayana and Ajay's cremation, Pandu forces Pasupathy to call Ali Bhai to find out his location, which is Binny Mills. Pandu arrives at Binny Mills and starts to kill Ali Bhai's gang members one by one, rescuing Qadri's daughter in the process. In a final confrontation, Pandu kills Ali Bhai by slashing his throat with a broken glass window and shoots Pasupathy by saying the following words: Okkasaari commit ayithe naa maata nene vinanu ()
Cast
Mahesh Babu as Pandu / Krishna Manohar IPS
Ileana D'Cruz as Shruti
Prakash Raj as Ali Bhai
Nassar as Suryanarayana
Ashish Vidyarthi as SI Pasupathy
Sayaji Shinde as DCP Sayed Mohammad Pasha Qadri
Brahmanandam as Brahmi, a software engineer, and Shruti's neighbor
Ali as the president of the beggar's association
Venu Madhav as the General Secretary of the beggar's association
Satya Prakash as Narayana
G. V. Sudhakar Naidu as Banda Ganesh
Subbaraju as Mallesh, Ali Bhai's right hand Nayak's henchman
Ajay as Ajay
Master Bharath as Shruti's brother
Sudha as Shruti's mother
Krishnudu as Pandu's friend
Satyam Rajesh as Pandu's friend
Pruthviraj as Vishwanath
Narsing Yadav as Sattanna, a gangster
Bandla Ganesh as a reporter
Mumaith Khan cameo appearance in the song "Ippatikinka"
Production
Development
In 2004, after Andhrawalas commercial failure, its director Puri Jagannadh planned a film titled Sri Krishnudu from Surabhi Company starring Chiranjeevi in the lead role. He later decided that explaining the story to Chiranjeevi, talking him into accepting the role, and filming the movie, would be a long, tiring process. He chose instead to revive the script of Uttam Singh S/O Suryanarayana which he had written during the production of Badri (2000). He approached Pawan Kalyan to play the lead role, but he declined it. Later, he approached Ravi Teja who agreed to play the lead; Nagendra Babu was to produce the film. However, Teja was approached by Cheran, an award-winning director, to remake the 2004 Tamil film Autograph in Telugu. Teja was eager to be involved in the remake as he liked the original very much. As a result, the production Uttam Singh S/O Suryanarayana was temporarily shelved. Jagannadh meanwhile directed and produced 143 (2004). Teja had backed out of participating in it, citing scheduling conflicts with other existing commitments. Jagannadh wanted to experiment by casting Sonu Sood in the lead role, but this too failed to materialise.
On 3 November 2004, Jagannadh met Mahesh Babu at the Taj Hotel in Hyderabad to outline the film's plot. It told the story of Uttam Singh, an undercover police officer, infiltrating a mafia gang as a criminal, with the intention of killing its kingpin. Babu liked the script but suggested Jagannadh tweak the script's backdrop to suit the Telugu-speaking peoples' sensibilities. Jagannadh agreed and also replaced the existing title with Pokiri. Babu wanted the film's production to begin in 2005 allowing him to complete his current commitments. While he waited for Babu, Jagannadh directed Nagarjuna in Super (2005). While reworking the script, Jagannadh took inspiration from Marana Mrudangam (1988) and State Rowdy (1989). Pokiri was produced jointly by Jagannadh and Manjula Ghattamaneni's production companies, Vaishno Academy and Indira Productions respectively, on a budget of 1012 crore.
Cast and crew
For Pokiri, Babu sported a longer hair style than in his previous films and shed five kilograms of weight. He used a new wardrobe and the same pair of shoes throughout the film. Jagannadh wanted to cast Ayesha Takia as the female lead. Due to a last minute change, the makers opted to replace Takia and considered several actresses including Deepika Padukone. Jagannadh approached Parvati Melton to play the female lead. She declined the offer because, at that time, her parents were against her decision to become an actress. He also approached Kangana Ranaut who could not accept the role because of scheduling conflicts with the filming of her scenes in Gangster (2006). After seeing stills of Ileana in her Telugu debut Devadasu (2006), Jagannadh signed her as the female lead since he needed a girl who looked like a teenager to play the role of the aerobics teacher.
Prakash Raj and Ashish Vidyarthi were cast as the film's primary antagonists. Raj played a mafia kingpin and Vidyarthi played a corrupt police officer, a villain's role he finds more fun to play than that of a hero. Sayaji Shinde and Nassar played the two other principal characters in the film. Jyothi Rana played the role of the mafia kingpin's moll, marking her debut in Telugu cinema. Isai and Subbaraju portrayed negative roles as well, with the former also making his debut in Telugu cinema. Ali played the role of a beggar and shared screen-space with Brahmanandam and Venu Madhav. Jagannadh added this trio to the film to provide situational humour. Master Bharath played the role of Ileana's brother. Mumaith Khan performed an item number in the film.
Jagannadh wrote the film's story, screenplay and dialogue with Meher Ramesh assisting him as script associate. Though having worked with Chakri many times in the past, at Babu's suggestion, Jagannadh instead chose Mani Sharma to compose the film's music. Shyam K. Naidu was the film's cinematographer and Marthand K. Venkatesh its editor. Chinna and Krishna were the film's art director and executive producer respectively.
Filming
Pokiri was shot predominantly in and around Hyderabad, especially in the Annapurna Studios, the aluminium factory near Gachibowli, Gayathri Hills and the Golconda Fort in 100 working days, from November 2005 to April 2006. Most of the scenes were shot in a single take though it took time for Babu to adjust to Jagannadh's style of filmmaking. Chennai-based stylist Chaitanya Rao designed the costume styling for Babu and Ileana. By late February 2006, eighty percent of the film shoot had been completed with the film's climax and two songs remaining. This made it Babu's fastest shot Telugu film with him in the lead role.
The song "Gala Gala" was shot in the province of Phuket in Thailand, and the city of Bangkok. Prior to the filming of the song "Jagadame", Shyam K. Naidu was busy on the set of Munna (2007) and was unable to shoot it so cinematographer K. V. Guhan, who had worked on Babu's Athadu (2005), was recruited instead. The film's climax sequences were shot in March 2006 at the defunct Binny Mills located in Chennai under the supervision of FEFSI Vijayan. He suggested that Jagannadh include a scene where Prakash Raj fails to hear anything for a while after he is hit by Babu during the climax sequence.
Babu stated in an interview that he had to shoot the film's climax and two songs continuously for thirty-eight days, adding that he had to visit a hospital to be treated for shoulder pain. During the shooting of an underwater sequence, a few electrical lights were used. The electricians changed the lines, creating a short circuit which resulted in the death of one of the unit members. Babu had gotten out of the pool two seconds before the accident happened, which he termed a "miracle".
Music
The official soundtrack of Pokiri was composed by Mani Sharma, with lyrics written by Bhaskarabhatla, Kandikonda, and Viswa. Jagannadh wanted Sharma to compose six songs, with two duets between the lead pair, three solo numbers by the male lead, and an item number. During the shoot of Sivamani (2003), Jagannadh listened to the song "Listen to the Falling Rain," which sounded like the song "Gala Gala Parutunna Godarila" from the Telugu film Gowri (1974). He later came to learn that the latter song was inspired by the former, and he decided to reuse the same tune with modernised instruments and different lyrics. Sharma was accused of copying the tune of the song "Jaleo" composed by Ricky Martin and "Rapture" by iiO for the songs "Devuda" sung by Naveen and "Dole Dole" sung by Ranjith and Suchitra, respectively.
The film's soundtrack, marketed by Aditya Music, was released on 26 March 2006, at Hotel Viceroy in Hyderabad with Babu's father Krishna attending the event as the guest of honour. Sify called the soundtrack a peppy one and chose "Gala Gala" as the pick of the album. IndiaGlitz called it a "run of the mill" album that lacks freshness. The reviewer chose "Devuda", "Gala Gala" and "Ippatikinka" as the picks of the album, rating each 3.5 out of 5. Cinegoer rated the soundtrack 3 out of 5 stars and stated: "The first time you hear Pokiri, the sound of it is good; it doesn't start to grow on you after a while, but a few of the numbers are hummable and ring in your ears", calling it a "mixed bag for Mani Sharma". The reviewer chose "Dole Dole" and "Gala Gala" as the picks of the album, rating each 3.5 out of 5.
Release
Theatrical
Pokiri was scheduled for a worldwide release on 21 April 2006. Due to delays in post-production activities, the film's release was postponed to 27 April 2006, clashing with the release of Bangaram and Veerabhadra. The film received an 'A' (Adults Only) certificate from the CBFC for containing obscene sequences and excessive violence. Dil Raju Sri Venkateswara Creations, Mallikharjuna films and Great India films acquired the theatrical distribution rights of Nizam, Ceded and overseas regions respectively. Pokiri was one of the fourteen southern Indian films that were screened at the IIFA film festival 2006 held at the Dubai International Convention Centre in Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
Remastered re-release
Pokiri was re-released in theaters worldwide on 9 August 2022, coinciding with Babu's birthday, with remastered picture and sound.
Reception
Pokiri received positive reviews from critics with praise for its direction, screenwriting, dialogues, soundtrack, musical score, plot twist, action sequences and Mahesh Babu's performance.
Critical response
The Hindu wrote: "An out and out action flick, one can see the director's thirst to cash in on the audience craze for such films. Nevertheless it's Mahesh Babu's show all the way. Mahesh's understated performance in Pokiri allows him to effortlessly reclaim the title of a star, overshadowing more questionable recent career choices." Sify wrote "Pokiri was designed as a mass masala extravaganza which satisfies the undemanding viewers. Mahesh Babu has strong screen presence that works to the advantage of the film."
Rediff wrote "Sporting a new, rugged look, 'Prince' Mahesh Babu has stolen the show. He carries the film on his shoulders, consolidating his winning streak after last year's Athadu. Another highlight of the film is its well-choreographed action sequences (if you can digest the violence), which give it a slick look." IndiaGlitz wrote "In Pokiri, the hero is introduced to us a ruthless baddie, part of the huge underbelly of mafia. By the time we come to the denouement, there is much twist and turn. If you like some racy action, fun, glamour and love, then Pokiri would be your kind of film."
Box office
According to Sify, Pokiri took an "extraordinary" opening across the globe and was able to cash in on the four-day weekend holiday. Pokiri was released in a single screen, the Jayaprada theatre in Chennai, where 98.5% of seats were sold putting it in second place in the city's box office chart, which Sify called an "awesome" feat. The film completed a fifty-day run on 17 June 2006, in nearly 300 centres and had earned US$350,000 to become the highest grossing Telugu film in the United States. By July 2006, the film had earned approximately 3540 crore and become the highest grossing Telugu film of all time. The film earned 11.70 crore in the Nizam region alone, breaking the previous record set in the region by Indra (2002) and earned approximately 2.5 crore at the United States box office.
The film completed a 100-day run in 200 centres and a 175-day run in 63 centres. The film completed a 200-day run in 15 centres, and a 365-day run at a theatre in Kurnool, becoming the first Telugu film to do so in the last two and a half decades. The film was screened in Bhagiratha theatre, Kurnool for 500 days at the rate of four shows per day and collected a share of 60 lakh. In its lifetime, Pokiri grossed 66 crore and collected a distributor share of 42 crore at the global box office. It held that position until 2009 when Magadheera pushed it to second place after its nine-day run.
Pokiri grossed over 1.7 crore in its 2022 re-release.
Accolades
Remakes
Pokiri has been remade in various languages across India. It was first remade into Tamil as Pokkiri in 2007 by Prabhu Deva, and marked his debut as a director of Tamil cinema. Deva remade the film into Hindi as Wanted in 2009. Wanted became the second highest grossing Hindi film of all time at that point. Pokiri was remade into Kannada as Porki in 2010 by M. D. Sridhar.
Legacy
Pokiri success elevated Babu to super-stardom and brought recognition to Jagannadh as a writer and director. The sequences featuring Brahmanandam as a software engineer, the comedy track of Ali and Brahmanandam, Babu asking Ileana to give him upma at the railway station were acclaimed. The fashion trend of wearing doctor sleeves increased in Andhra Pradesh after Babu sported them, and they continue to influence fashion even today. After the film's release, many films were released subsequently that had titles bordering on cuss words including Jagannadh's next film Desamuduru (2007). Babu revealed that he became confused after the film's success:It was such a huge hit, that if someone came to me with a script, I would approach the result of the film before approaching the character. I only wanted to act in movies that were like Pokiri, I think that was a mistake. It all got to me, and I felt that I needed a break from films itself. Initially, I wanted just a seven-month break. I signed Khaleja after nine months, but it just kept getting delayed, and the break ended up becoming a two-year-long holiday. But I didn't freak out... I relaxed for the first time in life.
Two dialogues spoken by Babu in Pokiri became popular: "Evvadu kodutge dimma tirigi mind blockaipothundo, vaade Pandugaadu" () and "Okkasari commit aithe naa mata neene vinnanu" (Once I commit, I won't listen even to my own words). The film was Ileana's breakthrough in Telugu. In June 2006, Trade analyst Sridhar Pillai said that the Andhra Pradesh trade felt that her glamour, screen presence, and on-screen chemistry with Babu worked to the film's advantage. Pillai called her the "new pin-up girl of Telugu cinema". Talking about being typecast after her success in Ye Maaya Chesave (2010) as its female lead, Samantha Ruth Prabhu cited the example of Ileana being typecast in similar roles after the success of Pokiri saying that it had become mandatory for her to wear a bikini in every film since.
Pokiri was parodied by several films. In Desamuduru, the character Gudumba Shankar, a saint played by Ali, is seen imitating Babu's mannerism from the song "Dole Dole". Brahmanandam's introduction scene in the film Jalsa (2008) is a spoof of Babu's introduction as a police in Pokiri. The same sequence was spoofed in the films Sudigadu (2012) where the protagonist is named Siva Manohar I. P. S., and also in Race Gurram (2014). In Dookudu (2011), Babu is briefly seen as a film director who makes Prudhvi Raj and M. S. Narayana recite the dialogue "Evvadu Kodutge Dimma Tirigi Mind Blockaipothundo, Vaade Pandugaadu" from Pokiri. The protagonist in Eega (2012), a fly, imitates Babu's mannerisms from the song "Jagadame" after injuring the antagonist played by Sudeep. Sayaji Shinde's dialogue in the film, "Tinnama Padukunnama Tellarinda", inspired a film of the same name. In Thank You (2022), Naga Chaitanya is briefly seen as a fan of Babu organizing and enjoying the film in Vishakapatnam.
Notes
References
Sources
External links
2006 films
2000s Telugu-language films
Indian action thriller films
Films scored by Mani Sharma
2006 action thriller films
Gun fu films
Films about organised crime in India
Telugu films remade in other languages
Films directed by Puri Jagannadh
Films set in Hyderabad, India
Films shot in Hyderabad, India
Films shot in Bangkok
Fictional portrayals of the Andhra Pradesh Police
Films shot at Ramoji Film City
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20retronyms
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List of retronyms
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This is a list of retronyms used in the English language. A retronym is a newer name for an existing subject, that differentiates the original form or version from a subsequent one. Retronyms are typically used as a self-explanatory adjective for a subject.
Retronymic adjectives
Analog Describes non-digital devices:
Analog clock: Before digital clocks, most clocks had faces and hands. See also: Analog watch.
Analog drawing: Drawing with conventional tools on a paper or canvas, as opposed to drawing on a computer using a software
Analog synthesizer: Before synthesizers contained microchips, every stage of the internal electronic signal flow was analogous to a sound that would eventually be produced at the output stage, and this sound was shaped and altered as it passed through each filter and envelope.
Analog watch: Before the advent of the digital watch, all watches had faces and hands. After the advent of the digital watch, watches with faces and hands became known as analog watches.
Analog recording
Conventional, classic, or traditional Describes devices or methods that have been largely replaced or significantly supplemented by new ones. For example, conventional (non-microwave) oven, or conventional weapon (one which does not incorporate chemical, biological or nuclear payloads).
Classic Doctor Who: Used to distinguish the original series of the classic show from the 21st century sequel, New Doctor Who. This retronym is used by the BBC when both of these shows air.
Classic Leave It to Beaver: Used to distinguish the original series of the classic sitcom from the 1980s sequel, The New Leave It To Beaver. This retronym was used by TBS when both of these shows aired.
Coca-Cola Classic: Originally called Coca-Cola, the name was changed when the original recipe was reintroduced after New Coke failed to catch on. This is an example of a retronym officially coined by a product's manufacturer.
Conventional airplane: In the late 1940s and early 1950s, this term was used to distinguish piston-engined aircraft from the new jet types.
Conventional landing gear: Term used to distinguish the traditional landing gear arrangement of two main wheels and a tail wheel (also referred to as the "tail-dragger" type) from the newer tricycle landing gear (two main wheels and a nose wheel).
Conventional memory: term coined when MS-DOS and other operating systems for the IBM PC and other IBM-like x86 machines went over the 640k memory limit with tricks to access extra memory with different code to address it.
iPod classic : Suffix added from its 6th generation. Referring to the original iPod model that still used a hard drive as opposed to the flash-based iPod shuffle and iPod nano, and a click wheel as opposed to the touch screen-based iPod touch.
Conventional oven: Before the development of the microwave oven, this term was not used. Now it is commonly found in cooking instructions for prepared foods.
Conventional war: Before the development of nuclear weapons, this term was not used. (War, Gwynne Dyer)
Traditional braces: Used to refer to braces that are metal and crafted by hand, as opposed to SureSmile, Invisalign, and other new technologies.
"Traditional Chinese characters": Used to contrast with Simplified Chinese characters.
Traditional animation: With the rise of computer animation, hand-drawn, cel-based (or "2D") animation is now referred to as this.
Civilian Used to refer to items that are not of military quality or for military use, to differentiate them from the military version.
First, I or 1, also part 1, version 1, etc., Senior, the Elder Used when there is a second, third, fourth, etc. version/incarnation of something. This is not a retronym if it is used from the start in the anticipation of subsequent versions. When a dynastic ruler has or adopts the same name as a predecessor, the original is often retrospectively given the Roman numeral I if he did not already use one in his lifetime. For example, the Dutch prince William I of Orange was just William during his lifetime. On the other hand, e.g. emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria was so entitled even though there were no subsequent emperors of that name. In the United States, names (typically of males) may also follow this convention, or the father may be given the suffix Senior (Sr.), with Junior (Jr.) for the son; Roman numerals would be used if the name is repeated again. In some cases, such as US President George Bush and Major League Baseball player Ken Griffey, well-known people have become retroactively referred to as "Senior" after namesake sons rose to prominence in their own right. Also sometimes used to refer to the first incarnation of a movie, video game, etc. after sequels have been created, although such works are seldom renamed in this way officially. When Sony released the PlayStation 2, a redesigned version of the original PlayStation was also released under the name PSone. However, the word "One" doesn't always refer to version 1 of a product, such as in Xbox One.
Freebase nicotine The liquid, if containing nicotine, that is vaporised by electronic cigarettes with regular use. Nicotine strength levels would typically be measured and sold in mg/ml. This term would not be in regular use, and would therefore not become a retronym until liquid containing nicotine salts, sold in strength levels as a percentage composition, had entered the market.
Manual Used to distinguish from automatic or electric versions.
Manual transmissions in vehicles were just called "transmissions" until the invention of automatic transmissions. Sometimes they are called "standard" transmissions, but that adjective has become a misnomer in the United States since automatic transmissions have become the standard feature for most models today.
Manual typewriters were likewise just called "typewriters" until the invention of electric typewriters.
Natural Use to distinguish from artificial versions.
Natural dyes like woad, indigo, saffron and madder were simply "dyes" until synthetic dyes were developed in the mid-19th century.
Natural gums were just "gums" until synthetic gums were invented.
Natural languages are those which evolved naturally in humans through use and repetition without conscious planning or premeditation, as opposed to recently developed constructed languages and formal languages.
Natural ropes or plant ropes, such as those made from hemp or sisal, were just "ropes" until ropes made of synthetic materials became common.
Natural satellites were just called "satellites" until the launch of Sputnik 1.
Natural skin care involves the use of topical creams and lotions made of ingredients available in nature; all skin care was natural until synthetic cosmetics were invented.
Natural sponge: all sponges were natural (either made from Luffa aegyptiaca or animal sponges) until polyester and polyurethane sponges came on the market in the mid-20th century.
Natural rubber or India rubber was simply called "rubber" until synthetic rubber was invented in 1909.
Old
Naturally used when there is officially a "new" version of anything, to refer to the previous version. For example, when British money was decimalized and the new penny of 1/100 pound was adopted, the previous penny of 1/240 pound became known as the old penny.
Old-fashioned refers to any practice which is no longer customary, e.g. in the context of dress sense, hairstyle or wording, as opposed to (the) fashion, which refers to anything which is at present customary. In popular music and the wider popular culture, the term old school (originally only used in hip-hop, but now in many other genres) has developed a similar meaning, and this has spread to other areas as well.
Offline Computer users will sometimes agree to meet offline, i.e. face to face in the real world, as opposed to online in an Internet-based chat room or other such means of electronic communication. Before the Internet became widely used, this was of course the only way to "meet" someone and the term to meet offline was unheard of. Stephen Colbert, on his 4 February 2016 broadcast of The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, remarked on the strangeness of so-called "offline shopping", regarding Amazon.com's retail bookstore endeavor.
Real Often used in a derogatory manner to signify that the original product is the "real" product, as if the new alternative is "fake". For example, "Real instruments" for instruments other than the synth; "Real car" for a fuel-burning car, as opposed to an electric car.
Regular or plain Used to refer to an original product after new versions are released. For example, one could formerly just ask for a Pepsi. But with the advent of multiple versions like Diet Pepsi and Pepsi Max, one might ask for a regular Pepsi when one wants the original drink. Similarly, regular Oreo cookies were called that after Double Stuf Oreos and other varieties were released. Another example is that in the United States regular gasoline (petrol or petroleum spirit outside the U.S.) has now come to mean 87 octane-rated unleaded (ratings in other countries vary). In the United States almost all gasoline had tetraethyl lead additive and was sold as either regular gasoline (octane rating of 89) or high test (octane ratings of 91 or higher) until leaded petrol was phased out starting in the late 1970s; all new cars made since 1975 have catalytic converters.
Plain M&M's: Plain M&M's candies (now Milk Chocolate) would not have been called that until 1954, when Peanut M&M's were introduced.
Plain old telephone service (POTS): The term refers to the telephone service still available after the advent of more advanced forms of telephony, such as ISDN, mobile phones, and VoIP
Plain text: Before word processing programs for computers with functions such as support for multiple fonts, underlining, bold/italic and other function came along, text files were simply just known as text. "Plain text" is also used in contrast to ciphered text.
Regular cab pickup truck (also called single cab) used when extended and crew/double cabs became widely available.
Regular coffee: The development of decaffeinated coffee led to this coinage.
Regular / Normal cigarette : A tobacco cigarette. Before electronic cigarettes became popular, all commercially available cigarettes were tobacco cigarettes. Along the same lines, the smoking of traditional cigarettes is sometimes referred to as “traditional smoking” in order to distinguish it from vaping, which could also be considered a form of smoking.
Tabletop Used to describe the original version of a board game or role-playing game once a video game version has been released. Tabletop can also refer to non-digital games in general in order to contrast them from video games.
Vanilla Used to describe an unaltered, plain version of an item, often in reference to software. For example, in computer games with expansion packs, it is used to distinguish the original version from subsequent versions, especially when the original game does not have a subtitle. For example, World of Warcraft could refer to either the original game or one of the expansion packs, so users may refer to the original as "vanilla" to distinguish it from the subsequent versions.
Wired Wired or hardwired refer to products such as telephones, headphones, speakers, computer accessories, etc., which are now available in wireless versions. Wireless telegraphy and wireless telephony were some of the first applications of radio technology, in the 1910s and 1920s; "wireless" as a noun today is sometimes simply a synonym for "mobile phone service"/"cell phone service".
Nouns
Numbers
1994 Level Before the Doom engine had more features added in source ports such as Boom ZDoom and Doom Legacy, all levels for Doom made around 1994 had limitations that constrained the gaming atmosphere. But when more features were added to source ports for better level atmospheres, older-style levels started to be called "1994 levels" to differentiate from the newer kind.
2D With the increasing prevalence of 3-D movies, conventional, non-stereoscopic versions of movies are starting to be called 2D versions. This is also used in reference to animation, to distinguish the older style hand-drawn or more recently vector-based animation from 3D-rendered animation.
A–B
Acoustic guitar Before the invention of the solid-body electric guitar, all guitars amplified the sound of a plucked string with a resonating hollow body. Similarly: acoustic piano.
American Morse Code This was the original signaling alphabet, suggested by Samuel Morse's assistant, Alfred Vail. It has a variety of different units and timings. It was later replaced by the Continental code (also called international Morse code), which has simpler timings and a different alphabet. Also called "railroad code".
AM radio Before the introduction of broadcast FM radio, the AM broadcast band radio was known simply as radio, wireless (in the UK) or as medium-wave radio (still the preferred term among radio enthusiasts) to distinguish it from the (also amplitude-modulated) shortwave radio bands.
AM(/FM) only radio Before FM radio receivers came to the market, AM receivers were simply just known as radios. However, as AM/FM radios started to include turntables, tape players, CD players, and later on analog AUX inputs, satellite radio and even USB, AM/FM radios without bells and whistles would start to be called AM/FM-only radios on their own.
Animal Crossing: Population: Growing! Used to refer to the original GameCube game after the release of its sequels. The name comes from its tagline in English-speaking regions.
Apple I Originally released as the Apple Computer, it was renamed after the introduction of the Apple II personal computer.
Artistic gymnastics Generally known simply as gymnastics before Rhythmic gymnastics was added to the Olympic program in 1984.
At-grade expressway Since freeways are divided highways with 100% grade separations, expressways are at-grade highways with no direct private access. Some jurisdictions have different criteria on the difference of word use, but sometimes they are used interchangeably in areas that don't have many at-grade expressways. Since expressway and freeway are sometimes used interchangeably, the term at-grade expressway has been coined since there was a time when all expressways were at-grade; prior to the 1940s which is when California and Michigan planned out the nation's first freeways. States like Florida sometimes use the term "freeway" in reference to expressways (at-grade or grade-separated) which are free-of-charge to use.
Atari 2600 Originally sold as the Atari Video Computer System (or Atari VCS for short). When its successor, the Atari 5200, was released, the VCS was rebranded the Atari 2600, after its part number (CX-2600).
Bar soap The common cake of soap used in the tub or shower was familiarly called "soap" or "bath soap"; the term "bar soap" arose with the advent of soaps in liquid and gel form.
Black Licorice In North America, licorice is often called "black licorice" to distinguish it from similar confectionery varieties that are not flavored with licorice extract, and commonly manufactured in the form of chewy ropes or tubes.
Black powder Called "gunpowder" for centuries while it was in common use. The retronym "black powder" was coined in the late 19th century to differentiate it from the newly developed smokeless powder which superseded it.
Black-and-white television Once called simply television, now the retronym is used to distinguish it from color television, which is now more commonly referred to by the unadorned term. Along the same lines: broadcast television, free-to-air television, over-the-air television, silent movie. Furthermore, "Standard Definition Television" has become necessary to distinguish sets from HDTV (high definition).
Boeing 737 Classic When Boeing introduced the 737 Next Generation (-600, -700, -800, and -900 series), the -300, -400, and -500 variants of the Boeing 737 still in service were called the 737 Classic.
Boeing 737 Original The 737-100 and -200 were known simply as the "Boeing 737" at first; when the 737 Next Generation was introduced, and the 737-300, -400, and -500 were retrospectively designated as the 737 Classic, the 737-100 and -200 became known as the 737 Original to distinguish these even-older airplanes from the Classics.
Breadbin C64 When Commodore introduced the C64C, which had a redesigned case, the original C64 model was nicknamed the breadbin to differentiate it.
Brick-and-mortar school A school that has a street address and building as opposed to an online school, which may have a main office building, but students can be located in a different locale than the teachers. The internet is used as a conduit for information exchanges, both synchronously and asynchronously.
Brick-and-mortar store, high street shop As increasing use of the Internet allowed online stores, accessible only through computers, to compete with established retail shops, the latter began to be called "brick-and-mortar stores" or "high street shops" to indicate that customers could (or had to) visit them to examine and purchase their goods. These two terms are also often used to describe the physical storefronts of a retail business that also sells products online. In the U.S. and Canada, "brick-and-mortar" emphasizes the physical construction of these stores, as opposed to the largely electronic nature of online stores. The terms "high street shop" (UK) or "main street store" or "downtown store" (U.S. and Canada) also serve to differentiate the more traditional retail venue from big-chain "box stores" such as K-mart, Wal-Mart, or Zellers, which did not exist prior to the 1960s. (The name "High Street" is commonly used in the UK for a town's primary thoroughfare. In the U.S. and Canada, it is more likely to be called "Main Street".)
British English Was simply referred to as "English" until North American English dialects and British English dialects started to diverge.
Broadcast television This term was coined in the U.S. to distinguish it from cable and satellite television.
Brown rice Prior to the mid nineteenth century, all rice consumed was brown or, whole grain. With the invention of white rice, brown began to refer to the traditional version.
C–E
Chicago II Refers to the second album by the band Chicago. The album was originally entitled just Chicago but the name was changed after the release of the third album, Chicago III. (Their first album was called Chicago Transit Authority, as that was the name of the band at the time.)
Classical Hollywood Cinema a term commonly used since the 1970s to refer to the mainstream commercial American cinema of roughly 1930–1960, which at the time was simply referred to as "Hollywood", "the cinema", "the movies" etc. (see 'film noir' below).
Classic Apple After Apple bought NeXT in 1997 and later became profitable, people began to refer to the pre-1997 history of the company as Classic Apple to differentiate it from the post-1997 Apple as the company was near bankruptcy when it bought NeXT. Apple nowadays is very successful and popular.
Classic rock a radio format referring to blues rock and hard rock music from the 1960s to the 1990s. The radio format previously was known as Album-oriented rock.
Classic Mac OS Originally called System and later Mac OS, Apple retroactively added Classic to versions of the operating system from 1 to 9.2.2 (which were partly based on Lisa OS) to differentiate them from the newer Mac OS X (which was based on NeXTSTEP).
Cloth diaper (Terry nappy) Before the second half of the 20th century, all diapers (nappies, in the UK) were made from cloth (terry cloth) and simply called diapers (US) or nappies (UK). The advent of the disposable diaper gave rise to this term.
Command & Conquer: Tiberian Dawn This name is sometimes used by fans of the Command & Conquer series to refer to the original game of the series, officially known simply as Command & Conquer.
Complex instruction set computer This name was coined after the advent of Reduced instruction set computer.
Constitution Act, 1867 Prior to 1982, when the patriation of the constitution occurred, Canada's constitution was known as British North America Act 1867.
Corn on the cob Before canned corn was widely available, "corn on the cob" was simply "corn".
Bic Cristal Before the 2000s, the Bic Cristal was named "Bic Classic" pen. Prior to the 1990s, "Bic Classic" was referred to simply as the "Bic pen".
CSI: Las Vegas Not used before the debut of the spinoff series CSI: Miami in 2002, and CSI: NY in 2004.
Curved, curly or smart quotes Straight quotes were made widespread by typewriters. The smart designation came about as word processing software would often change straight quotes into curved quotes.
Data-transfer USB port Before "recharge-only" (or powered USB) came along, all USB ports could both transfer data, and "recharge" mobile devices.
Day baseball Baseball played during the day, as all games were played before electric lighting in stadiums became common.
Dairy milk Used to refer to actual milk from a mammal's mammary glands, as opposed to plant milks like soy milk, rice milk, almond milk, and coconut milk.
Disposable battery Before rechargeable batteries became popular in AA, AAA, C, D and PP3 form factors, all batteries in those form factors were disposable. However, rechargeable batteries back then were limited to stationary and vehicular (sometimes semi-portable) applications.
Divided expressway/freeway (USA) Early expressways and freeways were divided corridors, but recent concepts of freeways and expressways have included occasional undivided corridors for economic and environmental compromises, as well as an initial phase prior to twinning. But it is unclear whether undivided versions existed first. However, the expressway, parkway and freeway concepts were developed with divided highways in mind during the 1910s (parkways) and 1940s (freeways), the German Autobahn would be conceptualized around the same time with similar qualities to freeways.
Dumb bomb a bomb dropped from a bomber plane, with no guidance systems. Not used before guided missiles were invented and replaced the free-fall bombs.
Dumb phone A phone with either no or limited internet capabilities. These phones also have no or limited ability to run apps. Before smartphones became popular, these were simply considered ‘phones’ or ‘cellphones’. They are also sometimes referred to as feature phones or “flip phones”.
English muffin Originally called a 'muffin' in southern England, the prefix is now used to distinguish them from the American version.
F–H
Face-to-face conference A conference whose participants meet in the same room, as opposed to using telephones or video cameras (similarly:IRL-meeting = in-real-life meeting).
Farmall Regular As explained at Farmall tractor, the name Farmall began as a model name but became a sub-brand name as additional models were developed.
Fat model In the console collecting scene, a "Fat model" represents consoles released before a model that is more compact and has different hardware specifications.
Field hockey (North America) Known simply as "hockey" (as it still is in the UK and Ireland) until ice hockey and roller hockey became popular. (In addition, there is a game called street hockey, which evolved from ice hockey.) Similarly, Field soccer (Football) and Field lacrosse (lacrosse). (Both North America)
Film camera As opposed to digital camera. Also, the use of a film camera is often referred to as “film photography”, “analogue photography”, or “traditional photography” in order to distinguish it from digital photography.
Film noir Prior to the 1970s, films with "film noir" style were referred to in English-speaking countries simply as dramas or melodramas (see 'Classical Hollywood' above). The term was coined in the 1950s by French critics who were taking the products of Hollywood more seriously than critics in the English-speaking world tended to at the time.
First Gundam A nickname, commonly used by Japanese fans of the franchise and coined shortly after the release of Zeta Gundam. Gundam 0079 is also used in the same fashion.
First Anglo-Dutch War Renamed after the Second Anglo-Dutch War in 1664.
Fixedsys The monospaced system font in Microsoft Windows 1.x and 2.x, simply called System under those systems. In Windows 3.0, System became a proportional font, and the original font was renamed Fixedsys.
Fortnite: Save the World Originally titled Fortnite, it was renamed after the release of Fortnite: Battle Royale.
Forward slash Before the introduction of ASCII and electronic keyboards for computers, typewriters had only one type of slash ("/"), normally produced by the unshifted key shared with the question mark. The rise of MS-DOS brought regular use of the backslash ("\") character found on computer keyboards (for specifying directory paths). Before that time the symbol "/" was known simply as a "slash" (US) or "oblique" (UK). (Other typographical names for this character are virgule and solidus. In the UK, the character was traditionally known as an oblique stroke or, more simply, an oblique. To slash means to cut with a scything motion, which is analogous to the motion of the pen as the character is handwritten.)
Free-range parenting Traditionally children had less supervision prior to the 21st century; this allowed for more independence and freedom in a child's decision making. There is a modern term called helicopter parenting which refers to parents who overly monitor, plan, and get involved with their kids activities.
French franc The currency unit of France before the euro, which was originally the only franc, but had to be distinguished from the Belgian franc, Communauté Financière Africaine franc, and Swiss franc after those countries adopted the term.
Friction brake Automotive disc brake or drum brake. Coined after the advent of the regenerative brake in electric or hybrid automobiles.
Frizzen This component was called the "hammer" while flintlock firearms were in use. On percussion cap firearms which replaced flintlock the striking component was called the hammer and the term frizzen was applied to the hammer of flintlocks.
Full service A radio format that consists of a wide range of programming. Coined after the introduction of contemporary hit radio in the 1950s.
Full-size van (US) Coined after the introduction of minivans by the Big Three automakers, although box trucks (bigger vehicles that were considered vans) existed prior to the Big Three's use of full-size van.
Game Boy Classic Used to distinguish the original from the Game Boy Pocket, the Game Boy Color, and the Game Boy Advance.
Game Boy Mono see Game Boy Classic. Refers to the monochrome graphics these models produced.
Gen I (Chevrolet Small Block)" Used to distinguish versions of the Chevrolet V6 and V8 engine from the 1997-present LS engines.
GM "old-look" transit bus : The GM old look did not originally have a name, but in 1959, a new design was released and was called the new look. After this many people started calling the older design the Old Look.
Ground warfare : The "Ground war" term/phrase developed some time after the widespread adoption of large scale use of aircraft as a viable weapon of war.
Hand-barrow: Originally, "barrows" suspended the load on poles carried by two people, one in front and one behind. "Wheelbarrows" are first cited by the Oxford English Dictionary to the 14th century, and in the 15th century the term hand-barrow arose to refer to the older sort of barrow, but in the British Isles the more common version was sedan chair (if a person was being carried).
Hand grenade : All grenades were hand-thrown until the invention of the rifle grenade, and, later, the grenade launcher.
Handwritten : Crops up in the late 19th century to contrast with "typewritten".
Hard cider : In Europe and Asia, "cider" refers to fermented (alcoholic) apple juice. In the U.S., "cider" or "apple cider" often refers to unfiltered non-alcoholic apple juice. "Hard cider" specifies the alcoholic version.
Hardcover book : Prior to the invention of paperbacks, all books were hardcover and simply referred to as "books".
Hard disk : All disks were hard (i.e. constructed of rigid instead of flexible magnetic material) until the advent of the floppy disk.
High-floor:All buses and trams were high-floor until the advent of low-floor trams and low-floor and low-entry buses.
Horse cavalry : Used to distinguish the now mostly obsolete original use of horses in a military mounted combat role, with the advent of tanks and other motorized vehicles (mechanized cavalry or armored cavalry) following World War I, and the use of helicopters (air cavalry) during the Vietnam War era.
Horsecar (Horse Tram in English speaking countries outside North America) : Used to describe the horse-pulled predecessor of the modern streetcar / tram. Originally called 'street cars' or just 'cars'. After street railway companies started electrifying their systems around 1900, the term became 'electric street cars' or 'electric trams', to differentiate from the previous horse-drawn vehicles. As time went on the word 'electric' was dropped, and as automobiles began being referred to as cars, the term 'streetcar'(US) or 'tram'(UK) remained to describe a public transit vehicle that ran on rails at street level
Hot chocolate : In the days before the invention of sweet solid chocolate for eating, the word "chocolate" was usually used to refer to the drink. For a while after the chocolate bar was invented it was referred to as "bar chocolate", but due to its rise in popularity in the latter half of the 19th century it eventually laid claim to the basic word.
Human computer : Until mechanical computers, and later electronic computers became commercially available, the term "computer", in use from the mid-17th century, meant "one who computes": a person performing mathematical calculations. Teams of people were frequently used to undertake long and often tedious calculations; the work was sometimes divided so that this could be done in parallel.
I–L
Indoor volleyball : Used to differentiate from beach volleyball after the latter gained prominence.
Independent bookstore : All bookstores were independent until the advent of bookstore chains.
Inground pool : A swimming pool where the filled high water level is flush with the ground; compared to above an "above ground pool" where the entire pool is above ground level
id Tech 1 engine : A name applied to the Doom engine. Later game engines by id Software used the "id Tech" nomenclature, beginning with id Tech 4.
iBook G3 : Originally sold as the iBook, these machines were renamed the iBook G3 after the release of the iBook G4.
iBook Clamshell : Originally sold as the iBook, the machine was nicknamed the Clamshell after Apple released the iBook G3 Snow.
iBook G3 Snow : Just like its predecessor, the machine was originally sold as the iBook before being nicknamed the iMac G3 Snow by Apple so the name could be used on the iBook G4.
iMac iMac G3 : Originally sold as the iMac, the machine was renamed the iMac G3 by Apple so the name could be used on the iMac G4.
iMac G4 : Just like its predecessor, the machine was originally sold as the iMac before being renamed the iMac G4 by Apple so the name could be used on the iMac G5.
iMac G5 : Just like its predecessors, the machine was originally sold as the iMac before being renamed the iMac G5 by Apple so the name could be used on the Intel-based iMac.
iPhone 2G : Used to differentiate the original 2007 model of the iPhone from its later models.
King's Quest: Quest for the Crown : The 1983 game was originally titled King's Quest until the fifth rerelease in 1987 when the subtitle was added to the box art, instructions, and all other materials. This was done to prevent confusion with the sequels which were already on the market.
Landline phone service : With the advent of cellular or mobile phone services, traditional hard-wired phone service became popularly known as landline phones. Previously, this term was generally only used by military personnel and amateur radio operators. (In the movie The Matrix a landline phone was also referred to as a "hardline".) Even though a considerable amount of landline phone traffic is transmitted via airwaves, this term comes from the physical cabling that provides the "last mile" connection between the customer premises and local phone distribution centers. Because of the communications industry's love for acronyms, landline phone service has also been called POTS—Plain Old Telephone Service. The logical complement of this acronym, "PANS" became a backronym for "Pretty Amazing New Services". In the telecommunications industry the term wireline is used for landline phone services, to distinguish them from wireless or mobile phone services. Wireline is clearly another retronym.
Lead-acid car battery : Before other battery chemical substances such as Ni-MH and Li-Ion were employed in hybrid and electric vehicles (although some current hybrid cars used lead-acid and some high-end conventional gasoline vehicles use Li-ion), lead-acid batteries were the only batteries for automobiles on the market; and they were also the only rechargeable ones on the market.
LED mouse : Before laser mice came along, all optical mice employed LEDs.
Led Zeppelin I : Led Zeppelin's first album was the self-titled Led Zeppelin; it is sometimes called Led Zeppelin I because their subsequent albums were called Led Zeppelin II and Led Zeppelin III.
Linear momentum : Before the concept of angular momentum was developed, the only type of momentum known was linear.
Linear television : Before the rise of video on demand, video hosting services, streaming media, and digital video recorders, the only way to consume television was through watching television channels, on broadcast, cable or satellite, which showed a combination of both live and recorded programming at designated times. Lithium primary battery : Batteries involving lithium were all primary cells (disposable) before rechargeable lithium-based batteries such as lithium ion batteries (later lithium polymer battery) hit the market.Live action : A form of a film that consists of images consisting of predominantly actual actors and objects that exist in the actual world, as opposed to an animated film, which predominantly consists of artificial static images or objects that take advantage of the persistence of vision principle of film to give an illusion of life.
Live poker : What casinos call the kind of poker played with cards by people sitting at a table; what many others still just call "poker"; also called a "ring game" or "cash game". The term became necessary to distinguish it from video poker, which is far more common in casinos today.
Live music : Before the publication of recorded music, all music was live.
Live band dance: Before the advent of DJs (and then automated playlists), all dances had live music.
Low-beam headlights : simply just headlights before high beams were introduced on motor vehicles.
Luggable computer : The first generation of computers marketed as "portable", such as the Kaypro or the Osborne series, were quite bulky and were heavier than a bowling ball. The weight was mostly because they had a conventional CRT-type monitor built in. When the first laptop computers came out, the earlier, heavier portable machines became referred to as "luggables".
M–P
Macintosh 128k : Originally named the Macintosh, changed to distinguish from the Macintosh 512k.
Madden 89, 90, 91 : Respectively known as 1988 video game, 1990 video game, and John Madden Football II, this was in the early days before year numbers were added to the title of Madden NFL video games.
Mainframe computer : When minicomputers (which were the size and shape of a desk or credenza) were introduced in the early 1970s, existing systems that often consisted of multiple large racks of equipment received the name "mainframe", alluding to the vertical cabinets or "frames" in which they were installed.
Manual transmission (also standard transmission) : Automotive transmissions were all manual before the invention of the automatic transmission.
Meatspace or "meat life" or "real life" : All of physical reality, as distinguished from cyberspace.
Mechanical disk : Before the advent of solid-state ram, and later solid-state flash memory (i.e. no moving parts), all computer disks had moving parts, hence the "mechanical" adjective. These include hard disks, floppy disks, and optical disks (CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs).
Mechanical fuel injection : The amount of fuel squirted into an internal combustion engine by a fuel injection system was, before integrated circuitry became applied to motor vehicle engines, originally regulated by a calibrated mechanical linkage. What made for the retronym was the more precise Electronic Fuel Injection, which employed more sensors.
Mechanical mouse : before the optical mouse was introduced, all computer mice had a mechanical ball.
Mechanical watch : Prior to the introduction of the first quartz movement watches in the late 1960s, all watches used a mechanical movement.
Microsoft Edge Legacy : Referring to its first iteration that used Microsoft’s proprietary EdgeHTML engine, from the Chromium-based counterpart that was released in December 2018.
Middle Ages : The period in European history from the 5th to the 15th century A. D. The earliest use of the term Middle Ages is recorded in 1604, to differentiate that period from the era of Antiquity and the then-beginning age of Modernity.
Minecraft Java Edition : The original release of the game, on Microsoft Windows, was simply known as Minecraft prior to the release of Minecraft: Windows 10 Edition. In addition, other versions of the video game on Microsoft Windows are Minecraft Classic, Minecraft 4k, and Minecraft: Education Edition.
Monaural sound, monophonic sound or mono sound : Often simplified to simply "mono". Before stereo sound was introduced, mono sound was simply just called sound.
Muzzleloader : For centuries virtually all firearms were loaded from the muzzle, so there was no need for a term to distinguish this characteristic until the general adoption of breech-loading firearms in the 19th century.
Narrow-body aircraft : An aircraft arranged along a single aisle permitting up to 6-abreast seating in a cabin below of width. Before the arrival of wide-body aircraft in the early 1970s, narrow-body aircraft was simply just called aircraft.
Natural language : A language, used by humans, that evolved naturally in its society. Contrast with computer programming languages or constructed languages. Often referred to as human language.
Natural person: To distinguish humans (the original "persons") from the legal fiction of "juridical persons", non-human entities treated like people in law.
Naturally aspirated engines : Internal combustion engines that use vacuum and venturi effect to draw the air and fuel mixture into the cylinders, without fuel injection, turbo-charger, or supercharger.
oil lamp: Before the invention of kerosene lamps and electric lamps in the 19th century, all lamps were oil lamps.
Old Nintendo 3DS Used to refer to the original models of the Nintendo 3DS before the release of the New Nintendo 3DS in 2014.
Old Labour : Term used in the 1990s and 2000s to refer to the policies the UK Labour Party was perceived to have held before Tony Blair's leadership, policies previously referred to simply as "Labour".
Old Look: A type of transit bus, which gained this name after the introduction of the New Look bus. Both were made by GM
Old Testament: In the Jewish tradition, the Hebrew Bible is known as the Tanakh.
Open captions : After the introduction of closed caption decoders in the early 1980's and before decoder chips in TV sets became standard in the mid-1990's, TV stations would occasionally add captions to broadcasts which were visible to everyone and could not be turned off, as was done in the 1970's.
Open sewer : Before enclosed pipes, or underground corridors for sewers came along, all sewers were open. For instance, the open sewers in the Middle Ages was largely responsible for The Black Death.
Optical zoom : The advent of digital cameras (and accompanying digital zoom) necessitated this retronym, describing the "analog" method of achieving close-up using a zoom lens.
Opposite-sex marriage : coined after the advent of same-sex marriage.
Organic farming, organic food : Farming practiced without the use of artificial fertilizers, pesticides, and so forth; and the food so produced.
Over-the-board chess (also OTB chess) : Chess played in real time using a physical chessboard, as opposed to computer chess or correspondence chess.
Overground train: Used in the UK to refer to trains that run above ground throughout, as opposed to Underground trains which only run partly overground. (The key distinction is that "Overground" trains are not fully integrated into the Underground system.)
Paid-for sales, pure sales: since the introduction of streaming into chart compilation, with (as in the UK Singles Chart) a certain number of streams often being added together to make a streaming sale, traditional sales of music (whether in physical or digital format) are now often referred to by these terms.Pai Gow tiles : Before pai gow poker was created in 1985, the original game with dominoes was simply called pai gow. Pai gow poker is significantly more popular than pai gow played with dominoes so this qualifier is used.Paleoconservative : Before the advent of the neoconservative movement in the 1970s and its breakthrough success in the 1990s, American conservatism was largely defined by what would be referred to in the 2000s (decade) as paleoconservatism.Pararescue jumper : The term Pararescue jumper is a retronym of the initials "PJ", which were used on Air Force Form 5 (Aircrew Flight Log) to identify anyone on board in order to jump from the aircraft. Pararescuemen originally had no "in flight" duties, and were listed only as "PJ" on the Form 5. The Pararescue position eventually grew to include duties as an aerial gunner and scanner on rotary wing aircraft, a duty now performed by aerial gunners. Currently, aircrew qualified Pararescuemen are recorded using aircrew position identifier "J" ("Pararescue Member") on AFTO form 781.Paper book: E-books being commoner by the day, it is now necessary to distinguish books printed on paper from books distributed in a digital form.Paper copy, hard copy : With the proliferation of exchange of documents in the form of electronic files, physical copies of documents acquired this retronym. Occasionally extended to the copying devices; i.e. paper copiers. The jocular substitute dead-tree copy is sometimes used.
Parallel ATA (PATA) : The original ATA interface was parallel; the qualification became necessary when Serial ATA was introduced.
Peanut butter : Prior to the invention of homogenized peanut butter in the 1920s, all peanut butter was old fashioned or natural, the oil separated and the product required stirring before use. In addition, all peanut butter was creamy or smooth prior to invention of crunchy or chunky peanut butter in the 1920s.
Permanent magnet : Used for an object that is permanently magnetized rather than an electromagnet.
Physical media (data transfer) : Refers to the transmission of data over wires, such as copper cables, fibre optic or coaxial cable, as opposed to wireless communication.
Physical media (media storage) : Refers to the storage of data on physical objects, such as paper, photographs, video tapes, or optical disks, as opposed to cloud storage or streaming media.
Physical single : After the coming of the legal music download, this term became commonplace to refer to a vinyl, CD or cassette single, which would previously have been referred to simply as a "single".
Pickup truck : Before SUVs (often referred to as "trucks") were introduced, pickup trucks were those on a sturdy frame with high ground clearance. The term SUV was not coined in the 1990s; prior to then, SUVs were referred to as "trucks" and sometimes "cars".
Pipe organ : Before smaller reed-based organs and harmoniums were invented, every organ used large pipes.
PlayStation 1 or PS1: to distinguish from the PlayStation 2 and its subsequent successors (PS3 and PS4). A smaller version of the original PlayStation was named the PS one, released shortly after the PS2.
PowerPC G1 : Originally called the PowerPC 601, the processor was nicknamed the G1 after Apple used the G3, G4, and the G5 names to refer to the PowerPC 7xx, PowerPC 74xx, and PowerPC 970 respectively.
PowerPC G2 : Originally called the PowerPC 603, the processor was nicknamed the G2 after Apple used the G3, G4, and the G5 names to refer to the PowerPC 7xx, PowerPC 74xx, and PowerPC 970 respectively.
Primordial element and Transient element : Elements that are found in nature, as opposed to those that have to be created in the lab using a collider.
Post sedan or post coupe : In the United States this indicates a car with a full-height B-pillar, as opposed to a pillarless (half-height B-pillar) hardtop. Generally used only in referring to classic cars from the 1950 to 1980 period because fashion and safety regulations dictate nearly all modern cars are post models.
Pragmaticism : In 1905, in order to differentiate his original version from more recent forms of Pragmatism, Charles Sanders Peirce renamed his version to Pragmaticism, a term "ugly enough to be safe from kidnappers".
Pre-dreadnought battleship : The revolution in battleship design brought about by the construction of HMS Dreadnought resulted in almost all the battleships built before her completion becoming known as "pre-Dreadnought battleships", whereas before they had simply been "battleships".
Premoji/pre-emoji or Premoticon/pre-emoticon : The use of specifically ordered sets of ASCII characters in typographic approximation that conveyed imagery and eventually lead to emoji being included in Unicode. Examples include ;) or ;-) =😉 :) or :-) =🙂 8) or 8-) =😎 :D or :-D =😃 and <3 =❤️. In many applications, premoji sequences will trigger a text-predict image of the emoji character.
Primary cell: Also, less formally non-rechargeable battery; Before the introduction of rechargeable batteries, all cells were primary, then when rechargeable batteries came along (lead-acid battery being the first), rechargeable batteries would formally be called "secondary cells".
Prime lens: A camera lens with a fixed focal length (e.g. 28 mm), as opposed to a zoom lens, which can cover a range of focal lengths (e.g. 28–105 mm). Before the invention of zoom lenses, all camera lenses had a fixed focal length, so they were just called "lenses".
Procedural programming: Before object-oriented programming was invented in the 1980s, there was just programming.
Program Files (x86): Before x86-64 versions of Microsoft Windows were released, all Windows applications since Windows 95 were installed in the directory back when it was simply just C:\Program Files.
Prop airplane : As jet aircraft became the primary people movers of the airways, the older propeller-based technology received this occasional shorthand nickname to distinguish it.
Pulse dialing : After touch tone dialing on telephones became common, the older dialing standard became known as pulse dialing.
R–Z
Raw milk : also called fresh milk, refers to milk that has not been pasteurized, a process which did not become standard until the 1800s
Real numbers : coined after the development of the imaginary numbers.
Real mode : before protected mode had been introduced in the 80286 processor, the term "real mode" was not in use for MS-DOS memory management.
Real tennis : was once known simply as tennis, but came into use at the end of the 19th century to distinguish it from the game of lawn tennis patented in 1874. The term "real tennis" has become more vague now since video game tennis has come along. Therefore, real tennis is now court tennis.
Red Book audio CD : At first, all audio CDs complied with the Red Book standard. Then came other implementations of the audio CD, such as Super Audio CD, MP3 CDs, and DVD-Audio, and the original is now referred to as Red Book audio to differentiate between different standards.
Red panda or lesser panda Were known as pandas in the English language, prior to the discovery and naming of the Giant Panda on the year 1869.
Reel-to-reel or open reel : Tape recorders were originally simply tape recorders, as they all used a pair of open reels to hold the magnetic recording medium. The term reel-to-reel was introduced when various forms of cassette tape formats became popular.
Reflective liquid crystal display : before LCDs had backlighting, all LCDs required the reflection of room light or sunlight in order to see the screen.
Regular Nintendo : a colloquial nickname for the original Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) coined when Super Nintendo Entertainment System (Super NES) was introduced to the market.
Roller skates : The term applied to all types of skates, though with the popularization of "rollerblades" during the 1990s, the term roller skates started to refer to older two axle template.
Rotary telephone or dial telephone : The kind of telephone in common use before touch-tone telephones.
Rugby union : To differentiate it from its descendant, rugby league. Like hockey, the original term of rugby is still widespread.
Scalar processors : As opposed to Vector processors.
Scripted series : Created in the wake of the success of reality television, the term applies to both fiction and non-fiction television with an identified writer or writers. The term can be misleading since reality television is almost never wholly improvised and often includes writing of some kind.
Seventy-eight (78) rpm records : Before the advent of rpm and 45 rpm vinyl records, these were known simply as records, phonograph records or gramophone records.
short file name : (officially referred to as 8.3 filename) before the advent of long filenames. FAT file systems only had 11 characters, three of which form the extension. The ISO 9660 filesystem for CD-ROMs has similar specifications to conform to the FAT specs.
Shovel Knight: Shovel of Hope : Refers to the 2014 video game originally known as Shovel Knight. For the game's 2017 Nintendo Switch release, the game was given the subtitle to make it more consistent with its included DLC campaigns. The overall package was renamed to Shovel Knight: Treasure Trove.
Silent film : In the earliest days of the film industry, all films were without recorded sound. Once "talkies" became the norm, it became necessary to specify that a particular film was "silent". The term "silent film" is also a misnomer, because silent films were typically presented in theatres with live musical accompaniment.
Sit-down restaurant : With the rise of fast-food and take-out restaurants, the "standard" restaurant received a new name in the United States. (In the United Kingdom, fast food and takeaway (takeout) outlets are not normally referred to as "restaurants", so the "sit-down" qualifier is not necessary.)
Smart Fortwo : Originally sold as the Smart City-Coupé, the car was renamed the Fortwo upon the release of the Smart Forfour.
Snail mail (also known as land mail, paper mail, p-mail, and postal mail) : Non-electronic mail delivered to physical locations, such as one's home or business. Before email and voice mail, all mail was physical, and much slower by comparison – thus, the dysphemistic "snail" appellation. Compare surface mail, below.Sneakernet: Before the Internet became popular, the so-called "sneakernet" was simply just a regular transfer of computer data on physical, interchangeable media. For instance, punched tape was used for this purpose at first, then floppy disks, then sneakernet was coined when the Internet became popular, now modern sneakernets involve transfer of Secure digital cards, USB flash drives, external hard drives, optical disks (CDs, DVDs, Blu-rays), etc.Snow skiing: Water skiing now necessitates this differentiation. This, however, only applies to an area where both "snow" as well as "water" skiing are likely. "Snow skiing" would not be mentioned in the Alpine regions, unless large lakes offered the availability of water skiing.
Solid-propellant rocket: Refers to rockets that use a solid propellant such as gunpowder or RDX; liquid-propellant rockets were invented in the mid-20th century.
Solo motorcycle : So called instead of motorcycle when some were being built with a sidecar. (see disputed retronyms below for more info).
Sourdough: Before other approaches to leavening bread were used, all bread dough was at least partially "sour".
Special relativity : Term introduced after Einstein developed general relativity.
standard AUX input (standard auxiliary input) : The common name for AUX audio inputs that doesn't employ an iPod dock connector, USB, optical/coaxial S/PDIF digital audio or proprietary mechanical standards that employ multiple standards alongside proprietary audio signaling standards. It usually refers to 1/8th inch TRS connectors, but sometimes it can refer to a set of red and white RCA stereo jacks.
Star Trek: The Original Series: The series' actual title Star Trek is now often used to refer collectively to the original series and its multitude of spin-offs.Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope : Originally released in 1977 under the title Star Wars. The new title was applied to a 1979 publication of the script and (following the 1980 release of Star Wars: Episode V – The Empire Strikes Back) to a 1981 amended re-release of the original film.
Static electricity : see triboelectricity, below.
Steam train : In the 19th century, before the advent of electric and diesel-powered trains, steam trains were just "trains".
Strike-anywhere match : After the development of the safety match, that could only be lit by striking a custom surface containing phosphorus, the older non-safety matches were still in demand.
Studio recording, studio album : Before live albums, music for distribution on records was only recorded in a studio.
Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels: In 1986, the first sequel to the hit NES game Super Mario Bros. was released in Japan as Super Mario Bros. 2. Because of its extreme difficulty and similarity to its predecessor, Nintendo of America opted not to release the game in North America. Instead, Nintendo released a remake of Yume Kōjō: Doki Doki Panic as the North American Super Mario Bros. 2 in 1988. The original sequel was eventually rereleased worldwide as part of the Super Mario All-Stars compilation, but under the moniker Super Mario Bros.: The Lost Levels. Outside of Japan, this name persists.
Super Mario USA: When the American Super Mario Bros. 2 was released in Japan, it was retitled Super Mario USA.Surface mail : Traditional mail, delivered by road, rail, and ship, retrospectively named following the development of airmail. Compare snail mail, above.Survivor: Borneo : Broadcast as just Survivor. When the show subsequently used other locales, the location of the first season was added to the title to distinguish it.
Terrestrial radio: As opposed to satellite radio.
Terrestrial television: As opposed to satellite television and cable television.
Textile top convertible : Before retractable hardtops became popular, convertibles mostly had textile tops which folded when stowed away for a top-down ride.
Text-only dialogue: Before voice acting became commonplace in video games, text was used to convey dialogue between characters (especially in genres such as RPGs and adventure games). Some games, such as the Yakuza series, still uses text-only dialogue in addition to voice acting, depending on the importance of a cutscene.
Tie-on pocket : Early pockets were pouches, similar to a purse, tied around the waist and worn underneath the wearer's outer garments. Once pockets began to be sewn directly into clothing, these pouch-like pockets needed to be differentiated from those that had been integrated into the garment.
Transformers: Generation 1 : referring to the original Transformers toyline which ran from 1984 to 1992, and the assorted tie-in media. Then known only as "The Transformers", when the sequel series, Transformers: Generation 2 launched by Hasbro in 1993, all previous subject matter was dubbed "Generation 1" – many individuals did this independently, as it is a logical progression, and when the online fandom began growing in the 1990s, the term became the definitive one for that era. The term subsequently made it into official use through toy reissues and comic books, most notably on Japanese toy packaging.
Triboelectricity : Electricity was so named from the Greek word for amber, because of the discovery that if it was rubbed (generating what is now called triboelectricity) it would attract objects (due to a charge of static electricity). Electric currents and other forms of generation were discovered later.Tube amplifier : Tube amplifiers for musical instruments were largely replaced by "transistor" (or solid state) amplifiers during the 1960s and 1970s.Tube TV or CRT TV : Originally, all televisions used a cathode ray tube (CRT) to produce a TV image. But with the recent popularity of newer television technologies such as LCD, plasma, or DLP, some stores now describe the sets that still use a picture tube as tube TVs or CRT TVs.
Two-door coupe: Before four-door cars started to have coupe-like styling in recent years, coupes mostly referred to 2-door cars. Examples of 4-door cars that have used coupe as a marketing term are the BMW X6 SUV and the Dodge Charger sedan which reuses the name of a 1970s 2-door car.
Ultimate Doom: Before Doom II, Ultimate Doom was originally just simply Doom. Doom was originally just a mail-order game, then when Doom II sold successfully in stores, Doom was re-released as a retail product, it was dubbed Ultimate Doom to differentiate from Doom II. It added a new episode called Thy Flesh Consumed.
Uncontrolled road (or uncontrolled highway) : Before the concept of controlled-access roads, which some call expressways came along, even predating automobiles, all roads had direct access to private property or public event or government grounds. When the controlled-access roads came along, they helped to virtually eliminate direct driveway access to private property or parking lots with only select crossroads for direct access. One had to use the term uncontrolled road to differentiate. However, the introduction of freeways (which other countries referred to as autoroutes, motorways and whatnot) further complicated matters by necessitating the use of the term at-grade expressway (see above). Recent uncontrolled roads have even adopted qualities of freeways and expressways such as paved shoulders (sometimes with rumble strips), freeway speed limits, and grade-separated ramp junctions (though most are just the at-grade "guest" of diamond junctions).
Unstyled John Deere tractor: After industrial design was applied to the sheet metal styling of John Deere tractors, the distinction unstyled was retronymously applied to earlier models whose model name was the same, for example, styled Model A versus unstyled Model A Upright bicycle: The advent of the Recumbent bicycle sometimes requires a speaker to make the distinction between that and the conventional "upright bicycle".
Vanilla Doom: The advent of source ports for Doom have altered gameplay behavior.
Viennese waltz : The original waltz, as distinct from other styles of waltz that have since developed.
Visible light : Before the discovery of invisible wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, all light was considered visible.
Water-activated stamps (gummed stamps) : The predominant kind of postage stamp before self-adhesive stamps became popular.
Web 1.0 : a term used from the mid-2000s onward to refer to the World Wide Web / Internet of the 1990s and early 2000s. At the time, it was referred to simply as "the web" or (less accurately) "the internet" or "the net".
Whole milk : Milk was formerly available in just one version, with the cream included, and benefited eventually by pasteurization and homogenization. But it was still called simply milk. This variety of milk is now referred to in the U.S. as whole milk (3.25% milkfat) to distinguish it from 2% (reduced fat) milk, 1% (low fat) milk, and skim milk (nearly no fat). In the UK, the terms whole milk (also full-cream milk or full-fat milk) (3.5%), semi-skimmed milk (about 1.5%) and skimmed milk (almost no fat) are commonly used.
Whole wheat : All flour, bread, pasta, etc. consisted of some combination of endosperm, germ and bran before white flour was created in the mid 19th century and became the more dominant variant when referring to flour.
Windows 10, version 1507 Win16 : The original, 16-bit Windows API, as distinguished from the newer Win32 and Win64.
Windows 8.0 Zune 30 : Used to describe the first-generation Zune device; the "30" was added after the release of the Zune 4, 8, and 80
Geographic retronyms
Proper names
These are proper names for the described regions, or corridors.
Abandoned Pennsylvania Turnpike : A section of the Pennsylvania Turnpike between Breezewood and Hustontown which was bypassed by a new alignment that bypassed the tunnels because it was too costly to blast away more rock to widen the travel lanes.
Asia Minor : The name Asia was first applied to the mainland east of the Aegean islands, and later extended to the greater landmass of which that is a peninsula.
Baja California : The name California was first applied to the peninsula (thought to be an island) now known as Baja ("Lower"), and later extended – and then restricted – to Alta ("Upper") California, and finally to the current U.S. state.
East Indies : After Columbus landed in the West Indies.
East Prussia : Prussia began as a duchy in the kingdom of Poland. As the highest-ranking dignity of the Hohenzollern dynasty, the name came to be applied to their territories stretching across Germany. The name East Prussia became more significant when it was separated from the rest of Prussia and Germany by the Polish Corridor.
EUxx "EU" followed by two digits is often used in statistics to indicate the different makeup of the European Union
EU12: the twelve-member EU as founded in 1993; most of the Western European nations
EU15: the fifteen-member EU after Austria, Finland and Sweden joined in 1995
EU25: the EU from 2004 to 2007 after ten eastern and central European nations joined
EU27: the EU from 2007 to 2013, after Romania and Bulgaria were added
EU28: the EU from 2013 to 2020, after Croatia joined
EU27 is now used to refer to the EU after the United Kingdom left in 2020; it was also used after the 2016 Brexit referendum to refer to "the EU countries less the UK" as they negotiated with the UK government
First Chinatown: First Chinatown refers to Toronto's original Chinatown at Dundas and Elizabeth Streets in The Ward, and was known as such until the construction of the new city hall and public square in the 1960s. Most stores that occupied the construction project was cleared through expropriation. The resulting development caused the westward relocation of Chinatown to its current location at Dundas Street and Spadina Avenue.
Great Britain : Britons fleeing the Germanic invasions settled in Armorica which became Brittany or Little Britannia.
Lower Saxony : The kingdom and duchies of Saxony are outside the original lowland territory of the Saxon people.
Manhattan Chinatown : For a long time, New York City had only one Chinatown. However, there are now large Chinese communities in Flushing, Queens and Sunset Park, Brooklyn, and thus, a need has developed to differentiate among the city's three Chinatowns.
Old Chinatown : London's original Chinatown (destroyed in The Blitz) was in Limehouse; the new Chinatown is in Soho. Also used in Houston, Texas, to the Chinatown district located east of the George R. Brown Convention Center and south of BBVA/Compass Stadium.
Old Toronto : Old Toronto refers to the old City of Toronto, prior to the amalgamation of Toronto in 1998. In 1998, the Government of Ontario dissolved the regional municipality of Metropolitan Toronto, as well as the region's constituent municipalities (including Old Toronto). The former municipalities that made up Metropolitan Toronto were amalgamated into a single entity, the present-day city of Toronto.
Old World: After Columbus landed in the Americas ("The New World").
Old Northwest, Old Southwest and Old West: Regions formerly at these extreme corners of the United States.
General descriptions
These are less official descriptions that are commonly used.
Contiguous United States or Lower 48 : Referred to simply as The United States before Alaska and Hawaii, which are American exclaves, became states.
Historiographic retronyms
Aztec Empire : Term coined by Alexander von Humboldt in the early 19th Century to differentiate between the pre-Hispanic "Mexican empire" and the then new post-Hispanic one (this, in turn, became known as the First Mexican Empire upon the French-backed enthronement of Maximilian I in 1864).
Byzantine Empire : Term coined in 1557 to name the East Roman Empire, then defunct by over a century, in the historical period following the disintegration of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. The entity was commonly known as 'Roman Empire' to its inhabitants and 'Greek Empire' to contemporary Western Europeans.
Gran Colombia : Historians' term for the first "Republic of Colombia", which included what are now Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama.
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth : Term coined in the 20th century, after the restoration of separate Poland and Lithuania as independent states.
Weimar Republic : Used to refer to the German Reich during the period in which it was a liberal democracy, prior to being taken over by the Nazi Party.
World War I/First World War : Originally this was called "The Great War" and commonly believed to be "the war to end all wars". However, when a second war enveloped Europe, Asia, and much of the Pacific, it became necessary to distinguish them. This convention has been used for many series of wars, going back as far as the First Peloponnesian War or earlier. Most recently, the 1991 war in the Persian Gulf, formerly called "Desert Storm" or just the "Gulf War", is now (since the 2003 invasion of Iraq) often referred to as "The First Gulf War".
Airports
When an airport consists of only one passenger facility, most people just call it "The airport" or "The terminal". But when an airport expands, it is often necessary to give the original building a retronymic adjective to avoid confusion. While some airports just rename older terminals or concourse with letters or numbers (e.g. Terminal 1 or Concourse B), other methods include:
Cardinal directions – when Newark opened Terminals A and B in the early 1970s, the existing passenger terminal was renamed the "North Terminal".
Proper names – Detroit Metro Airport only had one passenger terminal until 1966, at which point the existing facility was identified as the "L.C. Smith Terminal".
Disputed retronyms
Note: These terms imply age-old concepts, but the terms are usually applied to newer concepts with similar qualities. Since some of these terms fall under different contexts, that's where the confusion comes in.2.5D : 2.5D generally refers to computer data which uses 2D plane data to render in 3D, and sometimes 2D sprites in that environment too; in which Doom and Duke Nukem 3D famously had this. However 3D structures in general have existed before computers, but the term 2.5D was coined after computer games (and CAD) fully went 3D.Bose Acoustic Wave System : The Bose Acoustic Wave System was the first Bose product to use the term "Wave System" in its name. Newcomers to the Bose audio product lineup would think that this was just their top-of-the-line product, but this product was introduced prior to the introduction of Bose's simple Wave Radio (or Wave System) products, in which the simpler Wave Systems were cost-reduced versions of the "Wave" System lineup, but the name "Acoustic Wave System" was used before Wave by itself was used, in which is somewhat arguable to historians.Disney's Aladdin : In the early days of the Disney's Aladdin media franchise, when the 1992 Disney film Aladdin first came out, the media franchise was simply just known as Aladdin. But other movies and media bearing the name Aladdin existed before this media franchise, so later on the name Disney's Aladdin would come along to clear things up.Expressway : The term expressway often refers to continuous highways with no private driveways but sometimes they have at-grade intersections. But in some jurisdictions it is synonymous with freeways, which have 100% grade separations. The term expressway wasn't coined until freeways were built, but the expressway concept itself has existed before freeways, in which because the term is sometimes synonymous with freeway, this is why the term at-grade expressway is sometimes used in reference to expressways with at-grade intersections.Mechless car stereo : Most car stereo had no "moving parts" prior to the introduction of interchangeable media such as vinyl records (Highway Hifi by Chrysler), 8-track cartridges, compact cassettes and CDs, but recent omission of CD players (cassette player omission prior) has left the systems mechless when solid-state means to play audio with MP3 and other file format support such as secure digital, compact flash and USB came along, of which many of these systems have an analog AUX input. The term mechless usually refers to more recent systems, thus it disputes its status as a "retronym". Occasionally, many car stereos are AM/FM only without AUX inputs, in which it is possible to use FM transmitters with them. Another thing that disputes this retronym, is that earlier AM/FM tuners had moving parts of their own just for the adjustment of frequencies (i.e. a string-driven variable capacitor and a static frequency display with a moving needle) prior to the introduction of digital readout with endless loop tuning (and later endless loop seek tuning) in the early 1980s.Nintendo 2DS : Before Nintendo 3DS came out, all Nintendo DSes were 2D to the meatspace level. However the product officially known as the Nintendo 2DS is simply a console that is capable of running 3DS games but without the parallax effect. 2DS doesn't refer to pre-3DS models, which is why this is a "disputed retronym".
Solo motorcycle : So called instead of motorcycle when some were being built with a sidecar. However, this retronym has gone into dispute because the so-called solo motorcycle can accommodate two passengers by itself.
Push lawn mower : With the introduction of lawn mowers powered by gasoline (petrol or petroleum spirit outside the U.S.) and electricity, the manually propelled lawn mower became known as the push mower. After self-propelled "riding" mowers became common, the term push mower was also applied to non-riding mowers.
Sonic 3 & Knuckles :The video game Sonic the Hedgehog 3 was supposed to have featured more stages, most which ended up being included in the later released Sonic & Knuckles. However, time and cost constraints forced the game cartridge to be "two interlocking pieces" since Sega, back in late 1993 had to make a big compromise in order to ensure a fair cost for a stand-alone cartridge for the Mega Drive/Genesis. Having a cartridge with enough capacity for both games on its own as "one giant game" could have meant pushing the cost up too high for an integrated product, so the game resulted in having Sonic & Knuckles exist as its own cartridge which had a "lock on" cartridge port in order to include Sonic 3 levels. Sonic 3 itself wasn't marketed to have Sonic & Knuckles levels even though original plans wanted to include them, so in some contexts, the name "Sonic 3 & Knuckles" as a subgame using a cartridge would be disputed as a "retronym" for Sonic 3 as a game.Standard transmission : In the traditional sense, the term "standard" transmission refers to manual transmissions. However, in some markets, automatic transmissions are nowadays more common and thus would be considered "standard".
Wet signature or wet-ink signature: a handwritten signature, as opposed to an electronic signature.Xbox One'' : The "Xbox One" (alternatively spelled "Xbox 1") used to be a colloquial nickname for the original Xbox video game console following the launch of the Xbox 360. However, this felt into disuse when Microsoft introduced the Xbox One, the third generation of the brand, to the market.
References
Retronyms
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Foundation%20Pit
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The Foundation Pit
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The Foundation Pit () is a gloomy symbolic and semi-satirical novel by Andrei Platonov. The plot of the novel concerns a group of workers living in the early Soviet Union. They attempt to dig out a huge foundation pit on the base of which a gigantic house will be built for the country's proletarians. The workers dig each day but slowly cease to understand the meaning of their work. The enormous foundation pit sucks out all of their physical and mental energy.
In terms of creative works, Platonov depicted one of the first state-controlled dystopias of the 20th century. The novel is often compared to George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four and Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, although critics say that The Foundation Pit cannot be regarded as a dystopian novel, as dystopian novels describe a catastrophic future, while Platonov's work describes the present, and the author's attitude cannot be called unambiguously critical.
Platonov's work is a representation of the conflict that arose between Russian individuals and the increasingly collectivized Soviet state in the late 1920s. Finished in 1930, the novel was not published in the Soviet Union until 1987 due to censorship.
The Foundation Pit is considered a modernist work. Joseph Brodsky wrote: "Platonov ... should be recognized as the first serious surrealist. I say - first, despite Kafka, because surrealism is by no means an aesthetic category, associated in our view, as a rule, with an individualistic worldview, but a form of philosophical fury, a product of the psychology of a dead end".
Plot summary
Voschev, a machine factory worker, is berated by management for sitting around on the job. When asked why he stands idly for hours when he should be working, Voschev responds that he is trying to find the true meaning of life and that, if he succeeds, his happiness will raise productivity. They don't buy the excuse. Management asks rhetorically, "What if we all get lost in thought — who'll be left to act?" Voschev is subsequently fired. He leaves the factory in search of new work.
Along the way, Voschev comes across a couple fighting in front of their children. He yells at them for not respecting the ideals of youth, but they tell him to go away. He then sees a cripple named Zhachev, who Voschev thinks is about to harass a group of Pioneer girls. Zhachev responds, "I look at children for memory." He claims that Voschev is "soft in the head" due to never having been at war.
Eventually Voschev joins a group of workers, all of whom are much stronger than him, a fact that Voschev attributes to his exhausting quest for truth. He learns that the group will be digging an enormous foundation pit in which they will later construct a housing complex for the country's proletarians. Voschev also works at a slower pace than everyone else except for one man, Kozlov, whom the others make fun of for masturbating so often. Safronov, the most politically active worker at the foundation pit, complains when managements tells them to stop working for the day.
The group's supervisor quietly climbs out of bed in order to take a walk outside. His name is Prushevsky and, like Voschev, he feels that something is missing in his life. "People make use of me," he says to himself, "but no one is glad of me." He contemplates suicide but determines he will first write a letter to his sister.
Chiklin, a typical worker at the site, discovers a gully that he feels the group can use for the foundation pit without having to dig so far into the earth. However, Safronov condemns him for thinking outside of the box and asks whether he received "a special kiss in infancy" that allows him to make better decisions than the government's experts back in Moscow. Prushevsky orders the men to take soil samples, but, after they are returned to him, he sadly admits that he doesn't know anything about soil analysis because no one ever taught him how to look at the inside of things.
Prushevsky and Chiklin have a conversation about the days before the Russian Revolution. He tells Chiklin about a girl who spontaneously kissed him. She was the factory owner's daughter, and, while he regrets not stopping to talk to her, he's sure that she has grown old by now. Safronov and Kozlov begin to fight. Both claim that the other is trying to undermine the workers' goals, but Safronov leaves when Kozlov recalls the time he "incited a certain poor peasant to slaughter a cock and eat it."
Voschev continues to spend his days picking up leaves and other pieces of nature as proof that the world was created without purpose. He then recycles an old excuse, telling Safronov that he would like to take some paid time off in order to search for the meaning of life, which will increase productivity. Safronov counters that proletarians live for the enthusiasm to work. Chiklin walks through an old tile factory and finds Julia, the boss's daughter whom Prushevsky — and he, too, it is realized — kissed so many years earlier. She is about to die and is being taken care of by her daughter, Nastya. Julia tells her daughter to never reveal her family's wealthy origins, lest she be punished by class enemies. Chiklin kisses Julia one more time before she dies and then brings Nastya back to the barracks. He returns to the factory with Prushevsky, who does not recognize the dead woman. "I've always not recognized people I love," he explains, "though in the distance I’ve yearned for them." They leave her body in the room. Chiklin blocks the doorway with heavy bricks and tells Prushevsky that her death has given his life a new meaning.
All of the workers meet Nastya. Zhachev, the cripple at whom Voschev yelled during one of the opening scenes, decides that he will kill of the local adults once Nastya has grown up. Safronov asks Nastya about her family, and, remembering her mother's warning, she tells him that she waited a long time to be born in fear that her mother may belong to the bourgeoisie class. "But now that Stalin's become," she adds, "I've become too!" Safronov is pleased at this answer. When Nastya goes to sleep, the men resolve to start working early in the morning so that the housing complex will be completed for any other underage visitors in the future.
The next morning, the workers find 100 empty coffins buried in the ground. Chiklin gives two of them to Nastya, who sleeps in one and keeps her toys in the other. Yet a peasant named Yelisey tells the group that the coffins belong to his village. Yelisey carries away the coffins, which are tied together by a long strand of rope. Voschev follows the peasant's trail. Kozlov unexpectedly shows up at the worksite wearing an expensive suit, the result of having been appointed chairman of the labor union council. Pashkin, who is now Kozlov's driver, tells the group that the peasants in a nearby village are looking to collectivize their farms. The workers decide that Kozlov and Safronov, even though they hate each other, will lead the collectivization process.
The workers complete the foundation pit and are happy about the success. Pashkin tells them that it will have to be at least four times bigger in order to make room for pregnant women, though, and he convinces management to give the order. Voschev, who followed the peasant claiming ownership of the empty coffins, returns to the worksite to announce that Kozlov and Safronov are dead. The workers steal Nastya's empty coffins and bury the men in them. She doesn't understand why someone who is not alive is given preference. "It's the way things are done," Chiklin explains to her. "The dead are all special — they're important people."
Chiklin and Voschev travel to the village in order to retrieve the bodies but discover that Kozlov and Safronov have been brutally murdered. The peasants say that they do not know who murdered the men. Chiklin kills one of them out of anger, and a second peasant turns up dead under suspicious circumstances. A union organizer known only as “the activist” tells everyone that the latter peasant was the murderer. They bury Kozlov and Safronov before receiving a letter from Prushevsky, who says that Nastya has begun attending nursery school. Nastya's working class rhetoric, which she first used in order to fit in, is now violent in nature. She writes, "Liquidate the kulaks as a class. … Greetings to the collective farm, but not the kulaks."
The activist rounds up all of the peasants but is terrified to make a mistake. He has not received any mandates from management and is worried about both underachieving and overachieving, fearing that the peasants will use smaller animals like goats in order to prop up capitalism. Chiklin and Voschev find an old man lying on the ground. He is trying to will himself to death, claiming that his soul disappeared when his horse was taken into collectivization. They leave for a literacy class taught by the activist, who teaches women and young girls how to write socialist words and slogans. Chiklin finds out that the local priest has been providing the activist with a list of names of the people who enter the church to pray. He punches the priest on principle.
A few days later, the activist announces that the kulaks will be exterminated as a class, and then their bodies will be sent down the river on a makeshift raft. Many peasants were expecting this to happen and stopped taking care of themselves long ago. One woman, for instance, is alive only to the pain she feels when stray dogs chew on her feet. Others rip their plants out of the ground by the roots, refusing to let their property be taken into collectivization. The rest of the peasants spend the night involuntarily vomiting.
Zhachev and Nastya visit the village, and Yelisey introduces them to the local blacksmith: an anthropomorphic bear who touts a keen ability to sniff out and kill kulaks. The bear takes Nastya and Chiklin hunting for the kulaks who were not liquidated. Before dying, one of their victims shouts out, "The only person who’ll ever reach socialism is that one important man of yours." They send the last of the corpses down the river and set up speakers for music and dancing. Zhachev isn't having a good time and keeps knocking peasants onto the ground for fun. He tells Chiklin, who begins feeling sorry for the people they've killed, that Marxism, along with scientific advancements, will resurrect Lenin one day.
In the early morning, the bear inexplicably begins to hammer away at iron. He's roaring loudly, almost as if in song, and no one understands why. However, the men join him and, in essence, lose themselves in the hard work. Prushevsky does not follow suit. A girl asks him to teach her knowledge, and he leaves the worksite with her. The activist receives a letter from the Soviet government stating that any peasants who seem too willing to have their property collectivized should be treated with suspicion as undercover agents.
Nastya wakes up with a cold. She mutters about spiritual complexities similar to those of Voschev. Chiklin drapes three coats over her body for warmth, but the activist, still upset about the intelligence letter from management, steals one of them from her. Zhachev tells Chiklin about the aforementioned letter, and Chiklin becomes suspicious of the activist's optimism and energy. Chiklin kills him with a sledgehammer. The activist's body is sent down the river like the kulaks were. The bear begins to weep, feeling isolated from the group. Voschev explains the bear feels that way because he has no purpose in life except to work. Nastya's condition is also worsening. "Bring me Mama's bones," she continues to say. "I want them." The workers decide to bring her back to the worksite. Prushevsky, however, stays in the village in order to teach the children. Nastya dies the next morning.
Voschev returns to the worksite with all of the collectivize property, including its previous owners. He doesn't know how to react to Nastya's death but tells Chiklin that the peasants would like to enroll as regular workers. They realize this means that the foundation pit will have to be built even larger. Zhachev, who at the beginning of the novel vowed to kill all of the adults at Nastya's coming of age, refuses to help reconstruct the foundation pit. "Communism's something for the kids," Zhachev says. He leaves the worksite and never returns.
Chiklin spends 15 hours digging a grave for Nastya in order to ensure she will be disturbed by neither worms nor human beings. The bear reaches out and touches Nastya one last time.
Main characters
Voshchev — Protagonist who is introduced in the novel immediately after being fired from a machine factory. Management claimed he did not work hard enough. He arrives at the foundation pit with the same work ethic problem. Voshchev has a soft spot in his heart for children and does not believe they have a bright future in the Soviet Union.
Safronov — Most politically active worker at the foundation pit. He opposes the time limits that management places on workers’ schedules and condemns other workers' attempts to contribute anything other than manual labor to the project. Safronov also dislikes Voschev's necessity for truth. He deeply hates Kozlov.
Prushevsky — Supervisor who, like Voshchev, feels that he does not understand the meaning of life. He contemplates suicide due to this feeling and spends one night sleeping in the barracks with regular workers.
Pashkin — Chairman of the local trade union. He frequently urges the group to work harder and later brings in former bureaucrats to pick up the slack. Pashkin once went through a long court trial in which his patriotism and ethnicity, specifically due to the name of his father, Leon Ilych, were questioned.
Kozlov — Worker who deeply hates Safronov and whom others make fun of for masturbating under the covers at night. He recites memorized quotations and slogans in order to instill fear in villages and to climb the ranks within the local trade union.
Chiklin — Worker who feels no guilt about killing a random peasant while searching for the murderer of Safronov and Kozlov.
Nastya — Daughter of Julia. She is brought to live with the workers and is treated as a special guest. She feigns loyalty to Vladimir Lenin, keeping the promise to her mother that she would not reveal her family roots.
Julia — Mother of Nastya. She makes Nastya promise not to reveal her wealthy roots, lest she be punished as a member of the upper class. Julia is the woman who kissed Chiklin many years earlier.
Activist — Unnamed organizer who maintains a great deal of enthusiasm. The activist is not too intelligent. He is constantly worried about management's opinion of him.
Bear — Anthropomorphic bear who works as a blacksmith's hammerer. He is talented at sniffing out kulaks, the members of a farming class whom the activist and others want to exterminate.
Zhachev — Cripple whom Voshchev passes at the beginning of the novel and berates for allegedly harassing young girls. He also abuses Pashkin's wife, knowing that Pashkin, who doesn't want to return to court, won't hurt him. At one point in the novel, a peasant refers to Zhachev as "comrade cripple."
Major themes
Platonov was one of the first Russian thinkers to criticize Stalin's plans for collectivization as inhumane. More so, Platonov was living in the Soviet Union at the time. Many other critics were dissidents who had fled the country for places like France.
Stalin notwithstanding, Platonov had a deep passion for the Soviet Union. He believed that the socialist system would protect the world from fascist rule, but he was not sure that the human race was ready for such a task. Nonetheless, he disagreed with critics of socialism who claimed that technological advances would free workers from poor conditions, countering that efficient tools would do nothing but cause workers to lose sight of what's important in life. "Some naïve people may retort that the contemporary crisis of production overturns this point of view," he wrote. "It does not overturn anything. Imagine the extremely complex technical equipment of the society of contemporary imperialism and fascism, the grinding exhaustion and destruction of the people of these societies — and it will become only too clear at what price this increase in the forces of production has been achieved." He later added in private notebooks, "Not only the technique for the production of material life is being perfected but that of managing people as well. Could the last reach a crisis of overproduction, a crisis of the historical dead-end?"
Platonov believed that he was fighting for the future. According to him, children were the reason that he and others were working toward socialism. This theme is easily observable in the quotations of Voschev and Zhachev. In this way, Nastya serves as a symbol of the Soviet Union's future. She is young, intelligent, and happy, but Platonov uses her death to symbolize his worries about the country's state of affairs. He concludes The Foundation Pit with a quick note: "Will our soviet socialist republic perish like Nastya or will she grow up into a whole human being, into a new historical society? … The author may have been mistaken to portray in the form of the little girl's death the end of the socialist generation, but this mistake occurred only as a result of excessive alarm on behalf of something beloved, whose loss is tantamount to the destruction not only of all the past but also of the future."
Philosophical aspects of the story
The story is replete with the philosophical vocabulary of an existential nature and has the character of a parable, where the protagonist is engaged in a painful search for the meaning of life, which also acts as truth, Happiness, and "the general plan of life." Lack of meaning in life leads to a feeling of boredom, a drop in the "pace of work", dismissal and loss of livelihood. The story contains an allusion to Decartes' famous expression Cogito ergo sum when Voshchev says that he does not exist, but only thinks. Every now and then he finds himself in Philosophy of space and time among the universal sad, patient, and unrequited Existence "without the surplus of life."
The artisans of the artel building the pit have the meaning of life, but they are emaciated and sullen. The solemn marching music of the brass band conveys "jubilant foreboding" and joy, but it is devoid of thought. Thus, the dichotomy of the meaning of life and joy is revealed.
One of the heroes of the Pit (Kozlov) generally doubts the need for happiness, declaring that from him "only Shame", while sadness implies involvement in the whole world. Another hero (Safronov) suspects that truth is a class enemy. The kolkhoz activist considers the truth unimportant, since "the proletariat is supposed to move."
Of ethical attitudes, selflessness and enthusiasm are valued, and negligence and backwardness are censured.
Reception
The Foundation Pit was not well received by Soviet officials, who saw the novel as a critique of Stalin's policies. It faced strict censorship and was not officially published in the country until 1987.
Others around the world received the work as a masterpiece. The Irish Times called the book a "hallucinatory, nightmarish parable of hysterical laughter and terrifying silences," and The Independent referred to Platonov as the "most exciting Russian writer to be rediscovered since the end of the Soviet Union."
See also
Andrei Platonov
Collectivization in the Soviet Union
Russian Revolution
Existentialism
References
1973 novels
1930 Russian novels
Soviet novels
Novels set in the Soviet Union
Novels set in the Stalin era
Novels published posthumously
Censored books
Modernist novels
Russian philosophical novels
Russian satirical novels
Dystopian novels
Existentialist novels
NYRB Classics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Xu%C3%A2n%20L%E1%BB%99c
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Battle of Xuân Lộc
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The Battle of Xuân Lộc () was the last major battle of the Vietnam War that took place at Xuân Lộc, Đồng Nai Province. Over a period of twelve days between 9 and 21 April 1975, the outnumbered South Vietnamese reserves attempted to stop the North Vietnamese forces from overunning the town and breaking through towards South Vietnam's capital, Saigon. The Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) committed almost all their remaining mobile forces, especially the 18th Division, under Brigadier General Lê Minh Đảo, to the defence of the strategic crossroads town of Xuân Lộc, hoping to stall the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) advance. The battle ended when the town of Xuân Lộc was captured by the PAVN 4th Army Corps led by Major General Hoàng Cầm.
From the beginning of 1975, PAVN forces swept through the northern provinces of South Vietnam virtually unopposed. In the Central Highlands, the ARVN II Corps was completely destroyed, whilst attempting to evacuate to the Mekong Delta region. In the cities of Huế and Da Nang, ARVN units simply dissolved without putting up resistance. The devastating defeats suffered by the ARVN prompted South Vietnam's National Assembly to question President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu's handling of the war, thereby placing him under tremendous pressure to resign.
The ARVN III Corps' last defensive line east of Saigon connected the city of Bình Dương, Bien Hoa Air Base, Vũng Tàu, Long An and the lynchpin centered on the strategic town of Xuân Lộc, where the South Vietnamese Joint General Staff committed the nation's final reserve forces in Saigon's defense. In the last-ditch effort to save South Vietnam, Thiệu ordered the 18th Infantry Division to hold Xuân Lộc at all costs. The PAVN, on the other hand, was ordered to capture Xuân Lộc in order to open the gateway to Saigon. During the initial stages of the battle, the 18th Division managed to beat off early attempts by the PAVN to capture the town, forcing PAVN commanders to change their battle plan. However, on 19 April 1975, Đảo's forces were ordered to withdraw after Xuân Lộc was almost completely isolated, with all remaining units badly mauled. This defeat also marked the end of Thiệu's political career, as he resigned on 21 April 1975. Once Xuân Lộc fell, the PAVN battled with the last remaining elements of III Corps Armored Task Force, remnants of the 18th Infantry Division and depleted Marine, Airborne and Ranger Battalions in a fighting retreat that lasted nine days, until they reached Saigon and PAVN armored columns crashed through the gates of South Vietnam's Presidential Palace on 30 April 1975, effectively ending the war.
Background
In the first half of 1975, the government of the Republic of Vietnam was in deep political turmoil, which reflected the military situation on the battlefield. At least two assassination attempts specifically targeting President Thiệu were foiled. On 23 January an ARVN officer tried to shoot Thiệu with his pistol but failed. The officer was subsequently tried by a military court. On 4 April a Republic of Vietnam Air Force (RVNAF) pilot Nguyen Thanh Trung bombed the Independence Palace with his F-5 Tiger. It later turned out that the pilot had been an undercover member of the Viet Cong since 1969. Following those failed assassination attempts, Thiệu grew suspicious of his own military commanders.
On 2 April, the South Vietnamese Senate recommended the formation of a new government with Nguyễn Bá Cẩn as the new leader. As a result, Prime Minister Trần Thiện Khiêm resigned from his position. Thiệu, in response to the Senate's recommendations, immediately approved Tran Thien Kiem's resignation and swore in Nguyễn Bá Cẩn as the new Prime Minister. On 4 April, while announcing the changes of government on Saigon television, Thiệu also ordered the arrest of three army commanders: Major General Phạm Văn Phú for the loss of Ban Me Thuot, General Phạm Quốc Thuần for his failure to hold Nha Trang and Lieutenant General Dư Quốc Đống for the loss of Phước Long. General Ngô Quang Trưởng, commander of I Corps, was spared as he was undergoing medical treatment.
During a meeting with the Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General Frederick C. Weyand on 3 April, Thiệu outlined his strategy to defend South Vietnam, vowing to hold what was left of his country. In his strategy, Thiệu decided that Xuân Lộc would be the center of his country's resistance, together with Tây Ninh and Phan Rang on either side. Eventually, the meeting became more intense when Thiệu produced a letter written by former U.S. President Richard Nixon, which promised military retaliation against North Vietnam if they violated the terms of the Paris Peace Accords. The meeting then concluded with Thiệu accusing the United States Government of selling out his country the moment they signed the Paris Peace Accords.
In contrast to the situation faced by their opponents in Saigon, the North Vietnamese government were buoyed by the victories achieved by their armies since December 1974. By 8 April 1975, the PAVN had captured all of South Vietnam's I and II Corps, as well as Phước Long Province. While the South Vietnamese forces were disintegrating all over the country, North Vietnam had two army corps moving towards the last South Vietnamese stronghold at Xuân Lộc. The PAVN 4th Army Corps, which overran Phước Long several months earlier, approached Xuân Lộc from the north-east after they captured Tây Ninh, Bình Long and Long Khánh. The 3rd Army Corps, moved towards Xuân Lộc from the north-west after they defeated the ARVN in the Central Highlands. Xuân Lộc was at the crossroads of Highway 1 (which ran the length of South Vietnam) and Highway 20 (which ran from the Central Highlands through Da Lat) and it controlled the eastern approach to the huge military bases at Bien Hoa/Long Binh and then Saigon.
Order of battle
South Vietnam
On 8 April 1975, the ARVN 18th Division was the main unit defending Xuân Lộc, composed of three infantry regiments: the 43rd, 48th and 52nd. There were also five armored brigades, four regional force battalions (340th, 342nd, 343rd and 367th Battalions), two artillery units (181st and 182nd Artillery Battalions) equipped with a total of forty-two artillery guns, and two companies of the People's Self-Defense Force. On 12 April Xuân Lộc was reinforced with the 1st Airborne Brigade, three armoured brigades (315th, 318th and 322nd Armored Brigades), the 8th Task Force from the 5th Division and the 33rd Ranger Battalion. Air support came in the form of two RVNAF divisions; the 5th Air Force Division based at Bien Hoa Air Base, and the 3rd Air Force Division at Tan Son Nhut Air Base. The commander at Xuân Lộc was Brigadier General Lê Minh Đảo.
North Vietnam
As the PAVN 4th Army Corps was the first PAVN formation to arrive at Xuân Lộc, the PAVN Central Military Committee decided that it would lead the assault. The 4th Army Corps fielded three divisions (6th, 7th and 341st Infantry Divisions). Those divisions had support from the 71st Anti-Aircraft Regiment, two combat engineering regiments (24th and 25th Engineering Regiments), the 26th Communications Regiment, two armored battalions, two artillery battalions, and two Long Khánh provincial infantry battalions. On 3 April 1975, the 4th Army Corps Command came up with two options for attack; the first option would involve capturing all ARVN outposts in the surrounding areas and isolating the town center in the process; if the opportunity arose, the 4th Army Corps would launch a full frontal assault on the town center to capture all of Xuân Lộc. In the second option, if ARVN forces in Xuân Lộc did not have the strength to resist, the 4th Army Corps would strike directly at the town center using infantry units, with armored and artillery units in support.
Prelude
In March 1975, as the PAVN 3rd Army Corps attacked Ban Me Thuot in the Central Highlands, the PAVN 4th Army Corps initiated their own operations against South Vietnamese forces in Tây Ninh and Bình Dương, in the southwestern regions of South Vietnam. Unlike in the previous three years, South Vietnamese defences around Tây Ninh and Bình Dương were significantly weakened due to a lack of manpower and resources. Even though Tây Ninh and Bình Dương did not play a significant role in the defensive posture of South Vietnam, large ARVN units made their way into those areas as a result of the early defeats in 1975. Tây Ninh became a refuge for elements of the ARVN 25th Division, four armored brigades and two Ranger battalions. Bình Dương hosted the ARVN 5th Division, one Ranger battalion and one armored brigade. To stop ARVN units from gathering in Tây Ninh and Bình Dương, and thereby regrouping for further resistance, the North Vietnamese decided to capture those regions.
The PAVN 4th Army Corps Command selected Dầu Tiếng–Chon Thanh as the first target for their operation, as it was the weakest point in the South Vietnamese defensive line in the north-west area. South Vietnam maintained four Regional Force (RF) battalions (35th, 304th, 312th and 352nd Battalions) totalling 2,600 soldiers in the area, along with one armored brigade and ten 105 mm artillery guns. The military zone of Dầu Tiếng–Chơn Thành was located adjacent to the three provinces of Tây Ninh, Bình Dương and Binh Long. The task of capturing Dầu Tiếng–Chon Thanh was entrusted to the PAVN 9th Infantry Division, whose strength were bolstered by the 16th Infantry Regiment, the 22nd Armored Battalion, one artillery battalion and one air-defence battalion. At 05:00 on 11 March the 9th Infantry Division commenced its attack on Dầu Tiếng. ARVN artillery positions in Rung Nan, Bau Don and Cha La were the primary targets of the 9th Infantry Division on the first day of the attack.
On the afternoon of 11 March, ARVN General Lê Nguyên Khang ordered the 345th Armored Squadron to move out from Bau Don to relieve the military zone of Dầu Tiếng, but they were defeated by the PAVN 16th Infantry Regiment at Suoi Ong Hung, and forced to retreat to their base. At the same time, ARVN artillery units at Bau Don and Rung Nan were subdued by elements of the 9th Infantry Division, so they were unable to return fire. By 13 March, the PAVN was in complete control of the Dầu Tiếng military zone. After three hours of fighting, the PAVN 9th Infantry Division also captured ARVN positions at Vuon Chuoi, Nga ba Sac, Cau Tau and Ben Cui. The ARVN 3rd Brigade had planned to retake Dầu Tiếng using elements of the 5th Division, but Thiệu ordered them to pull back and defend Truong Mit, Bau Don and Tây Ninh instead.
On 24 March, two regiments from the PAVN 9th Infantry Division, in coordination with two provincial infantry battalions from Bình Phước, attacked Chơn Thành with full force but were repeatedly driven back from the ARVN defensive lines. On 31 March, the PAVN 4th Army Corps sent the 273rd Regiment and one artillery battalion equipped with 15 artillery guns to bolster the 9th Infantry Division. Following the arrival of these reinforcements, the PAVN continued their assault on the military zone of Chơn Thành. South Vietnam responded by deploying the 3rd Armored Brigade to relieve Chơn Thành, but they were stopped by elements of the 9th Infantry Division along Route 13. To avoid destruction, all surviving members from the ARVN 31st Ranger Battalion retreated to Bau Don in the east. On 2 April, the PAVN captured Chơn Thành; they claimed to have killed 2,134 ARVN soldiers, as well as capturing 472, and to have shot down 16 aircraft. In addition, North Vietnam captured 30 military vehicles (including eight tanks) and about 1,000 guns (including five artillery pieces) of various kinds. With the province of Binh Long firmly in their hands, the PAVN then set their sights on Xuân Lộc.
Battle
The PAVN began their Long Khánh-Bình Tuy campaign with strong attacks against ARVN positions on the two principal lines of communication in the region, Highways 1 and 20, striking outposts, towns, bridges and culverts north and east of Xuân Lộc. On 17 March, the PAVN 209th Infantry Regiment and the 210th Artillery Regiment, 7th Division, opened what was to become the Battle of Xuân Lộc. The 209th struck first at Định Quán, north of Xuân Lộc, and at the La Nga bridge, west of Định Quán. Eight tanks supported the initial assault on Định Quán and PAVN artillery fire destroyed four 155 mm howitzers supporting the RF. Anticipating the attack, Đảo had reinforced the La Nga bridge the day before, but the intense fire forced a withdrawal from the bridge. After repeated assaults, the 209th Infantry penetrated Định Quán and the 2nd Battalion, 43rd Infantry, as well as the RF battalion were forced to withdraw with heavy losses on 18 March.
Also on 17 March, the 3rd Battalion, 43rd Regiment killed 10 PAVN in heavy fighting northwest of Hoai Duc. At the same time another outpost of Xuân Lộc District, Ong Don, defended by an RF company and an artillery platoon, came under artillery and infantry attack. The PAVN assault was repulsed with heavy losses on both sides, and another RF company, sent to reinforce, ran into strong resistance on Highway 1 west of Ong Don. North of Ong Don, Gia Ray on Route 333 was under attack by the PAVN 274th Infantry Regiment, 6th Division. The 18th Division headquarters therefore realized that two PAVN divisions, the 6th and the 7th, were committed in Long Khánh. While the battle raged at Gia Ray, another post on Highway 1 west of Ong Don came under attack. Meanwhile, a bridge and a culvert on Highway 1 on each side of the Route 332 junction were blown up by PAVN sappers. Thus, all ARVN forces east of Route 332 were isolated from Xuân Lộc by formidable obstacles and PAVN roadblocks. North from Xuân Lộc, on Route 20, hamlets along the road were occupied to varying degrees by PAVN soldiers, and the RF outpost far to the northeast near the Lam Dong boundary was overrun. Đảo decided to counterattack up Route 20 with his 52nd Regiment, minus one battalion but reinforced with the 5th Armored Cavalry Squadron from Tây Ninh Province. The regiment was ordered to clear the road as far as Định Quán, but the attack quickly stalled as it met heavy resistance well short of its objective.
Evidence of increasingly heavy PAVN commitments in Long Khánh flowed into III Corps headquarters in Bien Hoa. The PAVN 141st Regiment, 7th Infantry Division had apparently participated in the attack on Định Quán. Hoai Duc was overrun by the PAVN 812th Regiment, 6th Infantry Division, while that division's other two regiments, the 33rd and 274th, seized Gia Ray. The ARVN outpost on the conical peak of Chua Chan, standing above Xuân Lộc and providing excellent observation, also fell to PAVN 6th Infantry Division forces and Xuân Lộc itself began to receive artillery fire, including 105 mm fire. III Corps commander Lieutenant General Nguyễn Văn Toàn responded to the burgeoning threat on his eastern flank first by sending the 5th Armored Cavalry Squadron and then one battalion of the 48th Regiment from Tây Ninh to Long Khánh. The rest of the 48th Regiment was still heavily engaged near Go Dau Ha. The 3rd Battalion made contact with a PAVN company west of the Vàm Cỏ Đông River on 17 March, killed 36, and captured a number of weapons. On 26 March, Toàn sent the headquarters and two battalions of the 48th Regiment to reinforce Khiem Hanh.
After capturing all key objectives surrounding Xuân Lộc in Long Khánh Province, the PAVN 4th Army Corps spent four days preparing for the final push against the ARVN 18th Division. PAVN Major General Hoàng Cầm personally took control of the operation; he decided to launch a full-frontal assault on Xuân Lộc using his infantry, tank and artillery units from the north and northwest. Colonel Bui Cat Vu, deputy commander of the 4th Army Corps, would direct operations from the east. While the PAVN were closing in on Xuân Lộc, Đảo and the chief of Long Khánh Province, Colonel Nguyen Van Phuc, were also busy lining up their units in anticipation of the PAVN onslaught. Prior to the battle, Đảo told foreign media that: "I am determined to hold Xuân Lộc. I don’t care how many divisions the Communist will send against me, I will smash them all! The world shall see the strength and skill of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam".
On 1 April, Toàn returned the headquarters and two battalions of the 48th Regiment to the 18th Division. The regiment moved to the Xuân Lộc area but sent its 2nd Battalion to Hàm Tân District on the coast of Bình Tuy Province to secure the city and port. Large numbers of refugees poured into the province from the north. About 500 troops, survivors of the ARVN 2nd Division, were among those arriving from I Corps. When reorganized and reequipped, they would take over the security mission in Hàm Tân. The 52nd Regiment meanwhile was pressing forward on Route 20 south of Định Quán and in sharp fighting on 1 April killed over 50 PAVN troops. The 43rd Regiment was fighting east along Highway 1, near Xuân Lộc and in contact with a major PAVN force.
After the first PAVN attempt to seize Xuân Lộc had been repulsed, the PAVN began a second assault on the town. At 05:40 on 9 April 1975, the PAVN 4th Army Corps began bombarding South Vietnamese positions around Xuân Lộc firing about 4,000 rounds, in one of the heaviest artillery bombardments of the war. North of the town, the PAVN 341st Infantry Division captured the ARVN communications center and the local police station after more than an hour of heavy fighting. However, all PAVN units moving down from the north were forced to stop when elements of the ARVN 52nd Task Force counter-attacked from the south. From the east, the PAVN 7th Infantry Division advanced on ARVN positions without tank support, so they sustained heavy casualties in the initial stages of the fighting. At 08:00, the 4th Army Corps Command sent eight tanks to support the 7th Infantry Division, but three were destroyed by entrenched ARVN soldiers at Bao Chanh A. By midday, the PAVN 209th and 270th Infantry Regiments captured the 18th Division headquarters and the Governor's Residence, which was defended by the ARVN 43rd and 48th Infantry Regiments, setting ablaze seven ARVN tanks in the process. In the south, the PAVN 6th Infantry Division attacked ARVN positions on Highway 1 from Hung Nghia to Me Bong Con, where they destroyed 11 tanks from the ARVN 322nd Armored Brigade. Throughout the day on 9 April, the 18th Division staged counter-attacks on the PAVN flanks to slow down their momentum, especially movements from the north and northwest.
The PAVN resumed the attack on 10 April, this time committing the 165th Regiment of the 7th Infantry Division along with regiments of the 6th and 341st Divisions; again the attack failed. West of Xuân Lộc, between Trảng Bom and the intersection of Highways 1 and 20, the ARVN 322nd Task Force and 1st Airborne Brigade (two battalions) were trying to force their way east against stiff resistance. The PAVN attacked the rear base of the 52nd Regiment on Route 20, the 43rd Infantry in Xuân Lộc and the 82nd Ranger Battalion on 11 April, the third day of the battle. At that time the battalion of the 48th Regiment securing Hàm Tân went back to Xuân Lộc and the 1st Airborne Brigade moved in closer to the town. Task Force 322 was making very slow progress opening the road from Trảng Bom to Xuân Lộc and Toàn ordered Task Force 315 from Cu Chi to reinforce it.
On 12 April, the battalions of the 52nd Regiment were still engaged in heavy fighting north of Xuân Lộc, but the town, although demolished, was still held by the 43rd Regiment. PAVN losses to that point were probably in excess of 800 killed, 5 captured, 300 weapons captured and 11 T-54 tanks destroyed. ARVN casualties had been moderate. Most of the 43rd Regiment was holding east of the town; the 48th was southwest; the 1st Airborne Brigade was south but moving north toward the 82nd Ranger Battalion; and the 322 Task Force was on Route 1 west of the Route 20 junction attacking toward Xuân Lộc. Two resupply missions were flown into the besieged town; on 12 April CH-47 helicopters brought in 93 tons of artillery ammunition and followed with 100 tons the next day. Meanwhile, RVNAF airplanes flying against intense antiaircraft fire, took a heavy toll on the PAVN divisions around Xuân Lộc flying over 200 sorties. At 14:00 on 12 April, RVNAF C-130 Hercules dropped two BLU-82 bombs on PAVN positions in the town of Xuan Vinh, close to Xuân Lộc, killing about 200 PAVN soldiers. The Joint General Staff made the decision to bolster the defences at Xuân Lộc with units drawn from the general reserve. Subsequently, the ARVN 1st Airborne Brigade arrived at the Bao Dinh rubber plantation, while two Marine battalions defended the eastern corridor leading to Bien Hoa. In addition, Tan Phong and Dau Giay received reinforcements from the 33rd Ranger Battalion, 8th Battalion, 5th Division, 8th Artillery Battalion and three armored brigades (315th, 318th and 322nd Armored Brigades). As the reinforcements were making their way onto the battlefield, RVNAF fighter-bombers from Bien Hoa and Tan Son Nhat flew between 80 and 120 combat sorties per day to support the defenders at Xuân Lộc.
On 13 April, Lieutenant General Trần Văn Trà, arrived at the headquarters of the 4th Army Corps. During the meeting with other commanders, Trần Văn Trà decided to alter certain aspects of the attack; the 6th Infantry Division and elements of the 341st Infantry Division would attack Dau Giay, which was the weakest point in the defensive line around Xuân Lộc, set up blocking positions along Highway 2 leading to Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu, and along Highway 1 between Xuân Lộc and Bien Hoa. On the same day, the PAVN 2nd Army Corps ordered the 95B Infantry Regiment to join the 4th Army Corps in its efforts to capture Xuân Lộc. As PAVN commanders began to implement their new strategy, the South Vietnamese military declared it had successfully repulsed the "Communist attack" on Xuân Lộc, thereby ending a period of continuous defeats. Thiệu, buoyed by the fierce resistance of his army at Xuân Lộc, announced that the ARVN had "recovered its fighting ability" to defend the country. The new attack began at 04:50 against the headquarters and 1st Battalion, 43rd Regiment, and lasted until 09:30. When the PAVN withdrew, they left 235 dead and about 30 weapons on the field. The attack picked up again at midday and lasted until 15:00, but the 43rd, with heavy RVNAF support, held. Meanwhile, the 1st Airborne Brigade continued to attack north toward Xuân Lộc and Task Force 322, now reinforced by the 315th and 316th Task Forces, struck from the west. RVNAF observers had discovered two batteries of 130 mm guns northeast of Xuân Lộc and attacked them. The PAVN continued sending additional forces into III Corps with the 320B and 325th Divisions moving to Long Khánh where they entered the battle on 15 April.
On 15 April, the situation on the battlefield began to change as PAVN artillery stopped their shelling of Xuân Lộc, but started pounding Bien Hoa Air Base instead. In just one day, the RVNAF 3rd Air Force Division at Bien Hoa was forced to cease all operations due to continuous PAVN artillery bombardments. To continue their support of ground troops at Xuan Loc, the RVNAF mobilised the 4th Air Force Division based at Binh Thuy Air Base to conduct further missions. On the same day, an artillery bombardment of 1,000 rounds fell on the headquarters and 3rd Battalion, 52nd Regiment, an artillery battalion, and elements of the 5th Armored Cavalry Squadron, four 155 mm and eight 105 mm howitzers were destroyed, and the PAVN 6th Infantry Division and the 95B Infantry Regiment defeated a combined ARVN formation which included the 52nd Task Force and the 13th Armored Squadron west of Xuân Lộc. On 16 and 17 April, the PAVN 6th Infantry Division and the 95B Infantry Regiment defeated the ARVN 8th Task Force and 3rd Armored Brigade, when the ARVN tried to recapture the military zone of Dau Giay. Around Xuân Lộc, the ARVN 43rd and 48th Infantry Regiments, as well as the 1st Airborne Brigade, suffered heavy casualties as PAVN infantry units attacked them from all sides. The armored task forces on Route 1 had to pull back; half of their equipment had been destroyed. The 1st Airborne Brigade, frustrated in its attack toward Xuân Lộc, withdrew through the plantations and jungles toward Bà Rịa in Phước Tuy Province.
With Dau Giay and all the main roads under PAVN control, Xuân Lộc was completely isolated, the 18th Division was cut off from reinforcements and surrounded by the PAVN 4th Army Corps. On 19 April, the Joint General Staff ordered Đảo to evacuate the 18th Division and other support units from Xuân Lộc to a new defensive line formed east of Bien Hoa at the town of Trảng Bom which was defended by the remnants of the Division, the 468th Marine Brigade and the reconstituted 258th Marine Brigade. On 20 April, under the cover of heavy rain, South Vietnamese soldiers and civilians began pulling out from Xuân Lộc, in a convoy of about 200 military vehicles. On 21 April, Xuân Lộc was completely abandoned, with the ARVN 1st Airborne Brigade being the last unit to be evacuated from the area. At 04:00 on 21 April, the 3rd Battalion, 1st Airborne Brigade was completely destroyed by the PAVN at the hamlet of Suoi Ca. By the end of the day Xuân Lộc was under North Vietnamese control and the gateway to Saigon was open.
Aftermath
Military outcome
Following their costly victory at Xuân Lộc, the PAVN effectively controlled two-thirds of South Vietnam's territory. The loss of Xuân Lộc dealt a severe blow to the military strength of South Vietnam, which had lost almost every unit from its general reserve. On 18 April 1975, III Corps commander Toàn, informed Thiệu that the South Vietnamese forces at Xuân Lộc had been beaten and South Vietnam's armed forces could only hold out for a few more days as a result of their losses on the battlefield. According to North Vietnam's official account of the battle, about 2,036 South Vietnamese soldiers were either killed or wounded and another 2,731 were captured. Total casualties on the North Vietnamese side are unknown, but the 4th Army Corps alone claimed to have suffered 460 killed in action, and another 1,428 wounded. While Đảo claimed that the battle cost the PAVN over 50,000 killed and 370 tanks destroyed, American estimates only put PAVN casualties at around 10 percent of those figures with 5,000 troops killed or wounded and 37 tanks destroyed.
Political outcome
In the days following the loss of Xuân Lộc, there was still much debate in both houses of South Vietnam's National Assembly about the country's wartime policies. Pro-war elements in the National Assembly argued South Vietnam should fight until the very end, in the belief that the United States would eventually give the country the necessary aid to resist the North Vietnamese. Anti-war elements, on the other hand, strongly opposed the idea. They believed the Government should negotiate with the North Vietnamese, in order to avoid a catastrophic defeat. Despite their differences of opinion, members in both houses of South Vietnam's National Assembly agreed that Thiệu should be held responsible for the country's dire military and political situation, because his policies had allowed the North Vietnamese to easily penetrate South Vietnam's military defences.
Finally at 20:00 on 21 April 1975, Thiệu officially resigned as the president of the Republic of Vietnam upon learning that Xuân Lộc had fallen that morning. In his final effort to save South Vietnam, Thiệu gambled his political career by sending the last units of the ARVN to Xuân Lộc in an attempt to hold off the PAVN. Ultimately, however, Thiệu's effort came too late. Trần Văn Hương was appointed president, and he was ordered by the National Assembly to seek a negotiated peace with North Vietnam at any cost, to the disappointment of many in South Vietnam's political elite, who argued that the situation could have been different if Thiệu had gone earlier.
References
Further reading
Nguyen Van Bieu. (2005). The Army at the Tây Nguyên Front- 3rd Army Corp. Hanoi: People's Army Publishing House
James H. Willbanks. (2004). Abandoning Vietnam: How America Left and South Vietnam Lost Its War. Lawrence KS: University of Kansas Press.
External links
Battle of Xuan Loc
Web site of Veterans of the 18th Division/ARVN
Conflicts in 1975
1975 in Vietnam
Battles involving Vietnam
Battles involving South Vietnam
Battles and operations of the Vietnam War in 1975
History of Đồng Nai Province
History of South Vietnam
April 1975 events in Asia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BFM%20TV
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BFM TV
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BFM TV (, stylized as BFMTV) is a French news broadcast television and radio network, wholly owned by Altice Média. The flagship property of the Altice Média division of Altice France, its headquarters are located in Paris.
As the country's most-watched news channel with 10 million daily viewers, BFM TV "boasts a market share in France that is greater than any equivalent news channel around the world". A BBC News commentator considered its economic coverage "clearly pro-business, pro-reform, and anti the old consensus", which is noteworthy because in France, "economic coverage tends to come from the opposite perspective—the state sector and workers taking precedence over private enterprise".
History
BFMTV was launched by the NextRadioTV group (now Altice Média) as an offshoot of BFM Business, which exclusively focused on business and the economy, on 14 December 2004. BFM is an abbreviation of "Business FM", the original name of BFM Business. Approved by the Conseil supérieur de l'audiovisuel (CSA) on 5 May 2005, it began broadcasting on 28 November 2005. Alain Weill became Chairman and CEO in 2005.
The "small independent news channel" became "one of the most influential voices in French media and politics" by distinguishing itself with "a reactive, live format—and dumping the French habit of endless pre-recorded talk". Ratings continuously increased, and it became the most-watched French news channel in June 2008. With a 1.8 national share (as of mid-2012), it greatly exceeds its first competitor, I-Télé (0.7 national share). As the ratings and the advertising revenues increased, the budget of the network peaked at €50 million in 2011, compared to €15 million in 2006.
Spin-off networks
BFM Sport
Launched on 7 June 2016, BFM Sport was the second all-news and sports TV channel in France after Infosport+, sister channel of Canal+. The channel features an 8-minute update every 30 minutes (with the loop all night long). It also carries 3 magazines: After Foot (daily 10pmmidnight), Le Grand Week-end Sport (weekends 9amnoon) and 60 Minutes Sport (SundayFriday 78pm).
BFM Paris
Launched on 7 November 2016, BFM Paris is mainly inspired by New York's News 12. The main programming consists of local news updates, traffic, weather, sports, and cultural information. There's a live morning show seven days a week and an evening show on weeknights.
Programming history
1st version (28 November 20058 May 2006)
The channel's first schedule version focused on the morning and evening dayparts.
Weekdays, from 6am to 9:30am, during BFM Matin, the channel ran a 30-minute block with Stéphanie de Muru on the 15-minute general news and Thomas Misrachi on the 15-minute financial news. This block kept running throughout the day with images-only newscasts (French: JT tout en image). Between 6pm and 11:30pm, during BFM Soir, BFMTV carried a newscast every half-hour with Ruth Elkrief (6pm/7pm), Olivier Mazerolle (8pm), Florence Duprat (7:30pm/9pm/11pm) and Jean-Alexandre Baril (6:30pm/9pm/10pm).
Every evening at 8:30, Mazerolle presented Mazerolle Direct, featuring an interview with one or two guests. The show was replayed two hours later.
Between 11:30pm and 6am, there was nothing live except the 11pm newscast in a looped format.
At the weekend, BFMTV ran image-only newscasts every 15 minutes (except at 7pm and 8pm, when Guillaume Vanhems anchored half-hour news reports).
2nd version (9 May 20063 June 2007)
This version was launched at 6p.m. on 9 May 2006. The channel now put anchors in the set news blocks, especially during BFM Soir, including: Thomas Misrachi (69:30a.m.), Ruth Elkrief (68p.m.), Olivier Mazerolle (89p.m.), Florence Duprat (9p.m.midnight) and Thomas Sotto (weekends 69p.m.).
Between BFM Matin and BFM Soir, BFMTV now had a branded block, titled BFM Non-Stop, with an updated news flash every 15 minutes and continuous loop of weather reports in-between, with: Guillaume Vanhems (9:30a.m.1p.m.), Jean-Alexandre Baril (14:30p.m.) and Stéphanie De Muru (4:306p.m.). However, the images-only weekend news reports were kept, except for the new block from 6 to 9p.m. by Thomas Sotto.
During the 2007 presidential election, Mazerolle changed his show's name from Mazerolle Direct to Journal de Campagne, still broadcast at the same time (8:30p.m.). Also, at the same time, a new weekday political show was run on BFM TV, Bourdin 2007, with Jean-Jacques Bourdin, from 8:30 and 9a.m., simulcast from RMC. From November 2006, Ruth Elkrief started co-anchoring with Hedwige Chevrillon on BFM Business for the new show, Le Duo BFM, which simulcast at 12:30p.m. on both channels. BFM TV re-ran this show at 9:30p.m. In January 2008, the show was replaced by La Tribune BFM, which was a Sunday evening interview.
In January 2007, Elkrief also presented Élysee 2007, a nightly political debate from 7 to 8pm. Also, at the same time, BFM Non-Stop changed presenters: Guillaume Vanhems was no longer on air, Jean-Alexandre Baril now presented the morning news, Stéphanie de Muru was still on the afternoon. From 6 to 7p.m. and 8 to 8:30p.m., Nathalie Levy presented news reports with Gilane Barret (general news) and Julian Bugier (business).
3rd version (4 June 200718 May 2008)
In this time, the channel relaunched its infographics (graphics, music, 3D images), schedule and slogan ("Live et Direct" replaced "La nouvelle chaine d'info"). It also received 50 more journalists and presenters.
Christophe Delay, who had formerly anchored from 7 to 8am on Europe 1, replaced Thomas Misrachi, presenting alongside Karine de Menonville on the first part of Première edition (68:30a.m.). Florence Duprat and Thomas Misrachi now presented the new midday newsshow. Weekday evening had a new program, QG de l'info, from 6 to 7p.m., with Ronald Guintrange and Thomas Sotto. Marc Autheman and Valérie Béranger now presented the weekend evening news from 6 to 9pm, known as Info 360 le week-end. From 6am to 6p.m., BFM TV still kept its image-only reports. Starting 27 August 2007, Bourdin 2007 was renamed as Bourdin Direct. Also, Marc Autheman and Stéphanie de Muru now presented the weekend evening news, renamed as Week-End 360. Thomas Sotto had a new QG de l'info right after this show.
In February 2008, the channel set up a new weekend schedule, affecting only the 6pmmidnight slot, with four changes:
Marc Autherman became news presenter for 20H Week-end and QG de l'info from 6 to 7pm each Saturday.
Rachid M'Barki became news presenter for 19H Week-end and QG de l'info from 9 to 10pm each weekend.
Gilane Barret, who had been anchoring BFM Non-Stop from 9pm to midnight each weekend since 2007, now joined Stéphanie de Muru for Week-end 360 from 10pm to midnight.
Ruth Elkrief and Olivier Mazerolle stopped being on air each Friday.
4th version (19 May 2008 – Present)
In January 2008 BFMTV announced that the schedule would change somewhere around March and April, before postponing the change until 19 May 2008. The channel would update the morning and evening news block, while showing sports in partnership with RMC in the afternoon. From January 2008, the channel started carrying La Tribune BFM, in partnership with Dailymotion, Sundays at 6pm.
In this new schedule, BFMTV now branded themselves as "première chaine d'info en France", with continuous live broadcasting. The continuous news block BFM Non-Stop now has two journalists each timeslot, instead of one, including: Diane Gouffrant and Jean-Alexandre Baril (mornings), Stéphanie de Muru and Gilane Barret/Rachid M'Barki (afternoons (already ending 1 hour earlier)). From May to June 2008, Thomas Sotto anchored Partageons nos idées each Saturday at 8:50pm.
Continuous changes
Starting from 2008, BFMTV has been updating its schedule every September, with the announcement that it would broadcast "all live" from 6am to midnight. Here are some changes:
September 2008
Alain Marschall and Olivier Truchot, who had been hosting Les Grandes Gueules from 11am to 2pm on RMC since 2004, took over Ruth Elkrief's slot (from 7pm to 8pm) with an interactive program offering viewers a chance to comment on current events. Ruth Elkrief started anchoring Midi Ruth Elkrief from noon to 2pm each weekday. BFM Non-Stop now was presented by: Jean-Alexandre Baril and Roselyne Dubois from 9am to noon, Stéphanie de Muru and Gilane Barret (newsreader in Midi Ruth Elkrief) from 2pm to 3pm, then Florence Duprat and Thomas Misrachi from 3pm to 6pm.
While presenting La Tribune BFM-Dailymotion from 7 to 8pm each Sunday, Olivier Mazerolle became political editor and let Thomas Sotto anchor the 8pm newscast. Candice Mahout, who was a chronicler in Première edition, presented Showtime from 8:30 to 9pm, a current affairs magazine.
Finally, Karl Zéro anchored Karl Zéro sur BFM TV at 10:10pm, an interview with 1 or 2 guests inspired by CNN's Larry King. Info 360, presented by Ronald Guintrange and Nathalie Levy, was broadcast weekdays from 9 to 10pm, then 11pm to midnight.
Each weekend, Marc Autheman anchored QG de l'info from 6 to 7pm and from 8 to 9pm, followed by the 9pmmidnight Week-end 360 with Rachid M'Barki and Diane Gouffrant.
In November 2008, Marc Menant joined BFMTV for Partageons nos idées from 7 to 8pm. 6 versions of this show were presented by Thomas Sotto until summer 2008.
In January 2009, the 8pm edition of QG de l'info and Showtime were combined to Le 20H with Thomas Sotto. Stéphanie Soumier now presented Partageons nos idées.
In July 2009, Info 360 saw two changes: Nathalie Levy, the co-presenter, joined France 5; and Julian Bugier, the business presenter, joined i-Télé, BFMTV's main competitor.
September 2009
Karine de Menonville started presenting Info 360 with Ronald Guintrange (this show now ended at 12:15am instead of midnight).
Graziella Rodriguez anchored Première edition with Christophe Delay.
Karl Zéro presented the live interview Sarko Info each weeknight at 8:35pm.
From 7 to 8pm, the interactive show with Alain Marschall and Olivier Truchot was re-introduced, now with Louise Ekland.
In November 2009, BFMTV launched its new website, bfmtv.com (formerly bfmtv.fr), which now allowed users to watch a selection of programs, instead of just watching live.
In January 2010, BFM TV slightly changed its afternoon and early evening schedule on weekdays. Florence Duprat and Thomas Misrachi now presented BFM Non-Stop from 2 to 5pm, followed by the new "debate for highlight of the day" BFM Story from 5 to 6pm with Alain Marschall and Olivier Truchot (this show was called Top Story during the first broadcasting week). Then, from 6 to 8:30pm, Thomas Sotto presented QG de l'info alongside Pauline Revenaz (Pascale de la Tour du Pin from March 2010). Louise Ekland continued her cultural magazine at 7:40pm.
In March 2010, BFMTV started showing various chronicles on its 6am6pm image-only weekend block, press reviews in the morning for example.
At the end of April 2010, several presenters exchanged shifts with each other. Ronald Guintrange joined BFM Non-Stop in the morning with Roselyne Dubois (9amnoon), replacing Jean-Alexandre Baril who took over BFM Non-Stop in the afternoon with Florence Duprat (25pm). Thomas Misrachi, who had presented during the afternoon until then, joined Info 360 (9pm12:15am) with Stéphanie de Muru for Karine de Ménonville, who was on maternity leave until June 2010. Pascale de La Tour du Pin and Graziella Rodriguès changed roles: the former joined Première édition with Christophe Delay, the latter joined QG de l'info.
Throughout the 2010 World Cup, the channel broadcast many World Cup-related magazines throughout the day. During the week before the World Cup started, Thomas Sotto presented QG de l'info live from South Africa. Rolland Courbis, a consultant on Radio RMC, joined BFM TV, where he presented his morning appointment, Le Tackle de Courbis, and at 6:25pm and 7:25pm, Rolland Courbis participated in Coup franc, a program presented by Gilbert Brisbois, journalist-anchor at RMC Sport. Two small parts of the After Foot program, presented by the trio Gilbert Brisbois, Rolland Courbis and Daniel Riolo on RMC, were broadcast simultaneously on BFMTV, every night from 10:45 to 11pm and from 11:40pm to midnight.
September 2010
In the summer of 2010, Nathalie Levy returned to BFMTV, and joined Info 360 from 9pm to 10pm and from 11pm to 12:30am (the show was interrupted by QG de l'info). As a result, the evening schedule was changed completely: afternoon BFM Non-Stop was brought forward by an hour but had the same duration (now 3-6pm); as a consequence, BFM Story was also shifted to a new 67pm slot. After two years working the midday slot, Ruth Elkrief joined the evening slot, with a new 78pm debate show, and Sarko Info was extended to 8 minutes long. Thomas Sotto's 8pm newscast was extended to an hour long (finishing now at 9pm), before his QG de l'info. Louise Ekland's cultural magazine wasn't changed, although many changes took place elsewhere on the schedule like above. Karine de Ménonville joined the weekday midday slot with Stéphanie de Muru and Gilane Barret from noon to 3pm, known as Midi|15H.
At the weekend, the schedule was also shifted a lot; however, QG de l'info was still broadcast from 10 to 11pm. The new After Foot, presented by Gilbert Brisbois with Rolland Courbis and Daniel Riolo, was broadcast from 11pm to midnight (however, since January 2011, 11:45pm to midnight). The rest of the evening (68pm, 910pm, 1112:30am (1111:45pm and 1212:30am since January 2011)) carried Info 360 with Nathalie Levy.
In January 2011, following the launch of La Tribune BFM, the channel launched a new Sunday political show from 6 to 8pm, BFM TV 2012 Le Point-RMC, in partnership with Le Point and the radio station RMC (which belongs to the same group as BFMTV). For two hours, a political personality answers the questions of Olivier Mazerolle on particular topics.
In the summer of 2011, Thomas Sotto left BFMTV to join M6 as a "Capital" presenter. Philippe Verdier also left the channel to join France 2 as a weathercaster.
September 2011
Jean-Jacques Bourdin now presents, until today, Bourdin Direct from 8:35 to 9am. Ruth Elkrief, after her show, stayed on the air until 9pm to co-present the 8pm newscast with Alain Marschall.
At the end of August 2011, BFMTV reorganised its evening schedule. Alain Marschall left BFM Story to present the 8pm weekday newscast (with Marc Autheman on the weekend), and as a result, Olivier Truchot became BFM Story'''s standalone presenter. Jean-Rémi Baudot was responsible for news updates between 6 and 8pm, in addition to his evening business shift which he has been working since the beginning of 2009. Nathalie Levy stayed on the air on Info 360, but the broadcasting time would increase (no longer two separate hour-long blocks but now a continuous three-hour block from 9pm to midnight). Her co-partner on this show was now Jean-Baptiste Boursier (after leaving I-Télé) and he also presented the midnight newscast on BFMTV. Fanny Agostini joined the channel from RMC to present evening weather.
In September 2011, BFMTV added several multi-hour shows with set hosts and tone to compartmentalize Non-Stop (which, until then, didn't feature on-air talent of any kind). Fabien Crombé, who joined channel from RMC, and Céline Pitelet presented live news coverage from 6am to 10am, known as Week-end Première. Non-Stop, now added a Week-End moniker, only aired in two separate blocks from 10am to noon and 2pm to 6pm. While Stéphanie de Muru and Rachid M'Barki presented the morning edition, the afternoon team was Céline Couratin and Graziella Rodrigues (plus Jean-Alexandre Baril, who left the weekday afternoon edition of Non-Stop and replaced by Mathieu Coache). Also, the morning team presented the all-new midday Midi|14H Week-End. Lucie Nuttin and Damien Gourlet (newcomers from LCP and Europe 1, respectively) presented together Week-End 360 from 6pm to 8pm, 9pm to 10pm, 11pm to 11:45pm and midnight to 12:30am.
At the beginning of 2012, two chroniclers rejoined the channel: Emmanuel Lechypre in business and Ulysse Gosset in international politics.
September 2012
At the end of August 2012, BFMTV updated its evening schedule. From 9pm to 11pm, Nathalie Levy presented Info 360 with Jean-Rémi Baudot, and then the midnight newscast. Jean-Baptiste Boursier had a new role: presenting the all-new Le Soir BFM from 11pm to midnight, a show focusing on the facts of the day's news (however, in March 2013, Le Soir BFM started at 10:30pm).
The weekday schedule was also refreshed: 9amnoon: Non-Stop with Roselyne Dubois and Damien Gourlet; noon-3pm: Midi|15H with Karine de Ménonville and Ronald Guintrange; 3pm6pm: Non-Stop with Gilane Barret and Florence Duprat. Mathieu Coache left his afternoon shift to become Washington's correspondent.
On weekends, BFMTV had a new weekly analysis programme: 7 Jours BFM, presented by Thomas Misrachi and aired every Saturday from 6pm to 8pm. Frédéric de Lanouvelle and François Gapihan rejoined Stéphanie de Muru on morning Non-Stop Week-End and Midi|14H Week-End. At the afternoon Non-Stop Week-End (26pm), Sandra Gandoin, who previously worked as a substitute host for Céline Couratin, now became an official presenter alongside Jean-Alexandre Baril. Lucie Nuttin had a new co-host on Week-end 360: Maxime Cogny.
September 2013
BFMTV added a new block for Première edition from 4:30am to 6am, presented by Céline Pitelet and Jean-Rémi Baudot; then Christophe Delay and Pascale de La Tour du Pin anchored the normal 68:30am slot. This decision made Première edition the earliest live news programme in France.
In July 2013, Apolline de Malherbe, who returned to BFMTV, replaced Anna Cabana on the morning political segment at 6:50am and 7:50am; plus she also had another political-related show alongside Hedwige Chevrillon, BFM Politique every Sunday from 6pm to 8pm.
September 2014
Nathalie Levy's Info 360 was replaced by a new show: News et Compagnie alongside Laurent Neumann and Emmanuel Lechypre from 9pm to 10pm Mondays to Thursdays.
Jean-Baptiste Boursier's Le Soir BFM was renamed Grand Angle and airing Mondays to Thursdays from 10pm to midnight. Rachid M'Barki, who presented news bulletins every half-hour between 6pm and 8pm, now also presented two new newscasts at 9pm and midnight.
Dominique Mari replaced Fabien Combé on 6am10am Week-end Première. Midi|14H Week-end was dropped in favor of an extra two-hour block of Non-Stop Week-End.
Christophe Hondelatte rejoined BFMTV to present the 8pm weekend newscast as well as Hondelatte Direct from 10pm to midnight Fridays to Sundays alongside newsreader Lucie Nuttin. Fabien Combé had a new role: presenting News Week-end from 9pm to 10pm Fridays to Sundays as well as Le Journal de la Nuit Week-end.
On weekends, Philippe Gaudin anchored Non-Stop Week-End from 2pm to 6pm alongside Graziella Rodrigues.
Throughout 2015, BFMTV was, according to Médiametrie, France's number one news channel. In July 2015, almost 34 million French people watched this channel, which is nearly 9 million daily in average.
Criticism
As a rolling news channel, BFMTV has been criticized for "accelerat[ing] reality, and creat[ing] pressure for instant solutions", as well as being conflating what it means to be "popular" and "populist" due to its pursuit of audiences. Thus other media institutions have insinuated that BFMTV has furthered the cause of Marine Le Pen, the head of the nationalist Front national political party. For example, BFMTV "star interviewer" Jean-Jacques Bourdin has been ridiculed for "rejoicing at the prospect of a President Le Pen"; such insinuations tend to arouse "fury" in the BFMTV newsroom. In March 2014 French media regulator Conseil supérieur de l'audiovisuel (CSA) examined BFMTV's distribution of airtime for election candidates, stating that the channel gave UMP and Socialist Party candidates limited access while allowing the Front National "persistent overrepresentation".
Daniel Schneidermann, a media commentator writing for the left-wing Libération, thinks that BFMTV "may not set out to be right-wing but it ends up that way de facto", claiming that BFMTV "over-cover[s] her" because they need good ratings and Le Pen "always gets a good audience". Similarly, Schneidermann notes that they prioritize coverage of sensational issues such as crime stories to the detriment of "social" stories. Indeed, Bourdin and another TV host Christophe Hondelatte have been described as a "duo of shock". For example, Hondelatte revealed that his pay is tied to the size of the audience he attracts.
The French media regulator Conseil supérieur de l'audiovisuel (CSA) has stated in 2014 that BFMTV allowed the Front National "persistent overrepresentation" during the 2014 French municipal elections.
BFMTV responded, claiming to "take note of this call to order" and that the news channel "will respect the law well and will reach fairness on March 21 at midnight, as it requires."
BFMTV was sued in April 2015 for its coverage of the 9 January 2015 Porte de Vincennes siege. Six hostages hiding in the Hypercacher kosher grocery store claimed that the network endangered their lives by broadcasting the fact that they were seeking refuge in the grocery's refrigerator while the siege was still ongoing.
In mid-January 2023, Rachid M'Barki, journalist who presents the night newspaper, is suspended following an internal investigation for foreign interference concerning content broadcast by the channel in troubled circumstances about the economic forum of Dakhla.Elisa Braun, "French TV channel launches probe into external meddling with content", Politico, 2 February 2023, online . According to an investigation by France Info, the "information" was provided by an Israeli agency, run by former members of the army and the secret services and specialized in influence, electoral manipulation and disinformation.
Broadcasting
It was launched first on the French digital terrestrial television (TNT, or télévision numérique terrestre) and is broadcast free 24 hours a day, by satellite on CanalSat (see frequencies below), French digital terrestrial television, by DSL providers Free, Neuf, Orange, by mobile television on Orange and SFR, by cable provider Numericable, and live on the channel's website (via Windows Media streaming).
BFMTV has a policy called priorite au direct'' that mandates that live outside feeds are used whenever possible.
BFMTV is freely broadcast by satellite in DVB-S2 MPEG-4:
Hot Bird 13°E: 12.692 GHz Pol H, SR 27500 FEC 2/3, SD
Astra 19.2°E: 11.895 GHz, Pol V, SR 29700 FEC 2/3, HD encrypted in Nagravision and Viaccess
BFM TV anchors
BFMTV journalists, who tend to be young, "pride themselves on doing things differently".
Currently, the channel has 250 journalists, with 49 work on screen.
Business
Nicolas Doze
Emmanuel Lechypre
Culture
Philippe Dufreigne
Candice Mahout
Lorène de Susbielle
Hi-tech
Anthony Morel
Justice
Dominique Rizet
News
Politics
Éric Brunet
Anna Cabana
Ruth Elkrief
Hervé Gattegno
Bruno Jeudy
Camille Langlade
Apolline de Malherbe
Laurent Neumann
Anne Saurat-Dubois
Catherine Tricot
Sports
Thibaut Giangrande
Talk-show
Yves Calvi
Laurent Ruquier
Weather
Patricia Charbonnier
Marc Hay
Virgilia Hess
Virginie Hilssone-Lévy
Sandra Larue
Christophe Person
Loïc Rivières
Guillaume Séchet
Prix Spécial BFM Business de la Bourse
The Prix Spécial is awarded to a personality or an investment company. Performance, net flows and profile with the French and international financial communities are the key criterion retained to award the prize.
See also
24-hour news cycle
Television in France
References
External links
Official Site and live streaming
Television channels and stations established in 2005
2005 establishments in France
Television stations in France
French-language television stations
24-hour television news channels in France
Liberal media in France
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punic%20religion
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Punic religion
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The Punic religion, Carthaginian religion, or Western Phoenician religion in the western Mediterranean was a direct continuation of the Phoenician variety of the polytheistic ancient Canaanite religion. However, significant local differences developed over the centuries following the foundation of Carthage and other Punic communities elsewhere in North Africa, southern Spain, Sardinia, western Sicily, and Malta from the ninth century BC onward. After the conquest of these regions by the Roman Republic in the third and second centuries BC, Punic religious practices continued, surviving until the fourth century AD in some cases. As with most cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, Punic religion suffused their society and there was no stark distinction between religious and secular spheres. Sources on Punic religion are poor. There are no surviving literary sources and Punic religion is primarily reconstructed from inscriptions and archaeological evidence. An important sacred space in Punic religion appears to have been the large open air sanctuaries known as tophets in modern scholarship, in which urns containing the cremated bones of infants and animals were buried. There is a long-running scholarly debate about whether child sacrifice occurred at these locations, as suggested by Greco-Roman and biblical sources.
Pantheon
The Punics derived the original core of their religion from Phoenicia, but also developed their own pantheons. The poor quality of the evidence means that conclusions about these gods must be tentative. There are no surviving hymns, prayers, or lists of gods and while there are many inscriptions, these are very formulaic and generally only mention the names of gods. The names of gods were also often incorporated into theophoric personal names and some gods are known primarily from this onomastic evidence.
It is difficult to reconstruct a hierarchy of the Carthaginian gods. It was common for the pantheons of Phoenician cities to be headed by a divine couple, entitled Baal (lord) and "Baalat" ("lady"). At Carthage, this divine couple appears to have consisted of the god Baal Hammon and the goddess Tanit, who appear frequently in inscriptions from the tophet of Salammbô, with which they seem to have been especially associated. From the fifth century BC, Tanit begins to be mentioned before Baal Hammon in inscriptions and bears the title "Face of Baal" (pene Baal), perhaps indicating that she was seen as mediating between the worshipper and Baal Hammon. An anthropomorphic symbol, composed of a circular "head", horizontal "arms", and a triangular "body," which is frequently found on Carthaginian stelae, is known by modern scholars as the sign of Tanit, but it is not clear whether the Carthaginians themselves associated it with Tanit. The connections of Baal Hammon and Tanit to the Phoenician pantheon are debated: Tanit may have a Libyan origin, but some scholars connect her to the Phoenician goddesses Anat, Astarte or Asherah; Baal Hammon is sometimes connected to Melqart or El. The gods Eshmun and Melqart also had their own temples in Carthage. The priests of other gods are known from epigraphic evidence, include Ashtart (Astarte), Reshef, Sakon, and Shamash.
Different Punic centres had their own distinct pantheons. In Punic Sardinia, Sid or Sid Babi (known to the Romans as Sardus Pater and apparently an indigenous deity) received worship as the son of Melqart and was particularly associated with the island. At Maktar, to the southwest of Carthage, an important god was Hoter Miskar ("the sceptre of Miskar"). At Leptis Magna, a number of unique gods are attested, many of them in Punic-Latin bilingual inscriptions, such as El-qone-eres, Milkashtart (Hercules), and Shadrafa (Liber Pater). Inscriptions in the tophet at Motya in western Sicily frequently refer to Baal Hammon, as in Carthage, but do not refer to Tanit at all.
Following the common practice of interpretatio graeca, Greco-Roman sources consistently use Greek and Latin names, rather than Punic ones, to refer to Punic deities. They typically identify Baal Hammon with Cronus/Saturn, Tanit with Hera/Juno Caelestis, Melqart with Hercules, and Astarte with Venus/Aphrodite, although the Etruscan-Punic bilingual Pyrgi Tablets produced around 500 BCE identify her with the Etruscan goddess Uni (Hera/Juno). Both Reshef and Eshmun could be Apollo, but Eshmun was also identified with Asclepius. Many of these Roman gods, especially Saturn, Caelestis, Hercules, and Asclepius remained very popular in North Africa after the Roman conquest and probably represent an adaptation and continuation of the Punic deities.
An important source on the Carthaginian pantheon is a treaty between Hamilcar of Carthage and Philip III of Macedon preserved by the second-century BC Greek historian Polybius which lists the Carthaginian gods under Greek names, in a set of three triads. Shared formulas and phrasing show it belongs to a Near Eastern treaty tradition, with parallels attested in Hittite, Akkadian, and Aramaic. Given the inconsistencies in identifications by Greco-Roman authors, it is not clear which Carthaginian gods are to be interpreted. Paolo Xella and Michael Barré (followed by Clifford) have put forward different identifications. Barré has also connected his identifications with Tyrian and Ugaritic predecessors
The Carthaginians also adopted the Greek cults of Persephone (Kore) and Demeter in 396 BCE as a result of a plague that was seen as divine retribution for the Carthaginian desecration of these goddesses' shrines at Syracuse. Nevertheless, Carthaginian religion did not undergo any significant Hellenization. The Egyptian deities Bes, Bastet, Isis, Osiris and Ra were also worshiped.
There is very little evidence for a Punic mythology, but some scholars have seen an original Carthaginian myth behind the story of the foundation of Carthage that is reported by Greek and Latin sources, especially Josephus and Vergil. In this story, Elissa (or Dido) flees Tyre after her brother, king Pygmalion murders her husband, a priest of Melqart, and establishes the city of Carthage. Eventually, Elissa/Dido burns herself on a pyre. Some scholars connect this and other instances of self-immolation in historical accounts of Carthaginian generals with tophet rituals. Josephine Crawley Quinn has proposed that myth of the Philaeni brothers in Libya had its roots in Punic myth and Carolina López-Ruiz has made similar arguments for the story of Gargoris and Habis in Tartessus.
Practices
Priesthood
The Carthaginians appear to have had both part-time and full-time priests, the latter called (singular , cognate with the Hebrew term kohen), led by high priests called . Lower-ranking religious officials, attached to specific sanctuaries, included the "chief of the gatekeepers," people called "servants" or "slaves" of the sanctuary (male: , female: or ), and functionaries like cooks, butchers, singers, and barbers. Goddesses may have been worshiped together and shared the same priests. A class of cultic officials known as the (vocalized , usually translated "Awakener of the god") was responsible for ensuring that the dying-and-rising god Melqart returned to watch over the city each year. Sanctuaries had associations, referred to as in Punic and Neo-Punic inscriptions, who held ritual banquets. M'Hamed Hassine Fantar proposes that it was the part-time priests, appointed in some way by the civil authorities, who controlled religious affairs, while the full-time priests were primarily responsible for rites and the interpretation of myth. At Carthage, for example, there was a thirty-person council that regulated sacrifices. Some Phoenician communities practiced sacred prostitution; in the Punic sphere this is attested at Sicca Veneria (El Kef) in western Tunisia and the sanctuary of Venus Erycina at Eryx in western Sicily.
Funerary practices
The funerary practices of the Carthaginians were very similar to those of Phoenicians in the Levant. They include the rituals surrounding the disposal of the remains, funerary feasts, and ancestor worship. A variety of grave goods are found in the tombs, which indicate a belief in life after death.
Cemeteries were located outside settlements. They were often symbolically separated from them by geographic features like rivers or valleys. A short papyrus found in a tomb at Tal-Virtù in Malta suggests a belief that the dead had to cross a body of water to enter the afterlife. Tombs could take the form of fossae (rectangular graves cut into the earth or bedrock), pozzi (shallow, round pits), and hypogea (rock-cut chambers with stone benches on which the deceased was laid). There are some built tombs, all from before the sixth century BC. Tombs are often surmounted by small funerary stelae and baetyls.
At different times, Punic people practiced both cremation and inhumation. Until the sixth century BCE, cremation was the normal means of disposing of the dead. In the sixth century BCE, cremation was almost entirely superseded by inhumation. Thereafter, cremation was largely restricted to infant burials. This change is sometimes associated with the expansion of Carthaginian influence in the western Mediterranean, but exactly how and why this change occurred is unclear. Around 300 BC, cremation once again became the norm, especially in Sardinia and Ibiza. Cremation pits have been identified at Gades in Spain and Monte Sirai in Sardinia. After cremation, the bones were cleaned and separated from the ashes and then placed carefully in urns before burial. At Hoya de los Rastros, near Ayamonte in Spain, for example, the bones were arranged in order in their urns so that the feet were at the bottom and the skull at the top. Cremated and inhumed remains could be placed in wooden coffins or stone sarcophagi. Examples are known from Tharros and Sulci in Sardinia, Lilybaeum in Sicily, Casa del Obispo at Gades in Spain, and Carthage and Kerkouane in Tunisia. Before burial, the deceased was anointed with perfumed resin, coloured red with ochre or cinnabar, traces of which have been recovered archaeologically.
The funeral was accompanied by a feast in the cemetery. This banquet, called a mrz, is attested in inscriptions of the fourth and third centuries BC, but is known in the Levant in earlier periods. The attendees decorated an altar and sacrificed an animal which they then ate. The feasts included the consumption of wine, which may have had symbolic links to blood, the fertility of the Earth, and new life, as it did for other Mediterranean peoples. At the end of the feast, the crockery was smashed or buried in order to ritually kill it. Cemeteries included spaces and equipment for food preparation. The feast may have played a role in determining inheritance and could have symbolised the enduring bond between the deceased and their survivors. These funerary feasts were repeated at regular intervals as part of a cult of the ancestors (called rpʼm, cognate with the Hebrew rephaim). In Neo-Punic texts, the rpʼm are equated with the Latin Manes. At Monte Sirai in Sardinia, tombs included amphorae to channel libations offered on these occasions down into the tomb. The funerary stelae and baetyls erected on top of tombs, which are often inscribed with the name of the deceased and anthropomorphised, may have been intended as the focus for worship of the deceased within the context of this ancestor cult. Small stone altars were found in the cemeteries at Palermo and Lilybaeum in Sicily and are depicted on funerary stelae in Sardinia and Sicily. It appears that fires were lit on top of them as part of purification rites.
A range of grave goods are found deposited with the deceased, which seem to have been intended to provide the deceased with protection and symbolic nourishment. These do not differ significantly based on the gender or age of the deceased. Grave offerings could include carved masks and amulets, especially the eye of Horus (wadjet) and small glass apotropaic heads (protomae), which were intended to protect the deceased. Offerings of food and drink were probably intended to nourish the deceased in the afterlife. They were often accompanied by a standardised set of feasting equipment for the deceased, consisting of two jugs, a drinking bowl, and an oil lamp. Oil and perfume may have been intended to provide the deceased with heat and light. Chickens and their eggs were particularly frequent offerings and may have represented the soul's resurrection or transition to the afterlife in Punic thought. Razors, left next to the head of the deceased, may indicate that the corpse was shaved before burial or an expectation that priests would continue to shave in death as they had in life. Bronze cymbals and bells found in some tombs may derive from songs and music played at the funeral of the deceased - perhaps intended to ward off evil spirits. Terracotta figurines of musicians are found in graves, and depictions of them were carved on funerary stelae and on razors deposited in the grave. Almost all these musicians are female, suggesting that women had a particular role in this part of the funeral; most play the drums, kithara, or aulos.
Funerary iconography
Most Punic grave stelae, in addition to an engraved text and sometimes a standing figure bearing a libation cup, show a standard repertoire of (religious) symbols. It is thought that such symbols, which may be compared to a cross on a Christian gravestone, generally represent "deities or beliefs related to the after-life, aimed probably at facilitating or at protecting the eternal rest of the deceased". The symbols also helped the large majority of people who were illiterate to understand the function of the stela.
The main Punic funerary symbols are:
the so-called "Tanit symbol", a female figure built up from a triangle (the body), plus a circle (the head), and a horizontal line (the arms, often with hands stretched out upwards). The symbol often appears on stelae dedicated to the two gods "Tinnit-Phanebal and Baal-Hammon". Of unknown origin, unlike the other funerary symbols, the worship of Tanit (or Tinnit) seems autochthonous: it is found hardly anywhere else but in Punic culture. Little is known about Tanit, but she is considered to be a symbol of fertility and abundance (the Tanit symbol also looks very similar to the Egyptian Ankh symbol, a symbol of life). The Tanit symbol is found most often in the neo-Punic period (after 146 BCE).
the "crescent and disc", a very common symbol on Carthaginian grave stelae, a circle covered by a sickle. Probably portraying the new ("crescent") and full ("disc") moon. This symbol seems to refer to the passage of time, but the precise meaning is unknown. Used rarely on later neo-Punic stelae. Sometimes replaced by a "rosette and crescent", where the rosette is placed above an inverted, ship-like crescent.
a raised right hand, hand palm outward, seemingly picturing a blessing or prayer. Often combined with a text like "He (the god) blessed me" or "I was blessed". This symbol disappeared completely by the neo-Punic period.
a caduceus, or messenger's staff. It basically consists of three elements, from below to top a stem, a circle, and a "U" shape. Maybe adopted from the caduceus of the Greek god Hermes, who was a guide to the Netherworld. However, in Carthage the caduceus symbol often seems to have been associated not with death but with healing, and with Esmun, the god of healing. The symbol was common in the 4th-2nd century BCE, but became ever more rare in the neo-Punic period.
a standard. Usually used pairwise, one of the two "standards" placed at left and the other one at the right of a central picture. Often combined with the "Tanit symbol". In the 2nd century BCE it "fused" with the caduceus.
a bottle or vase symbol, appearing in the 4th and 3rd century BCE. Attempts to interpret it have been widely varying, but there seem to be parallels with an Egyptian sign picturing the grave of Osiris, which has led to speculation that the symbol "expressed the hope of personal renewal in the afterlife".
Sacrifice and dedications
Animals and other valuables were sacrificed to propitiate the gods; such sacrifices had to be done according to strict specifications, which are described on nine surviving inscriptions known as "sacrificial tariffs." The longest of these is KAI 69, known as the Marseille Tariff, after its find-spot, which probably originally stood in Carthage. It lists the portions of sacrifices that the priests of a temple of Baal Saphon were entitled to. The other sacrificial tariffs are CIS I.165, 167–170, 3915–3917, all found in North Africa. These tariffs are similar to a pair of fifth-century BC tariff inscriptions found at the Phoenician city of Kition in Cyprus. They also share some terminology and formulae with Ugaritic and Biblical Hebrew texts on sacrifice. There is also a list of festival offerings, CIS I.166 and many short votive inscriptions, mostly associated with the tophets. Many of these tophet inscriptions refer to the sacrificial ritual as (vocalized or ), which some scholars connect with the biblical Moloch. Votive inscriptions are also found in other contexts; a long inscription on an eighth-century BC bronze statuette found at Seville dedicates it to Athtart (KAI5 294). A fifth-century BC inscription (KAI 72) from Ebusus records the dedication of a temple, first to Rašap-Melqart, and then to Tinnit and Gad by a priest who states that the process involved making a vow. A stele erected at Carthage in the mid-second century BC by a woman named Abibaal shows the sacrifice of a cow's head by burning on an altar; the details of the image show continuity with much earlier Near Eastern sacrificial rituals.
Libations and incense also appear to have been an important part of sacrifices, based on archaeological finds. A custom attested at Byblos by the Greek author Lucian of Samosata that those sacrificing to Melqart had to shave their heads may explain ritual razors found in many Carthaginian tombs.
Tophets and child sacrifice
Various Greek and Roman sources describe and criticize the Carthaginians as engaging in the practice of sacrificing children by burning. Classical writers describing some version of child sacrifice to "Cronos" (Baal Hammon) include the Greek historians Diodorus Siculus and Cleitarchus, as well as the Christian apologists Tertullian and Orosius. These descriptions were compared to those found in the Hebrew Bible describing the sacrifice of children by burning to Baal and Moloch at a place called Tophet. The ancient descriptions were seemingly confirmed by the discovering of the so-called "Tophet of Salammbô" in Carthage in 1921, which contained the urns of cremated children. However, modern historians and archaeologists debate the reality and extent of this practice. Some scholars propose that all remains at the tophet were sacrificed, whereas others propose that only some were.
Archaeological evidence
The specific sort of open aired sanctuary described as a Tophet in modern scholarship is unique to the Punic communities of the Western Mediterranean. Over 100 tophets have been found throughout the Western Mediterranean, but they are absent in Spain. The largest tophet discovered was the Tophet of Salammbô at Carthage. The Tophet of Salammbô seems to date to the city's founding and continued in use for at least a few decades after the city's destruction in 146 BCE. No Carthaginian texts survive that would explain or describe what rituals were performed at the tophet. When Carthaginian inscriptions refer to these locations, they are referred to as bt (temple or sanctuary), or qdš (shrine), not Tophets. This is the same word used for temples in general.
As far as the archaeological evidence reveals, the typical ritual at the Tophet – which, however, shows much variation – began by the burial of a small urn containing a child's ashes, sometimes mixed with or replaced by that of an animal, after which a stele, typically dedicated to Baal Hammon and sometimes Tanit was erected. In a few occasions, a chapel was built as well. Uneven burning on the bones indicate that they were burned on an open air pyre. The dead children are never mentioned on the stele inscriptions, only the dedicators and that the gods had granted them some request.
While tophets fell out of use after the fall of Carthage on islands formerly controlled by Carthage, in North Africa they became more common in the Roman Period. In addition to infants, some of these tophets contain offerings only of goats, sheep, birds, or plants; many of the worshipers have Libyan rather than Punic names. Their use appears to have declined in the second and third centuries CE.
Controversy
The degree and existence of Carthaginian child sacrifice is controversial, and has been ever since the Tophet of Salammbô was discovered in 1920. Some historians have proposed that the Tophet may have been a cemetery for premature or short-lived infants who died naturally and then were ritually offered. The Greco-Roman authors were not eye-witnesses, contradict each other on how the children were killed, and describe children older than infants being killed as opposed to the infants found in the tophets. Accounts such as Cleitarchus's, in which the baby dropped into the fire by a statue, are contradicted by the archaeological evidence. There are not any mentions of child sacrifice from the Punic Wars, which are better documented than the earlier periods in which mass child sacrifice is claimed. Child sacrifice may have been overemphasized for effect; after the Romans finally defeated Carthage and totally destroyed the city, they engaged in postwar propaganda to make their archenemies seem cruel and less civilized. Matthew McCarty argues that, even if the Greco-Roman testimonies are inaccurate "even the most fantastical slanders rely upon a germ of fact."
Many archaeologists argue that the ancient authors and the evidence of the Tophet indicates that all remains in the Tophet must have been sacrificed. Others argue that only some infants were sacrificed. Paolo Xella argues that the weight of classical and biblical sources indicate that the sacrifices occurred. He further argues that the number of children in the tophet is far smaller than the rate of natural infant mortality. In Xella's estimation, prenatal remains at the tophet are probably those of children who were promised to be sacrificed but died before birth, but who were nevertheless offered as a sacrifice in fulfillment of a vow. He concludes that the child sacrifice was probably done as a last resort and probably frequently involved the substitution of an animal for the child.
See also
Religions of the ancient Near East
Phoenician religion
History of the Jews in Carthage
References
Bibliography
External links
Carthage
Carthage
Child sacrifice
Carthage
Carthage
Phoenician religion
Phoenician mythology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abney%20Park%20Chapel
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Abney Park Chapel
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Abney Park Chapel, is a Grade II Listed chapel, designed by William Hosking and built by John Jay that is situated in Europe's first wholly nondenominational cemetery, Abney Park Cemetery, London.
Opened in May, 1840, it was the first nondenominational cemetery chapel in Europe (and probably the world – since the chapel at Mount Auburn was a later addition). It helped pioneer the early use of the Dissenting Gothic building style, and encouraged renewed interest in the careful blending of earlier styles.
It was primarily the work of a small design team consisting of George Collison II (acting as client for the cemetery founders, with a passion for Mount Auburn Cemetery near Boston, and it is said, Beverley Minster which dominated the skyline in his ancestral town); William Hosking (architect and civil engineer with an interest in Egyptology, antiquities, and architectural writing and scholarship); the builder John Jay, and George Loddiges (botanical scientist and horticulturalist primarily concerned with the setting of Abney Park Chapel, including its nearby rosarium and a collection of American plants on the Chapel Lawn). The chapel's first minister was the Rev. John Jefferson, who officiated for more than a quarter of a century.
Location and orientation
The first matters to establish were the design principles and layout. Since this was to be the first non-denominational chapel for a European garden cemetery, there were no existing guidelines. William Hosking, in discussion with George Collison II developed a plan to site the novel chapel at the very heart of Abney Park foregoing any positioning close to the main entrance. The aim was that, once the pine trees that were planted along the Chapel Ride matured, the chapel would gradually be revealed through a sylvan landscape approach drive. The sinuously designed Chapel Ride was therefore lined with Bhutan Pine trees on its south side. Not only could nature be appreciated, but the main entrance (with its Egyptian revival building style) would not be eclipsed.
Nonetheless, the chapel was not to be 'hidden' away in the centre of the estate, even as the trees lining its approach matured. Collison and Hosking sought a prominent and unapologetic landmark that would be seen from a good distance beyond the cemetery well into the future. To achieve this, whilst only being slowly revealed on its approach from the main entrance, considerable height was required. Hosking considered this to be best suited to a steeple – it would need to be much higher than any other in the vicinity, surpassing that of the local parish church, to produce maximum effect.
The blending of styles
To celebrate its message of religious harmony, the chapel was to be a blend of conventional and unique characteristics. William Hosking drafted and redrafted an increasingly elegant solution to this design problem, beginning from a fairly conventional, scaled-down version of an Anglican gothic minster as a convenient starting point.
The design of the chapel was to evolve considerably from this starting point. It was a somewhat unusual starting point in some respects in that nonconformists, such as the cemetery directors, generally preferred classical designs over Gothic revival. It was not until some years later this style was to become popular with nonconformists, whose interest lay purely in its aesthetics. At this date nonconformist clients did not commission the Gothic revival style, due to pressure to closely associate it with 'high church' uses, as was advocated by some early revivalist architects led by Augustus Welby Pugin. By the time a chapel was built at Mount Auburn in Massachusetts, a few years after Abney Park's Chapel, the gothic (pointed) style was more commonly accepted by nonconformists.
However, in the early Gothic revivalist period of 1838–40, when the chapel for Abney Park was designed, the use of the gothic style would certainly have conveyed a 'high church' note in conventional architectural circles. This implies that Collison and Hosking may have used the style as a deliberate architectural counterpoise to what some critics saw as their 'non-western' or 'non-Christian' style of entranceway ('Egyptian Revival'). Those who interpreted the chapel's gothic affiliations in this contemporary way, might therefore have considered the chapel to contribute 'balance' to the cemetery's entrance ensemble, underpinning the cemetery company's overall philosophy of nondenominational harmony, and reflecting the ecumenical leanings of Isaac Watts who had lived at the parkland estate a century before.
Gradually, in the later Victorian period, adoption of 'gothic' designs came to suggest an association with nature, rather than with western Christian architecture. Although such associations primarily emerged in the mid-late Victorian 'arts and crafts' period, it is possible that the association with 'nature' and the 'natural world' was an influence on Hosking's design since the overall cemetery project was conceived as a splendid botanical extravaganza, with the largest arboretum in the country, perfected by the famous George Loddiges.
Whatever the explanation, Hosking's Abney Park Chapel was designed in a form of 'gothic revival' style, which for such an early date is believed to be the earliest example of 'gothic revival' architecture for a stand-alone or unconsecrated chapel.
Being earlier than the mainstream use of 'gothic revival' designs for chapel architecture, and in all probability with the express intention of weakening the all too frequent association of gothic with 'high church' buildings, which was being advocated rather pompously by Augustus Pugin, a distinctly 'low gothic revivalist' style was gradually developed by Hosking and his clients, from a conventional gothic 'mister-like' starting point. Hosking was successful in producing a unique and careful interpretation of the gothic style which was well-suited to the 'low church sentiments' of his clients. For example, stock brick rather than traditional stone was used for much of the exterior, introducing a visual quality similar to the Brick Gothic style of Baltic countries, such as Sweden and Estonia. Moreover, neo-classical features (i.e. semi-circular arches) were carefully composited into the horse carriage entrance (porte cochere), and each viewing turret bore a simple romanesque oculus to let light onto its newel staircase, rather than a pointed or quatrefoil gothic window or an oculus whose aperture was in the gothic style.
The concept of introducing classical elements into a gothic design had previously used in England only on rare occasions, such as for the Little Castle at Bolsover in Derbyshire, built after the Reformation, from 1612. It symbolised a connection with Romanesque-Gothic religious buildings of continental Europe, such as the monastic basilica of St. Procopius, Třebíč, Czech Republic, where Jewish and Christian cultures co-existed; now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Hosking's search for a thoughtful and appropriate design for the three rose windows of the chapel, may also have been influenced partly by the St. Procopius basilica which incorporates a rare example of the use of a naturalistic ten-part rose window. All wild roses have five petals and five sepals or multiples of this number, as do their fruit. Similarly a lime, orange or lemon which belong to the family Rosaceae will also normally show ten fruit segments, as can be seen if cut in half. The adoption of a botanical rose window introduced an element of classical learning and reason rather than the tendency of gothic towards the more elaborate and supernatural. Its choice would also have suited the horticulturalist and scientist George Loddiges who was on the design team for he saw the 'hand of the Creator' in the beautiful natural designs of botanical species and varieties. His multi-part work, 'The Botanical Cabinet' took a distinctly more religious view of botany than competitor's illustrated works such as Curtis' Botanical Magazine and was noted for its piety. Near to the chapel with its splendid botanical rose windows George Loddiges laid out a special rosarium to bring attention to this rich and diverse plan family. The botanical rose windows would also have suited George Collison for his ancestral town was Beverley in Yorkshire, where he would have been familiar with the widespread use of the White Rose of York as a symbol and have seen it reproduced, taking up the theme of the rose, in the rare ten-part botanical rose windows of Beverley Minster.
Ultimately the botanical rose windows at the Abney Park Chapel provided a strong symbolic detail that dovetailed the chapel to the design of the grounds and its rosarium, besides offering the beauty of simplicity and a compliment to the Creator; a design of considerable thoughtfulness as came to typify William Hosking's learned and historical approach to architecture.
For the pointed gothic windows, grouped in threes, no tracery was used, also representing careful thinking about simplicity of design. For the steeple, William Hosking drew on the fourteenth century Bloxham church in Oxfordshire for design inspiration. Its steeple, the tallest in that county, is octagonal in cross-section and gains additional elevation from a raised octagonal base with a decorated rim; and the spire itself is of graceful, elegant simplicity unlike more ornate gothic steeples with buttresses and decorative crockets. These low Gothic characteristics suited Hosking's purpose well, though he added a flourish of colour banding to the steeple – a Victorian fashion.
The final result was a chapel, complete with its unornamented yellow stock brick walls, a tall, eye-catching yet gracefully simple steeple, and simple botanically accurate rose windows, created a dramatic but tasteful and purposeful piece; one that epitomised its low gothic nondenominational function well, whilst establishing Abney Park as a local landmark visible from the thoroughfares of Church Street and the High Street, and from Woodberry Downs in the middle distance.
The single cell layout
Perfecting the chapel had necessitated a long process of iteration and re-design to meet the wishes of the Cemetery Directors for a new nondenominational style. William Hosking mastered the brief admirably, providing them with a chapel building that achieved the company's objective remarkably well, both in its choice of materials and style of design.
However, of equal significance was its layout in plan section; for the chapel comprised just a single internal chamber that would be available to all, regardless of denomination; marking the chapel out in a practical, functional sense, in addition to its external appearance, as the first nondenominational cemetery chapel in Europe. Moreover, its cruciform plan adopted equal arms as in a Greek cross, giving conceptual strength to this concept of equality before God, through its design approach. At a time when cemeteries had to have separate denominational chapels or at best, a double-cell arrangement, Hosking's chapel was entirely unique to European cemetery design.
The axial vista in memory of Isaac Watts
The chapel's eventual design avoided the temptation towards eclectic over-adornment sometimes associated with excesses of romantic mediaevalism, for which the derogatory term Gothick can be used. By satisfying the Cemetery Company Directors' preference for a low gothic style, William Hosking helped focus visual attention on the chapel's one elaborately designed elevation – the crenelated and decorated south elevation. This facade was set between two octagonal stair turrets, with newell staircases inside, illuminated by simple oculus windows. These led to dramatic viewpoints over Dr Watts' Walk, as well as to an internal viewing platform above an ogee arch with trefoil panels and quatrafoil. the whole effect created an almost theatrical backdrop to the south chapel lawn. As such it almost 'spoke' to the vista to which it was conspicuously aligned – a new axial walk in Dr. Watts' memory being laid out due south. Thus the chapel would be aligned with Dr Watts' and Lady Mary Abney's former place of residence – Abney House, Church Street.
Orienting the chapel this way proved problematic to engravers who took artistic licence to illustrate Abney Park Chapel as if it were aligned perfectly in between the main entrance pillars! However, its purposeful 'turning away' from the commercial entrance to enable its most elegant facade to face a planned vista and walk in memory of Dr Watts, was important to capture the spirit of the park. It symbolised the Abney Park Cemetery Company's deliberate land assembly of the Fleetwood House and Abney House grounds to conserve it for dedication to the life of Dr Watts, and in memory of his benefactor Lady Mary Abney. The cemetery company ensured that its official engraver, George Childs, issued a perspective of Abney Park Chapel ('Dr Watts' Chapel') along the axial vista of what was to be laid out as Dr Watts' Walk. This was distributed free to all shareholders.
Dr Watts was an important figure for the cemetery founders. During his life but more so after his death, he had become associated with the nondenominational concept now being espoused by the cemetery company. Although Dr Watts had been a lifelong religious Independent, he had been honoured in death by a memorial in the Anglican Westminster Abbey, and his hymns and scholarly teachings had become widely favoured by moderates of many denominations. When Edward Hodges Baily RA FRS was commissioned a few years later to design London's only public statue to Dr Isaac Watts, it was situated in Dr Watts' Walk in front of the Abney Park Chapel.
Support and controversy for the new approach
Endorsement of Hosking's place in architectural history along with the guiding hand of his client George Collison, came once the final design was agreed. The foundation stone was laid by Sir Chapman Marshall, Lord Mayor of the City of London in the presence of the Sheriffs of the City and County.
Though the purpose of Hosking's orientation and design received considerable praise, there remained some for whom the completed chapel, not being adherent to strict, or 'high' gothic principles, was deemed to be of 'poor design', whilst for others it was said to be 'pretentious' since it appeared to be the first use of the gothic revival style for an unconsecrated chapel in England at a time when the style was being associated with Anglican and Anglo-Catholic ideas. Hosking's critics emanated principally from groups such as the Cambridge 'Ecclesiologists' who were pursuing an Anglican revivalist agenda and favoured particular stylistic approaches and applications. The balanced design worked as planned however, the cemetery attracting Dissenters and Anglicans in roughly equal numbers initially, before it became especially popular with the former.{cn|date=October 2023}} In later years other architects, notably George Gilbert Scott followed Hoskings' approach beyond merely copying the past, and began to produce designs in their own personal manner, creating buildings that sometimes mixed elements of the English Gothic style with features of other countries and periods; indeed Scott believed a new genre would develop from such an approach. Nor was it many years before the use of the gothic style in its various 'high' and 'low' forms became commonplace in the design of unconsecrated chapels.
Even at the time of its completion, counterbalancing the critics were other 'arbiters of taste' who concluded that Hosking's cemetery design worked exceptionally well; notably John Loudon. Loudon had been critical of the catacombs at Kensal Green Cemetery as 'bad taste', and had also found the 'pleasure-ground style' at Norwood cemetery objectionable; yet offered only praise for the new principles of cemetery layout, management and design at Abney Park.
Moreover, upon completion of the Abney Park Chapel, William Hosking was offered the post of professor of Art and Construction at King's College, then an avowedly the Anglican establishment, and John Britton, who had co-authored one of Pugin's books promoting gothic revival architecture, was soon to work in partnership with William Hosking to devise a restoration scheme in Bristol for an Anglican church. Thus Hosking could claim to have spanned the inter-denominational divide.
The landscape setting
The design team included not only the architect William Hoskings, but also the botanist and nurseryman George Loddiges. Moreover, the ethos of Abney Park Cemetery was distinctly botanical. The plans for the chapel therefore featured a nearby rosarium and a collection of American plants on the Chapel Lawn.
The chapel today
Today Hosking's novel chapel continues to merit acclaim as an outstandingly attractive architectural set piece of special importance amongst the Magnificent Seven London garden cemeteries of the time, and indeed throughout Europe. It also has significance in relation to the general evolution of ideas and schemes for nondenominational burial grounds and cemeteries, establishing itself as the first to incorporate a nondenominational chapel and other characteristics that lead to it being considered today as the first wholly nondenominational garden cemetery in Europe. However, a fire gutted the interior and it has been closed for thirty years. The roof slates and roof flashings of the chapel have been damaged by unauthorised climbing and theft at times when the park was left unsupervised and unlocked overnight, and this has resulted in water seepage into the chapel walls which is now causing serious problems to the whole building. The chapel remains a 'building at risk' despite re-roofing and other structural repairs. Plans are being progressed by The Abney Park Cemetery Trust to re-open it and give access to the public and community groups once again along with an improved nature and landscape setting.
External links
Abney Park Cemetery Trust
References
Loudon, J.C. (1843; 1981 reprint). On the Laying Out, planting & Managing of Cemeteries. Redhill, Surrey: Ivelet
Religious buildings and structures completed in 1840
Chapels in England
Grade II listed buildings in the London Borough of Hackney
Grade II listed churches in London
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasco%20N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez%20de%20Balboa
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Vasco Núñez de Balboa
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Vasco Núñez de Balboa (; c. 1475around January 12–21, 1519) was a Spanish explorer, governor, and conquistador. He is best known for having crossed the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean in 1513, becoming the first European to lead an expedition to have seen or reached the Pacific from the New World.
He traveled to the New World in 1500 and, after some exploration, settled on the island of Hispaniola. He founded the settlement of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in present-day Colombia in 1510, which was the first permanent European settlement on the mainland of the Americas (a settlement by Alonso de Ojeda the previous year at San Sebastián de Urabá had already been abandoned).
Early life
Balboa was born in Jerez de los Caballeros, Spain. He was a descendant of the Lord mason of the castle of Balboa, on the borders of León and Galicia. His mother was the Lady de Badajoz, and his father was the hidalgo (nobleman), Nuño Arias de Balboa. Little is known of Vasco's early childhood except that he was the third of four boys in his family. During his adolescence, he served as a page and squire to Don Pedro de Portocarrero, lord of Moguer.
Early career
In 1500, motivated by his master after the news of Christopher Columbus's voyages to the New World became known, he decided to embark on his first voyage to the Americas, along with Juan de la Cosa, on Rodrigo de Bastidas' expedition. Bastidas had a license to bring back treasure for the king and queen, while keeping four-fifths for himself, under a policy known as the quinto real, or "royal fifth". In 1501, he crossed the Caribbean coasts from the east of Panama, along the Colombian coast, through the Gulf of Urabá toward Cabo de la Vela. The expedition continued to explore the north east of South America, until they realized they did not have enough men and sailed to Hispaniola.
With his share of the earnings from this campaign, Balboa settled in Hispaniola in 1505, where he resided for several years as a planter and pig farmer. He was not successful in this enterprise, and ended up in debt, and was forced to abandon life on the island.
In 1508, the king of Spain, Ferdinand II "The Catholic", launched the conquest of Tierra Firme (the area roughly corresponding to the Isthmus of Panama). He created two new territories in the region between El Cabo de la Vela (near the eastern border of Colombia) and El Cabo de Gracias a Dios (the border between Honduras and Nicaragua). The Gulf of Urabá became the border between the two territories: Nueva Andalucía to the east, governed by Alonso de Ojeda, and Veragua to the west, governed by Diego de Nicuesa.
In 1509, wishing to escape his creditors in Santo Domingo, Balboa set sail as a stowaway, hiding inside a barrel together with his dog Leoncico, in the expedition commanded by the Alcalde Mayor of Nueva Andalucía, Martín Fernández de Enciso, whose mission it was to aid Alonso de Ojeda, his superior.
Ojeda, together with 70 men, had founded the settlement of San Sebastián de Urabá in Nueva Andalucía, on the location where the city of Cartagena de Indias was later built. The settlers encountered resistance from natives living in the area, who used poisoned weapons, and Ojeda was injured in the leg. A short time later, Ojeda sailed for Hispaniola, leaving the colony under the supervision of Francisco Pizarro, who, at that time, was only a soldier waiting for Enciso's expedition to arrive. Ojeda asked Pizarro to leave some men in the settlement for 50 days and, if no help arrived at the end of that time, to use all possible means to get back to Hispaniola.
Before the expedition arrived at San Sebastián de Urabá, Fernández de Enciso discovered Balboa aboard the ship, and threatened to leave him at the first uninhabited island they encountered. He later reconsidered this and decided that Balboa's knowledge of that region, which he had explored eight years before, would be of great utility. This, in addition to the crew's pleas for his life, left Fernández de Enciso with no choice but to spare Balboa and keep him aboard. Moreover, both agreed on removing Nicuesa as governor of Veragua.
After the 50 days had passed, Pizarro started preparations for the return to Hispaniola, when Enciso's ship arrived. Balboa had gained popularity among the crew because of his charisma and his knowledge of the region. By contrast Fernández de Enciso was not well liked by the men. Many disapproved of his order to return to San Sebastián, especially after discovering, once they had arrived, that the settlement had been completely destroyed and that the natives were already waiting for them, leading to a series of relentless attacks.
The founding of Santa María
Balboa suggested that the settlement of San Sebastián be moved to the region of Darién, to the west of the Gulf of Urabá, where the soil was more fertile and the natives presented less resistance. Fernández de Enciso gave serious consideration to this suggestion, and the regiment later went to Darién, where the native cacique (chieftain) Cémaco had 500 warriors waiting, ready for battle. The Spanish, fearing the large number of enemy combatants, made a vow to the Virgen de la Antigua, venerated in Seville, that they would name a settlement in the region after her should they prevail. It was a difficult battle for both sides, but the Spanish were victorious.
Cémaco, with his warriors, abandoned the town and headed for the jungle. The Spanish plundered the houses and gathered a treasure-trove of golden ornaments. Balboa kept his vow. In September 1510, he founded the first permanent settlement on mainland American soil, and called it Santa María la Antigua del Darién.
Mayor of Santa María
The victory of the Spanish over the natives and the founding of Santa María la Antigua del Darién, now located in a relatively calm region, earned Balboa authority and respect among his companions. They were increasingly hostile toward Alcalde Mayor Fernández de Enciso, whom they considered a greedy despot because of the restrictions he imposed on their appropriation of the natives' gold.
Balboa took advantage of the situation, acting as the spokesman for the disgruntled settlers. He removed Fernández de Enciso from the position of alcalde mayor, using the following legal manoeuvre: Fernández de Enciso was now controlling an area in Veragua, to the west of the Gulf of Urabá; since he was substituting for Alonso de Ojeda, his mandate was illegitimate, because the governor of Veragua was Diego de Nicuesa, not Ojeda; therefore, Fernández de Enciso should be deposed and arrested. After Fernández de Enciso's ouster, a more open government was established and a municipal council was elected (the first in the Americas). Two alcaldes were appointed: Martín Samudio and Vasco Núñez de Balboa.
Shortly after this, a flotilla led by Rodrigo Enrique de Colmenares arrived in Santa María. His objective was to find Nicuesa, who was also facing some difficulties in the north of Panamá. When de Colmenares learned about the recent events, he convinced the town's settlers that they should submit to the authority of Nicuesa, since their land was under his jurisdiction. Enrique de Colmenares invited two representatives, to be named by the local government, to travel with his flotilla and offer Nicuesa authority over the city. The two representatives were Diego de Albites and Diego del Corral.
Governor of Veragua
Enrique de Colmenares found Nicuesa near the town of Nombre de Dios, badly wounded and with few men remaining, on account of a skirmish with local natives. After his rescue, Governor Nicuesa heard about Balboa's exploits, the chieftain Cémaco's bounty, and Santa María's prosperity. He vowed that he would punish Balboa as soon as he gained control of the city, since he regarded his actions as a challenge to his authority in Veragua.
A certain Lope de Olano, who was jailed together with other malcontents, persuaded Santa María's representatives that they would make a serious error in handing control over to Nicuesa, whom he described as cruel, greedy, and able to singlehandedly destroy the city's prosperity. With this evidence, Albites and del Corral fled to Darién ahead of Nicuesa, and informed Balboa and the municipal authorities of the governor's intentions.
When Nicuesa arrived at the city's port, a mob appeared, and the ensuing disturbance prevented the governor from disembarking into the city. Nicuesa insisted on being received, no longer as governor, but as a simple soldier, but still the colonists did not allow him to disembark. He and 17 others were forced to board an unseaworthy boat with few supplies, and were put out to sea on March 1, 1511. The ship disappeared, leaving no trace of Nicuesa and his men. In this way, Balboa became governor (gobernador) of Veragua.
Conquistador
With the title of governor came absolute authority in Santa María and all of Veragua. One of Balboa's first acts as governor was the trial of Fernández de Enciso, accused of usurping the governor's authority. Fernández de Enciso was sentenced to prison and his possessions were confiscated. He was to remain imprisoned only for a short time. Balboa set him free under the condition that he return immediately to Hispaniola and from there to Spain. With him on the same ship were two representatives from Balboa, who were to inform the colonial authorities of the situation, and request more men and supplies to continue the conquest of Veragua.
Balboa continued defeating various tribes and befriending others, exploring rivers, mountains, and sickly swamps, while always searching for gold and slaves and enlarging his territory. He was able to quell revolts among his men who challenged this authority, and through force, diplomacy, and negotiation, he earned a certain respect and fear among the natives. In a letter addressed to the King of Spain, he expressed, somewhat ironically, that he had to act as a conciliatory force during the course of his expeditions.
He succeeded in planting corn, received fresh supplies from Hispaniola and Spain, and got his men accustomed to life as explorers in the new territories. Balboa managed to collect a great deal of gold, much of it from the ornaments worn by native women, and the rest obtained by violence.
The Italian historian Peter Martyr d'Anghiera in his De orbe novo decades describes Balboa unleashing his dogs to kill 40 natives for their apparent sodomy. The writer Genny Beeman believes that this was a persecution of the natives for breaking the gender binary, since the natives had been assigned male at birth but were taking on female gender roles.
At the end of 1512 and the first months of 1513, he arrived in a region dominated by the cacique Careta, whom he easily defeated and then befriended. Careta was baptized and became one of Balboa's chief allies. He ensured the survival of the settlers by promising to supply the Spaniards with food. Balboa then proceeded on his journey, arriving in the lands of Careta's neighbour and rival, cacique Ponca, who fled to the mountains with his people, leaving his village open to plundering by the Spaniards and Careta's men. Days later, the expedition arrived in the lands of cacique Comogre, fertile but reportedly dangerous terrain. Balboa was received peacefully, and even invited to a feast in his honor; Comogre, like Careta, was then baptized.
In 1513, Balboa wrote a lengthy letter to the King of Spain, requesting more men (who were already acclimatized) from Hispaniola, weapons, supplies, carpenters versed in shipbuilding, and all the necessary materials for the building of a shipyard. In a subsequent letter, from 1515, he said the "Indians who had been like sheep had become like lions." He would refer to his humanitarian policies regarding the natives, while at the same time recommending extreme severity in dealing with cannibals and violent tribes.
It was in Comogre's lands that Balboa first heard of "the other sea". It started with a squabble among the Spaniards, unsatisfied by the meager amounts of gold they were being allotted. Comogre's eldest son, Panquiaco, angered by the Spaniards' avarice, knocked over the scales used to measure gold and exclaimed: "If you are so hungry for gold that you leave your lands to cause strife in those of others, I shall show you a province where you can quell this hunger." Panquiaco told them of a kingdom to the south, where people were so rich that they ate and drank from plates and goblets made of gold, but that the conquerors would need at least a thousand men to defeat the tribes living inland and those on the coast of "the other sea".
European discovery of the Pacific Ocean
Balboa received the unexpected news of a new kingdom – rich in gold – with great interest. He returned to Santa María at the beginning of 1513 to recruit more men from Hispaniola. There he learned that Fernández de Enciso had told the colonial authorities what had happened at Santa María. After seeing that there would be no assistance from Hispaniola, Balboa sent Enrique de Colmenares directly to Spain to seek help.
While the expedition to the South Sea (the name at the time of the Pacific Ocean) was being organized in Santa María, some explorers travelled ten leagues (around 50 km or 30 miles) up the Atrato River toward the interior, but returned empty handed. Balboa's request for men and supplies had been denied: Enciso's case was by then widely known in the Spanish court. Therefore, Balboa had no choice but to carry out his expedition with the few resources that he had on hand in Santa María.
Using information given by various friendly caciques, Balboa started his journey across the Isthmus of Panama on September 1, 1513, together with 190 Spaniards, a few native guides, and a pack of dogs. Using a small brigantine and ten native canoes, they sailed along the coast and made landfall in cacique Careta's territory. On September 6, the expedition continued, now reinforced with 1,000 of Careta's men, and entered cacique Ponca's land. Ponca had reorganized and attacked, but he was defeated and forced to ally himself with Balboa. After a few days, and with several of Ponca's men, the expedition entered the dense jungle on September 20, and, with some difficulty, arrived four days later in the lands of cacique Torecha, who ruled in the village of Cuarecuá. In this village, a fierce battle took place, during which Balboa's forces defeated Torecha, who was killed by one of Balboa's dogs. Torecha's followers decided to join the expedition. The group was by then exhausted and several men were badly wounded, so many decided to stay in Cuarecuá to regain their strength.
The few men who continued the journey with Balboa entered the mountain range along the Chucunaque River the next day. According to information from the natives, one could see the South Sea from the summit of this range. Balboa went ahead and, before noon that day, September 25, he reached the summit and saw, far in the horizon, the waters of the undiscovered sea. The emotions were such that the others eagerly joined in to show their joy at Balboa's discovery. Andrés de Vera, the expedition's chaplain, intoned the Te Deum, while the men erected stone pyramids, and engraved crosses on the barks of trees with their swords, to mark the place where the discovery of the South Sea was made.
Possession and conquest of the South Sea
After the moment of discovery, the expedition descended from the mountain range towards the sea, arriving in the lands of cacique Chiapes, who was defeated after a brief battle and invited to join the expedition. From Chiapes' land, three groups departed in the search for routes to the coast. The group headed by Alonso Martín reached the shoreline two days later. They took a canoe for a short reconnaissance trip, thus becoming the first Europeans to navigate the Pacific Ocean off the coast of the New World. Back in Chiapes' domain, Martín informed Balboa, who, with 26 men, marched towards the coast. Once there, Balboa raised his hands, his sword in one and a standard with the image of the Virgin Mary in the other, walked knee-deep into the ocean, and claimed possession of the new sea and all adjoining lands in the name of the Spanish sovereigns.
After traveling more than , Balboa named the bay where they ended up San Miguel, because they arrived on September 29, the feast day of the archangel Michael. He named the new sea Mar del Sur, since they had traveled south to reach it.
Balboa's main purpose in the expedition was the search for the gold-rich kingdoms promised by Panquiaco. To this end, he crossed through the lands of caciques Coquera and Tumaco, defeating them easily and taking their riches of gold and pearls. He then learned that pearls were abundant in the islands ruled by Terarequí, a powerful and feared cacique. Balboa set out in several canoes towards these islands, even though it was the beginning of October and the weather conditions were not favorable. He was barely able to make out the islands, and named the largest one Isla Rica (Rich Island, today known as Isla del Rey). He named the entire group Archipiélago de las Perlas, which they are still called today.
In November, Balboa decided to return to Santa María but by a different route to further expand his territory and procure more gold. He passed through the regions of Teoca, Pacra, Bugue Bugue, Bononaima, and Chorizo, defeating some by force and befriending others through diplomacy. A particularly bloody battle took place against the cacique Tubanamá, whom Balboa eventually defeated. In December, the expedition arrived back in the Caribbean coast, by the Gulf of San Blas, a strip of land ruled by cacique Pocorosa. From there, he headed to the lands of Comogre, to find that his elderly ally had died. His son, Panquiaco, was now the chieftain.
From there, he crossed the lands of Ponca and Careta, arriving in Santa María on January 19, 1514, with a treasure in cotton goods, more than 100,000 castellanos worth of gold, to say nothing of the pearls. All this did not compare to the magnitude of the discovery of the South Sea on behalf of Spain. Balboa commanded Pedro de Arbolancha to set sail for Spain with news of this discovery. He also sent one fifth of the treasure to the king, as the law required.
Disputes with Pedro Arias
The accusations of Fernández de Enciso, whom Balboa had deposed, and the removal and disappearance of Governor Ojeda, forced the king to name Pedro Arias de Ávila as governor of the newly-created province of Castilla de Oro. Arias, better known as Pedrarias Dávila and who would later become notorious for his cruelty, took control of Veragua and managed to calm the situation. Pedrarias arrived from Arbolancha, Spain with an expedition of 1,500 men and 17 ships, thereby ensuring that Balboa's requests to the crown for more men and supplies were met. This would be to that date the largest and most complete expedition to leave Spain for the New World.
Pedrarias was accompanied on this expedition by Gaspar de Espinosa, who held the office of alcalde mayor; the very same Martín Fernández de Enciso whom Balboa had forced into exile, now as Chief Constable (Alguacil Mayor); the royal officer and chronicler Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés; as well as several captains, among them Juan de Ayora, Pedrarias's lieutenant. There were also several clerics, most notably the Franciscan friar Juan de Quevedo, appointed bishop of Santa María. There were also women among the travellers, among them Isabel de Bobadilla, Pedrarias' wife. More than 500 men died from starvation or due to the inclemencies of the weather soon after reaching Darién. Fernández de Oviedo was to note that knights covered in silk and brocade, who distinguished themselves valiantly in the Italian Wars, would die, consumed by hunger and fever, due to the nature of the tropical jungle.
Balboa received Pedrarias and his representatives in July 1514 and accepted resignedly his replacement as governor and mayor. The settlers, however, did not like the change and some were planning to take up arms against Pedrarias, even as Balboa showed respect to the new colonial authorities.
As soon as Pedrarias took charge, Gaspar de Espinosa had Balboa arrested and tried "in absentia", sentencing him to pay reparations to Fernández de Enciso and others. He was, however, found innocent of the charge of murdering Nicuesa, so he was freed shortly afterwards.
Due to overpopulation in Santa María, Pedrarias called on several expeditionaries to search for new locations fit for settlement. Balboa requested of Pedrarias that he be allowed to explore the Dabaibe region, along the Atrato river, for there was a rumour of the existence of a temple filled with vast riches there. However, this expedition turned out to be a failure, leaving Balboa wounded due to constant attacks by the region's natives.
This setback, however, did not deter Balboa's ambitions of returning to explore the South Sea. Secretly, he arranged to recruit a contingent of men from Cuba. The ship carrying them berthed just outside Santa María, and its caretaker informed Balboa of their arrival, receiving in return 70 gold castellanos. Pedrarias, however, soon found out about the ship; furious, he had Balboa arrested, took away all his men and was planning to lock him up in a wooden cage. He was held back from doing this by Bishop de Quevedo, who appealed to him not to abuse his power on Balboa.
Luckily for Balboa, around that time the Spanish Crown would finally recognize his valuable services. The king bestowed on him the titles of "Adelantado of the South Seas" and "Gobernador of Panama and Coiba". On top of this, the King instructed Pedrarias to show Balboa the greatest respect and to consult him on all matters pertaining to the conquest and government of Castilla de Oro. Because of all this, Pedrarias was to release and exonerate Balboa, lifting all charges brought up against him in the matter of the clandestine recruitment of an expeditionary party.
Downfall and death
At that point, the rivalry between Balboa and Pedrarias ceased abruptly, due in large part to the intercession of Bishop de Quevedo and Isabel de Bobadilla, who arranged for Balboa's marriage to María de Peñalosa, one of Pedrarias' daughters, who was in Spain. Shortly thereafter, the bishop left for Spain and the marriage took place by proxy (they would never meet because she was in Spain and Balboa would never return to his homeland). The friendship between Pedrarias and Balboa lasted barely two years, but in that time Balboa came to show great filial affection toward his father-in-law.
Balboa wished to continue exploring the South Sea, but Pedrarias did everything possible to delay his departure. In light of the new relationship between them, Pedrarias could not stop him indefinitely, and he finally consented to let Balboa go on his new expedition, giving him license to explore for a year and a half.
In 1519, Balboa moved to Acla with 300 men and, using the manpower of the natives and African slaves, managed to gather the materials necessary to build new ships. He traveled to the Balsas River (Río Balsas), where he had four ships built. He travelled through the Pacific, surrounding the Pearl Islands and the coasts of Darién, up to Puerto Piñas, so named because of the large amounts of pineapples (piñas) he found there. He then returned to Acla, to continue the construction of sturdier ships.
On his return, Pedrarias wrote warm letters urging Balboa to meet him as soon as possible. Balboa quickly obeyed. Halfway to Santa María, he encountered a group of soldiers commanded by Francisco Pizarro, who arrested him in the name of the governor and accused him of trying to usurp Pedrarias' power and create a separate government in the South Sea. Outraged, Balboa denied all charges and demanded that he be taken to Spain to stand trial. Pedrarias, together with Martin Enciso, ordered that the trial take place without delay.
Balboa's trial began in January 1519 and on the fifteenth of that month, Espinosa sentenced him to death by decapitation. Four of Balboa's friends, Fernando de Argüello, Luis Botello, Hernán Muñoz, and Andrés Valderrábano, accused as accomplices, were sentenced to the same fate. The sentence was to be carried out in Acla, to show that the conspiracy had its roots in that colony.
As Balboa and his friends were being led to the block, the town crier announced: "This is the justice that the King and his lieutenant Pedro Arias de Ávila impose upon these men, traitors and usurpers of the Crown's territories." Balboa could not restrain his indignation and replied: "Lies, lies! Never have such crimes held a place in my heart, I have always loyally served the King, with no thought in my mind but to increase his dominions." Pedrarias observed the execution, hidden behind a platform. The executioner beheaded Balboa and his four friends with an axe. Balboa's head did not come off clean on the first try; it took three. Their heads remained in public display for several days, as a sign of Pedrarias' might. The final location of Balboa's remains is unknown, partly because there is no record of what happened in Acla after the execution.
Gaspar de Espinosa, Pedrarias' underling, sailed the South Sea aboard the very ships that Balboa had commissioned. In 1520, Ferdinand Magellan renamed the sea the Pacific Ocean because of its calm waters.
Legacy
Although Balboa suffered a premature death, his actions and deeds are remembered by history as the first European to cross America. Several parks and avenues throughout Panama bear the name "Vasco Núñez de Balboa", and a number of monuments honour his discovery of the South Sea. The Panamanian currency is called the Balboa, and his likeness appears on the obverse of most Panamanian coins. His name is also attached to Panama City's main port, Balboa (the Pacific entrance to the Panama Canal) and the Balboa District within Panamá Province to which the Pearl Islands that he discovered belong, and a Panamanian beer.
In San Francisco, California, US, Balboa's name appears among a row of avenues which are named after Spanish conquistadors, in the Balboa Park neighborhood, and Balboa High School in the Excelsior District. There is also a large park (Balboa Park) adjacent to downtown San Diego, California which was named after Balboa in 1910. Balboa's name is also honoured in Madrid with a street and a metro station.
One of the highest orders granted by the Panamanian government to distinguished and outstanding figures, foreign and domestic, is the Orden Vasco Núñez de Balboa, in various degrees, as established by Law 27 from 28 January 1933.
The lunar crater Balboa was named after him.
Balboa appears in the lyrics to "The Great Nations of Europe" by composer/singer Randy Newman.
Vasco Nunez de Balboa was featured on the 1-cent denomination of the Panama-Pacific Exposition of 1913. The 1-cent Balboa paid the one-cent card rate, and it was used in combination with other denominations to meet large weight and foreign destinations. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing issued over 330 million of these to the public.
SENAN's Base Naval Vasco Nuñez de Balboa in Panama City is named for Balboa.
In 2020 Iberdrola commissioned the Núñez de Balboa Photovoltaic Power Plant in Usagre, Badajoz, in western Spain. With 500MW it was the biggest photovoltaic power station in Europe at the time.
See also
Age of Discovery
Notes
References
Torodash, Martin. "Balboa Historiography." Terrae Incognitae 6.1 (1974): 7–16.
Historia General de las Indias (Online book). Chapters LVII to LXVI. Francisco López de Gómara. Medina del Campo, 1553; Zaragoza, 1555
Compendio de Historia de Panamá . pp. 156–171. Juan B. Sosa y Enrique J. Arce. Panamá, October, 1911
Encyclopedia Ilustrada Cumbre – Tomo 10. pp. 186–188. 32nd edition – 1993. Editorial Hachette Latinoamérica, S. A. de C. V., México.
Historia general y natural de las Indias. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés. Madrid, 1850
Relación de los sucesos de Pedrarias Dávila. Pascual de Andagoya. III. Madrid, 1829
Balboa on win.tue.nl
External links
His life with various illustrations
Balboa of Darién: Discoverer of the Pacific, an English-language biography by Kathleen Romoli in PDF format
Biography of Núñez de Balboa
Biography of Núñez de Balboa
Discoverers from Jerez: Vasco Núñez de Balboa
Vasco Núñez de Balboa
Biography of Vasco Núñez de Balboa
Founding of Santa María la Antigua del Darién
Vasco Núñez de Balboa and the discovery of the South Sea
Death of Vasco Núñez de Balboa
The Balboa monument
Spanish conquistadors
Spanish explorers of the Pacific
Explorers of Central America
16th-century South American people
Royal Governors of Panama
1470s births
1519 deaths
Year of birth uncertain
16th-century explorers
16th-century Spanish people
16th century in Central America
1510 in North America
1513 in North America
People from Sierra Suroeste
Spanish explorers
Extremaduran conquistadors
Colonial Central America
Colonial Panama
History of Panama
Spanish mass murderers
Genocide perpetrators
Spanish people executed abroad
Spanish colonization of the Americas
People executed by Spain by decapitation
Spanish explorers of North America
Executed mass murderers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn%20Greenwald
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Glenn Greenwald
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Glenn Edward Greenwald (born March 6, 1967) is an American journalist, author, and former lawyer.
In 1996, Greenwald founded a law firm concentrating on First Amendment litigation. He began blogging on national security issues in October 2005, when he was becoming increasingly concerned with what he viewed as attacks on civil liberties by the George W. Bush administration in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks. He became a vocal critic of the Iraq War and has maintained a critical position of American foreign policy.
Greenwald started contributing to Salon in 2007, and to The Guardian in 2012. In June 2013, while at The Guardian, he began publishing a series of reports detailing previously unknown information about American and British global surveillance programs based on classified documents provided by Edward Snowden. His work contributed to The Guardians 2014 Pulitzer Prize win and he was among a group of three reporters who won the 2013 George Polk Award. In 2014, he cofounded The Intercept, of which he was an editor until he resigned in October 2020. Greenwald subsequently started self-publishing on Substack.
Through The Intercept Brasil in June 2019, Greenwald published leaked conversations between senior officials involved in Operation Car Wash, a corruption case in Brazil. The conversations appeared to show the investigative judge acting prejudicially towards Lula in the lead up to the 2018 elections. Greenwald was charged with cybercrimes by Brazilian prosecutors over the leaks in January 2020, though the charges were dismissed by a federal judge a month later.
Early life and education
Greenwald was born in Queens in New York City to Arlene and Daniel Greenwald. Greenwald's family moved to Lauderdale Lakes, Florida, when he was an infant; his parents separated when he was six. His parents, who are Jewish, and his grandparents did try to introduce him to Judaism, but he grew up without practicing an organized religion, did not have a bar mitzvah, and has said his "moral precepts aren't informed in any way by religious doctrine". Greenwald attended Nova Middle School and Nova High School in Davie, Florida.
Inspired by his grandfather's time on the then-Lauderdale Lakes City Council, Greenwald, still in high school, decided to run at the age of 17 for an at-large seat on the council in the 1985 elections. He was unsuccessful, coming in fourth place with 7% of the total vote. In 1991, Greenwald ran again, coming in third place with 18% of the vote. After that, he stopped running for political office and instead focused on law school.
He received a B.A. in philosophy from George Washington University in 1990 and a J.D. from New York University School of Law in 1994. His experiences on his college debate team influenced his career path. "That developed, I think, a lot of the skills and interest that ended up guiding my future career," he said in an interview.
Litigation attorney
Greenwald practiced law in the litigation department at Wachtell, Lipton, Rosen & Katz from 1994 to 1995. In 1996, he co-founded his own litigation firm, Greenwald Christoph & Holland (later renamed Greenwald Christoph PC), where he litigated cases concerning issues of U.S. constitutional law and civil rights. He worked pro bono much of the time, and his cases included representing white supremacist Matthew Hale in Illinois, who, Greenwald believed, was wrongly imprisoned, and the neo-nazi National Alliance.
About his work in First Amendment speech cases, Greenwald told Rolling Stone magazine in 2013, "to me, it's a heroic attribute to be so committed to a principle that you apply it not when it's easy ... not when it supports your position, not when it protects people you like, but when it defends and protects people that you hate".
Later, according to Greenwald, "I decided voluntarily to wind down my practice in 2005 because I could, and because, after ten years, I was bored with litigating full-time and wanted to do other things which I thought were more engaging and could make more of an impact, including political writing."
Journalism
Unclaimed Territory and Salon
In October 2005, he began his blog Unclaimed Territory focusing on the investigation pertaining to the Plame affair, the CIA leak grand jury investigation, the federal indictment of Scooter Libby and the NSA warrantless surveillance (2001–07) controversy. In April 2006, the blog received the 2005 Koufax Award for "Best New Blog". According to Sean Wilentz in the New Statesman, Greenwald "seemed to take pride in attacking Republicans and Democrats alike".
In February 2007, Greenwald became a contributing writer for the Salon website, and the new column and blog superseded Unclaimed Territory, although Salon featured hyperlinks to it in Greenwald's dedicated biographical section.
Among the frequent topics of his Salon articles were the investigation of the 2001 anthrax attacks and the candidacy of former CIA official John O. Brennan for the jobs of either Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (D/CIA) or the next Director of National Intelligence (DNI) after the election of Barack Obama. Brennan withdrew his name from consideration for the post after opposition centered in liberal blogs and led by Greenwald.
In a 2010 article for Salon, Greenwald described U.S. Army Private Chelsea Manning as "a whistle-blower acting with the noblest of motives" and "a national hero similar to Daniel Ellsberg". In an article for The Raw Story published in 2011, Greenwald criticized the prison conditions in which Manning was held after her arrest by military authorities.
Greenwald was described by Rachel Maddow during his period writing for Salon as "the American left’s most fearless political commentator."
The Guardian
In July 2012, Greenwald joined the American wing of Britain's Guardian newspaper, to contribute a weekly column and a daily blog. Greenwald wrote on Salon that the move offered him "the opportunity to reach a new audience, to further internationalize my readership, and to be re-invigorated by a different environment" as reasons for the move.
Global surveillance disclosure
Greenwald was initially contacted anonymously in late 2012 by Edward Snowden, a former contractor for the U.S. National Security Agency, who said he held "sensitive documents" that he wished to share. Greenwald found the measures that Snowden asked him to take to secure their communications too annoying to employ. Snowden then contacted documentary filmmaker Laura Poitras about a month later in January 2013.
According to The Guardian, Snowden was attracted to Greenwald and Poitras by a Salon article written by Greenwald detailing how Poitras' films had made her a "target of the government". Greenwald began working with Snowden in either February or in April, after Poitras asked Greenwald to meet her in New York City, at which point Snowden began providing documents to them both.
As part of the global surveillance disclosure, the first of Snowden's documents were published on June 5, 2013, in The Guardian in an article by Greenwald reporting on the top-secret United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court order requiring Verizon to provide the National Security Agency with telephone metadata for all calls between the U.S. and abroad, as well as all domestic calls. Greenwald said that Snowden's documents exposed the "scale of domestic surveillance under Obama". In September 2021, Yahoo! News reported that in 2017, after the publication of the Vault 7 files by WikiLeaks, "top intelligence officials lobbied the White House" to designate Glenn Greenwald as an "information broker" to allow for more investigative tools against him, "potentially paving the way" for his prosecution. However, the White House rejected this idea. "I am not the least bit surprised," Greenwald told Yahoo! News, "that the CIA, a longtime authoritarian and antidemocratic institution, plotted to find a way to criminalize journalism and spy on and commit other acts of aggression against journalists."
The series on which Greenwald worked contributed to The Guardian (alongside The Washington Post) winning the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service in 2014.
Greenwald's work on the Snowden story was featured in the documentary Citizenfour, which won the 2014 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature. Greenwald appeared on stage with director Laura Poitras and Snowden's girlfriend, Lindsay Mills, to accept the award. In the 2016 feature film Snowden, directed by Oliver Stone, Greenwald was played by actor Zachary Quinto.
Testimony
In a statement delivered before the National Congress of Brazil in early August 2013, Greenwald testified that the U.S. government had used counter-terrorism as a pretext for clandestine surveillance to compete with other countries in the "business, industrial and economic fields".
On December 18, 2013, Greenwald told the Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs of the European Parliament that "most governments around the world are not only turning their backs on Edward Snowden but also on their ethical responsibilities". Speaking via a video link, Greenwald said that, "It is the UK through their interception of underwater fibre optic cables, that is a primary threat to the privacy of European citizens when it comes to their telephone and emails". In a statement given to the European Parliament, Greenwald said:
On October 15, 2013, Greenwald left The Guardian, to pursue a "once-in-a-career dream journalistic opportunity that no journalist could possibly decline".
First Look Media and The Intercept
Financial backing for The Intercept was provided by eBay founder Pierre Omidyar. Omidyar told media critic Jay Rosen that the decision was fueled by his "rising concern about press freedoms in the United States and around the world". Greenwald, along with his colleagues Laura Poitras and Jeremy Scahill, initially were working on creating a platform online to support independent journalism, when they were approached by Omidyar, who was hoping to establish his own media organization. That news organization, First Look Media, launched its first online publication, The Intercept, on February 10, 2014. Greenwald initially served as editor, alongside Poitras and Scahill. The organization is incorporated as a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt charitable entity.
The Intercept was in contact during the 2016 presidential campaign with Guccifer 2.0, who relayed some of the material about Hillary Clinton, gathered via a data breach, to Greenwald. The Grugq, a counterintelligence specialist, reported in October 2016: "The Intercept was both aware that the e-mails were from Guccifer 2.0, that Guccifer 2.0 has been attributed to Russian intelligence services, and that there is significant public evidence supporting this attribution."
By 2019, he was serving as an Intercept columnist without any control over the site's news reporting. On October 29, 2020, Greenwald resigned from The Intercept, giving his reasons as political censorship and contractual breaches by the editors, who he said had prevented him from reporting on allegations concerning Joe Biden's conduct with regard to China and Ukraine and had demanded that he not publish the article in any other publication. Betsy Reed, the editor-in-chief, disputed Greenwald's accusations and claims of censorship, and accused him of presenting dubious claims by the Trump campaign as journalism. Greenwald said he would begin publishing his work on Substack, and had begun "exploring the possibility of creating a new media outlet." After resigning from The Intercept, Greenwald published his article about Biden and his correspondence with the editors of The Intercept on his Substack page.
Substack, Locals, and Rumble
After his resignation from The Intercept, Greenwald began publishing reporting and commentary on Substack, an online, subscriber-based newsletter platform, where (as of June 2023), he amassed over 295,000 subscribers. In 2023, Greenwald announced that he would begin hosting System Update, a nightly, one-hour live program on Rumble, an alternative to video-hosting platform YouTube. System Update consists of a monologue concerning topical political issues, often related to media criticism and developments within the American security state, as well as interviews with guests. Such guests have included academics, political figures, and journalists Jeffrey Sachs, John Mearsheimer, Edward Snowden, Robert F. Kennedy Jr., Lee Fang, and Matt Taibbi, among others. After moving to Rumble, Greenwald republished his Substack work to Locals, Rumble's Substack alternative.
Appearances on conservative media
According to Simon van Zuylen-Wood writing for New York magazine in early 2018, Greenwald has "repositioned himself as a bomb-throwing media critic" since the Snowden revelations. Greenwald has become a frequent guest on Fox News, particularly on Tucker Carlson Tonight. He claims that MSNBC has banned him from appearing on the network because of his criticisms of Rachel Maddow.
2019 Operation Car Wash Telegram chat leaks in Brazil
On June 9, 2019, Greenwald and journalists from investigative journalism magazine The Intercept Brasil where he was an editor, released several messages exchanged via Telegram between members of the investigation team of Operation Car Wash – called Car Leaks. The messages implicated members of Brazil's judiciary system and of the Operação Lava-Jato taskforce, including former judge and Minister of Justice Sérgio Moro, and lead prosecutor Deltan Dallagnol, in the violation of legal and ethical procedures during the investigation, trial and arrest of former president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, with the alleged objective of preventing him from running for a third term in the 2018 Brazilian general election, among other crimes. The FBI was also involved. Following the leak, Folha de São Paulo and Veja confirmed the authenticity of the messages and worked in partnership with The Intercept Brasil to sort the remaining material in their possession before releasing it.
On July 23, Brazilian Federal Police announced that they had arrested and were investigating Araraquara hacker Walter Delgatti Neto for breaking into the authorities' Telegram accounts. Neto confessed to the hack and to having given copies of the chat logs to Greenwald. Police said the attack had been accomplished by abusing Telegram's phone number verification and exploiting vulnerabilities in voicemail technology in use in Brazil by using a spoofed phone number. The Intercept neither confirmed nor denied Neto being their source, citing freedom of the press provisions of the 1988 Brazilian Constitution.
Greenwald faced death threats and homophobic harassment from Bolsonaro supporters due to his reporting on the Telegram messages. A New York Times profile by Ernesto Londoño about Greenwald and his husband David Miranda, a left-wing congressman, described how the couple became targets of homophobia from Bolsonaro supporters as a result of the reporting. The Washington Post reported that Greenwald had been targeted with fiscal investigations by the Bolsonaro government, allegedly as retaliation for the reporting, and AP called Greenwald's reporting "the first test case for a free press" under Bolsonaro.
In reporting on retaliation against Greenwald from the Bolsonaro government and its supporters, The Guardian said the articles published by Greenwald and The Intercept "have had an explosive impact on Brazilian politics and dominated headlines for weeks", adding that the exposés "appeared to show prosecutors in the sweeping Operation Car Wash corruption inquiry colluding with Sérgio Moro, the judge who became a hero in Brazil for jailing powerful businessmen, middlemen and politicians."
On August 9, after President Bolsonaro threatened to imprison Greenwald for this reporting, Supreme Court justice Gilmar Mendes ruled that any investigation of Greenwald in connection with the reporting would be illegal under the Brazilian constitution, citing press freedom as a "pillar of democracy".
In November 2019, Brazilian journalist Augusto Nunes physically attacked Greenwald during a joint appearance on a Brazilian radio program. Immediately prior to the attack, Nunes had argued that a family judge ought to take away Greenwald's adopted children, prompting Greenwald to call him a coward. Two of Jair Bolsonaro's sons praised Nunes' actions, while former presidential candidate Ciro Gomes defended Greenwald.
In January 2020, Greenwald was charged by Brazilian prosecutors with cybercrimes, in a move that Trevor Timm in The Guardian described as retaliation for his reporting. The Canary website described the charges as "ominously similar to the indictment of Julian Assange" and quoted Max Blumenthal and Jen Robinson as remarking on the similarity of the two sets of charges. Greenwald received support from The New York Times which published an editorial stating "Mr. Greenwald's articles did what a free press is supposed to do: They revealed a painful truth about those in power". The Freedom of the Press Foundation made a statement asking the Brazilian government to "halt its persecution of Greenwald". In February 2020, a federal judge dismissed the charges against Greenwald, citing a ruling from Supreme Court justice Gilmar Mendes that shielded him.
Books
Greenwald's first book, How Would a Patriot Act? Defending American Values From a President Run Amok, was published by Working Assets in 2006. It was a New York Times bestseller, and ranked No. 1 on Amazon.com, both before its publication (due to orders based on attention from 'UT' readers and other bloggers) and for several days after its release, ending its first week at No. 293.
A Tragic Legacy, his second book, examined the presidency of George W. Bush. Published in hardback by Crown (a division of Random House) on June 26, 2007, and reprinted in a paperback edition by Three Rivers Press on April 8, 2008, it was also a New York Times bestseller. Great American Hypocrites: Toppling the Big Myths of Republican Politics was also first published by Random House in April 2008. Metropolitan Books released his fourth and fifth books, With Liberty and Justice for Some: How the Law Is Used to Destroy Equality and Protect the Powerful and No Place to Hide: Edward Snowden, the NSA, and the U.S. Surveillance State, in October 2011 and May 2014, respectively. The latter work spent six weeks on The New York Times Best Seller list, and was named one of the ten Best Non-Fiction Books of 2014 by The Christian Science Monitor.
Greenwald wrote the book Securing Democracy: My Fight for Press Freedom and Justice in Brazil as a follow-up to No Place to Hide. It was published by Haymarket Books in April 2021. It describes his publication in 2019 of leaked telephone calls, audio and text messages related to Operation Car Wash and the retaliation he received from Jair Bolsonaro's government.
Political views
United States
George W. Bush and Barack Obama eras
In his 2006 book How Would a Patriot Act?, Greenwald wrote that he was politically apathetic at the time of the Iraq War and accepted the George W. Bush administration's judgement that "American security really would be enhanced by the invasion of this sovereign country." Greenwald is critical of actions jointly supported by Democrats and Republicans, writing in 2010: "The worst and most tyrannical government actions in Washington are equally supported on a fully bipartisan basis." In How Would a Patriot Act?, Greenwald described his 'pre-political' self as neither liberal nor conservative as a whole, voting neither for George W. Bush nor for any of his rivals (indeed, not voting at all).
He criticized the policies of the Bush administration and those who supported it, arguing that most of the American "corporate news media" excused Bush's policies and echoed the administration's positions rather than asking hard questions. Greenwald accused mainstream U.S. media of "spreading patriotic state propaganda".
Donald Trump and Russian election interference
Greenwald has criticized some of the policies of the Trump administration, saying, "I think the Trump White House lies more often. I think it lies more readily. I think it lies more blatantly."
During the Trump administration Greenwald was a critic of the Democratic Party, alleging a double standard in their foreign policy: "Democrats didn't care when Obama hugged Saudi despots, and now they pretend to care when Trump embraces Saudi despots or Egyptian ones."
Greenwald expressed skepticism of the James Clapper-led US intelligence community's assessment that Russia's government interfered in the 2016 presidential election. Regardless of the accuracy of the assessment, he doubted its significance, stating "This is stuff we do to them, and have done to them for decades, and still continue to do."
Susan Hennessey, an NSA lawyer at the time of Snowden's NSA revelations, told Marcy Wheeler writing for The New Republic in January 2018, that Greenwald was only relaying "surface commentary" rather than evidence for or against Russian interference in the 2016 election. Tamsin Shaw wrote in The New York Review of Books in September 2018: "Greenwald has repeatedly, in the face of overwhelming evidence to the contrary, decried as Russophobia the findings that Putin ordered interference in the 2016 US presidential election".
Greenwald remained doubtful of assertions that the Trump presidential campaign worked with the Russians after the release of the letter about the Mueller's findings from attorney general William Barr in late March 2019. He called the investigation "a scam and a fraud from the beginning" in an appearance on Democracy Now!. Greenwald told Tucker Carlson on Fox News: "Let me just say, [MSNBC] should have their top host on primetime go before the cameras and hang their head in shame and apologize for lying to people for three straight years, exploiting their fears to great profit". He said he is formally banned from appearing on MSNBC, citing confirmations from two unnamed producers for the network, for his criticisms of its coverage of Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election. MSNBC stated it has not barred Greenwald from appearing on its programs.
After the release of Special Counsel Robert Mueller's report, on April 22 he wrote that the press continued to report that Trump's campaign conspired with Russia during the 2016 presidential campaign. In January 2020, Greenwald described the various assertions regarding Russian influence on American politics as "At the very best, ... wildly exaggerated hysteria and the kind of jingoistic fear-mongering that’s plagued U.S. Politics since the end of WWII".
Later comments
In conversation around 2021 with Glenn Beck, Greenwald said:
"The Democratic Party is a party that I view as completely repressive and not just the Democratic Party but the liberal movement that supports it. By liberal, just to be clear, I don't mean the far left, the kind of left-wing movement that supported Bernie Sanders—a lot of them hate Democrats at least as much as people on the right. I mean establishment liberals of the Nancy Pelosi, Chuck Schumer, Hillary Clinton strain."
On Twitter, he wrote in March 2021:"If you think the real power centers in the US are the Proud Boys, 4chan, & Boogaloos rather than the CIA, FBI, NSA, Wall Street and Silicon Valley, and spend most of your time battling the former while serving the latter as stenographers, your journalism is definitionally shit."
And tweeted in May 2021:"The cultural left (meaning the part of the left focused on cultural issues rather than imperialism or corporatism) ... has become increasingly censorious, moralising, controlling, repressive, petulant, joyless, self-victimising, trivial and status-quo-perpetuating."
Israel and accusations of antisemitism
Greenwald has criticized the Israeli government, including its foreign policy, claimed influence on U.S. politics and the Israeli occupation of the West Bank. In May 2016, Greenwald accused The New York Times of "abject cowardice" in its use of quotation marks for the occupation of Gaza and alleged "journalistic malfeasance" in the incident "out of fear of the negative reaction by influential factions". After Greenwald's criticism, the New York Times removed the quotation marks in the article he had criticised.
Jeffrey Goldberg in The Atlantic in January 2012 said Greenwald "evinces toward Israel a disdain that is quite breathtaking. He holds Israel to a standard he doesn't hold any other country, except the U.S." Greenwald was accused of antisemitism by The Algemeiner in July 2013. Liel Leibovitz in Tablet magazine in 2013 considered it "largely inaccurate" to match Greenwald's "obsessive focus on Israel’s supposed role in evil global conspiracies to simple anti-Semitism. Instead, the ideology that drives [his] tendency to see the NSA and Israel as two heads of the same Satanic beast is more complex and ideologically-driven—an attack on the doctrines of exceptionalism that fueled the rise of both America and Israel."
Following the Charlie Hebdo murders in January 2015, David Bernstein in The Washington Post wrote Greenwald (in an Intercept article) "certainly appears to believe that Der Sturmer-like anti-Semitic cartoons are the moral and logical equivalent of making fun of Moses or Muhammed." In his Intercept article, Greenwald contrasted anti-Muslim cartoons with "some not-remotely-blasphemous-or-bigoted yet very pointed and relevant cartoons by the brilliantly provocative Brazilian cartoonist Carlos Latuff", a cartoonist who has been accused of producing antisemitic images.
In an exchange with Greenwald in February 2019, Rep. Ilhan Omar, D-Minn., tweeted, "It's all about the Benjamins baby", suggesting that money rather than principle motivated US politicians' support for Israel, including payments from the American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC) to US politicians. Many Democrats and Republicans, including House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, condemned the tweet arguing it perpetuated an antisemitic stereotype of Jewish money and influence fueling American politicians' support of Israel. Greenwald defended Omar: "we’re not allowed to talk about an equally potent well-organized and well-financed lobby that ensures a bipartisan consensus in support of U.S. defense of Israel, that the minute that you mention that lobby, you get attacked as being anti-Semitic."
Julian Assange
In a November 2018 Guardian article, Luke Harding and Dan Collyns cited anonymous sources which stated that Trump's former campaign manager Paul Manafort held secret meetings with WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange inside the Ecuadorian embassy in London in 2013, 2015, and 2016. Greenwald said that if Manafort had entered the Ecuadorian consulate, there would be evidence from the surrounding cameras. Greenwald, a former contributor to The Guardian, stated that the paper "has such a pervasive and unprofessionally personal hatred for Julian Assange that it has frequently dispensed with all journalistic standards in order to malign him."
Greenwald criticized the government's decision to charge Assange under the Espionage Act of 1917 for his role in the 2010 publication of the Iraq War documents leak. Greenwald wrote in The Washington Post: "The Trump administration has undoubtedly calculated that Assange’s uniquely unpopular status across the political spectrum [in the United States] makes him the ideal test case for creating a precedent that criminalizes the defining attributes of investigative journalism."
Jair Bolsonaro
In October 2018, Greenwald said that Bolsonaro was "often depicted wrongly in the Western media as being Brazil's Trump, and he's actually much closer to say Filipino President Duterte or even the Egyptian dictator General el-Sisi in terms of what he believes and what he's probably capable of carrying out."
Greenwald said that Bolsonaro could be a "good partner" for President Trump "If you think that the U.S. should go back to kind of the Monroe Doctrine as [National Security Adviser] John Bolton talked openly about, and ruling Latin America, and U.S. interests".
Greenwald has faced death threats and homophobic harassment from Bolsonaro supporters due to his reporting on leaked Telegram messages about Brazil's Operation Car Wash and Bolsonaro's justice minister Sérgio Moro. President Bolsonaro threatened Greenwald with possible imprisonment. The Brazilian Association of Investigative Journalism condemned Bolsonaro's threats.
In January 2020, Brazilian federal prosecutors charged Greenwald with cybercrimes, alleging he was part of a "criminal organization" that hacked into the cellphones of prosecutors and other public officials in 2019. Prosecutors said he played a "clear role in facilitating the commission of a crime" by, for example, encouraging hackers to delete archives to cover their tracks. Greenwald, who was not detained, called the charges "an obvious attempt to attack a free press in retaliation for the revelations we reported about Minister of Justice Sérgio Moro and the Bolsonaro government." In February 2020, a federal judge dismissed the charges against Greenwald, citing a ruling from Supreme Court justice Gilmar Mendes that shielded him.
Immigration
In 2005, Greenwald criticized illegal immigration, saying that it would result in a "parade of evils" and arguing that large numbers of illegal immigrants could not be assimilated and would "wreak havoc". He subsequently disavowed that belief.
Animal rights and veganism
Greenwald is a vegan and an advocate for animal rights. He and his husband Miranda once owned 24 rescue dogs. In March 2017, Greenwald announced plans to build a shelter with Miranda for stray pets in Brazil that would be staffed by homeless people. In March 2018, Greenwald tweeted videos showing the shelter operating.
2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
In an appearance on Tucker Carlson Tonight, Greenwald expressed support for the Ukraine biolabs conspiracy theory.
In 2022, the Security Service of Ukraine placed Greenwald on a list of public figures who it alleges promote Russian propaganda.
Reception
Greenwald has been placed on numerous "top 50" and "top 25" lists of columnists in the United States. In June 2012, Newsweek magazine named him one of America's Top Ten Opinionists, saying that "a righteous, controlled, and razor-sharp fury runs through a great deal" of his writing, and: "His independent persuasion can make him a danger or an asset to both sides of the aisle."
Josh Voorhees, writing for Slate, reported that in 2013 congressman Peter King (R-NY) suggested Greenwald should be arrested for his reporting on the NSA PRISM program and NSA leaker Edward Snowden. Journalist Andrew Ross Sorkin said "I would arrest [Snowden] and now I'd almost arrest Glenn Greenwald", but later made an apology for his statement, which Greenwald accepted.
In a February 2014 interview, Greenwald said he risked detention if he reentered the U.S., but insisted that he would "force the issue" on principle, and return for the "many reasons" he had to visit, including if he won a prestigious award of which he was rumoured to be the winner. Later that month, it was announced that he was, in fact, among the recipients of the 2013 Polk Awards, to be conferred April 11, 2014, in Manhattan. In a subsequent interview, Greenwald stated he would attend the ceremony. On April 11, Greenwald and Laura Poitras accepted the Polk Award in Manhattan. Their entry into the United States was trouble-free and they traveled with an ACLU attorney and a German journalist "to document any unpleasant surprises". Accepting the award, Greenwald said he was "happy to see a table full of Guardian editors and journalists, whose role in this story is much more integral than the publicity generally recognizes". On April 14, the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service was awarded jointly to The Guardian and The Washington Post for revelation of widespread secret surveillance by the NSA. Greenwald, along with Laura Poitras and Ewen MacAskill, had contributed to The Guardian′s reporting.
In 2014, Sean Wilentz wrote in The New Republic, that some of Greenwald's opinions were where the far-left and far-right meet, characterizing his views as falling "often, but not always under the rubric of libertarianism." In a 2017 article in The Independent, Brian Dean wrote: "Greenwald has been critical of Trump, but is perceived by many as someone who spends far more time criticising 'Dems' and 'liberals' (analysis of his Twitter account tends to give this impression)." Simon van Zuylen-Wood in a 2018 piece for New York magazine entitled "Does Glenn Greenwald Know More Than Robert Mueller?" described "a new-seeming category of Russia-skeptic firebrands sometimes called the alt-left." In February 2019, Max Boot wrote in The Washington Post: "Indeed, it's often hard to tell the extremists apart. Anti-vaccine activists come from both the far left and the far right — and while most of those who defend President Trump's dealings with Russia are on the right, some, such as Glenn Greenwald and Stephen F. Cohen, are on the left." In a May 2019 Haaretz article, Alexander Reid Ross described Tucker Carlson's and Glenn Greenwald's positions as being a "crossover between leftists and the far-right in defense of Syria's Bashar Assad, to dismiss charges of Russian interference in U.S. elections and to boost Russian geopolitics".
Personal life
In 2005, the then 38-year-old Greenwald took a long vacation to Rio de Janeiro where he met David Miranda, a then 19-year-old who had spent his childhood in the Jacarezinho Favela. Days after they met, the couple decided to move in together; the two would later marry. Miranda later served as a Congressman with the left-wing PDT party, having formerly represented the PSOL party. The couple lived in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In 2017, Greenwald and Miranda announced that they had gained legal guardianship of two brothers, who are from Maceió, a city in Northeastern Brazil. They formally adopted the two boys in Brazil in 2018.
Greenwald and Miranda were close personal friends of Brazilian human rights advocate and politician Marielle Franco, known for criticism of police tactics and corruption, who was fatally shot by unknown assailants. A New York Times profile described how Greenwald's reporting on high-level Bolsonaro officials and Miranda's outspoken opposition in Congress turned them into primary targets of Bolsonaro's administration.
While Greenwald does not participate in any organized religion, he has said he believes in "the spiritual and mystical part of the world" and that yoga is "like a bridge into that, like a window into it." Greenwald has been critical of the New Atheist movement, in particular, Sam Harris and other critics of Islam.
On May 9, 2023, Greenwald announced via Twitter that Miranda had died in a Rio de Janeiro hospital. Miranda had been treated for nine months in the hospital's ICU for a gastrointestinal infection.
Recognition
Greenwald received, together with Amy Goodman, the first Izzy Award for special achievement in independent media, in 2009, and the 2010 Online Journalism Award for Best Commentary for his investigative work on the conditions of Chelsea Manning.
His reporting on the National Security Agency (NSA) won numerous other awards around the world, including top investigative journalism prizes from the George Polk Award for National Security Reporting, the 2013 Online Journalism Awards, the Esso Award for Excellence in Reporting in Brazil for his articles in O Globo on NSA mass surveillance of Brazilians (becoming the first foreigner to win the award), the 2013 Libertad de Expresion Internacional award from Argentinian magazine Perfil, and the 2013 Pioneer Award from the Electronic Frontier Foundation. The team that Greenwald led at The Guardian was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service for their reporting on the NSA. Foreign Policy Magazine then named him one of the top 100 Global Thinkers of 2013.
In 2014, Greenwald received the Geschwister-Scholl-Preis, an annual German literary award, for the German edition of No Place to Hide. Greenwald was also named the 2014 recipient of the McGill Medal for Journalistic Courage from the Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication of the University of Georgia.
Bibliography
2021 Securing Democracy: My Fight for Press Freedom and Justice in Bolsonaro’s Brazil. Haymarket Books;
2014 No Place to Hide: Edward Snowden, the NSA, and the U.S. Surveillance State. Metropolitan Books (Div. of Henry Holt and Company); (10); (13).
2011 With Liberty and Justice for Some: How the Law Is Used to Destroy Equality and Protect the Powerful. Metropolitan Books (Div. of Henry Holt and Company); (10). (13).
2008 Great American Hypocrites: Toppling the Big Myths of Republican Politics. New York: Random House, (10); (13). (Also available as an E-book.)
2007 A Tragic Legacy: How a Good vs. Evil Mentality Destroyed the Bush Presidency. New York: Crown (Div. of Random House) (10); (13). (Hardback ed.) Three Rivers Press, 2008; (10); (13). (Paperback ed.)
2006 How Would a Patriot Act? Defending American Values From a President Run Amok. San Francisco: Working Assets (Distrib. by Publishers Group West); (10); (13).
References
Further reading
"Glenn Greenwald Exposes Frank Gaffney". Crooks and Liars, February 16, 2007. [Includes 3-part MP3 clip of radio interview broadcast on the Alan Colmes Show, on Fox News Radio, during which Greenwald debates Frank Gaffney.]
"Glenn Greenwald on Joe Klein, Dave Tomlin on Bilal Hussein". CounterSpin, November 30, 2007 – December 6, 2007. Accessed December 12, 2008. MP3 clips hosted on Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR).
Bernstein, Fred A., "Glenn Greenwald: Life Beyond Borders", Out magazine, April 19, 2011; accessed April 20, 2011.
Goodman, Amy. "Great American Hypocrites: Glenn Greenwald on the Corporate Media's Failures in the 2008 Race, Democracy Now!, Pacifica Radio, April 18, 2008; accessed December 12, 2008. ("We speak with Glenn Greenwald, author of Great American Hypocrites: Toppling the Big Myths of Republican Politics. [includes rush transcript].")
Goodman, Amy. "Obama Adviser Cass Sunstein Debates Glenn Greenwald". Democracy Now!, Pacifica Radio, July 22, 2008; accessed December 13, 2008 (includes rush transcript).
Greenwald, Glenn. "Book Forum: A Tragic Legacy: How a Good vs. Evil Mentality Destroyed the Bush Presidency". Cato Institute, August 7, 2007. [Panel discussion featuring Greenwald, "with comments by Lee Casey, Partner, Baker Hostetler." (Hyperlinked MP3 podcast and RealVideo formats.)]
Greenwald, Glenn. "Media: Glenn Greenwald at YearlyKos", Salon.com, August 7, 2007; accessed December 13, 2008. [Video segment from Glenn Greenwald's panel at YearlyKos 2007, "where he stresses the continued need for adversarial, skeptical reporting." ("VideoDog" format.)]
Pitney, Nico. "A Secure America: Video: Glenn Greenwald Debates Spying Program On C-Span". Online posting of clip of program broadcast on C-SPAN, February 6, 2006. ThinkProgress.com, February 6, 2006; accessed December 12, 2008. [Greenwald debates University of Virginia law professor Robert Turner.]
Silverstein, Ken. "Six Questions for Glenn Greenwald on Campaign Coverage", Harper's Magazine, February 21, 2008; accessed December 12, 2008.
Singal, Jesse, and Glenn Greenwald. "On Terrorism, Civil Rights, and Building a Blog". Campus Progress, September 17, 2007; accessed December 12, 2008. [Interview.]
Greenwald, Glenn. "Civil liberties under Obama", International Socialist Organization, July 3, 2011; accessed July 7, 2011. [Video.]
External links
Substack – Greenwald's current journalism venture (as of October 29, 2020)
The Intercept (February 2014 – October 2020)
"Glenn Greenwald" – previous column at The Guardian
"Glenn Greenwald" – previous column and blog hosted on Salon.com
Unclaimed Territory – previous personal blog hosted on Blogspot.com
Glenn Greenwald appearances on Democracy Now!
1967 births
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Mafia%20Family
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Black Mafia Family
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The Black Mafia Family (BMF) was a drug trafficking and money laundering organization in the United States.
The Black Mafia Family was founded in 1985, in Southwest Detroit by brothers Demetrius Edward "Big Meech" Flenory and Terry Lee "Southwest Tee” Flenory, and by 2000 had established cocaine distribution sales throughout the United States through their Los Angeles-based drug source and direct links to Mexican drug cartels. The Black Mafia Family operated from two main hubs: one in Atlanta for distribution run by Demetrius Flenory and one in Los Angeles to handle incoming shipments from Mexico run by Terry Flenory.
The Black Mafia Family under Demetrius Flenory entered the hip-hop music business as BMF Entertainment in the early 2000s as a front organization to launder money from cocaine sales and to legitimize itself. BMF Entertainment served as a promoter for several high-profile hip-hop artists, and as a record label for their sole artist Bleu DaVinci. Demetrius Flenory and the Black Mafia Family became famous in hip-hop popular culture for their highly extravagant lifestyles.
In 2005, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) indicted members of the Black Mafia Family, ultimately securing convictions by targeting the Flenory brothers under the Continuing Criminal Enterprise Statute, and both were sentenced to 30 years imprisonment. Prosecutors alleged the Black Mafia Family made over $270 million in the course of their operations.
The Flenorys
Demetrius Edward "Big Meech" Flenory Sr. (born June 21, 1968, in Detroit, Michigan) and his brother Terry Lee "Southwest Tee” Flenory (born January 10, 1970, in Detroit, Michigan) began selling $50 bags of cocaine on the streets of Detroit during their high school years in the late 1980s. Hence their original group was known as “50 Boyz”. By 2000, the Flenory brothers had established a large organization overseeing multi-kilogram cocaine distribution sales in numerous U.S. states including Alabama, California, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, Ohio, and Tennessee. A two-year federal investigation of the Flenory organization estimated its nationwide membership as over 500.
Around 2003, the organization experienced a schism when the Flenory brothers began to feud, with Terry Flenory moving to Los Angeles to head his own organization, while Demetrius Flenory remained at the main distribution center in Atlanta. By 2003, the two had been involved in a major falling out and rarely spoke to one another. In a conversation with his brothers caught by the DEA on wiretap, Terry discussed his worries that his brother Demetrius was bringing the wrong type of attention to their business with his excessive partying. By the time charges were filed against the Flenorys, the government had 900 pages of typed transcripts of wiretapped conversations from Terry's phone in a 5-month period.
In November 2007, the brothers pleaded guilty to running a continuing criminal enterprise. In September 2008, both brothers were sentenced to 30 years in prison for running a nationwide cocaine-trafficking ring, which lasted from 2000 to 2005. Demetrius Flenory is serving out his sentence at Federal Correctional Institution, Sheridan and is scheduled for release on May 5, 2028, around his 60th birthday. Terry Flenory was released to home confinement on May 5, 2020, after being granted a compassionate release due to health ailments and an effort from the Federal Bureau of Prisons to release certain inmates in order to limit the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic within federal prisons. Demetrius Flenory also sought his release under the same guidelines; however, a federal judge rejected the move, claiming it would be premature to authorize his release as his prison record suggests he has not changed and continues to promote himself as a drug kingpin, further stating his disciplinary record includes violations such as possession of a cell phone and weapons as well as drug use.
BMF Entertainment
In the early 2000s, Demetrius Flenory established BMF Entertainment as a promotion agency and record label for hip-hop music. The Flenory brothers were already known to associate with numerous high-profile hip-hop artist including Diddy, Trina, T.I., Jay-Z, Young Jeezy and Fabolous. Demetrius founded BMF Entertainment as a front organization for money laundering the cash generated by the cocaine distribution network, but was also an attempt to create a legitimate business and legal source of income. Around this time, the Flenory organization formally adopted the name "Black Mafia Family" after previously being unnamed.
In 2005, Bleu Da Vinci's album, World Is BMF's, was nominated for a Source Award. BMF appeared in numerous underground hip-hop DVD magazines, most notably several issues of S.M.A.C.K. and The Come Up. The organization's most highly visible appearance was in a full-length DVD that was produced by The Raw Report, which gave a detailed inside look at their movement. The DVD was featured Vibe'''s cover article on BMF in the May 2006. It received wide acclaim from DJs for the Soundsmith Productions produced song "Streets on Lock", headed by BMF affiliate Bleu Davinci and featuring Fabolous and Young Jeezy. A music video was later produced for the single, though it was never released to networks.Creative Loafing senior editor Mara Shalhoup wrote a three-part series about the Black Mafia Family entitled Hip-Hop's Shadowy Empire, which was the first in-depth report on the organization. Shalhoup's book on the organization, BMF: The Rise and Fall of Big Meech and the Black Mafia Family, was published in March 2005.
Investigation
Operation Motor City Mafia
Police investigation into the Black Mafia began sometime in the early 1990s, before the organization operated by Demetrius and Terry Flenory was named or reached peak distribution. The lead-up to the October 2005 indictments began with a series of large drug seizures and subsequent informant testimonies from BMF members. On October 28, 2003, a 2-year Organized Crime Drug Enforcement Task Force investigation began, coordinated by the DEA's Special Operations Division and codenamed "Operation Motor City Mafia".
On April 11, 2004, BMF courier and high-level distributor Jabari Hayes was pulled over in Phelps County, Missouri along I-44 driving a 40-foot motor home, supposedly for swerving over the fog line. Two suitcases containing approximately 95 kilograms of cocaine and 572 grams of marijuana were found in the back of the Range Rover after a K-9 unit alerted to drugs in the vehicle.
In mid-September 2004, a wiretap on Rafael "Smurf" Allison, a low-level crack dealer in Atlanta, led an HIDTA task force to Decarlo Hoskins, a mid-level dealer. Hoskins informed them that he had grown up with two brothers, Omari McCree and Jeffrey Leahr, who were BMF members and able to supply multi-kilogram quantities of cocaine regularly. Wiretaps revealed that Omari McCree was a high-level distributor for the Flenory organization and was favored by Demetrius.
On November 5, 2004, Jeffrey Leahr was pulled over with his girlfriend on I-75 in Atlanta due to the wiretaps. In the back seat was a duffel bag containing 10 kilograms of cocaine. They were released later that day in an attempt by HIDTA to gather more information in regards to their supplier and the organization using wiretaps. McCree and Leahr, facing a large debt to BMF for the lost cocaine, went on the run. When picked up June 8, 2005, Unknown signed a confidential-source agreement and described his role in BMF, naming Demetrius Flenory as the source of the cocaine. Chad "J-Bo" Brown, supplied him with cocaine on behalf of Demetrius. These events and a number of others formed the backbone of the government's case. During trial, the government's star witness was William "Doc" Marshall.
Testimony given during various trials say the Flenory organization operated as follows: BMF operated five stash houses in the Atlanta area. Approximately every 10 days, vehicles would arrive with 100–150 kilograms of cocaine packed in secret compartments. Workers at the stash houses were paid to unload the drugs and store them. Customers who ordered would call in and say they had their vehicle ready – meaning a transportation vehicle to put the narcotics in. Depending on the size of their order, they were directed to a particular stash house where they would pull in, go inside, hand over money in $5,000 bundles. The cocaine was usually sold at $20,000 per kilogram. The same vehicles would then be filled with cash (the proceeds from drug sales) to be sent back to the Mexican sources of supply. Workers inside the stash houses had certain duties, such as counting bulk amounts of cash, usually in the millions. Other people were packaging the cocaine for customers. BMF also received drugs through large containers at the airport containing 100–150 kilograms of cocaine, which they picked up and delivered to stash houses.
2005 raids and arrests
In October 2005, it was reported that some 30 members of BMF were arrested in a massive drug raid orchestrated by the DEA. During these raids, the DEA seized $3 million in cash and assets, 2.5 kilograms of cocaine, and numerous weapons. Prior to the October 2005 raids, the DEA had arrested 17 BMF members, seized 632 kilograms of cocaine, $5.3 million in cash, and $5.7 million in assets. They claimed BMF was responsible for moving over 2,500 kilograms of cocaine a month throughout the United States.
Demetrius Flenory and Terry Flenory were charged under the Continuing Criminal Enterprise Statute, conspiracy to distribute 5 kilograms or more of cocaine, possession with intent to distribute more than 500 grams of cocaine, conspiracy to launder monetary instruments, and two counts of possession with intent to distribute more than 5 kilograms of cocaine. Demetrius was captured in a large home in a suburb outside Dallas. Inside, police found a small amount of marijuana and a few MDMA pills. In a safe inside the house were several weapons, as well as multiple vehicles at the home. Terry was captured in St. Louis with small amounts of marijuana and weapons found throughout the house, which was also occupied by multiple people at the time of the arrest.
2006 indictments
On June 15, 2006, the U.S. Department of Treasury reported that 16 additional individuals had been charged with conspiracy to distribute cocaine and money laundering charges under a second, superseding indictment, bringing the number of people charged in the case to 49. The list of accused included Jacob Arabo, popularly known as Jacob the Jeweler, a well-known celebrity jeweler in the hip-hop community. Arabo was charged with conspiracy to launder more than $270 million in illegally obtained funds.
The Department of Justice also shed light on more of the group's alleged activities in the indictment papers, which included running drug money through various banks and money wiring services in an attempt to disguise its origin. The group had also been accused of obtaining several winning Michigan state lottery tickets from a third party, which they paid cash for, and then cashing in the tickets in an attempt to make the money appear legitimate. The indictment sought the forfeiture of "more than 30 pieces of jewelry, 13 residences, 35 vehicles including Lincoln Limousine, BMW's, Range Rovers, Aston-Martin, and Bentleys, numerous bank accounts, over $1.2 million in seized currency, and a money judgment totaling $270 million."
2007 indictments (Atlanta)
On July 25, 2007, United States District Court for the Northern District of Georgia unveiled an indictment of 16 more members of the Black Mafia Family with conspiracy to distribute cocaine. The indictment charged all defendants with participating in the nationwide cocaine distribution conspiracy, which carries a penalty of between 10 years and life in prison, and up to a $4 million fine. The indictments were seen as "shutting down the BMF's once-flourishing drug empire." Eventually, all defendants pleaded guilty before trial except Fleming "Ill" Daniels.
Fleming Daniels, a top member of the Black Mafia Family drug ring, was sentenced to 20 years in prison for drug trafficking on December 17, 2008. The federal judge also fined Daniels $10,000 for taking part in the violent group. Daniels was the 16th defendant indicted in Atlanta on charges stemming from their role in the organization and the only defendant in the Atlanta indictments to go to trial, with 11 others already having pleaded guilty. The government's case relied upon testimony from William "Doc" Marshall and Ralph Simms to convict Daniels. Daniels had not been caught with cocaine nor caught on wiretaps discussing drug business. The testimony from Marshall indicated that he had seen Daniels receive cocaine in the kilograms while he himself was picking up cocaine. Daniels also awaited trial for the July 2004 murder of Rashannibal Drummond. On February 26, 2010, he pleaded guilty and was sentenced to 20 years for voluntary manslaughter. His 20-year sentence will run concurrent to another 20-year sentence stemming for his role on BMF cocaine charges.
Barima "Bleu DaVinci" McKnight, the rapper and sole artist of BMF Entertainment, was sentenced on October 30, 2008, to five years and four months in federal prison. McKnight claimed Flenory presented himself as being involved in the music industry and it was not until much later that he let him into the cocaine side of the business. McKnight stated at sentencing that when he first met Demetrius Flenory, he did not show him "the other side of his world", in reference to the cocaine trafficking. McKnight was released in 2011 and returned to his music career. He and his younger brother Calico Jonez began the BMF tour. Calico Jonez, who had started Swishgang joined with McKnight to establish a BMF Swishgang. Jonez, who was known to have played a role in Soulja Boy's label SODMG, and gang ties to Long Beach California's Rolling 20s Crips began making music under the BMF Entertainment umbrella. McKnight is also a cousin of Ras Kass.
2009 and after
The last remaining suspect, Vernon Marcus Coleman, was arrested on July 17, 2009, in Atlanta. He was indicted in 2007 for possession with intent to distribute cocaine. With this, the number of arrested BMF members rose to about 150. The federal government believes the 150 they have indicted and arrested account for the command and control structure, as well as other key figures in the organization, such as distributors, stash house operators, and transporters.
Allegations of violence
Prior to Operation Motor City Mafia and shortly after its commencement, there were numerous acts of violence alleged to have been committed by BMF members:
November 11, 2003: Demetrius Flenory was arrested in connection with the Buckhead-area shooting deaths at Club Chaos of Anthony "Wolf" Jones, former bodyguard of P. Diddy, and Wolf's friend, Lamont "Riz" Girdy. However, Flenory was shot in the buttocks and claimed he was running away from gunfire; he was subsequently never indicted.
July 25, 2004: At a Midtown Atlanta club called the Velvet Room, a man named Rashannibal "Prince" Drummond was killed. The incident began after Flemming "Ill" Daniels nearly backed into Drummond in his Porsche Cayenne Turbo. After Drummond hit the car to alert the driver, the passengers of the car got out and began beating Drummond and his friends. During the fight, a friend of Drummond's fired a warning shot to scare everyone off; Daniels allegedly retrieved his gun, returned fire, then walked over to Drummond and executed him on the ground.
September 2004: Ulysses Hackett and his girlfriend Misty Carter were executed in her Highland Avenue apartment in Atlanta. Police say the murders were ordered by Tremayne "Kiki" Graham, then son-in-law of Shirley Franklin, the Mayor of Atlanta, and alleged associate of BMF. They claimed Ulysses was thinking of testifying against BMF and Graham, growing suspicious, ordered their murder.
May 10, 2005: Henry "Pookie Loc" Clark was killed by popular rapper Gucci Mane during an attempted robbery committed by Clark and four other men. The five men attacked Gucci Mane in the apartment of a stripper he met earlier that day, but Gucci Mane was armed and managed to fire at the attackers, hitting Clark. The incident occurred during a feud between Gucci Mane and rapper Young Jeezy, a good friend of Demetrius Flenory. Gucci Mane was later cleared of the murder charges due to acting in self-defense, and his lawyers alleged the five men were ordered by BMF to commit the robbery.
May 11, 2005: A fugitive named Deron Gatling was located by a regional drug task force in Chamblee, Georgia. Task force agents found Gatling behind insulation in the attic; at that moment shots were fired from outside the house at law enforcement. They traced the last number called in Gatling's phone to Jerry Davis, leader of BMF's supposed sister organization, the Sin City Mafia. Police alleged that Gatling called Davis to report the officers at his house, and Davis ordered the shots to be fired.
May 23, 2005: Shayne and Kelsey Brown, nephews of R&B singer Bobby Brown, were stabbed in the neck with an ice pick at a birthday party at Justin's, a restaurant in Atlanta owned by P. Diddy. Witnesses claim that Marque "Baby Bleu" Dixson, the younger brother of BMF rap artist and member Bleu DaVinci, got into an altercation with the Browns alongside bodyguards of rapper Fabolous, who was there with Dixson. During the altercation, Dixson is alleged to have stabbed both in the neck, causing permanent disfigurement. Dixson was later murdered in 2006 by his girlfriend.
In popular culture
Jabari Hayes, an alleged member of the BMF who allegedly served as their courier and distributor, wrote the book Miles in the Life (2009) and is also the executive producer of a 2017 documentary by the same name. In both, Hayes recounts his upbringing in public housing in Brooklyn with a crack-addicted mother and a move to St. Louis as a high-schooler to escape his surroundings, eventually landing in Atlanta where after graduating from Morehouse College, he began operating a valet parking service that eventually led to his alleged involvement with the BMF.BMF: The Rise and Fall of Big Meech and the Black Mafia Family was released in 2012. The author is Mara Shalhoup, who wrote the first in-depth report on BMF for Creative Loafing in 2006.
The 2012 documentary ″BMF: The Rise and Fall of a Hip-Hop Drug Empire″ explores the 14-year investigation that led to one of the largest drugs busts in history.
The documentary series Gangland covered the Black Mafia Family in its 87th episode.
In 2021, a drama television series called Black Mafia Family'' premiered on STARZ, produced by Curtis "50 Cent" Jackson. Demetrius Flenory is played by his real-life son, Demetrius "Lil Meech" Flenory Jr.
See also
African-American organized crime
The Black Mafia also known as Philadelphia Black Mafia (PBM)
List of criminal enterprises, gangs, and syndicates
Further reading
References
External links
FBI file on the Black Mafia Family at the Internet Archive
Gangs in Detroit
African-American organized crime groups
Gangs in Georgia (U.S. state)
Gangs in Los Angeles
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beggiatoa
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Beggiatoa
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Beggiatoa is a genus of Gammaproteobacteria belonging to the order Thiotrichales, in the Pseudomonadota phylum. This genus was one of the first bacteria discovered by Ukrainian botanist Sergei Winogradsky. During his research in Anton de Bary's laboratory of botany in 1887, he found that Beggiatoa oxidized hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as an energy source, forming intracellular sulfur droplets, with oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor and CO2 used as a carbon source. Winogradsky named it in honor of the Italian doctor and botanist Francesco Secondo Beggiato (1806 - 1883), from Venice. Winogradsky referred to this form of metabolism as "inorgoxidation" (oxidation of inorganic compounds), today called chemolithotrophy. These organisms live in sulfur-rich environments such as soil, both marine and freshwater, in the deep sea hydrothermal vents and in polluted marine environments. The finding represented the first discovery of lithotrophy. Two species of Beggiatoa have been formally described: the type species Beggiatoa alba and Beggiatoa leptomitoformis, the latter of which was only published in 2017. This colorless and filamentous bacterium, sometimes in association with other sulfur bacteria (for example the genus Thiothrix), can be arranged in biofilm visible to the naked eye formed by a very long white filamentous mat, the white color is due to the stored sulfur. Species of Beggiatoa have cells up to 200 µm in diameter and they are one of the largest prokaryotes on Earth.
Taxonomy
The genera Beggiatoa is a quite diverse group as it has representatives occupying several habitats and niches, both in fresh and salt water. In the past they have been confused as close relatives of Oscillatoria spp. (Cyanobacteria) for the morphology and motility characters, but 5S rRNA analysis showed that members of Beggiatoa are phylogenetically distant from Cyanobacteria being members of the Gammaproteobacteria phylum.
The capability to oxidize sulfide and store sulfur are the main features which separates Beggiatoa and closely related Thioploca as filamentous colorless sulfur bacteria from other filamentous bacteria (like cyanobacteria and the nonsulfur-oxidizing Cytophaga and Flexibacter) Another defining feature is the ability to store nitrate inside the vacuoles of the wide marine species’ cells. 16S rRNA sequences base studies inferred that this characteristic is shared between members of a monophyletic clade nested in the Beggiatoa genera; this clade also includes members of Thioploca and Thiomargarita, both presenting only slight differences with Beggiatoas: whereas the former grows sharing a common slime sheath, the latter has not conserved filamentous growth and forms chains of rounded cells. Since the phylogenic history do not reflect the nomenclature, there's a need for a new denomination of genera and species. The Neo-type strain is the B18LB and it settled the criteria for identification of the freshwater species Beggiatoa alba.
According to NCBI database only two species of Beggiatoa spp. have been validly published: Beggiatoa alba, and Beggiatoa leptomitoformis.
Genetic
Because of the lack of pure culture, little is known about the genetics of Beggiatoa. Beggiatoa alba show a GC content between 40 and 42.7 mol%, the presence of two or three similar plasmids and the genome size of Beggiatoa alba strain B18LD result to be about 3 Megabase (Mb). An important study about the genomic of Beggiatoa analyzed the sequences obtained from two single filaments of a vacuolated strain. Optical mapping showed that the genome size was about 7.4 Mb and the sequence analyses detected pathways for sulfur oxidation, nitrate and oxygen respiration, and CO2 fixation, confirming the chemolithoautotrophic physiology of Beggiatoa. Furthermore, comparative genomics indicates horizontal gene transfer between Beggiatoa and Cyanobacteria of storage, metabolic, and gliding abilities.
Morphology and motility
By the observation of their morphological characteristics, Beggiatoa spp. can be divided into three categories:
Freshwater strains, characterized by narrow filaments with no vacuoles;
Narrow marine strains, without vacuoles (filaments' diameter of about 4.4 µm);
Larger marine strains, with vacuoles for nitrate storing (filaments' diameter vary between 5 and 140 µm)
Obviously, this classification is purely ideal so some exceptions can exist. Narrow filaments are usually composed by cylindrical cells which length is about 1.5 to 8 times their thickness; wider filaments instead are disk-shaped with cell lengths from 0.10 to 0.90 times their cell width. In all of the cultured strains the terminal cells of the filaments appear rounded. Although they are Gram-negative bacteria, Beggiatoa show unusual cell-wall and membrane organization. Sometimes are present further membranes that cover the peptidoglycan layer and the number of this additional membranes is very variable. Their presence maybe is due to the harsh conditions in which some of these organisms live. Even the intracellular granules can be covered by extra-membranes structure. Beside the sulfur granules, the cells often show the presence of similarly stored granules of polyhydroxybutyrate and polyphosphate. Very common in large marine vacuolated Beggiatoa are hollow-structured filaments, composed by cells with a narrow cytoplasm surrounding a large central vacuole, exploited for nitrate storing.
The filaments move by gliding and this movement is likely connected to string-like structures in the outer membrane and trans-peptidoglycan channels. Sometimes the filaments can also break through the formation of necridia cells in the middle of the filament. The motility of the filament is very important for the adaptability of the bacteria, because it allows to move on more suitable conditions for the cellular metabolism. The main drivers that guide the movement of Beggiatoa filaments are high oxygen and sulfide levels and light exposure, from which the filaments move away.
Cell growth
Beggiatoa reproducing strategy is fragmentation. The growth of a colony leading to mat development is obtained through alternating filament elongation and breakage. Breakage can happen essentially in the middle of a stretched filament, at the tip of a filament loop or where a tip of a loop was once placed. The presence of sacrificial cells is fundamental as they interrupt the communication between two parts of one filament; in this way each section can change its gliding direction causing the split.
The average filament length achieved through this process is also result of gene-environment interactions as, for instance, the growth and position of the filament is function of vertical gradients of oxygen and sulfide. Therefore, it is proposed that good environmental conditions will paradoxically cause cell death in order to enhance filament breakage, thus reproduction.
Metabolism
Beggiatoa group is mainly composed by chemolithotrophic, sulfide-oxidizing bacteria. However, the range of possible metabolic pathways is very diversified, varying from the heterotrophy to the chemolithoautotrophy. Because of this huge variability the diverse bacteria of this genus can differ greatly from each other.
Carbon metabolism
In Beggiatoa group are present both autotrophic and heterotrophic metabolisms. Autotrophic Beggiatoa carry out the CO2 fixation through the Calvin cycle and the employment of the RuBisCO enzyme. The latter shows different regulation levels in obligated and facultative autotrophs. For instance, in the obligately autotrophic strain MS-81-1c RuBisCO cannot be repressed, while in the facultatively autotrophic strain MS-81-6 it is tightly regulated to switch from autotrophic to heterotrophic growth and vice versa. Beside the autotrophic strains, most of the freshwater Beggiatoa strains are heterotrophic, requiring organic substrates for growth. Specifically, many of them can be considered mixotrophs, because they grow heterotrophically, oxidizing organic compounds, but they can also use sulfide or other reduced sulfur compounds as electron donors. By this strategy, the organic carbon skeletons are saved for the purpose of increasing biomass and the CO2 autotrophic fixation is not required. Mixotrophy has been suspected to be the trophic modality for many freshwater strains, but it has only been found in one marine strain of Beggiatoa, MS-81-6. Also a metabolic pathway of C-1 compounds utilization has been revealed in Beggiatoa leptomitoformis strain D-402, through comprehensive analysis of its genomic, biochemistry, physiology and molecular biology.
Nitrogen metabolism
Beggiatoa group shows substantial versatility in utilizing nitrogen compounds. Nitrogen can be a source for growth or, in the case of nitrate, it can be an electron acceptor for anaerobic respiration. Heterotrophic freshwater Beggiatoa spp. assimilate nitrogen for growth. Nitrogen sources include nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, amino acids, urea, aspartate, asparagine, alanine and thiourea, depending on the capability of specific strains.
Autotrophic vacuolated Beggiatoa are able to store nitrate in their vacuoles 20.000 times the concentration of the surrounding sea water, and use it as terminal electron acceptor in anoxic conditions. This process, called Dissimilatory Nitrate Reduction to Ammonium (DNRA), reduces nitrate to ammonium. The capability of using nitrate as electron acceptor allows the colonization of anoxic environments, such as microbial mats and sediments. Several species are able to fix nitrogen using nitrogenase enzyme (e.g. Beggiatoa alba).
Sulfur metabolism
One of the defining features of the genus Beggiatoa is the production of intracellular inclusions of sulfur resulting from the oxidation of reduced sulfur sources (e.g. hydrogen sulfide). In autotrophic Beggiatoa, sulfide is a source of energy and electrons for carbon fixation and growth. The oxidation of sulfide can be aerobic or anaerobic, in fact it can be coupled with the reduction of oxygen or with the reduction of nitrate. Sulfur produced by the oxidation of sulfide is stored into internal globules and can be used when the concentration of sulfide decreases. Thus, the temporarily storing of elemental sulfur (S0) increase the adaptability of an organism and its tolerance to changes in the concentrations of sulfide and oxygen.
Sulfide aerobic oxidation: H2S + 1/2O2 -> S^0 + H2O
Sulfide anaerobic oxidation: 4H2S + NO3^- + 2H+ -> 4S^0 + NH4^+ + 3H2O
There are some cases of chemoorganotrophy, too. For instance, the strain Beggiatoa sp. 35Flor usually do an aerobic respiration coupled with the oxidation of sulfide, but in anoxic condition a different type of respiration is activated. The energy is gained chemoorganotrophically from oxidation of PHA (polyhydroxyalkanoates), organic compounds previously synthesized through CO2 fixation during chemolithotrophic growth on oxygen and sulfide. In this case electron acceptor is the sulfur stored into the cell, so the final product is hydrogen sulfide.
Anaerobic respiration: PHA + S^0 -> CO2 + H2S
Hydrogen metabolism
The strain Beggiatoa sp. 35Flor is able to use hydrogen as alternative electron donor to sulfide. This oxidation process can provide energy for maintenance and assimilatory purposes and is helpful to reduce stored sulfur when it becomes excessive, but it can't provide growth to the strain.
Hydrogen oxidation: H2 + S^0 -> H2S
Phosphorus metabolism
Beggiatoa’s metabolism include the use of phosphorus in the polyphosphate form. The regulation of this metabolism relies on the environmental conditions. Oxygenated surroundings cause an accumulation of polyphosphate, while anoxia (coupled with an increasing concentration of sulfide) produces a breakdown of polyphosphate and its subsequent release from the cells. The released phosphate can then be deposited as phosphorite minerals in the sediments or stay dissolved in the water.
Ecology
Filaments have been observed to form dense mats on sediments in a very huge variety of environments. They appear as a whitish layer and since they are present and flourish in marine environments which have been subject to pollution, they can be considered as an indicator species. Beggiatoa and other related filamentous bacteria can cause settling problems in sewage treatment plants, industrial waste lagoons in canning, paper pulping, brewing, milling, causing the phenomenon called "bulking". Beggiatoa are also able to detoxify hydrogen sulfide in soil and have a role in the immobilization of heavy metals.
Beggiatoa live at the oxic/anoxic interface, where they benefits from the presence of both hydrogen sulfide and oxygen. The chemolithoautotrophic strains of Beggiatoa are also considered important primary producers in dark environments.
Habitat
The incredible number of adaptations and metabolisms of this genus of bacteria are consequences of the extraordinary environmental variability they can live in. Beggiatoa is almost benthic, it can be found in marine (Beggiatoa sp. MS-81-6 and MS-81-1c) or freshwater (Beggiatoa alba) environments and they only need sulfide or thiosulfide as electron donor and an oxidizer. They can usually be found in habitats that have high levels of hydrogen sulfide, these environments include cold seeps, sulfur springs, sewage contaminated water, mud layers of lakes, and near deep hydrothermal vents. Beggiatoa can also be found in the rhizosphere of swamp plants, in soil, marine sediments and in the mangrove lagoon too (where they contribute to the lipid pool of the sediments). The freshwater species have typical habitats in sulfur springs, ditches, puddles, wetlands, lake sediments and in rice fields, where it can grow associated with the rice plants’ roots. The Beggiatoa that live in marine water can be found in regions where their source of energy (sulfide or thiosulfide) is available. It can be extracted from both inorganic or organic source and usually it is coupled with microoxic condition, therefore very low concentration of oxygen. This genus of Gammaprotobacteria is also common in localizated area of anaerobic decomposition as whale carcass on the deep ocean seafloor.
Vacuolated Beggiatoa can be very common in coastal upwelling regions (for example Peru and Chile coasts), deep sea hydrothermal vents and cold vents; in these environments the floc mats (hair-like breast) can grow up and cover large areas and reach the height of 30 cm. In deep sea hydrothermal vents and cold-seeps Beggiatoa can grow in filaments that can be up to 200 micrometres in diameter, which makes these ones the largest prokaryotes currently known. Vacuolated Beggiatoa can be found also in hypoxic seafloor, where the filaments can live inside the sediments at the depth of few cm (from 2 to 4 cm); in same cases the Beggiatoa bacterial filaments can be the most abundant part of the microbial biomass in the sediments.
Beggiatoa can also be found in salt marshes, saline, and geothermally active underwater caves. Some studies on these environments have been carried out in the underwater caves of dolomitized limestone in Capo Palinuro, Salerno, (Italy). Here there are hydrothermal sulphidic springs and microbial biofilm is associated with the flow of hydrothermal fluids, whose activity is intermittent and starts during low tide. Mats found in the caves were composed by filaments resembling in most part Beggiatoa, Thiothrix and Flexibacter, and this Beggiatoa-like filaments were morphologically close to those found attached to rocks and the byssus of the mussels from Lucky Strike Hydrothermal vents on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Interactions with other organisms
Frequently, microorganisms of the genus Beggiatoa can form complex microbial mats, where they live in association with many other filamentous bacteria, such as cyanobacteria. The latter usually occupy the surface layer of the mat and during the day they produce a great amount of oxygen, derived from the photosynthetic activity. Conversely, Beggiatoa grow along an oxic/anoxic (oxygen/sulfide) interface, beneath the phototrophs, where they produce white patches. However, during dark acclimation, the mat became anoxic, so the Beggiatoa moved to the mat surface, to avoid the high levels of H2S and remain at the oxygen/sulfide interface, while cyanobacteria remained in a dense layer below. Sometimes Beggiatoa mats are enriched by the presence of diatoms and green euglenoids too, but also protists as ciliates and dinoflagellates have been found associated with the mats at the Guaymas Basin hydrothermal vent ecosystem and they likely consume a large amount of bacterial biomass.
As the microbial mats can reach 3 cm in width, they can represent a source of food for many grazers. This trophic connection has been observed in mangrove systems, where Beggiatoa cover part of marine sediments. It has been observed that these bacteria give an important contribution to meiofauna's diet, in particular rotifers, polychaetes, nematodes and some groups of platyhelminthes, aschelminths and gnathostomulids. A remarkable relationship has been found between nematodes and Beggiatoa. In fact nematodes seem to favor development of Beggiatoa mats, through the increasing of oxygen penetration and nutrient diffusion into the mat.
Furthermore, many carrion appear covered by mats of Beggiatoa-like filamentous bacteria overlying anaerobic sulfate-reducing bacteria. They attract many metazoans scavengers, but when they break the mat, it releases hydrogen sulphide that drive away the scavengers. Hence, Beggiatoa can also be considered a carrion defence from the scavengers.
Role in biogeochemical cycles
Several species of white sulfur bacteria in the family Beggiatoaceae are able to accumulate and transport NO3−, taken from shallow coastal sediments which is fundamental in metabolism, as well as accumulate it in filaments. The reduction of NO3− to ammonium implies the oxidation of H2S (except for geothermal vents, the sulphide derives from the underlying anaerobic sediment in which dissimilatory sulphate reduction occurs): this reduction leads to the formation of suboxic zones characterized by positive redox potential and only trace concentrations of free H2S. In marine environment, the presence of these species is important because they have a fundamental role in regulation of the amount of H2S and NO3− :
On the one hand, the regulation of free H2S concentration in marine sediments is fundamental because sulfide-depleted surface sediments are essential for survival of benthic infauna, in fact sulfide is highly toxic to bottom fauna and other organisms living in the sediment;
On the other hand, NO3− reduction is important for the control of eutrophication in nitrogen-limited coastal waters.
Beggiatoa can also accumulate phosphorus as polyphosphate and it subsequently releases phosphate in anoxic conditions. This might increase the availability of phosphorus to primary producers if the phosphate is released from the sediment to the water column. Some studies about the phosphorus cycling and the release of phosphorus linked to Beggiatoa have been realized in Baltic Sea. These studies showed that the reduction of sulfide by these bacteria may decrease the rate of iron sulfide formation in the sediments, and thus increase the phosphorus retention capability of the sediment.
Cultivation
Selective Enrichments
The most successful enrichments for Beggiatoa spp. have been made using a shallow pan or aquarium in which it has been added few centimeters of sand, different amount of CaSO4 and K2HPO4, a source of complex organic polymers such as seaweed, several centimeters of sulfide-rich marine mud and seawater. The enrichment must contain the proper sulfide-oxygen interface that can be possible only if air is introduced, for example, by a slow steady flow of freshly aerated seawater. Another type of enrichment associated with Beggiatoa spp. is based on the use of extracted dried grass or hay in a mineral medium because the complex polymers such as cellulose residues in the material provide sulfate reduction. This also provides the hydrogen sulfide necessary to enrich for Beggiatoa.
Pure Culture Isolation
There are three different possible techniques to obtain isolated Beggiatoa strains in pure culture:
Isolation on agar plates
Isolation using liquid media
Isolation and cultivation in gradient media
Isolation on agar plates
The procedure that allows to obtain isolated heterotrophic strain requires an agar plate containing dilute organic substrate such as small amount of peptone. Then, it's necessary to collect tufts of Beggiatoa filaments from the environment, to wash them using sterile washing solution and to place them on the agar plate. In this way there will be some growing filaments moving away from the central inoculum that can be used as inoculum for a new agar plate. For the isolation of marine Beggiatoa strains (that show autotrophic growth), since they are obligate microaerophiles it's essential to provide micro-oxic conditions and to use particular agar plates made by filtered seawater supplemented with sodium sulfide and sodium acetate. On the contrary, for the freshwater strains isolation it's necessary to perform under oxic conditions (air atmosphere) using a variety of media containing a low concentration of single organic compound such as acetate, Na2S or thiosulfate.
Isolation using liquid media
Liquid media are often used for enrichment, MPN enumeration and bulk cultivation of Beggiatoa. In order to have a successful cultivation of heterotrophic or mixotrophic freshwater Beggiatoa, liquid media has to contain little amounts of carbon substrate, either soil extracts or acetate. The type species and strain (Beggiatoa alba str. B18LD) and related strains are generally grown in media that include a salt base, acetate as carbon source, and variable yeast extract and sulfide additions. Some marine autotrophic Beggiatoa strains are also been cultured on defined liquid mineral medium with thiosulfate, CO2, micro-oxic conditions under aeration with 0.25% O2 (v/v) in the gas phase.
Isolation and cultivation in gradient media
Autotrophic strains coming from a single filament isolation on agar can easily be maintained and propagated in sulfide gradient tubes in which sulfide-rich agar plugs are overlaid with sulfide-free soft agar. Tubs are loosely closed in order to permit the exchange of headspace gasses with the atmosphere. As result, two opposite layers are formed, one that contains sulfide while the other one oxygen: this allows the growth of a well-defined Beggiatoa layer at the sulfide-oxygen interface. The gradient medium construction requires different amounts of J3 medium (made by agar and NaHCO3) supplemented with neutralized Na2S placed in a screw-capped tube. Here, the sulfur source is provided by the flux of sulfide. Another ‘’ layer ‘’ is made by NaHCO3 without sulfide or thiosulfate: all of the sulfide will be below the interface between the sulfidic agar plug and the sulfide-free overlay agar while there will be another layer in the top of the tube that represents the oxygen reservoir. It begins to form a gradient shape due to the reaction between sulfide and oxygen: as results, the filaments rapidly proliferate at the sulfide-oxygen interface, forming a marked layer or “plate,” of 1 mm but it's also possible to appreciate that these bacteria can track the interface and slowly descend owing to the gradual depletion of the sulfide reservoir.
References
External links
"Beggiatoa".
Roxanne L. Nikolaus "Beggiatoa and hydrocarbon seeps - Unique bacteria thriving in a unique environment".
Thiotrichales
Bacteria genera
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Vancouver
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East Vancouver
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East Vancouver (also called East Van or the East Side) is a region within the city of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Geographically, East Vancouver is bordered to the north by Burrard Inlet, to the south by the Fraser River, and to the east by the city of Burnaby. East Vancouver is divided from Vancouver's "West Side" (not to be confused with the West End of Downtown Vancouver or with West Vancouver) by Ontario Street (although Main Street is often used as the nearest arterial road).
East Vancouver has been the first home for many non-British immigrants since the 1880s. Historically, it was also a more affordable area and traditionally the home for much of Vancouver's working-class populace, in contrast to its wealthier upper and commercially prosperous middle-class "West Side" counterpart. The East Side is best summarized by its diversity – in terms of family income, land use, ethnicity and mother tongue. The rapid increase in housing prices and gentrification may be affecting diversity of the area.
History
Colonization: 1860–1945
In 1860, the False Creek Trail was built alongside a trail used by Indigenous peoples to connect False Creek with New Westminster, traversing the region of East Vancouver. The first colonial settlement in the current Metro Vancouver area appeared in 1865 in what is now Strathcona, Vancouver's first neighbourhood. Similarly to the present, Strathcona was known simply as the "East End". In the 1880s, colonists built homes in what is now Mount Pleasant.
Construction of North Arm Road (now Fraser Street) began in 1872 to allow farmers to bring their produce to market from the north arm of the Fraser River. Later, in 1890, a railway linked South Vancouver and Mount Pleasant. Besides agriculture, canneries were a major employer for many residents in the 1880s and 1890s.
In 1886, the City of Vancouver was incorporated, comprising much of East Vancouver. One exception was the municipality of South Vancouver, created in 1892, which was an independent municipality until 1929. In 1888, the provincial government designated 65 hectares of land adjacent to modern Hastings Street as a park, now known as Hastings Park. Since 1907, the park has been home to the Pacific National Exhibition.
Transportation infrastructure expanded during the 1890s. In 1891, four public houses opened along Kingsway to service stagecoaches and carriages. Hourly tramcar service began operating along a right-of-way parallel to and crossing where the False Creek Trail had existed. In 1913, it was paved and renamed Kingsway. By the 1920s, street car service was installed along the full length of what is now designated Main Street.
Development of the area increased during the turn of the century. In 1893, a small cedar cottage was built near present-day Kingsway and Knight Street. In 1900, the Cedar Cottage Brewery was built near this location and the surrounding area is still known as "Cedar Cottage". In 1911, a municipal hall was built at the intersection of East 41st Avenue and Fraser Street, while the Hastings Sawmill lands were sold to the local working class. In the following year, John Oliver High School was built nearby. The Collingwood Free Library also opened in the neighbourhood. This library was built largely due to donations from a local resident, John Francis Bursill, who wrote for local newspapers under the name "Felix Penne".
Electricity was first provided to South Vancouver in 1914, with one of the first street lights in Vancouver being installed at East 48th Avenue and Nanaimo Street. In the aftermath of the First World War, a building boom occurred in many areas of East Vancouver, resulting in much of the region being occupied by single-family housing by the 1940s.
John Hendry Park was established to contain Trout Lake in 1926 when Mrs. Aldene Hamber purchased and donated the land to the City of Vancouver in order to prevent it from conversion to a municipal landfill. A condition of the donation was that the park be named after her father, John Hendry, and maintained by the city government.
In 1939, King George VI and Queen Elizabeth visited Vancouver, traveling in a royal procession down Knight Street, and making an unplanned stop in the neighbourhood of Collingwood.
After World War II
In 1947, many farmers were displaced in South Vancouver to open residential land for returning World War II veterans and their families.
During the 1950s, residents requested that the city government clear vegetation around Trout Lake to prevent skinny dipping. Tram service in the Lower Mainland was terminated in 1954 due to increasing automobile ownership and bus service. In 1955, an editorial in The Province implied that it favoured large areas of Strathcona and Chinatown being demolished in favour of new development.
In the 1960s, sidewalk paving was completed in East Vancouver, three decades after wooden planked sidewalks were removed. In the late 60s, Non-Partisan Association mayor Tom "Terrific" Campbell advocated a freeway that would demolish much of Chinatown. Campbell also advocated demolishing the historic Carnegie Centre and building a luxury hotel at the entrance of Stanley Park. In 1967, a US-based firm proposed a waterfront freeway, which would have required that 600 Strathcona houses be demolished and a 10-metre-high overpass be built over the centre of Chinatown. Widespread protest, including a crowd of 800 people who protested the proposals at City Hall, led to the resignation of the chairman of the city's planning commission and the end of the proposal a year later.
1971 – Strict development regulations were passed to limit development in Chinatown and save the architectural heritage. This also preserved the community from proposed massive freeway projects.
1972 – Vancouver city mayor Thomas Campbell (NPA) was defeated by Art Phillips of (The Electors Action Movement). Phillips and TEAM campaigned on rehabilitating Gastown, whereas the NPA slate tended to strongly support the failed freeway project through East Vancouver.
1985 – The SkyTrain rapid transit system (current Expo Line) was built to connect downtown Vancouver to Surrey and included five stations in East Vancouver.
1986 – The City hosted a World's Fair (Expo 86) on the old rail yard properties at False Creek. Residential densification began to accelerate in this area.
1986 to 1993 – The Non-Partisan Association returned to Vancouver City Hall, with former realtor and businessman Gordon Campbell as mayor. The NPA worked more closely with developers, passing a series of pro-development by-laws. Many seniors and poor renters are evicted from properties throughout the city, including Gastown.
1994 – The lease expired on the Pacific National Exhibition grounds at Hastings Park. Extensions were granted by Vancouver City Council. The final year for the Exhibition was to be 1997, 100 years after it started operating in Hastings Park.
2002 – The SkyTrain's Millennium Line opened, providing new rapid transit service through East Vancouver.
2004 – The provincial government transferred authority for the PNE to the City of Vancouver. A consultation process was initiated to determine a new future for the PNE in Hastings Park.
Neighbourhoods, demographics and languages
The 2001 census identified almost 550,000 in the city of Vancouver (Metro Vancouver had about 2.25 million residents).
The City of Vancouver identifies seven communities as being entirely in the East Vancouver area: Grandview–Woodland, Hastings–Sunrise, Kensington–Cedar Cottage, Killarney, Renfrew–Collingwood, Strathcona and Victoria–Fraserview. The 2001 census identified 220,490 people living in these communities (approximately 40% of the city's population).
Two communities, Mount Pleasant and Riley Park–Little Mountain, straddle both East Vancouver and the West Side.
Two communities are part of East Vancouver but often referred to separately because of their unique place in the city's fabric: the Downtown Eastside and Chinatown.
In addition to East Vancouver, the City of Vancouver is made up of the West End, Downtown, Downtown Eastside, and West Side. The Downtown area is further differentiated into Coal Harbour, Yaletown, Gastown, and other semi-distinct regions.
While the overall mother tongue in the City of Vancouver is 49% English and 26% Chinese (2001), areas of East Vancouver represent a more diverse ethnic population (e.g. residents of Victoria–Fraserview identified their mother tongue as 27% English and 49% Chinese). Note that all other mother tongues (e.g., Punjabi) were identified by fewer than 3% each of the city's population.
Community identity
East Vancouver has a strong geographic and community identity. This identity is about a diverse community living together within a dynamic urban neighbourhood. This diverse identity is strengthened by many active ethnic communities, a vibrant artistic presence, a politically engaged youth population, and vocal sexual-orientation and gender-identity groups.
The political identity of the community is reinforced by newspapers such as the Republic of East Vancouver newspaper (the name of which invokes a long-time joking reference to the left-leaning nature of the community and its labour history) and frequent political and social activism – such as the Commercial Drive Car Free Festival and protests.
The artistic identity is reinforced by events at the Vancouver East Cultural Centre, a community poetry anthology ("East of Main"), the Eastside Culture Crawl, and "the Drift", an annual event where local artists present their work centred around Main Street.
While many East Vancouver residents are proud of the diversity in their community, some perceive a long prejudice against East Side neighbourhoods. These concerns include the protests against the 1960s effort to push a freeway through (and over) parts of the East Side, to a perception that municipal spending and planning favours other areas of the city (especially the West Side), to recent debates, such as expansion of the Port of Vancouver operation in East Vancouver and the expansion of the Port Mann bridge and predicted increased traffic through the East Side.
Mayor Sam Sullivan's plans for increased population in Vancouver with "ecodensity" includes coach houses and densification plans via zoning changes mainly for the East Side, with few plans to change zoning or densify the West Side.
Ethnic communities
Immigrant waves that passed through East Vancouver include English, Welsh, Irish, Scottish, Italians, German, Eastern European, Chinese, Southeast Asian, and South Asian.
European
Early settlers of European ancestry in East Vancouver were largely Irish, English, Scottish and Welsh. Today, evidence of these early settlers from Britain and Ireland is found in places such as the Cambrian Hall (built 1929) for the first Welsh Society in Vancouver (est. 1908). Modern British/Irish communities are still active in East Vancouver today, notably at the WISE Hall ("WISE" is an acronym for Welsh-Irish-Scottish-English) and the Vancouver Irish Céili Society.
Italian immigrants formed the first "Little Italy" in the Main Street area by 1910 and then the Commercial Drive area in the 1950s (where Italian businesses and residents are still plentiful). An Italian Cultural Centre opened nearby on the Grandview Highway in the 1970s. Italian commercial and cultural life is also prevalent on Hastings around Nanaimo, and from there eastwards into the Burnaby Heights region of North Burnaby.
While Greek immigrants mostly moved to Vancouver's West Side (e.g. Hellenic Cultural Community Centre on Arbutus Street) there were also strong Greek communities in East Vancouver, particularly near Boundary Road (which divides Vancouver from the eastern municipality, Burnaby). The number of Greek immigrants to Vancouver doubled in the 1960s, although this has declined steadily since the late 1960s.
Other visible European communities that have settled in East Vancouver include Polish (e.g. the Polish Veterans Association Meeting Hall on Kingsway, the Polish Hall on Fraser Street), German (Vancouver Alpen Club/Deutsches Haus on Victoria Drive at E. 33rd), Croatian (the Croatian Cultural Centre near Trout Lake, the Croatian Catholic Church on 1st Avenue) and Hungarian (the Hungarian Cultural Society's center on Kingsway at Fraser, and the St. Elizabeth of Hungary Catholic Church on E. 7th at Commercial Drive).
East Asian
A Chinese community existed before Vancouver was incorporated (1886) and shortly after that date became established at today's Chinatown in the eastern part of Downtown Vancouver. Chinese immigration to the city grew significantly after 1947 when racial immigration exclusion laws were removed by the BC Government.
From the 1980s, many Chinese immigrants chose to live outside of Chinatown, including elsewhere in East Vancouver (e.g. Kingsway St. and Victoria Dr. areas) and Richmond. Immigrants from China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan began to move to the Vancouver area in significant numbers from the 1990s. Hong Kong immigrants who were concerned about the transfer of the territory from the United Kingdom to the Chinese were among the wealthiest of these immigrants, in contrast to previous waves of Chinese immigrants, and typically moved to non-Chinese communities in the city's wealthier and commercially prosperous upper-class West Side or in wealthier neighbourhoods elsewhere located throughout the Metro Vancouver area.
East Asian communities are served in East Vancouver by the Cantonese Families Mutual Sharing and Support Group.
Southeast Asian
A wave of immigrants from Southeast Asian countries (e.g. Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Vietnam) have moved to East Vancouver since the 1970s. Although many of these new immigrants have since relocated to City of Richmond as part of the "Asia West" movement. Kingsway Street in East Vancouver has many Southeast Asian businesses, such as Vietnamese restaurants, cafes and beauty parlours. In 2003, about 5% of Vancouver's students speak Vietnamese as their first language. The Vietnamese Seniors Outreach Program on Commercial Drive serve the Southeast Asian community in East Vancouver.
South Asian
South Asians have been present in Vancouver since at least 1897. In the 1960s, a wave of South Asian immigration (primarily Punjabi) passed through east Vancouver. In the following years, many of the new immigrants presided over the large scale development of the Vancouver Special throughout southeast Vancouver. As most residential development in southeast Vancouver ceased in the 1980s, these homes continue to be a mainstay into the present day.
Since the 1990s, increasing numbers of Vancouver's South Asian residents have since relocated to other areas of Greater Vancouver and the Fraser Valley, particularly Surrey and Abbotsford. Nevertheless, many South Asians continue to live in Vancouver and choose not to move. Established in the 1960s, the Punjabi Market (Little India), located in South Vancouver, continues to act as a hub for the South Asian community across Greater Vancouver. The Sunset neighbourhood in southeast Vancouver contains the highest concentration of ethnic South Asians in the city, forming the largest ethnic group in the neighbourhood at 33.6%.
There are also a group of other Indians from Fiji, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Trinidad that continue to reside in Vancouver.
Hispanic and Latin American
The Latin American community in East Vancouver is served by the Canadian Latin American Cultural Society on Commercial Drive.
Key shopping areas
Kingsway
Kingsway was built on an ancient aboriginal footpath and is the historic connector between the early cities of New Westminster and Vancouver (Kingsway was originally named the "Westminster Road").
Today, it is one of the longer streets in the Greater Vancouver area (connecting Vancouver, Burnaby and New Westminster). Its length and varied services make it difficult to characterize; common businesses include diverse ethnic restaurants/cafés, specialty grocery stores, and many others.
Key shopping areas along Kingsway in East Vancouver include SoMa (South Main), Kesington-Cedar Cottage (From Fraser to Nanaimo streets) and Renfrew-Collingwood. There are many Vietnamese restaurants and shops along this corridor and it has aptly been named "Little Saigon" between Fraser and Nanaimo Street along Kingsway. The name "Little Saigon" was also up for debate.
Main Street
Main Street north of Keefer is effectively part of the Downtown Eastside and includes the former headquarters of the Vancouver City Police and the Vancouver Pre-Trial Centre. Adjoining side-streets are largely small industry and warehouse, though verging quickly on Gastown to the west and Japantown to the east.
Main Street between Keefer and Prior is part of Chinatown. This area has many Chinese businesses, particularly restaurants, small pottery and furniture stores, financial establishments, clothing stores and others. These businesses also extend to the east and the west of Main Street in this area. A popular Chinese New Year parade is held each year in this area.
Main Street is the core of the Mount Pleasant neighbourhood between East 2nd/Great Northern Way and East 16th avenues. This area is known for a younger, hip demographic. Common businesses include cafés, grocery stores, pubs, vintage clothing stores, independent media stores. There are fewer recent immigrants in this area and it is also much more influenced by people in their 20s and 30s.
Mid-Main (between East 17th and East 41st Avenues)
This area of Main Street is dominated by antique stores, restaurants, bars, cafés, clothing stores, bookstores, grocery stores, and independent video stores.
The South Asian District, or Punjabi Market is between E 45th to E 51st avenues.
Southeast Marine Drive, between E 65th Avenue and SE Marine Drive and south to E Kent Avenue, has industrial and highway oriented retail.
Fraser Street
Fraser Street has two main shopping areas; a multi-ethnic (Chinese, Vietnamese, Filipino, Russian area) between East 24th and East 28th Avenues. A predominantly Indian district is present between East 43rd and East 50th Avenues; one of Vancouver's several "Punjabi Markets". Street signs in the area of Main & 49th carry the city designation "Little India".
Commercial Drive
Commercial Drive (between Wall to E 17th Avenue) is one of the most vibrant areas of the Greater Vancouver region due to it strong multi-ethnic and activist identities. Culturally, this area is defined by the historic Italian and Portuguese communities, which developed a "Little Italy" here in the 1950s. Since that time, immigrants from Latin America, Asia, the Caribbean, Middle East and elsewhere mix with a strong aboriginal community to form a dynamic neighbourhood. Many residents from elsewhere in the city come to this area for shopping (e.g. Italian cheeses), restaurants, bars, cafés and the arts.
The Commercial Drive area consistently ranks highly by city residents for many amenities, including "best neighbourhood", "best local microbrewery", "best place to eat meat", and "best potential hipster hangout".
Victoria Drive
Victoria Drive, between East 36th and East 54th Avenues, is a vibrant Chinese community with many restaurants, grocery stores and other services.
Victoria Drive, between Hastings and 1st avenue is full of tight knit communities boasting community gardens, village corner stores and plant shops, 100-year-old heritage homes, and block parties all summer. Most homes are beautifully painted and have been remodeled so they look exactly as they did 100 years ago.
Hastings Street
Hastings Street, which runs from downtown Vancouver in the west through Burnaby in the east, has many unique shopping areas. Closer to downtown and Chinatown, a thriving street culture includes many low-income, drug addicted and homeless people, but also a close-knit community of social activists. Local business includes pawn shops, cheap residency hotels, and a busy informal street market in illicit drugs.
Further east between Clark and Nanaimo, the street's commercial presence includes marine and transport services, as well as artist studios and the infamous "chicken factories" which sometimes permeate the area with their characteristic odour. Between Nanaimo and Boundary Road is the Hastings Sunrise area, a busy commercial area of Asian and European shops and restaurants, as well as banks and other services.
Housing, affordability and gentrification
In May 2007, the typical housing ("benchmark") price of a single-detached house in East Vancouver was $627,758 (a 9% increase over the previous year and a 90% increase over the previous five years). Many home owners in East Vancouver rent out their basement suites to assist with mortgage payments.
Increased housing prices are causing changes in East Vancouver neighbourhoods, such as fewer new immigrants moving to the area and decreasing affordability for artists, seniors, young families and others.
However, increased housing prices have also caused significant positive changes in East Vancouver, such as greater retention of existing residents (partly due to a lack of affordability in some other areas), increased densification (increasing the number of affordable housing options, e.g. townhouses), more residential investment, neighbourhood-led artistic projects, more community-pride events (e.g. neighbourhood clean-ups, block parties and community gardening), and greater tax base for new amenities(e.g. a new planned library and $2.7 million in street, lighting and sidewalk improvements at Kingsway and Knight Street).
Rising prices throughout the city have produced challenges for new social housing projects. This has caused conflict where East Vancouver residents feel that social housing projects are disproportionately located in their communities versus areas in Vancouver's West Side, some of which have no social housing at all (Dunbar, Kerrisdale and Shaughnessy)
Other general Vancouver housing concerns include increasing rental rates due to speculation associated with the Vancouver 2010 Olympics and recent provincial economic growth.
In January 2013, the leaseholders of the Waldorf Hotel, an East Vancouver institution, were told they must cease operations as of January 20, 2013, by order of the new owner and condo developer, Solterra Group of Companies. After public outcry to save the land, building and cultural institution, Mayor Gregor Robertson issued a public statement decrying the loss, which critics denounced as a sentimental bid for hipster votes.
Amenities and celebrations
While the type of parks in East Vancouver is varied, one common element is the early morning t'ai chi practitioners. Other unique East Side park features include Trout Lake (the only lake in the city), the modern parkgrounds at Hastings Park, the large (38 ha.) and wild Everett Crowley Park, Kensington Park, where many wedding photographs are taken against the stunning backdrop of the city and North Shore Mountains, the bustling Refrew Community Park, the diverse Strathcona Park with its skatepark and climbing wall, and the multi-use Memorial Park, which is dedicated to soldiers who died in WW1 and today provides many spaces for sports teams and neighbours alike. Another park is the Falaise Park on the border of Burnaby and Vancouver.
Public celebrations
Chinese New Year Parade on Gore, Keefer, Main and Pender Streets (Late January or early February)
Baisakhi Day Parade and vegetarian temple feast, near Marine Drive and Fraser Street (mid-April).
Annual Cedar Cottage Mothers Day Traditional pow wow at John Hendry Park (mid-May).
East Vancouver Farmers Market
Commercial Drive Car Free Festival (mid-June)
Pacific National Exhibition (mid-August to Labour Day)
East Vancouver Culture Crawl
Vancouver Fringe Festival, centered on the Commercial Drive area (early September).
The Drift – Main Street's Annual Art Festival and Open Studio Tour. First weekend in October.
Mid-autumn Moon Festival at Dr. Sun Yat-sen Garden (late September or early October).
Powell Street Festival of Japanese-Canadian culture (early August),
Vancouver Dyke March (1st Saturday of August on Commercial Drive)
Politics
Politically, East Vancouver has often supported left-wing political candidates although demographic changes since the 1990s (e.g. significantly increasing family income levels) may be causing voting patterns to become more diverse. More specifically, the Northern portion of East Vancouver consistently votes for left-wing politicians by large margins, although the Southern areas tend to vote for centre to centre-right candidates.
At the municipal level, East Vancouver is part of the "at large" political system and therefore is represented by all of Vancouver City Council. In the 2008 municipal election, Vision Vancouver became the majority governing party at Vancouver City Hall.
Provincially, East Vancouver includes the constituencies of Vancouver-Kensington, Vancouver-Kingsway, Vancouver-Hastings, Vancouver-Mount Pleasant and Vancouver-Fraserview. In the 2005 provincial election, all constituencies in East Vancouver were won by the British Columbia New Democratic Party except Vancouver-Fraserview, which is represented by the centre-right British Columbia Liberal Party.
Federally, East Vancouver includes the ridings of Vancouver East, Vancouver Kingsway and Vancouver South. In the 2011 federal election, Vancouver East and Vancouver Kingsway were won by the federal New Democratic Party, while the Conservative Party of Canada won Vancouver South. This marked the first time since 1988 that the Tories managed to win a seat in Vancouver.
East Vancouver is home to both of Vancouver's left-wing bookstores. The People's Co-op Bookstore, founded in 1945 with a focus on communist and socialist literature, is Vancouver's oldest bookstore. Spartacus Books, founded in 1973 by an alliance of anarchists, Maoists, and social democrats, is entirely volunteer-run and hosts regular events. It is one of the oldest collectively-run bookstores in North America.
Education
Sprott Shaw College
Vancouver Community College
Notable residents
Nathan Fong (1959–2020), Canadian chef
Frazey Ford (1973), Singer-songwriter
See also
Government and politics of Vancouver
References
External links
Discovery Project of South East Vancouver
Discover Vancouver
Mount Pleasant BIA
Neighbourhoods in Vancouver
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4750165
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Def%20Poetry%20Jam
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Def Poetry Jam
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Russell Simmons presents Def Poetry, better known as simply Def Poetry Jam or Def Poetry, is a spoken word poetry television series hosted by Mos Def and airing on HBO between 2002 and 2007. The series features performances by established and up-and-coming spoken word poets. Performances also include special appearances by well-known actors and musicians, as well as occasional performances by Mos Def himself. Co-created by Bruce George, Danny Simmons, Deborah Pointer, Stan Lathan, and Russell Simmons, the show is a spin-off of the popular Def Comedy Jam which began airing on HBO in the 1990s. As with Def Comedy, Simmons appears at the end of every episode to thank the audience.
The series included historical legendary poets such as The Last Poets, Nikki Giovanni, Amiri Baraka, and Sonia Sanchez. It also featured poets, Saul Williams, J. Ivy, jessica Care moore and Lemon. Though technically not a poetry slam, Def Poetry has become heavily associated with the poetry slam movement, and utilizes many of poetry slam's best-known poets, including National Poetry Slam champions such as Beau Sia, Taylor Mali, Big Poppa E, Mayda del Valle, Mike Mcgee, Alix Olson and Rives, among others. Even poets who are critical of the poetry slam, such as John S. Hall, have acknowledged slam's influence on the show. In a 2005 interview, Hall was quoted as saying:
In a 2005 interview, Bob Holman, who founded the Nuyorican Poets Cafe's poetry slam and appeared on Season 4 of the show, applauded Def Poetry, noting:
However, Marc Smith, the founder of the Poetry Slam movement, is more critical of the program. Smith decries the intense commercialization of the poetry slam, and refers to Def Poetry as "an exploitive entertainment [program that] diminished the value and aesthetic of performance poetry."
In November 2002, a live stage production, Russell Simmons Def Poetry Jam, opened on Broadway. Directed by Stan Lathan, the show featured poets Beau Sia, Suheir Hammad, Staceyann Chin, Lemon, Mayda del Valle, Georgia Me, Black Ice, Poetri Smith, and Steve Coleman. The show ran on Broadway until May 2003, and won a 2003 Tony Award for Best Special Theatrical Event. The show subsequently toured both nationally and internationally.
Def Poetry premiered on HBO in 2002 and the latest season to air (Season 6) premiered in February 2007. As of summer 2008, there has been no word about the possibility of a Season 7. Starting in 2008, producers of Def Poetry (including Simmons, Stan Lathan, and Kamilah Forbes) developed and broadcast the HBO poetry show Brave New Voices, which is stylistically similar to Def Poetry, with teenage poets competing and backstage scenes.
Episode index
Season 1 (2002)
Episode 1
Steve Colman – I Wanna Hear a Poem
Georgia Me – Full Figure Potential
Vanessa Hidary - Culture Bandit
Lemon – Shine
Nikki Giovanni – Talk to Me Poem, I Think I've Got the Blues
Black Ice – Bigger Than Mine?
Suheir Hammad – First Writing Since
Episode 2
Taylor Mali – What Teachers Make
Yellow Rage – Listen Asshole
Jewel – Poem Song
Flow Mentalz – They Call Me Drama
Sonia Sanchez – Poem to Some Women
Shihan – This Type Love
Dawn Saylor – When I Was 14
Kayo – Who Am I?
Episode 3
Cedric the Entertainer – Untitled
Sarah Jones – Your Revolution
Beau Sia – Give Me a Chance
Willie Perdomo – How Beautiful We Really Are
Abyss – God Gave Me Grey Skies
The Last Poets – Take Your Time
IN-Q – When Hip-Hop Was Fun
J. Ivy – I Need To Write
Episode 4
Mayda del Valle – Descendancy
Poetri – Money
Jessica Care Moore – Warriors Walk Alone
Dave Chappelle – The Corner Store
Amiri Baraka – from Why is We Americans?
Liza Jessie Peterson – Ice Cream Fiend
Kevin Coval – Family Feud
Season 2 (2003)
Episode 1
Beau Sia – Asian Invasion
Jason Carney – Southern Heritage
Thea Monyee – Woman to Woman
Sekou Sundiata – Come on and Bring on the Reparations
Marty McConnell – Give Me One Good Reason to Die
Twin Poets – Dreams are Illegal in the Ghetto
Jamie Foxx – Off the Hizzle for Shizzle
Episode 2
Danny Hoch – Corner Talk, September
Patricia Smith – Skinhead
Dante Basco – Nikki
Maggie Estep – Emotional Idiot
Black Ice – Truth Is
Kent Foreman – Epiphany
Roger Bonair-Agard – How the Ghetto Loves Us Back
Erykah Badu – Friends, fans, and artists must meet
Episode 3
Lemon – Where I'm From and A Toast
Bassey Ikpi – Sometimes silence is the loudest kind of noise
Taylor Mali – Totally like whatever, you know?
Regie Cabico – What kind of guys are attracted to me
Haki R. Madhubuti – The B Network
Rat Sack – I'm Losing You
Talib Kweli –
Episode 4
Ishle Yi Park – All I have ever done is write you love poems
Shihan – Say What?
Suheir Hammad – Not Your Erotic, Not Your Exotic
Big Poppa E – Wussy Boy
La Bruja – WTC
Anthony Morales – Story Avenue Stuck
Amalia Ortiz – Some Days
Oscar Brown Jr. – I Apologize
Episode 5
Felipe Luciano – Jibaro, My Pretty Nigger
MuMs – Ploylessness
Amanda Diva – Hot Shit
Malik Yusef – I Spit
Asha Bandele – Morning Was My Mentor
Malcolm Jamal Warner – I Love My Woman
Episode 6
Sekou the Misfit – I'm a Rapper
Steve Connell – Why Not Wine Coolers
Georgia Me – NigGods
Louis Reyes Rivera – Bullet Cry
Jessica Care Moore – I'm a Hip Hop Cheerleader
Keith Murray – Man Child.
Episode 7
Denizen Kane – Lost and Found
Staceyann Chin – If Only Out of Vanity
Big Rube – Alphabet Acrobat
Wood Harris – Night Song
Goldie – No title
Regie Gibson – For James Marshall Hendrix
Joy Harjo – A Poem to Get Rid of Fear
Linton Kwesi Johnson – If I Was a Top-notch Poet
Season 3 (2004)
Episode 1
Black Ice – Lone Soldier
Rives – Sign Language
Helena D. Lewis – Stank Breath
Poem-cees – Power
Mutabaruka – Dis Poem
Daniel Beaty – Duality Duel
Rupert Estanislao – Empress
Jill Scott – Nothing is for Nothing
Suheir Hammad – We Spent the 4th of July in Bed
Episode 2
Mayda del Valle and Lemon – Tito Puente
Flaco Navaja – Kids Don't Play
Gemineye – Poetic Bloodline
Ursula Rucker – Get Ready
Michael Ellison – Light Skin-did
Ishle Park – Pussy
Ras Baraka – American Poem
Dana Gilmore – Wife, Woman, Friend
Common – God is Freedom
Episode 3
Poetri – Krispy Kreme
Emanuel Xavier – Tradiciones
Marc Bamuthi Joseph – For Pop
Richard Montoya – Miami
Vanessa Hidary – The Hebrew Mamita
Danny Hoch – PSA
Bassey Ikpi – Homeward
Lemon – Gangsta MCs
Steve Colman – Terrorist Threat
Episode 4
Black Ice & Staceyann Chin – Jammin
Rock Baby – Titty Man
Alix Olson – Women Before
Mike 360 – Twilight Zone
Cheryl James – We Follow Your Lead
Shappy – I Am That Nerd
Jonzi D – 3000 Casualties of War
Amalia Ortiz – Cat Calls
Jimmy Santiago Baca – from Healing Earthquakes ("Twelve")
Episode 5
Roger Bonair-Agard – For Trent Lott
Frenchie – Fucking Ain't Conscious
Geoff Trenchard – Of Copper Chipped Teeth
Chinaka Hodge – Barely Audible
Quincy Troupe – Forty One Seconds in June, in Salt Lake City, Utah (for Michael Jordan)
Dufflyn – Single Life
MuMs – Brooklyn Queen
Kevin Coval – Jam Master J
Beau Sia – Love
Episode 6
Shihan – Sick and Tired
Jason Carney – Out Here
Gina Loring – Somewhere There Is a Poem
Kanye West – Self Conscious
Jamie Kennedy – Grim Fairy Tale
Bao Phi – You Bring Out the Vietnamese in Me
Roscoe P. Coldchain – Trouble
Mayda del Valle – Mami's Makin' Mambo
Buju Banton – How Long
Episode 7
Maggie Estep – Happy
Malak Salaam – Warrior's Love
Joel Chmara – Sweet Tooth Tollbooth School Year
Flowmentalz – The Payphone
Saul Williams – Coded Language
Georgia Me – Hit Like a Man
Deb Young – Children of a Lesser God
Smokey Robinson – A Black American
Season 4 (2005)
Episode 1
Daniel Beaty – Knock, Knock
Rives – Kite
Nafessa Monroe – White
Mark Gonzales – As with Most Men
Zena Edwards – Laugh
Oscar Brown Jr. – Children of Children
Amalia Ortiz – Women of Juarez
Black Ice – Or Die
MC Lyte – I Was Born
Episode 2
Gemineye – What Are You Fighting For?
Bonnie – My Man
Javon Johnson – Elementary
Suheir Hammad – What I Will
Rachel and George McKibbons – Multi-tasking
Vanessa Hidary – Fling Gone Awry
Flowmentalz – Constipation
Nikki Patin – Sweat
Nikky Finney – Girlfriends Train
Kanye West – 18 years
Episode 3
Bassey Ikpi – Diallo
John S. Hall – America Kicks Ass
Tish Benson – Fifth Word Email
Kelly Tsai – Mao
Tracy Morgan – Feeling Fucked Up
Will Bell – So I Run
Morris Stegosaurus – Big Man II
Dawn Saylor – Take You To Brooklyn
Michael Eric Dyson – Intellectual MCs
KRS-One and Doug E. Fresh – 2nd Quarter
Episode 4
Poetri – Dating Myself
Julian Curry – Nigger, Niggas, Niggaz
Ishle Park – Open Letter to Soldier
Taylor Mali – Like Lily Like Wilson
Adele Givens – That Shit Ain't Funny
Kevin Coval – My g-dself Loose
Yolanda Kae Wilkinson – Circa Valentine's Day
Amir Sulaiman – Danger
Floetry – Everybody Heard
Episode 5
Lemon – Love Poem
Regie Cabico – You Bring Out the Writer in Me
Rafael Casal – Abortion
Kim Fields – How Come
Reg E. Gaines – I Don't Feel Like Writing
Jon Goode – Barbara
Dana Gilmore – Wife, Woman, Friend, Pt. 2
Rita Dove – Black on a Saturday Night
Talib Kweli – Lonely People
Episode 6
Flaco Navaja – Revolution
Liza Jesse Peterson – Waitress
Robert Karimi – Get Down with Your Catholic Muslim Self
Triple Black – Love Poems
Bonafide Rojas – In front of the Class
Laura "Piece" Kelly – Central District
BessKepp – Rotten Pomegranates
Michael Franti – Rock the Nation
Ruby Dee – Tupac
Episode 7
Georgia Me – Bitch Ass Nigga
Jus Cus – Homeland Security
J. Ivy – Dear Father
Marlon Esquerra – Morning Papers
Marvin Tate – My Life to the Present
Martin Espada – Imagine the Angels of Bread
Alix Olson – America on Sale
Mos Def – Pornographic Content
Ani DiFranco – Coming Up
Mike Epps – I Love the Hood
Episode 8
Mayda del Valle – Hood Days
Andy Buck – *69
Faraji Salim – Star Spangled Banner
Bob Holman – Rock & Roll Mythology
Patrick Washington – Letter to the Editor
Tara Betts – Switch
Paul Flores – Brown Dreams
muMs – The Truth Parts I & II
Buttaflysoul – Queer Eye
Dead Prez – 4 the Hood
Episode 9
Beau Sia – I'm So Deep
Aysiha Knight – Until
Buddy Wakefield – Convenience Store
Shihan – The Auction Network
Miguel Algarin – Met Walking
Kendra Urdang – To Every Man Who Never Called Himself a Feminist
Speech – Night Time Demons
Red Storm – My Debut
Universes (poetic theatre ensemble) (Steven, Mildred & Gamal) – Don't Front
Common – A Letter to the Law
Episode 10
Tommy Bottoms – Basic Economics
Staceyann Chin – Three Frenzied Days
Joe Hernandez-Kolski – Cool
Marc Batmuthi Joseph – Move
Denizen Kane – Love Song
Aya De Leon – Cellulite
Musiq – Pieces of this Life
Mos Def – My Life is Real
Yusef Komunyakaa – The Sure Beat
Beau Sia, Georgia Me, Suheir Hammad – First Taste
Season 5 (2006)
Episode 1
J. Ivy – Never Let Me Down
Dahlak Brathwaite – Just Another Routine Check
Claudia Alick – Employed Poor
Black Ice – Imagine
Gideon Grody-Patinkin – Touching
Avery Brooks – from Purlie Victorious (by Ossie Davis)
Lauryn Hill – Motives and Thoughts
Rachel McKibbens – After School Special
Dave Chappelle – Fuck Ashton Kutcher and How I Got the Lead On Jeopardy
Episode 2
Al Letson – The Ball the Rim and Him
Dan Sully and Tim Stafford – Death From Below
Georgia Me – For Your Protection
John Legend – Again
Caroline Harvey – Spoons
Bounty Killer – Look Into My Eyes;
Bassey Ikpi – I Want to Kiss You
Will "Da Real One" Bell – Diary of the Reformed
Alicia Keys – P.O.W.
Episode 3
Reg E. Gaines and Savion Glover – Pawn Shop
Tommy Chunn – Computer Wordplay
Scorpio Blues – Second Guessing
Gemineye – Penny for Your Thoughts
Emanuel Xavier – Nueva York
Mayda del Valle – To All the Boys I've Loved Before
Rev. Run – Peter Piper
Aulelei Love – Same Cell, A Poem for Women in Prison
Mike Booker – Hoodology
Smokey Robinson – Gang Bangin'
Episode 4
The Poem-cees – Cheatin'
Geoff Trenchard – Ode to my Bathroom
Marty McConnell – Instructions for a Body
Nikki Giovanni – Nikki-Rosa
Roger Bonair-Agard – Calypso
Joaquin Zihuatanejo – This is a Suit
Ishle Park – Sa-I-Gu
Willie Perdomo – Nigger-Reecan Blues
Floetry x2 – Fantasize
Episode 5
Poetri – Driving
Sharrif Simmons— Fuck What You Heard
Michael D. Ellison – Mezeker Means to Remember
Phylicia Rashad – On Status (by Vivian Ayers)
Ratsack – Free the Toes
Abyss – She
Kevin Coval – Nothing Fight
Mollie Angelheart – Psychotic Bitch
Flomentalz – Talkin' to God
Thea Monyee and Gaknew – A Different World
Episode 6
Wyclef Jean – Immigrant
Nayeli Adorador-Knudsen – Priceless
Michael Cirelli – Love Song for Kelis
M'Reld – Ready for Love
Red Storm – Snake in the Grass
Kelly Tsai – Aftershocks
Paul Mabon – The Toothbrush
Kevin Derrig – Andrew
Mighty Mike McGee – Like
Narubi Selah – Uncle Benz
Ise Lyfe – Popular Dirt
Episode 7
Kanye West – Bittersweet
Ursula Rucker – What a Woman Must Do
Rafael Casal – Barbie and Ken 101
Terry Creech – Lost Bird
Thadra Sheridan – Bad Boyfriend
Beau Sia – Hip Hop
Shihan – In Response
Sonia Sanchez – Our Vision Is Our Voice
Amir Sulaiman – She Said, I Prefer A Broken Neck...
Lemon and Flaco – Boriquas
Episode 8
Preach R Sun – Cotton
Steve Connell and Sekou The Misfit – America Calls
Big Poppa E – Poem For A Friend
Amanda Diva – 40 Emcees
Al B. Back – Super Negro
Sista Queen – Try Being A Lady
Jerry Quickley – 3-Part Bitter X-girlfriend #167249-B
Oscar Brown, Jr. – This Beach
Staceyann Chin – A City In Tragedy
Brother J – Atlan
Common – Be Known
Episode 9
Suheir Hammad – Mike Check
Lemon – Poor People
Tamara Blue – Thick Chicks
Rives – Op-talk
Otep Shamaya– Dedicated To My Enemy
Heru Ptah – Why
Sharon Olds – Self Portrait, Rear View
Perre Shelton – Dandelion
Consequence – Friend Zone
Jason Carney – Our Soldiers
Black Thought – Untitled
Episode 10
Gina Loring – You Move Me
Rock Baby – That Sweet That Funk
Chinaka Hodge – Cousin
Denizen Kane – Patriot Act
Sekou Sundiata – Amman
Kristiana Colon – From the Clay
Jimmy Tran – Mediocre Penis
Flaco Navaja – Dimple
Eve Ensler – My Father's House
Black Ice, Poetri and Shihan – We Are Men
Season 6 (2007)
Episode 1
DMX – The Industry
Big Mike – Sexy
Asia – The Waiting Hour
Dan Vaughn & Dasha Kelly – Six Million
Kelly Tsai – Grey Matter
Red Storm – Black Barbie Doll
Shanelle Gabriel – Why I Love You
Idris Goodwin – What is They Feedin' Our Kids
Jill Scott – Ain't a Ceiling
Episode 2
Dahlak Braithwaite – Peculiar Evolution
Skim – Your Eyes
Eamon Mahone & Paul Graham – Black Irish
Tahani Salah – Hate
George Watsky – V For Virgin
Shannon Leigh – Sudanese Children
Pat's Justice – Innocent Criminal
Lyfe Jennings – Rough Stuff
Matisyahu – Late Night In The Field
Talib Kweli – Hell
Episode 3
Sarah Kay – Hands
Riva & Sciryl – My Best Friend (Hip Hop)
Rafael Casal – First Week Of A Break-Up
Meilani Clay – Lost
Shihan – Father's Day
Shannon Matesky – My Space
Carlos Andres Gomez – What's Genocide
Carole King – Touchstone
Natalie Stewart – Her Story
Jamal Joseph – Ricky Do & The 4th Of July
Episode 4
Oveous Maximus – Salcedo's Breakdown
Sonya Renee Taylor – Connections
Anis Mojgani – For Those Who Can Still Ride an Airplane for the First Time
Rives – Dirty Talk
Mush – Next Wednesday
Joe Hernandez-Kolski – No Disclaimers
African-American Shakespear – Will You Be There
David Banner – What About Us
Sunni Patterson – We Made It
Episode 5
Big Poppa E – Propers
Bassey Ikpi – Apology To My Unborn
Alvin Lau – What Tiger Said
Saddi Kali – Goin' Platinum In 2 Days
Liza Garza – My Everything
Lamont Carey – I Can't Read
Brian Dykstra – Pushing Bush
Vanessa Hidary – Phd In Him
Basikknowledge – Numbers
George Clinton – Dope Dog
Episode 6
Black Ice – The Ugly Show
Mayda Del Valle – The porn industry
Steve Colman – I Want To Eat Your Pu**y
Georgia Me – The Promiseland
Beau Sia – Back To The Now
Staceyann Chin – Nails
Poetri – Monsters In My Stomach
Suheir Hammad – Daddy's Song
Lemon – Experience
Nelly Furtado – Nevis
Reboot
Chance the Rapper will host this season.
References
External links
Is There A Future For Spoken Word? @ dropmagazine.com
Works about slam poetry
HBO original programming
2002 American television series debuts
2007 American television series endings
English-language television shows
Hip hop television
Def Jam Recordings
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4750223
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloody%20Bones%20%28novel%29
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Bloody Bones (novel)
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Bloody Bones is a horror/mystery novel by American writer Laurell K. Hamilton, the fifth book in the Anita Blake: Vampire Hunter series.
Plot introduction
Bloody Bones continues the adventures of Anita Blake. This time, Anita travels to Branson, Missouri and is quickly enmeshed in a series of supernatural murders and disappearances that she and her vampire would-be lover, Jean-Claude must resolve. As with its predecessors, Bloody Bones blends elements of supernatural, hardboiled and police procedural fiction.
Explanation of the title
Within the book, "Bloody Bones" is the name of a restaurant that is operated by two of the principal characters in the novel, Magnus and Dorcas Bouvier. Hamilton employed the practice of naming each novel after a fictional location within the story for most of the Anita Blake series. In this case, the restaurant itself is named after a character in the novel, Rawhead and Bloody Bones, making the title somewhat eponymous.
Plot summary
Bloody Bones begins on Saint Patrick's Day, shortly after the events of the previous Anita Blake novel, The Lunatic Cafe. Like the previous novels, the novel opens with Anita considering a possible job. This time, her manager, Bert, is calculating a possible bid for a mass zombie raising in Branson, Missouri. Bert explains that a law firm is soliciting bids to raise an entire graveyard in order to determine who owns a piece of land needed for a resort complex. The graves are unmarked and may contain corpses at least 100 years old, Anita finds out later there are some that are much older than that, which will make the raising very difficult. In Anita's opinion, she is the only person in the world who might be able to raise that many ancient unmarked graves without a human sacrifice. She agrees to take the job, and takes Larry along to boost her powers, and as a training experience. (She and Bert agree that although John Burke also has the power to make a good second, his pride is such that it's best that he not even learn that Anita took a job that he was not strong enough to take on his own).
Arriving in Branson, Anita meets Raymond Stirling, the lawyer in charge of the development project and his assistants, Lionel Bayard, Ms Harrison and Beau, and learns that Stirling is in a dispute with Magnus and Dorcas Bouvier, two siblings who claim to own the land at issue and refuse to sell. If the corpses on the land confirm that it belongs to the Bouviers, Stirling's project will be unable to continue.
After reviewing the site and making plans to explore the site further that evening, Anita receives a call from Dolph. Dolph asks Anita for advice on a crime scene back in St. Louis and also asks her to assist the local police with a nearby crime scene. Anita and Larry drive to the scene and meet Sergeant Freemont, who appears to want to crack the case herself and resents their intrusion. Anita inspects the murder victims—three teen-aged or younger boys cut apart with a blade. Each of the boys' faces have been disfigured or removed, and Freemont reveals that a teenaged boy and girl were murdered earlier, with similar wounds. Anita warns Freemont that in her opinion, the boys were cut apart by a sword wielded by something as fast and strong as a vampire, with enough mental power to hold two of the boys motionless while killing the third. Larry is seriously shaken by viewing his first murder scene.
Anita and Larry then go to the Bouviers' restaurant, named "Bloody Bones," to investigate the land dispute and to get dinner. There, they meet Magnus and Dorrie, each of whom is part-fey. Magnus is using glamour to host a date night. By touching the restaurant patrons, he makes them irresistibly attractive for one night, in return for drawing some power for himself. After trying unsuccessfully to seduce Anita, Magnus is coy about why the Bouviers refuse to sell their land. Magnus also admits to destroying several trees outside the restaurant while in a drunken rage, causing Anita to consider him as a suspect for the recent killings.
During dinner, Dolph pages Anita again, and asks her to assist on another possible local vampire crime. Anita tells Dolph that Magnus is part-fey and a potential suspect, then Anita and Larry drive to the home of Mr. and Mrs. Quinlan. There, they meet Sheriff David St. John, his wife Beth, Deputy Zack Coltraine, Mr. and Mrs. Quinlan, and their son Jeff. Jeff's older sister, Ellie is lying in her bed, dead of a vampire bite. Anita and Larry eventually deduce that her death was probably voluntary, and learn that Ellie's boyfriend Andy recently disappeared. They guess that Ellie's boyfriend has recently been raised as a vampire and turned her as well, but Mr. Quinlan refuses to believe them and demands that Anita stake Ellie to prevent her from rising. Anita asks him to wait twenty-four hours to "cool off" and promises to stake Ellie if her father demands it after that time.
After instructing the Quinlans to place the Host at each doorway to prevent any vampires from reentering the home, Anita explains that the vampire that turned Ellie probably has a resting place nearby, and that they may catch it if they attempt a nighttime hunt. She heads out into the woods after it, together with Larry, Sheriff St. John, Deputy Coltraine, and two other police officers, Wallace and Granger. During the hunt, Anita learns that Wallace was a survivor of a vampire attack and shows him her own scars in an effort to put him at ease.
During the hunt, Anita and the others are ambushed by a pack of vampires. In the fight, Anita kills two vampires, but Granger is bitten, Wallace's arm is broken, and Xavier kills Coltrain with a sword. While the hunters regroup, Granger, now under vampire control, attempts to shoot Larry, and Anita is forced to kill him. The group then hears screams from the Quinlan home, and St. John and Anita run for the house, leaving Larry and Wallace to bring up the rear.
When Anita gets to the house, Beth St. John is dead and Jeff has been taken. (Apparently, Xavier was able to shapeshift and fit through a pet door). Sheriff St. John kills a brown haired, female vampire. Anita shoots at Xavier, but he's too fast to hit.
Later, Sergeant Freemont arrives at the scene. She explains that after Dolph told her that Magnus was part fey, she went to arrest him. Mangus used glamour to escape, and is now wanted for using magic on police officers during the course of his escape. FBI agents Elwood and Bradford arrive and speak to Anita, who agrees to attempt to identify and contact the Master of the City.
Anita calls Jean-Claude for information. Jean-Claude explains that he thinks he knows the vampire Anita saw, and that it is an "exotic" vampire of a sort concealed from humans. Among other things, it is a pedophile. Jean-Claude offers to come to Branson to set up a meeting with the Master of the City. With Jeff Quinlan in the hands of a monster, Anita is forced to accept Jean-Claude's help.
With no way to pursue the Quinlan case, Anita and Larry return to the graveyard to "walk the graveyard" and attempt to sense the location and identities of the corpses in preparation for a later attempt to raise the dead. Anita and Larry experiment with combining powers, and are surprised at the degree to which they are able to magnify each other's abilities. However, their powers attract Magnus, who appears and insists that they not raise the dead in that graveyard. Stirling orders Beau to shoot Magnus for trespassing, but Anita, realizing that Stirling intended the evening as a trap for Magnus, draws her own gun and buys Magnus time to escape.
Anita and Larry return to their hotel suite to find Jean-Claude and Jason. Jean-Claude has flown in on his private jet, but it is now too late in the night to track down the Master before dawn. Jean-Claude informs Anita of Xavier's name, then retires for the morning in her bed. Jason visits with Anita and Larry, and challenges Anita for dominance. Anita wins, of course, and figures out that Jean-Claude has ordered Jason to show his lycanthrope side in an effort to dissuade Anita from marrying Richard. Jason acknowledges Anita as dominant and goes to bed.
Later that morning, Dorcas Bouvier bursts into Anita's hotel suite and demands to see Magnus. After Dorcas bursts into the bedroom and sees Jean-Claude and Jason, she accepts that Anita has not fallen victim to Magnus's charms and explains why the Bouviers refuse to sell their land. Centuries ago their ancestor, a member of the fey, emigrated to colonial North America with a more powerful fey, Rawhead and Bloody Bones trapped in a magic box. While Rawhead was trapped, Bouvier was able to create a potion from its blood and increase his own powers, but eventually, Rawhead escaped and went on a murderous rampage. After a pitched battle, Rawhead was sealed beneath the ground, and the Bouvier family has remained in Branson in order to prevent Rawhead from escaping. Anita convinces Dorcas to take her to see the mound where Rawhead is trapped, and they agree to go to the mound the following day.
That evening, Jean-Claude prepares the group to meet Seraphina, the master of Branson. He explains that his visit raises issues of vampire politics. Although vampires' interactions with one another are somewhat constrained by the laws of the Vampire Council, conflicts are still possible, and he has negotiated a delicate truce with Seraphina. Although the group must be prepared to fight, they may not strike the first blow. Jean-Claude and Anita, accompanied by Larry and Jason, visit an apparently ruined and abandoned home, cloaked in magical shadow, and meet Ivy, Bruce, Kissa, Janos, Pallas and Bettina.
The Branson vampires engage in a calculated plan to force Jean-Claude's party to break the truce. Without offering violence to his group, they threaten to torture two young women, then sexually harass Jason. Jean-Claude is forced to challenge Janos to a contest of power, which he begins to lose. Ultimately, Anita escapes the trap by baiting Ivy into attacking her, allowing the group to use violence in their own defense. In the ensuing battle, Larry kills Bruce, and Pallas and Bettina are first shot, then torn apart. (However, because they are rotting vampires, they are almost impossible to kill.) Anita is forced to give blood to save Jean-Claude's life.
Once Jean-Claude is stabilized, Magnus appears and offers to convey the group to see Seraphina under a flag of truce. Seraphina toys with the group, but ultimately agrees that a murderous pedophile master vampire in her territory is a threat, and agrees to track down Xavier. Jean-Claude is astounded that Seraphina has somehow become powerful enough to assert mastery over vampires as formidable as Janos.
The group returns to the hotel to clean up. Anita learns more about Jean-Claude's history and momentarily surrenders to her lust and kisses Jean-Claude, but stops when he draws blood (though he claims it was by accident). She stays with Jean-Claude as dawn comes and he "dies" for the day and is surprised at her growing sympathy towards him. Anita then falls asleep herself and is visited in her dream by Seraphina, who promises to reunite Anita with her deceased mother if Anita agrees to serve Seraphina. Anita wakes, and begins planning to kill Seraphina.
Anita and Larry meet up with Dorcas Bouvier, who takes them to the mound where Bloody Bones is imprisoned. When they arrive, they surprise Magnus in the act of drinking Bloody Bones's blood, and Dorcas realizes that Magnus has been using Bloody Bones to boost his power for years. Anita proposes that instead of raising the entire Bouvier graveyard, she raise just enough zombies to confirm the Bouviers' claim to the land and prevent Stirling from digging up the graveyard and freeing Bloody Bones.
That evening, accompanied by Stirling, Bayard, and Harrison, Anita and Larry combine their powers to animate a few of the ancient corpses in the Bouvier graveyard. Just before Anita completes the circle of blood needed to activate their power, she feels Bloody Bones stir and realizes that raising even a few zombies will free the monster. She stops, but Ivy flies from the darkness and attacks. Anita kills Ivy in self-defense, but Ivy's blood falls on the remaining span of the circle, closing the loop and activating her power. Similar to Anita's inadvertent human sacrifices in The Laughing Corpse, Ivy's death supercharges Anita's power, forcing her to animate every corpse in the graveyard.
At that point, Stirling and Harrison draw guns, and Stirling shoots Bayard. Apparently, Seraphina and Bloody Bones promised Stirling the land in return for Bloody Bones's freedom, and Stirling had planned on killing Anita once she raised the Bouviers and freed the fey. Anita orders the zombies to attack Stirling and Harrison and incapacitates them both. While she considers whether to kill them, Janos arrives with a newly risen Ellie, accompanied by Bettina, Pallas, Kissa, Xavier and their hostage, Jeff Quinlan. The vampires feed on and kill Stirling and Harrison, and inform Anita that Xavier has been serving Seraphina since her arrival in Branson.
Seraphina's vampires fly away, and Anita goes to confront them and attempt rescue Jeff, with the help of Jean-Claude, Larry, and Jason. Bloody Bones arrives and demands its freedom, but Seraphina breaks her word to the fey and announces her intent to continue drinking its power forever. With her oath broken, Larry and Anita are able to break her spell over Bloody Bones, and it draws a sword and impales Seraphina. Bloody Bones admits to Anita that it has been able to manifest its form as a result of Magnus's interference, and that it killed the teenagers for being bad children. Realizing that Bloody Bones is mortal as long as it continues to share power with Magnus, Anita shoots the boggle, slowing it down long enough for Xavier to kill it with a greatsword forged of cold iron. Anita infers that Xavier is a fey raised as a vampire, although Xavier denies it. Seraphina regains control, and decides that Anita's blood might make an acceptable second choice for Bloody Bones's. In return for Anita surrendering herself, Seraphina agrees to let the others go.
The next morning, Anita wakes up next to Seraphina in her coffin. She forces her way out and learns that the coffins of Seraphina's vampires have been moved to the Bloody Bones bar and grill. (Ellie does not have a coffin and is sleeping on the floor.) Anita tries to escape, but Magnus stops her. In the course of the fight, Anita drips some of her blood on Ellie and realizes that she can raise Ellie as if she were a zombie. She does so and orders Ellie to hold Magnus while she makes her escape. With Ellie clinging to his waist, Magnus chases Anita outside and is burned to death when Ellie burns in the sunlight.
Anita contacts Agent Bradford and tells him where the vampires are resting. With Anita, Larry and the local authorities, Bradford douses the Bloody Bones restaurant with gasoline and prepares to set it on fire. Anita feels Seraphina in her mind and forces the agents to handcuff her and lock her in a car so that Seraphina cannot use her control over Anita to interfere. As the fire consumes all of the vampires inside, including the now-dead Jeff Quinlan, Seraphina forces Anita to relive the death of her own mother, renewing her earlier trauma.
In the epilogue, Anita explains that Dorcas, now free of the family curse, sold the Bouvier land and left Branson with her children, that the Quinlans are suing Animators, Inc. because of Anita's refusal to stake Ellie when asked, and that Anita herself is continuing her life in St. Louis, notwithstanding the fresh emotional wounds.
Characters
Major characters
Bloody Bones features the following major characters.
Anita Blake: In Bloody Bones, Anita further develops her role as Larry's mentor, and is forced to ask Jean-Claude for substantial help for the first time. She also relives the trauma of her mother's death. According to Hamilton's notes in the afterword, writing the novel was also traumatic for Hamilton herself, because it required Hamilton to reexperience her own mother's death, the event that served as a model for Anita's childhood experience).
Jean-Claude: Jean-Claude's admission that the Vampire Council has divided his territory, together with his conflict with Serephina and Janos, further underscores the difficulty he is having as the newly installed Master of the City, a conflict that appear in several of the early novels. In addition, the appearance of vampires from Jean-Claude's past allows Anita to learn more about the circumstances that have made him into the vampire she knows.
Richard Zeeman: Richard appears only in the beginning of the novel, when Anita visits to tell him that she's going out of town, and is mentioned in the epilogue.
Other characters
Recurring characters in Bloody Bones include:
Anita's co-workers Bert Vaughn and Larry Kirkland;
police officer Dolph Storr; and
Jean-Claude's pomme de sang Jason Schuyler.
Non-recurring characters in Bloody Bones include:
Raymond Stirling;
Lionel Bayard;
Ms Harrison;
Mr and Mrs Quinlan, and their children Ellie and Jeff;
Dorcas Bouvier;
Sergeant Freemont;
Beau;
Lisa and her unnamed friend, two college girls who agree to visit Seraphina's lair;
David St. John
Officer Wallace, a police officer that accompanies Anita on her vampire hunt;
Federal agents Elwood and Bradford (Although Bradford does appear in Obsidian Butterfly and at least one other subsequent novel.)
The death toll in Bloody Bones includes:
Three unnamed murdered teenaged boys, killed by Bloody Bones;
A teenaged boyfriend and girlfriend, killed before the novel begins by Bloody Bones;
Andy, presumably killed by Anita in an early firefight;
Deputy Zack Coltrain nearly decapitated by a vampire in an early firefight;
Officer Granger, killed by Anita to prevent him from shooting Larry.
Beth St. John, killed by an unnamed brown haired female vampire.
The brown haired female vampire herself, killed by Beth's husband, David St. John;
Bruce, shot by Larry at Seraphina's house
Lionel Bayard, shot by Stirling
Ivy, killed by Anita in self-defense;
Ms Harrison, was severely injured after Anita ordered a zombie to attack her, later drained by Ellie and Xavier
Raymond Stirling, drained by Pallas and Bettina
Rawhead and Bloody Bones, killed by Anita and Xavier;
Ellie, turned into a vampire by Andy and killed when Magnus dragged her into sunlight;
Magnus Bouvier, burned to death when Anita forced Ellie to hold onto his waist as he ran out into sunlight;
Seraphina, Xavier, Janos, Pallas, Bettina, (presumably) Kissa, and Jeff Quinlan, burned when authorities set fire to the Bloody Bones.
1996 American novels
Anita Blake: Vampire Hunter novels
Low fantasy novels
Urban fantasy novels
Novels set in St. Louis
Ace Books books
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P.%20J.%20Tucker
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P. J. Tucker
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Anthony Leon "P. J." Tucker Jr. (born May 5, 1985) is an American professional basketball player for the Los Angeles Clippers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Texas Longhorns. He was the 2008 Israeli Basketball Premier League MVP, and Israeli Basketball Premier League Finals MVP. He won an NBA championship with the Milwaukee Bucks in 2021, and also won championships overseas in the Israeli Super League in 2008 with the Hapoel Holon, the German League and the German Cup in 2012 with Brose Bamberg.
High school and college
Tucker attended William G. Enloe High School in Raleigh, North Carolina, where he was named North Carolina Player of the Year in 2003 and his jersey number was later retired. In three seasons at the University of Texas at Austin, he scored 1,169 points, including a career-high 594 in the 2005–06 season. He also had 714 rebounds, 170 assists (including 107 in 2005–06), and 116 steals throughout his career with the Longhorns. After being unable to play most of his sophomore season due to poor academics, Tucker was named a second-team All-American and the Big 12 Player of the Year in his junior year.
Professional career
Toronto Raptors (2006–2007)
Tucker was selected by the Toronto Raptors with the 35th pick in the 2006 NBA draft and signed a two-year deal with them on July 26, 2006.
On January 5, 2007, the Raptors announced that Tucker had been sent to the Colorado 14ers of the NBA Development League. Colorado, led by head coach Joe Wolf, had been designated as Toronto's D-League affiliate for the 2006–07 season. On February 6, 2007, the Raptors recalled Tucker to the NBA. On March 6, 2007, Tucker was sent back to the 14ers.
On March 24, 2007, Tucker was waived by the Raptors in order to free a roster spot for Luke Jackson. He played a total of 83 minutes during his rookie season with the Raptors.
In the offseason, Tucker joined 2007 Summer League roster for the Cleveland Cavaliers.
Hapoel Holon (2007–2008)
In the 2007–08 season with Hapoel Holon from Israeli Premier League, Tucker won the MVP trophy and led his team to the league title. Holon broke Maccabi Tel Aviv's 14-year streak as Israeli champions. He was the 2008 Israeli Basketball Premier League Finals MVP.
Donetsk (2008–2010)
For the 2008–09 season, Tucker signed with a BC Donetsk team that was just promoted to the Ukrainian Basketball SuperLeague. He led the team to a current third place in the league at its first appearance there, as well as become a Ukrainian SuperLeague All-Star. A season ending knee injury didn't prevent Tucker from finishing the season with the highest average of points per game in the league. On October 7, 2009, Tucker renewed his contract with Donetsk for the 2009–10 season.
Bnei HaSharon (2010)
After Donetsk bankrupted, Tucker returned to Israel in March 2010 and signed for Bnei HaSharon until the end of the season.
Aris (2010–2011)
In August 2010, Tucker signed with Aris BC for the 2010–11 season, but he was released in March 2011.
Montegranaro (2011)
In April 2011, Tucker signed with Sutor Basket Montegranaro in Italy.
Brose Bamberg (2011–2012)
In July 2011, Tucker signed a one-year deal with Brose Baskets Bamberg of Germany. He went on to help Brose Baskets win the 2012 championship; he also won the Finals MVP award.
Phoenix Suns (2012–2017)
During the summer of 2012, Tucker signed a contract to play for Spartak St. Petersburg of Russia, but he soon opted out of it to play for the Phoenix Suns' NBA Summer League team, and on August 1, 2012, he signed a two-year deal with the Suns, with a team option in his second year. In his first game back in the NBA, Tucker recorded 10 points, 2 rebounds, 1 steal and 1 block in an 87–85 loss to the Golden State Warriors. On November 23, 2012, he scored a then-career-high 15 points in a 111–108 overtime win over the New Orleans Hornets. Tucker made his first start for the Suns on December 31 against the Oklahoma City Thunder, as he started the majority of the Suns' games for the rest of the 2012–13 NBA season.
On February 8, 2014, Tucker recorded 16 points, a career-high 15 rebounds and 4 steals in a 122–109 win over the Warriors, becoming the first Suns player to have 15 points, 15 rebounds and 4 steals in a game since Shawn Marion in 2007. On February 25, he tied his career high with a 15-rebound effort against the Minnesota Timberwolves. On April 6, Tucker scored a career-high 22 points in a 122–115 win over the Thunder.
On June 27, 2014, the Suns extended Tucker a qualifying offer, making him a restricted free agent. On July 23, he re-signed with the Suns to a three-year, $16.5 million contract. In August 2014, he was suspended for the first three games of the 2014–15 season without pay for pleading guilty to driving while under the extreme influence in May 2014. He returned from suspension on November 4, 2014, to face the Los Angeles Lakers.
On December 31, 2015, Tucker tied his then-career high of 22 points in a loss to the Thunder. On January 26, 2016, he recorded a career-high eight assists in a loss to the Philadelphia 76ers. On March 14, he scored a career-high 23 points in a 107–104 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. He topped that mark on April 7, scoring 24 points in a 124–115 win over the Houston Rockets. He played in all 82 games for the Suns in 2015–16, the only player to do so.
On September 15, 2016, Tucker underwent a successful low back microdiscectomy procedure and was subsequently ruled out for six to eight weeks. He returned in time for the start of the regular season, but was assigned a bench role for the first time since the 2012–13 season. He returned to the starting lineup in late November following an injury to T. J. Warren. On November 27, 2016, he scored a season-high 21 points against the Denver Nuggets. Tucker reassumed his bench role in late December following Warren's return from injury; he continued coming off the bench for the Suns throughout the season until the All-Star break.
Return to Toronto (2017)
On February 23, 2017, Tucker was traded back to the Toronto Raptors in exchange for Jared Sullinger, second-round draft picks in 2017 and 2018 and cash considerations. The next day, in his first game as a Raptor since 2007, Tucker had a game-high 10 rebounds and nine points in a 107–97 win over the Boston Celtics. On April 15, 2017, after playing 418 games over seven seasons, Tucker made his playoff debut in the Raptors' 97–83 loss to the Milwaukee Bucks in Game 1 of their first-round playoff series. The Raptors went on to defeat the Bucks in six games to move on to the second round, where they faced the Cleveland Cavaliers. There they were swept 4–0 by the Cavaliers. In Game 4 of the series, a 109–102 loss, Tucker had 14 points and 12 rebounds in his first career playoff start.
Houston Rockets (2017–2021)
On July 6, 2017, Tucker signed a four-year, $32 million contract with the Houston Rockets. In his debut for the Rockets in their season opener on October 17, 2017, Tucker scored 20 points in a 122–121 win over the Golden State Warriors. He hit two free throws with 44.1 seconds left to make it 122–121. On March 30, 2018, he scored 18 points and made a career-high five 3-pointers in a 104–103 win over the Suns. In Game 5 of the Rockets' first-round playoff series against the Minnesota Timberwolves, Tucker scored a playoff career-high 15 points in a 122–104 series-clinching win. In Game 5 of the Rockets' second-round series against the Utah Jazz, Tucker set a then-new playoff career high with 19 points in a 112–102 series-clinching win. In Game 2 of the Western Conference Finals against the Golden State Warriors, Tucker set a new playoff career high with 22 points in a 127–105 win, helping the Rockets tie the series at 1–1. The Rockets went on to lose to the Warriors in seven games.
On January 7, 2019, Tucker set a career high with seven 3-pointers and scored a season-high 21 points in a 125–113 win over the Denver Nuggets.
On March 11, 2021, as the trade deadline approached, Tucker had mutually agreed with coach Stephen Silas to no longer play until both parties can find an amicable solution. This comes after James Harden left the Rockets earlier in the season. Prior to his exit, he posted career lows in points per game (4.4), field goal percentage (36.6%) and 3-point percentage (31.4%) in the 2020/21 season.
Milwaukee Bucks (2021)
On March 19, 2021, Tucker was traded to the Milwaukee Bucks with Rodions Kurucs in exchange for D. J. Augustin and D. J. Wilson; the teams also exchanged draft picks. Specifically, Houston pushed back the 2022 first-round pick Milwaukee owed them to the unprotected 2023 draft. Furthermore, the Rockets got the right to swap their 2021 second-round pick for the Bucks' 2021 first-round pick, according to ESPN's Adrian Wojnarowski. Tucker made his debut in a 120–113 win against San Antonio Spurs with zero points, three rebounds, and one block in 13 minutes on March 20, 2021.
On June 10, 2021, Tucker played a key role in the Bucks 86–83 win over the Brooklyn Nets, in which Tucker played the main part in holding Kevin Durant to an uncharacteristically low 11 of 28 field goal attempts made (37.5%). In game 4, Tucker scored 13 points and added 7 rebounds in a 107–96 victory. The Bucks would go on to win the series in 7 games.
In Game 6 of the Eastern Conference Finals against the Atlanta Hawks, Tucker had only 5 points (but including a 3-point shot late in the fourth quarter to help seal the win) and 8 rebounds in a 118–107 victory. The win meant Tucker and the Bucks would advance to their first NBA Finals since 1974 and his first trip to the finals, respectively.
On July 20, 2021, Tucker and the Bucks defeated the Phoenix Suns in game 6 of the 2021 NBA Finals. This marks his first NBA Championship and the first championship since 1971 for the Milwaukee Bucks. In the series, Tucker averaged 31.3 minutes, 4.0 points, 3.8 rebounds, 1.2 assists, 1.0 steals, while primarily switching between guarding Devin Booker and Jae Crowder.
Despite only playing 43 games over one calendar year during his Bucks tenure, 23 of which were in the postseason, Tucker was a fan-favorite in Milwaukee.
Miami Heat (2021–2022)
On August 7, 2021, Tucker signed with the Miami Heat. On December 13, in a loss against the Cavaliers, Tucker tied his career-high 23 points, grabbed 9 rebounds, and recorded 5 assists.
Philadelphia 76ers (2022–2023)
On July 6, 2022, Tucker signed a 3-year, $33.2 million contract with the Philadelphia 76ers. On February 25, 2023, Tucker recorded a season-high 16 rebounds and scored seven points during a 110–107 loss to the Boston Celtics.
Los Angeles Clippers (2023–present)
On November 1, 2023, the Los Angeles Clippers acquired Tucker, James Harden, and Filip Petrušev from the 76ers in exchange for Marcus Morris, Nicolas Batum, Kenyon Martin Jr. and Robert Covington. As part of the trade, the Clippers dealt a first-round pick, two second-round picks, a pick swap, and cash considerations to the 76ers, while sending a pick swap and cash considerations to the Oklahoma City Thunder.
NBA career statistics
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Toronto
| 17 || 0 || 4.9 || .500 || .000 || .571 || 1.4 || .2 || .1 || .0 || 1.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Phoenix
| 79 || 45 || 24.2 || .473 || .314 || .744 || 4.4 || 1.4 || .8 || .2 || 6.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Phoenix
| 81 || 81 || 30.7 || .431 || .387 || .776 || 6.5 || 1.7 || 1.4 || .3 || 9.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Phoenix
| 78 || 63 || 30.6 || .438 || .345 || .727 || 6.4 || 1.6 || 1.4 || .3 || 9.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Phoenix
| style="background:#cfecec;"| 82* || 80 || 31.0 || .411 || .330 || .746 || 6.2 || 2.2 || 1.3 || .2 || 8.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Phoenix
| 57 || 17 || 28.5 || .415 || .338 || .792 || 6.0 || 1.3 || 1.5 || .2 || 7.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Toronto
| 24 || 4 || 25.4 || .406 || .400 || .688 || 5.4 || 1.1 || 1.3 || .2 || 5.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| style="background:#cfecec;"| 82* || 34 || 27.8 || .390 || .371 || .717 || 5.6 || .9 || 1.0 || .3 || 6.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| style="background:#cfecec;"| 82* || style="background:#cfecec;"| 82* || 34.2 || .396 || .377 || .695 || 5.8 || 1.2 || 1.6 || .5 || 7.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 72 || 72 || 34.3 || .415 || .358 || .813 || 6.6 || 1.6 || 1.1 || .5 || 6.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 32 || 32 || 30.0 || .366 || .314 || .783 || 4.6 || 1.4 || .9 || .6 || 4.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|†
| style="text-align:left;"| Milwaukee
| 20 || 1 || 19.9 || .391 || .394 || .600 || 2.8 || .8 || .5 || .1 || 2.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Miami
| 71 || 70 || 27.9 || .484 || .415 || .738 || 5.5 || 2.1 || .8 || .2 || 7.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Philadelphia
| 75 || 75 || 25.6 || .427 || .393 || .826 || 3.9 || .8 || .5 || .2 || 3.5
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 852 || 656 || 28.7 || .425 || .366 || .749 || 5.5 || 1.4 || 1.1 || .3 || 6.8
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2017
| style="text-align:left;"| Toronto
| 10 || 1 || 25.1 || .367 || .321 || .625 || 5.7 || 1.1 || .6 || .3 || 5.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2018
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 17 || 17 || 33.5 || .481 || .467 || .667 || 6.5 || 1.3 || .6 || .8 || 8.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2019
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 11 || 11 || 38.7 || .455 || .456 || .826 || 7.5 || 1.7 || 1.7 || .7 || 11.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2020
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 12 || 12 || 34.5 || .398 || .373 || .000 || 7.2 || 1.5 || 1.1 || .3 || 7.9
|-
| style="text-align:left; background:#afe6ba;"|2021†
| style="text-align:left;"|Milwaukee
| style="background:#cfecec;"| 23* || 19 || 29.6 || .388 || .322 || .750 || 5.8 || 1.1 || 1.0 || .1 || 4.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2022
| style="text-align:left;"| Miami
| 18 || 18 || 28.3 || .495 || .451 || .688 || 5.7 || 1.8 || .8 || .3 || 7.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2023
| style="text-align:left;"| Philadelphia
| 11 || 11 || 26.7 || .373 || .350 || .667 || 4.5 || 1.5 || 1.2 || .3 || 4.9
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 102 || 89 || 30.8 || .433 || .401 || .722 || 5.9 || 1.4 || 1.0 || .4 || 7.0
Personal life
Tucker's full name is Anthony Leon Tucker Jr., but his father called him "Pop Junior", giving him the nickname P. J. He spent part of his childhood living in Germany while his father served in the Army.
Tucker married long-term girlfriend Tracey Tucker. They have three children.
Footwear and fashion
Tucker is a self-proclaimed "sneakerhead" and owns thousands of pairs of sneakers, stored in several locations across the country. On August 22, 2016, SLAM named Tucker the solidified number 1 sneakerhead in the NBA, due to not only his number of shoes, but also their quality. Some of his shoes include rare "player edition" pairs of sneakers made for former NBA players such as Shawn Marion, Michael Finley, Josh Howard and Eddie Jones, as well as some rare Terror Squad pairs designed by the rapper Fat Joe.
In 2020, Tucker signed a short-term content deal with eBay to help them boost their sales. The 'Sneaker Loft' showcased between 700 and 1,000 of Tucker's most premium pairs. The collection included a pair of Nike SB Dunk Ben & Jerry's "Chunky Dunky" that he purchased on eBay for $2,000. Tucker's relationship with eBay traces back to his University of Texas days when he was introduced to the platform by former Longhorns teammate, Royal Ivey.
In a June 2021 interview with GQ, Tucker said on his love of fashion: "What regular people call stuntin' is everyday life for me. Like, I get dressed up everyday. Everyday I leave the house, even if I just put on some sweats, it ain't just some sweats. I'm puttin' on something. I take my time to get dressed. I care about my appearance. If I look good, I play good. It all coincides, it all goes together, it's a chain reaction."
References
External links
Eurocupbasketball.com profile
NBA Draft prospect profile
1985 births
Living people
African-American basketball players
All-American college men's basketball players
American expatriate basketball people in Canada
American expatriate basketball people in Germany
American expatriate basketball people in Greece
American expatriate basketball people in Israel
American expatriate basketball people in Italy
American expatriate basketball people in Ukraine
American men's basketball players
Aris B.C. players
Basketball players from Raleigh, North Carolina
BC Donetsk players
Bnei HaSharon players
Brose Bamberg players
Colorado 14ers players
Hapoel Holon players
Houston Rockets players
Miami Heat players
Milwaukee Bucks players
Philadelphia 76ers players
Phoenix Suns players
Piratas de Quebradillas players
Shooting guards
Small forwards
Sutor Basket Montegranaro players
Texas Longhorns men's basketball players
Toronto Raptors draft picks
Toronto Raptors players
William G. Enloe High School alumni
|
4750487
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acie%20Law
|
Acie Law
|
Acie Law IV (born January 25, 1985) is an American former professional basketball player. In his four seasons at Texas A&M University, Law scored 1,653 points and was credited with 540 assists. Nicknamed "Captain Clutch" for his ability to take over the game late, Law is well known among Texas A&M Aggie basketball fans for "The Shot," his buzzer-beating 3-pointer to beat the arch-rival Texas Longhorns at Reed Arena on March 1, 2006, as well as for his play in the Aggies' 69–66 upset win against Kansas on February 3, 2007. Due to his contributions to Texas A&M, the Texas A&M athletic department hung Law's No. 1 jersey on the rafters in Reed Arena. He became the first Aggie in any sport to have the honor.
After his time at Texas A&M, Law was selected by the Atlanta Hawks in the first round of the 2007 NBA draft. He spent time with several National Basketball Association (NBA) teams between 2007 and 2010. Following his NBA period, he had a very successful career in Europe between 2011 and 2014, winning the EuroLeague twice in 2012 and 2013 with Olympiacos.
Early years
Acie Law IV was born in Dallas to Acie and Dolores Law. He was named for his great-grandfather (Acie Law, Sr.), whom he never met; his grandfather (Acie Law, Jr.), who died in 1997 after suffering a heart attack from the excitement of watching a boxing match with young Acie IV; and his father, Acie III, who played point guard at Xavier University. Law has an older brother and two younger sisters. Law is the great-nephew of Chicago Cubs great Ernie Banks. Law has a tattoo on his right arm that reads "Lord's Favorite Lawman," and one on his left arm that is from Psalms 91 and 93.
Law was recruited by the University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma State University, University of Connecticut, University of Texas at Austin and Georgia Tech. In order to stay close to home, and because he wanted to have an immediate impact, Law chose to play for Texas A&M under Coach Melvin Watkins.
High school and college career
Kimball High School
As a junior at Kimball High School in Dallas, Law led his team to a 29–7 record and the state Class 5A championship game, averaging 17.8 points per game and 6.0 assists. Law's team lost the state championship game when the other team's point guard, Chris Ross of San Antonio John Jay High School, made a shot from half-court at the buzzer as time expired. Law's performance was enough to earn him all-state honors, as well as district Most Valuable Player. Law also had the distinction of being the only junior to be named to The Dallas Morning News All-Area Team.
Despite a broken wrist that caused Law to miss the first part of his senior season, his performance in the sixteen remaining games in the school's season earned him first-team Class 5A all-state honors. In those sixteen games, Law averaged 16.6 points per game (19.5 ppg in district play) and 6.5 assists per game. In the Texas State High School All-Star Game Law scored 35 points, leading his team to victory.
Texas A&M University
First year
Although the Aggies were an undeveloped team during Law's first year and failed to win a single conference game, Law's performance stacked up well against his fellow conference players. As a freshman, Law started 12 of the team's 27 games, including 10 of the last 11. With an assist-to-turnover ratio of 2.00, Law ranked fourth in the Big 12 Conference, and was the leading freshman in the conference. His average 3.9 assists per game ranked eighth in the conference.
Law averaged 7.5 points and 2.1 rebounds per game, and by the final ten games of the season Law was averaging double-digit points. In his two best games of the year, Law scored a then-career-high 19 points against Tennessee and put up 18 points against Grambling.
Second year
Following the 2003–2004 season, Coach Melvin Watkins was replaced by UTEP coach Billy Gillispie, who came to the school insisting that the Aggies could win in basketball. Gillispie's intense coaching style was very different from that of Watkins, and after an initial two-week boot camp Law seriously considered transferring to a different school. After seeing a video of UTEP's NCAA trip the year before Law decided that he wanted to experience that feeling too, and committed to staying at A&M.
Law's commitment paid off, as under Gillispie the team improved from 7–21 to 21–10, winning half of their conference games and earning an invitation to the NIT. Law started in 30 games, earning a spot on the Big 12's All-Improved Team as well as honorable-mention All-Big 12 honors. He completed 49.3% of his shots from the field, 38.4% of three's (28 of 73) and converted 71.6% of his free-throw shots. With a team best 153 assists, Law ranked third in the Big 12.
Law scored in double figures in 20 games, including four games where he earned over twenty points. With the help of his 24 points and six assists, the team beat then Number 9 Texas. In his best game of the season, against Houston, Law earned nine assists and scored 25 points, making all twelve of his free throw shots. Against Missouri, Law scored 11 points and a then-career-high 14 assists, one shy of the school record. Law also cemented the team's victory against Penn State, making the winning free throws with 11 seconds left in a 62–60 win.
Junior year
As a junior, Law became one of only four players in A&M history to reach 1000 career points with 300 assists and 100 steals. He led the team in scoring, averaging 16.1 overall and 17.3 points in Big 12 play, with 3.4 rebounds and 4.0 assists. In games that Law had at least 5 assists, the team was 10–2.
Law also set an A&M record in Big 12 play, scoring 35 points and earning seven steals in a game against Oklahoma State. After making the game-winning three-pointer at the buzzer to beat the Texas Longhorns 46–43, Law was named Big 12 Player of the Week. With his ranking among the top 10 players in the Big 12 in scoring, assists, steals, and field goal percentage, several newspapers named Law to their first-team All-Big 12 teams.
With Law's help, the Aggies earned a spot in the NCAA Tournament for the first time since 1987. In their first round match-up against Syracuse, the Aggies won, with Law contributing 23 points. The Aggies appeared poised to reach the Sweet 16 when, with 18 seconds left in their second-round game against LSU, Law hit a jumper, giving the Aggies a 57–55 lead. The dream was dashed fifteen seconds later, however, when Darrel Mitchell made a three-point shot to win the game for LSU.
Senior year
Shortly after beginning play in the 2006–2007 season, the Aggies reached Number 6 in the rankings, the highest rank the school had ever achieved. The team had their best start since opening 16–2 in the 1959–1960 season, as well as their best conference opening since the inception of the Big 12.
On February 1, 2007, Law was named one of the seventeen finalists for the Bob Cousy Award, presented annually to the nation's top collegiate point guard. He went on to win the award.
In a historic moment on February 3, 2007, Law's Aggies became the first Big 12 South team (in 32 attempts) to ever beat the then-Number 6 Kansas Jayhawks at Allen Fieldhouse. Kansas led for much of the game, but Law scored 10 of A&M's final 13 points to ensure the victory for the Aggies, and Big 12 Player of the Week honors for himself. Two days later the team beat then-Number 25 Texas, their twenty-first straight home win, making them the sole leader of the Big 12. Although forced to leave the game for three minutes after hitting the floor hard and injuring his leg, Law earned 21 points and a school-record 15 assists in the 100–82 victory over their archrivals. Following the team's win over Texas, Law was named the Sports Illustrated Player of the Week.
Law again proved his ability to make plays that matter in the Aggies' second game against Texas on February 28, 2007. Playing all 50 minutes during the Aggies' double-overtime 98–96 loss, Law scored a season-high 33 points, with 5 assists and five turnovers. His three pointer at the end of regulation tied the game, sending the teams into overtime. Another three-pointer with 26 seconds left in the first overtime again tied the game, leading to a second overtime. Fouled at the end of the second overtime so that he would not be able to rescue the Aggies with another last-second three-pointer, Law deliberately missed his second free throw in the hopes that the Aggies could recover the ball and score again. Law's outstanding season earned him the honors of being on the AP 1st Team All American squad. He also made Dick Vitale's 1st Team All American squad as players such as Arron Afflalo of UCLA, Alando Tucker of Wisconsin, and Nick Fazekas of Nevada did.
Although the Aggies were the number two seed for the Big 12 Conference Tournament, they played poorly in their first game in the quarterfinals of the tournament and were eliminated in a loss to Oklahoma State. Law had only ten points on five-for-twelve shooting.
On Selection Sunday, however, the Aggies were rewarded for their regular-season play with a Number 3 seed in the South region of the 2007 NCAA Tournament. In their first-round game against Penn, Law had a game-high 20 points despite completing only six of fifteen shots. The Aggies won 68–52 to advance to the second round of the tournament.
Exhibiting his trademark poise in front of an unfriendly crowd during a tough second-round game against Louisville, Law again provided a number of big shots. Hitting 13 of his 15 free-throw attempts, he ended the game with 26 points, including the final two points of the game. The Aggie's 72–69 victory earned them a berth in the Sweet 16 for the first time since 1980. In a show of good sportsmanship, Law spent time after the game consoling disappointed Louisville freshman Edgar Sosa, complimenting him on his performance. On March 22, however, Law and his teammates faced the #2 seed Memphis Tigers. The score was close throughout and Law had a chance to put A&M up by three on a break away lay up that he missed with just a few seconds to play. The Aggies lost in a narrow contest 65–64, ending his collegiate career.
Acie Law was the first Texas Aggie to be unanimously selected to the All-Big 12 first team, and was named to both the ESPN.com and Sports Illustrated five-man first-team All-American teams. He was also named Big 12 Player of the Year by the Dallas Morning News.
Professional career
Atlanta Hawks (2007–2009)
On June 28, 2007, Law was taken 11th overall in the 2007 NBA draft by the Atlanta Hawks. He was the first college senior selected in that draft. He got his first NBA start on November 6, 2007, when the Hawks played the New Jersey Nets Although his college jersey read "Law IV" on the back, his NBA jersey just reads "Law," though he wears the number 4.
In his rookie season, Law averaged 4.2 points and 2.0 assists, and made 20.6% of his three-point attempts as well as 40% of his field goal shots. He missed ten games due to a right ankle sprain.
In the 2008 summer preseason, Law made the All-Revue summer league first team, along with four other players. He averaged 16.2 points, 3.6 assists, and 2.2 rebounds, leading the Hawks to a 4–2 record. He ranked sixth in scoring and sixth in assists overall.
Golden State Warriors (2009)
On June 25, 2009, Law was traded to the Golden State Warriors along with Speedy Claxton for Jamal Crawford.
Charlotte Bobcats (2009–2010)
On November 16, 2009, Law was traded to the Charlotte Bobcats along with Stephen Jackson in exchange for Raja Bell and Vladimir Radmanović.
Chicago Bulls (2010)
On February 18, 2010, Law was traded to the Chicago Bulls along with Ronald Murray in exchange for Tyrus Thomas.
Memphis Grizzlies (2010)
On August 5, 2010, Law signed a one-year contract with the Memphis Grizzlies. He was released by the Grizzlies on December 4, 2010, after appearing in 11 regular season games for Memphis.
Return To The Golden State Warriors (2010–2011)
On December 9, 2010, Law signed with the Golden State Warriors.
Europe
In July 2011, Law signed a one-year contract with the Serbian team Partizan Belgrade of the ABA League.
In January 2012, Law joined Olympiacos Piraeus of the Greek Basket League until the end of the season. In the summer of 2012, he re-signed with Olympiacos. With Olympiacos, he won the EuroLeague 2012 and 2013 championships, as well as the 2011–12 Greek League championship. Law was then unable to finish the 2013–14 season, due to a knee injury. He played his last game in his professional career on December 29, 2013, in a Greek League game against KAOD. In June 2014, he parted ways with Olympiacos.
Post playing career
After he retired from playing professional basketball, Law reunited with Gillispie and became a volunteer assistant coach in 2015 at Ranger College, a junior college nearly two hours away from Dallas. He then started working as a college basketball analyst for Texas A&M fan site TexAgs.
Shooting style
While in junior high, Law broke his right hand during basketball practice. In order to continue to compete, the naturally right-handed Law taught himself to shoot the basketball with his left hand. After recovering from his injury, Law was able to shoot with either hand, but as of 2007 still primarily relied on his left hand to shoot from a long distance. His left-handed jump shots are unusual, however, because the ball has hardly any spin, instead flying straight into the basket. After much examination, Texas A&M coach Billy Gillispie realized that this is because Law uses his right thumb when he shoots, negating the spin. To help improve his form, Gillispie ordered Law to tape his right thumb against his hand in practice and try shooting without it. Law was unable to make the shots, and Gillispie quickly decided not to intervene further.
Personal life
Law is the great nephew of late Chicago Cubs legend Ernie Banks.
Accolades
Bob Cousy Award Winner: (2007)
Associated Press All-America Team (2nd)
Wooden Award All-America Team (2nd)
Wooden Award Finalist
Chip Hilton Player of the Year Award Winner: (2007)
First-Team All-Big 12
Associated Press First-Team All-Big 12
ESPN.com First-Team All-American
Sports Illustrated First-Team All-American
Dallas Morning News Big 12 Player of the Year
National Association of Basketball Coaches First-Team All-American
United States Basketball Writers Association All-America Team
The Sporting News Men's First Team All-America Team
CollegeInsider.com All-America Team
CollegeInsider.com Defensive All-America Team
CollegeInsider.com Big 12 Most Valuable Player
State Farm Scholar-Athlete: (2007)
2× EuroLeague Champion: (2012, 2013)
Greek League Champion: (2012)
FIBA Intercontinental Cup Champion: (2013)
Career statistics
NBA
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta
| 56 || 6 || 15.4 || .401 || .206 || .792 || 1.0 || 2.0 || .5 || .0 || 4.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta
| 55 || 1 || 10.2 || .374 || .310 || .817 || 1.1 || 1.6 || .2 || .1 || 2.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Golden State
| 5 || 0 || 13.2 || .643 || .333 || .800 || .4 || 1.4 || 1.2 || .0 || 6.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Charlotte
| 9 || 0 || 3.7 || .313 || .000 || .857 || .1 || .3 || .1 || .1 || 1.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Chicago
| 12 || 1 || 11.3 || .467 || .333 || .741 || 1.2 || 1.3 || .3 || .0 || 5.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Memphis
| 11 || 0 || 8.5 || .158 || .000 || .600 || 1.0 || 1.3 || .4 || .0 || 1.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Golden State
| 40 || 0 || 15.8 || .467 || .200 || .759 || 1.3 || 1.8 || .7 || .0 || 5.1
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 188 || 8 || 12.7 || .413 || .235 || .778 || 1.0 || 1.6 || .4 || .0 || 3.9
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2008
| style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta
| 7 || 0 || 8.7 || .750 || .000 || .900 || .3 || 1.1 || .3 || .0 || 3.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2009
| style="text-align:left;"| Atlanta
| 6 || 0 || 4.7 || .333 || .333 || 1,000 || .3 || 1.0 || .0 || .0 || 1.3
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 13 || 0 || 6.8 || .529 || .333 || .909 || .3 || 1.1 || .2 || .0 || 2.2
EuroLeague
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2011–12
| style="text-align:left;"| Partizan
| 9 || 9 || 35.3 || .416 || .286 || .750 || 2.1 || 3.4 || 1.2 || .1 || 12.7 || 9.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;background:#AFE6BA;"| 2011–12†
| style="text-align:left;"| Olympiacos
| 12 || 1 || 16.7 || .397 || .231 || .810 || 1.4 || 2.1 || .8 || .0 || 5.5 || 5.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;background:#AFE6BA;"| 2012–13†
| style="text-align:left;"| Olympiacos
| 30 || 15 || 22.9 || .450 || .413 || .740 || 2.1 || 1.9 || .4 || .1 || 8.1 || 7.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2013–14
| style="text-align:left;"| Olympiacos
| 9 || 4 || 17.8 || .333 || .125 || .600 || 1.1 || 2.3 || .9 || .0 || 3.4 || 3.6
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"| Career
| 60 || 29 || 22.7 || .424 || .330 || .733 || 1.8 || 2.2 || .6 || .1 || 7.6 || 6.8
References
External links
Official Website of Acie Law
Official Facebook Page
Euroleague.net Profile
Eurobasket.com Profile
Greek Basket League Profile
FIBA.com Profile (Game Center)
ESPN.com Profile
1985 births
Living people
ABA League players
All-American college men's basketball players
American expatriate basketball people in Greece
American expatriate basketball people in Serbia
American men's basketball coaches
American men's basketball players
Atlanta Hawks draft picks
Atlanta Hawks players
Basketball coaches from Texas
Basketball players from Dallas
Charlotte Bobcats players
Chicago Bulls players
Golden State Warriors players
KK Partizan players
Memphis Grizzlies players
Olympiacos B.C. players
Point guards
Ranger Rangers men's basketball coaches
Texas A&M Aggies men's basketball players
Justin F. Kimball High School alumni
|
4750533
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANT%20Z.1007%20Alcione
|
CANT Z.1007 Alcione
|
The CANT Z.1007 Alcione (Kingfisher) was an Italian three-engined medium bomber, with wooden structure. Designed by Filippo Zappata, who also designed the CANT Z.506 it had "excellent flying characteristics and good stability" and was regarded by some as "the best Italian bomber of World War II" although its wooden structure was easily damaged by the climate, as experienced in North Africa and in Russia. It was used by the Italian Regia Aeronautica, Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force, Aeronautica Nazionale Repubblicana and Luftwaffe during World War II.
Design and development
Background
In 1935, Filippo Zappata, the chief designer of the Cantieri Aeronautici e Navali Triestini (CANT), designed two medium bombers, the twin-engined CANT Z.1011 and the three-engined CANT Z.1007. Both were to be powered by 619 kW (830 hp) Isotta-Fraschini Asso XI.RC inline engines and were of wooden construction. The Z.1007 design was preferred by both Zappata and the Italian Aviation Ministry, with an order for 18 aircraft being placed on 9 January 1936. A further order for 16 more aircraft followed on 23 February 1937.
The Cant Z.1007 was developed from the CANT Z.506 seaplane, an aircraft that had established many world records in the late 1930s. It was a land-based version and incorporated many improvements, especially on the powerplant.
The first prototype flew in March 1937, proving superior to the Z.1011, with its handling and manoeuvrability being praised. Its performance, however, was lower than predicted, and Zappata therefore started a major redesign of the Z.1007, production of the initial version being limited to the existing orders placed before the prototype flew.
The Z.1007 was a mid-winged monoplane with a retractable tailwheel undercarriage. It had a crew of five, consisting of two pilots, a flight engineer, a radio operator and a bombardier/navigator. It could carry 800 kg (1,760 lb) of bombs, and was fitted with a defensive armament of a 12.7 mm (.5 in) Breda-SAFAT machine gun in an open dorsal position and a 7.7 mm machine gun in a ventral tunnel. After much experimentation with the prototype, the production aircraft were fitted with annular radiators so their profile was similar to radial engines that would be fitted to the improved later versions. Delivery of production Asso powered Z.1007s started in February 1939, with production ending in October that year.
Z.1007bis
Zappata had, meanwhile, continued the development of a considerably changed version, the Z.1007bis, to resolve the problems with the original aircraft. While the new version was of similar layout, it was a new design. Three Piaggio P.XI RC.40 radial engines (a derivative of the French Gnome-Rhône 14K) of 736 kW (986 hp) takeoff power replaced the less powerful and unreliable liquid cooled engines of the original version. The bis was longer with wings of greater span and area, while the aircraft was considerably heavier, weighing 580 kg (1,280 lb) more unladen, with a maximum takeoff weight 888 kg (1,960 lb) greater. It carried heavier offensive and defensive armament.
The prototype bis first flew in July 1939, with testing proving successful. The Z.1007bis was ordered into large scale production, deliveries of pre-production aircraft starting late that year.
Configuration and problems
The Z.1007 had a standard monoplane configuration, with a mid-set wing, single tail, retractable undercarriage and a crew of five or six. It had a wooden structure and a clean shape that was much more aerodynamic than the competing SM.79. The Z.1007 had three engines, with one engine in the nose and two in the wings. The trimotor design was a common feature of Italian aircraft of World War II. The aircraft had a slim fuselage as the two pilots sat in tandem rather than side-by-side as in most bombers of the period. Visibility was good and the aircraft was almost a three-engine fighter. This slimness reduced drag but also somewhat worsened the task of the two pilots. Both pilots' seats were offset to port to allow a passageway for the bombardier to enter his compartment below the pilot's feet (directly behind the central engine), by ducking through an opening under the starboard instrument panel. Both front and rear instrument panels contained flight and navigation instruments, while the engine monitoring gauges were located to starboard where the rear pilot could see them past the front pilot's shoulder. Although the rear pilot's view was limited, he was capable of landing or taking off if needed. However, his primary purpose was to allow the pilot to rest, and to add some "muscle" to the controls when needed, as well as acting as an extra set of eyes to notice problems and to monitor gauges while the other was occupied.
There were five crew members: the pilot, the copilot, a bombardier/navigator/ventral gunner, a dorsal gunner/radio operator, and waist gunner/flight engineer. The radio equipment was located in the center section between the dorsal turret and the waist position. Like most tri-motor Italian aircraft of the period the Z.1007 suffered from poor defensive armament, although it was no worse than many other contemporary designs, many of which had no rotating dorsal turret, no waist guns, or no ventral gun, or various combinations of such. Other issues were poor engine reliability and a weak power-to-weight ratio due to low powered engines (the three 1,000 hp engines of the Z.1007bis were equivalent to twin engines of 1,500 hp each, but this was slightly offset by the added weight of the third engine). The Z.1007 also suffered longitudinal stability problems that were partly rectified later by the adoption of a twin tail arrangement. The Z.1007's wooden structure suffered cracks, separations and surface delamination due to the difficult climatic conditions in North Africa and Russia, but allowed the plane to float in case of ditching. The surface delamination and deformation greatly added to the aircraft’s drag. A total of 660 Alciones were built.
Armament
The Z.1007 had a defensive armament of four machine guns: two 12.7 mm (.5 in) and two 7.7 mm (.303 in). The main defensive weapon was a Caproni-Lanciani Delta manually powered Isotta Fraschini dorsal turret armed with a 12.7 mm (.5 in) Scotti or Breda-SAFAT machine gun. The turret had a good field of fire, although it had blind spot behind the tail (as did all turreted aircraft without rear gunners or twin vertical stabilizers). The 12.7 mm (.5 in) Breda was a standard weapon for Italian bombers and the field of fire was improved by the twin-tail configuration on later models. An electrically powered Breda V turret carrying a similar armament was substituted in late production aircraft. Another 12.7 mm (.5 in) was in the ventral position behind the bomb bay, with a field of fire restricted to the lower rear quadrant of the aircraft. There were also two waist position 7.7 mm (.303 in) Breda machine guns, with 500 rpg. Only one of the waist guns could be used at a time since the gunner for this position manned both guns (a practice common with other aircraft, such as the He 111, B-25 Mitchell and G4M Betty). Simultaneous attacks from both sides were generally rare, and waist guns are generally the least effective armament on an aircraft, mostly intended to improve morale and provide a deterrent effect. Allied reports stated that armour was better than usual for an Italian bomber, with the dorsal gunner receiving a large .76 m × 1.1 m (2 ft 6in x 3 ft 6 in) armor plate, plus a small head protection plate of .36 m × .20 m (14 x 8 in), as well as an 8 mm (.31 in) thick curved plate which rotated with his turret. There was rear armor plate 5 mm (.20 in) thick for side gunners, with other 6 mm (.24 in) all around the machine guns, and 6 mm (.24 in) armor for ventral machine gun position, which meant that all defensive positions were reasonably protected against light enemy fire and fragments. The pilots were protected with 5 mm (.20 in) roof and lateral armor, 6 mm (.24 in) around the seats, 5 mm (.20 in) overhead, and a 6 mm (.24 in) armored bulkhead behind them.
The Z.1007 had a long, shallow horizontal bomb bay which could carry 1,200 kg (2,650 lb) of ordnance. Many other Italian aircraft had bomb bays which carried the ordnance vertically, tip pointing up, which limited the size and variety of bombs which could be carried internally, a problem shared with the German He 111 bomber. There were also a pair of under-wing hardpoints which could carry up to 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) of bombs, giving the Z.1007 a potential 2,200 kg (4,900 lb) payload and a maximum range of 640 km (400 mi), but the standard payload was 1,200 kg (2,645 lb) and 1,000 km (621 mi) range. The Z.1007's external hardpoints were a rarity in the bombers of the Regia Aereonautica. The Z.1007 could also carry two 454 mm (17.7 in), 800 kg (1,760 lb) torpedoes slung externally under the belly in an anti-shipping role, an option never used operationally. The bombardier's position was just below and ahead of the pilot, behind the central engine (he could look up at the rudder pedals and see the pilot's face). This improved the layout compared to the SM.79, which located the bombardier in the ventral casemate under the rear fuselage, which meant that it was difficult to man the ventral gun while the bombardier was in position, since space was limited. The forward location of the bombardier's compartment gave him somewhat better forward visibility, but was still cramped, and very loud and full of vibration, being directly behind, and very close to the central engine.
Operational history
The first Asso-powered Z.1007s were used to equip the 50° Gruppo of the 16° Stormo from May 1939. The Asso powered bombers were not considered suitable for operational use, however, owing to the unreliability of their engines and high maintenance requirements, while their defensive armament was considered inadequate. They were therefore used as trainers. In 1942, it was proposed to modify the remaining 16 Z.1007s for weather reconnaissance, re-engining them with Isotta Fraschini Delta engines, but only one aircraft was converted. The Z.1007 participated in the bombing campaign over Malta and in the campaigns in North Africa and on the Eastern Front. Although fast, these bombers were vulnerable when hit and prone to catch fire.
The 47° Stormo was equipped with some of the first production aircraft at Ghedi. Only four were in service at 10 June 1940. The production was slow with fifteen machines made every month at best. With time the aircraft was used by different Stormi like the 9° and substituted the SM.79 and BR.20.
CANT Z.1007 Asso replaced SM.81s in 16° Stormo, 47° Stormo had Z.1007Bis but operational readiness was only reached in August, when around thirty machines were sent to Sicily to attack Malta. Stormi 16°, 12°, 35°, and 47° operated over Greece with some losses. 175a Squadriglia da ricognizione (reconnaissance squadron), and later 176a, were used in Africa. The British destroyer was sunk by an explosion caused by a Z.1007 bombing in 1941. 35° Stormo was sent to Africa in the bombing role.
These three-engine aeroplanes were used occasionally in Russia too.
In 1942, Z.1007s were used by four groups and two wings in the Mediterranean theatre, in anti-ship role and against Malta, often escorted by Italian and German fighters.
In November 1942, there were 10 Gruppi equipped with 75 Z.1007s, with just 39 serviceable aircraft.
As part of Italian and German efforts to stop the British Operation Pedestal convoy to re-supply Malta in August 1942, a few Z.1007 Alciones of 51° Gruppo Autonomo based in Alghero, Sardinia, flew reconnaissance missions on the convoy between bombing and raids. Only on 14 August, at the end of that "Mid-August Battle", did three Z.1007bis bomb the convoy from high altitude. Another Z.1007bis took part in the battle, carrying out a first in the war special mission, later copied by Allied air forces. The plan of Generale Ferdinando Raffaelli to use a CANT Z.1007 to radio-guide a "SIAI Marchetti SM.79 ARP (Aereo Radio Pilotato, "Aircraft Radio Guided") bomber. The SM.79, without crew and armament, but packed with explosives and equipped with a radio control device, was to be used as a "Flying Bomb" against big naval targets. As the Pedestal Convoy was off the Algerian coast on 12 August 1942, the SM.79 "Drone", the Z.1007bis guide aircraft and escort of five FIAT G.50 fighters flew out to intercept the ships. Once the SM.79's pilot had set his aircraft on a course toward the Allied ships, he bailed out leaving the Z.1007bis crew to guide the flying bomb the rest of the way by radio. The radio, however, malfunctioned. With nothing to guide it, the SM.79-Drone cruised along until it ran out of fuel and crashed on Mount Klenchela, on the Algerian mainland.
The few Z.1007ter still flying after the Allied invasion of Sicily went on to fight with the Italian Social Republic, Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force and the 'Luftwaffe.
World War II
When Italy entered World War II on 10 June 1940, Regia Aeronautica had two Stormi equipped with the "Alcione". One was the 16°, with 31 aircraft, equipped with the Isotta Fraschini engine and so declared non bellici ('not suitable for war'). The 47° Stormo had just received four CANT Z.1007bis.
Malta
The "Alcione" received its baptism of fire on 29 August 1940, when a formation of 10 CANT Z.1007bis monoderiva of 106° Gruppo bombed Luqa airfield. The 106°, based at Trapani-Chinisia in Sicily, was soon joined by the whole 47° Stormo Bombardamento Terrestre with 33 aircraft. When the war with Greece broke out, the 47° was moved onto that front. The CANT Z.1007s came back on Malta in 1941, with 9° Stormo Bombardamento terrestre, still based at Trapani-Chinisia, with 29° and 33° Gruppo, equipped with 25 "Alcione". The 9° was later joined by 50° Gruppo, based on Sciacca.
The Italian units were joined by the German II Fliegerkorps, but when the German aircraft were moved to North Africa, the CANT bombing missions on Malta were reduced. The Italian bombers had to face the strengthened defences of the island, which employed radar combined with Bristol Beaufighter night fighters. The "Alcione" started a third wave of night attacks on Malta between 10 and 20 October 1942. The 9° Stormo and the 8° Gruppo of 43° Stormo had on line 30 CANT Z.1007s but only 12 were operational.
Battle of Britain
The Z.1007 saw action during the later stages of the Battle of Britain from November 1940 to January 1941. The Regia Aereonautica sent six Z.1007Bis of the 172a Squadriglia to Belgium in the strategic reconnaissance role for the Corpo Aereo Italiano. They were used in force only once, on 11 November 1940, when five were used as a decoy (without bombs or guns) to draw RAF fighters away from the main Italian attack on a convoy and the port facilities around Harwich by 10 Fiat BR 20 bombers. No Z.1007s were lost over Britain, although one of the six originally sent was lost in September on the ferry flight to its base in Belgium.
Greco-Italian War
The first large-scale use of the CANT Z.1007s took place with the outbreak of the Italian invasion of Greece. During the invasion of Greece, the Regia Aeronautica deployed the largest number of CANT Z.1007s. On 28 October 1940, first day of invasion, 47° Stormo Bombardamento Terrestre (based on Grottaglie airfield) and 50° Gruppo of 50° Stormo (based on Brindisi airfield) had on line 44 Alcione. On 5 November, those units were joined by 41° Gruppo of 12° Stormo, with 16 aircraft. The Stormi suffered few losses, among them two made by a PZL P.24, manned by Second Lieutenant Marinos Mitralexis, who managed to bring down one of the two CANT Z.1007s by ramming its tail. During January 1941, 41° Gruppo was replaced by 95° Gruppo of 35° Stormo. It was in this war theatre that the wooden structure of the CANT Z.1007s began to show its weaknesses. The heavy rains damaged it, forcing continuous repairs by the ground crews.
Yugoslavia
The CANT Z.1007s opened hostilities against Yugoslavia, on 6 April 1941, bombing Mostar airfield. During that short invasion, Regia Aeronautica deployed 49 CANT Z.1007 bis, 26 of 47° Stormo, 15 of 95° Gruppo (of 35° Stormo) and eight of 50° Gruppo (of 16° Stormo).
After the Armistice
At the date of the Armistice, seventy-two of the 147 bombers still in the hands of Regia Aeronautica were CANT Z.1007s. The largest groups were in Perugia (22 aircraft) and in the Aegean sea (19 aircraft). Three days after the armistice, on 11 September, the CANT Z.1007s that were in Perugia, joined by eight more, took off for the base of Alghero in Sardinia, losing two of their number to German flak. On 16 September these bombers attacked German vessels that were carrying troops and equipment from Sardinia to Corsica, and one more aircraft was lost to flak.
On 15 October, the CANT Z.1007s, then based in Sardinia, were grouped with those in Southern Italy to form the Raggruppamento Bombardamento Trasporti (Unit for bombing and transport), under the badge of the Aeronautica Cobelligerante Italiana (ACI or Air Force of the South, Aeronautica del Sud), Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force in English.
The worst day for the co-belligerent Z.1007s was 14 May 1944, when Gruppo 88 sent twelve Z.1007s to Tito's forces to deliver supplies. The aircraft dropped 96 food containers on Kolasin, Montenegro, but on the way back nine bombers lost contact with the escort of Macchi C.205s and Reggiane Re. 2001s and were attacked over the Adriatic sea by 7/JG 27 Messerschmitt Bf 109s. Five Alcioni were shot down into the sea by the German pilots (who mistakenly claimed Savoia-Marchetti SM.84) and two more landed heavily damaged at the Lecce-Galatina air base in Apulia. 26 Italian aviators were killed, and more injured. From that day on, the remaining CANT Z.1007s were used for military purposes only under cover of darkness.
Variants
A total of 560 CANT Z.1007s were built, 450 of them of version 1007bis that appeared in late 1939.
Z.1007bis
Z.1007ter an improved version, that would have used Alfa Romeo 135 engines of 1,040 kW (1,400 hp). This version was dropped because of the advent of the Z.1018 and the unreliability of the engines. There was another -ter proposal with P.XIX engines (858 kW/1,150 hp), and production was started in 1942, with a total of around 150 made. Test pilots were more impressed by this machine than the Z.1018, faster but with less power (because of the layout with only two P.XII engines), while the range was improved from 2,000 km (1,240 mi) to 2,250 km (1,400 mi) with 2,460 kg (5,420 lb) fuel and 900 kg (1,980 lb) bombs. So, while the Z.1018 had 2,013 kW (2,700 hp), already Z.1007Bis had 2,237 kW/3,000 hp (1,946 kW/2,610 hp at take off) and Z.1007ter 2,572 kW (3,450 hp).
Performances were improved with a max speed of 490 km/h (300 mph) at 6,150 m (20,180 ft) instead of 456 at 4,600 m (15,100 ft). Climbing to 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in 6 min 28 sec, and 5,000 m (16,400 ft) in 10 min 44 sec (Z.1007 bis in 12 min 42 sec, Z.1007 Asso in 14 min 34 sec). Armament and armour were also improved. The dorsal turret was a Breda model, waist guns were replaced by 12.7 mm (.5 in) weapons. The ceiling was raised to 9,000 m (29,500 ft) from 8,400 m (27,600 ft).
Z.1007s were used mainly as night bombers and reconnaissance; they were also used for long range reconnaissance, with excellent results. Some, at least twenty, were equipped with an auxiliary tank that gave 1,000 km (620 mi) extra endurance. Some were adapted for flare drops when day missions were too dangerous. One modification for photo missions had six robot machines in a ventral gondola plus another in the fuselage. The long range and the ceiling helped these aircraft to obtain good results until the Spitfires appeared in the Mediterranean theatre. They were also the first victims of P-40 Tomahawks over Alexandria.
Z.1015 proposed as a record-breaking version of the Z.1007 in 1938 but not considered until 1942, when the Alfa 135s were substituted by Piaggio P.XII engines. It could reach a speed of , thanks to a total of over 2,982 kW (4,000 hp) installed. It was tested successfully as a torpedo aircraft, but it was not used operationally and did not enter production.
Operators
Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države HrvatskeLuftwaffe operated captured aircraft.
Regia Aeronautica
Italian Co-Belligerent Air Force
Free French Air Force operated captured aircraft
Specifications (Z.1007bis)
See also
References
Notes
Bibliography
Angelucci, Enzo and Paolo Matricardi. World Aircraft: World War II, Volume I (Sampson Low Guides). Maidenhead, UK: Sampson Low, 1978. .
De Marchi, Italo and Pietro Tonizzo. CANT. Z. 506 "airone"- CANT. Z. 1007 "alcione" (in Italian). Modena: STEM Mucchi Editore, 1994. NO ISBN
Garello, Gian Carlo. "Il Cant 1007 Alcione (in Italian)." Storia militare n. 20, May 1995, Albertelli edizioni speciali, Italy.
Green, William. "Zappata's Wooden Kingfisher". Air International, August 1992, Vol. 43 No. 2, pp. 81–90. Stamford, UK: Key Publishing. ISSN 0306-5634.
Malizia, Nicola. "L'armamento dei velivoli della Regia Aereonautica" (in Italian). Storia militare, September 1999.
Thompson, Jonathan. Italian Civil and Military Aircraft 1939-1945''. Los Angeles: Aero Publishers. 1969. .
Z.1007
1930s Italian bomber aircraft
World War II Italian bombers
Trimotors
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1937
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT%20rights%20in%20Turkey
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LGBT rights in Turkey
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Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) persons in Turkey face legal challenges not experienced by non-LGBT residents, though the general climate for LGBT people is considered to be less repressive when compared to most other Muslim-majority countries.
In 1858, the Ottoman Empire—the predecessor of the modern-day Republic of Turkey— adopted a new penal code, which no longer contained any explicit articles criminalizing homosexuality, sodomy, and köçeklik (young male slave dancers). The Ottoman Penal Code of 1858 was heavily influenced by the Napoleonic Code, as part of wider reforms during the Tanzimat period. LGBT people have had the right to seek asylum in Turkey under the Geneva Convention since 1951, but same-sex couples are not given the same legal protections available to heterosexual couples. Transgender people have been allowed to change their legal gender since 1988. Although discrimination protections regarding sexual orientation and gender identity or expression have been debated legally, they have not yet been legislated.
History
18th century
The 18th century atmosphere of the Ottoman Empire was surrounded by the excitement of pleasure. While homosexuality was engaged in frequently, the actual practice of living as a homosexual was kept private in society. As a result, there is more evidence gathered on the practice of Ottoman homosexual relations within pederasty.
Same sex love in the Ottoman Empire was widely practiced as an activity that older men would engage in by utilizing a system that granted confidentiality. Due to society's opinion and disregard of living as a homosexual, Ottoman society turned towards the act of pederasty as a way to engage in their desires. This pederasty often involved an older individual with a young [youthful] boy or girl. In such a situation, the relationship involved a "lover" and a "beloved". The role of the beloved was taken on by the youthful individual who was often gendered as un-masculine, encompassed in femininity.
At the time of the 18th century, the elite in Ottoman society created a system where they were able to generate armies and partake in homosexuality. The Sultan's armies received masses of yamak (volunteers) that wanted the privileges of being a part of the system, especially the exemption from taxes. The yamak, while being trained and schooled, were also expected to be enjoyed by the yenicheri (soldiers). The yamak are described to have been housed separated by gender where the Sultan was in charge of regulating the daily living and learning conditions of the children. Benedetto Ramberti (Venetian envoy) described the system inside these houses explaining in detail that "there are about five hundred youths aged from eight to twenty years, who reside in the palace and are the delight of Signor… They never leave the aforesaid palace until they have reached the age when the Signor thinks them fit for offices… Each ten of them is guarded by a eunuch called Kapu-oghlan [gate-youth], and each has a slave’s frock, in which he sleeps rolled up in such a manner that he does not touch another who may be near him." The young yamak inside the palace school experienced living in a single sex environment and were greatly discouraged from engaging in heterosexuality. Once they grew into a mature age, the Sultan granted their graduation and they went on to live on as a soldier.
Poetry
The adult homosexuality community during Ottoman Empire has no true accounts on how same sex relationships were practiced. However, Ottoman lyric poetry has given insight to how individuals felt about homosexual pederasty.
The poet Ahmed Nedîm Efendi wrote pieces describing how he felt towards young boys. In one piece he wrote -
"The learned are all enamored of boys,
Not one remains who female love enjoys." - Nedîm
In this statement he is explaining that those in Ottoman society who opened up to their feelings of homosexuality have grown to be wiser and understanding of their emotions towards the same sex.
Another poet by the name of İsa Necati wrote a line entailing intimate details of two partners engaging in sex.
"When the rose [anus] holds carnival,
The tulip’s [vagina] smartly shown the door." - Necati
A notable mention as well to the Ottoman poet named Enderûnlu Fâzıl, who thoroughly expressed his homosexuality through his own literature. In one of his Ottoman pieces, Zenanname, he describes a love story between two men inside the Palace School and their lives in the Ottoman Empire.
Ottoman poets were more open to writing about same sex love due to interpretation being loosely understood. Many scholars today still deny the idea that these Ottoman poets were describing a homosexual relationship. However, looking closely towards at these poet's words it is greatly expressed that intellectual, spiritual, and erotic relationships were far more possible to experience with a male according to their understanding of the matter.
Hamse-yi ‘Atā’ī
Nev'izade Atayi was an Ottoman poet of the 18th century who wrote manuscripts detailing stories of moralities, trites, and same-sex relationships. In his manuscript titled Hamse he uncovers major themes regarding the Ottoman Empire. The poems detail stories encompassing parties inside the Imperial Court, social values of the century, moral and ethical codes, and same sex relationships. It is in the fourth part of Hamse where the story follows two young men and their travels around Istanbul. As the two young male characters are traveling by sea to Egypt, they are captured and enslaved by European soldiers. While they are enslaved, the European kidnappers fall in love with their prisoners.
The story is one of the only surviving texts where homosexuality among men is clearly displayed and celebrated.
Pre-decriminalization (1800-1858)
Prior to 1858, Ottomans did not base sexual identities on attraction to a specific gender but distinguished between active and passive partners, often distinguished as "the lover" and "the beloved". Therefore, choice of a partner was merely based on taste and not on sexual identity. However, marriage between a man and a woman was the only acceptable form of a legitimized relationship, thus making it illegal for people to openly have relationships with partners of the same sex. If one were to express a homosexual relationship in public, society would retaliate in exclusion.
Decriminalization (1858)
In 1858, the Ottomans enacted penal-code reforms similar to the 1810 French Penal Code. The 1858 Ottoman Penal Code stated the following:Art. 202—The person who dares to commit the abominable act publicly contrary to modesty and sense of shame is to be imprisoned for from three months to one year and a fine of from one Mejidieh gold piece to ten Mejidieh gold pieces is to be levied (Penal Code of the Ottoman Empire,1858).This statement is a translation from Article 330 of the French Penal Code which also decriminalizes homosexuality. Such a statement only partially decriminalizes homosexuality, making it legal for private same sex relationships while still holding public homosexual relationships to be unacceptable.
During this period of time, it is speculated that most homosexual relationships took place behind closed doors. In private hammams and mosques, individuals were free to express their feelings and emotions in a comfortable safe space. However, once an individual left that safe space, the acts one indulged in were not permitted to be spoken of in society.
Post-decriminalization (1858-1900s)
By the late 19th century homosexual contact started to decline and the focus of desire turned to young girls. Ahmet Cevdet Pasha stated:Woman-lovers have increased in number, while boy-beloveds have decreased. It is as if the People of Lot have been swallowed by the earth. The love and affinity that were, in Istanbul, notoriously and customarily directed towards young men have now been redirected towards girls, in accordance with the state of nature.Research shows that the decline is in close relationship to the criminalization of homosexuality in the Western world, which followed repression of the queer community.
Republican period
In the 1980s, the national government, whether democratically elected or as a result of a coup d'état, opposed the existence of a visible LGBT community, especially within the political context.
Some openly gay people were able to be successful in the 1980s. Murathan Mungan has been openly gay throughout his professional life as a successful poet and writer. However, many gay and bisexual men who lived during this period have since said in interviews that they felt pressured by social attitudes and government policy to remain in the closet about their sexual identity.
In the 1980s, the Radical Democratic Green Party expressed support for gay rights, including the work of a group of transgender people to protest police brutality. However, it was not until the 1990s that many members of the LGBT community in Turkey began to organise on behalf of their human rights.
In 1993, Lambda Istanbul was created to campaign on behalf of LGBT rights in Turkey. In 1994, the Freedom and Solidarity Party banned discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity within the party and nominated Demet Demir, a leading voice of the community, to successfully become the first transgender candidate for the local council elections in Istanbul.
In 1993, organisers were denied permission to hold an LGBT pride parade. Similar opposition was expressed by the government in 1995 and 1996 for an LGBT film festival and academic conference. Government officials cited vaguely worded laws designed to protect public morality as justification for refusing to allow these public events to take place.
In 1996, the Supreme Court overturned a lower court's ruling and removed a child from her lesbian mother on the grounds that homosexuality is "immoral".
Throughout the 1990s, reports by IHD, Turkey's Human Rights Association as well as international human rights organizations such as Amnesty International stated that transgender people were frequently harassed and beaten by police officers. One article even stated that police had set fire to an apartment block with many transgender people residing there.
Reports of harassment and violence against LGBT people still occur in the twenty-first century. In 2008, a gay Kurdish-Turk student, Ahmet Yıldız, was shot outside a café by his father and later died in the hospital. Sociologists have called this Turkey's first publicised gay honour killing. The wish of the Turkish Government to join the European Union has put some pressure on the government to grant official recognition to LGBT rights. The report on progress in Turkey for the accession to the European Union of 14 October 2009, the European Commission for Enlargement wrote:
The legal framework is not adequately aligned with the EU acquis...
Homophobia has resulted in cases of physical and sexual violence. The killing of several transsexuals and transvestites is a worrying development. Courts have applied the principle of 'unjust provocation' in favour of perpetrators of crimes against transsexuals and transvestites.
Turkey became the first Muslim-majority country in which a gay pride march was held. In Istanbul (since 2003) and in Ankara (since 2008) gay marches are being held each year with an increasing numbers of participation. The gay pride march in Istanbul started with 30 people in 2003, and in 2010, there were 5,000. The pride parades in 2011 and 2012 were attended by more than 15,000 participants.
On 30 June 2013, Istanbul Pride parade attracted almost 100,000 people. The protesters were joined by Gezi Park protesters, making the 2013 Istanbul Pride the biggest pride event ever held in Turkey. The 2014 Istanbul pride attracted more than 100,000 people. The 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018 pride parades were banned by local authorities, and participants were faced with police attacks. In June 2013, the first Izmir Pride took place with 2,000 participants. On 3 June 2018, the 6th Izmir Pride Parade peacefully took place with over 50,000 participants. Another pride took place in Antalya. Politicians from the main opposition party, CHP and another opposition party, BDP also lent their support to the demonstration. The pride march in Istanbul does not receive any support of the municipality or the government.
In 2009, amateur football referee Halil İbrahim Dinçdağ came out as gay and was subsequently banned from refereeing football matches. In December 2015, the Turkish Football Federation was ordered to pay 23,000 lira in compensation for dismissing Dinçdağ.
On 21 September 2011, the Minister of Family and Social Policies Fatma Şahin met with an LGBT organisation. She said that the government will actively work together with LGBT organisations. She submitted a proposal for the acceptance of LGBT individuals in the new constitution that Parliament planned to draft in the coming year. She was calling on Members of Parliament to handle the proposal positively. She asserted that "if freedom and equality is for everybody, then sexual orientation discrimination should be eliminated and the rights of these LGBT citizens should be recognised."
On 9 January 2012, a columnist named Serdar Arseven for an Islamist newspaper called Yeni Akit wrote an article calling LGBT people perverts. The Court of Cassation penalised Yeni Akit with 4,000 TL fine and Serdar Arseven with 2,000 TL for hate speech.
In May 2012, the BDP requested the writers of the new Turkish constitution to include same-sex marriage in that constitution. It was rejected by the biggest party in the Turkish Parliament, the AKP, and an opposition party, MHP, while supported by the main opposition party, the CHP.
On 29 May 2013, a parliamentary research motion regarding LGBT rights in Turkey was proposed and discussed in the parliament of Turkey. Despite support from pro-Kurdish BDP, secularist CHP, and the abstention of Turkish nationalist party MHP, the motion was rejected by votes of the ruling party AKP. AKP MP Türkan Dağoğlu cited the scientific articles on homosexuality published in the US in 1974 and said, "Homosexuality is an abnormality. Same-sex marriages may not be allowed. It would cause social deterioration." For the research motion, CHP MP Binnaz Toprak said, "In the 1970s there were scientists suggesting that black people were not as smart as white people in the US. Hence the science of today doesn't accept the findings of those times. Your sayings can not be allowed."
On 12 August 2013, the Constitutional Reconciliation Commission, which was drafting a new constitution of the Republic and was composed of four major parliamentary parties including Kurds, secularists, Islamists and nationalists, agreed to provide constitutional protection against discrimination for LGBT individuals. The draft was later cancelled.
On 17 July 2014, Turkey's Supreme Court ruled that referring to gays as "perverted" constitutes hate speech.
In November 2016, Turkey, along with Georgia, Israel, Japan, Mongolia, Nepal, the Philippines, South Korea, Sri Lanka, Thailand, East Timor and Vietnam, were the only Asian countries in the United Nations to vote in favor of the appointment of an independent expert to raise awareness of the discrimination faced by the LGBT community and to find ways to properly protect them.
In June 2018, the embassy of Turkey, along with ambassadors from 51 countries have signed an open letter of support for LGBT rights in Poland.
Legality of same-sex relations
Gay sexual conduct between consenting adults in private is not a crime in Turkey. The criminal code also has vaguely worded prohibitions on "public exhibitionism" and "offenses against public morality" that can be used to harass gay and transgender people. Individual towns and cities are given some leeway in enacting local laws designed to protect 'public morality'.
Recognition of same-sex relationships
Turkey does not recognise same-sex marriages, civil unions or domestic partnership benefits.
Military service
In Turkey, compulsory military service applies to all male Turkish citizens between the ages of 18 and 41. However, the Turkish military openly discriminates against homosexuals by barring them from serving in the military. At the same time, Turkey – in violation of its obligations under the European Convention on Human Rights – withholds any recognition of conscientious objection to military service. Some objectors must instead identify themselves as "sick" – and some were forced to undergo what Human Rights Watch calls "humiliating and degrading" examinations to "prove" their homosexuality.
In October 2009 the report of the EU Commission on Enlargement stated: "The Turkish armed forces have a health regulation which defines homosexuality as a 'psychosexual' illness and identifies homosexuals as unfit for military service. Conscripts who declare their homosexuality have to provide photographic proof. A small number have had to undergo humiliating medical examinations."
In November 2015, the Turkish Armed Forces removed the clause stating that a draftee must "prove" their homosexuality. Draftees may decide to disclose their sexuality verbally and receive an 'unfit report' during their medical examination which exempts them from service, or must not disclose their orientation in any form for a year if a military doctor agrees to grant them a 'fit report' and serve their conscription. Those who disclose their homosexuality and receive an 'unfit report' may be subject to future discrimination in public life as the military's record of homosexuals in the drafting process has resulted in several cases of public leaks. Homosexuality remains grounds for expulsion for commissioned officers, non-commissioned officers and military students under the Turkish Armed Forces Discipline Law.
There is little support in the army in favour of greater acceptance; in a 2015 study asking 1,300 officers "whether homosexuals should be allowed to serve in the army", 96.3% answered negatively.
Discrimination protections
No laws exist yet in Turkey that protect LGBT people from discrimination in employment, education, housing, health care, public accommodations or credit. In October 2009, the report of the EU Commission on Enlargement stated:
There have been several cases of discrimination at the workplace, where LGBT employees have been fired because of their sexual orientation. Provisions of the Turkish Criminal Code on 'public exhibitionism' and 'offences against public morality' are sometimes used to discriminate against LGBT people. The Law on Misdemeanours is often used to impose fines against transgender persons.
In 2011, Öykü Evren Özen, a transgender woman from the northwestern province of Bursa, has become a candidate for deputy from the main opposition party, Republican People's Party, or CHP. She was the first transgender lawmaker of Turkey during the general elections.
The main opposition, CHP, proposed gay rights to the Turkish parliament on 14 February 2013.
Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) individuals are among the most vulnerable asylum seekers and refugees in Turkey today. Their access to rights and services is limited in Turkey as a result of anti-LGBT sentiments of state actors and the general public.
In August 2013, three major political parties in the parliament including the secularist CHP which worked with BDP on the matter, conservative AKP and nationalist MHP, has agreed to provide constitutional protection against discrimination for LGBT people. The draft was later canceled due to nonconcurrences regarding other subjects in the new constitutional draft.
Can Çavuşoğlu, a Turkish activist, has launched a campaign as the first openly gay mayoral candidate of Turkey, Çavuşoğlu announced a bid to run in the Black Sea region, a town of Bulancak, Giresun, home to about 60,000, in the March 2014 local elections.
In February 2015, the main opposition CHP introduced a bill to prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity in both public and private sectors. The bill seeks equal recruitment, pay, promotion, dismissal in the workplace and reforms in the Turkish Armed Forces Code of Discipline that would allow members of the military to serve openly.
In 2015, pro-LGBT Kurdish, Peoples' Democratic Party publicly announced that they will have LGBT and Feminist candidates. Barış Sulu, a candidate of the left-wing People's Democratic Party (HDP), became the first openly gay man to run for the Turkish parliament.
In January 2019, the 34th Labor Court in Istanbul issued the first verdict in a legal case surrounding three men working at garbage who were fired by a municipality for allegedly engaging in a homosexual relationship with one of their co-workers. The court ruled in favour of one of the plaintiffs, identified as R.S., concluding that his contract was unjustly terminated. Three drivers of the garbage trucks owned by the Kağıthâne Municipality in Istanbul were fired by their employer after it was alleged that they were in a gay relationship with a 27-year-old garbage collector. The garbage collector, identified only as M.Ş., had told the authorities that he had engaged in sexual relationship "from time to time" with the three truck drivers. The drivers, aged between 43 and 51, had sued the municipality and its subcontractor in April 2018, citing what they described as unjust termination of their contract.
The 34th Labour Court in Istanbul ruled on 29 January in favor of one of the plaintiffs, identified as R.S., concluding that his contract was unjustly terminated. His attorney had told the court that the plaintiff "had got nothing to do with that incident," while the company lawyers had claimed that his dismissal was part of "rightful termination" due to the sexual relationship at work. If the ruling is approved in the appeals process, too, the subcontractor will be forced to return the plaintiff to his previous job or to compensate him. A hearing for one of the other two cases, which still continue, was held in February.
Gender identity and expression
In Turkey, the minimum age required to get sex reassignment surgery is 18. In order for one to change one's gender section on an identity card, the procedure must be conducted at a state hospital. Sex reassignment surgery is available in Turkey's major cities like Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir and Antalya.
Media regulations
LGBT-themed movies are not banned in Turkey. Brokeback Mountain, as an example, was seen in Turkish cinemas without any government censorship. Anyone eighteen years of age or older could buy a ticket to watch the film.
LGBT-themed DVDs can also be legally sold in Turkey, albeit DVDs with sexually explicit content may only be sold to people eighteen years of age or older.
In 2013, a Turkish vendor was charged with selling "immoral" DVDs because the DVD movies featured gay sexually explicit content. Judge Mahmut Erdemli from the court in Istanbul overturned the criminal charges. He ruled that gay sex is natural, stated that an individual's sexual orientation should be respected, and cited examples of same-sex marriages in Europe and in the Americas.
Restriction of expression
In Turkey, everyone has the constitutionally protected right to hold a peaceful protest without prior permission, so long as the topic of the protest is not explicitly banned by law. Even though there are not any laws explicitly forbidding LGBT-related protests, the Istanbul Pride parade in June 2015, which overlapped with the Muslim holy fasting month of Ramadan, was banned by the Istanbul governorship hours before the event over "security concerns". Soon after, it was shut down through police intervention for the first time in its 13-year history. The parade had taken place the previous year during Ramadan without issue. In 2016, it was banned again and arrests were made as participants tried to hold the rally regardless of the prohibition. It was banned again in 2017, and in 2018 it was banned again and arrests were made as participants tried to hold the rally regardless of the prohibition. It was banned again in 2019. In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was held online with no official interference.
In 2017, the capital city of Ankara banned all LGBT or LGBT rights related events, under the pretext of providing "peace and security", with officials saying that such "exhibitions" could cause different groups of society to "publicly harbor hatred and hostility" towards each other; on the other hand news media noted that the ban came in the context of the steady erosion of civil liberties in Turkey following the failed 2016 coup attempt.
In Ankara, all public LGBTI-related discussions are banned. In November 2017, the Ankara governor's office under state of emergency imposed an indefinite ban on LGBTI-focused public events. The emergency rule ended in July 2018; however, the ban was still not lifted. In October 2018, the government extended the ban to LGBTI-focused events generally without giving any idea about the end date. In May 2019, police in Ankara violently ended a student-led Pride march at the Middle East Technical University (METU). According to a report from Amnesty International, authorities arrested 25 students during that.
In June 2019, the 7th Izmir Pride, the 3rd Antalya Pride and the 27th Istanbul pride were banned by the cities governors. Amnesty International last week called for Turkey to lift the Pride bans. However, days later a court suspended Izmir pride week ban. In June 2019, 17 people were detained during press statement over Pride ban in Turkish police dispersed a crowd gathered in the city of Izmir for a public press statement over the governorate's pride parade ban and detained 17 people, after the group read their press statement.
On 25 June 2019, the Governorship of Mersin banned all LGBT events to be held in the province for 20 days under the Turkish Law on Meetings and Demonstrations "with the aim of maintaining public well-being and public peace, preventing crimes and protecting public health, public morality and safety of life and property of citizens." The ban went in effect in the 5th Mersin Pride Week, which was to be held between 1–7 July.
Public opinion
According to a survey conducted by the Kadir Has University in Istanbul in 2016, 33 per cent of people said that LGBT people should have equal rights. This increased to 45 per cent in 2020. Another survey by Kadir Has University in 2018 found that 55.3 percent of people would not want a homosexual neighbour. This decreased to 46.5 per cent in 2019.
Attitudes towards the legalization of same-sex unions in Turkey are mixed. A 2015 poll by Ipsos found that 27% of the Turkish public was in favor of legalizing same-sex marriage, while 19% preferred civil unions instead. 25% of those surveyed were against any form of legal recognition for same-sex couples and 29% stated that they did not know which option to choose.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Ipsos Results
!Statement
!Agree
|-
|"Same-sex couples should be allowed to marry legally."|align="left" style="background: #16E021" |27%
|-
|"Same-sex couples should be allowed to obtain some kind of legal recognition, but not to marry."|align="left" style="background: #a7fcab" |19%
|-
|"Same-sex couples should not be allowed to marry orobtain any kind of legal recognition."|align="left" style="background: #FA6E79" | 25%
|-
|Undecided'|29%
|-
|Total|100%
|}
According to the 2020 Pew Research, 25% of the Turks said homosexuality should be accepted by society, with 57% opposing it. The acceptance was higher among educated people (41%) and young Turks (34%).
Living conditions
Homosexuality is a taboo subject in Turkey and the culture of "honour killings" can be observed in Turkish society families murdering members (usually female) who engage in sexual behaviours regarded by some as morally inappropriate. The murder of Ahmet Yıldız, a 26-year-old Kurdish gay man from Şanlıurfa, may be the first known example of an honour killing with a gay male victim. Studies for the years 2007–09 prepared by the German Democratic Turkey Forum show 13 killings in 2007, 5 in 2008 and at least 4 killings in 2009 related to the sexual identity of the victims. On 21 May 2008 the New York-based organization Human Rights Watch published a report entitled "We Need a Law for Liberation". The report documents how gay men and transgender people face beatings, robberies, police harassment, and the threat of murder. Human Rights Watch found that, in most cases, the response by the authorities is inadequate if not nonexistent. In case of hate murders against homosexuals, courts apply the condition of "heavy provocation" and lower sentences.
In Turkey prejudice against homosexuals is common in many areas. Due to common prejudices against homosexuals, since the early 2000s, administrative institutions have carried out many discriminatory practices such as police raids on gay bars, closure of LGBTI+ associations, raids on gay individuals home, magazines and website censors. Similarly, in the 2010s, prohibitions on all LGBT events in province were made. According to the research of KAOS GL, 27% of LGBT people who did not hide their sexual identity were discriminated against in the recruitment process in 2017, 8% in 2018, 11% in 2019. The study stated that LGBT people, who think that the institutions they apply for are biased, are more inclined to hide their sexual identity, so this rate will be higher if the applicants open to employers.
LGBT civil rights organisations
The major LGBT community-based civil rights organisation is KAOS GL, established in 1994 in Ankara by students including Yasemin Öz. Lambdaistanbul, a member of ILGA-Europe, established in 1993 in Istanbul, was sued on the charges of acting against public morality. The prosecution argued that its name and activities were "against the law and morality." That ruling, sharply criticised by Human Rights Watch, was finally overturned by the country's Supreme Court of Appeal on 22 January 2009.
During the early 1990s, the organisations' proposals for cooperation were refused by the Government Human Rights Commission. April 1997, when members of Lambda Istanbul were invited to the National Congress on AIDS, marked the first time a Turkish LGBT organisation was represented at the government level. During the early 2000s (decade), new organisations began to be form in cities other than Istanbul and Ankara, like the Pink Life LGBT Association in Ankara, the Rainbow Group in Antalya and Piramid LGBT Diyarbakır Initiative in Diyarbakır.
In 1996, another LGBT organisation, LEGATO, was founded as an organisation of Turkish university students, graduates and academicians, with its first office at Middle East Technical University in Ankara. The organisation continued to grow with other branches in numerous other universities and a reported 2000 members. In March 2007, LGBT students organised for the first time as a student club (Gökkuşağı – in English: rainbow) and Club Gökkuşağı was officially approved by Bilgi University.
In June 2003, the first public LGBT pride march in Turkey's history, organised by Lambdaistanbul, was held at Istiklal Avenue. In July 2005, KAOS GL applied to the Ministry of Interior Affairs and gained legal recognition, becoming the first LGBT organisation in the country with legal status. In September of the same year, a lawsuit by the Governor of Ankara was filed to cancel this legal status, but the demand was rejected by the prosecutor. In August 2006, the gay march in Bursa organised by the Rainbow Group'', officially approved by the Governor's Office, was cancelled due to large-scale public protests by an organised group of citizens.
The organisations actively participate in HIV/AIDS education programs and May Day parades.
In September 2005, the Ankara Governor's Office accused KAOS GL of "establishing an organisation that is against the laws and principles of morality." It also attempted in July 2006 to close the human rights group Pink Life LGBT Association (Pembe Hayat), which works with transgender people, claiming to prosecutors that the association opposed "morality and family structure." Both charges were ultimately dropped.
In 2006, Lambda Istanbul was evicted from its premises as the landlady was not happy with the fact that the organisation was promoting LGBT rights. In 2008, a court case was launched to close down Lambda Istanbul, and although a lower court initially decided in favour of closing down the association, the decision was overruled by the Turkish Constitutional Court and Lambda Istanbul remains open.
On June 10, 2018, the 6th İzmir Pride was held in Alsancak. Around 50,000 of LGBT members, allies, and human rights supporters participated at the Pride, walking along the waterfront street, Kordon. It started on Kıbrıs Şehitleri Avune and it ended in front of Türkan Saylan Cultural Center.
In April 2019, Ankara court lifted a ban on LGBT events in Turkey's capital. It is reported that it was Turkish LGBT+ rights group KAOS GL who managed to get it appealed after being unsuccessful last year.
In September 2022, thousands of anti-LGBTQ demonstrators marched in Istanbul, demanding the censoring of LGBTQ organizations and the banning of their activities.
Istanbul Pride
Istanbul Pride is a gay pride march and LGBT demonstration held annually in Turkey's biggest city, Istanbul. The event first took place in 2003 and now occurs each year on either the last Sunday of June or the first Sunday of July, to mark the end of Istanbul pride week. About 30 people took part in the first Gay Pride Istanbul. The numbers have increased exponentially each year, reaching roughly 5,000 people by 2010. The 2011 gathering attracted over 10,000 people, therefore making Gay Pride Istanbul the biggest march of its kind in the Muslim World. The 2012 pride march, which took place on 1 July, attracted between 10,000 and 30,000 people.
Participants assemble in Taksim Square before marching the entire length of İstiklal Avenue. This is a wide pedestrian boulevard and one of Istanbul's most important public spaces, the frequent home of bayram and regional festivals.
On 30 June 2013, the pride parade attracted almost 100,000 people. The protesters were joined by Gezi Park protesters, making the 2013 Istanbul Pride the biggest pride ever held in Turkey. The 2014 pride attracted more than 100,000 people. The European Union praised Turkey that the parade went ahead without disruption. On Sunday 29 June 2015, Reuters reported that Turkish police used a water cannon to disperse the gay pride parade
In 2016, the pride march was banned by the local government "for the safety of our citizens, first and foremost the participants’, and for public order.". LGBT organizations have also not been allowed to make a press statement. The governorate of Istanbul once again claimed that a gathering of LGBT would not be allowed. "Within Law No: 5442, this request has not been approved due to the terror attacks that have taken place in our country and the area; because provocative acts and events may take place when the sensitivities that have emerged in society are taken into account; and because it may cause a disruption in public order and the people's- including the participants of the event- tranquility, security, and welfare."
In 2017 the Istanbul Governor's Office yet again banned the LGBT Pride Parade, citing security concerns and public order.
In 2018, for the fourth consecutive year the Istanbul Governor's Office yet again banned the LGBT Pride Parade, citing security concerns and public order, but around 1,000 people defied the ban, they were met with tear gas and rubber bullets. 11 participants were arrested.
In 2019, for the fifth consecutive year the Istanbul Governor's Office yet again banned the LGBT Pride Parade, citing security concerns and public order. subsequently, opposition Member of the Grand National Assembly Sezgin Tanrıkulu of the Republican People's Party (CHP) lodged a parliamentary question to the Vice President of Turkey Fuat Oktay asking why the deputy governor of Istanbul had banned Istanbul Pride. He also asked how many LGBT members had been killed in the last 17 years, the time the ruling party Justice and Development Party (AKP) ruled the city, due to provocative hate speech, and raised concerns over discrimination against the LGBT community. On 29 June, hundreds of people defied the ban, they were met with tear gas, shields, pepper gas and plastic bullets from the Police.
In June 2022, a small pride march was organized in Istanbul despite the ban. More than 360 people were subsequently arrested, according to the event's organizers.
Summary table
See also
LGBT rights in Europe
LGBT rights in Asia
LGBT rights in Northern Cyprus
Timeline of LGBT history in Turkey
Human rights in Turkey
Accession of Turkey to the European Union
Hande Kader
Istanbul Convention#Turkey's withdrawal of the convention
Pink certificate
Further reading
References
Further reading
External links
Lambdaistanbul LGBT Solidarity Association, Istanbul-based LGBT association
Gladt e.V. – Gays & Lesbians aus der Türkei (based in Berlin / Germany)
Turkey LGBTI Equal Rights Association for Western Balkans and Turkey
Turk Gay Club, Turkish LGBT Community.
Istanbul: Asia meets Europe and Ancient meets modern, a gay.com travelogue of Istanbul, including a comprehensive review of gay clubs and tips.
LGBTI News Turkey, English-only LGBTI news website.
lgbti.org, LGBTI Union in Turkey
hevilgbti.org, HEVI LGBTI+ Association.
lgbtifm.com, LGBTI Radio Station in Turkey
news.lgbti.org LGBTI News in English
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diana%20Haddad
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Diana Haddad
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Diana Haddad (; born 1 October 1976) is a Lebanese actress, singer, and television personality who also holds Emirati citizenship and is based in the United Arab Emirates. Haddad is one of the most popular Arabic pop musicians in the Arab World and has been so since the mid-1990s. Her debut album Saken (1996) was one of the best selling albums of 1996, being certified platinum by Haddad's label Stallions Records. The album also introduced Haddad and her Bedouin music style to the public.
Haddad's biggest breakthrough came in late 1997 when she released her third album Ammanih accompanied with a major hit single of the same title. During this time, Haddad formed a successful team with her Emirati ex-husband Suhail Al-Abdul who directed all of her music videos up until 2005 when she decided to work with new directors. Haddad also stepped out of her comfort zone when she started performing in dialects other than Lebanese and Bedouin in her fourth studio album Yammaya (1998) which included songs in Khaliji, Iraqi, and Egyptian dialects. Hadded's career saw ups and downs, but overall she was able to produce memorable hit singles. These include songs like "Saken" and "Ammanih" in the 1990s, "Mani Mani", "Mas & Louly", and "Ya Aibo" in the 2000s, "La Fiesta" and "Ela Hona" in the 2010s.
Life and career
1976–1992: Early life
Haddad was born to a Maronite Christian father, Joseph Haddad (originally from Maghdouché, Sidon District), and a Muslim mother, Mouna Haddad, in a small Lebanese village called Bsalim. Due to the Lebanese Civil War which began in 1975 (one year prior to her birth) and lasted over fifteen years, Haddad spent her early years in the more stable Arab states of the Persian Gulf. Her parents moved to Kuwait in the 1970s where she received her education at the national school in Fahaheel District. In 1990, Kuwait was invaded by Iraq, which forced Haddad's family to move back to Lebanon. During this period, Haddad lived between Lebanon and the United Arab Emirates where she met her Emariti husband Suhail Al-Abdul. Haddad was raised in her father's religion along with her four siblings, Lolita, Danny, Fadi, and Sameer. In terms of age, Haddad ranks third. As a child, Haddad was known to be a "tomboy" in her family. Haddad's musical talent was discovered in an early age when she was only eight years old. During her teen years, specifically in 1988, Haddad performed in multiple Kuwaiti national events. Haddad never received a college degree even though she was interested in archeology. For this reason, Haddad enjoyed shooting the song "Yammaya" in the Giza pyramid complex in 1998. In 1992, she received a diploma in computer science before she joined a popular singing competition called Studio El Fan in Beirut.
1993–1997: Saken and Ahl Al Esheg
With the help of Studio El Fan, which was broadcast nationally on LBC in 1993, Haddad was able to come to fame at sixteen. She joined the competition with an original song entitled "Tayr El Yammameh", which was later included on her debut record Saken in 1996. Haddad was listed under the category of traditional Lebanese folk song. The song was written and produced by Elias Abou Gzale. At the beginning of her career, Haddad was best known for her Bedouin music style which also incorporates modern beats and instruments. Thus, she has been compared to Lebanese musician Samira Tawfik. Haddad's music is considered an update of Tawfik's early work. Haddad's debut album also included other hits such as "Lagaitek", a cover of Issam Rajji's classic hit, and "Al-Sahra".
Her second album, Ahl Al Esheg produced the hit single "Ahl Al Esheg" in early 1997 and the moderate hit "Bizal Minak" in summer 1997. "Ahl Al Esheg" is considered one of Haddad's signature songs and is still performed in most of her concerts. "Bizal Minak", while not as successful as "Ahl Al Esheg", had a controversial music video which was shot in London. The song's chorus can be translated to "I showed you the right way, but you're still walking in the wrong direction". Hence, the black and white music video, which was directed by Haddad's then-husband, shows padestrians in London walking backwards while Haddad is the only person walking in the correct direction. Haddad claimed that she memorized the lyrics of the song backwards in order to make the video works. The video also shows Prince Charles walking backwards in reference to his marriage problems. Ironically, Princess Diana died few months after the shooting of the video.
1998–1999: Ammanih, Yammaya, and Shater
Following the release of her first two albums, Saken and Ahl Al Esheg in 1996 and 1997, respectively, Haddad had to plan her third album more carefully in order to sustain her success. After careful planning of a third album, radio stations around the Arab world started airing "Ammanih", the lead single of her third studio album, in late 1997 which later became Haddad's biggest breakthrough. Several reasons contributed to "Ammanih"'s success. One of which, is the innovative use of the Turkish style "Amanes" in a Bedouin song. The imagery incorporated in the music video was also an important factor in making "Ammanih" a major hit. The video, which was also directed by Haddad's husband at the time, was shot in Turkey and showed both the modern and the traditional side of the country. In the first scene, young Turkish dancers are seen dancing in causal black shirts and jeans. In other scenes, dancers are shown wearing Ottoman clothes such as kaftans and turbans. The video is considered one of the early media exposures to the Turkish culture in the Arab world and therefore it promoted Arab tourism in the country. Shooting Arabic music videos in Turkey became a trend in later years and peaked in early 2000s. On 19 July 1996, Haddad gave birth to her first daughter Sophie. The birth of Sophie inspired the second single from "Ammanih", the ballad "Ya Benti" which was shot by Al-Abdul in a poor rural area in Lebanon and shows two-year-old Sophie suffering poverty with her mother. In the lyrics of "Ya Benti", which translates to "Oh my daughter", a mother apologizes to her little daughter for not being able to take her out or afford life luxuries and toys.
Haddad's first three records contained songs exclusively in Lebanese and Bedouin dialects, which defined her unique musical style during the early years. However, the release of Haddad's fourth studio album Yammaya in late 1998 saw a big change in Haddad's music. The album's lead single "Yammaya" incorporated ancient Egyptian beats, but still maintained a Bedouin dialect. Al-Abdul allotted a high budget for "Yammaya"'s music video which was shot in the Giza pyramid complex. Big part of the budget went to well-known Arab actors such as Muna Wassef and Sawsan Badr who appear in different roles in the video. The video takes place in ancient times Egypt where Haddad uses a witch (played by Wassef) to restore her throne from the current queen (played by Badr). The video also shows slaves moving to the music in a choreographied dance inspired by ancient Egypt. Both "Yammaya" and the second single from the album, "Emshi Wara Kidbohom", were able to become popular across the Arab world despite the poor promotion following the death of Haddad's mother at the time of album's release. "Emshi Wara Kidbohom" marks Haddad's first single ever in a dialect other than Lebanese or Bedouin. The song, performed in Egyptian dialect, ultimately became one of Haddad's most recognized hits in Egypt. Yammaya also included songs in Khaliji, Iraqi, and classical Arabic dialects.
In summer 1999, only a few months after the release of Yammya, Haddad released her fifth studio album Shater. The first single, "Shater", was one of the most popular singles in 1999 and was well received especially by toddlers for the use of the word "shater" meaning "clever", a word that is commonly associated with young children. The song was directed by Al-Abdul in Jebel Ali in Dubai. It featured peacocks, cocktails, and extras and dancers wearing colorful clothes in a sunny summer day. Due to lack of time, Haddad's plans to shoot the music video in a tropical island were canceled. Instead, a low budget music video was made for the song "Wainhom" back to back with "Shater". "Wainhom", while not Haddad's first song in a Khaliji dialect, is her first Khaliji music video. Haddad's first official Khaliji recording appears on her previous album Yammaya, a song called "Men Ghebt". "Wainhom", which was released a few months after the success of "Shater", is about the Kuwaiti prisoners of war who never came back from Iraq. Haddad dedicated the song to her childhood friends in Kuwait.
2000–2003: Jarh Al Habib, Akhbar Helwa, and Law Yesaloni
The final single from Shater, "Al Fosol Al Arba'a", another Khaliji song, was released as a music video in early 2000. The song, produced by Saudi musician Aseel Abu Bakr Salem, is about a love interest who changes instantly like the four seasons. The music video was shot in a green screen and used 3D graphics.
In summer 2000, the song "Mani Mani" was released as the lead single from Diana Haddad's sixth studio album Jarh Al Habib. Haddad returned to her home country of Lebanon for the music video of "Mani Mani" since the song combines Bedouin and Lebanese lyrics. The song contains unique arrangements and sound effects which contributed to its success. Jarh Al Habib saw a successful attempt to break into the Egyptian market again as it included four out of nine tracks in Egyptian dialect. One of these tracks is the title track "Jarh Al Habib" which is a duet with Egyptian Chaabi legend Mohammed Al Azabi. In early 2001, "Adlaa Alaik" was released as the second and final single from the album. The Khaliji song had limited success in Arab States of the Persian Gulf, although the music video featured a second appearance of Haddad's daughter Sophie, aged four years old at the time. Haddad's seventh studio album Akhbar Helwa followed in July 2001. "Elli Fe Bali" was the only music video to be released from the album. This is Haddad's first upbeat music video in Egyptian dialect, which helped it become more popular across the Arab world. The music video, which is set in 1972, draws heavy influences from the popular musical Grease (1978). Stallions Records, Haddad's label since her debut, was sold to Rotana Records in 2002, which impeded any further promotion of the album. However, several greatest hits albums were released by Stallions including a DVD release with most of Haddad's music videos in 2003. In addition to Stallions' sale, Haddad suffered a miscarriage and was sued by Lebanese rival Nawal Al Zoghbi, which also affected the promotion campaign of Akhbar Helwa in 2001.
Al Zoghbi sued Haddad due to her and her husband's accusations that Al Zoghbi pays more attention to her looks than her music and that she is just a "performer". Al Zoghbi took the couple to court in Lebanon on grounds of "emotional distress" she suffered as a result of Al-Abdul and Haddad's criticism. Al-Abdul also stated that Al Zoghbi's voice was "out of tune". However, in 2002 the court rejected Al Zoghbi's case and the ruling stated that "the statements made by Al-Abdul and Haddad are not classified as defamation of the claimant as it does not have any impact on her basic artistic position but is rather linked with her performance. The claim that the plaintiff is a singer or performer is a flexible classification that conforms to personal standards".
Haddad signed a contract with Egyptian label Alam El Phan in 2002 and released her first album with the company Law Yesaloni in June. Law Yesaloni marks Haddad's first full studio album in Khaliji dialects. The album incorporates styles from almost all the different Arab countries of the Persian Gulf. For example, the track "Kama Kom" is heavily influenced by Omani music, a style that is rarely found in mainstream Khaliji music. One music video was released from this album for the song "Law Yesaloni", which is a duet with Emirati newcomer Eida Al Menhali who went on to become one of the most popular Emirati Chaabi musicians.
2004–2007: Awel Marrah and Diana 2006
On 12 March 2004, "Waily", the lead single from Haddad's ninth studio album Awel Marrah (2004), was premiered on the reality talent show Star Academy Arab World on LBC. The album, which was initially titled Diana 2003, faced many delays prior to its release. It was originally set for a summer 2003 release. The president of Alam El Phan records, Mohsen Gaber, explained the reason behind the delay is that Haddad spent two years "perfecting" her new album which in his opinion makes her "a genuine artist that his company will do everything in their hands to promote". To make up for the delay, three tracks from Awel Marrah were shot back-to-back as music videos with Haddad's husband Suhail Al-Abdul. These include "Waily", "Saheby", and the title track "Awel Marrah". "Waily" music video was premiered with the album's release in June 2004. The video, which features Kuwaiti actress Mona Shaddad, follows a storyline that is Haddad's idea. Some of "Waily"'s scenes were shot at Dubai International Airport while most of the video takes place in a school basketball court. Haddad's leg was injured during the shooting of a scene in the video where Haddad's is dunking. Haddad's broken leg appears in the airport scene of the video. "Saheby", a cover of a song by Emirati folklore artist Ahmed Al-Shibani, was premiered in summer 2004 as well. During this summer, a promotional party was held in Cairo where Haddad performed a number of the album's tracks. The concert was later shown on Gaber's newly launched channel Mazzika. After the success of "Waily" and "Saheby" music videos in the summer of 2004, "Awel Marrah" video premiered in November 2004. A music video for "Khaleny Saktah" was also set to be directed by Egyptian director Ahmed Al-Mahdi in Cairo, but Haddad had to leave Egypt for Lebanon due to her father illness. Hence, the project was canceled altogether. If went through, "Khaleny Saktah" could have been Haddad's first music video with a director other than her husband. However, in early 2005, Haddad finally collaborated with a different director for the music video of the Lebanese track "Law Ma Dakhalt Ebrasi". The song was released as the fourth and final single from the album before Haddad went into another hiatus to record her tenth studio album.
In December 2004, Haddad and Al Zoghbi overcame their differences when Haddad took the initiative and made a personal phone call to Al Zoghbi after hearing that she was experiencing a downfall in her health. Haddad revealed that she felt it was her duty to call and wish Al Zoghbi a quick recovery. Al Zoghbi was grateful towards Haddad for putting all the disputes aside. The two artists appeared on the cover of Zahrat Al Khaleej magazine in an issue that featured a photoshoot of Haddad and Al Zoghbi together. They also began to form a mutual respect for one another.
On 24 June 2005, Haddad performed a new track from her upcoming studio album at the finale of the talent show Nojoom Al Khaleej which used to broadcast on Al-Abdul's channel Nojoom. The song, entitled "Hassafah", is a Khaliji track that later appeared on Haddad's tenth studio album Diana 2006. The album was released simultaneously with the lead single "Mas & Louly" in March 2006. For this record, Haddad had to break up with her former label Alam El Phan which kept on postponing the album release for months. A last-minute decision, the album was finally released under her husband's Al-Abdul records company. However, Al-Abdul was a newly established company at the time and only focused on the Persian Gulf area. Therefore, Haddad signed contracts with multiple labels to ensure distribution of the album across the Arab world. These include Melody Music in Egypt and EMI Music Arabia in other countries. "Mas & Louly" became an instant hit due to its simple lyrics which are performed in a dialect that can be understood by most people in the Arab world. It also featured Algerian raï musician Cheb Khaled which gave the song an international feel. No more music videos were released from the album due to the 2006 Lebanon War until later in the year when the song "Zay El Sokar" premiered in late October coinciding with Eid al-Fitr. Before the war, a Khaliji non-album single entitled "Badr Al Bdour" was performed in Nojoom Al Khaleej second-season finale. When the war started in July, Haddad was in the Emirates with her family. However, she paid a tribute to Lebanon by shooting a music video for two of her old tracks "Ana Al Ensan" and "Maghdouche" which appear on Yammaya (1998) and Jarh Al Habib (2000), respectively, in the form of a medley. Haddad worked with the Egyptian director Yaser Sami for the first time on "Zay El Sokar" music video which helped make the Egyptian song popular in Egypt. The Egyptian ballad "Aadi" was shot with Lebanese director Leila Kanaan earlier in 2006 but was not released until early 2007.
2008–2010: Men Diana Illa and divorce
In late 2008, Haddad announced the release of her eleventh studio album (and second Khaliji album) Men Diana Illa. Despite the difficulty for a non-Khaliji artist to break into the Gulf market with Khaliji music, Haddad managed to break that barrier and stereotype. She has been somewhat "adopted" into Emirati culture and society. Two music videos were released from Men Diana Illa, both of which were directed by Haddad's friend Nahla Al-Fahd. The lead single, "Sheft Itessalek", was premiered on Al-Abdul's channel Nojoom in October 2008 coinciding with Eid al-Adha. Before the release of the second music video from the album, a track in Lebanese dialect entitled "Ya Aibo" was released in early 2009. "Ya Aibo" was also directed by Al-Fahd in Beirut. The song proved successful in Lebanon, although it received mixed criticism for its unusual lyrics and imagery. "Ya Aibo" is a diss to old men who, in spite of being grandparents, spend their time hitting on young girls and cheating on their wives. Haddad sends a message to these men to respect their age and behave well to set an example for their grandkids. Some critics hated the comedy approach Haddad took in the song and the video, while others praised the idea. This was Haddad's last single before she announced her separation from her husband Suhail Al-Abdul in August after over a decade together.
After the divorce, Haddad decided to get busy in a mini summer tour in 2009, beginning with two concerts in France and Morocco. The concert in Morocco was a part of Al Mydiak Festival, which is held annually in honor of the King Crowning Day. Haddad set a record in the festival's history for attracting more than 150,000 people. After a concert in Algeria, Haddad ended the tour in Lebanon with two concerts. One of these concerts was Haddad's first show ever in her hometown of Maghdouche. Her concert attracted more than 6,000 people from all over Lebanon. Footage from the concert can be seen in the second music video from Men Diana Illa, "Ya Zalan". The video also shows footage of Haddad enjoying her life as a single woman in various locatios such as the beach and the recording studio.
2011–2015: Bent Osol and Ya Bashar
In 2009, Haddad revealed she was working on a duet with an R&B artist later revealed to be Alicia Keys for her twelfth studio album. The plans for the duet fell through when Keys asked for 1,500,000 dollars which Haddad couldn't afford. After over three years in hiatus, Haddad announced the release of her twelfth studio album Bent Osol in December 2011. Number of singles were released prior to the announcement including an Egyptian Islamic song for Ramadan 2010 called "Ya Hadieh Min Rabna", the Khaliji track "Majnona" in November 2010, and another Khaliji track entitled "Gaalat Diana" in May 2011. Hadded also recorded a song entitled "Ya Wagt" for the opening credits of the Kuwaiti soap Al Dakhila which premiered in Ramadan 2011. Only "Ya Wagt" and "Gaalat Diana" were included on Bent Osol (2011). The album was independently funded by Haddad after her breakup with her husband. Furthermore, an agreement was signed with Platinum Records to distribute the album across the Arab World and promote it through its affiliated TV and radio channels which includes MBC, Wanasah, and MBC FM. MBC FM premiered the song "Enta Ma'ai (Kol Hayati)" which features Lebanese-Canadian R&B musician Karl Wolf ten days prior to the album release.
In late 2013, Haddad signed a record deal with Arab world's largest music label Rotana. Her first album with the company was released in December 2014 under the title Ya Bashar. The album was preceded by the release of number of singles including "Albi Wafi" in 2012, "Naam Seedi", "El Kathab", "Thaleth Alaaiad" and the Moroccan hit "La Fiesta" in 2013, and "Hala We Ahleen" and "Habebi Masry" in 2014. All of these single were released as music videos and only "Hala We Ahleen" made it into Ya Bashar. Haddad supported the album with three more music videos for the songs "Haflet Hob", "Elard Ghanat (Megana)", and "Ya Bashar" throughout 2015. Haddad made her music production debut on the album on a track called "Farhet Qalbi", although she had an uncredited co-production on her 2012 single "Ya Baad Omri". In June 2015, Haddad was presented with an honorary award at the 2015 Murex D'Or in Lebanon for her contribution in music.
2016–present: "Ela Hona"
In 2016, Haddad stopped promoting Ya Bashar and started releasing more singles including a duet with Lebanese musician Assi El Helani entitled "Romeo & Juliet". She also released a cover of Kuwaiti singer Mohammed Almesbah song "Tibassam". During the summer of 2016, Haddad released a project with Saudi social media personalities Darin Albayed and Zied ِAlswaida under the title "Nisfi Althani". On January 1, 2017, radio stations across the Arab world premiered the single "Taabr Qalbi." The song marks Haddad's return to Lebanese dialect since her 2012 single "Albi Wafi." A lyric video for the song was uploaded to Haddad's YouTube account five days later. Another Lebanese song and its accompanying music video entitled "Nayma Bel Asal", produced by Saudi composer Talal, was premiered on Talal YouTube channel on August 13, 2017.
Haddad shot a song called "Ela Hona" back-to-back with "Nayma Bel Asal" in Tbilisi, Georgia with her director friend Nahla Al-Fahad. The video, which premiered on October 11, 2017, is Haddad's first Iraqi music video in four years since "El Kathab" in 2013. During 2018, the song gained popularity in a slow manner due to it being covered by underground Iraqi artists including the producer of the song Ali Saber. It became a sleeper hit gaining over 100 million hits on YouTube as of early 2020. Due to the unexpected popularity of the song, Haddad postponed any plans for albums or major singles. Haddad released the follow-up single, "Ahebak W Katha", in July 2019 with the same team that produced "Ela Hona". In early September 2019, Hadded followed "Ahebak W Katha" up with another single in Egyptian dialect entitled "Gamalo". This marks Haddad's first track in Egyptian since "Habebi Masry", Haddad's debut single with Rotana, in October 2014. On February 10, 2020, Hadded premiered the new music video of a track called "Ma Had Yehes Bi ElAasheq". The new track, performed in Bedouin Arabic dialect, is supposedly the lead single off Hadded's upcoming fourteenth studio album. Haddad, who has been speaking fondly of the song since 2018, claimed that the song "will recreate the glory of the single "Ahl Al Esheg" released in 1997".
Personal life
Haddad comes from the southern Lebanese town of Maghdouche, although born in the Mountain town of Bsalim. The track "Maghdouche" from her sixth studio album Jarh Al Habib was devoted to her hometown. In the 1990s, Haddad married Emirati businessman Suhail Al-Abdul. Together, they have two daughters: Sophie (born 19 July 1996) and Mira (born 26 November 2007). Haddad is Al-Abdul's second wife. The couple were divorced in August 2009; after which Al-Abdul got remarried in 2010. The divorce was not as publicized as Lebanese musician Nawal Al Zoghbi's divorce which occurred one year prior to Haddad's and drew media attention due to custody issues. Haddad explained that she is on good terms with her ex-husband and they agreed to share custody of their children. When Haddad was still a teenager when she married Al-Abdul, who was an older and richer music director and businessman from the UAE. She was criticized by the press who called her marriage a marriage of convenience. Haddad has always stated that her marriage was out of love and not for wealth. However, in 2012, three years after their divorce, she recognized that she was far too young to marry and despite being in love, she was not fully grown up.
In 1999, it was reported that Haddad had officially embraced Islam in honour of her deceased Muslim mother Mouna who died in 1998. She went on to do Umrah that same year in Mecca. It was also reported that her decision was met with strong opposition from her Maronite Christian father and some of her relatives. Eventually, her father respected her decision. She is the only one of her siblings who practices Islam. Haddad rarely speaks openly about her religious beliefs stating that these matters "are personal and only between her and God." Prior to her official conversion, Haddad did thorough research into Islam. She once stated in an interview with Al-Jareema magazine that attending the lectures of Islamic scholars Sheikh Al-Shrawi and Tarek Swaed is also what motivated her to convert. Haddad describes herself as a "private, yet observant Muslim" who prays, reads the Qur'an and fasts during Ramadan. She denied rumours that she embraced Sufism or returned to Christianity after her divorce. Haddad's father died in late 2011, thirteen years after the death of his wife Mouna. The track "Rajaa Al Sheti" on the 2011 album Bent Osol was devoted to Haddad's parents.
Hadded has lived in Dubai since she married Al-Abdul, but she frequently visits her native Lebanon when possible as she owns real estate there. In one of her visits in late 2009, Haddad and her driver were attacked by armed militant bandits in Beirut who demanded everyone in the car to get out. Haddad's driver refused to obey the demands of the criminals and made a daring, yet life saving quick exit and escaped. The militants attempted to catch up with them but failed. Haddad called the incident traumatic and said she was not able to sleep for days afterwards. It is believed that their motives were to steal the car. In March 2010, Haddad admitted that she had not voted in the Lebanese general election of 2009 stating that she currently "lives in the United Arab Emirates" and that she hopes that "God protects every Lebanese official who puts Lebanon over his personal interests."
When it comes to body image issues, Haddad revealed that she was not against plastic surgery as long as it was not exaggerated and admitted to having a nose job. Haddad is noted to being quite petite in size and height.
Philanthropy
Haddad has been involved in humanitarian work in areas such as social and political crises. In 2000, upon the uprising of the Palestinian Intifada, Haddad released a song dedicated to the Palestinian cause called "Al Haq Yaktubo Min Dami" (Arabic: the truth is written with my blood). She cancelled a scheduled fifteen US tour dates in solidarity with the Palestinian people.
In 2003, Haddad contributed to a campaign against drugs and smoking in the UAE by releasing a single called "Bi Edak El Qarar" (Arabic: the decision is in your hands). She was chosen to be part of the campaign by the organizers of the project due to her influence on young Emirati people. The video was directed by Suhail Al-Abdul.
In 2007 she took part in a charity concert held by the American CHF firm in UAE along with Assi el Helani, Youri Mrakkadi, and Bassem Feghali. The money raised from the concert went to Lebanese children. A year later, she was honored by Al Rashid Care Center for her work with handicapped children.
In September 2011, The International Human Rights Watch Organisation (HRW) appointed her an Ambassador of Peace. Since then, Haddad has been participating in humanitarian and charitable activities that are part of the HRW's agenda in the Arab world.
In 2008, Haddad was offered a part in the charity single "El Dameer Al Arabi" (Arabic: the Arab conscience) performed by a charity supergroup. The song is about the dire situation of the Middle East and Arab world including the Palestinian-Israeli conflict and Iraq War. "El Dameer Al Arabi" is considered a sequel to "Al Helm Al Arabi" (Arabic: the Arab dream) project performed by a different supergroup in 1997 that included Haddad. Many of the original participants agreed to take part again including Asala Nasri and Ahlam. Haddad declined the offer and explained the reason behind her decision in the TV show Tarattatta that "patriotic songs proved useless and vain in the Arab world."
Discography
Studio albums
Saken (1996)
Ahl Al Esheg (1997)
Ammanih (1997)
Yammaia (1998)
Shater (1999)
Jarh Al Habib (2000)
Akhbar Helwa (2001)
Law Yesaloni (2002)
Awel Marrah (2004)
Diana 2006 (2006)
Men Diana Illa (2008)
Bent Osol (2011)
Ya Bashar (2014)
Live albums
Anida (1996)
Compilation albums
Best of Diana Haddad (2002)
Best of Diana Haddad 2 (2003)
Singles
1990s
2000s
2010s
2020s
Duets
Special Recordings/Live Tracks
Lematha Al Moshtaka
Helm Al Arabi
Ya Rayheen Ommi (1997)
Jabalak Kanz (live in concert ) (1998)
Mush Beedi (1999)
Ya Carthage (2000)
Naam Zayed (2001)
Ard El Emarat (2001)
Wily Mennak (2001)
Asma Bilad
Roof Roohi (2002)
El Lilah Ghair (2002)
Noor Aini (2002)
Ela Falastin... (2002) (Live)
Saat Kheir (2003)
Ainawi (2003)
Yal Samra (2003)
Lgenawi (2003)
Ya Keef Al Rooh (2003)
Ya Fakr
Ya Baad Omri
Enta Al Shams (2001) (Song most famously by Najwa Karam) (Unreleased Studio Recording)
Al EIn Molayetin (2005) (Live in concert in Algeria)
Lanat Emaraa (Theme Song for a Drama in Bahrain) (2008)
Yal Samra (2003)
References
External links
1976 births
Living people
Converts to Islam from Catholicism
21st-century Lebanese women singers
Lebanese record producers
Naturalized citizens of the United Arab Emirates
Lebanese emigrants to the United Arab Emirates
Lebanese Sunni Muslims
Former Maronite Christians
People from South Lebanon
Rotana Records artists
Singers who perform in Classical Arabic
Lebanese emigrants to Kuwait
20th-century Lebanese women singers
Women record producers
Lebanese film actresses
Lebanese television actresses
Emirati actresses
Emirati film actresses
Muslim women
Muslim women musicians
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20English%20cricket%20season
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2006 English cricket season
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The 2006 English cricket season was the 107th in which the County Championship had been an official competition. It included home international series for England against Sri Lanka and Pakistan. England came off a winter with more Test losses than wins, for the first time since 2002-03, but still attained their best series result in India since 1985. The One Day International series against Pakistan and India both ended in losses.
In domestic cricket, Nottinghamshire, holders of the County Championship, were relegated, and it was Sussex who took the Championship title as their Pakistani overseas player Mushtaq Ahmed ended with 102 wickets. Sussex pipped Lancashire to the title, as they did in the one-day C&G Trophy, which was changed from a direct knock-out into two regional leagues of 10, from which two teams progressed to the final at Lord's, where Sussex won by 15 runs.
Essex Eagles defended their National League title from last season, a league tournament that has been shortened from 16 to eight matches per side and officially named Pro40. They finished level with Northamptonshire Steelbacks in the table, though the Steelbacks lost by 109 runs in their meeting. The Twenty20 Cup completed its fourth instalment during 2006, and was won by Leicestershire Foxes, the first team to win the Twenty20 Cup twice.
Roll of honour
Test series
England v Sri Lanka: 3 Tests - series drawn 1–1.
England v Pakistan: 4 Tests - England win 3–0.
ODI series
England in Ireland: England won by 38 runs.
England v Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka won 5-match series 5–0.
England v Pakistan: 5-match series tied 2–2.
Twenty20 International
England v Sri Lanka: Sri Lanka won by two runs.
England v Pakistan: Pakistan won by five wickets.
County Championship
Division One winners: Sussex
Division Two winners: Surrey
Pro40 (National League)
Division One winners: Essex
Division Two winners: Gloucestershire
C&G Trophy
Winners: Sussex - Runners-up: Lancashire
Twenty20 Cup
Winners: Leicestershire - Runners-up: Nottinghamshire
Minor Counties Championship
Winners: Devon
MCCA Knockout Trophy
Winners: Northumberland
Second XI Championship
Winners: Kent II
Second XI Trophy
Winners: Warwickshire II
Wisden
Five Players: tbc
Women's Tests
England v India: India won 2-match series 1–0.
Women's ODIs
England v India: England won 5-match series 4–0.
Women's Twenty20 Internationals
England v India: India won by eight wickets.
Under-19 "Tests"
England v India: India won 3-match series 1–0.
Under-19 "ODIs"
England v India: India won 3-match series 3–0.
Test Series
Pakistan tour
Sri Lanka tour
County Championship
C&G Trophy
Twenty20 Cup
Monthly Reviews
April
The season's opening first class game, the Champion County match at Lord's, began on 14 April with a Marylebone Cricket Club team taking on Nottinghamshire. Nottinghamshire earned a lead of 23 on first innings after bowling MCC out for 168, and after centuries from Jason Gallian, Chris Read and Mark Ealham, they declared with a day to spare. Despite 94 from No. 8 Tim Bresnan, MCC lost by 142 runs. A day later, the six three-day university matches between county sides and university teams had begun: the matches were all drawn, though no county team failed to bowl out their opponents in the first innings, and all county teams declared their first innings closed.
On 18 April, the County Championship began, but the first matches were dominated by rain; at Old Trafford, Lancashire and Hampshire played out 169.3 overs, compared to the minimum of 408 set out in ECB regulations, in a drawn game, while Gloucestershire overcame Somerset in Division Two despite 36 and 172 from Australian overseas player Cameron White. Excluding extras, the other ten players contributed with 197 runs, eleven less than White. The other five matches began a day later: Durham's first outing in Division One ended with victory, as Gordon Muchall hit 219 in the first innings and Kent were bowled out for 340 and 179 to leave Durham with a win by an innings and 56 runs, while Nottinghamshire, Yorkshire, Sussex and Warwickshire all recorded draws. In Division Two, Surrey's first match after relegation saw them save the draw after following on against last year's wooden spoon winners Derbyshire, and Essex and Northamptonshire also drew. Two of the three university matches that week had two days rained out; the third, between Middlesex and Oxford UCCE was drawn.
The first round of the league stage of the C&G Trophy was played out on 23 April. In the South Conference, Essex (in a 10-over affair), Gloucestershire, Hampshire and Somerset (after Marcus Trescothick's 158) recorded wins, while Derbyshire, Lancashire and Worcestershire won in the North. Sri Lanka began their tour the following day, drawing with a British Universities XI at Fenner's, and the second round of the Championship took place from 26 April to 29 April with seven matches. Durham fell back to earth after their initial win, giving up 421 runs in the first innings to Lancashire and losing by 128 runs, while Pakistanis Naved-ul-Hasan and Mushtaq Ahmed claimed 14 of 20 wickets for Sussex in their win at Hampshire, who failed to pick up batting points for the second time this season. Kent chased down 354 for the loss of three wickets against Middlesex at Lord's, and Warwickshire, despite giving up 433 in the fourth innings, beat Yorkshire to go top of the table.
In Division Two, Essex made 639 with three centuries before declaring against Glamorgan, which was enough to win by an innings and 30. Essex thus topped the table, while Glamorgan was bottom. Surrey beat Leicestershire by 99 runs, and Somerset beat Worcestershire in a match where three of the innings totalled less than 170 runs, and Somerset's first was worth 406 and full batting points. Meanwhile, three counties played university matches, with Nottinghamshire and Gloucestershire recording innings victories while Northamptonshire came back from a four-run first innings deficit against Cambridge to win by 193 runs.
The last matches of the month were those of the second round of the C&G Trophy, along with Derbyshire's tour match against Sri Lanka. Derbyshire got a first innings lead of 43 after Sri Lanka declared their first innings closed, and Australian Travis Birt hit 83 off 53 balls before Derbyshire declared overnight on 208 for 4. In the C&G Trophy, Ireland bounced back from an early loss when they successfully defended 193 against Gloucestershire, while Warwickshire made 352 for two against Scotland to win by 114 runs, and Sussex converted seven for two into a successful chase of 273 against Surrey.
May
On 1 May, nine matches were played in the C&G Trophy, with only Derbyshire and Yorkshire resting. Five of the matches were affected by rain, though no team played fewer than 30 overs. In the North, Durham won their first one-day game of the season, Scotland suffered their second loss in as many days at the hands of Nottinghamshire, Lancashire were the only team with two wins after bowling Worcestershire out for 129, while Warwickshire's 128 for 9 in 33 overs led to loss against Leicestershire.
In the South, Hampshire toppled leaders Essex after Shane Warne, Shaun Udal and Dominic Thornely shared out the last six wickets for 34 runs, in what was called a "collapse in spectacular fashion", securing an eight-run win. England international Darren Gough strained a hamstring during the game. Glamorgan beat Ireland by 15 runs but had England Test bowler Simon Jones injured, Surrey beat Kent by one solitary run in a 30-over affair at St Lawrence Ground, and Gloucestershire beat neighbours Somerset on the back of 112 off 79 balls from Ian Harvey and five wickets from spinner Martyn Ball, which meant they led the South Division after this round. The final match saw Sussex beat Middlesex to go third in the table.
Eight County Championship matches began on 3 May, along with the University match between Worcestershire and Bradford/Leeds UCCE, which Worcestershire won by 250 runs after making 500 for 2 declared in the first innings. Thus, Durham were the only team without a game. In Division One, Warwickshire were passed by Lancashire on the table despite beating Nottinghamshire by 60 runs - their first innings total of 248 only gave them one bonus point. Nottinghamshire wicketkeeper David Alleyne made 109 not out in the second innings, but was deserted by his batting partners as they totalled 316 in chase of 377 to win. Lancashire took the Championship lead, chasing 89 in the fourth innings and succeeding with the loss of four wickets against Kent at Old Trafford, while Sussex beat Yorkshire at Headingley after 11 wickets from Naved-ul-Hasan and 124 and 55 not out from Matt Prior. The final match saw Middlesex get their second loss of the season, as they were bowled out for 98 after opting to bat and ended with a ten-wicket defeat to Hampshire.
Surrey took over the lead in Division Two after beating Gloucestershire by an innings and 297 runs, with Mark Ramprakash hitting 292 for Surrey, while Essex went down at home to Leicestershire after being forced to follow on. Somerset failed to exploit the first-innings 154 from Marcus Trescothick, losing by an innings and 46 to Northamptonshire, whose top-scorer Lance Klusener made 147 not out, and Derbyshire successfully defended a target of 213 against Glamorgan to win by 28 runs, with Steffan Jones taking six for 25.
England A also played the touring Sri Lankans while this round of county cricket was on, starting their game on 4 May. Jon Lewis grabbed nine wickets in England A's ten-wicket win, while Robert Key was the only batsman to hit a half-century. The Sunday saw seven C&G Trophy games: in the South, there was little change at the top, but Essex went third after downing Ireland. Middlesex and Somerset also recorded wins. In the North, rain affected all four matches; Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire had to abandon their clash at Headingley, while Lancashire extended their lead with an eight-wicket win at Northamptonshire. Durham and Derbyshire were second and third after wins, and Scotland defended 188 in 25 overs to beat Worcestershire and record their first win of the season.
The next round of the Championship had a staggered start: three matches began on 9 May, and five on 10 May. Warwickshire lost sight of the leaders after a 193-run loss to Hampshire, while Lancashire had to give up their league lead while being on a bye. They played Durham UCCE, drawing the three-day game. Sussex seized the chance, beating defending champions Nottinghamshire inside three days at Hove despite going 86 down on first innings, which was enough to see them take the league lead. Middlesex lost their third successive Championship match, to Durham, while Kent and Yorkshire drew.
Glamorgan stopped their run of defeats in Division Two of the Championship, batting through 108 overs to make 267 for five after following on, while Essex went top of the table after beating Somerset in a game where Essex declared 71 behind on first innings. Somerset responded by declaring overnight on 275 for five, setting Essex 347 to win, which they made in 90.4 overs after being at 125 for four. There were also wins for Gloucestershire and Derbyshire.
This week also staged the first Test match of the English season. England, once again led by Andrew Flintoff due to Michael Vaughan's knee injury, batted first against Sri Lanka, declared on 551 for six, then took 19 wickets over the remaining three and a half days of play as the game ended in a draw. During the Test, seven matches in the C&G Trophy were played; Kent recorded their first win, beating Hampshire on the last ball, while the still unbeaten Sussex and Essex broke away from the rest with wins and Surrey and Ireland played out a no-result in Belfast. In the North, Lancashire totalled 307 for three against Durham to win by 125 runs and extend their streak of one-day victories to four in four games, while Derbyshire remained second, also unbeaten, after bowling Warwickshire out for 197 to win by nine runs. Yorkshire opened their account of wins by beating Northamptonshire by two runs despite 161 from Northamptonshire's David Sales, and Worcestershire beat Leicestershire.
The next week included four Championship and three UCCE matches, in addition to Sussex' tour match with the Sri Lankans. Despite not playing Championship cricket, Sussex remained Championship leaders for another week, but Lancashire closed the gap to one point after their draw in Yorkshire, and Durham went third after attaining the same result at Nottinghamshire. In Division Two, Derbyshire, as the only unbeaten team, took over the lead with a home draw against Leicestershire, while Phil Jaques took 69 balls to hit 107 as Worcestershire chased 287 despite rain shortening their chase to 32 overs. Jaques, who played his first match in the English season, could later read that his innings was named "Innings of the Week" by Cricinfo. In the UCCE matches, Kent, Hampshire and Somerset all drew, as did Sussex in their tour match with Sri Lanka, which included centuries from Upul Tharanga, Thilan Samaraweera and Chamara Kapugedera before the visitors declared on 521 for five. Sussex' number eight Oliver Rayner then hit a debut 101 after coming in at 98 for six, helping Sussex to avoid defeat. In the C&G Trophy, six matches were scheduled in England, but all ended in abandonment or no results due to the weather conditions. Scotland did get to play at Edinburgh, however, beating Northamptonshire by 52 runs. The top sides in both divisions were not scheduled to play, however.
The fourth and final week once again included the full Championship round of eight matches, in addition to the second Test match between England and Sri Lanka. Again, most matches ended in draws, though Sussex increased their lead after Naved-ul-Hasan and Mushtaq Ahmed shared 19 wickets in Durham's efforts of 110 and 80. Sussex totalled 229 in their only innings to win by an innings and 39 runs. Middlesex avoided defeat for the first time this season, but were still bottom, while Lancashire went second and Warwickshire third. In Division Two, Essex drew level with Derbyshire in the table after gaining four more bonus points, while Glamorgan were one wicket away from their first win of the season after having Worcestershire at 117 for nine; however, they finished the game with fewer points than their opponents Worcestershire. The Test gave England their first win of the home summer, with Liam Plunkett taking three top-order wickets as Sri Lanka were bowled out for 141. England took a first innings lead of 156 after a hundred from Kevin Pietersen, and despite Michael Vandort's second-innings hundred, England made it to the target of 81 with six wickets to spare.
The double round of C&G Trophy matches saw 15 games played, six on 28 May and nine on the following day. The first day saw Derbyshire get their first defeat all season when they went down to Scotland at home, with Ryan Watson hitting 108 for the Scots. Lancashire failed to take advantage of Derbyshire's defeat, however, failing to defend 288 against Yorkshire, but they remained on top ahead of Worcestershire, who beat Northamptonshire on the back of a hundred from Phil Jaques. In the South, Sussex remained undefeated after chasing 297 to win at The County Ground, Chelmsford. Essex' total was helped by 132 from Ronnie Irani, but Murray Goodwin responded by making 158 not out for Sussex. Gloucestershire went second after defeating Glamorgan, while Ireland fell to bottom after losing to Middlesex.
Lancashire remained on top of the North Division at the end of May, despite playing out a no-result with Nottinghamshire, as Derbyshire beat second-placed Worcestershire to go back into second place, followed by Yorkshire who defeated Scotland at Headingley. There were also wins for Durham and Warwickshire. In the South, Sussex stretched their runs of victories to five, which also saw them go three points clear of any challengers as Gloucestershire went down to Hampshire. Kent and Surrey also won matches in the South.
June
Six Championship matches began on 31 May, stretching into the first week of June. Sussex continued their winning ways, beating Middlesex at Horsham to win their fifth match out of six, while Kent and Hampshire also recorded wins in Division One. Surrey went top of Division Two after beating Essex at Whitgift School, while Glamorgan lost to Somerset inside two days at Swansea and Leicestershire played out a draw with Northamptonshire. The week also saw Durham beat Oxford UCCE by four wickets in the final University match, which included four centuries and in which no team were all out in any of their innings.
On 2 June, England began their chase of a series win against Sri Lanka, but chasing 325 on a fourth-day pitch against Muttiah Muralitharan proved too much; Muralitharan claimed eight wickets in the second innings as Sri Lanka won by 134 runs, bringing his tally for the series to 24. On the same day, Gloucestershire and Warwickshire finished their match, which ended in a draw after three innings exceeding 190 (from Vikram Solanki, Steven Davies and Craig Spearman).
Meanwhile, eight matches were played in the C&G Trophy: Derbyshire started early, losing to Nottinghamshire on 2 June after being bowled out for 194, but most games were played on 4 June. Durham beat Yorkshire on the last ball, England bowler Steve Harmison getting an "inside edge...past wicket-keeper Gerard Brophy" for four to secure a two-wicket win. Australian opener Jimmy Maher hit 124 not out for Durham, who still remained two points adrift of Lancashire after the Lancastrians won by five wickets against Scotland in Edinburgh. Northamptonshire got their seventh loss of the season, falling to Leicestershire, while in the South Sussex lost their first game of the season, Justin Kemp hitting seven sixes for Kent at Tunbridge Wells in a six-wicket win, while Hampshire, Middlesex and Somerset all won games.
The next week included seven Championship matches, with leaders Sussex taking on third-placed Lancashire at Old Trafford. Lancashire, with a game in hand, were trailing by 30 points before this, but closed the gap to 14 after taking advantage of a first-innings lead of 99. Sajid Mahmood then took five of Sussex' ten wickets as they were bowled out for 166, and Lancashire took a nine-wicket win inside two days. However, due to Hampshire's 299-run win over Nottinghamshire, Lancashire remained third, but still with a game in hand over the two teams ahead. Warwickshire came back from a 151-run first innings deficit against Durham, with Trevor Frost and Heath Streak putting on 119 for the ninth wicket and then Frost adding a further 20 with Lee Daggett. Those stands upped the target to 159, and Daggett then took six for 30 as Durham were bowled out for 141. The final game in Division One saw Middlesex get out of the relegation zone temporarily, as they bowled Yorkshire out for 130 in the third innings of the game and then chased down the target with eight wickets in hand.
In Division Two, Glamorgan got their first win after their Australian overseas player Mark Cosgrove hit 233 against Derbyshire, and Worcestershire beat Somerset with Ben Smith making a double hundred. Another double hundred came at The Oval, where Surrey made 668 for seven declared and Ali Brown 215 in their innings victory against Leicestershire. The win secured a substantial lead over second-placed Essex, who were playing the touring Sri Lankans in a one-day game and got a six-wicket win after half-centuries from Mark Pettini and Ryan ten Doeschate.
11 June saw eight C&G Trophy matches, and in the South, Sussex rebounded from their losses to take a three-point lead with two games to go, while Kent and Middlesex secured wins to stay in the hunt for the first place which would give a place in the final. In the North, Lancashire beat Derbyshire to eliminate the latter from contention, and the Northern spot was now purely between Lancashire and Durham with two weeks remaining of the competition. Somerset also played cricket, a tour match with Sri Lanka, which they won by 51 runs after posting 332 for six and then bowling Sri Lanka out for 281, with Charl Willoughby taking six for 43.
England travelled to Ireland to play a one-off One Day International, where they beat their hosts by 38 runs after batting first and making 301 for seven, though they failed to bowl the Irish out in 50 overs. Two matches in Division One also started on that day, and were completed in three days, Kent beating Durham and Nottinghamshire escaping the relegation zone after beating Middlesex by an innings and 33 runs. Five matches started a day later, with Lancashire beating Warwickshire inside three days to take the Division One lead from Sussex, Somerset failing to defend 356 against Surrey at Bath with Ali Brown scoring 126 at faster than a run a ball, Worcestershire visiting Essex and scoring 650 for the second time in as many weeks to win by nine wickets, while Gloucestershire failed to convert their 750 runs into a victory over Derbyshire. The final match saw Glamorgan bowling Northamptonshire out for 178 and taking a first-innings lead, before a second-innings hundred from Usman Afzaal helped Northamptonshire total 400, setting Glamorgan 225 to win. Then, Matthew Nicholson took six wickets with the new ball, Monty Panesar three, and Glamorgan were bowled out for 56.
Meanwhile, England were back playing Sri Lanka, this time for a Twenty20 International. After bowling Sri Lanka out for 163, England required 12 off the last eight balls, with opener Marcus Trescothick just run out for 72, and England could not quite score quickly enough, ending on 161 for five. In the C&G Trophy, Sussex qualified for the final with a week to go when they chased 255 against Hampshire, in a match where Sussex captain Chris Adams claimed the hosts "were dead and buried" after 15 overs.
The One-day International series began on Saturday 17 June, and Sri Lanka batted first to win in both the first two matches: first defending 257 for nine after Upul Tharanga scored a career-best 120, then 319 for seven with Sanath Jayasuriya making a hundred.
On the weekend, five C&G Trophy matches were played: Middlesex went second in the South Division after a three-run win at Somerset, taking over from Hampshire, while Essex and Gloucestershire also recorded wins. In the North, Northamptonshire won their first match of the season after Derbyshire lost their way from two to win and two wickets in hand, while Nottinghamshire beat Warwickshire.
The last County Championship round before the Twenty20 Cup began on 20 June. In Division One, both Lancashire and Sussex scored 22-point victories after piling on more than 500 runs in their first innings. Their victims, Middlesex and Yorkshire respectively, made up the foot of the table. Hampshire retained third place at the summer break despite going down to Durham; they were bowled out for 104 in chase of 332 on the third day, with Callum Thorp taking five wickets to complete his 11-wicket-haul in the match. In the final match of the division, Kent drew Nottinghamshire, in a match where 19 wickets fell for 1206 runs. In Division Two, Worcestershire closed the gap to Surrey to 18 points after an innings victory over Nottinghamshire, while Essex passed Derbyshire in the table with an eight-wicket win at Derby. Surrey drew with Glamorgan, surrendering a 72-run first innings lead to lose two points, and Gloucestershire won at Leicester.
The weekend began with Sri Lanka securing an unassailable 3–0 lead in the ODI series, chasing down 262 after a hundred from Mahela Jayawardene, before the final round of the C&G Trophy on 25 June. In the North, Lancashire and Durham were neck-and-neck before the final round, with Lancashire heading the table on net run rate. And after chasing 250 at Warwickshire, they booked their place in the final, as Durham could not complete their part of the bargain; they failed to defend 274 after a hundred from Derbyshire's No. 5, Chris Taylor. The other matches in the North had Leicestershire, Worcestershire and Nottinghamshire as winners. In the South, Sussex bowled out Gloucestershire for 98 only to fall short by two runs in a match not affected by rain, Middlesex held on to second place after beating Kent, and Essex finished third after beating Surrey. There was also wins for Hampshire and Somerset.
The Twenty20 Cup began on 27 June with a full round of matches. In the North, Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire and Yorkshire recorded wins, Surrey won in the South along with Kent and Sussex after posting the highest score of the day with 218 for seven, including an opening stand of 148, before Tim Murtagh took three wickets and sent Middlesex to 13 for four, and in Midlands/Wales/West holders Somerset set a Twenty20 record total with 250 for three after Cameron White's unbeaten 116 and Justin Langer's 90, which saw them beat Gloucestershire by 117 runs. Warwickshire and Glamorgan also won.
On 28 June, Sri Lanka continued with their fourth successive ODI win, scoring 318 for seven with only Jamie Dalrymple conceding less than five an over, and bowling England out for 285 in the 49th over. Four Twenty20 matches were played in the evening: Essex and Surrey both bowled their opponents out for less than 110 in the South to achieve wins, Durham mustered 123 all out in a 52-run defeat at Nottinghamshire, and Glamorgan beat Warwickshire by six wickets after a 106-run stand between David Hemp and James Franklin. Four more games were played the following day, with three coming down to the last ball: Worcestershire needed three to win off three balls, but were limited by bowler Jon Lewis and Gloucestershire to a leg bye off the last ball, while Northants achieved a tie with Somerset after being 53 for five chasing 152 to win, and Lancashire hit the winning runs against Leicestershire on the final ball.
In the final match, Hampshire totalled 225 for two, and won by 59 runs.
A full round of nine games was held on Friday 30 June, with Worcestershire getting bowled out for the lowest score of the competition this year, totalling 86 as Northamptonshire won their first game. In the other games in Midlands/Wales/West, Gloucestershire got their first win with a three-run win over Warwickshire, and Somerset were defeated by Glamorgan's last pair on the final ball. Surrey got their first loss of the year after Yasir Arafat of Sussex took four wickets in their five-wicket win, leaving Nottinghamshire (who beat Yorkshire by 21 runs) and Glamorgan as the only unbeaten teams in the competition. Leicestershire and Durham also won in the North.
July
August
On 12 August, Leicestershire became the first English county side to win the Twenty20 cup for a second time, in only its fourth year. The Foxes beat home side Nottinghamshire by 4 runs in a tense final at Trent Bridge. Man of the match Darren Maddy scored a record 86 not out in the final, and in doing so became the first man to score over 1000 runs in the format. On 20 August, the Fourth Test descended into chaos after the Pakistan team refused to come out after tea, in protest at having been penalised for ball tampering. The match subsequently became the first ever test to be forfeited and was awarded to England by the umpires.
References
External links
CricketArchive - Cricket in England in 2006
Annual reviews
Playfair Cricket Annual 2007
Wisden Cricketers' Almanack 2007
2006
English cricket season
Cricket season
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%20war%20crimes
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Soviet war crimes
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The war crimes and crimes against humanity which were perpetrated by the Soviet Union and its armed forces from 1919 to 1991 include acts which were committed by the Red Army (later called the Soviet Army) as well as acts which were committed by the country's secret police, NKVD, including its Internal Troops. In many cases, these acts were committed upon the orders of the Soviet leaders Vladimir Lenin and Joseph Stalin in pursuance of the early Soviet government's policy of Red Terror. In other instances they were committed without orders by Soviet troops against prisoners of war or civilians of countries that had been in armed conflict with the USSR, or they were committed during partisan warfare.
A significant number of these incidents occurred in Northern, Central, and Eastern Europe recently before, and during, the aftermath of World War II, involving summary executions and the mass murder of prisoners of war, such as in the Katyn massacre and mass rape by troops of the Red Army in territories they occupied.
In the 1990s and 2000s, war crimes trials held in the Baltic states led to the prosecution of some Russians, mostly in absentia, for crimes against humanity committed during or shortly after World War II, including killings or deportations of civilians. Today, the Russian government engages in historical negationism. Russian media refers to the Soviet crimes against humanity and war crimes as a "Western myth". In Russian history textbooks, the atrocities are either altered to portray the Soviets positively or omitted entirely. In 2017, Russian President Vladimir Putin, himself a war crime fugitive since 2023, while acknowledging the "horrors of Stalinism", criticized the "excessive demonization of Stalin" by "Russia's enemies".
Background
The Soviet Union did not recognize Imperial Russia's signing of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 as binding, and as a result, it refused to recognize them until 1955. This created a situation in which war crimes by the Soviet armed forces could eventually be rationalized, and also gave Nazi Germany a legal fig leaf for the atrocities it committed against Soviet prisoners of war.
Before World War II
Red Army and pogroms
The early Soviet leaders publicly denounced antisemitism, William Korey wrote: "Anti-Jewish discrimination had become an integral part of Soviet state policy ever since the late thirties." Efforts were made by Soviet authorities to contain anti-Jewish bigotry notably during the Russian Civil War, whenever the Red Army units perpetrated pogroms, as well as during the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1919–1920 at Baranovichi. Only a small number of pogroms were attributed to the Red Army, with the majority of the 'collectively violent' acts in the period having been committed by anti-communist and nationalist forces.
The pogroms were condemned by the Red Army high command and guilty units were disarmed, while individual pogromists were court-martialed and faced execution. Although pogroms by Ukrainian units of the Red Army still occurred even after this, Jews regarded the Red Army as the only force which was willing to protect them. It is estimated that 3,450 Jews or 2.3 percent of the Jewish victims killed during the Russian Civil War were murdered by the Bolshevik forces. In comparison, according to the Morgenthau Report, a total of about 300 Jews died in all incidents involving Polish responsibility.
The Red Army and the NKVD
On 6 February 1922, the Cheka (All-Russian Extraordinary Commission) secret police was replaced by the State Political Administration or OGPU, a section of the NKVD. The declared function of the NKVD was to protect the state security of the Soviet Union, which was accomplished by the large scale political persecution of "class enemies". The Red Army often gave support to the NKVD in the implementation of political repressions. As an internal security force and a prison guard contingent of the Gulag, the Internal Troops repressed political dissidents and engaged in war crimes during periods of military hostilities throughout Soviet history. They were specifically responsible for maintaining the political regime in the Gulag and conducting mass deportations and forced resettlement. The latter targeted a number of ethnic groups that the Soviet authorities presumed to be hostile to its policies and likely to collaborate with the enemy, including Chechens, Crimean Tatars, and Koreans.
World War II
War crimes by Soviet armed forces against civilians and prisoners of war in the territories occupied by the USSR between 1939 and 1941 in regions including Western Ukraine, the Baltic states and Bessarabia in Romania, along with war crimes in 1944–1945, have been ongoing issues within these countries. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a more systematic, locally controlled discussion of these events has taken place.
Targets of Soviet atrocities included both collaborators with Germany after 1941 and the members of anti-communist resistance movements such as the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) in Ukraine, the Forest Brothers in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, and the Polish Armia Krajowa. The NKVD also conducted the Katyn massacre, summarily executing over 20,000 Polish military officer prisoners and intelligentsia in April and May 1940.
The Soviets deployed mustard gas bombs during the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang. Civilians were killed by conventional bombs during the invasion.
Estonia
In accordance with the German-Soviet Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Estonia was annexed by the Soviet Union on 6 August 1940 and renamed the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic. The Estonian standing army was broken up, its officers executed or deported. In 1941, some 34,000 Estonians were drafted into the Red Army, of whom less than 30% survived the war. No more than half of those men were used for military service. The rest were sent to labour battalions where around 12,000 died, mainly in the early months of the war. After it became clear that the German invasion of Estonia would be successful, political prisoners who could not be evacuated were executed by the NKVD, so that they would not be able to make contact with the Nazi government. More than 300,000 citizens of Estonia, almost a third of the population at the time, were affected by deportations, arrests, execution and other acts of repression. As a result of the Soviet occupation, Estonia permanently lost at least 200,000 people or 20% of its population to repression, exodus and war.
Soviet political repressions in Estonia were met by an armed resistance by the Forest Brothers, composed of former conscripts into the German military, Omakaitse militia and volunteers in the Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 who fought a guerrilla war, which was not completely suppressed until the late 1950s. In addition to the expected human and material losses suffered due to the fighting, until its end this conflict led to the deportation of tens of thousands of people, along with hundreds of political prisoners and thousands of civilians died.
Mass deportations
On 14 June 1941, and the following two days, 9,254 to 10,861 people, mostly urban residents, of them over 5,000 women and over 2,500 children under 16, 439 Jews (more than 10% of the Estonian Jewish population) were deported, mostly to Kirov Oblast, Novosibirsk Oblast or prisons. Deportations were predominantly to Siberia and Kazakhstan by means of railroad cattle cars, without prior announcement, while deported were given few night hours at best to pack their belongings and separated from their families, usually also sent to the east. The procedure was established by the Serov Instructions. Estonians residing in Leningrad Oblast had already been subjected to deportation since 1935.
Destruction battalions
In 1941, to implement Stalin's scorched earth policy, destruction battalions were formed in the western regions of the Soviet Union. In Estonia, they killed thousands of people including a large proportion of women and children, while burning down dozens of villages, schools and public buildings. A school boy named Tullio Lindsaar had all of the bones in his hands broken then was bayoneted for hoisting the flag of Estonia. Mauricius Parts, son of the Estonian War of Independence veteran Karl Parts, was doused in acid. In August 1941, all residents of the village of Viru-Kabala were killed including a two-year-old child and a six-day-old infant. A partisan war broke out in response to the atrocities of the destruction battalions, with tens of thousands of men forming the Forest Brothers to protect the local population from these battalions. Occasionally, the battalions burned people alive. The destruction battalions murdered 1,850 people in Estonia. Almost all of them were partisans or unarmed civilians.
Another example of the destruction battalions' actions is the Kautla massacre, where twenty civilians were murdered and tens of farms destroyed. Many of the people were killed after torture. The low toll of human deaths in comparison with the number of burned farms is due to the Erna long-range reconnaissance group breaking the Red Army blockade on the area, allowing many civilians to escape.
Latvia
On 23 August 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, in which Latvia was included in the Soviet sphere of influence. On 17 June 1940, Latvia was occupied by the Red Army. The Kārlis Ulmanis government was removed, and rigged elections were held on 21 June 1940 with only the Communist Latvian Working People's Bloc allowed to participate, "electing" the rubber stamp People's Parliament which made resolution to join the Soviet Union, with the resolution having already been drawn up in Moscow prior the election. Latvia was officially annexed by the Soviet Union on 5 August, and on 25 August all people in Latvia were declared citizens of the Soviet Union. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs was closed isolating Latvia from the rest of the world.
In the 1941 June deportation, tens of thousands of Latvians, including whole families with women, children and old people, were taken from their homes, loaded onto freight trains and taken to Gulag correctional labour camps or forced settlements in Siberia. The crime was perpetrated by the Soviet occupation regime on the orders of high authorities in Moscow. Prior the deportation, the People's Commissariat established operational groups who performed arrests, search and seizure of the property. Arrests took place in all parts in Latvia including rural areas.
Lithuania
Lithuania, and the other Baltic States, fell victim to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. This agreement was signed between the USSR and Germany in August 1939; leading first to Lithuania being invaded by the Red Army on 15 June 1940, and then to its annexation and incorporation into the Soviet Union on 3 August 1940. The Soviet annexation resulted in mass terror, the denial of civil liberties, the destruction of the country's economic system and the suppression of Lithuanian culture. Between 1940 and 1941, thousands of Lithuanians were arrested and hundreds of political prisoners were arbitrarily executed. More than 17,000 people were deported to Siberia in June 1941. After the German attack on the Soviet Union, the incipient Soviet political apparatus was either destroyed or retreated eastward. Lithuania was then occupied by Nazi Germany for a little over three years. In 1944, the Soviet Union reoccupied Lithuania. Following World War II and the subsequent suppression of the Lithuanian Forest Brothers, the Soviet authorities executed thousands of resistance fighters and civilians whom they accused of aiding them. Some 300,000 Lithuanians were deported or sentenced to terms in prison camps on political grounds. It is estimated that Lithuania lost almost 780,000 citizens as a result of the Soviet occupation, of these around 440,000 were war refugees.
The estimated death toll in Soviet prisons and camps between 1944 and 1953 was at least 14,000. The estimated death toll among deportees between 1945 and 1958 was 20,000, including 5,000 children.
During the restoration of Lithuanian independence in 1990 and 1991, the Soviet army killed 13 people in Vilnius during the January Events.
Poland
1939–1941
In September 1939, the Red Army invaded eastern Poland and occupied it in accordance with the secret protocols of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The Soviets later forcefully occupied the Baltic States and parts of Romania, including Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina.
German historian Thomas Urban writes that the Soviet policy towards the people who fell under their control in occupied areas was harsh, showing strong elements of ethnic cleansing. The NKVD task forces followed the Red Army to remove 'hostile elements' from the conquered territories in what was known as the 'revolution by hanging'. Polish historian, Prof. Tomasz Strzembosz, has noted parallels between the Nazi Einsatzgruppen and these Soviet units. Many civilians tried to escape from the Soviet NKVD round-ups; those who failed were taken into custody and afterwards they were deported to Siberia and vanished in the Gulags.
Torture was used on a wide scale in various prisons, especially in those prisons that were located in small towns. Prisoners were scalded with boiling water in Bobrka; in Przemyslany, people's noses, ears, and fingers were cut off and their eyes were also put out; in Czortków, the breasts of female inmates were cut off; and in Drohobycz, victims were bound together with barbed wire. Similar atrocities occurred in Sambor, Stanisławów, Stryj, and Złoczów. According to historian, Prof. Jan T. Gross:
According to sociologist, Prof. Tadeusz Piotrowski, during the years from 1939 to 1941, nearly 1.5 million persons (including both local inhabitants and refugees from German-occupied Poland) were deported from the Soviet-controlled areas of former eastern Poland deep into the Soviet Union, of whom 58.0% were Poles, 19.4% Jews and the remainder other ethnic nationalities. Only a small number of these deportees returned to their homes after the war, when their homelands were annexed by the Soviet Union. According to American professor Carroll Quigley, at least one third of the 320,000 Polish prisoners of war captured by the Red Army in 1939 were murdered.
It's estimated that between 10 and 35 thousand prisoners were killed either in prisons or on prison trail to the Soviet Union in the few days after the 22 June 1941 German attack on the Soviets (prisons: Brygidki, Zolochiv, Dubno, Drohobych, and so on).
1944–1945
In Poland, German Nazi atrocities ended by late 1944, but they were replaced by Soviet oppression with the advance of Red Army forces. Soviet soldiers often engaged in plunder, rape and other crimes against the Poles, causing the population to fear and hate the regime.
Soldiers of the Polish Home Army (Armia Krajowa) were persecuted and imprisoned by Russian forces as a matter of course. Most victims were deported to the gulags in the Donetsk region. In 1945 alone, the number of members of the Polish Underground State who were deported to Siberia and various labor camps in the Soviet Union reached 50,000. Units of the Red Army carried out campaigns against Polish partisans and civilians. During the Augustów chase in 1945, more than 2,000 Poles were captured and about 600 of them are presumed to have died in Soviet custody.
It was a common Soviet practice to accuse their victims of being fascists in order to justify their death sentences. All the perversion of this Soviet tactic lay in the fact that practically all of the accused had in reality been fighting against the forces of Nazi Germany since September 1939. At that time the Soviets were still collaborating with Nazi Germany for more than 20 months before Operation Barbarossa started. Precisely therefore these kinds of Poles were judged capable of resisting the Soviets, in the same way that they had resisted the Nazis. After the War, a more elaborate appearance of justice was given under the jurisdiction of the Polish People's Republic orchestrated by the Soviets in the form of mock trials. These were organized after victims had been arrested under false charges by the NKVD or other Soviet controlled security organisations such as the Ministry of Public Security. At least 6,000 political death sentences were issued, and the majority of them were carried out. It is estimated that over 20,000 people died in Soviet prisons . Famous examples include Witold Pilecki or Emil August Fieldorf.
The attitude of Soviet servicemen towards ethnic Poles was better than their attitude towards the Germans, but it was not entirely better. The scale of rape of Polish women in 1945 led to a pandemic of sexually transmitted diseases. Although the total number of victims remains a matter of guessing, the Polish state archives and statistics of the Ministry of Health indicate that it might have exceeded 100,000. In Kraków, the Soviet entry into the city was accompanied by mass rapes of Polish women and girls, as well as the plunder of private property by Red Army soldiers. This behavior reached such a scale that even Polish Communists installed by the Soviet Union composed a letter of protest to Joseph Stalin himself, while church Masses were held in expectation of a Soviet withdrawal.
The Red Army was also involved in mass-scale looting in liberated territories.
Finland
Between 1941 and 1944, Soviet partisan units conducted raids deep inside Finnish territory, attacking villages and other civilian targets. In November 2006, photographs showing Soviet atrocities were declassified by the Finnish authorities. These include images of slain women and children. The partisans usually executed their military and civilian prisoners after a minor interrogation.
Around 3,500 Finnish prisoners of war, of whom five were women, were captured by the Red Army. Their mortality rate is estimated to have been about 40 percent. The most common causes of death were hunger, cold and oppressive transportation.
Soviet Union
On 9 August 1937, NKVD order 00485 was adopted to target "subversive activities of Polish intelligence" in the Soviet Union, but was later expanded to also include Latvians, Germans, Estonians, Finns, Greeks, Iranians and Chinese.
Deportation of kulaks
Large numbers of kulaks regardless of their nationality were resettled to Siberia and Central Asia. According to data from Soviet archives, which were published in 1990, 1,803,392 people were sent to labor colonies and camps in 1930 and 1931, and 1,317,022 reached the destination. Deportations on a smaller scale continued after 1931. Data from the Soviet archives indicates 2.4 million Kulaks were deported from 1930 to 1934. The reported number of kulaks and their relatives who had died in labour colonies from 1932 to 1940 was 389,521. Simon Sebag Montefiore estimated that 15 million kulaks and their families were deported by 1937, during the deportation many people died, but the full number is not known.
Retreat by Soviet forces in 1941
Deportations, summary executions of political prisoners and the burning of foodstocks and villages took place when the Red Army retreated before the advancing Axis forces in 1941. In the Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine, and Bessarabia, the NKVD and attached units of the Red Army massacred prisoners and political opponents before fleeing from the advancing Axis forces.
Deportation of Greeks
The prosecution of Greeks in the USSR was gradual: at first the authorities shut down the Greek schools, cultural centres, and publishing houses. Then, in 1942, 1944 and 1949, the NKVD indiscriminately arrested all Greek men 16 years old or older. All Greeks who were wealthy or self-employed professionals were sought for prosecution first. This affected mostly Pontic Greeks and other Minorities in the Krasnodar Krai and along the Black Sea coast. By one estimate, around 50,000 Greeks were deported.
On 25 September 1956, MVD Order N 0402 was adopted and defined the removal of restrictions towards the deported peoples in the special settlements. Afterward, the Soviet Greeks started returning to their homes, or emigrating towards Greece.
Deportation of Kalmyks
During the Kalmyk deportations of 1943, codenamed Operation Ulussy (Операция "Улусы"), the deportation of most people of the Kalmyk nationality in the Soviet Union (USSR), and Russian women married to Kalmyks, but excluding Kalmyk women married to men of other nationalities, around half of all (97-98,000) Kalmyk people deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957.
Deportation of Crimean Tatars
After the retreat of the Wehrmacht from Crimea, the NKVD deported around 200,000 Crimean Tatars from the peninsula on 18 May 1944. 109,956 of them died, which represents 46% of the entire Crimean Tatar population.
Deportation of Ingrian Finns
By 1939 the Ingrian Finnish population had decreased to about 50,000, which was about 43% of 1928 population figures, and the Ingrian Finn national district was abolished., Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union and the beginning of the Leningrad Blockade, in early 1942 all 20,000 Ingrian Finns remaining in Soviet-controlled territory were deported to Siberia. Most of the Ingrian Finns together with Votes and Izhorians living in German-occupied territory were evacuated to Finland in 1943–1944. After Finland sued for peace, it was forced to return the evacuees. Soviet authorities did not allow the 55,733 people who had been handed over to settle back in Ingria, and instead deported them to central regions of Russia. The main regions of Ingrian Finns forced settlement were the interior areas of Siberia, Central Russia, and Tajikistan.
Deportation of Chechens and Ingush
In 1943 and 1944, the Soviet government accused several entire ethnic groups of Axis collaboration. As a punishment, several entire ethnic groups were deported, mostly to Central Asia and Siberia into labor camps. The European Parliament described the deportation of Chechens and Ingush, where around a quarter people perished, an act of genocide in 2004:
Germany
According to historian Norman Naimark, statements in Soviet military newspapers and the orders of the Soviet high command were jointly responsible for the excesses of the Red Army. Propaganda proclaimed that the Red Army had entered Germany as an avenger to punish all Germans.
Some historians dispute this, referring to an order issued on 19 January 1945, which required the prevention of mistreatment of civilians. An order of the military council of the 1st Belorussian Front, signed by Marshal Rokossovsky, ordered the shooting of looters and rapists at the scene of the crime. An order issued by Stavka on 20 April 1945 said that there was a need to maintain good relations with German civilians in order to decrease resistance and bring a quicker end to hostilities.
Murders of civilians
On several occasions during World War II, Soviet soldiers set fire to buildings, villages, or parts of cities, and they used deadly force against locals who attempted to put out the fires. Most Red Army atrocities took place only in what was regarded as hostile territory (see Przyszowice massacre). Soldiers of the Red Army, together with members of the NKVD, frequently looted German transport trains in Poland in 1944 and 1945.
For the Germans, the organized evacuation of civilians before the advancing Red Army was delayed by the Nazi government, so as not to demoralize the troops, who were by now fighting in their own country. Nazi propaganda — originally meant to stiffen civil resistance by describing in gory and embellished detail Red Army atrocities such as the Nemmersdorf massacre — often backfired and created panic. Whenever possible, as soon as the Wehrmacht retreated, local civilians began to flee westward on their own initiative.
Fleeing before the advancing Red Army, large numbers of the inhabitants of the German provinces of East Prussia, Silesia, and Pomerania died during the evacuations, some from cold and starvation, some during combat operations. A significant percentage of this death toll, however, occurred when evacuation columns encountered units of the Red Army. Civilians were run over by tanks, shot, or otherwise murdered. Women and young girls were raped and left to die.
In addition, fighter bombers of the Soviet air force flew bombing and strafing missions that targeted columns of refugees.
Although mass executions of civilians by the Red Army were seldom publicly reported, there is a known incident, Treuenbrietzen massacre. During the first occupation of the town by the Red Army, on April 21 or 22 a higher Soviet officer was shot. After that the Wehrmacht briefly returned. After the second occupation of the town, Red Army soldiers rounded up the civilians and shot the adult men in a nearby forest The official estimate is between 30 and 166 civilian victims. Some German sources claimed about 1,000 victims, but this must be rejected on the basis on the actual number of town residents.
The first mayor of the Charlottenburg district of Berlin, Walter Kilian, appointed by the Soviets after the war ended, reported extensive looting by Red Army soldiers in the area: "Individuals, department stores, shops, apartments ... all were robbed blind."
In the Soviet occupation zone, members of the SED reported to Stalin that looting and rape by Soviet soldiers could result in a negative reaction by the German population towards the Soviet Union and the future of socialism in East Germany. Stalin is said to have angrily reacted: "I shall not tolerate anybody dragging the honour of the Red Army through the mud."
Accordingly, all evidence — such as reports, photos and other documents of looting, rape, the burning down of farms and villages by the Red Army — was deleted from all archives in the future GDR.
A study published by the German government in 1974 estimated the number of German civilian victims of crimes during expulsion of Germans after World War II between 1945 and 1948 to be over 600,000, with about 400,000 deaths in the areas east of Oder and Neisse (ca. 120,000 in acts of direct violence, mostly by Soviet troops but also by Poles, 60,000 in Polish and 40,000 in Soviet concentration camps or prisons mostly from hunger and disease, and 200,000 deaths among civilian deportees to forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union), 130,000 in Czechoslovakia (thereof 100,000 in camps) and 80,000 in Yugoslavia (thereof 15,000 to 20,000 from violence outside of and in camps and 59,000 deaths from hunger and disease in camps). These figures do not include up to 125,000 civilian deaths in the Battle of Berlin. About 22,000 civilians are estimated to have been killed during the fighting in Berlin only.
Mass rapes
As Allied troops entered and occupied German territory during the later stages of World War II, mass rapes of women took place both in connection with combat operations and during the subsequent occupation of Germany. Scholars agree that the majority of the rapes were committed by Soviet occupation troops. Western estimates of the traceable number of rape victims range from two hundred thousand to two million. Following the Winter Offensive of 1945, mass rape by Soviet males occurred in all major cities taken by the Red Army. Women were gang raped by as many as several dozen soldiers during the occupation of Poland. In some cases victims who did not hide in the basements all day were raped up to 15 times. According to historian Antony Beevor, following the Red Army's capture of Berlin in 1945, Soviet troops raped German women and girls as young as eight years old.
The explanation of "revenge" is disputed by Beevor, at least with regard to the mass rapes. Beevor has written that Red Army soldiers also raped Soviet and Polish women liberated from concentration camps, and he contends that this undermines the revenge explanation, they were often committed by rear echelon units.
According to Norman Naimark, after the summer of 1945, Soviet soldiers caught raping civilians usually received punishments ranging from arrest to execution. However, Naimark contends that the rapes continued until the winter of 1947–48, when Soviet occupation authorities finally confined troops to strictly guarded posts and camps. Naimark concluded that "The social psychology of women and men in the Soviet zone of occupation was marked by the crime of rape from the first days of occupation, through the founding of the GDR in the fall of 1949, until, one could argue, the present."
According to Richard Overy, the Russians refused to acknowledge Soviet war crimes, partly "because they felt that much of it was justified vengeance against an enemy who committed much worse, and partly it was because they were writing the victors' history."
Hungary
According to researcher and author Krisztián Ungváry, some 38,000 civilians were killed during the Siege of Budapest: about 13,000 from military action and 25,000 from starvation, disease and other causes. Included in the latter figure are about 15,000 Jews, largely victims of executions by Nazi SS and Arrow Cross Party death squads. Ungváry writes that when the Soviets finally claimed victory, they initiated an orgy of violence, including the wholesale theft of anything they could lay their hands on, random executions and mass rape. Estimates of the number of rape victims vary from 5,000 to 200,000. According to Norman Naimark, Hungarian girls were kidnapped and taken to Red Army quarters, where they were imprisoned, repeatedly raped and sometimes murdered.
Even embassy staff from neutral countries were captured and raped, as was documented when Soviet soldiers attacked the Swedish legation in Germany.
A report by the Swiss legation in Budapest describes the Red Army's entry into the city:
According to historian James Mark, memories and opinions of the Red Army in Hungary are mixed.
Romania
The Soviet Union also committed war crimes in Romania or against Romanians from the beginning of the occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina in 1940 all the way to the German invasion in 1941, and later from the expulsion of the Germans in the region until 1958. One example was the Fântâna Albă massacre, in which 44–3,000 Romanians were killed by the Soviet Border Troops and the NKVD while attempting to escape to Romania. Such event has been referred to as the "Romanian Katyn".
Another infamous massacre committed by Soviet troops was the Lunca massacre, where soviet border troops opened fire against several Romanian civilians attempting to escape into Romania, killing 600 of them, only 57 managed to escape, with another 44 being arrested and tried as "members of a counter-revolutionary organization", 12 of them were sentenced to death, with the rest being sentenced to 10 years forced labour and 5 years loss of civil rights, the family members of those arrested and shot would later be arrested and sent to Siberia and Central Asia
During the occupation, the Soviet government and army deported thousands of Romanian civilians from the occupied regions into "special settlements". According to a secret Soviet Ministry of Interior report dated December 1965, 46,000 people were deported from the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic for the period 1940−1953.
Religious persecution was also widespread, the Soviet government sought to exterminate all forms of organized religion in its occupied territories, often persecuting the Catholic, Orthodox, Muslim and Jewish churches, the Soviet political police arrested numerous priests, with others being arrested and interrogated by the Soviet NKVD itself, then deported to the interior of the USSR, and killed.<ref>Martiri pentru Hristos, din România, în perioada regimului comunist, Editura Institutului Biblic şi de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Române, București, 2007, pp. 34–35.</ref>
Thousands of Transylvanian Saxons would later be deported from 1944 to 1949 under Soviet occupation, with hundreds or even thousands dying on their way to camps in Siberia and Central Asia before being able to come back to their home country.
Yugoslavia
According to Yugoslav politician Milovan Djilas, at least 121 cases of rape were documented, 111 of which also involved murder. A total of 1,204 cases of looting with assault were also documented. Djilas described these figures as, "hardly insignificant if it is borne in mind that the Red Army crossed only the northeastern corner of Yugoslavia".Naimark (1995), pp. 70–71. This caused concern to the Yugoslav communist partisans, who feared that stories of crimes committed by their Soviet allies would weaken their standing among the population.
Djilas writes that in response, Yugoslav partisan leader Joseph Broz Tito summoned the chief of the Soviet military mission, General Korneev, and formally protested. Despite having been invited "as a comrade", Korneev exploded at them for offering "such insinuations" against the Red Army. Djilas, who was present at the meeting, spoke up and explained the British Army had never engaged in "such excesses" while liberating the other regions of Yugoslavia. General Korneev responded by screaming, "I protest most sharply at this insult given to the Red Army by comparing it with the armies of capitalist countries."
The meeting with Korneev not only "ended without results", it also caused Stalin to personally attack Djilas during his next visit to the Kremlin. In tears, Stalin denounced "the Yugoslav Army and how it was administered." He then "spoke agitatedly about the sufferings of the Red Army and the horrors that it was forced to endure while it was fighting through thousands of kilometers of devastated country." Stalin climaxed with the words, "And such an Army was insulted by no one else but Djilas! Djilas, of whom I could least have expected such a thing, a man whom I received so well! And an Army which did not spare its blood for you! Does Djilas, who is himself a writer, not know what human suffering and the human heart are? Can't he understand it if a soldier who has crossed thousands of kilometers through blood and fire and death has fun with a woman or takes some trifle?"
According to Djilas, the Soviet refusal to address protests against Red Army war crimes in Yugoslavia enraged Tito's government and it was a contributing factor in Yugoslavia's subsequent exit from the Soviet Bloc.
Czechoslovakia (1945)
Slovak communist leader Vlado Clementis complained to Marshal Ivan Konev about the behavior of Soviet troops in Czechoslovakia. Konev's response was to claim it was done mainly by Red Army deserters.
China
During the invasion of Manchuria, Soviet and Mongolian soldiers attacked and raped Japanese civilians, often encouraged by the local Chinese population who were resentful of Japanese rule. The local Chinese population sometimes even joined in these attacks against the Japanese population with the Soviet soldiers. In one famous example, during the Gegenmiao massacre, Soviet soldiers, encouraged by the local Chinese population, raped and massacred over one thousand Japanese women and children. Property of the Japanese were also looted by the Soviet soldiers and Chinese. Many Japanese women married themselves to local Manchurian men to protect themselves from persecution by Soviet soldiers. These Japanese women mostly married Chinese men and became known as "stranded war wives" (zanryu fujin).
Following the invasion of the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo (Manchuria), the Soviets laid claim to valuable Japanese materials and industrial equipment in the region. A foreigner witnessed Soviet troops, formerly stationed in Berlin, who were allowed by the Soviet military to go at the city "for three days of rape and pillage." Most of Mukden was gone. Convict soldiers were then used to replace them; it was testified that they "stole everything in sight, broke up bathtubs and toilets with hammers, pulled electric-light wiring out of the plaster, built fires on the floor and either burned down the house or at least a big hole in the floor, and in general behaved completely like savages."
According to some British and American sources, the Soviets made it a policy to loot and rape civilians in Manchuria. In Harbin, the Chinese posted slogans such as "Down with Red Imperialism!" Soviet forces faced some protests by Chinese communist party leaders against the looting and rapes committed by troops in Manchuria. There were several incidences, where Chinese police forces in Manchuria arrested or even killed Soviet troops for various crimes, leading to some conflicts between the Soviet and Chinese authorities in Manchuria.
Russian historian Konstantin Asmolov argues that such Western accounts of Soviet violence against civilians in the Far East are exaggerations of isolated incidents and the documents of the time don't support the claims of mass crimes. Asmolov also claims that the Soviets, unlike the Germans and the Japanese, prosecuted their soldiers and officers for such acts. Indeed, the incidence of rape committed in the Far East was far less than the number of incidents committed by Soviet soldiers in Europe.
Japanese women in Manchukuo were repeatedly raped by Russian soldiers every day including underage girls from the families of Japanese who worked for the military and the Manchukuo rail at Beian airport and Japanese military nurses. The Russians seized Japanese civilian girls at Beian airport where there were a total of 1000 Japanese civilians, repeatedly raping 10 girls each day as recalled by Yoshida Reiko and repeatedly raped 75 Japanese nurses at the Sunwu military hospital in Manchukuo during the occupation. The Russians rejected all the pleading by the Japanese officers to stop the rapes. The Japanese were told by the Russians that they had to give their women for rape as war spoils.
Soviet soldiers raped Japanese women from a group of Japanese families that were with Yamada Tami that attempted to flee their settlements in 14 August and go to Mudanjiang. Another group of Japanese women that were with Ikeda Hiroko that on 15 August tried to flee to Harbin but returned to their settlements were raped by Soviet soldiers.
Japan
The Soviet Army committed crimes against the Japanese civilian populations and surrendered military personnel in the closing stages of World War II during the assaults on Sakhalin and Kuril Islands.
On August 10, 1945, Soviet forces carried out fierce naval bombardment and artillery strikes against civilians awaiting evacuation as well as Japanese installations in Maoka. Nearly 1,000 civilians were killed by the invading forces.
During the evacuation of the Kuriles and Karafuto, civilian convoys were attacked by Soviet submarines in the Aniva Gulf. Soviet Leninets-class submarine L-12 and L-19 sank two Japanese refugee transport ships Ogasawara Maru and Taito Maru while also damaging No.2 Shinko Maru on August 22, 7 days after Hirohito had announced Japan's unconditional surrender. Over 2,400 civilians were killed.
Treatment of prisoners of war
Although the Soviet Union had not formally signed the Hague Convention, it considered itself bound by the convention's provisions.Isvestiya, 28 April 1942.
Throughout the Second World War, the Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau collected and investigated reports of crimes against the Axis POWs. According to Cuban-American writer Alfred de Zayas, "For the entire duration of the Russian campaign, reports of torture and murder of German prisoners did not cease. The War Crimes Bureau had five major sources of information: (1) captured enemy papers, especially orders, reports of operations, and propaganda leaflets; (2) intercepted radio and wireless messages; (3) testimony of Soviet prisoners of war; (4) testimony of captured Germans who had escaped; and (5) testimony of Germans who saw the corpses or mutilated bodies of executed prisoners of war. From 1941 to 1945 the Bureau compiled several thousand depositions, reports, and captured papers which, if nothing else, indicate that the killing of German prisoners of war upon capture or shortly after their interrogation was not an isolated occurrence. Documents relating to the war in France, Italy, and North Africa contain some reports on the deliberate killing of German prisoners of war, but there can be no comparison with the events on the Eastern Front."
In a November 1941 report, the Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau accused the Red Army of employing "a terror policy... against defenseless German soldiers that have fallen into its hands and against members of the German medical corps. At the same time... it has made use of the following means of camouflage: in a Red Army order that bears the approval of the Council of People's Commissars, dated 1 July 1941, the norms of international law are made public, which the Red Army in the spirit of the Hague Regulations on Land Warfare are supposed to follow... This... Russian order probably had very little distribution, and surely it has not been followed at all. Otherwise the unspeakable crimes would not have occurred."
According to the depositions, Soviet massacres of German, Italian, Spanish, and other Axis POWs were often incited by unit Commissars, who claimed to be acting under orders from Stalin and the Politburo. Other evidence cemented the War Crimes Bureau's belief that Stalin had given secret orders about the massacre of POWs.
During the winter of 1941–42, the Red Army captured approximately 10,000 German soldiers each month, but the death rate became so high that the absolute number of prisoners decreased (or was bureaucratically reduced).
Soviet sources list the deaths of 474,967 of the 2,652,672 German Armed Forces taken prisoner in the War. Dr. Rüdiger Overmans believes that it seems entirely plausible, while not provable, that an additional German military personnel listed as missing actually died in Soviet custody as POWs, putting the estimates of the actual death toll of German POW in the USSR at about 1.0 million.
Massacre of Feodosia
Soviet soldiers rarely bothered to treat wounded German POWs. A particularly infamous example took place after the Crimean city of Feodosia was briefly recaptured by Soviet forces on December 29, 1942. 160 wounded soldiers had been left in military hospitals by the retreating Wehrmacht. After the Germans retook Feodosia, it was learned that every wounded soldier had been massacred by Red Army, Navy, and NKVD personnel. Some had been shot in their hospital beds, others repeatedly bludgeoned to death, still others were found to have been thrown from hospital windows before being repeatedly drenched with freezing water until they died of hypothermia.
Massacre of Grishchino
The Massacre of Grischino was committed by an armoured division of the Red Army in February 1943 in the eastern Ukrainian towns of Krasnoarmeyskoye, Postyschevo and Grischino. The Wehrmacht Untersuchungsstelle also known as WuSt (Wehrmacht criminal investigating authority), announced that among the victims were 406 soldiers of the Wehrmacht, 58 members of the Organisation Todt (including two Danish nationals), 89 Italian soldiers, 9 Romanian soldiers, 4 Hungarian soldiers, 15 German civil officials, 7 German civilian workers and 8 Ukrainian volunteers.
The places were overrun by the Soviet 4th Guards Tank Corps on the night of 10 and 11 February 1943. After the reconquest by the 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking with the support of 333 Infantry Division and the 7th Panzer Division on 18 February 1943 the Wehrmacht soldiers discovered numerous deaths. Many of the bodies were horribly mutilated, ears and noses cut off and genital organs amputated and stuffed into their mouths. Breasts of some of the nurses were cut off, the women being brutally raped. A German military judge who was at the scene stated in an interview during the 1970s that he saw a female body with her legs spread-eagled and a broomstick rammed into her genitals. In the cellar of the main train station around 120 Germans were herded into a large storage room and then mowed down with machine guns.
Postwar
Some German prisoners were released soon after the war. Many others, however, remained in the GULAG long after the surrender of Nazi Germany. Among the most famous German POWs to die in Soviet captivity was Captain Wilm Hosenfeld, who died of injuries, sustained possibly under torture, in a concentration camp near Stalingrad in 1952. In 2009, Captain Hosenfeld was posthumously honored by the State of Israel for his role in saving Jewish lives during The Holocaust. Similar was the fate of Swedish diplomat and OSS operative Raoul Wallenberg.
After World War II
Hungarian Revolution (1956)
According to the United Nations Report of the Special Committee on the problem of Hungary (1957): "Soviet tanks fired indiscriminately at every building from which they believed themselves to be under fire." The UN commission received numerous reports of Soviet mortar and artillery fire into inhabited quarters in the Buda section of the city, despite no return fire, and of "haphazard shooting at defenseless passers-by."
Afghanistan (1979–1989)
Scholars Mohammad Kakar, W. Michael Reisman and Charles Norchi believe that the Soviet Union was guilty of committing a genocide in Afghanistan. The army of the Soviet Union killed large numbers of Afghans to suppress their resistance. Up to 2 million Afghans were killed during the war, many of them by Soviet forces and their Afghan allies. In one notable incident the Soviet Army committed mass killing of civilians in the summer of 1980. One notable war crime was the Laghman massacre in April 1985 in the villages of Kas-Aziz-Khan, Charbagh, Bala Bagh, Sabzabad, Mamdrawer, Haider Khan and Pul-i-Joghi in the Laghman Province. At least 500 civilians were killed. In the Kulchabat, Bala Karz and Mushkizi massacre on 12 October 1983, the Red Army gathered 360 people at the village square and shot them, including 20 girls and over a dozen older people. The Rauzdi massacre and Padkhwab-e Shana massacre were also documented.
In order to separate the mujahideen from the local populations and eliminate their support, the Soviet army killed and drove off civilians, and used scorched earth tactics to prevent their return. They used booby traps, mines, and chemical substances throughout the country. The Soviet army indiscriminately killed combatants and noncombatants to ensure submission by the local populations. The provinces of Nangarhar, Ghazni, Lagham, Kunar, Zabul, Qandahar, Badakhshan, Lowgar, Paktia and Paktika witnessed extensive depopulation programmes by the Soviet forces. The Soviet forces abducted Afghan women in helicopters while flying in the country in search of mujahideen. In November 1980, a number of such incidents had taken place in various parts of the country, including Laghman and Kama. Soviet soldiers as well as KhAD agents kidnapped young women from the city of Kabul and the areas of Darul Aman and Khair Khana, near the Soviet garrisons, to rape them. Women who were taken and raped by soldiers were considered 'dishonoured' by their families if they returned home. Deserters from the Soviet Army in 1984 claimed that they had heard of Afghan women being raped. The rape of Afghan women by Soviet troops was common and 11.8 percent of the Soviet war criminals in Afghanistan were convicted for the offence of rape. There was an outcry against the press in the Soviet Union for depicting the Soviet "war heroes" as "murderers", "aggressors", "rapists" and "junkies".
Pressure in Azerbaijan (1988–1991)
Black January (), also known as Black Saturday or the January Massacre, was a violent crackdown in Baku on 19–20 January 1990, pursuant to a state of emergency during the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
In a resolution of 22 January 1990, the Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR declared that the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of 19 January, used to impose emergency rule in Baku and military deployment, constituted an act of aggression. Black January is associated with the rebirth of the Azerbaijan Republic. It was one of the occasions during the glasnost and perestroika era in which the USSR used force against dissidents.
According to official estimates of Azerbaijan, 147 civilians were killed, 800 people were injured, and five people went missing.
War crimes trials and legal prosecution
In 1995, Latvian courts sentenced former KGB officer Alfons Noviks to life in prison for genocide due to forced deportations in the 1940s.
In 2003, August Kolk (born 1924), an Estonian national, and Petr Kislyiy (born 1921), a Russian national, were convicted of crimes against humanity by Estonian courts and each sentenced to eight years in prison. They were found guilty of deportations of Estonians in 1949. Kolk and Kislyiy lodged a complaint at the European Court of Human Rights, alleging that the Criminal Code of 1946 of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) was valid at the time, applicable also in Estonia, and that the said Code had not provided for punishment of crimes against humanity. Their appeal was rejected since the court found that Resolution 95 of the United Nations General Assembly, adopted on 11 December 1946, confirmed deportations of civilians as a crime against humanity under international law.
In 2004, Vassili Kononov, a Soviet partisan during World War II, was convicted by Supreme Court of Latvia as a war criminal for killing three women, one of whom was pregnant."Case of Kononov v. Latvia", European Court of Human Rights. 17 May 2010. Retrieved 18 May 2010. He is the only former Soviet partisan convicted of crimes against humanity. The sentence was condemned by various high-ranking Russian officials.
On 27 March 2019, Lithuania convicted 67 former Soviet military and KGB officials who were given sentences of between four and 14 years for the crackdown against Lithuanian civilians in January 1991. Only two were present—Yuriy Mel, a former Soviet tank officer, and Gennady Ivanov, a former Soviet munitions officer—while the other were sentenced in absentia and are hiding in Russia.
In popular culture
Film
A Woman in Berlin (2008) depicts the mass sexual assaults committed by Soviet soldiers in the Soviet Zone of Occupied Germany. It is based on the diary of Marta Hillers.
Admiral (2008), a film set during the Russian Civil War, depicts Red soldiers and sailors committing numerous massacres of former members of the Imperial Russian Navy's officer corps.
The Beast (1988) a film set during the Soviet–Afghan War, depicts Red Army war crimes against civilian noncombatants and a Pashtun clan's quest for revenge.
Charlie Wilson's War (2007), set during the Soviet–Afghan War, accuses the Soviet State of systematic genocide against Afghan civilians. It is mentioned that Soviet forces are leaving no one alive and are even slaughtering livestock in order to starve the Afghan people into submission.
Katyń (2007), depicts the Katyn massacre through the eyes of its victims and the decades long battle by their families to learn the truth.
Literature
Prussian Nights (1974) a war poem by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. The narrator, a Red Army officer, approves of the troops' crimes as revenge for Nazi atrocities in Russia, and hopes to take part in the plundering himself. The poem describes the gang-rape of a Polish woman whom the Red Army soldiers had mistaken for a German. According to a review for The New York Times, Solzhenitsyn wrote the poem in trochaic tetrameter, "in imitation of, and argument with the most famous Russian war poem, Aleksandr Tvardovsky's Vasili Tyorkin."
Apricot Jam and Other Stories (2010) by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn. In a short story about Marshal Georgii Zhukov's futile attempts at writing his memoirs, the retired Marshal reminisces about serving against the peasant uprising in Tambov Province. He recalls Mikhail Tukhachevsky's arrival to take command of the campaign and his first address to his men. He announced that total war and scorched earth tactics are to be used against civilians who assist or even sympathize with the peasant rebels. Zhukov proudly recalls how Tukhachevsky's tactics were adopted and succeeded in breaking the uprising. In the process, however, they virtually depopulated the surrounding countryside.
A Man without Breath (2013) by Philip Kerr. A 1993 Bernie Gunther thriller which delves into the Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau's investigations of Soviet war crimes. Kerr noted in his Afterward that the Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau continued to exist until 1945. It has been written about in the book of the same name by Alfred M. de Zayas, published by the University of Nebraska Press in 1989. .
Art
On 12 October 2013 a then 26-year-old Polish art student, Jerzy Bohdan Szumczyk, erected a movable statue next to the Soviet World War II memorial in the Polish city of Gdańsk. The statue depicted a Soviet soldier attempting to rape a pregnant woman; pulling her hair with one hand whilst pushing a pistol into her mouth. Authorities removed the artwork because it had been erected without an official permit, but there was widespread interest in many online publications. The act promoted an angry reaction from the Russian ambassador in Poland.
See also
Allied war crimes during World War II
Anti-communist mass killings
Antisemitism in the Soviet Union
Crimes against humanity under communist regimes
Destruction battalions
Evacuation of East Prussia
Excess mortality in the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin
Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union
German war crimes
Human rights in the Soviet Union
Italian war crimes
Japanese POWs in the Soviet Union
Japanese war crimes
List of massacres in the Soviet Union
List of Soviet Union perpetrated war crimes
Mass graves in the Soviet Union
Mass killings under communist regimes
Mass operations of the NKVD
Military history of the Soviet Union
Military occupations by the Soviet Union
Nemmersdorf massacre
NKVD prisoner massacres
Operation Frühlingserwachen
Population transfer in the Soviet Union
Racism in the Soviet Union
Red Terror
Russian war crimes
United States war crimes
War crimes and atrocities of the Waffen-SS
War crimes of the Wehrmacht
Notes
References
Sources
Beevor, Antony, Berlin: The Downfall 1945, Penguin Books, 2002,
Bergstrom, Christer (2007). Barbarossa – The Air Battle: July–December 1941. London: Chevron/Ian Allan. .
de Zayas, Alfred-Maurice, The Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau, 1939–1945 (in Wikipedia). Preface by Professor Howard Levie. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. . New revised edition with Picton Press, Rockland, Maine, .
de Zayas, Alfred-Maurice, A Terrible Revenge. The Ethnic Cleansing of the East European Germans, 1944–1950, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1994,
Hall, Steve and Lionel Quinlan (2000). KG55: Greif Geshwader. Walton on Thames: Red Kite.
Hasting, Max, Armageddon: The Battle for Germany, 1944–1945, Chapter 10: Blood and Ice: East Prussia
Hillers, Marta, A Woman in Berlin: Six Weeks in the Conquered City Translated by Anthes Bell,
Fisch, Bernhard, Nemmersdorf, Oktober 1944. Was in Ostpreußen tatsächlich geschah. Berlin: 1997. .
Merridale, Catherine, Ivan's War, the Red Army 1939–1945, London: Faber and Faber, 2005,
Naimark, Norman M., The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949. Harvard University Press, 1995.
Toland, John, The Last 100 Days, Chapter Two: Five Minutes before Midnight
Walter, Elizabeth B., Barefoot in the Rubble 1997,
External links
The forgotten victims of WWII: Masculinities and rape in Berlin, 1945, James W. Messerschmidt, University of Southern Maine
Book Review: A Woman in Berlin: Eight Weeks in the Conquered City'',
Laws of War: Laws and Customs of War on Land (Hague IV); October 18, 1907
Swiss legation report of the Russian invasion of Hungary in the spring of 1945
German rape victims find a voice at last, Kate Connolly, The Observer, June 23, 2002
"They raped every German female from eight to 80", Antony Beevor, The Guardian, 1 May 2002
Excerpt, Chapter one The Struggle for Europe: The Turbulent History of a Divided Continent 1945–2002 – William I. Hitchcock – 2003 – ( The occupation of East Prussia)
Description of the atrocities of the Red Army in East Prussia, quotations from Ilya Ehrenburg, poems by anti-cruelty Red Army officers and details of suicides and rapings of German women and children in East Prussia.
Book Review: The Siege of Budapest: 100 Days in World War II
HNet review of The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949.
Mark Ealey: As World War II entered its final stages the belligerent powers committed one heinous act after another History News Network (Focus on the Asian front)
27 Jan 2002 on-line article regarding author Antony Beevor's references to Soviet rapes in Germany
Report of an eyewitness: Erika Morgenstern, who survived Königsberg 1945 as a child (in German): , ,
Aftermath of World War II in the Soviet Union
Crimes against humanity
war crimes
war crimes
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Persian Gulf Residency
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The Persian Gulf Residency () was a subdivision of the British Empire from 1822 until 1971, whereby the United Kingdom maintained varying degrees of political and economic control over several states in the Persian Gulf, including what is today known as the United Arab Emirates (formerly called the "Trucial States") and at various times southern portions of Persia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, and Qatar.
Historical background until 1900
British interest in the Persian Gulf originated in the sixteenth century and steadily increased as British India's importance rose in the imperial system of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In the beginning, the agenda was primarily of a commercial character. Realizing the region's significance, the British fleet supported the Persian emperor Shāh Abbās in expelling the Portuguese from Hormuz Island in 1622. In return, the British East India Company ("the Company") was permitted to establish a trading post in the coastal city of Bandar 'Abbās, which became their principal port in the Persian Gulf. Empowered by the charter of Charles II in 1661, the Company was responsible for conducting British foreign policy in the Persian Gulf, as well as concluding various treaties, agreements and engagements with Persian Gulf states in its capacity as the Crown's regional agent.
In 1763, the British East India Company established a residency at Bushehr, on the Persian side of the Gulf: this was followed by another residency in Basar several years later. The arrival in Persia in 1807 of a large French mission under General Gardane galvanized the British, both in London and Calcutta. They responded by sending a mission under Sir Harford Jones, which resulted in establishing the Preliminary Treaty of Friendship and Alliance with the Shah in 1809. Despite being modified during subsequent negotiations, this treaty provided the framework within which Anglo–Persian foreign relations operated for the next half century. Britain appointed Harford Jones as their first resident envoy to the Persian court in 1808. Until the appointment of Charles Alison as Minister in Tehran in 1860, the envoy and his staff were, with rare exceptions, almost exclusively recruited from the East India Company.
In the absence of formal diplomatic relations, the political resident conducted all necessary negotiations with Persian authorities and was described by Sir George Curzon as "the Uncrowned King of the Persian Gulf." Whether Persia liked it or not, the political resident had at his disposal naval forces with which to suppress piracy, slave trading, and gun running, and to enforce quarantine regulations; he also could, and did, put landing parties and punitive expeditions ashore on the Persia coast. In 1822, the Bushehr and Basar residencies were combined, with Bushehr serving as headquarters for the new position of "British Resident for the Persian Gulf." A chief political resident was the chief executive officer of the political unit, and he was subordinate to the Governor of Bombay until 1873 and the Governor-General of India until 1947, when India became independent. In 1858, the East India Company’s agency was transferred to the British Raj, who assumed authority of British foreign policy with Persian Gulf states: this responsibility went to the Foreign Office on 1 April 1947.
The Trucial States
British activity in the Persian Gulf was primarily a commercial pursuit. Thus, the British Raj was slow to take action in protecting British and Indian shipping against raids from Qawasim pirates. By 1817, the Qawasim were spreading terror along the Indian coast to within 70 miles of Bombay. This threat generated a British military expedition in 1819, which crushed the Qawasim confederation and resulted in ratification of the General Maritime Treaty on 5 January 1820. Through extension and modification, this treaty formed the basis of British policy in the Persian Gulf for a century and half. The ruler of Bahrain as well as sheikhs along the northern coast of Oman pledged to maintain peace between their tribes and Britain and accepted clauses prohibiting slavery and cruel treatment of prisoners. The treaty further stipulated that the ships of maritime tribes would be freely admitted at British ports. While the treaty obviously served British interests, because it was sensibly magnanimous and aimed at securing all parties' interests, it effectively ended piracy in the Persian Gulf. Articles 6 and 10 authorized the British Residency in the Persian Gulf to act as maritime police to administer the treaty's conditions and resolve tribal disputes. Article 7 condemned piracy among Arab tribes and implied a British obligation to maintain peace. The trucial system took explicit form in 1835, when raids by Bani Yas tribesmen, rivals of the Qawasim, led to a British-imposed truce during the summer pearling season. The truce was made year-long in 1838 and renewed annually until 1843 when it was extended for ten years.
The trucial system received formal permanency with the "1853 Treaty of Maritime Peace in Perpetuity." The British policy of non-involvement in the internal affairs of the Trucial sheikhs was abandoned with passage of the "Exclusive Agreement" in March 1892. This agreement prohibited the Trucial rulers from yielding territorial sovereignty without British consent. Britain, moreover, assumed responsibility for foreign relations and thus, by implication, their protection. This treaty marked Britain's shift from commercial to strategic priorities and formed the diplomatic pillar of British authority in the Trucial states.
Post World War I
In the years following World War I, the Trucial sheikhs found their capacity to act independently being continuously curtailed by the British. This was partially a result of Britain shifting attention away from Iran, where Reza Shah's nationalist assertion of power undercut their hegemony. It also reflected growing commercial and imperial communications interests, such as air route facilities. For example, according to agreements concluded in February 1922, the Trucial sheikhs pledged themselves not to allow the exploitation of oil resources in their territories except by "persons appointed by the British government". Even more restrictive was the ultimatum issued by the political resident in 1937 requiring Trucial states to do business exclusively with Petroleum Concessions Ltd., a wholly owned subsidiary of the London-based Iraq Petroleum Company, which was itself partly owned by the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC). Instead of reflecting higher demand for oil (England then had adequate supply), this ultimatum was designed to block other parties out of the economic and political affairs of the Trucial States.
In 1946, the Persian Gulf residency left its location in Bushehr and relocated to a new base in Bahrain. However, while Reza Shah succeeded in removing Britain from Iranian territory, his efforts to curtail their role in the Iranian oil industry backfired, and led to an extension of the concession operated by the British government-owned Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. From their new base in Bahrain, the British resident directed other political agents in Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and Oman until those regions became independent.
Duties of the Residency
On 1 April 1947, the British political residency came under the authority of the Foreign Office, 'graded' as an ambassador in the Persian Gulf. The political resident accomplished his obligations by using a network of representatives known as political agents, operating in Bahrain, Qatar, Dubai and Abu Dhabi. Additionally, political officers were retained for the remaining Trucial states, acting under the British Agency at Dubai. Foreign relations in Muscat were conducted by a Consul-General, who was also, administratively, answerable to the resident in Bahrain. Through his political agents the resident preserved close connections with Persian Gulf rulers – simultaneously protecting their political and economic interests and the British government's on the basis of established treaties and agreements. According to Rupert Hay, the sheikhs enjoyed control over internal affairs, with Britain "ordinarily only exercises control in matters involving negotiations or the possibility of complications with foreign powers, such as civil aviation, posts and telegraphs." However, Hay added that "constant advice and encouragement are… offered to various rulers regarding improvement of their administrations and development of their resources, mostly in an informal manner".
The resident also administered British extraterritorial jurisdiction, which had been exercised in certain Persian Gulf territories since 1925. Extraterritorial jurisdiction was ceded to Britain in the 19th century by virtue of informal agreements with various rulers. In Muscat it was based on formal agreements that were renewed periodically. Extraterritorial jurisdiction was originally applied to all resident classes in Persian Gulf states, but was later limited to British subjects, Commonwealth nationals and non-Muslim foreigners. Britain relinquished extraterritorial jurisdiction in Kuwait on 4 May 1961, transferring jurisdiction over all classes of foreigners to Kuwaiti courts. British extraterritorial jurisdiction in the Persian Gulf was implemented in accordance with the British Foreign Jurisdiction Acts of 1890–1913, which empowered the Crown to establish courts and legislate for the categories of persons subject to jurisdiction by means of Orders in Council.
Regarding the resident's role in concluding concession agreements between rulers and foreign oil companies, Hay says: 'The oil companies naturally bulk largely in the political resident's portfolio. He has to closely watch all negotiations for new agreements or the amendment of existing agreements and ensure that nothing is decided which will seriously affect the position or the rulers of the British government…' The same author also refers to what he terms political agreements, to which, he says, oil companies’ are all bound… with the British government… in addition to their concession agreements with the rulers…' 'One of the main objects of these', he continues, 'is to ensure that their relations with the rulers in all matters of importance are conducted through, or with, the knowledge of British political officers'.
Protectorates under the Residency
Trucial States, precursor of the United Arab Emirates (1820–1971)
Bahrain (1861–1971)
Muscat and Oman (limited protectorate and intervention in internal affairs, 1892–1971)
Kuwait (1899–1961)
Qatar (1916–1971)
Chronology: 1763–1971
1763: British Residency established at Bušehr in Persia by the British East India Company.
1798: Sultan of Muscat signed a treaty giving the British East India Company exclusive trading rights, in return for an annual British stipend.
1809: Preliminary Treaty of Friendship and Alliance is concluded between Britain and the shah. While modified in subsequent negotiations (Definitive Treaty of Friendship and Alliance, 1812; Treaty of Tehran, 1814), remained the framework of Anglo–Persian relations over the next half century.
8 Jan 1820 – 15 March 1820: General Maritime Treaty with Britain and sheikhs in the "Trucial Coast States" and Bahrain, abolishing slave trade and forbidding piracy and warfare between the states (This last point was never fully implemented).
1822: Persian Gulf residency established by Britain.
1822 – 1873: Subordinated to the Governor of Bombay.
1835: Treaty with the Trucial States, installing a truce of six months a year, during the pearling season.
1843: Treaty renews the treaty of 1835 for ten years.
1853: Treaty with Trucial States, renewing the treaty of 1835 for an unlimited time period.
1856 – 1857: Anglo-Persian War and proclamation of jihad by Nasereddin Shah.
1858: Act of 1858 is passed, transferring powers of the East India Company to the British government of India.
1861: Protectorate treaty with Bahrain (completed by treaties of 2 December 1880 and 1892).
1873 – 1947: Subordinate to Governor-General of India (from 1946 resident in Bahrain).
1873: Trucial states start being administered by the British.
8 Mar 1892 – 1 December 1971: Informal protectorate with Muscat and Oman, and a formal protectorate with the Trucial States. This new agreement includes the sheikhs giving the British effective control over foreign policy: British offer military protection in return.
1899: Protectorate treaty with Kuwait (completed 3 November 1914).
1906: Constitutional Revolution in Arabia.
3 Nov 1916: Protectorate treaty with Qatar.
1920: Treaty of Seeb is signed recognizing the independence of the imamate of Oman.
1939: British residency established in the Trucial States at Dubai.
1946: Headquarters of the Persian Gulf residency is moved from Bushehr to Manama.
1947: With Indian independence imminent, the Persian Gulf Residency is transferred to the control of the British Foreign Office.
1961: Termination of protectorate over Kuwait and its complete independence.
1962: Great Britain declares Muscat and Oman an independent nation.
Jan 1968: Britain announces its decision to withdraw from the Persian Gulf, including the Trucial States, by 1971.
16 Dec 1971: Termination of British protectorate and military presence in the Persian Gulf.
Political Agents
Agents:
1763 – 1812 : ....
c.1798 : Mirza Mahdi Ali Khan
c.1810 : Hankey Smith
1812 – 1822 : William Bruce (acting to 1813)
Chief political residents of the Persian Gulf :
(for Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and the Trucial States)
1822 – 1823 : John Macleod
1823 – 1827 : Ephraim Gerrish Stannus
1827 – 1831 : David Wilson
1831 – 1835 : David Alexander Blane
1835 – 1838 : James Morrison
1838 – 1852 : Samuel Hennell
1852 – 1856 : Arnold Burrowes Kemball
1856 – 1862 : James Felix Jones
1862 : Herbert Frederick Disbrowe (acting)
1862 – 1872: Lewis Pelly
1872 – 1891: Edward Charles Ross
1891 – 1893 : Adelbert Cecil Talbot
1893 : Stuart Hill Godfrey (acting)
1893 : James Hayes Sadler (1st time)(acting)
1893: James Adair Crawford (acting)
1893 – 1894 : James Hayes Sadler (2nd time)(acting)
1894 – 1897 : Frederick Alexander Wilson
1897 – 1900 : Malcolm John Meade
1900 – 1904 : Charles Arnold Kemball (acting)
1904 – 1920: Percy Zachariah Cox
- Acting for Cox -
1913 – 1914 : John Gordon Lorimer
1914 : Richard Lockinton Birdwood
1914 : Stuart George Knox (1st time)
1915 : Stuart George Knox (2nd time)
1915 – 1917 : Arthur Prescott Trevor (1st time)
1917 – 1919 : John Hugo Bill
1919 : Cecil Hamilton Gabriel
1919 – 1920: Arthur Prescott Trevor (2nd time)
1920: Arnold Talbot Wilson (acting)
1920 – 1924 : Arthur Prescott Trevor
1924 – 1927 : Francis Bellville Prideaux
1927 – 1928 : Lionel Berkeley Holt Haworth
1928 – 1929 : Frederick William Johnston
1929 : Cyril Charles Johnson Barrett (acting)
1929 – 1932: Hugh Vincent Biscoe
1932 – 1939: Trenchard Craven William Fowle
1939 – 1946: Charles Geoffrey Prior
1946 – 1953: Rupert Hay (from 1952, Sir Rupert)
1953 – 1958: Bernard Burrows (from 1955, Sir Bernard)
1958 – 1961: Sir George Middleton
1961 – 1966: Sir William Henry Tucker Luce
1966 – 1970: Sir Robert Stewart Crawford
1970 – 15 August 1971: Sir Geoffrey Arthur
People mentioned in the Residency Correspondence
In the correspondence of the Persian Gulf Residency, archived at the India Office Records and digitised by the Qatar Digital Library, many regional figures are mentioned:
Shaikh Abdoolla Russool Khan
Rahma bin Jaber
Abdoolla bin Ahmed
See also
Pax Britannica
Bahrain Province
Further reading
Blyth, Robert J., The Empire of the Raj
Shadle, Robert (1991), Historical Dictionary of European Imperialism. Greenwood Press, pp 409
G. Lucas, "Memorandum on the Cultivation and Exportation of Opium in Persia," Annual Report on the Administration of the Persian Gulf Residency from the Year 1874–75, pp. 26–30.
G. Lucas, "Memorandum on the Cultivation of Opium in Persia," Annual Report on the Administration of the Persian Gulf Residency from the Year 1878–79, pp. 31–39.
Dr. H. al-Baharna LL.B (1998). British Extra-Territorial Jurisdiction in the Gulf 1913–1971
Mehr, Farhang. A Colonial Legacy: The Dispute Over the Islands of Abu Musa, and the Greater and Lesser Tumbs, University Press of America
Onley, James. The Persian frontier of the British Raj
Albaharna, Husain M., (1968). Legal Status of the Persian Gulf States: Study of Their Treaty Relations and Their International Problems
British Residency in Persian Gulf
Notes
References
External links
Qatar Digital Library - an online portal providing access to previously undigitised British Library archive materials relating to Gulf history and Arabic science
Residencies of British India
1763 establishments in Asia
1971 disestablishments in Asia
18th century in Iran
19th century in Iran
20th century in Iran
19th century in Bahrain
20th century in Bahrain
History of Kuwait
History of Dubai
19th century in Dubai
20th century in Dubai
Bahrain–United Kingdom relations
Iran–United Kingdom relations
Kuwait–United Kingdom relations
Oman–United Kingdom relations
Qatar–United Kingdom relations
United Arab Emirates–United Kingdom relations
Trucial States
18th-century establishments in the British Empire
Extraterritorial jurisdiction
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipstick%20feminism
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Lipstick feminism
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Lipstick feminism is a variety of feminism that seeks to embrace traditional concepts of femininity, including the sexual power of women, alongside traditional feminist ideas. The concept emerged within the third-wave as a response to ideals created by previous movements, where women felt that they could not both be feminine and a feminist.
Unlike the early feminist campaigns that focused on the basic fundamental rights of women, starting with the Women's Suffrage Movement, lipstick feminism seeks to prove that women can still be feminists without ignoring or negating their femininity and sexuality. During the second wave of feminism, feminists focused solely on the legal and social equality of women. Feminists of this era refused to 'embrace' their sexuality. Some second wave feminists abhorred the idea of men. As a result, they would often take on physical male characteristics and a persona that was far from what the average woman looked like. This created the stereotype of feminism, and the stereotypical imagery of what a feminist should look like.
Despite the stereotypes surrounding feminism and the dominant social narratives surrounding feminism during their time, women like Zora Neale Hurston and Emma Goldman argued that by using philosophical ideas of aesthetics and ideas of femininity, it is possible to empower and analyze the ways that gender works in everyday life. Lipstick feminism embraces the ideals of womanhood and the sensualities of a woman. Scholars of lipstick feminism believe that women have a right to act in accordance with passion and sexuality. In one sense, the successes of second-wave feminism made it possible to reclaim aspects of femininity that were seen as disempowering, like make-up or stilettos.
History
Lipstick feminism is a movement created of the third wave of feminism, following second wave feminism. The second wave of feminism emerged in the US around 1960. This wave challenged America's beauty industry and its standards by protesting in a boycott of items considered to be feminine. These items included bras, girdles, curlers, false eye lashes, and magazines catered to women. Boycotting these items as well as embracing unorthodox appearances of women, such as unshaved legs and wearing no makeup, became a liberation mark for the second wave feminists. From early literature to date, the appearance of femininity has always had a negative relationship with feminism. During the eighteenth century, writings of Wollstonecraft criticized women who focused on their beauty, calling them "feather birds" with nothing to do besides plume themselves. Some time after, Simone de Beauvoir implored women to go beyond their bodies by rejecting emotional responses and the superficiality of beauty. De Beauvoir urged that this was the way to equality for women. Fashion, glamour and beauty have always been viewed as superficial and problematic. Second wave feminism viewed these as bondage, being oppressive and exploitative.
Third wave feminism was birthed out of the demands of the second wave of feminism. Women wanted to continue to fight for equality and to continue their activist work, while not fitting into the box of what society felt a feminist should look like. While second wave feminism focused more on political activism and pushing the beauty ideals away, lipstick feminism embraced both beauty standards and political activisms.
History of Lipstick
The history of lipstick is intertwined with the struggle for women's empowerment, as its usage has evolved from a symbol of social stigma to an emblem of defiance and agency.
Early stigmatization and resistance
Prior to the 1920s, lipstick in the Western world was something ‘nice girls’ did not wear. Women refrained from wearing lipstick due to religious beliefs, ethnic cultural traditions and concepts of respectability. There was a strong association between lipstick and prostitution and a belief that altering one’s face interfered with the handiwork of God.
Because of prejudice against lipstick, lipstick has been employed to resist and challenge gendered norms for feminists, becoming a tool of political engagement and activism to revise societal rules and foster social change. These acts of resistance range from the everyday, to the collective to the institutionalized. Historical prohibitions against lipstick – whether legal or due to social stigmatization – simply drove the beauty practice underground, with women devising do-it-yourself alternatives, including pressing lips into red crepe paper, licking lips with red ribbons and complex homemade concoctions.
Suffragettes and the heroic representation of lipstick
The heroic representation of wearing lipstick – particularly red lipstick – as an act of agency can be traced back to the suffragette movement, which advocate for women's right to vote in the early 20th century.
In 1912, Makeup entrepreneur Elizabeth Arden distributed tubes of her ‘Red Door Red’ lipstick to 15,000 suffragettes as they marched in New York City.
In fighting for women’s rights, the suffragettes were portrayed as mannish ‘shrieking sisters’ who failed to comply with gender norms. To dispel such perceptions, the suffragettes sought to present a more feminine appearance, donning delicate white tea dresses with purple and green accents – the colors of royalty and growth. Yet, as an act of defiance they also wore red lipstick – with the express intent of appalling men due to the historical social proscription of lipstick.
From 1939 to 1945, during World War II, makeup was used to disrupt wartime masculine codes of power. Red lipstick, which was despised by Adolf Hitler, became a symbol of resilient femininity and patriotism. This was reflected in the names given to lipsticks, including ‘Fighting Red!’, ‘Patriot Red!’ and ‘Grenadier Red!’. There were also wartime propaganda posters, like the iconic Rosie the Riveter image, depicted women with soft red lipstick.
The liberation of female sexuality
In 1953, lipstick came to symbolize something that a woman could wear to please herself and explore her sexuality, as a sexually autonomous, active and desiring subject. The marketing of lipstick as something that a woman wore for her own pleasure and satisfaction was first enacted in Revlon’s Fire and Ice advertisement that asked women, ‘Are you made for Fire and Ice?’, with the face of the brand Dorian Leigh posed confidently yet seductively, clad in a fitted, sparkling dress, with bright red lips and without a man in sight. Revlon's Fire & Ice ad empowered women to wear makeup for themselves for the first time, taking men out of the equation.
It asked questions like, "Do you blush when you find yourself flirting," or "Would you streak your hair with platinum without consulting your husband," and if you answered yes to eight out of the 15 questions, then you were ready for the lipstick. The aim was to show there was a little bit of bad in every woman, even if she was a church-going suburbanite wife.
Inclusivity and representation in the modern era
For a long time, the marketing of lipstick as representing and for white women meant that access to cosmetic products was historically difficult for women of color. However, the market is slowly changing. In 2017, Barbadian singer/celebrity Rihanna’s Fenty Beauty brand is credited with disrupting the modern beauty industry by designing more racially inclusive lip colors to complement an array of skin tones. Additionally, the line has been promoted by a diverse and inclusive range of women. In the same year, Mented, which is short for pigmented, was founded by KJ Miller and Amanda E. Johnson, two African-American women who were both frustrated with the inability to find nude lipstick. Mented launched with six nude and neutral lipsticks designed for deeper skin tones.
Also in 2017, 69-year-old Maye Musk was named as a CoverGirl brand ambassador for the 'I am what I makeup' campaign. Also in 2012, fashion icon Iris Apfel, aged in her 90s, collaborated with MAC Cosmetics to produce a line of ‘unapologetically bold’ lipsticks, representing a step toward upending ageist notions of beauty.
Criticisms
Nineteen and early twentieth century debates criticized the practice of doing things to change or improve one’s appearance. People of the time believed that beauty and virtue were intertwined, so to focus on one’s beauty was abandoning the improvement of one’s virtue. Sentiments began to change once marketing made "paint and powder" cosmetics more easily accessible. The stigma around beauty practices started to diminish, and began being seen as a form of self expression as well as improving one’s chances to be desired for a marriage.
Debates
The issue of whether it is possible to be a feminist while embracing femininity, particularly through the use of lipstick, has sparked debates within feminist circles for years. The ideology of lipstick feminism asserts that one can wear lipstick and still identify as a feminist, as feminism encompasses far more than superficial appearances. However, this viewpoint has faced criticism from some feminists who argue that engaging in displays of femininity and sexuality contradicts the pursuit of gender equality.
The concept of choice
At the heart of this tension lies the concept of choice. Many feminists acknowledge that a woman's autonomy and freedom to make choices are fundamental principles of feminism. However, the notion of choice has become a complex and contentious topic among feminist scholars. On one hand, some emphasize the importance of individual choice, valuing the freedom to express oneself in ways that align with personal preferences. They argue that any limitation on a woman's choices undermines the essence of feminism.
On the other hand, there are feminists who critique the notion of individual choice, recognizing that societal structures and patriarchal norms significantly influence and constrain women's choices. They argue that viewing individual choices as purely liberating and politically acceptable can obscure the larger systemic inequalities and power dynamics that shape women's lives. By solely focusing on personal choices, there is a risk of neglecting the need for collective action to challenge and transform these oppressive structures.
This ongoing debate within feminism reflects the diversity of perspectives and approaches within the movement. Some feminists prioritize individual agency and personal empowerment, while others emphasize the examination of societal norms and systemic inequalities. Ultimately, the question of whether wearing lipstick aligns with feminist ideals varies depending on one's interpretation of feminism and their understanding of the complexities surrounding choice and gender equality.
Language
This movement not only worked to physically empower feminists, but linguistically as well. Lipstick feminism embraces double-standard insults by redefining their meaning and to eliminate the social stigma applied to a woman whose sexual behavior was "patriarchally" interpreted to denote "immoral woman" and libertine. This is seen with words such as:
- Chick: first used to describe women as literal chicks with the implication of cowardice and fragility, transformed into a word with the connotation of property to men. The word was applied in literature with ironic uses as a way to target the patriarchal standards set for women, creating chick literature heroines within works such as Sex and the City.
- Bitch: lipstick feminists recognize that this word is often used towards outspoken women who do not shy away from expressing themselves thus seeing it more positively.
- Slut: as lipstick feminists fight for sexual liberation, reclaiming the word slut has been imperative as it has always been used as a double-standard when discussing sexuality amongst men and women. The reclaiming of this word has helped to spur the transnational movement of the SlutWalk.
These are a few words among many, and by using linguistics to empower the movement the abrasiveness is being removed from these words, thus ensuring these labels are no longer pejorative. This redefining developed, in part, as a response to the ideological backlash against radical varieties of second-wave feminism. Redefining terms were also influenced from the negative stereotypes generated during the second wave of feminism, such as "ugly feminist" or the "anti-sex feminist". In one sense, the successes of second-wave feminism made it possible to reclaim aspects of femininity that were seen as disempowering, like make-up or stilettos.
Philosophy
Philosophically, lipstick feminism proposes that a woman can be empowered – psychologically, socially, politically – by the wearing of cosmetic make up, sensually-appealing clothes, and the embrace of sexual allure for her own self-image as a confidently sexual being. The rhetoric of choice and empowerment is used to validate such overt sexual practices, because they no longer represent coerced acquiescence to societally established gender roles, such as "the good girl," "the decent woman," "the abnegated mother," or "the virtuous sister" et aliæ.
Other feminists object that the so-called empowerment of lipstick feminism is a philosophic contradiction wherein a woman chooses to sexually objectify herself, and so ceases to be her own woman, in control neither of her self nor of her person. Feminist scholars have often discussed whether or not the decision to perform traditional gendered actions, such as shaving your legs and wearing short skirts can be considered an act of empowerment. Feminist scholars like Fionnghuala Sweeney and Kathy Davis argue that there is a freedom that can come from understanding and embracing gender norms of sexuality as a means of freeing yourself from the stereotypes of women in society. Lipstick feminism counter-proposes that the practice of sexual allure is a form of social power in the interpersonal relations between a man and a woman, which may occur in the realms of cultural, social, and gender equality. Scholars have pointed out the contradictions between feminist viewpoints and traditional gender roles. Scholar Kathy Davis wrote, "feminist scholars need to ground their normative, theoretical critique of passion in a grounded analysis of what the experience of passion feels like and what it means to those who have it, but it also suggests contradictions between feminist theory and embodied experience are a useful starting point for reflecting critically on some of the silences within feminist theory itself."
Stiletto feminism
Stiletto feminism, a more ideologically radical variety of lipstick feminism, sees the postmodern use of fetish fashion as empowering; and extends the argument from the acceptance of makeup, to the validity of women practicing occupations specifically predicated upon female physical beauty, such as working as a striptease dancer or as a pole dancer, as well as flashing or sapphic exhibitionism.
Lipstick Feminism in Media
Lipstick feminism has become one of the most prominent feminist themes within film, especially in the 2000s. Many of these pieces of media often depict these heroines as using their femininity to their advantage, and a refusal to conform to more normative standards that would force them to become less feminine.
This movement is represented in the film Legally Blonde as it follows a former sorority girl, Elle, who gets a Juris Doctor degree from Harvard Law School, overcoming the stereotypes against blondes and triumphs as a successful lawyer without giving up her feminine qualities. She first attends law school in the hopes of getting back together with an ex-boyfriend, but she finds her passion for law and becomes serious about it. As she buckles down other students give her a hard time about how she looks and the slang she uses when she speaks, but this did not deter her as she would continue partaking in feminine acts such as getting her nails done and wearing elaborate outfits. A scene depicts one of her law professors encouraging her to apply for an internship and she hands him a pink and scented resume, a clear representation of her shamelessly using femininity as a strength.
Sex and the City, although having received some feminist critique, is one of the first television shows to unapologetically depict female sexual autonomy and critique the narrative surrounding traditional relationships. The series follows the lives of four women living within New York City, navigating their relationships and sex lives together while tackling themes such as safe sex, promiscuity, and femininity. Each woman is challenging societal expectations and depicts qualities that television shows strayed away from at the time. Carrie, the lead, was presented as an everywoman figure with her anxieties, insecurities, and emotional needs on the forefront. Charlotte was a representation of traditional ideals as she yearned for marriage and was the least promiscuous, a quintessential hopeless romantic. Miranda was a direct and fiery lawyer who often was distrustful of the men in her life. Samantha was the oldest, in her forties while the others in their thirties, and she was the most promiscuous and confident in herself as a businesswoman. While it may take patriarchal discussions to the extreme at times, it is a key piece of media in furthering sexual liberation and sex positivity, a vibrant representation of what lipstick feminism is about. The depictions of excessive and complex breakups, career-oriented women, owning of sexuality, and the blunt dialogue all exhibit feminist ideals that broke through societal barriers at the time of release in 1998.
Bust magazine
BUST is a magazine and website that provides news, entertainment, celebrity, lifestyle, and fashion from a feminist perspective. BUST was founded in New York City in 1993 by Debbie Stoller, Laurie Henzel, and Marcelle Karp. They wanted to create a positive and outspoken women's magazine for their generation. BUST has become emblematic of ‘girlie’ feminism, a form of ‘third-wave’ feminist engagement that revalues activities and interests traditionally associated with femininity, such as knitting, fashion, and make-up. On the official website of BUST, it said “With an attitude that is fierce, funny, and proud to be female, BUST addresses a refreshing variety of young women’s interests, including celebrity interviews, music, fashion, art, crafting, sex, and news. Hip, humorous, and honest, BUST is a cheeky celebration of all things female and a trusted authority on up-and-coming trends among discerning, educated, and culturally aware women.”
See also
References
Further reading
F. R. Levy, Female Chauvinist Pigs (2005).
Sylvia Walby, The Future of Feminism (2011).
Reflections on Non-Imperialist, Feminist Values, Meyers (2021)
Feminism and Futurity: Geographies of resistance, resilience and reworking, MacLeavy, Fanning, Larner.
This is What a Feminist Looks Like: Identification and Exploration of the Factors Underlying the Concept of Feminism and Predicting the Endorsement of Traditional Gender Role Kaitlyn McLaughlin, Shelley Aikman
External links
"Lipstick Feminists", by Elizabeth Austin. Washington Monthly, Nov, 1998.
"Lipstick helped feminism"
Banana Powder UK
Lipstick
Femininity
Feminist theory
Third-wave feminism
Feminist movements and ideologies
Cultural studies
Feminism and sexuality
Underground culture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Baltimore
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List of people from Baltimore
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This is a list of famous or notable people who were born in or lived in Baltimore, Maryland.
A
Horace Abbott (1806–1887), born in Sudbury, Massachusetts, moved to Baltimore in 1836, iron manufacturer, supplied the armor for USS Monitor
Arunah Shepherdson Abell (1806–1888), born in East Providence, Rhode Island, founder of the Baltimore Sun
David T. Abercrombie (1867–1931), born in and raised in Baltimore, founder of Abercrombie & Fitch
Don Abney (1923–2000), jazz pianist
Rosalie Silber Abrams (1916–2009), first female and Jewish majority leader in Maryland State Senate
Henry Adams (1858 Germany – 1929 Baltimore), prominent mechanical engineer, co-founder of ASHVE
Otto Eugene Adams (1889–1968), architect
Charles Adler Jr. (1899–1980), inventor
Larry Adler (1914–2001), harmonica player
Spiro T. Agnew (1918–1996), born in Baltimore County; Governor of Maryland and Vice-President of the United States under Richard Nixon
Felix Agnus (1839–1925), Union Army general, editor and publisher of Baltimore American newspaper, buried under Black Aggie
John W. Albaugh (1837–1909), actor
Franklin A. Alberger (1825–1877), Mayor of Buffalo, New York
William Albert (1816–1879), U.S. Representative, born in Baltimore
Grant Aleksander (born 1959), actor
John Aler (born 1949), lyric tenor
Hattie Alexander (1901–1968), pediatrician and microbiologist
Robert Alexander (1863–1941), World War I general, commander of 77th Infantry Division
Devin Allen, photographer and photojournalist
All Time Low, pop punk band formed in Baltimore by Jack Barakat, Rian Dawson, Alex Gaskarth, and Zack Merrick
Yari Allnutt (born 1970), soccer player
Cecilia Altonaga (born 1962), judge of United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida
Rafael Alvarez (born 1958), journalist
John Patrick Amedori (born 1987), actor
Tori Amos (born 1963), born in North Carolina, grew up in Baltimore; singer, songwriter and pianist
Adrian Amos (born 1993), safety for the Green Bay Packers
William H. Amoss (1936–1997), politician, former Maryland State Senator
Charles W. Anderson, awarded Medal of Honor
Curt Anderson (born 1949), politician, broadcast journalist, member of Maryland House of Delegates
Mignon Anderson (1892–1983), silent film actress
Richard Snowden Andrews (1830–1903), architect, Confederate officer
Peter Angelos (born 1929), born in Pittsburgh, attorney, owner of the Baltimore Orioles
Carmelo Anthony (born 1984), born in New York, grew up in Baltimore; professional basketball player formerly for the Oklahoma City Thunder, New York Knicks, Denver Nuggets, and Houston Rockets
George Armistead (1780–1818), born in Virginia, Commander of Fort McHenry during the Battle of Baltimore
Lewis Addison Armistead (1817–1863), born in North Carolina, Confederate general mortally wounded at Gettysburg, buried in Baltimore
Annie Armstrong (1850–1938), Baptist missionary
Bess Armstrong (born 1953), actress
John S. Arnick (1933–2006), politician, former member of the Maryland House of Delegates
Howard Ashman (1950–1991), Academy Award-winning lyricist (The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, Little Shop of Horrors)
John Astin (born 1930), TV and film actor, Gomez Addams on The Addams Family television series
Lisa Aukland (born 1957), professional bodybuilder and powerlifter
Robert Austrian (1916–2007), physician, medical researcher, winner of Albert Lasker Clinical Medical Research Award
Tavon Austin (born 1991), wide receiver for Dallas Cowboys
Flo Ayres (born 1923), nationally known radio actress
Leah Ayres (born 1957), actress
B
David Bachrach (1845–1921), lived in Baltimore, photographer, took only known photo of Lincoln giving the Gettysburg Address; uncle to Gertrude Stein
Penn Badgley (born 1986), born in Baltimore, actor, Dan Humphrey from Gossip Girl
Russell Baker (1925–2019), raised in Baltimore, writer, political columnist for The New York Times
Virginia S. Baker (1921–1998), nicknamed "Baltimore's First Lady of Fun", the Patterson Park Recreation Center in Baltimore City is named in her honor
Florence E. Bamberger (1882–1965), American pedagogue, school supervisor, and progressive education advocate
Louis Bamberger (1855–1944), businessman, department store owner, and philanthropist
Joshua Barney (1759–1818), commodore in U.S. Navy
John Barth (born 1930), author
Gary Bartz (born 1940), jazz saxophonist
Bernadette Bascom (born 1962), R&B singer
Robbie Basho (1940–1986), guitarist and singer
Marty Bass, WJZ-TV weatherman
Isaac Rieman Baxley (1850–1920), poet
Sylvia Beach (1887–1962), owned Shakespeare and Company, key bookstore for expatriates in Paris
Madison Smartt Bell (born 1957), novelist and professor at Goucher College
Jacob Beser (1921–1992), only person to crew both atomic bomb missions in World War II
Caleb Biggers (born 1999), American football player
Eubie Blake (1887–1983), composer of ragtime, jazz and popular music
Shelly Blake-Plock (born 1974), entrepreneur and musician
Nili Block (born 1995), Israeli world champion kickboxer and Muay Thai fighter
Clarence W. Blount (1921–2003), Maryland State Senate
A. Aubrey Bodine (1906–1970), photojournalist for The Baltimore Sun
Tyrone "Muggsy" Bogues (born 1965), professional basketball player
John R. Bolton (born 1958), National Security Advisor of the United States, former United States Ambassador to the United Nations
Charles Joseph Bonaparte (1851–1921), U.S. Attorney General, Secretary of the Navy, relative of Napoleon
Keith Booth (born 1974), Maryland Terrapins assistant coach, former Chicago Bulls player
William S. Booze (1862–1933), former U.S. Congressman for Maryland's 3rd District
Julie Bowen (Julie Bowen Luetkemeyer; born 1970), film and TV actress, star of Modern Family
Ryan Boyle (born 1981), MLL and NLL lacrosse player, graduate of the Gilman School
Cora Belle Brewster (1859 – after 1906), physician, surgeon, medical writer, editor
Flora A. Brewster (1852–1919), Baltimore's first women surgeon
Margaret Sutton Briscoe (1864–1941), American short story writer
Conrad Brooks (1931–2017), B movie actor
George William Brown, Mayor of Baltimore during Pratt Street Riot
Rosey Brown (1932–2004), football star for New York Giants; member of Pro Football Hall of Fame; attended Morgan State University in Baltimore
James M. Buchanan (1803–1876), Judge and U.S. Ambassador to Denmark
Robert C. Buchanan (1811–1878), Union army general
Tony Bunn (born 1957), jazz bassist, composer, producer
Elise Burgin (born 1962), tennis player
Elizabeth Burmaster (born 1954), Superintendent of Public Instruction of Wisconsin
Beverly Lynn Burns (born 1949), became first woman Boeing 747 airline captain on July 18, 1984
Ed Burns (born 1946), screenwriter and former homicide and narcotics police detective
David Byrne (born 1952), songwriter for new wave band Talking Heads, grew up in Baltimore County
C
Cab Calloway (1907–1994), jazz singer and bandleader, raised in Baltimore
Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore (1605–1675), proprietary governor
Leonard Calvert (1606–1647), first governor of Province of Maryland
Nick Campofreda (1914–1959), NFL player
Ben Cardin (born 1943), member of United States Senate and former member of United States House of Representatives
Meyer Cardin (1907–2005), Democratic state delegate (1936–38), former Judge Baltimore City Supreme Bench
John Carroll (1735–1815), first Roman Catholic archbishop in U.S.
Ben Carson (born 1951), born and raised in Detroit, Michigan; United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development; noted neurosurgeon at Johns Hopkins Hospital
Hetty Cary (1836–1892), maker of one of first three battle flags of the Confederacy
Sam Cassell (born 1969), professional basketball player and coach
Brett Cecil (born 1986), Major League Baseball pitcher for the St. Louis Cardinals
Rome Cee (born 1982), American rapper
Dennis Chambers (born 1959), drummer (P-Funk All Stars, Steely Dan)
Norman "Chubby" Chaney (1914–1936), short-lived child actor, Our Gang
Josh Charles (born 1971), actor, Sports Night, The Good Wife, Dead Poets Society
Charley Chase (Parrott) (1893–1940), silent and sound film comedian, director
Samuel Chase (1741–1811), signer of Declaration of Independence and US Supreme Court judge
Robert F. Chew (1960–2013), actor, The Wire
John Christ (born 1965), rock musician, Danzig classic lineup guitarist
Tom Clancy (1947–2013), author of The Hunt for Red October and many other novels, several of which were made into motion pictures
Martha Clarke (born 1944), modern choreographer
Mary Pat Clarke (born 1941), Baltimore City Council
Kevin Clash (born 1960), puppeteer best known for portrayal of Elmo on Sesame Street
Charles Pearce Coady (1868–1934), U.S. Congressman (D) for Maryland's 3rd District, 1913–1921
Ta-Nehisi Coates (born 1975), MacArthur Fellow and National Book Award winning author of Between the World and Me
Andy Cohen (1904–1988), Major League Baseball second baseman and coach
Claribel Cone (1864–1929), with sister Etta, collected art of Matisse, Picasso, and Van Gogh
Hans Conried (1917–1982), comic character actor and voice actor
Kenny Cooper (born 1984), professional soccer player for TSV 1860 Munich in 2. Bundesliga
Miriam Cooper (1891–1976), silent film actress, co-starred in The Birth of a Nation
Martha Coston (1826–1904), inventor and businesswoman
Thomas Cromwell Corner (1865–1938), portrait artist
Elijah E. Cummings (1951–2019), U.S. Congressman (D) for Maryland's 7th District
Ida R. Cummings (1867–1958), Baltimore's first black Kindergarten teacher
Mary C. Curtis (born 1953), American journalist
Harvey Cushing (1869–1939), pioneer neurosurgeon at Johns Hopkins Hospital
D
Thomas D'Alesandro Jr. (1903–1987), Mayor of Baltimore, U.S. Representative, father of Nancy Pelosi
Brian Dannelly, director (Saved!, Weeds, United States of Tara)
Clay Davenport, sabermetrician and computer programmer for NOAA
Gervonta Davis (born 1994), boxer
Henrietta Vinton Davis (1860–1941), elocutionist, dramatist, and impersonator
Angela Dawson, community activist murdered at age 36 along with her family in 2002
Dan Deacon (born 1981), electronic musician
Buddy Deane (1924–2003), disc jockey, host of TV dance show that inspired the movie Hairspray.
Olive Dennis (1885–1957), railroad engineer
Divine (1945–1988), drag queen persona of Glen Milstead, actor and singer
Juan Dixon (born 1978), basketball player at University of Maryland, College Park and pro ranks
Sheila Dixon (born 1951), first female mayor of Baltimore
Stephen Dixon (1936–2019), author
Mary Dobkin (1902–1987), baseball coach
Fitzhugh Dodson (1923–1993), American clinical psychologist, lecturer, educator and author
John Doe (musician) (born 1953), guitarist for the band X
James Lowry Donaldson (1814–1885), Union army general
Henry Grattan Donnelly (1850–1931), author and playwright
Art Donovan (1924–2013), Baltimore Colts, Pro Football Hall of Famer
Joey Dorsey (born 1983), professional basketball player for the Houston Rockets
Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), abolitionist, statesman, orator, editor, author, prominent figure in African American history
Ronnie Dove (born 1935), pop and country singer who had a string of 21 hits on Billboard from 1964 to 1969
Dru Hill, R&B singing group
W.E.B. Du Bois (1868–1963), founder of the NAACP, lived in Baltimore 1939–1950
Mildred Dunnock (1901–1991), Oscar-nominated theater, film and television actress
Ferdinand Durang (c. 1785 – 1831), actor, best known as the first person to sing publicly Francis Scott Key's "The Star-Spangled Banner"
Adam Duritz (born 1964), singer with Counting Crows
Charles S. Dutton (born 1951), actor
E
Joni Eareckson Tada (born 1949), Christian author and singer
Tyde-Courtney Edwards (born 1987), dancer and businesswoman
Charles K. Edmunds (born 1876), president of Lingnan University and Pomona College
Robert Ehrlich (born 1957), former U.S. Congressman, 60th Governor of Maryland
Milton S. Eisenhower (1899–1985), president of Johns Hopkins University 1956–1967
Louis E. Eliasberg (1896–1976), financier and numismatist known for assembling the only complete collection of U.S. coins ever
Cass Elliot (1941–1974), born Ellen Naomi Cohen, singer, member of The Mamas & the Papas
Donald B. Elliott (born 1931), member of Maryland House of Delegates
James Ellsworth (born 1984), professional wrestler
Joan Erbe (1926–2014), painter and sculptor
Cal Ermer (1923–2008), Minnesota Twins manager
Ellery Eskelin (born 1959), jazz saxophonist, raised in Baltimore
Shinah Solomon Etting (1744–1822), matriarch of one of Baltimore's first Jewish families
Solomon Etting (1764–1847) merchant and politician
Damon Evans (born 1949), actor best known as the second to portray Lionel Jefferson on the CBS sitcom The Jeffersons
F
Diane Fanning, true crime author and novelist
Anna Faris (born 1976), actress, notably for Scary Movie, born but not raised in Baltimore
Nathaniel Fick (born 1977), U.S. Marine Captain, author, and technology executive
Walter Fillmore (1933–2017), U.S. Brigadier General, United States Marine Corps
Steven Fischer (born 1972), film producer, two-time Emmy Award nominee, raised in northeast Baltimore City
Ray Fisher (born 1987), actor, notably for Justice League
George Fisher (born 1970), vocalist for death metal band Cannibal Corpse
F. Scott Fitzgerald (1896–1940), author; lived late in life in Baltimore, buried in Rockville
Paul Ford (1901–1976), actor, notably for The Phil Silvers Show and The Music Man
Edward R. Foreman (1808–1885), meteorologist
Jane Frank (1918–1986), abstract expressionist artist, painter, sculptor, mixed media and textile artist, pupil of Hans Hofmann
Gertrude Franklin (1858–1913), singer and music educator
George A Frederick (1842–1924), architect of Baltimore City Hall
Antonio Freeman (born 1972), football wide receiver, most notably for Green Bay Packers
Mona Freeman (1926–2014), actress, notably for Black Beauty in 1946
William H. French (1815–1881), Union army general
John Friedberg (born 1961), Olympic fencer
Paul Friedberg (born 1959), Olympic fencer
Bill Frisell (born 1951), jazz guitarist and composer
G
Joe Gans (1874–1910), lightweight boxing champion
John Work Garrett (1820–1884), banker, philanthropist, and president of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O)
Mary Garrett (1854–1915), suffragist and philanthropist
Alex Gaskarth (born 1987), singer for rock band All Time Low
Lee Gatch (1902–1968), abstract artist
Rudy Gay (born 1986), basketball player for University of Connecticut and NBA's Memphis Grizzlies, Sacramento Kings, Toronto Raptors, and San Antonio Spurs
Herb Gerwig (1931–2011), professional wrestler of the 1960s and 1970s known as Killer Karl Kox
James Gibbons (1834–1921), cardinal, 9th Roman Catholic Archbishop of Baltimore
Garretson W. Gibson (1832–1910), President of Liberia 1900–1904
Horatio Gates Gibson (1827–1924), Union Army general
Adam Gidwitz (born 1982), children's book author
Duane Gill (born 1953), former WWE Wrestler (as Gillberg) who resides in Severn, Maryland
Anita Gillette (born 1936), actress and game show personality
Dondre Gilliam (born 1977), football player
Ira Glass (born 1959), radio personality; host of This American Life, distributed by Public Radio International; cousin of Philip Glass
Philip Glass (born 1937), minimalist composer
Jacob Glushakow (1914–2000), painter
Duff Goldman (born 1974), food artist, cake baker, television personality
Minna Gombell (1892–1973), stage and film actress
Tamir Goodman (born 1982), basketball player
Jaimy Gordon (born 1944), author, winner of National Book Award for Fiction
Brian Gottfried (born 1952), tennis player, reached Nº3 in the world in 1977
Elmer Greensfelder (1892–1966), playwright
H
Virginia Hall (1906–1982), OSS agent
Edith Hamilton (1867–1963), "the greatest woman Classicist"
Elaine Hamilton-O'Neal (1920–2010), artist, born in Catonsville near Baltimore; graduated from Baltimore's Maryland Institute College of Art
Louis Hamman (1877–1946), physician and namesake of Hamman's sign, Hamman's syndrome and Hamman-Rich syndrome
Mary Hamman (1907–1984), writer and editor, daughter of Louis Hamman
Dashiell Hammett (1894–1961), detective writer of Maltese Falcon, born in Maryland and worked as a detective in Baltimore
Steve Handelsman (born 1948), journalist
Frances Harper (1825–1911), Abolitionist leader
Elaine D. Harmon (1919–2015), American aviator
Ken Harris (1963–2008), City Councilman
Kyle Harrison (born 1983), lacrosse player
David Hasselhoff (born 1952), actor
Marcus Hatten (born 1980), basketball player
Emily Spencer Hayden (1869–1949), photographer
Raymond V. Haysbert (1920–2010), business executive and civil rights leader
Maya Hayuk (born 1969), fine artist and muralist
Mo'Nique Hicks (born 1967), comedian, television and film actress from Woodlawn, Maryland
Alger Hiss (1904–1996), State Department official, accused of being a Soviet spy and convicted of perjury
Katie Hoff (born 1989), Olympic medalist swimmer and multiple World Aquatics Championships gold medalist; lives in Baltimore
Billie Holiday (1915–1959), born Eleanora Fagan Gough, jazz singer
Sidney Hollander (1881–1972), humanitarian and civil and political rights activist
Henry Holt (1840–1926), publisher, founded Henry Holt & Company in 1873
Johns Hopkins (1795–1873), Quaker businessman, abolitionist and philanthropist whose bequest established Johns Hopkins University
John Eager Howard (1752–1827), soldier, Governor of Maryland, namesake of Howard County, Maryland
William Henry Howell (1860–1945), physiologist who pioneered the use of heparin as a blood anti-coagulant
Christopher Hughes (1786–1849), diplomat
Sarah T. Hughes (1896–1985), federal judge who swore in Lyndon B. Johnson aboard Air Force One after the Kennedy assassination
I
Joseph Iglehart (1891–1979), financier
Moses Ingram (born 1994), actress
J
Lillie Mae Carroll Jackson (1889–1975), pioneer civil rights activist, organizer of Baltimore branch of NAACP
Debbie Jacobs (born 1955), singer
Thomas Jane (born 1969), actor
Harry Jeffra (1914–1988), professional boxer, world bantamweight champion
Bryant Johnson (born 1981), professional football player with San Francisco 49ers
Delano Johnson (born 1988), football player
Natalie Joy Johnson (born 1978), film and stage actress, singer and dancer
Cyrus Jones (born 1993), former professional football player
LaKisha Jones (born 1980), singer
Thomas David Jones (born 1955), astronaut with doctorate in planetary science
Brian Jordan (born 1967), Major League Baseball player, briefly a pro footballer
Jerome H. Joyce(1865–1924) president of Aero Club of Baltimore
JPEGMafia (born 1989), music producer, experimental hip hop artist
K
David Kairys (born 1943), Professor of Law at Temple University School of Law
Al Kaline (1934–2020), Major League Baseball player for Detroit Tigers; Hall of Famer, never played in minor leagues
John Kassir (born 1957), actor, voice of Crypt Keeper in TV's Tales from the Crypt
David Katz (1993–2018), Jacksonville Landing shooter
Chris Keating (born 1982), lead singer and songwriter for band Yeasayer
William Henry Keeler (1931–2017), Archbishop Emeritus of Baltimore and Cardinal of Roman Catholic Church
Stacy Keibler (born 1979), actress, former professional wrestler for WWE
Thomas Kelso (Ireland 1784–1878), wealthy merchant, founder of Kelso Home, philanthropist
John Pendleton Kennedy (1795–1870), U.S. Secretary of the Navy, Congressman, speaker of Maryland General Assembly, author, led effort to end slavery in Maryland
James Lawrence Kernan (1838–1912), Yiddish theater manager and philanthropist
Stu Kerr (1928–1994), television personality and weatherman
Ernest Keyser (1876–1959), sculptor
Stanton Kidd (born 1992), basketball player for Hapoel Jerusalem in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Greg Kihn (born 1950), pop musician
David J. Kim (born 1979), publisher of Teen Ink, co-founder of C2 Education
J. William Kime (1934–2006), Commandant of U.S. Coast Guard, 1990–1994
D.King (born 1989), rapper
Mel Kiper Jr. (born 1960), football analyst
Benjamin Klasmer (1891–1949), musician
Jim Knipple (born 1977), professional stage director
Adam Kolarek (born 1989), pitcher in the Atlanta Braves organization
Jeff Koons (born 1955), artist and sculptor, graduate of Maryland Institute College of Art, Baltimore
K-Swift (1978–2008), born Khia Edgerton, club/radio DJ, producer, radio personality at WERQ
Ruth Krauss (1901–1993), author of children's books
Steve Krulevitz (born 1951), American-Israeli tennis player
L
Henrietta Lacks (1920–1951), namesake of HeLa cell line
Mary Lange (ca. 1784 – 1882), foundress of the Oblate Sisters of Providence and a school for free black children
Bucky Lasek (born 1972), pro skateboarder
Maysa Leak (born 1966), jazz singer
Jerry Leiber (1933–2011), lyricist ("Hound Dog", "Stand by Me", "Poison Ivy", "Is That All There Is?", "Kansas City")
Noah Lennox (born 1978), known as Panda Bear, sings and plays drums and electronics in band Animal Collective
Ivan Leshinsky (born 1947), American-Israeli basketball player
Barry Levinson (born 1942), screenwriter, Academy Award-winning film director, producer of film and television
Kevin Levrone (born 1968), IFBB professional bodybuilder, musician, actor and health club owner
Hank Levy (1927–2001), jazz composer, founder of Towson University's jazz program
Reggie Lewis (1965–1993), professional basketball player for the Boston Celtics
Reginald F. Lewis (1942–1993), businessman
Kevin Liles (born 1968), record executive; former president of Def Jam Recordings and vice president of The Island Def Jam Music Group
Eli Lilly (1838–1898), soldier, pharmaceutical chemist, industrialist, entrepreneur, founder of Eli Lilly and Company
Laura Lippman (born 1959), author of detective fiction
Alan Lloyd (1943–1986), composer, born in Baltimore
Walter Lord (1917–2002), non-fiction author
Los (born 1982), real name Carlos Coleman, rapper
Morris Louis (1912–1962), abstract expressionist painter
G. E. Lowman (1897–1965), clergyman and radio evangelist
Chris Lucas, country singer with LoCash
Katharine Lucke (1875–1962), organist and composer
Edmund C. Lynch (1885–1938), business leader graduate of Boys' Latin, Johns Hopkins and co-founder of Merrill Lynch & Co.
M
Marvin Mandel (1920–2015), former Governor of Maryland, assumed office upon resignation of Spiro Agnew
Ann Manley (c. 1828 – after 1870), brothel proprietor
Mario (born 1986), born Mario Dewar Barrett, singer, grew up in Gwynn Oak, Maryland in Baltimore County
Todd Marks (born 1976), local businessman and entrepreneur
Thurgood Marshall (1908–1993), first African American U.S. Supreme Court Justice
Joseph Maskell (1939–2001), Catholic priest accused of sexual abuse
Nancy Mowll Mathews (born 1947), art historian, curator, and author
Aaron Maybin (born 1988), football player for Buffalo Bills, picked in 2009 NFL draft
Ernest G. McCauley (1889–1969), aviation pioneer
Shane McClanahan (born 1997), pitcher and 2-time All-Star for the Tampa Bay Rays
Angel McCoughtry (born 1986), basketball player; first overall pick in 2009 WNBA draft by Atlanta Dream
Jim McKay (James Kenneth McManus, 1921–2008), television sports journalist, Olympic and Wide World of Sports host
Theodore R. McKeldin (1900–1974), Governor of Maryland
H.L. Mencken (1880–1956), journalist and social critic known as "the Sage of Baltimore"
Ottmar Mergenthaler (1854–1899), inventor of Linotype machine that revolutionized the art of printing
Joe Metheny (1955–2017), murderer and suspected serial killer
Kweisi Mfume (born 1948), former CEO of NAACP and U.S. Congressman
Barbara Mikulski (born 1936), U.S. Senator
Isaiah Miles (born 1994), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Jamie Miller (born c. 1975), musician, drummer for Bad Religion
Steve Miller (born 1950), author of science-fiction stories and novels
Clarence M. Mitchell Jr. (1911–1984), civil rights leader
Keiffer J. Mitchell Jr. (born 1967), Baltimore City Council, grandson of civil rights leader Clarence M. Mitchell Jr.
Parren Mitchell (1922–2007), former U.S. Congressman
Colonel Thomas Hoyer Monstery (1824–1901), duellist, fencing master, mercenary and author
Garry Moore (Thomas Garrison Morfit, 1915–1993), early television host, I've Got a Secret
Lenny Moore (born 1933), running back, Baltimore Colts, member of Pro Football Hall of Fame
Phil Moore (born 1961), host of Nick Arcade
Bessie Moses (1893–1965), gynecologist, obstetrician and birth control advocate
Sean Mosley (born 1989), basketball player for Hapoel Tel Aviv B.C. of Israeli Basketball Premier League
Nick Mullen (born 1988), comedian best known as the host for the podcast Cum Town
Robert Murray (1822–1913), Surgeon General of the United States Army
Max Muscle (1963–2019), born John Czawlytko, professional wrestler known for appearances in WCW in 1990s
Clarence Muse (1889–1979), actor
N
Anita Nall (born 1976), Olympic gold medalist swimmer
Ogden Nash (1902–1971), iconic poet and humorist
Mildred Natwick (1905–1994), stage, film and television actress
Gary Neal (born 1984), professional basketball player
John Needles (1786–1878), Quaker abolitionist, master craftsman of fine furniture
James Crawford Neilson (1816–1900), architect
Jeff Nelson (born 1966), professional baseball player, middle relief pitcher
Harry Nice (1877–1941), 50th Governor of Maryland
Joe Nice (born c. 1976), dubstep DJ, moved to Baltimore from Southampton at the age of two
Brian Nichols, (born 1971), known for 2005 killing spree
Edward Norton (born 1969), actor, 3-time Academy Award nominee
Brandon Novak (born 1978), skateboarder and member of Viva La Bam
O
Ric Ocasek (1949–2019), vocalist and frontman for The Cars
Rashard Odomes (born 1996), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Madalyn Murray O'Hair (1919–1995), activist
Frank O'Hara (1926–1966), poet
Martin O'Malley (born 1963), born in Washington, D.C., Mayor of Baltimore, 61st Governor of Maryland
Elaine Hamilton-O'Neal (1920–2010), painter
Ken Ono (born 1968), mathematician, grew up in Towson
Dorothea Orem (1914–2007), nursing theorist, creator of self-care deficit nursing theory
P
William Paca (1740–1799), signatory to Declaration of Independence; Governor of Maryland
Tim Page (born 1954), winner of Pulitzer Prize for Criticism; biographer of Dawn Powell
Jim Palmer (born 1945), born in New York, Baseball Hall of Fame starting pitcher for Baltimore Orioles 1965–84
James A. Parker (19221994), African-American foreign service officer for the U.S. Department of State
Nicole Ari Parker (born 1971), actress
Bob Parsons (born 1950), entrepreneur; founder and CEO of Go Daddy
Travis Pastrana (born 1983), freestyle motocross, x-treme sports professional, spokesman for Red Bull
Randy Pausch (1960–2008), former professor of computer science, human–computer interaction, and design at Carnegie Mellon University
Felicia Pearson (born 1980), actress, community volunteer, and convicted drug dealer nicknamed "Snoop", who played the eponymous character (Snoop Pearson) on The Wire
Nancy Pelosi (born 1940), U.S. Representative from California since 1987, Speaker of the House
Clarence M. Pendleton Jr. (1930–1988), chairman of U.S. Commission on Civil Rights from 1981 until death in 1988; worked in Model Cities Program in Baltimore, 1968–1970
Vincent Pettway (born 1965), boxer, light middleweight boxing champion
Michael Phelps (born 1985), swimmer from Baltimore County, multiple world-record holder, winner of more gold medals (23) and total medals (28) than any other Olympian
Tom Phoebus (1942–2019), MLB pitcher
Jada Pinkett Smith (born 1971), actress and singer
Greg Plitt (1977–2015), fitness model and actor
Art Poe, member of College Football Hall of Fame
Edgar Allan Poe (1809–1849), iconic poet, short story writer, editor and critic
Edgar Allan Poe (1871–1961), Attorney General of Maryland, 1911–1915
Gresham Poe, football head coach at Virginia in 1903
John P. Poe, Sr. (1836–1909), Attorney General of Maryland, 1891–1895
Johnny Poe (1874–1915), college football player and coach, soldier of fortune
Jack Pollack (1899–1977), politician and criminal
Gordon Porterfield, playwright, actor, poet and educator
David Portner (born 1979), musician and lead singer of experimental avant-garde artpop band Animal Collective
Parker Posey (born 1968), actress, known for Dazed and Confused, Waiting for Guffman, Scream 3, Best in Show
Emily Post (1872–1960), author of etiquette books
Walter de Curzon Poultney (1845–1929), art collector and socialite
Boog Powell (born 1941), born in Florida, baseball player for Orioles and Baltimore restaurant owner
Enoch Pratt (1808–1896), businessman and philanthropist; founded Enoch Pratt Free Library, one of oldest free public libraries in U.S.
Thomas Rowe Price Jr. (1898–1983), businessman, founder of Baltimore-based investment counsel firm T. Rowe Price
Helen Dodson Prince (1905–2002), astronomer who pioneered work in solar flares
Rain Pryor (born 1969), actress
Greg Puciato (born 1980), musician, singer, author
Q
Robin Quivers (born 1952), sidekick of TV and radio personality Howard Stern
R
Hasim Rahman (born 1972), boxer, former World Heavyweight Champion
Jane Randall, contestant on America's Next Top Model, Cycle 15, and an IMG model
James Ransone (born 1979), actor, The Wire, Generation Kill, Sinister, adult Eddie Kaspbrak from It Chapter Two
John Rawls (1921–2002), professor of political philosophy at Harvard, author
Sam Ray (born 1991), musician, EDM project Ricky Eat Acid, and founder of band American Pleasure Club, formerly known as Teen Suicide
Lance Reddick (1962–2023), actor, Col. Cedric Daniels from The Wire
Chris Renaud (born 1966), animator and illustrator; co-director of The Lorax and Despicable Me; voice of many Minions
Bryan Reynolds (born 1995), outfielder and All-Star for the Pittsburgh Pirates
Hilary Rhoda (born 1987), fashion model
Adrienne Rich (1929–2012), poet, writer, teacher, and feminist
Hester Dorsey Richardson (1862–1933), author
Charles Carnan Ridgely (1760–1829), 15th Governor of Maryland
Charles G. Ridgely (1784–1848), United States Navy officer
Billy Ripken (born 1964), born in Havre de Grace, Maryland, second baseman for Baltimore Orioles
Cal Ripken Jr. (born 1960), born in Havre de Grace, infielder for Baltimore Orioles, member of Hall of Fame
Cal Ripken Sr. (1935–1999), coach and manager of Baltimore Orioles
Brooks Robinson (born 1937), born Little Rock, Arkansas, third baseman for Baltimore Orioles 1955–77, member of Hall of Fame
Lenny B. Robinson (1963–2015), born in Baltimore, charity worker who dressed up as superhero Batman
Frank Robinson (1935–2019), born in Beaumont, Texas, outfielder for Baltimore Orioles, member of Hall of Fame
Martin Rodbell (1925–1998), biochemist and molecular endocrinologist; won 1994 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
Josh Roenicke, baseball player in Cincinnati Reds organization
Eddie Rommel (1897–1970), Major League Baseball pitcher and umpire
Adeke Rose, poet, psychoanalyst and teacher<ref>{{cite web|url=http://baltimore.cbslocal.com/top-lists/best-local-poets-in-baltimore/|title=Best Local Poets in Baltimore|work=Baltimore CBS}} Retrieved August 17, 2016</ref>
Carroll Rosenbloom (1907–1979), owner of Baltimore Colts and Los Angeles Rams
Matt Rosendale (born 1960), Montana state politician and businessman
Alec Ross (born 1971), author and former Senior Advisor for Innovation to Secretary of State Hillary Clinton
Axl Rotten (1971–2016), professional wrestler
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James Rouse (1914–1996), pioneering real estate developer, civic activist, and philanthropist
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Dutch Ruppersberger (born 1946), U.S. Congressman (D)
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Babe Ruth (1895–1948), iconic baseball player for New York Yankees, member of Baseball Hall of Fame
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Pat Sajak (born 1946), television personality, Wheel of Fortune host; resides in Maryland
Al Sanders (1941–1995), TV news anchor WJZ-TV; died in Baltimore
Paul Sarbanes (1933–2020), born in Salisbury, Maryland, former member of Maryland House of Delegates from Baltimore, U.S. Congressman, U.S. Senator
William Donald Schaefer (1921–2011), Mayor of Baltimore, 58th Governor of Maryland, and 32nd Comptroller of Maryland
Jason Schappert (born 1988), aviator, born in Baltimore
Kurt L. Schmoke (born 1949), former Mayor of Baltimore, current president of the University of Baltimore
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Karl Shapiro (1913–2000), U.S. Poet Laureate 1946–47, born in Baltimore
Richard Sher (1948–2015), WJZ-TV newscaster, Oprah Winfrey co-host
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Rich Swann (born 1991), professional wrestler
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Tate Kobang (born 1992), real name Joshua Goods, rapper
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Johnny Unitas (1933–2002), born in Pittsburgh; professional football player for the Baltimore Colts; in Pro Football Hall of Fame
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LaMonte Wade Jr. (born 1994), first baseman and outfielder for the San Francisco Giants
Shatori Walker-Kimbrough (born 1995), basketball player for the Israeli team Maccabi Bnot Ashdod, and the Washington Mystics of the Women's National Basketball Association
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Matthew Weiner (born 1965), creator of TV series Mad MenLeonard "Boogie" Weinglass (born 1941), founder of Merry-Go-Round clothing empire; portrayed by actor Mickey Rourke in 1982 film Diner''
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George Hoyt Whipple (1878–1976), graduated and taught medical school at Hopkins; won 1934 Nobel Prize in Medicine
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John H. Yardley (1926–2011), pathologist
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Z
Geoff Zahn (born 1945), baseball pitcher
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Joanna Zeiger (born 1970), Olympic and world champion triathlete, and author
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See also
References
External links
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Baltimore-related lists
Baltimore
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4751707
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakeland%20Provincial%20Park%20and%20Recreation%20Area
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Lakeland Provincial Park and Recreation Area
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Lakeland Provincial Park and Lakeland Provincial Recreation Area are located east of Lac La Biche, Alberta, Canada, in Lac La Biche County.
The park contains numerous lakes, such as Kinnaird, Jackson, McGuffin, Dabbs, Shaw, and Blackett, as well as many other smaller waterbodies. The Lakeland Provincial Recreation Area contains Pinehurst Lake, Seibert, Touchwood and Ironwood Lakes.
Park planning and development
Planning the provincial park
Discussions of Lakeland Provincial Park were ongoing for decades before the park was designated in 1992. During the 1960s and 1970s the region was under consideration as a public recreation area. Increasing use led to the construction of small-scale facilities by the provincial Department of Highways and the Forest Service. In 1972 a park reservation was created from Lac La Biche to Cold Lake, which includes the areas now in Lakeland Provincial Park. By the late 1980s, the existing facilities were facing substantial use pressures. Reports from the provincial government described the recreational infrastructure as "minimal" and suggested improving the "limited road access." Discussing the park's potential, the then Deputy Minister of Renewable Resources stated:
The proposed Pinehurst-Seibert-Touchwood Park has by far the greatest potential for a wide variety of water based recreation activities in Alberta. The excellent beaches on the larger lakes [Pinehurst, Seibert, Touchwood, and Spencer] provide focal points for intensive use camping, boating, swimming and fishing. These lakes have carrying capacities for large numbers of people. The Jackson-Kinnaird-Blackett area has natural potential for wilderness canoeing, hiking, and sportfishing. The Sand River and its tributaries have very good potential for canoe and trail routes. The upland areas are prime wildlife habitat and provide abundant opportunities for dispersed recreation such as viewing, photography, hiking, nature study and hunting.
In 1975 a government task force was struck to provide Premier Peter Lougheed with management options pertaining to resource conflicts in the area. The Minister of Lands and Forests, Allan Warrack felt a formal recommendation to establish the park could be submitted for government consideration in 1976.
Announcing the park
One of the most vocal proponents of the proposed park was the nearby town of Lac La Biche. The town felt significant job growth and tourist revenue would stem from the creation of the park. The public announcement, in January 1992, that the park proposal had been accepted garnered positive reaction from the community. Mayor Tom Maccagno and MLA for Athabasca-Lac La Biche Mike Cardinal jointly made the announcement at a local fish fry, which was being held to celebrate the creation of Lakeland. At the announcement, the Honourable Mike Cardinal announced the park could attract "up to one million tourists annually."
Developing the park
The facilities at Lakeland Provincial Park were constructed in part by First Nation and Métis prison inmates. During the early 1990s the Government of Alberta was experimenting with changes to the criminal justice system that would bring more Métis and First Nation individuals into policing and legal roles, including judges and justices of the peace. Another component of this program included putting convicted First Nation and Métis inmates to work. An inmate camp was constructed at Lac La Biche, and prisoners were used to construct trails and facilities in the park.
Hydrology
Drainage basins
The Lakeland area straddles two drainage basins, and is thus drained by two major river systems, the Athabasca and the Beaver-Churchill. The Athabasca River drainage basin is the second largest drainage basin in Alberta. It drains 5 of the major lakes in the north-west section of the Lakeland area, including Blackett, Dabbs, Kinnaird, and McGuffin lakes, which all flow into Jackson Lake. Jackson Lake is drained by Gull Creek, which ultimately flows into the Piche River, which in turn joins the Owl River, then Lac La Biche, the La Biche River, and ultimately, into the Athabasca River and on to the Arctic Ocean.
The other major lakes, in the south-east section of the Lakeland area, are in the Sand River sub-basin. Spencer and Seibert Lakes are drained by a small unnamed creek, while Punk Creek drains Pinehurst Lake. Water from Touchwood Lake also enters Pinehurst Lake through a small creek. Water from the area flows into the Sand River from Helena Lake, into Horne Lake, then Ironwood Lake, and in turn Rich Lake. The Sand River enters the Beaver River and flows to Hudson Bay through the Churchill system.
Lakes of Lakeland Provincial Park
Black Duck Lake is translated from the Cree Kuskutesip Sagahegan. It is unclear on the exact species of duck the name refers to. The lake often ices over in early October, and is thought to be too shallow to contain fish.
Blackett Lake is at the same elevation as nearby Kinnaird and Jackson Lakes, and is connected to the other bodies of water by small streams. Local First Nation groups and early settlers understood and conceptualized the three lakes as one large body of water. The Blackett name is likely taken from a group of early settlers, who may have been fleeing legal trouble stemming from the Yukon Gold Rush.
Brown Lake is one of the least accessible, and seldom visited, lakes in the park. No fish currently inhabit the lake, although local memory indicates there may have once been a self-sustaining population. Brown Lake is quite shallow, and possibly only connected to nearby lakes through groundwater. At high water levels, Brown Lake may spill into adjoining Helena Lake. Little information exists on the origin of the "Brown Lake" name, although it is suspected to not be of local origin.
Dabbs Lake is named after Pilot Officer H. E. Dabbs, who died during World War II. The Cree name for the lake is Hamschigosik Sagahegan, translated as Little Island Lake. The shoreline of Dabbs Lake is dominated by white spruce, and the lake is connected to Kinnaird Lake via a small creek. Dabbs Lake is divided into two basins, with a maximum depth of in the deeper, north basin.
Jackson Lake has relatively high shores, dominated by cattails, willows, black spruce, aspen poplar, and white spruce vegetation. The lake is named after a family with the surname Jackson, originally from North Dakota, that homesteaded on nearby Fork Lake in the 1930s. Likely, members of that family trapped on Jackson Lake in the winter.
Jackson Lake, as well as Kinnaird and Blackett Lakes, are at the same altitude and connected by narrow bodies of water or small streams. Collectively, the three lakes had the Cree name Maniwansik. Similarly, commercial fishermen in the 1920s and 1930s referred to the lakes collectively as Egg Lakes. It is believed that Jackson and Kinnaird Lakes formed the basin of a single, larger lake, until a pressure ridge was pushed up by ice over an existing sandbar.
Kinnaird Lake is one of the largest lakes within the provincial park. It was named after D. G. Kinnaird, a homesteader in the region. The name was made official in 1921, although it may have originally appeared as Canard. Kinnaird Lake has been commercially fished since the 1920s. There is significant algae and summer plant growth in Jackson Lake, with thin shorelines and very tall grasses.
McGuffin Lake is one of the smaller lakes in the park. It is named after Squadron Leader W. C. McGuffin, of Calgary, who was killed during World War II. The Cree name for the lake was Kamshttigowa, while local residents had previously called McGuffin Lake Island Lake. McGuffin Lake drains into Jackson Lake via a small creek.
Shaw Lake is one of the smallest lakes within Lakeland Provincial Park. It is the only lake with a road-accessible public recreation area on its shores. Shaw Lake was likely named after J. P. Shaw, a commercial fisherman from the area active in the 1930s. The lake has the characteristics of a large slough, with marshy shores and two distinct basins. Shaw Lake appears to have once been commercially fished, although is now subject to frequent winterkill.
Snake Lake is less than a quarter section in total area, although significant number of northern pike are found in the lake. There are three competing theories on the origin of the "Snake Lake" name. The first posits that local trappers frequently saw garter snakes on the lakeshore. The second argues that the northern pike in the lake rarely exceeded three to four pounds, and their long sinuous bodies resembled those of snakes. The third theory suggests early visitors to the lake encountered very large leeches, which resembled snakes. The lake is also known as Zig-Zag Lake.
Lakes of Lakeland Provincial Recreation Area
Ironwood Lake is a medium-sized lake in the southeast corner of the recreation area. The name Ironwood is not of local origin. Prior to the official naming of Ironwood in 1951 it was referred to as Rocky Island Lake. Cree names for the lake included Kamistigwapskasik Sagahegan meaning Little Stony Island Lake or Chipay Sagahegan, meaning Skeleton Lake. Nearby Helena, Horne, and Frenchman Lakes empty into Ironwood, which itself empties into Rich Lake and then into the Beaver River. Ironwood Lake is a key point for many spawning fish in the area.
The west, north, and east shores of Ironwood Lake are dominated by large hills, while the southern shore features two large estuaries. The lake water varies significantly in colour and composition throughout the year, ranging from cloudy to clear. The bottom of Ironwood lake also varies significantly, with some sections covered in muddy silt, and others in clean sand or glacial debris. Ironwood is home to perch, northern pike, walleye, burbot, and lake whitefish. There is a boat launch and campground on the south shore.
Lake statistics
Morphometric and hydrological characteristics of waterbodies in the Park and Recreation Area
Summer water characteristic of lakes in the Park and Recreation Area
Controversies and land use conflicts
Lakeland Provincial Park and Recreation Area has been the subject of a number of conflicts with other regional land users.
CFB Cold Lake
One of the largest impediments to the creation of Lakeland Provincial Park and Recreation stemmed from concerns of nearby Canadian Forces Base Cold Lake. During public consultations on the park, base officials expressed concern that complaints over the noise from low-flying jets could jeopardize the operations of CFB Cold Lake. Indeed, military officials resisted the use of the term "park." Major Jim Christie, then the Deputy Base Operations Officer, stated "We would prefer to see it called something other than a park so there is no connotation of peace and quiet that would be disrupted by aircraft activity." In response, the provincial government provided base officials the opportunity to influence where facilities and trails were situated in the park.
The provincial government made a number of other concessions towards the military base. These included:
To inform the public through advertising and promotional material that the area is subject to noise impacts from low flying aircraft.
To respond to noise complaints from park users regarding aircraft operations.
To support the Department of National Defence in not considering any damage claims resulting from sonic booms.
To include a caveat in formal land use agreements and official documents which "clearly states flights at all altitudes are permitted over the Provincial Park and Recreation Area."
To prohibit the construction of any recreational facilities within 1 kilometer of the boundary of the Cold Lake Air Weapons Range.
"To support the Department of National Defence in their policy of prosecution for public trespass" on the weapons range.
Float planes
In the mid-1990s, Lakeland Provincial Park was the site of a unique protest by float plane pilots in Alberta. Pilot Stan Elchuk, of Edmonton, attempted to organize a protest landing of float planes on Jackson and Kinnaird Lakes in June 1996 to bring attention to perceived discriminatory provincial regulations. The pilot felt the province was discriminating against float plane operators because they required special permission to land in the park, while other motorized users, in this case powerboats, were free of regulations. Early management plans for the park had banned all motors in the park, although a provincial government spokesperson did admit the rules were rarely enforced. While the protest did raise public awareness of the issue, it appears no regulations were changed after the incident.
Float planes are allowed on lakes in Lakeland Provincial Recreation Area.
Conservation
Lakeland Provincial Park and Lakeland Provincial Recreation area protect over 200 species of birds, a large number of boreal mammals, and many fish species.
Fish
There are a number of fish species found and documented in the Lakeland area. These include:
Northern pike - Esox lucius. Also known as jackfish, shovelnose, and water wolf. One of the most widely distributed game fish in the area. Northern pike are found in all waterbodies in the Park and Recreation Area, excepting Shaw Lake. The pike prey on smaller fishes in the area, including yellow perch. Pike have also been known to eat rodents and waterfowl. Pike fishing in the area is a popular activity, and Seibert Lake is known to contain "trophy" quality pikes.
Walleye - Stizostedion vitreum. Also known as pickerel, pike-perch, and wall-eye pike. Similar to the pike, the walleye is found in all waterbodies in the Park and Recreation Area, except Shaw Lake. Considered one of the most desirable sport fish in the Boreal region, walleye were over-harvested by commercial fishing and recreational anglers in the 1970s and 1980s. Strict guidelines have helped these populations recover, although fishing limits are still in place.
Yellow perch
Lake whitefish
Cisco
Longnose sucker
White sucker
Spottail shiner
Burbot
Iowa darter
Brook stickleback
Fathead minnow
Lake chub
Distribution of fish by waterbody in Lakeland Provincial Park and Recreation Area
Birds
The Government of Alberta conducted a survey of birds in the park throughout 1993. The report found 153 species of birds to be present on lakes in the park. The report also noted that its list was "not exhaustive" and did not reflect a number of species that were not the focus of the investigation, namely species not residing on major waterbodies.
List of birds found in Lakeland Provincial Park and Recreation Area
Common loon (great northern diver). The common loon arrives in the park during spring breakup, and remains until early October. Loon often make their nests on islands, protected sites on points, or in sheltered bays. Loon exhibit a strong nest fidelity, often returning to the same nest site. Eggs are laid in May and June, and hatch one month later. Young loons are able to fly at approximately 12 weeks. The survey found 250 loons in the park, with the largest numbers on Blackett Lake (23 birds), Dabbs Lake (20 birds), Jackson Lake (20 birds), Kinnaird Lake (29 birds), Pinehurst Lake (38 birds), and Touchwood Lake (48 birds). Touchwood Lake acts as a regional staging area for the loons, and over 500 birds have been observed on the lake in a single day. Loons on Touchwood Lake are often forced to inhabit relatively exposed nest sites, this factor, when combined with summer flocking, makes the loons vulnerable to water-based recreational activities. Loon habitat in the Park and Recreation area is also impacted by backcountry campsites used by hikers and canoeists. Loons in the park also faced pressure from commercial fishing prior to the parks designation. After the park's creation, loons were impacted by the lead weights used in recreational fishing, and waves from powerboats which swamped nests. The Alberta Parks Service recommended that the province protect nesting and rearing areas by restricting access during egg laying and incubation, as well as watercraft restrictions to reduce waves.
Pied-billed grebe. The pied-billed grebe was found in the park throughout summer and fall. This species possibly nests on the large marshes found near Snug Cove on Pinehurst Lake.
Red-necked grebe. The red-necked grebe is a common summer visitor in the Park and Recreation Area. It nests in shallow open water and shoreline beds or bulrushes. The bird nests in the park from May until August. During the 1993 survey, the largest number of birds were found on Ironwood, Pinehurst, Shaw, and Touchwood Lakes. The survey found 814 red-necked grebes in total residing in the Park and Recreation Area. Red-neck grebe nests are susceptible to disturbance by power boats.
Eared grebe. The eared grebe is a rare site in the park, as Lakeland is near the northern edge of the species' range. It is found on small ponds south of both Jackson Lake and Pinehurst Lake.
Western grebe. Like the eared grebe, the western grebe is a rare sight in Lakeland Provincial Park and Recreation Area. Individual birds have been sighted on Touchwood, Pinehurst, Ironwood, and Jackson Lakes, although they may have been visitors from nearby Cold Lake or Lac La Biche, where larger numbers are found. The Lakeland area is at the northern edge of this species' range.
American white pelican. This bird is a frequent summer bird to the park, found on Dabbs, Ironwood, Kinnaird, Jackson, Seibert, Shaw, and Touchwood Lakes. The northeast corner of Pinehurst Lake was found to have the highest concentration of birds. Most of the birds depart the area my late September. The American white pelican is very sensitive to disturbances at nest sites, often resulting in complete abandonment.
Double-crested cormorant. This bird appears more frequently in the Park and Recreation area in the fall. During the summer, individuals have only been sighted on Kinnaird and Pinehurst Lakes. Nearby nesting colonies are found on Lac La Biche and Frog Lake. The double-crested cormorant was once an endangered species in Alberta, although it has since been removed from the endangered species list.
Great blue heron. The great blue heron is a common summer resident in Lakeland Provincial Park and Recreation area, found in most of the lakes and wetlands in the region. Despite common appearances in the area, the 1993 study found only one heron colony on the southeast corner of Pinehurst Lake, with less than 10 active nests in the colony.
Tundra swan. Tundra swans are found in the spring on the lakes in the Park and Recreation Area.
Activities
Facilities can be found at Shaw Lake.
Campground usage is free, and reservations are voluntary in this backcountry camping sites.
canoeing
hiking
birdwatching
ice fishing
camping
cross-country skiing
mountain biking
Hiking and canoeing can be combined in a back country canoe circuit.
See also
List of provincial parks in Alberta
List of Canadian provincial parks
List of National Parks of Canada
References
Lac La Biche County
Parks in Alberta
1992 establishments in Alberta
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4751928
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emor
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Emor
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Emor (—Hebrew for "speak," the fifth word, and the first distinctive word, in the parashah) is the 31st weekly Torah portion (, parashah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading and the eighth in the Book of Leviticus. The parashah describes purity rules for priests (, Kohanim), recounts the holy days, describes the preparations for the lights and bread in the sanctuary, and tells the story of a blasphemer and his punishment. The parashah constitutes Leviticus 21:1–24:23. It has the most verses (but not the most letters or words) of any of the weekly Torah portions in the Book of Leviticus, and is made up of 6,106 Hebrew letters, 1,614 Hebrew words, 124 verses and 215 lines in a Torah Scroll (, Sefer Torah). (Parashah Vayikra has the most letters and words of any weekly Torah portion in Leviticus.)
Jews generally read it in early May, or rarely in late April. Jews also read parts of the parashah, Leviticus 22:26–23:44, as the initial Torah readings for the second day of Passover and the first and second days of Sukkot.
Readings
In traditional Sabbath Torah reading, the parashah is divided into seven readings, or , aliyot.
First reading—Leviticus 21:1–15
In the first reading, God told Moses to tell the priests the priestly laws. None were to come in contact with a dead body except for that of his closest relatives: his parent, child, brother, or virgin sister. They were not to shave any part of their heads or the side-growth of their beards or gash their flesh. They were not to marry a harlot or divorcee. The daughter of a priest who became a harlot was to be executed. The High Priest was not to bare his head or rend his vestments. He was not to come near any dead body, even that of his father or mother. He was to marry only a virgin of his own kin.
Second reading—Leviticus 21:16–22:16
In the second reading, no disabled priest could offer sacrifices. He could eat the meat of sacrifices, but could not come near the altar. No priest who had become unclean could eat the meat of sacrifices. A priest could not share his sacrificial meat with lay persons, persons whom the priest had hired, or the priest's married daughters. However, the priest could share that meat with his slaves and widowed or divorced daughters, if those daughters had no children.
Third reading—Leviticus 22:17–33
In the third reading, only animals without defect qualified for sacrifice.
Fourth reading—Leviticus 23:1–22
In the fourth reading, God told Moses to instruct the Israelites to proclaim the following sacred occasions:
Shabbat (Sabbath) on the seventh day, a day on which no servile work was to be undertaken
Pesach (Passover) for 7 days beginning at twilight of the 14th day of the first month
Shavuot (Feast of Weeks) 50 days later
Fifth reading—Leviticus 23:23–32
The fifth reading continues the sacred occasions:
Rosh Hashanah (New Year) on the first day of the seventh month
Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement) on the 10th day of the seventh month
Sixth reading—Leviticus 23:33–44
The sixth reading, concludes the sacred occasions:
Sukkot (Tabernacles) for 8 days beginning on the 15th day of the seventh month
Seventh reading—Leviticus 24:1–23
In the seventh reading, God told Moses to command the Israelites to bring clear olive oil for lighting the lamps of the Tabernacle regularly, from evening to morning. And God called for baking twelve loaves to be placed in the Tabernacle every Sabbath, and thereafter given to the priests, who were to eat them in the sacred precinct.
A man with an Israelite mother (from the tribe of Dan) and an Egyptian father got in a fight, and pronounced God's Name in blasphemy. The people brought him to Moses and placed him in custody until God's decision should be made clear. God told Moses to take the blasphemer outside the camp where all who heard him were to lay their hands upon his head, and the whole community was to stone him, and they did so. God instructed that anyone who blasphemed God was to be put to death. Anyone who murdered any human being was to be put to death. One who killed a beast was to make restitution. And anyone who maimed another person was to pay proportionately (in what has been called lex talionis).
Readings according to the triennial cycle
Jews who read the Torah according to the triennial cycle of Torah reading read the parashah according to the following schedule:
In ancient parallels
The parashah has parallels in these ancient sources:
Leviticus chapter 24
The Code of Hammurabi contained precursors of the law of "an eye for an eye" in Leviticus 24:19–21. The Code of Hammurabi provided that if a man destroyed the eye of another man, they were to destroy his eye. If one broke a man's bone, they were to break his bone. If one destroyed the eye of a commoner or broke the bone of a commoner, he was to pay one mina of silver. If one destroyed the eye of a slave or broke a bone of a slave, he was to pay one-half the slave's price. If a man knocked out a tooth of a man of his own rank, they were to knock out his tooth. If one knocked out a tooth of a commoner, he was to pay one-third of a mina of silver. If a man struck a man's daughter and brought about a miscarriage, he was to pay 10 shekels of silver for her miscarriage. If the woman died, they were to put the man's daughter to death. If a man struck the daughter of a commoner and brought about a miscarriage, he was to pay five shekels of silver. If the woman died, he was to pay one-half of a mina of silver. If he struck a man's female slave and brought about a miscarriage, he was to pay two shekels of silver. If the female slave died, he was to pay one-third of a mina of silver.
In inner-Biblical interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these Biblical sources:
Leviticus chapter 21
Corpse contamination
In Leviticus 21:1–5, God instructed Moses to direct the priests not to allow themselves to become defiled by contact with the dead, except for a mother, father, son, daughter, brother, or unmarried sister. And the priests were not to engage in mourning rituals of making baldness upon their heads, shaving off the corners of their beards, or cutting their flesh. This prohibition of corpse contamination is one of a series of passages in the Hebrew Bible setting out the teaching that contact with the dead is antithetical to purity.
In Numbers 5:1–4, God instructed Moses to command the Israelites to put out of the camp every person defiled by contact with the dead, so that they would not defile their camps, in the midst of which God dwelt.
Numbers 19 sets out a procedure for a red cow mixture for decontamination from corpse contamination.
Deuteronomy 26:13–14 instructed Israelites to announce before God that they had not eaten from the tithe in mourning, nor put away any of it while unclean, nor given any of it to the dead.
In Ezekiel 43:6–9, the prophet Ezekiel cites the burial of kings within the Temple as one of the practices that defiled the Temple and cause God to abandon it.
In the Hebrew Bible, uncleanness has a variety of associations. Leviticus 11:8, 11; 21:1–4, 11; and Numbers 6:6–7 and 19:11–16; associate it with death. And perhaps similarly, Leviticus 13–14 associates it with skin disease. Leviticus 12 associates it with childbirth. Leviticus 15 associates it with various sexuality-related events. And Jeremiah 2:7, 23; 3:2; and 7:30; and Hosea 6:10 associate it with contact with the worship of alien gods.
Leviticus chapter 22
In Malachi 1:6–10, the prophet berated priests who despised God's name by offering blind, lame, and sick animals for sacrifice in violation of Leviticus 22:22. The prophet asked whether such presents would please an earthly governor.
Leviticus chapter 23
The Sabbath
Leviticus 23:1–3 refers to the Sabbath. Commentators note that the Hebrew Bible repeats the commandment to observe the Sabbath 12 times.
Genesis 2:1–3 reports that on the seventh day of Creation, God finished God's work, rested, and blessed and hallowed the seventh day.
The Sabbath is one of the Ten Commandments. Exodus 20:8–11 commands that one remember the Sabbath day, keep it holy, and not do any manner of work or cause anyone under one's control to work, for in six days God made heaven and earth and rested on the seventh day, blessed the Sabbath, and hallowed it. Deuteronomy 5:12–15 commands that one observe the Sabbath day, keep it holy, and not do any manner of work or cause anyone under one's control to work—so that one's subordinates might also rest—and remember that the Israelites were servants in the land of Egypt, and God brought them out with a mighty hand and by an outstretched arm.
In the incident of the manna (, man) in Exodus 16:22–30, Moses told the Israelites that the Sabbath is a solemn rest day; prior to the Sabbath one should cook what one would cook, and lay up food for the Sabbath. And God told Moses to let no one go out of one's place on the seventh day.
In Exodus 31:12–17, just before giving Moses the second Tablets of Stone, God commanded that the Israelites keep and observe the Sabbath throughout their generations, as a sign between God and the children of Israel forever, for in six days God made heaven and earth, and on the seventh day God rested.
In Exodus 35:1–3, just before issuing the instructions for the Tabernacle, Moses again told the Israelites that no one should work on the Sabbath, specifying that one must not kindle fire on the Sabbath.
In Leviticus 23:1–3, God told Moses to repeat the Sabbath commandment to the people, calling the Sabbath a holy convocation.
The prophet Isaiah taught in Isaiah 1:12–13 that iniquity is inconsistent with the Sabbath. In Isaiah 58:13–14, the prophet taught that if people turn away from pursuing or speaking of business on the Sabbath and call the Sabbath a delight, then God will make them ride upon the high places of the earth and will feed them with the heritage of Jacob. And in Isaiah 66:23, the prophet taught that in times to come, from one Sabbath to another, all people will come to worship God.
The prophet Jeremiah taught in Jeremiah 17:19–27 that the fate of Jerusalem depended on whether the people abstained from work on the Sabbath, refraining from carrying burdens outside their houses and through the city gates.
The prophet Ezekiel told in Ezekiel 20:10–22 how God gave the Israelites God's Sabbaths, to be a sign between God and them, but the Israelites rebelled against God by profaning the Sabbaths, provoking God to pour out God's fury upon them, but God stayed God's hand.
In Nehemiah 13:15–22, Nehemiah told how he saw some treading winepresses on the Sabbath, and others bringing all manner of burdens into Jerusalem on the Sabbath day, so when it began to be dark before the Sabbath, he commanded that the city gates be shut and not opened till after the Sabbath and directed the Levites to keep the gates to sanctify the Sabbath.
Passover
Leviticus 23:4–8 refers to the Festival of Passover. In the Hebrew Bible, Passover is called:
Passover (, Pesach);
The Feast of Unleavened Bread (, Chag haMatzot); and
A holy convocation or a solemn assembly. (, )
Some explain the double nomenclature of "Passover" and "Feast of Unleavened Bread" as referring to two separate feasts that the Israelites combined sometime between the Exodus and when the Biblical text became settled. Exodus 34:18–20 and Deuteronomy 15:19–16:8 indicate that the dedication of the firstborn also became associated with the festival.
Some believe that the Feast of Unleavened Bread was an agricultural festival at which the Israelites celebrated the beginning of the grain harvest. Moses may have had this festival in mind when in Exodus 5:1 and Exodus 10:9 he petitioned Pharaoh to let the Israelites go to celebrate a feast in the wilderness.
"Passover," on the other hand, was associated with a thanksgiving sacrifice of a lamb, also called "the Passover," "the Passover lamb," or "the Passover offering."
Exodus 12:5–6, Leviticus 23:5, and Numbers 9:3 and 5, and 28:16 direct Passover to take place on the evening of the fourteenth of Aviv (Nisan in the Hebrew calendar after the Babylonian captivity). Joshua 5:10, Ezekiel 45:21, Ezra 6:19, and 2 Chronicles 35:1 confirm that practice. Exodus 12:18–19, 23:15, and 34:18, Leviticus 23:6, and Ezekiel 45:21 direct the Feast of Unleavened Bread to take place over seven days and Leviticus 23:6 and Ezekiel 45:21 direct that it begin on the fifteenth of the month. Some believe that the propinquity of the dates of the two festivals led to their confusion and merger.
Exodus 12:23 and 27 link the word "Passover" (, Pesach) to God's act to "pass over" (, pasach) the Israelites' houses in the plague of the firstborn. In the Torah, the consolidated Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread thus commemorate the Israelites' liberation from Egypt.
The Hebrew Bible frequently notes the Israelites' observance of Passover at turning points in their history. Numbers 9:1–5 reports God's direction to the Israelites to observe Passover in the wilderness of Sinai on the anniversary of their liberation from Egypt. Joshua 5:10–11 reports that upon entering the Promised Land, the Israelites kept the Passover on the plains of Jericho and ate unleavened cakes and parched corn, produce of the land, the next day. 2 Kings 23:21–23 reports that King Josiah commanded the Israelites to keep the Passover in Jerusalem as part of Josiah's reforms, but also notes that the Israelites had not kept such a Passover from the days of the Biblical judges nor in all the days of the kings of Israel or the kings of Judah, calling into question the observance of even Kings David and Solomon. The more reverent 2 Chronicles 8:12–13, however, reports that Solomon offered sacrifices on the festivals, including the Feast of Unleavened Bread. And 2 Chronicles 30:1–27 reports King Hezekiah's observance of a second Passover anew, as sufficient numbers of neither the priests nor the people were prepared to do so before then. And Ezra 6:19–22 reports that the Israelites returned from the Babylonian captivity observed Passover, ate the Passover lamb, and kept the Feast of Unleavened Bread seven days with joy.
Shavuot
Leviticus 23:15–21 refers to the Festival of Shavuot. In the Hebrew Bible, Shavuot is called:
The Feast of Weeks (, Chag Shavuot);
The Day of the First-fruits (, Yom haBikurim);
The Feast of Harvest (, Chag haKatzir); and
A holy convocation (, ).
Exodus 34:22 associates Shavuot with the first-fruits (, ) of the wheat harvest. In turn, Deuteronomy 26:1–11 set out the ceremony for the bringing of the first fruits.
To arrive at the correct date, Leviticus 23:15 instructs counting seven weeks from the day after the day of rest of Passover, the day that they brought the sheaf of barley for waving. Similarly, Deuteronomy 16:9 directs counting seven weeks from when they first put the sickle to the standing barley.
Leviticus 23:16–19 sets out a course of offerings for the fiftieth day, including a meal-offering of two loaves made from fine flour from the first-fruits of the harvest; burnt-offerings of seven lambs, one bullock, and two rams; a sin-offering of a goat; and a peace-offering of two lambs. Similarly, Numbers 28:26–30 sets out a course of offerings including a meal-offering; burnt-offerings of two bullocks, one ram, and seven lambs; and one goat to make atonement. Deuteronomy 16:10 directs a freewill-offering in relation to God's blessing.
Leviticus 23:21 and Numbers 28:26 ordain a holy convocation in which the Israelites were not to work.
2 Chronicles 8:13 reports that Solomon offered burnt-offerings on the Feast of Weeks.
Rosh Hashanah
Leviticus 23:23–25 refers to the Festival of Rosh Hashanah. In the Hebrew Bible, Rosh Hashanah is called:
a memorial proclaimed with the blast of horns (, Zichron Teruah);
a day of blowing the horn (, Yom Teruah); and
a holy convocation (, )
Although Exodus 12:2 instructs that the spring month of Aviv (since the Babylonian captivity called Nisan) "shall be the first month of the year," Exodus 23:16 and Exodus 34:22 also reflect an "end of the year" or a "turn of the year" in the autumn harvest month of Tishrei.
Leviticus 23:23–25 and Numbers 29:1–6 both describe Rosh Hashanah as a holy convocation, a day of solemn rest in which no servile work is to be done, involving the blowing of horns and an offering to God.
Ezekiel 40:1 speaks of "in the beginning of the year" (, b'Rosh HaShanah) in Tishrei, although the Rabbis traditionally interpreted Ezekiel to refer to Yom Kippur.
Ezra 3:1–3 reports that in the Persian era, when the seventh month came, the Israelites gathered together in Jerusalem, and the priests offered burnt-offerings to God, morning and evening, as written in the Law of Moses.
Nehemiah 8:1–4 reports that it was on Rosh Hashanah (the first day of the seventh month) that all the Israelites gathered together before the water gate and Ezra the scribe read the Law from early morning until midday. And Nehemiah, Ezra, and the Levites told the people that the day was holy to the Lord their God; they should neither mourn nor weep; but they should go their way, eat the fat, drink the sweet, and send portions to those who had nothing.
Psalm 81:4–5 likely refers to Rosh Hashanah when it enjoins, "Blow the horn at the new moon, at the full moon of our feast day. For it is a statute for Israel, an ordinance of the God of Jacob."
Yom Kippur
Leviticus 23:26–32 refers to the Festival of Yom Kippur. In the Hebrew Bible, Yom Kippur is called:
the Day of Atonement (, Yom HaKippurim) or a Day of Atonement (, Yom Kippurim);
a Sabbath of solemn rest (, Shabbat Shabbaton); and
a holy convocation (, ).
Much as Yom Kippur, on the 10th of the month of Tishrei, precedes the Festival of Sukkot, on the 15th of the month of Tishrei, Exodus 12:3–6 speaks of a period starting on the 10th of the month of Nisan preparatory to the Festival of Passover, on the 15th of the month of Nisan.
Leviticus 16:29–34 and 23:26–32 and Numbers 29:7–11 present similar injunctions to observe Yom Kippur. Leviticus 16:29 and 23:27 and Numbers 29:7 set the Holy Day on the tenth day of the seventh month (Tishrei). Leviticus 16:29 and 23:27 and Numbers 29:7 instruct that "you shall afflict your souls." Leviticus 23:32 makes clear that a full day is intended: "you shall afflict your souls; in the ninth day of the month at evening, from evening to evening." And Leviticus 23:29 threatens that whoever "shall not be afflicted in that same day, he shall be cut off from his people." Leviticus 16:29 and 23:28 and Numbers 29:7 command that you "shall do no manner of work." Similarly, Leviticus 16:31 and 23:32 call it a "Sabbath of solemn rest." And in Leviticus 23:30, God threatens that whoever "does any manner of work in that same day, that soul will I destroy from among his people." Leviticus 16:30, 16:32–34, and 23:27–28, and Numbers 29:11 describe the purpose of the day to make atonement for the people. Similarly, Leviticus 16:30 speaks of the purpose "to cleanse you from all your sins," and Leviticus 16:33 speaks of making atonement for the most holy place, the tent of meeting, the altar; and the priests. Leviticus 16:29 instructs that the commandment applies both to "the home-born" and to "the stranger who sojourns among you." Leviticus 16:3–25 and 23:27 and Numbers 29:8–11 command offerings to God. And Leviticus 16:31 and 23:31 institute the observance as "a statute forever."
Leviticus 16:3–28 sets out detailed procedures for the priest's atonement ritual.
Leviticus 25:8–10 instructs that after seven Sabbatical years, on the Jubilee year, on the day of atonement, the Israelites were to proclaim liberty throughout the land with the blast of the horn and return every man to his possession and to his family.
In Isaiah 57:14–58:14, the Haftarah for Yom Kippur morning, God describes "the fast that I have chosen [on] the day for a man to afflict his soul." Isaiah 58:3–5 make clear that "to afflict the soul" was understood as fasting. But Isaiah 58:6–10 goes on to impress that "to afflict the soul," God also seeks acts of social justice: "to loose the fetters of wickedness, to undo the bands of the yoke," "to let the oppressed go free," "to give your bread to the hungry, and . . . bring the poor that are cast out to your house," and "when you see the naked, that you cover him."
Sukkot
And Leviticus 23:33–42 refers to the Festival of Sukkot. In the Hebrew Bible, Sukkot is called:
The Feast of Tabernacles (or Booths);
The Feast of Ingathering;
The Feast or the festival;
The Feast of the Lord;
The festival of the seventh month; and
A holy convocation or a sacred occasion. (, ).
Sukkot's agricultural origin is evident from the name The Feast of Ingathering, from the ceremonies accompanying it, and from the season and occasion of its celebration: "At the end of the year when you gather in your labors out of the field"; "after you have gathered in from your threshing-floor and from your winepress." It was a thanksgiving for the fruit harvest. And in what may explain the festival's name, Isaiah reports that grape harvesters kept booths in their vineyards. Coming as it did at the completion of the harvest, Sukkot was regarded as a general thanksgiving for the bounty of nature in the year that had passed.
Sukkot became one of the most important feasts in Judaism, as indicated by its designation as the Feast of the Lord or simply "the Feast." Perhaps because of its wide attendance, Sukkot became the appropriate time for important state ceremonies. Moses instructed the children of Israel to gather for a reading of the Law during Sukkot every seventh year. King Solomon dedicated the Temple in Jerusalem on Sukkot. And Sukkot was the first sacred occasion observed after the resumption of sacrifices in Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity.
In the time of Nehemiah, after the Babylonian captivity, the Israelites celebrated Sukkot by making and dwelling in booths, a practice of which Nehemiah reports: "the Israelites had not done so from the days of Joshua." In a practice related to that of the Four Species, Nehemiah also reports that the Israelites found in the Law the commandment that they "go out to the mountains and bring leafy branches of olive trees, pine trees, myrtles, palms and [other] leafy trees to make booths." In Leviticus 23:40, God told Moses to command the people: "On the first day you shall take the product of trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook," and "You shall live in booths seven days; all citizens in Israel shall live in booths, in order that future generations may know that I made the Israelite people live in booths when I brought them out of the land of Egypt." The book of Numbers, however, indicates that while in the wilderness, the Israelites dwelt in tents. Some secular scholars consider Leviticus 23:39–43 (the commandments regarding booths and the four species) to be an insertion by a late redactor.
Jeroboam son of Nebat, King of the northern Kingdom of Israel, whom 1 Kings 13:33 describes as practicing "his evil way," celebrated a festival on the fifteenth day of the eighth month, one month after Sukkot, "in imitation of the festival in Judah." "While Jeroboam was standing on the altar to present the offering, the man of God, at the command of the Lord, cried out against the altar" in disapproval.
According to the prophet Zechariah, in the messianic era, Sukkot will become a universal festival, and all nations will make pilgrimages annually to Jerusalem to celebrate the feast there.
Leviticus chapter 24
In three separate places—Exodus 21:22–25; Leviticus 24:19–21; and Deuteronomy 19:16–21—the Torah sets forth the law of "an eye for an eye."
In early nonrabbinic interpretation
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these early nonrabbinic sources:
Leviticus chapter 23
1 Maccabees 2:27–38 told how in the 2nd century BCE, many followers of the pious Jewish priest Mattathias rebelled against the Seleucid king Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Antiochus's soldiers attacked a group of them on the Sabbath, and when the Pietists failed to defend themselves so as to honor the Sabbath (commanded in, among other places, Leviticus 23:1–3), a thousand died. 1 Maccabees 2:39–41 reported that when Mattathias and his friends heard, they reasoned that if they did not fight on the Sabbath, they would soon be destroyed. So they decided that they would fight against anyone who attacked them on the Sabbath.
A letter from Simon bar Kokhba written during the Bar Kokhba revolt found in the Cave of Letters includes commands to a subordinate to assemble components of the lulav and etrog, apparently so as to celebrate Sukkot.
In classical rabbinic interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these rabbinic sources from the era of the Mishnah and the Talmud:
Leviticus chapter 21
Rabbi Tanhum son of Rabbi Hannilai taught that Leviticus 21 was one of two sections in the Torah (along with Numbers 19, on the Red Cow) that Moses gave us in writing that are both pure, dealing with the law of purity. Rabbi Tanhum taught that they were given on account of the tribe of Levi, of whom it is written (in Malachi 3:3), "he [God's messenger] shall purify the sons of Levi and purge them."
Rabbi Levi taught that God gave the section of the priests in Leviticus 21 on the day that the Israelites set up the Tabernacle. Rabbi Joḥanan said in the name of Rabbi Bana'ah that the Torah was transmitted in separate scrolls, as Psalm 40:8 says, "Then said I, 'Lo I am come, in the roll of the book it is written of me.'" Rabbi Simeon ben Lakish (Resh Lakish), however, said that the Torah was transmitted in its entirety, as Deuteronomy 31:26, "Take this book of the law." The Gemara reported that Rabbi Joḥanan interpreted Deuteronomy 31:26, "Take this book of the law," to refer to the time after the Torah had been joined together from its several parts. And the Gemara suggested that Resh Lakish interpreted Psalm 40:8, "in a roll of the book written of me," to indicate that the whole Torah is called a "roll," as Zechariah 5:2 says, "And he said to me, 'What do you see?' And I answered, 'I see a flying roll.'" Or perhaps, the Gemara suggested, it is called "roll" for the reason given by Rabbi Levi, who said that God gave eight sections of the Torah, which Moses then wrote on separate rolls, on the day on which the Tabernacle was set up. They were: the section of the priests in Leviticus 21, the section of the Levites in Numbers 8:5–26 (as the Levites were required for the service of song on that day), the section of the unclean (who would be required to keep the Passover in the second month) in Numbers 9:1–14, the section of the sending of the unclean out of the camp (which also had to take place before the Tabernacle was set up) in Numbers 5:1–4, the section of Leviticus 16:1–34 (dealing with Yom Kippur, which Leviticus 16:1 states was transmitted immediately after the death of Aaron's two sons), the section dealing with the drinking of wine by priests in Leviticus 10:8–11, the section of the lights of the menorah in Numbers 8:1–4, and the section of the red heifer in Numbers 19 (which came into force as soon as the Tabernacle was set up).
The Gemara noted the apparently superfluous "say to them" in Leviticus 21:1 and reported an interpretation that the language meant that adult Kohanim must warn their children away from becoming contaminated by contact with a corpse. But then the Gemara stated that the correct interpretation was that the language meant to warn adults to avoid contaminating the children through their own contact. Elsewhere, the Gemara used the redundancy to teach that a priest could also defile himself by contact with the greater part of the bodily frame of his sister's corpse or the majority of its bones. A Midrash explained the redundancy by teaching that the first expression of "speak" indicated that a priest may defile himself on account of an unattended corpse (meit mitzvah), while the second expression "say" indicated that he may not defile himself on account of any other corpse. Another Midrash explained the redundancy to teach that for the celestial beings, where the Evil Inclination (, yeitzer hara) is non-existent, one utterance is sufficient, but with terrestrial beings, in whom the Evil Inclination exists, at least two utterances are required.
The Mishnah taught that the commandment of Leviticus 21:1 for Kohanim not to become ritually impure for the dead is one of only three exceptions to the general rule that every commandment that is a prohibition (whether time-dependent or not) governs both men and women (as the prohibition of Leviticus 21:1 on Kohanim applies only to men). The other exceptions are the commandments of Leviticus 19:27 not to round off the side-growth of one's head and not to destroy the corners of one's beard (which likewise apply only to men).
The Mishnah employed the prohibitions of Leviticus 21:1 and 23:7 to imagine how one could with one action violate up to nine separate commandments. One could (1) plow with an ox and a donkey yoked together (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:10) (2 and 3) that are two animals dedicated to the sanctuary, (4) plowing mixed seeds sown in a vineyard (in violation of Deuteronomy 22:9), (5) during a Sabbatical year (in violation of Leviticus 25:4), (6) on a Festival-day (in violation of, for example, Leviticus 23:7), (7) when the plower is a priest (in violation of Leviticus 21:1) and (8) a Nazirite (in violation of Numbers 6:6) plowing in a contaminated place. Chananya ben Chachinai said that the plower also may have been wearing a garment of wool and linen (in violation of Leviticus 19:19 and Deuteronomy 22:11). They said to him that this would not be in the same category as the other violations. He replied that neither is the Nazirite in the same category as the other violations.
The Gemara taught that where Leviticus 21:1–2 prohibited the priest from defiling himself by contact with the dead "except for his flesh, that is near to him" the words "his flesh" meant to include his wife in the exception.
Reading Leviticus 21:3, "And for his sister a virgin, that is near to him, who has had no husband, for her may he become impure," Rabbi Ishmael taught that it was optional for a priest to participate in his sister's burial. But Rabbi Akiva said that it was mandatory for him to do so.
The Babylonian Talmud reported that the Sages taught that a mourner must mourn for all the relatives for whom Leviticus 21:1–3 teaches that a priest became impure—his wife, father, mother, son, daughter, and brother and unmarried sister from the same father. The Sages added to this list his brother and unmarried sister from the same mother, and his married sister, whether from the same father or from the same mother.
The Mishnah interpreted Leviticus 21:7 to teach that both acting and retired High Priests had to marry a virgin and were forbidden to marry a widow. And the Mishnah interpreted Leviticus 21:1–6 to teach that both could not defile themselves for the dead bodies of their relatives, could not let their hair grow wild in mourning, and could not rend their clothes as other Jews did in mourning. The Mishnah taught that while an ordinary priest in mourning rent his garments from above, a High Priest rent his garments from below. And the Mishnah taught that on the day of a close relative's death, the High Priest could still offer sacrifices but could not eat of the sacrificial meat, while under those circumstances an ordinary priest could neither offer sacrifices nor eat sacrificial meat.
Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba cited Leviticus 21:8 to support the proposition that a Kohen should be called up first to read the law, for the verse taught to give Kohanim precedence in every matter of sanctity. And a Baraita was taught in the school of Rabbi Ishmael that Leviticus 21:8 meant that Jews should give Kohanim precedence in every matter of sanctity, including speaking first at every assembly, saying grace first, and choosing his portion first when an item was to be divided. The Mishnah recognized the status of the Kohanim over Levites, Levites over Israelites, and Israelites over those born from forbidden relationships, but only when they were equal in all other respects. The Mishnah taught that a learned child of forbidden parents took precedence over an ignorant High Priest.
The Gemara interpreted the law of the Kohen's adulterous daughter in Leviticus 21:9 in Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin.
Interpreting the words "the priest that is highest among his brethren" in Leviticus 21:10, a Midrash taught that the High Priest was superior in five things: wisdom, strength, beauty, wealth, and age.
The Sifre compared the prohibition of a nazirite having contact with dead bodies in Numbers 6:6–7 with the similar prohibition of a High Priest having contact with dead bodies in Leviticus 21:11. And the Sifre reasoned that just as the High Priest was required nonetheless to become unclean to see to the burial of a neglected corpse (met mitzvah), so too was the nazirite required to become unclean to see to the burial of a neglected corpse.
Chapter 7 of Tractate Bekhorot in the Mishnah and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of blemishes that prohibited a priest from performing sacrifices in Leviticus 21:16–23.
The Mishnah taught that a disability that did not disqualify priests disqualified Levites, and a disability that did not disqualify Levites disqualified priests. The Gemara explained that our Rabbis taught that Leviticus 21:17 disqualified priests by reason of a bodily blemish, and not by reason of age; and Levites were disqualified by age, for they were qualified for service only from the age of 30 to 50, and not by bodily blemish. It follows, therefore, that the disability that does not disqualify priests disqualifies Levites, and the disability that does not disqualify Levites disqualifies priests. The Gemara taught that we know this from a Baraita in which our Rabbis noted that Numbers 8:24 says: "This is that which pertains to the Levites." From Numbers 8:25, "And from the age of 50 years they shall return from the service of the work," we know that Levites were disqualified by age. One might have argued that they were disqualified by bodily blemish too; thus, if priests who were not disqualified by age were nevertheless disqualified by bodily blemish, Levites who were disqualified by age should surely have been disqualified by bodily blemish. Numbers 8:24 therefore says: "This is that which pertains to the Levites," to instruct that "this", that is, age, only disqualifies Levites, but nothing else disqualifies them. One might also have argued that priests were disqualified by age too; thus, if Levites who were not disqualified by bodily blemish were nevertheless disqualified by age, priests who were disqualified by bodily blemish should surely have been disqualified by age. Numbers 8:24 therefore says: "Which pertains to the Levites", and not "to the priests". One might further have supposed that the rule that Levites were disqualified by age obtained even at Shiloh and at the Temple at Jerusalem, where the Levites sang in the choir and guarded the doors of the Temple. Numbers 4:47 therefore says: "To do the work of service and the work of bearing burdens," to instruct that God ordained this rule disqualifying Levites by age only when the work was that of bearing burdens upon the shoulder, the service of the Tabernacle in the wilderness, and not at the Temple at Jerusalem. Similarly, the Sifre taught that years invalidated in the case of Levites but not in the case of the priesthood. For prior to the entry into the Land of Israel, the Levites were valid from the age of 30 to the age of 50, while the priests were valid from puberty until the end of their lives. But once they came into the Land, the Levites were invalidated only by losing their voice. Elsewhere, the Sifre read Numbers 8:25–26, "and shall serve no more; but shall minister with their brethren in the tent of meeting, to keep the charge, but they shall do no manner of service," to teach that the Levite went back to the work of locking the doors and carrying out the tasks assigned to the sons of Gershom.
Rabbi said that a priest with a blemish within the meaning of Leviticus 21:20 who officiated at services in the Sanctuary was liable to death at the hands of Heaven, but the Sages maintained that he was merely prohibited.
The Mishnah taught that a priest whose hands were deformed should not lift up his hands to say the priestly blessing, and Rabbi Judah said that a priest whose hands were discolored should not lift up his hands, because it would cause the congregation to look at him during this blessing when they should not. A Baraita stated that deformities on the face, hands, or feet were disqualifying for saying the priestly blessing. Rabbi Joshua ben Levi said that a Kohen with spotted hands should not say the blessing. A Baraita taught that one whose hands were curved inwards or bent sideways should not say the blessing. And Rav Huna said that a man whose eyes ran should not say the blessing. But the Gemara noted that such a Kohen in Rav Huna's neighborhood used to say the priestly blessing and apparently even Rav Huna did not object, because the townspeople had become accustomed to the Kohen. And the Gemara cited a Baraita that taught that a man whose eyes ran should not lift up his hands, but he was permitted to do so if the townspeople were accustomed to him. Rabbi Joḥanan said that a man blind in one eye should not lift up his hands. But the Gemara noted that there was one in Rabbi Joḥanan's neighborhood who used to lift up his hands, as the townspeople were accustomed to him. And the Gemara cited a Baraita that taught that a man blind in one eye should not lift up his hands, but if the townspeople were accustomed to him, he was permitted. Rabbi Judah said that a man whose hands were discolored should not lift up his hands, but the Gemara cited a Baraita that taught that if most of the men of the town follow the same hand-discoloring occupation, it was permitted.
Rav Ashi deduced from Leviticus 21:20 that arrogance constitutes a blemish.
Leviticus chapter 22
The Mishnah reported that when a priest performed the service while unclean in violation of Leviticus 22:3, his brother priests did not charge him before the bet din, but the young priests took him out of the Temple court and split his skull with clubs.
Rav Ashi read the repetitive language of Leviticus 22:9, "And they shall have charge of My charge"—which referred especially to priests and Levites, whom Numbers 18:3–5 repeatedly charged with warnings—to require safeguards to God's commandments.
The Mishnah taught that a vow-offering, as in Leviticus 22:18, was when one said, "It is incumbent upon me to bring a burnt-offering" (without specifying a particular animal). And a freewill-offering was when one said, "This animal shall serve as a burnt-offering" (specifying a particular animal). In the case of vow offerings, one was responsible for replacement of the animal if the animal died or was stolen; but in the case of freewill obligations, one was not held responsible for the animal's replacement if the specified animal died or was stolen.
A Baraita interpreted the words "there shall be no blemish therein" in Leviticus 22:21 to forbid causing a blemish in a sacrificial animal even indirectly.
Ben Zoma interpreted the words "neither shall you do this in your land" in Leviticus 22:24 to forbid castrating even a dog (an animal that one could never offer as a sacrifice).
Interpreting what constitutes profanation of God's Name within the meaning of Leviticus 22:32, Rabbi Joḥanan said in the name of Rabbi Simeon ben Jehozadak that by a majority vote, it was resolved in the attic of the house of Nitzah in Lydda that if a person is directed to transgress a commandment in order to avoid being killed, the person may transgress any commandment of the Torah to stay alive except idolatry, prohibited sexual relations, and murder. With regard to idolatry, the Gemara asked whether one could commit it to save one's life, as it was taught in a Baraita that Rabbi Ishmael said that if a person is directed to engage in idolatry in order to avoid being killed, the person should do so, and stay alive. Rabbi Ishmael taught that we learn this from Leviticus 18:5, "You shall therefore keep my statutes and my judgments, which if a man do, he shall live in them," which means that a person should not die by them. From this, one might think that a person could openly engage in idolatry in order to avoid being killed, but this is not so, as Leviticus 22:32 teaches, "Neither shall you profane My holy Name; but I will be hallowed". When Rav Dimi came from the Land of Israel to Babylonia, he taught that the rule that one may violate any commandment except idolatry, prohibited sexual relations, and murder to stay alive applied only when there is no royal decree forbidding the practice of Judaism. But Rav Dimi taught that if there is such a decree, one must incur martyrdom rather than transgress even a minor precept. When Ravin came, he said in Rabbi Joḥanan's name that even absent such a decree, one was allowed to violate a commandment to stay alive only in private; but in public one needed to be martyred rather than violate even a minor precept. Rava bar Rav Isaac said in Rav's name that in this context one should choose martyrdom rather than violate a commandment even to change a shoe strap. Rabbi Jacob said in Rabbi Joḥanan's name that the minimum number of people for an act to be considered public is ten. And the Gemara taught that ten Jews are required for the event to be public, for Leviticus 22:32 says, "I will be hallowed among the children of Israel".
The Gemara further interpreted what constitutes profanation of God's Name within the meaning of Leviticus 22:32. Rav said that it would profane God's Name if a Torah scholar took meat from a butcher without paying promptly. Abaye said that this would profane God's Name only in a place where vendors did not have a custom of going out to collect payment from their customers. Rabbi Joḥanan said that it would profane God's Name if a Torah scholar walked six feet without either contemplating Torah or wearing tefillin. Isaac of the School of Rabbi Jannai said that it would profane God's Name if one's bad reputation caused colleagues to become ashamed. Rav Nahman bar Isaac said that an example of this would be where people called on God to forgive so-and-so. Abaye interpreted the words "and you shall love the Lord your God" in Deuteronomy 6:5 to teach that one should strive through one's actions to cause others to love the Name of Heaven. So that if people see that those who study Torah and Mishnah are honest in business and speak pleasantly, then they will accord honor to the Name of God. But if people see that those who study Torah and Mishnah are dishonest in business and discourteous, then they will associate their shortcomings with their being Torah scholars.
Rav Adda bar Abahah taught that a person praying alone does not say the Sanctification (Kedushah) prayer (which includes the words from Isaiah 6:3: , Kadosh, Kadosh, Kadosh, Adonai Tz'vaot melo kol haaretz kevodo, "Holy, Holy, Holy, the Lord of Hosts, the entire world is filled with God's Glory"), because Leviticus 22:32 says: "I will be hallowed among the children of Israel", and thus sanctification requires ten people (a minyan). Rabinai the brother of Rabbi Hiyya bar Abba taught that we derive this by drawing an analogy between the two occurrences of the word "among" (, toch) in Leviticus 22:32 ("I will be hallowed among the children of Israel") and in Numbers 16:21, in which God tells Moses and Aaron: "Separate yourselves from among this congregation," referring to Korah and his followers. Just as Numbers 16:21, which refers to a congregation, implies a number of at least ten, so Leviticus 22:32 implies at least ten.
The Tosefta taught that one who robs from a non-Jew must restore what one stole, and the rule applies more strictly when robbing a non-Jew than when robbing a Jew because of the profanation of God's Name (in violation of Leviticus 22:32) involved in robbing a non-Jew.
Leviticus chapter 23
Tractate Shabbat in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Sabbath in Exodus 16:23 and 29; 20:8–11; 23:12; 31:13–17; 35:2–3; Leviticus 19:3 and 23:3; Numbers 15:32–36; and Deuteronomy 5:12.
The Mishnah taught that every act that violates the law of the Sabbath also violates the law of a festival, except that one may prepare food on a festival but not on the Sabbath. And the Sifra taught that mention of the Sabbath in Leviticus 23:3 immediately precedes mention of the Festivals in Leviticus 23:4–43 to show that whoever profanes the Festivals is regarded as having profaned the Sabbath, and whoever honors the Festivals is regarded as having honored both the Sabbath and the Festivals.
A Midrash asked to which commandment Deuteronomy 11:22 refers when it says, "For if you shall diligently keep all this commandment that I command you, to do it, to love the Lord your God, to walk in all His ways, and to cleave to Him, then will the Lord drive out all these nations from before you, and you shall dispossess nations greater and mightier than yourselves." Rabbi Levi said that "this commandment" refers to the recitation of the Shema (Deuteronomy 6:4–9), but the Rabbis said that it refers to the Sabbath, which is equal to all the precepts of the Torah.
The Alphabet of Rabbi Akiva taught that when God was giving Israel the Torah, God told them that if they accepted the Torah and observed God's commandments, then God would give them for eternity a most precious thing that God possessed—the World To Come. When Israel asked to see in this world an example of the World To Come, God replied that the Sabbath is an example of the World To Come.
Tractate Beitzah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws common to all of the Festivals in Exodus 12:3–27, 43–49; 13:6–10; 23:16; 34:18–23; Leviticus 16; 23:4–43; Numbers 9:1–14; 28:16–30:1; and Deuteronomy 16:1–17; 31:10–13.
Tractate Pesachim in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of the Passover (, Pesach) in Exodus 12:3–27, 43–49; 13:6–10; 23:15; 34:25; Leviticus 23:4–8; Numbers 9:1–14; 28:16–25; and Deuteronomy 16:1–8.
The Gemara noted that in listing the several festivals in Exodus 23:15, Leviticus 23:5, Numbers 28:16, and Deuteronomy 16:1, the Torah always begins with Passover.
Rabbi Akiva (or some say Rabban Joḥanan ben Zakai) never said in the house of study that it was time to stop studying, except on the eve of Passover and the eve of the Yom Kippur. On the eve of Passover, it was because of the children, so that they might not fall asleep, and on the eve of the Day of Atonement, it was so that they should feed their children before the fast.
The Mishnah taught that a Passover sacrifice was disqualified if it was slaughtered for people who were not qualified to eat it, such as uncircumcised men or people in a state of impurity. But it was fit if it was slaughtered for people who able to eat it and people who were not able to eat it, or for people who were designated for it and people who were not designated for it, or for men circumcised and men uncircumcised, or for people in a state of impurity and people in a state of purity. It was disqualified if it was slaughtered before noon, as Leviticus 23:5 says, "Between the evenings." It was fit if it was slaughtered before the daily offering of the afternoon, but only if someone had been stirring the blood until the blood of the daily offering had been sprinkled. And if that blood had already been sprinkled, the Passover sacrifice was still fit.
The Mishnah noted differences between the first Passover in Exodus 12:3–27, 43–49; 13:6–10; 23:15; 34:25; Leviticus 23:4–8; Numbers 9:1–14; 28:16–25; and Deuteronomy 16:1–8. and the second Passover in Numbers 9:9–13. The Mishnah taught that the prohibitions of Exodus 12:19 that "seven days shall there be no leaven found in your houses" and of Exodus 13:7 that "no leaven shall be seen in all your territory" applied to the first Passover; while at the second Passover, one could have both leavened and unleavened bread in one's house. And the Mishnah taught that for the first Passover, one was required to recite the Hallel (Psalms 113–118) when the Passover lamb was eaten; while the second Passover did not require the reciting of Hallel when the Passover lamb was eaten. But both the first and second Passovers required the reciting of Hallel when the Passover lambs were offered, and both Passover lambs were eaten roasted with unleavened bread and bitter herbs. And both the first and second Passovers took precedence over the Sabbath.
Rabbi Abba distinguished the bull and single ram that Leviticus 9:2 required Aaron to bring for the Inauguration of the Tabernacle from the bull and two rams that Leviticus 23:18 required the High Priest to bring on Shavuot, and thus the Gemara concluded that one cannot reason by analogy from the requirements for the Inauguration to those of Shavuot.
Noting that the discussion of gifts to the poor in Leviticus 23:22 appears between discussions of the festivals—Passover and Shavuot on one side, and Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur on the other—Rabbi Avardimos ben Rabbi Yossi said that this teaches that people who give immature clusters of grapes (as in Leviticus 19:10 and Deuteronomy 24:21), the forgotten sheaf (as in Deuteronomy 24:19), the corner of the field (as in Leviticus 19:9 and 23:22), and the poor tithe (as in Deuteronomy 14:28 and 26:12) is accounted as if the Temple existed and they offered up their sacrifices in it. And for those who do not give to the poor, it is accounted to them as if the Temple existed and they did not offer up their sacrifices in it.
Tractate Peah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, and Jerusalem Talmud interpreted the laws of the harvest of the corner of the field and gleanings to be given to the poor in Leviticus 19:9–10 and 23:22 and Deuteronomy 24:19–21.
The Mishnah taught that the Torah defines no minimum or maximum for the donation of the corners of one's field to the poor. But the Mishnah also taught that one should not make the amount left to the poor less than one-sixtieth of the entire crop. And even though no definite amount is given, the amount given should accord with the size of the field, the number of poor people, and the extent of the yield.
Rabbi Eliezer taught that one who cultivates land in which one can plant a quarter kav of seed is obligated to give a corner to the poor. Rabbi Joshua said land that yields two seah of grain. Rabbi Tarfon said land of at least six handbreadths by six handbreadths. Rabbi Judah ben Betera said land that requires two strokes of a sickle to harvest, and the law is as he spoke. Rabbi Akiva said that one who cultivates land of any size is obligated to give a corner to the poor and the first fruits.
The Mishnah taught that the poor could enter a field to collect three times a day—in the morning, at midday, and in the afternoon. Rabban Gamliel taught that they said this only so that landowners should not reduce the number of times that the poor could enter. Rabbi Akiva taught that they said this only so that landowners should not increase the number of times that the poor had to enter. The landowners of Beit Namer used to harvest along a rope and allowed the poor to collect a corner from every row.
Reading Leviticus 23:22, the Gemara noted that a Baraita (Tosefta Peah 1:5) taught that the optimal way to fulfill the commandment is for the owner to separate the portion for the poor from grain that has not been harvested. If the owner did not separate it from the standing grain, the owner separates it from the sheaves of grain that have been harvested. If the owner did not separate it from the sheaves, the owner separates it from the pile of grain, as long as the owner has not yet smoothed the pile. Once the owner smooths the pile of grain, it becomes obligated in tithes. Therefore, the owner must first tithe the grain and then give a portion of the produce to the poor, so that the poor need not tithe what they receive. The Sages said in the name of Rabbi Ishmael that if the owner did not separate the portion for the poor during any of these stages, and the owner milled the grain and kneaded it into dough, the owner still needed to separate a portion even from the dough and give it to the poor. Even if the owner has harvested the grain, the portion for the poor is still not considered the owner's possession.
The Gemara noted that Leviticus 19:9 includes a superfluous term "by reaping" and reasoned that this must teach that the obligation to leave for the poor applies to crops that the owner uproots as well as to crops that the owner cuts. And the Gemara reasoned that the superfluous words "When you reap" in Leviticus 23:22 teach that the obligation also extends to one who picks a crop by hand.
The Mishnah taught that if a wife foreswore all benefit from other people, her husband could not annul his wife's vow, but she could still benefit from the gleanings, forgotten sheaves, and the corner of the field that Leviticus 19:9–10 and 23:22, and Deuteronomy 24:19–21 commanded farmers to leave for the poor.
Tractate Rosh Hashanah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of Rosh Hashanah in Leviticus 23:23–25 and Numbers 29:1–6.
The Mishnah taught that Divine judgment is passed on the world at four seasons (based on the world's actions in the preceding year)—at Passover for produce; at Shavuot for fruit; at Rosh Hashanah all creatures pass before God like children of maron (one by one), as Psalm 33:15 says, "He Who fashions the heart of them all, Who considers all their doings." And on Sukkot, judgment is passed in regard to rain.
Rabbi Meir taught that all are judged on Rosh Hashanah and the decree is sealed on Yom Kippur. Rabbi Judah, however, taught that all are judged on Rosh Hashanah and the decree of each and every one of them is sealed in its own time—at Passover for grain, at Shavuot for fruits of the orchard, at Sukkot for water. And the decree of humankind is sealed on Yom Kippur. Rabbi Jose taught that humankind is judged every single day, as Job 7:17–18 says, "What is man, that You should magnify him, and that You should set Your heart upon him, and that You should remember him every morning, and try him every moment?"
Rav Kruspedai said in the name of Rabbi Joḥanan that on Rosh Hashanah, three books are opened in Heaven—one for the thoroughly wicked, one for the thoroughly righteous, and one for those in between. The thoroughly righteous are immediately inscribed definitively in the book of life. The thoroughly wicked are immediately inscribed definitively in the book of death. And the fate of those in between is suspended from Rosh Hashanah to Yom Kippur. If they deserve well, then they are inscribed in the book of life; if they do not deserve well, then they are inscribed in the book of death. Rabbi Abin said that Psalm 69:29 tells us this when it says, "Let them be blotted out of the book of the living, and not be written with the righteous." "Let them be blotted out from the book" refers to the book of the wicked. "Of the living" refers to the book of the righteous. "And not be written with the righteous" refers to the book of those in between. Rav Nahman bar Isaac derived this from Exodus 32:32, where Moses told God, "if not, blot me, I pray, out of Your book that You have written." "Blot me, I pray" refers to the book of the wicked. "Out of Your book" refers to the book of the righteous. "That you have written" refers to the book of those in between. It was taught in a Baraita that the House of Shammai said that there will be three groups at the Day of Judgment—one of thoroughly righteous, one of thoroughly wicked, and one of those in between. The thoroughly righteous will immediately be inscribed definitively as entitled to everlasting life; the thoroughly wicked will immediately be inscribed definitively as doomed to Gehinnom, as Daniel 12:2 says, "And many of them who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life and some to reproaches and everlasting abhorrence." Those in between will go down to Gehinnom and scream and rise again, as Zechariah 13:9 says, "And I will bring the third part through the fire, and will refine them as silver is refined, and will try them as gold is tried. They shall call on My name and I will answer them." Of them, Hannah said in 1 Samuel 2:6, "The Lord kills and makes alive, He brings down to the grave and brings up." The House of Hillel, however, taught that God inclines the scales towards grace (so that those in between do not have to descend to Gehinnom), and of them David said in Psalm 116:1–3, "I love that the Lord should hear my voice and my supplication . . . The cords of death compassed me, and the straits of the netherworld got hold upon me," and on their behalf David composed the conclusion of Psalm 116:6, "I was brought low and He saved me."
The Jerusalem Talmud reported that Jews wear white on the High Holy Days. Rabbi Hama the son of Rabbi Hanina and Rabbi Hoshaiah disagreed about how to interpret Deuteronomy 4:8, "And what great nation is there, that has statutes and ordinances so righteous as all this law." One said: "And what great nation is there?" Ordinarily those who know they are on trial wear black, wrap themselves in black, and let their beards grow, since they do not know how their trial will turn out. But that is not how it is with Israel. Rather, on the day of their trial, on Rosh Hashanah, they wear white, wrap themselves in white, and shave their beards and eat, drink, and rejoice, for they know that God does miracles for them. The other said: "And what great nation is there?" Ordinarily, if the ruler directs that the trial is on a certain day, and the robber says that the trial is on the next day, they listen to the ruler. But that is not how it is with God. The earthly court says that Rosh Hashanah falls on a certain day, and God directs the ministering angels to set up the platform, let the defenders rise, and let the prosecutors rise, for God's children have announced, that it is Rosh Hashanah. If the court determined that the month of Elul spanned a full 30 days, so that Rosh Hashanah would fall on the next day, then God would direct the ministering angels to remove the platform, remove the defense attorneys, remove the prosecutors, for God's children had declared Elul a full month. For Psalm 81:5 says of Rosh Hashanah, "For it is a statute for Israel, an ordinance of the God of Jacob," and thus if it is not a statute for Israel, then it also is not an ordinance of God.
A Baraita taught that on Rosh Hashanah, God remembered each of Sarah, Rachel, and Hannah and decreed that they would bear children. Rabbi Eliezer found support for the Baraita from the parallel use of the word "remember" in Genesis 30:22, which says about Rachel, "And God remembered Rachel," and in Leviticus 23:24, which calls Rosh Hashanah "a remembrance of the blast of the trumpet."
Rabbi Abbahu taught that Jews sound a blast with a shofar made from a ram's horn on Rosh Hashanah, because God instructed them to do so to bring before God the memory of the binding of Isaac, in whose stead Abraham sacrificed a ram, and thus God will ascribe it to worshipers as if they had bound themselves before God. Rabbi Isaac asked why one sounds (, tokin) a blast on Rosh Hashanah, and the Gemara answered that God states in Psalm 81:4: "Sound (, tiku) a shofar."
Rabbi Joshua son of Korchah taught that Moses stayed on Mount Sinai 40 days and 40 nights, reading the Written Law by day, and studying the Oral Law by night. After those 40 days, on the 17th of Tammuz, Moses took the Tablets of the Law, descended into the camp, broke the Tablets in pieces, and killed the Israelite sinners. Moses then spent 40 days in the camp, until he had burned the Golden Calf, ground it into powder like the dust of the earth, destroyed the idol worship from among the Israelites, and put every tribe in its place. And on the New Moon (, Rosh Chodesh) of Elul (the month before Rosh Hashanah), God told Moses in Exodus 24:12: "Come up to Me on the mount," and let them sound the shofar throughout the camp, for, behold, Moses has ascended the mount, so that they do not go astray again after the worship of idols. God was exalted with that shofar, as Psalm 47:5 says, "God is exalted with a shout, the Lord with the sound of a trumpet." Therefore, the Sages instituted that the shofar should be sounded on the New Moon of Elul every year.
Tractate Yoma in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of Yom Kippur in Leviticus 16 and 23:26–32 and Numbers 29:7–11.
Rabbi Yannai taught that from the very beginning of the world's creation, God foresaw the deeds of the righteous and the wicked, and provided Yom Kippur in response. Rabbi Yannai taught that Genesis 1:2, "And the earth was desolate," alludes to the deeds of the wicked; Genesis 1:3, "And God said: 'Let there be light,'" to those of the righteous; Genesis 1:4, "And God saw the light, that it was good," to the deeds of the righteous; Genesis 1:4, "And God made a division between the light and the darkness": between the deeds of the righteous and those of the wicked; Genesis 1:5, "And God called the light day," alludes to the deeds of the righteous; Genesis 1:5, "And the darkness called He night," to those of the wicked; Genesis 1:5, "and there was evening," to the deeds of the wicked; Genesis 1:5, "and there was morning," to those of the righteous. And Genesis 1:5, "one day," teaches that God gave the righteous one day—Yom Kippur.
Similarly, Rabbi Judah bar Simon interpreted Genesis 1:5, "And God called the light day," to symbolize Jacob/Israel; "and the darkness he called night," to symbolize Esau; "and there was evening," to symbolize Esau; "and there was morning," to symbolize Jacob. And "one day" teaches that God gave Israel one unique day over which darkness has no influence—the Day of Atonement.
Rabbi Akiva taught that because Leviticus 23:27 says, "the tenth day of this seventh month is the Day of Atonement," and Leviticus 23:32 says, "It shall be to you a Sabbath," whenever Yom Kippur coincides with a Sabbath, whoever unwittingly performs work is liable for violating both Yom Kippur and the Sabbath. But Rabbi Ishmael said that such a person is liable on only a single count.
Chapter 8 of tractate Yoma in the Mishnah and Babylonian Talmud and chapter 4 of tractate Kippurim (Yoma) in the Tosefta interpreted the laws of self-denial in Leviticus 16:29–34 and 23:26–32. The Mishnah taught that on Yom Kippur, one must not eat, drink, wash, anoint oneself, put on sandals, or have sexual intercourse. Rabbi Eliezer (whom the halachah follows) taught that a king or bride may wash the face, and a woman after childbirth may put on sandals. But the sages forbad doing so. The Tosefta taught that one must not put on even felt shoes. But the Tosefta taught that minors can do all these things except put on sandals, for appearance's sake. The Mishnah held a person culpable to punishment for eating an amount of food equal to a large date (with its pit included), or for drinking a mouthful of liquid. For the purpose of calculating the amount consumed, one combines all amounts of food together, and all amounts liquids together, but not amounts of foods together with amounts of liquids. The Mishnah obliged one who unknowingly or forgetfully ate and drank to bring only one sin-offering. But one who unknowingly or forgetfully ate and performed labor had to bring two sin-offerings. The Mishnah did not hold one culpable who ate foods unfit to eat, or drank liquids unfit to drink (like fish-brine). The Mishnah taught that one should not afflict children at all on Yom Kippur. In the two years before they become Bar or Bat Mitzvah, one should train children to become used to religious observances (for example by fasting for several hours). The Mishnah taught that one should give food to a pregnant woman who smelled food and requested it. One should feed to a sick person at the direction of experts, and if no experts are present, one feeds a sick person who requests food. The Mishnah taught that one may even give unclean food to one seized by a ravenous hunger, until the person's eyes are opened. Rabbi Matthia ben Heresh said that one who has a sore throat may drink medicine even on the Sabbath, because it presented the possibility of danger to human life, and every danger to human life suspends the laws of the Sabbath.
The Gemara taught that in conducting the self-denial required in Leviticus 16:29–34 and 23:26–32, one adds a little time from the surrounding ordinary weekdays to the holy day. Rabbi Ishmael derived this rule from what had been taught in a Baraita: One might read Leviticus 23:32, "And you shall afflict your souls on the ninth day," literally to mean that one begins fasting the entire day on the ninth day of the month; Leviticus 23:32 therefore says, "in the evening." One might read "in the evening" to mean "after dark" (which the Hebrew calendar would reckon as part of the tenth day); Leviticus 23:32 therefore says, "in the ninth day." The Gemara thus concluded that one begins fasting while it is still day on the ninth day, adding some time from the profane day (the ninth) to the holy day (the tenth). The Gemara read the words, "from evening to evening," in Leviticus 23:32 to teach that one adds some time to Yom Kippur from both the evening before and the evening after. Because Leviticus 23:32 says, "You shall rest," the Gemara applied the rule to Sabbaths as well. Because Leviticus 23:32 says "your Sabbath" (your day of rest), the Gemara applied the rule to other Festivals (in addition to Yom Kippur); wherever the law creates an obligation to rest, we add time to that obligation from the surrounding profane days to the holy day. Rabbi Akiva, however, read Leviticus 23:32, "And you shall afflict your souls on the ninth day," to teach the lesson learned by Rav Hiyya bar Rav from Difti (that is, Dibtha, below the Tigris, southeast of Babylon). Rav Hiyya bar Rav from Difti taught in a Baraita that Leviticus 23:32 says "the ninth day" to indicate that if people eat and drink on the ninth day, then Scripture credits it to them as if they fasted on both the ninth and the tenth days (because Leviticus 23:32 calls the eating and drinking on the ninth day "fasting").
The Mishnah taught that the High Priest said a short prayer in the outer area. The Jerusalem Talmud taught that this was the prayer of the High Priest on the Day of Atonement, when he left the Holy Place whole and in one piece: "May it be pleasing before you, Lord, our God of our fathers, that a decree of exile not be issued against us, not this day or this year, but if a decree of exile should be issued against us, then let it be exile to a place of Torah. May it be pleasing before you, Lord, our God and God of our fathers, that a decree of want not be issued against us, not this day or this year, but if a decree of want should be issued against us, then let it be a want because of the performance of religious duties. May it be pleasing before you, Lord, our God and God of our fathers, that this year be a year of cheap food, full bellies, good business; a year in which the earth forms clods, then is parched so as to form scabs, and then moistened with dew, so that your people, Israel, will not be in need of the help of one another. And do not heed the prayer of travelers that it not rain." The Rabbis of Caesarea added, "And concerning your people, Israel, that they not exercise dominion over one another." And for the people who live in the Sharon plain he would say this prayer, "May it be pleasing before you, Lord, our God and God of our fathers, that our houses not turn into our graves."
Reading Song of Songs 6:11, Rabbi Joshua ben Levi compared Israel to a nut-tree. Rabbi Azariah taught that just as when a nut falls into the dirt, you can wash it, restore it to its former condition, and make it fit for eating, so however much Israel may be defiled with iniquities all the rest of the year, when the Day of Atonement comes, it makes atonement for them, as Leviticus 16:30 says, "For on this day shall atonement be made for you, to cleanse you."
Resh Lakish taught that great is repentance, for because of it, Heaven accounts premeditated sins as errors, as Hosea 14:2 says, "Return, O Israel, to the Lord, your God, for you have stumbled in your iniquity." "Iniquity" refers to premeditated sins, and yet Hosea calls them "stumbling," implying that Heaven considers those who repent of intentional sins as if they acted accidentally. But the Gemara said that that is not all, for Resh Lakish also said that repentance is so great that with it, Heaven accounts premeditated sins as though they were merits, as Ezekiel 33:19 says, "And when the wicked turns from his wickedness, and does that which is lawful and right, he shall live thereby." The Gemara reconciled the two positions, clarifying that in the sight of Heaven, repentance derived from love transforms intentional sins to merits, while repentance out of fear transforms intentional sins to unwitting transgressions.
The Jerusalem Talmud taught that the evil impulse (, yetzer hara) craves only what is forbidden. The Jerusalem Talmud illustrated this by relating that on the Day of Atonement, Rabbi Mana went to visit Rabbi Haggai, who was feeling weak. Rabbi Haggai told Rabbi Mana that he was thirsty. Rabbi Mana told Rabbi Haggai to go drink something. Rabbi Mana left and after a while came back. Rabbi Mana asked Rabbi Haggai what happened to his thirst. Rabbi Haggai replied that when Rabbi Mana told him that he could drink, his thirst went away.
Rav Mana of Sha'ab (in Galilee) and Rav Joshua of Siknin in the name of Rav Levi compared repentance at the High Holidays to the case of a province that owed arrears on its taxes to the king, and the king came to collect the debt. When the king was within ten miles, the nobility of the province came out and praised him, so he freed the province of a third of its debt. When he was within five miles, the middle-class people of the province came out and praised him, so he freed the province of another third of its debt. When he entered the province, all the people of the province—men, women, and children—came out and praised him, so he freed them of all of their debt. The king told them to let bygones be bygones; from then on they would start a new account. In a similar manner, on the eve of Rosh Hashanah, the leaders of the generation fast, and God absolves them of a third of their iniquities. From Rosh Hashanah to Yom Kippur, private individuals fast, and God absolves them of a third of their iniquities. On Yom Kippur, everyone fasts—men, women and children—and God tells Israel to let bygones be bygones; from then onwards we begin a new account. From Yom Kippur to Sukkot, all Israel are busy with the performance of religious duties. One is busy with a sukkah, one with a lulav. On the first day of Sukkot, all Israel stand in the presence of God with their palm-branches and etrogs in honor of God's name, and God tells them to let bygones be bygones; from now we begin a new account. Thus, in Leviticus 23:40, Moses exhorts Israel: "You shall take on the first day [of Sukkot] the fruit of goodly trees, branches of palm trees and the boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook; and you shall rejoice before the Lord your God." Rabbi Aha explained that the words, "For with You there is forgiveness," in Psalm 130:4 signify that forgiveness waits with God from Rosh Hashanah onward. And forgiveness waits that long so (in the words of Psalm 130:4) "that You may be feared" and God may impose God's awe upon God's creatures (through the suspense and uncertainty).
Tractate Sukkah in the Mishnah, Tosefta, Jerusalem Talmud, and Babylonian Talmud interpreted the laws of Sukkot in Exodus 23:16; 34:22; Leviticus 23:33–43; Numbers 29:12–34; and Deuteronomy 16:13–17; 31:10–13.
The Mishnah taught that a sukkah can be no more than 20 cubits high. Rabbi Judah, however, declared taller sukkot valid. The Mishnah taught that a sukkah must be at least 10 handbreadths high, have three walls, and have more shade than sun. The House of Shammai declared invalid a sukkah made 30 days or more before the festival, but the House of Hillel pronounced it valid. The Mishnah taught that if one made the sukkah for the purpose of the festival, even at the beginning of the year, it is valid.
The Mishnah taught that a sukkah under a tree is as invalid as a sukkah within a house. If one sukkah is erected above another, the upper one is valid, but the lower is invalid. Rabbi Judah said that if there are no occupants in the upper one, then the lower one is valid.
It invalidates a sukkah to spread a sheet over the sukkah because of the sun, or beneath it because of falling leaves, or over the frame of a four-post bed. One may spread a sheet, however, over the frame of a two-post bed.
It is not valid to train a vine, gourd, or ivy to cover a sukkah and then cover it with sukkah covering (s'chach). If, however, the sukkah-covering exceeds the vine, gourd, or ivy in quantity, or if the vine, gourd, or ivy is detached, it is valid. The general rule is that one may not use for sukkah-covering anything that is susceptible to ritual impurity (tumah) or that does not grow from the soil. But one may use for sukkah-covering anything not susceptible to ritual impurity that grows from the soil.
Bundles of straw, wood, or brushwood may not serve as sukkah-covering. But any of them, if they are untied, are valid. All materials are valid for the walls.
Rabbi Judah taught that one may use planks for the sukkah-covering, but Rabbi Meir taught that one may not. The Mishnah taught that it is valid to place a plank four handbreadths wide over the sukkah, provided that one does not sleep under it.
The Mishnah taught that a stolen or a withered palm-branch is invalid to fulfill the commandment of Leviticus 23:40. If its top is broken off or its leaves detached from the stem, it is invalid. If its leaves are merely spread apart but still joined to the stem at their roots, it is valid. Rabbi Judah taught that in that case, one should tie the leaves at the top. A palm-branch that is three handbreadths in length, long enough to wave, is valid. The Gemara explained that a withered palm branch fails to meets the requirement of Leviticus 23:40 because it is not (in the term of Leviticus 23:40) "goodly." Rabbi Joḥanan taught in the name of Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai that a stolen palm-branch is unfit because use of it would be a precept fulfilled through a transgression, which is forbidden. Rabbi Ammi also stated that a withered palm-branch is invalid because it is not in the word of Leviticus 23:40 "goodly," and a stolen one is invalid because it constitutes a precept fulfilled through a transgression.
Similarly, the Mishnah taught that a stolen or withered myrtle is not valid. If its tip is broken off, or its leaves are severed, or its berries are more numerous than its leaves, it is invalid. But if one picks off berries to diminish their number, it is valid. One may not, however, pick them on the Festival.
Similarly, the Mishnah taught that a stolen or withered willow-branch is invalid. One whose tip is broken off or whose leaves are severed is invalid. One that has shriveled or lost some of its leaves, or one grown in a naturally watered soil, is valid.
Rabbi Ishmael taught that one must have three myrtle-branches, two willow-branches, one palm-branch, and one etrog. Even if two of the myrtle-branches have their tips broken off and only one is whole, the lulav set is valid. Rabbi Tarfon taught that even if all three have their tips broken off, the set is valid. Rabbi Akiva taught that just as it is necessary to have only one palm-branch and one etrog, so it is necessary to have only one myrtle-branch and one willow-branch.
The Mishnah taught that an etrog that is stolen or withered is invalid. If the larger part of it is covered with scars, or if its nipple is removed, if it is peeled, split, perforated, so that any part is missing, it is invalid. If only its lesser part is covered with scars, if its stalk was missing, or if it is perforated but nothing of it is missing, it is valid. A dark-colored etrog is invalid. If it is green as a leek, Rabbi Meir declares it valid and Rabbi Judah declares it invalid. Rabbi Meir taught that the minimum size of an etrog is that of a nut. Rabbi Judah taught that it is that of an egg. Rabbi Judah taught that the maximum size is such that two can be held in one hand. Rabbi Jose said even one that can be hold only in both hands.
The Mishnah taught that the absence of one of the four kinds of plants used for the lulav—the palm-branch, the etrog, the myrtle, or the willow—invalidates the others. The Gemara explained that this is because Leviticus 23:40 says, "And you shall take," signifying the taking of them all together. Rav Hanan bar Abba argued that one who has all of the four species fulfills the requirement even if one does not take them in hand bound together. They raised an objection from a Baraita that taught: Of the four kinds used for the lulav, two—the etrog and the palm—are fruit-bearing, and two—the myrtle and the willow—are not. Those that bear fruit must be joined with those that do not bear fruit, and those that do not bear fruit must be joined with those that bear fruit. Thus, a person does not fulfill the obligation unless they are all bound in one bundle. And so it is, the Baraita taught, with Israel's conciliation with God: It is achieved only when the people of Israel are united as one group.
Rabbi Mani taught that Psalm 35:10, "All my bones shall say: 'Lord, who is like You?'" alludes to the lulav. The rib of the lulav resembles the spine; the myrtle resembles the eye; the willow resembles the mouth; and the etrog resembles the heart. The Psalmist teaches that no parts of the body are greater than these, which outweigh in importance the rest of the body.
The Gemara taught that one who prepares a lulav recites the blessing, ". . . Who has given us life, has sustained us, and has enabled us to reach this season." When one takes the lulav to fulfill the obligation under Leviticus 23:40, one recites: ". . . Who has sanctified us with Your commandments and has commanded us concerning the taking of the lulav." One who makes a sukkah recites: "Blessed are You, O Lord . . . Who has given us life, has sustained us, and has enabled us to reach this season." When one enters to sit in a sukkah, one recites: "Blessed are You . . . Who has sanctified us with Your commandments and has commanded us to sit in the sukkah."
The Gemara imagined God telling the nations in a time to come that God's command in Leviticus 23:42 to dwell in a sukkah is an easy command, which they should go and carry out.
Rabbi Eliezer taught that during the seven days of Sukkot, one must eat 14 meals in a sukkah—one on each day and one on each night. The Sages of the Mishnah, however, taught that one is not required to eat a fixed number of meals a sukkah, except that one must eat a meal in a sukkah on the first night of Sukkot. Rabbi Eliezer said in addition that if one did not eat in a sukkah on the first night of Sukkot, one may make up for it on the last night of the Festival. The Sages of the Mishnah, however, taught that there is no making up for this, and of this Ecclesiastes 1:15 said: "That which is crooked cannot be made straight, and that which is wanting cannot be numbered." The Gemara explained that Rabbi Eliezer said that one needs to eat 14 meals because the words of Leviticus 23:42, "You shall dwell," imply that one should dwell just as one normally dwells. And so, just as in a normal dwelling, one has one meal by day and one by night, so in the sukkah, one should have one meal by day and one by night. And the Gemara explained that the Sages taught that Leviticus 23:42, "You shall dwell," implies that just as in one's dwelling, one eats if one wishes, and does not eat if one does not wish, so also with a sukkah one eats only if one wishes. But if so, the Gemara asked, why is the meal on the first night mandatory? Rabbi Joḥanan answered in the name of Rabbi Simeon ben Jehozadak that with regard to Sukkot, Leviticus 23:39 says "the fifteenth," just as Leviticus 23:6 says "the fifteenth" with regard to Passover (implying similarity in the laws for the two Festivals). And for Passover, Exodus 12:18 says, "At evening you shall eat unleavened bread," indicating that only the first night is obligatory (to eat unleavened bread). So also for Sukkot, the only first night is also obligatory (to eat in the sukkah). The Gemara then reported that Bira said in the name of Rabbi Ammi that Rabbi Eliezer recanted his statement that one is obliged to eat 14 meals in the sukkah, and changed his position to agree with the Sages. The Gemara taught that a desert later in the holiday may be regarded as a compensating meal to fulfill one's obligation to eat the first meal.
Rabbi Joshua maintained that rejoicing on a Festival is a religious duty. For it was taught in a Baraita: Rabbi Eliezer said: A person has nothing else to do on a Festival aside from either eating and drinking or sitting and studying. Rabbi Joshua said: Divide it: Devote half of the Festival to eating and drinking, and half to the House of Study. Rabbi Joḥanan said: Both deduce this from the same verse. One verse Deuteronomy 16:8 says, "a solemn assembly to the Lord your God," while Numbers 29:35 says, "there shall be a solemn assembly to you." Rabbi Eliezer held that this means either entirely to God or entirely to you. But Rabbi Joshua held: Divide it: Devote half the Festival to God and half to yourself.
Leviticus chapter 24
The Gemara cited the case of the blasphemer in Leviticus 24:11–16 to support the proposition that assailants are incarcerated until the results of their attacks are known. For the Gemara taught that Rabbi Nehemiah would argue that the Israelites imprisoned the blasphemer (in Leviticus 24:12) when they did not yet know whether he was liable to execution. But the Rabbis taught that the blasphemer's incarceration was an ad hoc decision (from which one cannot generalize).
The Sifra taught that the incidents of the blasphemer in Leviticus 24:11–16 and the wood gatherer in Numbers 15:32–36 happened at the same time, but the Israelites did not leave the blasphemer with the wood gatherer, for they knew that the wood gatherer was going to be executed, as Exodus 31:14 directed, "those who profane it [the Sabbath] shall be put to death." But they did not know the correct form of death penalty for him, for God had not yet been specified what to do to him, as Numbers 15:34 says, "for it had not [yet] been specified what should be done to him." With regard to the blasphemer, the Sifra read Leviticus 24:12, "until the decision of the Lord should be made clear to them," to indicate that they did not know whether or not the blasphemer was to be executed. (And if they placed the blasphemer together with the wood gatherer, it might have caused the blasphemer unnecessary fear, as he might have concluded that he was on death row. Therefore, they held the two separately.)
Rabbi Meir deduced from Leviticus 24:15 that anyone who cursed God using a substitute for God's Name was subject to execution (since Leviticus 24:15 does not mention God's Name). But the Sages maintained that blasphemy was punishable by death only when the blasphemer used God's ineffable Name, and blasphemy employing substitutes was the object of an injunction (but not punishable by death).
Noting that Exodus 21:17 commands, "He that curses his father or his mother shall surely be put to death," and Leviticus 24:15 commands, "Whoever curses his God shall bear his sin," the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that Scripture likens cursing parents to cursing God. Exodus 20:12 commands, "Honor your father and your mother," and Proverbs 3:9 directs, "Honor the Lord with your substance," Scripture likens the honor due to parents to that due to God. And as Leviticus 19:3 commands, "You shall fear your father and mother," and Deuteronomy 6:13 commands, "The Lord your God you shall fear and you shall serve," Scripture likens the fear of parents to the fear of God. But the Baraita conceded that with respect to striking (which Exodus 21:15 addresses with regard to parents), that it is certainly impossible (with respect to God). The Baraita concluded that these comparisons between parents and God are only logical, since the three (God, the mother, and the father) are partners in creation of the child. For the Rabbis taught in a Baraita that there are three partners in the creation of a person—God, the father, and the mother. When one honors one's father and mother, God considers it as if God had dwelt among them and they had honored God. And a Tanna taught before Rav Nachman that when one vexes one's father and mother, God considers it right not to dwell among them, for had God dwelt among them, they would have vexed God.
The Gemara taught that the words "eye for eye" in Leviticus 24:20 meant pecuniary compensation. Rabbi Simon ben Yohai asked those who would take the words literally how they would enforce equal justice where a blind man put out the eye of another man, or an amputee cut off the hand of another, or where a lame person broke the leg of another. The school of Rabbi Ishmael cited the words "so shall it be given to him" in Leviticus 24:20, and deduced that the word "give" could apply only to pecuniary compensation. The school of Rabbi Hiyya cited the words "hand for hand" in the parallel discussion in Deuteronomy 19:21 to mean that an article was given from hand to hand, namely money. Abaye reported that a sage of the school of Hezekiah taught that Exodus 21:23–24 said "eye for eye" and "life for life," but not "life and eye for eye," and it could sometimes happen that eye and life would be taken for an eye, as when the offender died while being blinded. Rav Papa said in the name of Rava that Exodus 21:19 referred explicitly to healing, and the verse would not make sense if one assumed that retaliation was meant. And Rav Ashi taught that the principle of pecuniary compensation could be derived from the analogous use of the term "for" in Exodus 21:24 in the expression "eye for eye" and in Exodus 21:36 in the expression "he shall surely pay ox for ox." As the latter case plainly indicated pecuniary compensation, so must the former.
In medieval Jewish interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these medieval Jewish sources:
Leviticus chapter 22
Drawing on a discussion in the Babylonian Talmud (reported in "In classical rabbinic interpretation: Chapter 22" above), Maimonides taught that all Jews are commanded regarding the sanctification of God's Name, as Leviticus 22:32 states: "And I shall be sanctified amidst the children of Israel." And they are similarly warned against desecrating God's Name, as Leviticus 22:32 states, "And they shall not desecrate My holy Name." Maimonides taught that this implies that should a gentile force a Jew to violate one of the Torah's commandments at the threat of death, the Jew should violate the commandment rather than be killed, because Leviticus 18:5 states concerning the commandments: "which a man will perform and live by them." The commandments were given so that one may live by them and not die because of them. If one dies rather than transgress a commandment, one is held accountable for one's life. But Maimonides taught that this rule applies with regard to commandments other than the worship of other gods, forbidden sexual relations, and murder. With regard to these three sins, if one is ordered to transgress one of them or be killed, one should sacrifice one's life rather than transgress. And Maimonides taught that these general rules apply when the gentile desires something for the gentile's own personal benefit—for example, to build a house for the gentile on the Sabbath. But if the gentile's intention is solely to have the Jew violate the commandments, the following rules apply: If there are not ten other Jews present, the Jew should transgress the commandment to stay alive. But if the gentile forces the Jew to transgress a commandment in the presence of ten Jews, the Jew should sacrifice the Jew's life and not transgress even one of the commandments. Maimonides further taught that in times when a wicked ruler like Nebuchadnezzar or his like issues a decree against the Jews to nullify their faith or one of the commandments, one should sacrifice one's life rather than transgress any of the commandments, whether one is compelled to transgress in the presence of ten Jews or only among gentiles. Maimonides taught that when, as required above, one sacrifices one's life and does not transgress, that person sanctifies God's Name, and there is no higher level above that person. And when, under such circumstances, one instead transgresses, that person desecrates God's Name. But Maimonides taught that one who could escape from under the power of such a wicked ruler and fails to do so is like a dog who returns his vomit. That person is considered as one who worships false gods willingly and will be prevented from reaching the World to Come and will descend to the lowest levels of Gehinnom. And Maimonides taught that whoever consciously transgresses one of the commandments without being forced to, in a spirit of derision, to arouse Divine anger, desecrates God's name. Conversely, anyone who refrains from committing a sin or performs a commandment for no ulterior motive, neither out of fear or dread, nor to seek honor, but for God's sake—as Joseph held himself back from his master's wife—sanctifies God's name.
Leviticus chapter 23
Maimonides proposed reasons for the festivals discussed in Leviticus 23:1–43. Maimonides taught that the object of the Sabbath (mentioned in Leviticus 23:3) was the rest that it affords. One-seventh of the life of every person, small or great, passes in comfort and rest from trouble and exertion. In addition, the Sabbath perpetuates remembrance of the Creation.
Maimonides taught that the object of the Fast of Atonement (mentioned in Leviticus 23:26–32) is the sense of repentance that it creates. Maimonides noted that it was on Yom Kippur that Moses came down from Mount Sinai with the second tablets and announced to the Israelites God's pardon of their sin with the Golden Calf. God therefore appointed Yom Kippur forever as a day devoted to repentance and the true worship of God. For this reason, the law interdicts all material enjoyment, trouble and care for the body, and work, so that people might spend the day confessing their sins and abandoning them.
Maimonides taught that the other holy days (discussed in Leviticus 23:4–25 and 33–44) were appointed for rejoicing and for the pleasant gathering that people generally need. The holy days also promote the good feeling that people should have to each other in their social and political relations.
According to Maimonides, Passover (mentioned in Leviticus 23:5–14) is kept seven days, because a week is the intermediate unit of time between a day and a month. Passover teaches people to remember the miracles that God performed in Egypt, encouraging people to thank God repeatedly and to lead a modest and humble life. Jews therefore eat unleavened bread and bitter herbs on Passover in memory of what happened to the Israelites. And they eat unleavened bread for a week because if the eating were only for one day, Jews might not notice it.
Maimonides taught that Shavuot (mentioned in Leviticus 23:15–21) is the anniversary of the Revelation on Mount Sinai. To increase the importance of this day, Jews count the days that pass from the preceding festival of Passover, just as one who expects an intimate friend to visit on a certain day counts the days and even the hours until the friend comes. This is why Jews count the days that pass since the offering of the Omer, between the anniversary of the Israelites' departure from Egypt and the anniversary of the Lawgiving. The Revelation at Mount Sinai was the object of the Exodus from Egypt, and thus God said in Exodus 19:4, "I brought you to myself." As the Revelation at Mount Sinai took place on one day, so Jews keep its anniversary only one day.
Maimonides wrote that Jews likewise keep Rosh Hashanah (mentioned in Leviticus 23:23–25) for one day, for it is a day of repentance, on which Jews are stirred up from forgetfulness, and for this reason the shofar is blown on that day. According to Maimonides, Rosh Hashanah is a preparation for and an introduction to Yom Kippur, as is plain from the tradition about the days between Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.
Maimonides taught that Sukkot (discussed in Leviticus 23:33–36 and 39–44), which is a feast of rejoicing and gladness, is kept seven days, so that the festival may be more noticeable. It is kept in the autumn because, as Exodus 23:16 says, it is "When you have gathered in your labors out of the field," and thus when people can rest free from pressing labors. Maimonides cited the ninth book of Aristotle's Ethics for the proposition that harvest festivals were a general custom, quoting Aristotle to report, "In ancient times, the sacrifices and assemblies of the people took place after the ingathering of the corn and the fruit, as if the sacrifices were offered on account of the harvest." Maimonides noted the temperate nature of autumn as another reason for Sukkot falling in that season, making it possible to dwell in booths free of great heat and troublesome rain. Maimonides taught that Sukkot reminds Jews of the miracles that God performed in the wilderness, once again to induced Jews to thank God and lead a modest and humble life. Jews thus leave their houses to dwell in sukkot, as inhabitants of deserts do, so as to remember that this had once been their condition, as reported in Leviticus 23:43, "I made the children of Israel to dwell in booths." And Jews join to Sukkot the Feast of Shemini Atzeret to complete in the comfort of their homes their rejoicings, which cannot be perfect in booths. Maimonides taught that the lulav and etrog symbolize the rejoicing that the Israelites had when they replaced the wilderness, which was in the words of Numbers 25:5, "no place of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pomegranates, or of water to drink," with a country full of fruit trees and rivers. To remember this, Jews take the most pleasant fruit of the land, branches that smell best, most beautiful leaves, and also the best of herbs, that is, the willows of the brook. The four species joined in the lulav and etrog also were (1) plentiful in those days in the Land of Israel, so that everyone could easily get them, (2) of a good appearance, and in the case of the etrog and myrtle, excellent smell, and (3) keep fresh and green for seven days.
The Daas Zekeinim (a collection of comments by Tosafists of 12th- and 13th-century France and Germany) noted that the Torah uses variations of the word "joy" (, simchah) three times in connection with Sukkot (in Leviticus 23:40 and Deuteronomy 16:14 and 16:15), only once in connection with Shavuot (in Deuteronomy 16:11), and not at all in connection with Passover. The Daas Zekeinim explained that it was only at the completion of the harvest and Sukkot that one was able to be completely joyful.
In modern interpretation
The parashah is discussed in these modern sources:
Leviticus chapters 21–24
In 1877, August Klostermann observed the singularity of Leviticus 17–26 as a collection of laws and designated it the "Holiness Code."
Leviticus chapter 23
In 1950, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of Conservative Judaism ruled: "Refraining from the use of a motor vehicle is an important aid in the maintenance of the Sabbath spirit of repose. Such restraint aids, moreover, in keeping the members of the family together on the Sabbath. However where a family resides beyond reasonable walking distance from the synagogue, the use of a motor vehicle for the purpose of synagogue attendance shall in no wise be construed as a violation of the Sabbath but, on the contrary, such attendance shall be deemed an expression of loyalty to our faith. . . . [I]n the spirit of a living and developing Halachah responsive to the changing needs of our people, we declare it to be permitted to use electric lights on the Sabbath for the purpose of enhancing the enjoyment of the Sabbath, or reducing personal discomfort in the performance of a mitzvah."
In 2014, the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of Conservative Judaism ruled that women are now equally responsible for observing commandments as men have been. The Committee thus ruled that women are responsible for, among other commandments, residing in a sukkah, taking up the lulav, hearing the shofar, and counting the omer in Leviticus 23:15–16.
Some modern scholars maintain that a group of priests copied an older form of the festival law now in Leviticus 23, but added Leviticus 23:9–22 and 23:39–44, thus radically altering the religious outlook of the original document, acknowledging the validity of popular ritual observances deliberately shunned by the more elite priests responsible for the older version.
Leviticus chapter 24
Reading the account of the blasphemer in Leviticus 24:11–16, Mary Douglas observed that the man did two bad things—he cursed and he spoke against or "pierced with words" the Name of God. Douglas noted that the Israelites put him to death by stoning, and the Hebrew stem of the verb translated as "to stone" means to hurl or pelt. Douglas suggested that if wordplay is admitted, the story could be read to say that the blasphemer hurled insults at the Name of God, and then God ordained that the blasphemer should die by stones hurled at him. Employing the English metaphor of mud-slinging, Douglas compared the end of the story to: "he has slung mud, let him die by mud slung at him." Selecting possible meanings of character names that fit the story, Douglas suggested that the story told to children could go like this: Once there was a man with no name, son of Retribution, grandson of Lawsuit, from the house of Judgment, who pelted insults at the Name, and God said that he should die—because he pelted God's Name, he should be pelted to death. Douglas proposed that by quoting the "eye for eye" law in a jingly form, in a peculiar circumstance where it does not really fit, surrounded by funny names, the writer of Leviticus may be trying to say something else about the measure-for-measure principle, testing the universal validity of the principle of retribution. Douglas posited that the "subtlety of thought and the high degree of literary control exerted throughout Leviticus" suggest that the priestly writer referred to other people's legal codes in an ironic if not disingenuous vein. Douglas concluded that the writer of Leviticus aped the style of foreign laws when touching on "negative reciprocity," but it is rather "positive reciprocity, gift with gift," that is the central theme in Leviticus. The writer of Leviticus sought to show that God's compassion and God's justice were available to be perceived by anyone reading the Bible's account of God's covenant.
Bernard Bamberger read the Hebrew form of "in custody" in Leviticus 24:12 to suggest that there was a regular detention area outside the camp for accused persons whose cases were pending, notwithstanding that imprisonment as punishment for a crime does not seem to have been a regular practice in ancient Israel. Bamberger noted that Leviticus 24:12 is one of four episodes in the Torah (along with Numbers 9:6–8, 15:32–34, and 27:1–5) in which Moses had to make a special inquiry of God before he could give a legal decision. Bamberger reported that the inability of Moses to handle these cases on his own troubled the Rabbis.
Commandments
According to the Sefer ha-Chinuch, there are 24 positive and 39 negative commandments in the parashah:
A Kohen must not defile himself for anyone except certain relatives.
To mourn for a close relative
An impure Kohen, following immersion, must wait until after sundown before returning to service.
A Kohen must not marry a woman who had forbidden relations.
A Kohen must not marry a woman born from a disqualified marriage.
A Kohen must not marry a divorcee.
To dedicate the Kohen for service
The High Priest must not enter under the same roof as a corpse.
The High Priest must not defile himself for any relative.
The High Priest must marry a virgin.
The High Priest must not marry a widow.
The High Priest must not have sexual relations with a widow even outside of marriage.
A Kohen with a physical blemish must not serve.
A Kohen with a temporary blemish must not serve.
A Kohen with a physical blemish must not enter the sanctuary or approach the altar.
Impure Kohanim must not do service in the Temple.
An impure Kohen must not eat terumah.
A non-Kohen must not eat terumah.
A hired worker or a Jewish bondsman of a Kohen must not eat terumah.
An uncircumcised person must not eat terumah.
A woman born from a disqualified marriage must not eat terumah.
Not to eat produce from which the tithes have not been separated
Not to dedicate a blemished animal for the altar
To offer only unblemished animals
Not to wound dedicated animals
Not to sprinkle the blood of a blemished animal
Not to slaughter a blemished animal for an offering
Not to burn the fat of a blemished animal on the altar
Not to castrate animals
Not to sacrifice blemished animals even if offered by non-Jews
To offer only animals which are at least eight days old
Not to slaughter an animal and its offspring on the same day
Not to profane God's Name
To sanctify God's Name
To rest on the first day of Passover
Not to do prohibited labor on the first day of Passover
To offer the musaf offering all seven days of Passover
To rest on the seventh day of Passover
Not to do prohibited labor on the seventh day of Passover
To offer the wave offering from the meal of the new wheat
Not to eat bread from new grain before the omer
Not to eat parched grains from new grain before the omer
Not to eat ripened grains from new grain before the omer
To count the omer
To bring two loaves to accompany the Shavuot sacrifice
To offer the musaf offering on Yom Kippur
To rest on Shavuot
Not to do prohibited labor on Shavuot
To rest on Rosh Hashanah
Not to do prohibited labor on Rosh Hashanah
To offer the musaf offering on Rosh Hashanah
To fast on Yom Kippur
Not to do prohibited labor on Yom Kippur
Not to eat or drink on Yom Kippur
To rest from prohibited labor on Yom Kippur
To rest on Sukkot
Not to do prohibited labor on Sukkot
To offer the musaf offering all the days of Sukkot
To rest on Shmini Atzeret
To offer the musaf offering on Shmini Atzeret
Not to do prohibited labor on Shmini Atzeret
To take up a lulav and etrog all seven days
To dwell in a sukkah for the seven days of Sukkot
In the liturgy
Some Jews refer to the 24 priestly gifts deduced from Leviticus 21 and Numbers 18 as they study of Pirkei Avot on a Sabbath between Passover and Rosh Hashanah.
The laws of a priest's family eating meat from sacrifices in Leviticus 22:11–13 provide an application of the eleventh of the Thirteen Rules for interpreting the Torah in the Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael that many Jews read as part of the readings before the Pesukei d'Zimrah prayer service. The eleventh rule provides that any item that was included in a generalization but was then singled out to be treated as a special case is not governed by the generalization unless Scripture explicitly returns it to the generalization. Leviticus 22:11 states the general rule that a priest's entire household could eat meat from sacrifices. But Leviticus 22:12 then says that if a priest's daughter married a non-priest, then she could no longer eat meat from sacrifices. What if she was then widowed or divorced without children and returned to live with her father's household? Reading Leviticus 22:12, one might think that she still could not eat meat from sacrifices, but Leviticus 22:13 explicitly returns her to the general rule that she could eat meat from sacrifices.
The Passover Haggadah, in the concluding nirtzah section of the Seder, ties together a reference to Abraham's hospitality to his visitors in Genesis 18:7 with the reading for the second day of Passover that includes in Leviticus 22:27 a discussion of a bullock offering. The Haggadah reports that Abraham ran to the cattle to commemorate the ox in the reading for Passover, deducing the season from the report in Genesis 19:3 that Lot fed his visitors matzah.
Haftarah
The haftarah for the parashah is Ezekiel 44:15–31.
Notes
Further reading
The parashah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:
Ancient
The Code of Hammurabi, sections 194–214. Babylonia, Circa 1780 BCE. In, e.g., James B. Pritchard. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, page 175. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969.
Plato. Laws 6:759. Greece, 4th century BCE. In, e.g., The Laws of Plato. Translated by Thomas L. Pangle, page 145. New York: Basic Books, 1980. (priests sound of body).
Biblical
Exodus 4:10–11 (God makes people disabled); Exodus 12:3–27, 43–49 (Passover); 13:6–10 (Passover); 21:22–25 (eye for eye); 23:14–19 (three pilgrim festivals); 34:22–26 (three pilgrim festivals).
Leviticus 16:1–34 (Yom Kippur); 19:9–10 (corners of fields).
Numbers 9:1–14 (Passover, inquiry of God on the law); 15:32–36 (inquiry of God on the law); 27:1–11 (inquiry of God on the law); 28:16–31 (Passover, Shavuot); 29:1–39 (holidays).
Deuteronomy 16:1–17 (three pilgrim festivals); 19:15–21 (eye for eye); 31:10–13 (Sukkot).
Judges 21:19 (Sukkot).
1 Kings 8:1–66 (Sukkot); 12:32 (northern feast like Sukkot).
Isaiah 56:6–7 (keeping the Sabbath); 66:23 (universally observed Sabbath).
Ezekiel 45:25 (Sukkot).
Zechariah 14:16–19 (Sukkot).
Psalm 15:1–5 (who shall sojourn in God's Tabernacle); 61:9 (performing vows); 65:2 (performing vows); 74:10–11, 18 (blasphemers); 78:4–7 (that succeeding generations may learn); 81:4 (proclaiming feast days); 107:22 (sacrifices of thanksgiving); 116:17 (sacrifices of thanksgiving).
Ezra 3:4 (Sukkot).
Nehemiah 8:14–18 (Sukkot).
2 Chronicles 5:3–14 (Sukkot); 7:8 (Sukkot); 8:12–13 (three Pilgrim festivals).
Early nonrabbinic
John 7:1–53 (Sukkot).
Classical rabbinic
Mishnah: Peah 1:1–8:9; Demai 1:1–7:8; Sheviit 2:1; Terumot 3:9, 6:6–7:4; Challah 1:1; Bikkurim 1:8; Shabbat 1:1–24:5; Pesachim 1:1–10:9; Yoma 1:1–8:9; Sukkah 1:1–5:8; Beitzah 1:1–5:7; Rosh Hashanah 1:1–4:9; Megillah 1:5, 3:5–6, 4:7; Yevamot 2:4, 6:2–5, 7:1–8:2, 8:6, 9:2, 9:4–6, 10:3; Nedarim 11:3; Kiddushin 1:7, 1:9; Sanhedrin 2:1, 4:1, 6:1, 7:4–5, 9:1, 6; Makkot 3:8–9; Horayot 3:4–5, 8; Zevachim 9:5, 14:2; Menachot 2:2–3, 3:6, 4:2–3, 5:1, 5:3, 5:6–7, 6:2, 6:5–7, 8:1, 9:4, 10:1–11:2, 11:4–5, 11:9; Chullin 4:5, 5:5; Bekhorot 6:1–7:7; Keritot 1:1; Meilah 2:6; Kinnim 1:1; Parah 2:1. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. In, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, pages 14–36, 41, 70, 100, 108, 148, 168, 179–208, 229–51, 265–307, 317, 321, 340, 352–54, 358, 360, 489, 585, 589, 593, 602, 604, 618, 694–95, 720, 730, 735–36, 739–45, 748, 752, 755, 757, 774–75, 777, 800, 802, 836, 854, 883, 1014. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988.
Tosefta: Peah 1:1–4:21; Demai 1:28; Challah 2:7; Bikkurim 2:4; Shabbat 1:1–17:29; Pisha (Pesachim) 1:1–10:13; Kippurim (Yoma) 1:1–4:17; Sukkah 1:1–4:28; Yom Tov (Beitzah) 1:1–4:11; Rosh Hashanah 1:1–2:18; Megillah 3:5–6, 8; Yevamot 10:3, 5; Sanhedrin 4:1, 12:1; Makkot 5:4; Shevuot 1:6, 3:8; Eduyot 3:4; Shechitat Chullin 4:5; Menachot 7:7, 20, 10:26, 11:15; Bekhorot 2:3–4, 7–10, 17–19, 3:2, 6, 20, 24–25; 4:1–5:9; Temurah 1:10–11. Land of Israel, circa 250 CE. In, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 1, pages 47–76, 83, 339, 349, 357–427, 419, 471–522, 541–618, 645, 718; volume 2, pages 1156, 1185, 1215, 1221, 1233, 1259, 1388, 1435, 1438, 1455, 1459. 1483, 1485, 1521. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2002.
Sifra Emor (211:1–244:1). Land of Israel, circa 250–350 CE. In, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, volume 3, pages 161–290. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988.
Jerusalem Talmud: Berakhot 4b, 57b, 75b; Peah 1a–73b; Demai 56a; Sheviit 5b, 27b–28a, 83a; Maaser Sheni 13a; Challah 2a, 6a, 8a, 11a; Orlah 2b–3a, 19a, 34a, 41b; Bikkurim 6a, 11a–12b; Shabbat 1a–113b; Pesachim 1a–86a; Yoma 1a–57a; Sukkah 1a–33b; Beitzah 1a–49b; Rosh Hashanah 1a–27a; Taanit 7a; Megillah 6a, 26a, 31b–32a, 35b, 39b; Chagigah 6a–b, 14b; Yevamot 10b, 33b–35a, 37a–b, 40a, 41a, 42a, 47a–b, 50b, 51b–52b, 56b, 61a, 65b, 68a; Ketubot 5a, 18a–19a, 20b, 28a, 36a; Nedarim 23b–24a, 40a; Nazir 14a, 22a, 30a, 31a, 36a, 47b; Sotah 10a, 19a–b, 20b, 46b; Gittin 10a; Kiddushin 16b, 21a–b, 22b, 23b; Bava Kamma 2b–3a, 18b, 12a; Bava Batra 27b; Sanhedrin 7a–b, 11a, 12b, 13b, 20b, 25b, 28b, 30a, 33a, 38a, 44b–45a, 55b–56a. Tiberias, Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. In, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, volumes 1–4, 6a–b, 10–15, 18–19, 21–27, 29–31, 33–35, 37–38, 40–41, 43–45. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2005–2018. And reprinted in, e.g., The Jerusalem Talmud: A Translation and Commentary. Edited by Jacob Neusner and translated by Jacob Neusner, Tzvee Zahavy, B. Barry Levy, and Edward Goldman. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers, 2009.
Genesis Rabbah 16:6; 19:9; 41:1; 48:10; 63:8; 75:13; 76:6; 85:10; 86:3; 91:3; 99:1; 100:2. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 1, pages 131, 156, 332, 412; volume 2, pages 562, 699, 706, 796, 802, 834, 972, 988. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Leviticus Rabbah 7:2; 10:3; 24:6; 26:1–32:8. Land of Israel, 5th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by Harry Freedman and Maurice Simon, volume 4, pages 92, 124, 309, 325–417. London: Soncino Press, 1939.
Babylonian Talmud: Shabbat 2a–157b; Eruvin 105a; Pesachim 2a–121b; Rosh Hashanah 2a–35a; Yoma 2a–88a; Sukkah 2a–56b; Megillah 29a; Chagigah 13a, 14b; Mo'ed Katan 14b, 20a–b, 28b; Yevamot 5a, 6a, 15b, 20a–b, 22b, 24a, 37a, 44a, 52a, 55a–b, 56b, 58b–60a, 61a–b, 66a, 69a, 77b, 84a–85b, 86b, 87b, 88b, 89b, 90b–91a, 92a–b, 94a, 99b, 100b, 108a, 114a–b, 120a; Ketubot 14b, 26a, 29b–30a, 36b, 51b, 53a, 70a, 72b, 81a, 89b, 97b–98a, 100b–101b; Nedarim 10b, 62a; Nazir 38a, 40b–41a, 42b–44a, 47b–49a, 52b, 58a–b; Sotah 3a, 6a, 23b, 26b, 29a, 44a; Gittin 24b, 59b–60a, 82b; Kiddushin 10a, 13b, 18b, 35b–36a, 64a, 68a, 72b, 74b, 77a–78a; Bava Kamma 84a, 109b–110a, 114b; Bava Metzia 10b, 18a, 30a; Bava Batra 32a, 160b; Sanhedrin 4a, 5b, 18a–19a, 28b, 46a, 47a, 50a–52a, 53b, 66b, 69b, 76a, 83a–84a; Makkot 2a, 13a, 15a, 16a, 20a, 21a–b; Horayot 9a, 11b, 12b; Zevachim 13a, 15a–16a, 17a, 100a, 101b; Menachot 6a, 109a; Chullin 24a–b, 72a, 134b, 137a; Bekhorot 29a, 43a–45a, 56b; Temurah 5b, 6a, 29b; Keritot 7a; Niddah 8b, 69b. Babylonia, 6th century. In, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 volumes. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006.
Medieval
Saadia Gaon. Emunoth ve-Deoth (The Book of Beliefs and Opinions), treatise 3, chapters 1, 5; treatise 5, chapters 1, 8. Baghdad, Babylonia, 933. In The Book of Beliefs and Opinions. Translated by Samuel Rosenblatt, pages 139, 154, 205, 234. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1948.
Rashi. Commentary. Leviticus 21–24. Troyes, France, late 11th century. In, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashi's Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, volume 3, pages 261–315. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1994.
Rashbam. Commentary on the Torah. Troyes, early 12th century. In, e.g., Rashbam's Commentary on Leviticus and Numbers: An Annotated Translation. Edited and translated by Martin I. Lockshin, pages 115–29. Providence: Brown Judaic Studies, 2001.
Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 2:20, 26, 50; 3:41, 46–47; 5:27. Toledo, Spain, 1130–1140. In, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Introduction by Henry Slonimsky, pages 94, 102, 115, 173, 175, 295. New York: Schocken, 1964.
Abraham ibn Ezra. Commentary on the Torah. Mid-12th century. In, e.g., Ibn Ezra's Commentary on the Pentateuch: Leviticus (Va-yikra). Translated and annotated by H. Norman Strickman and Arthur M. Silver, volume 3, pages 186–238. New York: Menorah Publishing Company, 2004.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah, Structure. Cairo, Egypt, 1170–1180.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah (The Laws that Are the Foundations of the Torah), chapter 5. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah: The Laws [which Are] the Foundations of the Torah. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 1, pages 206–31. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1989.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Kiddush HaChodesh (The Laws of Sanctification of the New Moon), chapter 2, ¶ 10; chapter 3, ¶ 2. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Shekalim: The Laws of Shekalim: and Hilchot Kiddush HaChodesh: The Laws of Sanctification of the New Moon. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, volume 14, pages 72–75. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 1993.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Terumot (The Laws of Terumot (Priestly Offerings)), chapter 6, ¶ 5. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Zeraim: The Book of Agricultural Ordinances. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 270–73. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2005.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah: Hilchot Temidin uMusafim (The Laws of Continual and Additional Offerings), chapter 7, ¶¶ 5, 11, 13, 22. Egypt. Circa 1170–1180. In, e.g., Mishneh Torah: Sefer Ha'Avodah: The Book of (Temple) Service. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, pages 580–89. New York: Moznaim Publishing, 2007.
Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed, part 1, chapter 64; part 3, chapters 17, 41, 43, 46, 47, 48, 49. Cairo, Egypt, 1190. In, e.g., Moses Maimonides. The Guide for the Perplexed. Translated by Michael Friedländer, pages 96, 287, 344, 346, 353, 360, 369, 371, 379. New York: Dover Publications, 1956.
Bahir, part 1, paragraph 105. Provence, circa 1174. In, e.g., The Bahir: A Translation and Commentary. Translation and commentary by Aryeh Kaplan, pages 39–40. Lanham, Maryland: Jason Aronson, 1977.
Hezekiah ben Manoah. Hizkuni. France, circa 1240. In, e.g., Chizkiyahu ben Manoach. Chizkuni: Torah Commentary. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 781–817. Jerusalem: Ktav Publishers, 2013.
Nachmanides. Commentary on the Torah. Jerusalem, circa 1270. In, e.g., Ramban (Nachmanides): Commentary on the Torah. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, volume 3, pages 326–408. New York: Shilo Publishing House, 1974.
Zohar part 1, pages 65a, 112a, 166b, 181a; part 2, pages 39b, 40b, 95a, 101a, 108b, 121b, 129b, 133a, 153b, 183a–b, 215a, 216b, 231a, 237a; part 3, pages 7a, 67a, 69b, 73b, 88a–107b. Spain, late 13th century. In, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 volumes. London: Soncino Press, 1934.
Bahya ben Asher. Commentary on the Torah. Spain, early 14th century. In, e.g., Midrash Rabbeinu Bachya: Torah Commentary by Rabbi Bachya ben Asher. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 5, pages 1766–821. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2003.
Jacob ben Asher (Baal Ha-Turim). Rimze Ba'al ha-Turim. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Baal Haturim Chumash: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated by Eliyahu Touger, edited, elucidated, and annotated by Avie Gold, volume 3, pages 1221–69. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2000.
Jacob ben Asher. Perush Al ha-Torah. Early 14th century. In, e.g., Yaakov ben Asher. Tur on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 3, pages 933–68. Jerusalem: Lambda Publishers, 2005.
Isaac ben Moses Arama. Akedat Yizhak (The Binding of Isaac). Late 15th century. In, e.g., Yitzchak Arama. Akeydat Yitzchak: Commentary of Rabbi Yitzchak Arama on the Torah. Translated and condensed by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 633–69. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2001.
Modern
Isaac Abravanel. Commentary on the Torah. Italy, between 1492–1509. In, e.g., Abarbanel: Selected Commentaries on the Torah: Volume 3: Vayikra/Leviticus. Translated and annotated by Israel Lazar, pages 192–229. Brooklyn: CreateSpace, 2015.
Obadiah ben Jacob Sforno. Commentary on the Torah. Venice, 1567. In, e.g., Sforno: Commentary on the Torah. Translation and explanatory notes by Raphael Pelcovitz, pages 590–613. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1997.
Moshe Alshich. Commentary on the Torah. Safed, circa 1593. In, e.g., Moshe Alshich. Midrash of Rabbi Moshe Alshich on the Torah. Translated and annotated by Eliyahu Munk, volume 2, pages 718–50. New York, Lambda Publishers, 2000.
Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Commentaries on the Torah. Cracow, Poland, mid 17th century. Compiled as Chanukat HaTorah. Edited by Chanoch Henoch Erzohn. Piotrkow, Poland, 1900. In Avraham Yehoshua Heschel. Chanukas HaTorah: Mystical Insights of Rav Avraham Yehoshua Heschel on Chumash. Translated by Avraham Peretz Friedman, pages 236–37. Southfield, Michigan: Targum Press/Feldheim Publishers, 2004.
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Louis Ginzberg. Legends of the Jews, volume 3, pages 238–42. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1911.
Hermann Cohen. Religion of Reason: Out of the Sources of Judaism. Translated with an introduction by Simon Kaplan; introductory essays by Leo Strauss, pages 103, 110, 125. New York: Ungar, 1972. Reprinted Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1995. Originally published as Religion der Vernunft aus den Quellen des Judentums. Leipzig: Gustav Fock, 1919.
Alexander Alan Steinbach. Sabbath Queen: Fifty-four Bible Talks to the Young Based on Each Portion of the Pentateuch, pages 96–99. New York: Behrman's Jewish Book House, 1936.
Thomas Mann. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated by John E. Woods, pages 131–32. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brüder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943.
The Sabbath Anthology. Edited by Abraham E. Millgram. Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society, 1944; reprinted 2018. (Leviticus 23:1–3).
Morris Adler, Jacob B. Agus, and Theodore Friedman. "Responsum on the Sabbath." Proceedings of the Rabbinical Assembly, volume 14 (1950), pages 112–88. New York: Rabbinical Assembly of America, 1951. In Proceedings of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Conservative Movement 1927–1970, volume 3 (Responsa), pages 1109–34. Jerusalem: The Rabbinical Assembly and The Institute of Applied Hallakhah, 1997.
Abraham Joshua Heschel. The Sabbath. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1951. Reprinted 2005.
Morris Adler. The World of the Talmud, page 30. B'nai B'rith Hillel Foundations, 1958. Reprinted Kessinger Publishing, 2007.
Electric Prunes. "Kol Nidre." In Release of an Oath. Reprise Records, 1968. (track based on the Yom Kippur Kol Nidre prayer).
Carol L. Meyers. The Tabernacle Menorah. Missoula, Montana: Scholars Press, 1976.
Gordon J. Wenham. The Book of Leviticus, pages 288–313. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979.
Pinchas H. Peli. Torah Today: A Renewed Encounter with Scripture, pages 143–46. Washington, D.C.: B'nai B'rith Books, 1987.
Harvey J. Fields. A Torah Commentary for Our Times: Volume II: Exodus and Leviticus, pages 138–49. New York: UAHC Press, 1991.
Walter C. Kaiser Jr., " The Book of Leviticus," in The New Interpreter's Bible, volume 1, pages 1144–66. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994.
Judith S. Antonelli. "The Kohenet." In In the Image of God: A Feminist Commentary on the Torah, pages 313–21. Northvale, New Jersey: Jason Aronson, 1995.
Ellen Frankel. The Five Books of Miriam: A Woman's Commentary on the Torah, pages 184–87. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1996.
Marc Gellman. "Three Green Things and a Yellow." In God's Mailbox: More Stories About Stories in the Bible, pages 85–89. New York: Morrow Junior Books, 1996.
Jacob Milgrom. "Lex Talionis and the Rabbis: The Talmud reflects an uneasy rabbinic conscience toward the ancient law of talion, 'eye for eye, tooth for tooth.'" Bible Review. Volume 12 (number 2) (April 1996).
W. Gunther Plaut. The Haftarah Commentary, pages 299–307. New York: UAHC Press, 1996.
Robert Goodman. Teaching Jewish Holidays: History, Values, and Activities. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 1997.
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Susan Freeman. Teaching Jewish Virtues: Sacred Sources and Arts Activities, pages 269–82. Springfield, New Jersey: A.R.E. Publishing, 1999. (Leviticus 21:5).
Frank H. Gorman Jr. "Leviticus." In The HarperCollins Bible Commentary. Edited by James L. Mays, pages 161–63. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, revised edition, 2000.
Valerie Lieber. "Elitism in the Levitical Priesthood." In The Women's Torah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Torah Portions. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 231–37. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2000.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus 17–22, volume 3A, pages 1791–892. New York: Anchor Bible, 2000.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus 23–27, volume 3B, pages 1947–2145. New York: Anchor Bible, 2000.
Lainie Blum Cogan and Judy Weiss. Teaching Haftarah: Background, Insights, and Strategies, pages 489–97. Denver: A.R.E. Publishing, 2002.
Michael Fishbane. The JPS Bible Commentary: Haftarot, pages 192–97. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2002.
Joseph Telushkin. The Ten Commandments of Character: Essential Advice for Living an Honorable, Ethical, Honest Life, pages 275–78. New York: Bell Tower, 2003.
Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, pages 635–52. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
Rachel Esserman. "Haftarat Emor: Ezekiel 44:15–31." In The Women's Haftarah Commentary: New Insights from Women Rabbis on the 54 Weekly Haftarah Portions, the 5 Megillot & Special Shabbatot. Edited by Elyse Goldstein, pages 141–45. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, 2004.
Jacob Milgrom. Leviticus: A Book of Ritual and Ethics: A Continental Commentary, pages 260–97. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2004.
Baruch J. Schwartz. "Leviticus." In The Jewish Study Bible. Edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler, pages 258–69. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Antony Cothey. "Ethics and Holiness in the Theology of Leviticus." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 30 (number 2) (December 2005): pages 131–51.
Professors on the Parashah: Studies on the Weekly Torah Reading Edited by Leib Moscovitz, pages 204–15. Jerusalem: Urim Publications, 2005.
Judith Z. Abrams. "Misconceptions About Disabilities in the Hebrew Bible." In Jewish Perspectives on Theology and the Human Experience of Disability. Edited by Judith Z. Abrams & William C. Gaventa, pages 73–84. Binghamton, New York: Haworth Pastoral Press, 2006.
Bernard J. Bamberger. "Leviticus." In The Torah: A Modern Commentary: Revised Edition. Edited by W. Gunther Plaut; revised edition edited by David E.S. Stern, pages 817–47. New York: Union for Reform Judaism, 2006.
Calum Carmichael. Illuminating Leviticus: A Study of Its Laws and Institutions in the Light of Biblical Narratives. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006.
Suzanne A. Brody. "Momentous experiences" and "Blind Interpretations." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, pages 21, 91. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007.
James L. Kugel. How To Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now, pages 268, 291, 302, 318, 321, 323–25, 609. New York: Free Press, 2007.
Christophe Nihan. From Priestly Torah to Pentateuch: A Study in the Composition of the Book of Leviticus. Coronet Books, 2007.
Saul M. Olyan. Disability in the Hebrew Bible: Interpreting Mental and Physical Differences. Cambridge University Press, 2008.
The Torah: A Women's Commentary. Edited by Tamara Cohn Eskenazi and Andrea L. Weiss, pages 723–46. New York: URJ Press, 2008.
Roy E. Gane. "Leviticus." In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary. Edited by John H. Walton, volume 1, pages 317–22. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.
Reuven Hammer. Entering Torah: Prefaces to the Weekly Torah Portion, pages 179–84. New York: Gefen Publishing House, 2009.
Joshua Lesser. "Fear Factor: Lesbian Sex and Gay Men: Parashat Emor (Leviticus 21:1–24:23)." In Torah Queeries: Weekly Commentaries on the Hebrew Bible. Edited by Gregg Drinkwater, Joshua Lesser, and David Shneer; foreword by Judith Plaskow, pages 170–73. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
Leigh M. Trevaskis. "The Purpose of Leviticus 24 within its Literary Context." Vetus Testamentum, volume 59 (number 2) (2009): pages 295–312.
Stuart Lasine. "Everything Belongs to Me: Holiness, Danger, and Divine Kingship in the Post-Genesis World." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 35 (number 1) (September 2010): pages 31–62.
Jay Michaelson. "Are Corporations Evil?" In The Forward. (August 6, 2010). (a proposal for requiring corporate public charity).
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Joe Lieberman and David Klinghoffer. The Gift of Rest: Rediscovering the Beauty of the Sabbath. New York: Howard Books, 2011.
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Adam Kirsch. "Navigating the Talmud's Alleys: The range of problems and the variety of answers in the study of Oral Law lead to new pathways of reasoning." Tablet Magazine. (March 18, 2013). (Shabbat).
Amiel Ungar. "Tel Aviv and the Sabbath." The Jerusalem Report. Volume 24 (number 8) (July 29, 2013): page 37.
Eve Levavi Feinstein. "Priestly Marriage Restrictions." In Sexual Pollution in the Hebrew Bible, pages 91–98. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Bernon Lee. "Unity in Diversity: The Literary Function of the Formula of Retaliation in Leviticus 24.15–22." Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, volume 38 (number 3) (March 2014): pages 297–313.
Amanda Terkel. "Glenn Grothman, Wisconsin GOP Senator, Fights for a Seven-Day Workweek." The Huffington Post. (January 3, 2014, updated January 23, 2014). (Congressional candidate said, "Right now in Wisconsin, you're not supposed to work seven days in a row, which is a little ridiculous because all sorts of people want to work seven days a week.")
Ester Bloom. "The Crazy New App For Using Your iPhone on Shabbos." Jewniverse. (October 1, 2014).
Zachary Schrieber. "What Is Shemini Atzeret, Anyway? We ask the experts about the High Holiday season's least-understood festival." Tablet Magazine. (October 15, 2014).
Art Swift. "Americans: 'Eye for an Eye' Top Reason for Death Penalty." Gallup. (October 23, 2014).
"The Crazy New Invention for Using Electricity on Shabbat." Jewniverse. (April 21, 2015).
Jonathan Sacks. Covenant & Conversation: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible: Leviticus: The Book of Holiness, pages 315–58. Jerusalem: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Lessons in Leadership: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 165–67. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2015.
Jonathan Sacks. Essays on Ethics: A Weekly Reading of the Jewish Bible, pages 195–99. New Milford, Connecticut: Maggid Books, 2016.
Shai Held. The Heart of Torah, Volume 2: Essays on the Weekly Torah Portion: Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, pages 66–75. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
Steven Levy and Sarah Levy. The JPS Rashi Discussion Torah Commentary, pages 100–02. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2017.
External links
Texts
Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation
Hear the parashah read in Hebrew
Commentaries
Academy for Jewish Religion, California
Academy for Jewish Religion, New York
Aish.com
American Jewish University—Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies
Chabad.org
Hadar
Jewish Theological Seminary
MyJewishLearning.com
Orthodox Union
Pardes from Jerusalem
Reconstructing Judaism
Sephardic Institute
Union for Reform Judaism
United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
Yeshiva University
Weekly Torah readings in Iyar
Weekly Torah readings from Leviticus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloria%20Richardson
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Gloria Richardson
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Gloria Richardson Dandridge (born Gloria St. Clair Hayes; May 6, 1922 – July 15, 2021) was an American civil rights activist best known as the leader of the Cambridge movement, a civil rights action in the early 1960s in Cambridge, Maryland, on the Eastern Shore. Recognized as a major figure in the Civil Rights Movement, she was one of the signatories to "The Treaty of Cambridge", signed in July 1963 with Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, and state and local officials. It was an effort at reconciliation and commitment to change after a riot the month before.
At the August 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, Richardson and five other women were honored by being seated on the stage at the Lincoln Memorial, but none of the women were invited to speak to the crowd. The next year Richardson moved to New York City, where she worked locally in Harlem on civil rights and economic development.
Early life and education
Gloria St. Clair Hayes was born in 1922 to John and Mable (née St. Clair) Hayes in Baltimore, Maryland, the largest city in the state. Her mother was part of the affluent St. Clair family of Cambridge, Maryland, which owned and operated a successful grocery store and funeral home. Her ancestors had been free people of color since before the Civil War, and also owned extensive rental property. During the constraints of the Great Depression, the Hayes family moved to Cambridge, where Mable had grown up. One of Mable's uncles was a lawyer in the state of Maryland. Her family was also involved in politics. Gloria's wealthy maternal St. Clair grandfather was elected to the Cambridge City Council, serving from 1912 to 1946.
From a young age, Gloria had a strong personality nurtured by her parents and maternal grandparents. She developed a strong sense of community and started to form her own views on such human rights issues as racism. She attended a neighborhood public school. Her parents encouraged her to speak up and to be comfortable in front of large groups, such as performing at Sunday school programs. The young Hayes pushed against what her parents considered to be respectable behavior for girls from well-to-do families. Her independence and persistence were later displayed also in her civil rights work. While aware of her family privileges, she realized that her college degree, her family's social position, and their navigation of the color line in Cambridge did not provide her or her family with true protection. Her grandparents always taught her to value people for their actions and not for their socioeconomic status.
The Hayes family was educated and relatively affluent, but still had suffered racial injustice. Most importantly, Gloria's father John Hayes died of a heart attack due to the lack of nearby medical care accessible to blacks. It forced the young woman to realize that racism was a matter of life and death.
Black males had been able to vote in Maryland since emancipation after the American Civil War. (Women were added when the 19th constitutional amendment became effective in 1920.) African Americans in the city of Baltimore were generally segregated into housing in one of five wards, the Second Ward. Within that ward, blacks had built up substantial religious and business communities. They still lived under Maryland state Jim Crow laws and customs in the city at large.
Hayes earned a B.A. in sociology in 1942 from Howard University, a historically black university in Washington, DC. She became involved in social activism as a student protesting with others at the Peoples Drug store near campus because the store refused to hire Black workers. In college, she also picketed a segregated Woolworth's store in the capital, where blacks were not allowed to have lunch at the in-store counter. People were surprised by her leadership and her status as a woman from an elite African-American family. They were used to dealing with poor black women who were less outspoken.
Through her experiences in Washington, she realized that even 50 years of Black participation in the legal system had limited results. She could see that Cambridge was still highly segregated, and learned that Blacks suffered one of the highest unemployment rates for that size city.
Return to Cambridge
After Hayes returned to Cambridge after college, she married Harry Richardson and began to explore civil rights. When the city government hired black people as social workers, they were to serve only black clients in the all-black ward. After she was passed over for a social worker position in the "black" ward, she decided to focus on her family and civic work. In an interview with Robert Penn Warren for his book Who Speaks for the Negro? (1965), Richardson said that in Cambridge, blacks were "the last hired and first fired", a phrase applicable to minorities in other places as well.
When she divorced from Harry Richardson, she was a mother with two daughters. She worked at a pharmacy and grocery store owned by her family in a predominantly Black community. Richardson has said that her motherhood sparked her activist role.
Richardson held a formal office in the Cambridge Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (CNCC). She also served as an adult adviser to the CNCC. At one point she was the only Black woman to head a local civil rights agency. When she became co-chair of the Cambridge Nonviolent Action Committee (CNAC), she began to identify goals beyond desegregation. She sought economic and social justice in housing, education, job opportunity, and health care. While co-chairing CNAC, Richardson gained insight into who to trust in the process of negotiating the expansion of rights of the Black community in Cambridge.
During her early activism, Richardson was arrested three times. When she was first arrested, Judge W. Laird described her tactics as "a disgrace to her family's name", attempting to shame her into silence. She continued to fight back harder. She was known for verbal attacks, describing national leaders as presenting "meaningless smiles" due to their failure to gain substantial change.
Cambridge movement
In December 1961, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) sent Reginald Robinson and William Hansen to Cambridge to organize civil rights actions. SNCC had been contacted by activists in the city. The two young men started sit-ins in February to protest segregated facilities. They targeted movie theaters, bowling alleys, and restaurants. Donna Richardson, Gloria's daughter, was among students who supported the demonstrators. Richardson and Yolanda Sinclair, also mother of a protester, were among parents who wanted to show their support for these actions.
In 1961, a Freedom Ride came to Cambridge. The black city council member had attempted to discourage the campaign by insisting that the city was already desegregated. At first Richardson rarely participated in civil disobedience, because she could not accept the original SNCC nonviolence rules.
By 1962, the Civil Rights movement was picking up steam around the country. Students attempted to desegregate public facilities in Cambridge. At the time, the city had a population of around 11,000, of whom about one-third were Black. The initial protests, including picketing and sit-ins, were peaceful. Although White supremacists attacked demonstrators, police arrested the protestors. The protests did not yield results until Richardson was chosen to lead the movement and CNAC.
On January 13, 1962, the city's Black community held its first civil rights demonstration of the 1960s. Dozens of Black high school students, including Richardson's daughter Donna, joined a number of young men and women from Baltimore's Civic Interest Group (CIG) and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and two members of the SNCC. This was a result of weeks of coordinated planning by Cambridge's Black youths. It was viewed as the beginning of Cambridge's civil rights movement. Initially, when Richardson wanted to get involved with the protests, her daughter Donna sent Richardson home until Richardson could guarantee that she would demonstrate nonviolently, as the other individuals had been trained to do. It was a commitment Richardson could not make at the time; therefore, she focused on working with the Black community's secretive and highly efficient intelligence-sharing network, known as the "grapevine". Richardson provided information to CIG and SNCC about how Cambridge's political system operated and the opinions of the Black community. Her daughter acted as a spark in Richardson's activist journey. Through witnessing various demonstrations in support of her daughter's activism, Richardson struggled to remain silent in the face of counter-protestors that mocked the non-violent Civil Rights groups. Richardson was determined to involve herself in these social justice issues. At the time, she ran her family's business, but she decided to become a student again. She attended workshops, and special sessions where activists methodically trained for non-violence, to withstand the hatred of mobs, who often used slurs and demeaning acts to prevent peaceful assembly. This was supposed to be secured by the Constitution.
The March and April demonstrations resulted in a large caseload for the local court system where Richardson and other defendants were tried together. Richardson was one of more than 50 people who stood trial for charges of disorderly conduct. This became known as The Penny Trial and demonstrated how the Cambridge movement disrupted white elites' racial comfort zones. On the issue of violence, Richardson had the outlook that violence is not necessarily the answer, but she does not condemn violence as she believes it is a residue of frustration. She once said that "revolts seemed to be the only thing that America understands, and the nation's racial problems made revolts unavoidable".
In June 1962, Richardson was asked to help organize the Cambridge Nonviolent Action Committee (CNAC), the first adult-led affiliate of SNCC. She became its official spokesperson. The organization had initially formed in March of that year. After CNAC canvassed African-American communities in a survey, they expanded the goals to work for economic equality: to improve housing, education, employment, and healthcare. Many blacks struggled with low wages or unemployment.
The Cambridge movement would be one of the first campaigns to focus on economic rights rather than putting the focus solely on civil rights. Richardson would also be one of the first leaders to publicly question nonviolence as a tactic. Due to the change in focus of the movement, protests demanded both economic and social equality as Richardson wanted to target discrimination and inequity in employment, poor wages, inferior schools, health care, and segregated facilities.
Richardson said in a later interview on why she was committed to CNAC's leadership reflecting the community. "The one thing we did was to emphasize that while you should be educated, that education, degrees, college degrees were not essential [here]. If you could articulate the need, if you knew what that need was, if you were aware of the kinds of games that white folk play that was the real thing".
In the summer of 1962, CNAC focused on voter registration and an effort to get out the vote. They wanted to replace state senator Frederick Malkus, who had opposed legislation that would have allowed additional industries into Dorchester County, Maryland. The lack of industrial jobs limited opportunities for the African-American community.
Richardson was focused on determining the priorities of the Black community, reinforced by a lesson she learned from her grandfather which was to learn about the important issues the members of a community care about most. One of the first things she did was conduct a survey of the Black community to help determine priorities. Data was collected door-to-door and analyzed by faculty at Swarthmore College. The survey collected the following statistics as what residents considered to be the most pressing issue:
42% considered it to be jobs
26% considered it to be housing
21% considered it to be improved schools
6% considered it to be open accommodations
5% considered it to be police brutality
Before collecting the data, Richardson expected public accommodations to be their biggest concern because it had been the main focus of the protest; however, after analyzing the results, CNAC began a multipronged campaign to encourage black voter registration, increase employment opportunities for black workers, and end racially segregated education by having black parents apply to transfer their children to white schools.
As militant tactics increased and new demands were made, white resistance also increased. Two 15-year old students, Dwight Cromwell and Dinez White, were arrested for praying outside a segregated facility. Both individuals received indeterminate sentences in a juvenile facility and these sentences resulted in outrage from the Black community. Large marches and protests increased, which were often met by White mobs. This is when the philosophy within the Black community in Cambridge changed from "nonviolent resistance" to "armed self-defense". As Herbert St. Clair, a Black businessman said, "We are not going to initiate violence. But if we are attacked, we are not going to turn the other cheek".
In June 1963 the Cambridge protests had attracted students and other activists from around the country. On June 11, white patrons at Dizzyland had attacked six white and black demonstrators conducting a sit-in there. General Gelston of the National Guard announced that he was changing the rules of martial law: he announced a curfew of 9 P.M. instead of 10, stores were to close at 2 P.M. instead of 9 P.M., firearms were banned, and automobile searches by police and National Guard were authorized.
At 8 P.M. that night 250 African Americans staged a "freedom walk" to the Dorchester County Courthouse. Shortly after the demonstrators stopped to pray, they were attacked and pelted with eggs by crowds of more than 200 white townsfolk. Two carloads of whites drove in and started a gun fight with armed African Americans. State police used tear gas and guns to disperse the mob.
The federal government intervened in an effort to end the violence and protests. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy and other Justice Department and housing officials brokered a five-point "Treaty of Cambridge", to include a statement for equal rights, that was signed in July. The Attorney General, representatives of the State Of Maryland, local black leadership-including Richardson, and elected Cambridge officials were all signatories.
On June 13, 1963, another mass civil rights march was held. This time, the Black community in Cambridge came with protection. Armed men were protecting the demonstrators and they set up a perimeter around the Black community. The night after, a fight broke out between the White and Black community and there was an exchange of gunshots. Several people were wounded and some White businesses were set on fire. During this series of protests in 1963 is where the famous photograph of Richardson pushing aside the bayonet and rifle of a National Guardsman emerged from.
As a result of the accumulation of protests and demonstrations, the administration of Gov. Milliard J. Tawes offered a plan of gradual desegregation. However, it was rejected by CNAC and Tawes responded by sending in the National Guard for three weeks. After the withdrawal of the National Guard, CNAC resumed protests.
On July 12, a White mob attacked protesters sitting in at a restaurant. The Black residents fought back, but there was another attack later that night. After those incidents, Governor Tawes sent in the National Guard for nearly two years. This was the longest occupation of any community since the Reconstruction period after the American Civil War. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy arranged a settlement where if the CNAC agreed to stop protesting, then in return there would be an end to segregation in public accommodations, desegregation of public schools, construction of public housing, and implementation of a jobs program funded by the Federal government. This agreement did not last and ended almost immediately when the Dorchester Business and Citizens Association filed referendum petitions to overturn the agreement. Richardson took a controversial stance on the issue as she announced that the CNAC would not be taking part in the referendum. A significant quote that encaptures Richardson's view is when she said that "A first-class citizen does not beg for freedom. A first-class citizen does not plead to the white power structure to give him something that the whites have no power to give or take away. Human rights are human rights, not white rights".
On July 23, the Treaty of Cambridge was signed and it helped local activists secure victories in resources for public housing, the protection of voting rights, and the establishment of a body to investigate Civil Rights violations. During that period of time, national publications wrote stories and reports about why Richardson was ludicrous for opposing a citywide referendum because it supposedly allowed Cambridge citizens to vote on equal access to accommodations and housing. However, Richardson was firm in her belief that her White neighbours should not be deciding on Black rights. Ultimately, she was correct as the referendum was overwhelmingly shot down.
The fight for desegregation also led to victories in union organizations that had failed previously. Richardson claimed that there would often be White members who wanted to educate themselves on the issue and would ask about the civil rights struggle. Many White workers were inspired by the CNAC campaign and recognized the power and leadership it represented. This helped to achieve a certain level of Black and White unity as White workers recognized that the Black struggle for freedom represented new power that would also benefit them. This resulted in an improvement in involvement. Previously, although the Cambridge local consisted of both Black and White members, they were unable to meet due to segregation. Now, the Black trade unionists, with support from White workers, asked CNAC to attend meetings. In fact, there was an incident where the White workers openly showed their support. In a large meeting at the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union (ILGWU) headquarters in New York, there were people who supported wage discrepancy that were sent to the meeting. When they started to argue, they accused Richardson of being a communist and wanted to remove her from the meeting. However, local white ILGWU members said, "Oh no. If she goes, all of us go," demonstrating their support for Richardson and the CNAC.
Richardson was selected as an honoree at the March on Washington on August 22, 1963. Before she arrived at the event, she was told that she could not wear jeans to the event. To Richardson and other SNCC members, wearing jeans represented their solidarity with the rural poor, and "it was the default uniform when they boycotted department stores for maintaining segregation". However, she compromised and wore a jean skirt. When she arrived she realized her seat on the dais was missing. After finding a place to sit on the platform stage, Richardson was allowed to say "Hello," to the crowd of more than 250,000, before her microphone was cut.
Gloria Richardson played a big role in the Kennedy administration's decision to work with the CNAC as she initiated a series of negotiations to help Cambridge residents come out from under Jim Crow. By the summer of 1963, she was living her "egalitarian philosophies concerning community organizing and democracy", and she was willing to risk her family's standing among the black elite to achieve CNAC's goals. For these reasons, Cambridge's black community acknowledged her as its leader, making her one of few women to achieve that position during the entire civil rights movement. Richardson claimed that people working for the Kennedy administration tried to intimidate her into leaving the movement by threatening to reveal embarrassing gossip about her, including intimate details about her divorce and her affair. Richardson sent word to the administration that if the press ran that story, she would indeed resign from CNAC, but she would not go without a fight. In her personal life, she was not afraid of other people's judgement, including her, at the time, uncommon decision to get a divorce.
In December 1963 Richardson attended a national meeting of SNCC leaders in Atlanta, where they discussed the future direction of the organization. Present were Bob Moses, Charles Sherrod, Frank Smith, John Lewis, Courtland Cox, Michael Thelwell, Stokely Carmichael, Jim Forman, Dottie Zellner, Ivanhoe Donaldson, Marion Barry, and Joyce Ladner, as well as staff and volunteers. Ella Baker and Howard Zinn led questioning to help the mostly young leaders work toward their vision for activism. In Atlanta they discussed and planned for an extended voting rights program to be conducted in the South the next year, an election year.
After Cambridge movement
On July 14, 1963, Governor Tawes met with Richardson and other leaders . He offered to integrate schools, ensure that a Black person was "hired in the State Employment Office, make an application for a federal loan for a "Negro housing project", pass a public accommodations ordinance, and name a biracial commission to work on the other problems that could not be solved immediately by legislation", in exchange for a year-long suspension of civil demonstrations. Richardson rejected committing to stopping demonstrations unless there was a full desegregation of schools and complete fairness in job opportunities. She said, "We wish to make it unalterably clear that we will determine, and not the political structure of the city, who shall speak for the Negro community".
Richardson was criticized during and after the Cambridge movement on her role as a female leader. Many local and national figures said that she should have denounced the violence outright, but she continued to believe in self-defense. Later, Richardson was arrested again. Officials made one attempt to institutionalize her as mentally incompetent, but did not succeed. President John F. Kennedy described Cambridge as a town that had "lost sight of what demonstrations are about" because of the violence that had occurred. But Richardson believed that the people who had been provoked and had endured generations of segregation were going to resist until change was achieved in Cambridge.
Such leaders as Martin Luther King Jr. and John Lewis urged Richardson to be "less confrontational and more compromising," but Richardson refused to comply. She disagreed strongly with King, Kennedy, and many others who mistakenly thought that she was an advocate for violence. She believed in nonviolence as a first step in demonstrations, but encouraged physical force as self-defense if confronted with threats. People around her noted that if Richardson was on "your side, you didn't need anybody else". Many Black church leaderes distanced themselves from Richardson, and some movement and local civil rights activists also avoided associating with her. Some people believed her political approach was too intense, and her movement began to falter. Richardson was criticized by most radical Black male activists, who tended to be conservative in terms of gender roles. Her actions were perceived to be inappropriate for a woman.
Richardson's contribution helped to reshape the stereotypical role of women. She expanded the range of female involvement. She laid the groundwork for African Americans as female politicians and feminists, and people of the LGBTQ community. Richardson demonstrated that even women who lived in small towns have a voice.
As a result of this movement, federal dollars began to flow to Cambridge facilities, including parks, schools, streets, public housing, and other projects. However, discrimination against the Black community continued despite the legal end of segregation.
Later life
A month after the meeting with Governor Tawes, Richardson left Cambridge for New York City. She married Frank Dandridge, a photographer she had become acquainted with during the demonstrations, and settled with him there. In New York, Richardson worked at an advertising agency before taking a job with the New York City Department for the Aging. She helped ensure businesses complied with laws that affected seniors. Richardson also was advising the Black Action Federation (BAF), CNAC's successor. BAF was established by former CNAC members because they felt that Cambridge's "white power system was still impeding progress in all areas of Black residents' lives". While largely retiring from public life, she worked with Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited and Associated Community Teams. She retired in 2012 at age 90.
In an interview with Gil Noble in 1982, Richardson explained her passion about helping student demonstrators at the beginning of the Cambridge movement. She said that "there was something direct, something real about the way kids waged nonviolent war. This was the first time I saw a vehicle I could work with".
Richardson continued to pay attention and stay engaged in current politics and social justice events. In a 2021 interview with The Washington Post, Richardson recounted that she watched as outrage over the murder of George Floyd prompted thousands to take to the streets. She was frustrated by what seemed like a lack of progress since her own work in the 1960s. But she was pleased by the diversity of persons who supported the racial justice movements. During the years of the Cambridge movement, fellow protestors were predominantly Black, but in the 21st century, she saw a mix of races marching together. She recalled that they marched until the governor called martial law because they believed that that was how to get attention and prevent protests about the same topics another 100 years from now. She believed that these actions remain necessary in America today where Black citizens continue to face inequities in the "criminal justice system, housing, health care, and other areas compared with their White counterparts".
Her legacy is less known than many other women in the movement such as Rosa Parks and Dorothy Height. Lopez Matthews Jr., a historian and digital production librarian at Howard University, believes that she is not well-known because "she was a woman who was feisty and who refused to back down. As a society, we tend not to value those traits in women". However, those traits made Richardson a great leader in the civil rights movement, because she did not back down. In the biography, The Struggle is Eternal: Gloria Richardson and Black Liberation, the author, Joseph Fitzgerald, believes that Richardson was not in the Civil Rights movement for a career. Instead, she was in it solely for the purpose of advancing Black liberation. He believes this is the reason why Richardson stepped aside when she felt that she could be of no further meaningful use in the movement. An oral history of Richardson is included in the 2006 book Generation on Fire: Voices of Protest from the 1960s by Jeff Kisseloff; in a review for The Journal of Popular Culture, Ray Schuck writes, "When Gloria Richardson mentions how she and others put red pepper on their legs to deter attack dogs, you understand the enormity of the struggle for equality".
In 2017, the state of Maryland honored her legacy by dedicating February 11 as "Gloria Richardson Day". Although Richardson was not able to travel as planned to Cambridge's historic Bethel AME Church to be recognized in person, she spoke to the packed church in a live remote broadcast from her apartment. Five months later, a fireside chat was facilitated by Kisha Petticolas, the co-founder of the Eastern Shore Network for Change (ESNC), at the Hyatt Regency Chesapeake Bay Resort in Cambridge. Richardson was a featured speaker at the Reflection's banquet, where her remarks "brought 300 guests to their feet in a sustained standing ovation".
Richardson helped to establish a new image for Black women in the United States. She replaced the image of a long-suffering martyr with the image of a woman as a warrior. When Richardson was asked how she would like to be remembered, she replied: "I guess I would like for them to say I was true to my belief in black people as a race". Today, there is a mural placed left of center next to Dorchester native and Underground Railroad conductor Harriet Tubman of Gloria boldly demanding justice.
She died in New York on July 15, 2021.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Scholarly monographs
Fitzgerald, Joseph R. (2018). The Struggle Is Eternal: Gloria Richardson and Black Liberation, Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. .
Journal articles
Dissertations and theses
Non-academic works
External links
SNCC Digital Gateway: Gloria Richardson, Documentary website created by the SNCC Legacy Project and Duke University, telling the story of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and grassroots organizing from the inside-out
Cambridge MD, Movement 1962-1967, Provided by the Civil Rights Movement Archive website
How Gloria Richardson's Look of Righteous Indignation Became a Symbol of No Retreat, an article by Janelle Harris Dixon containing many photographs of and an extensive interview of Gloria Richardson, Smithsonian, February 9, 2022
1922 births
2021 deaths
African-American activists
Activists from New York City
Activists for African-American civil rights
History of civil rights in the United States
Howard University alumni
Activists from Baltimore
People from Cambridge, Maryland
21st-century African-American people
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Religion in Asia
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Asia is the largest and most populous continent and the birthplace of many religions including Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, Judaism, Shinto, Sikhism, Taoism and Zoroastrianism. All major religious traditions are practiced in the region and new forms are constantly emerging. Asia is noted for its diversity of culture.
Thus, the religious demographics of Asia are diverse, with no single religion representing an absolute majority of the population. Notwithstanding, Islam is the largest religion in Asia, with approximately 1.3 billion adherents as of 2022. The second largest religion is Hinduism, with about 1.2 billion adherents on the continent. Since the 1970s, the Muslim and Christian share of the Asian population has grown considerably throughout the history.
History
Asia is the birthplace of 11 major religions, whose written records include Judaism, Hinduism, Taoism, Shintoism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, and the Baha'i Faith.
Indian religions
Dharmic religions are the oldest religions of Asia. All Indian religions originated in the Indian subcontinent. These religions all have the similar concepts like dharma, karma, and reincarnation, but the interpretation of these concepts varies with each religion.
Hinduism
Hinduism is the second largest religion in Asia with about 1.2 billion followers, mainly in South and Southeast Asia. Hinduism, like all Dharmic religions, originates in India. More than 94% of the global Hindu population live in India. Demographically, it is the largest religion in India (80%), Nepal (85%), and the island of Bali (87%), with strong minorities in the Asian nations of Bhutan, Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Myanmar, the Philippines, and Afghanistan. As of 2020, India has a Hindu population of 1.10 billion, Nepal has a Hindu population of 23.5 million, and there are 14.5 million Hindus in Bangladesh.
Hinduism is a fusion that resulted from incorporating the tribal cultures, tribal and folk religions, and tribal deities, which lead to the birth of all Dharmic Religions (Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, etc.). Its principles like karma, moksha, rebirth, reincarnation, renunciation, samsara are incorporated into Sramana traditions like Buddhism, Jainism, and the traditions predating the Buddha and Mahavira.
Buddhism
Buddhism was founded by Siddartha Gautama, who is known as the Buddha. Buddhism is the fourth largest world religion and the third largest religion in Asia, which is adhere by 12% of Asia's population. It is the predominant religion and hold the majority population in Thailand (95%), Myanmar (89%), Cambodia (98%), Sri Lanka (70%), Laos (67%), Mongolia (54%), Japan (20%. - 36% or 67%), Bhutan (75%), Tibet (79%) and Macau (80%). Large Buddhist populations reside in Taiwan (35%), Singapore (33%), South Korea (22.9%), Malaysia (19.8%), China (18.2%), Hong Kong (15%), North Korea (13.8%), Nepal (10.7%), Vietnam (10%), Ladakh (39.65%) and Sikkim (27.39%). There are also strong Buddhist minorities in India, Indonesia, Brunei, the Philippines, Bangladesh and Russia.
Before the advent of Islam, Buddhism was one of the most widely practiced religions in Central Asia, Afghanistan, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia.
Jainism
Jainism is an Indian religion. Jains are mostly found in India but are increasingly found throughout the world. Jains have significantly influenced and contributed to ethical, political and economic spheres in India. Jains have an ancient tradition of scholarship and have the highest degree of literacy for a religious community in India. Jain libraries are the oldest in the country. It has traditionally been confined to the Indian subcontinent. It is based on the teachings of Vardhaman Mahavir and also on 23 other Tirthankaras.
Sikhism
Sikhism is the fifth largest organized religion in the world, with approximately 30 million adherents. And one of the most steadily growing. It is a monotheistic religion founded by Guru Nanak Dev in the 1500s. The religion professes its roots in the area of Punjab region, in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent.
This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat (literally the counsel of the gurus) or the Sikh Dharm. Sikhism originated from the word Sikh, which in turn comes from the Sanskrit root śhiṣhya meaning "disciple" or "learner", or śhikṣha meaning "instruction".
Sikhism is the 4th largest religion in India with 2% of the total population being Sikh. There is also a large concentration of Sikhs in Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar, the Philippines, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Indonesia, Kuwait and U.A.E.
Abrahamic religions
Judaism
Judaism is the predominant religion in Israel (75.6%), which has a nominal Jewish population of about 6.1 million.
Outside of Israel there are small diaspora communities of Jewish people living in Turkey (17,400), Azerbaijan (9,100), Iran (8,756), India (5,000) and Uzbekistan (4,000).
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. Its adherents, known as Christians, believe that Jesus is the Christ, whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, called the Old Testament in Christianity, and chronicled in the New Testament which are brought together in the Christian Bible as canonical scripture. It is the world's largest religion with about 2.4 billion followers and is culturally and traditionally diverse. Christianity is a widespread minority religion in Asia with more than 286 million adherents according to Pew Research Center in 2010, and nearly 364 million according to Britannica Book of the Year 2014. constituting around 12.6% of the total population of Asia.
Only six countries are predominantly Christian: Asian Russia which predominantly adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church; Cyprus, which is predominantly Orthodox; the Philippines, which is the third-largest Roman Catholic nation in the world; Timor Leste, which is the most overwhelming Christian (99.6%) and Roman Catholic nation in Asia (97.6%); Armenia, which was the first state to adopt a Christian denomination as its state religion; and Georgia (88.1). Christianity also accounts for 29.2% of South Korea's population (54.5% of its religious population) and is now the predominant religion in South Korea, Christianity is also a large minority religion in Lebanon accounting for 40% of its population. Christianity is also a large minority religion in Kazakhstan (26%), Singapore (18.3%), and Kyrgyzstan (17%).
Asian countries with large Christian populations are Philippines (84 million), China (68 million), India (30 million), Indonesia (28 million), Kazakhstan (4.7 million), South Korea (15 million), Vietnam (7 million), Georgia (4.6 million), Armenia (3.2 million), Malaysia (2.6 million), Japan (2.5 million), Pakistan (2.5 million), Uzbekistan (2.5 million), Syria (1.8 million), Sri Lanka (1.5 million), East Timor (1.2 million) and Taiwan (one million).
There are still large ancient communities of Middle Eastern Christians and Arab Christians in Lebanon, Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Israel and Palestine numbering more than 3 million in West Asia. There are also a large populations of expatriate workers which include a sizeable Christian communities live in Arabian Peninsula numbering more than 3 million.
Islam
Islam is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion articulated by the Qur'an, a book considered by its adherents to be the verbatim word of God (allāh) and by the teachings and normative example (called the Sunnah and composed of hadith) of Muhammad, considered by them to be the last prophet of God. Islam is the single largest religion in Asia with about 1.3 billion adherents. Asia constitute in absolute terms the world's Muslim population. South and Southeast Asia are home of the most populous Muslim countries, with Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh having more than 100 million adherents. According to U.S. government figures, in 2006 there were 20 million Muslims in China. In Western Asia, the non-Arab countries of Iran and Turkey are the largest Muslim-majority countries. In South Asia, Pakistan and Bangladesh are the countries with the largest Muslim-majority. In Central Asia, Afghanistan and Uzbekistan are the countries with the largest Muslim-majority.
Indonesia is 86% Muslim and is the country with the largest Muslim population in the world, Pakistan is 97% Muslim, Bangladesh is 89%.
India's Muslim population is 14% of the total, approximately 200 million people, which grew because of pluralist mindset of native Indian religions. Around 6-11 percent, some 6 - 12 million people in the Philippines are Muslim.
Thailand's Muslims make up 4.6 percent of the population, or approximately 3 million people. Also Sri Lanka's Muslims make up 10 percent of the population, or approximately 2.5 million people
Bangladesh, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei, Kazakhstan, Qatar, Kuwait, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Maldives, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Iraq, Iran, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Yemen, United Arab Emirates, Oman, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan, Jordan, Palestine and Lebanon are the 27 Muslim majority states in Asia with most having Sharia as constitution and being non-secular with ban on recognition of other religions.
Baháʼí Faith
The Baháʼí Faith is an Abrahamic religion although it is quite different from Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. It was so founded by Bahá'u'lláh in what was then Persia (also known as Iran). Today the largest national population of Baháʼís is in India with between 1.7 million to over 2 million, where there is also the Lotus Temple. Significant populations are found in many countries including Vietnam and Malaysia where "about 1%", some 260,000, of the population are Bahá'ís. In other places, like Kazakhstan there are 25 Local Spiritual Assemblies.
In modern-day Iran, the religion is severely persecuted (see Persecution of Baháʼís). In neighboring Turkmenistan, Baháʼí Faith is effectively banned, and individuals have had their homes raided for Baháʼí literature.
Druze
Druze are an Arabic-speaking esoteric ethnoreligious group originating in Western Asia who self-identify as The People of Monotheism (Al-Muwaḥḥidūn). Jethro of Midian is considered an ancestor of Druze, who revere him as their spiritual founder and chief prophet. It is a monotheistic and Abrahamic religion based on the teachings of Hamza ibn Ali ibn Ahmad and the sixth Fatimid caliph, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, and Ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras, and Zeno of Citium. Druze do not identify as Muslims.
The number of Druze people worldwide is between 800,000 and one million, with the vast majority residing in the Levant. The Institute of Druze Studies estimates that 40–50% of Druze live in Syria, 30–40% in Lebanon, 6–7% in Israel, and 1–2% in Jordan. About 2% of the Druze population are also scattered within other countries in the Middle East.
The Lebanese Druze are believed to constitute about 5.2 percent or 250,000, Syrian Druze are believed to constitute an estimated 3.2 percent of the population (as of 2010), or approximately 700,000 persons (including residents of the Golan Heights). In 2019, there were 143,000 Druze living in Israel, 1.6% of the total population of the country. The Jordanian Druze are believed to constitute about 0.5% of the total population of Jordan, which is around 32,000.
East Asian religions
East Asian religions (also known as Far Eastern religions, Chinese religions, or Taoic religions) form a subset of the Eastern religions.
Confucianism
Confucianism was founded in ancient China by Confucius (551 B.C.E. - 479). Confucianism is a complex of moral, social, political, philosophical, and religious concerns that permeated the culture and history of East Asia. Confucianism emphasizes family, social hierarchy, and personal integrity and is manifested in practices and attitudes rather than institutions and is centered on the family and local society. It was, however, considered the state religion of East Asian countries in some periods. Today the Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese diasporas have brought Confucianism to all parts of the world.
Taoism
Taoism (also romanized Daoism) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao (also romanized "Dao"), a term that means "way", "path" or "principle". The concept is shared with other Chinese philosophies and religions. In Taoism, however, Tao denotes both the source and the driving force inherent in everything that exists. It is ultimately ineffable: "The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao."
Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism and is closely associated with "original", or "primordial", Taoism. Whether he actually existed is commonly disputed; however, the work attributed to him – the Daodejing – is dated to the late 4th century BC.
Taoist propriety and ethics vary according to the particular school, but in general tends to emphasize wu-wei (action through non-action), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity, and the Three Treasures: compassion, moderation, and humility.
Significant Taoist communities can be found in China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia, Korea, Japan, Vietnam and among the Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese diaspora communities.
Chinese folk religion
Chinese folk religion is a label used to describe the ethnic religious traditions which have been a main belief system in China and among the Han Chinese ethnic group for most of the civilization's history. This group of diverse beliefs comprises Chinese mythology and includes the worship of various Shen (神, shén; "deities", "spirits", "awarenesses", "consciousnesses", "archetypes") which can be nature deities, Taizu or clan deities, city deities, national deities, cultural heroes and demigods, dragons and ancestors. Chinese folk religion is sometimes categorized with Taoism, since over the world institutional Taoism has been attempting to assimilate or administer local religions. More accurately, Taoism can be defined as a component of Chinese religion, since it sprang out of folk religion and Chinese philosophy. Chinese folk religion is sometimes seen as a constituent part of Chinese traditional religion, but more often, the two are regarded as synonymous. With around 454 million adherents or about 6.6% of the world population, Chinese folk religion is one of the major religious traditions in the world. In China more than 30% of the population adheres to folk religions or Taoism.
Shinto
Kami-no-michi is almost unique to Japan and the Japanese diaspora. It is a set of practices carried out to establish a connection between present-day Japan and its ancient past. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written records of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in the 7th and 8th centuries. Still, these earliest Japanese writings do not refer to a unified "Shinto religion", but rather to disorganized folklore, history, and mythology. Shinto today applies to the public shrines suited to various purposes such as war memorials, harvest festivals, romance, and historical monuments, as well as various sectarian organizations.
Shinto is the largest religion in Japan, practiced by nearly 80% of the population, yet only a small percentage of these identify themselves as "Shintoists" in surveys. According to surveys carried out in 2006 and 2008 show that 3% to 3.9% of the population of Japan are members of Shinto sects and derived religions.
Mugyo
Muism ("religion of the Mu") or sometimes Sinism (Shingyo, "religion of the gods", with shin being the Korean character derivative of the Hanja), encompasses a variety of indigenous religious beliefs and practices of the Korean people, the Korean sphere and the Korean diaspora. In contemporary South Korea, the most used term is Muism and a shaman is known as a mudang (, ). The role of the mudang, usually a woman, is to act as intermediary between a spirit entity, spirits or gods and human beings.
Women are enlisted by those who want the help of the spirit world. Shamans hold gut, or services, in order to gain good fortune for clients, cure illnesses by exorcising negative or 'bad' spirits that cling to people, or propitiate local or village gods. Such services are also held to guide the spirit of a deceased person to higher realms. Today this religion is a minority, but has in recent years seen a resurgence.
Vietnamese folk religion
Vietnamese folk religion or Vietnamese indigenous religion (, , sometimes just called , Chữ Hán: 道良), is the largest religion in Vietnam with about 45.3% of the Vietnamese population that are associated with this religion. Vietnamese folk religion is not an organized religious system, but a set of local worship traditions devoted to the thần, a term which can be translated as "spirits", "gods" or with the more exhaustive locution "generative powers". These gods can be nature deities or national, community or kinship tutelary deities or ancestral gods and the ancestral gods of a specific family. Ancestral gods are often deified heroic persons. Vietnamese mythology preserves narratives telling of the actions of many of the cosmic gods and cultural heroes.
The Vietnamese indigenous religion is sometimes identified as Confucianism since it carries values that were emphasized by Confucius. Đạo Mẫu is a distinct form of Vietnamese folk religion, giving prominence to some mother goddesses into its pantheon. The government of Vietnam also categorises Caodaism as a form of Vietnamese indigenous religion, since it brings together the worship of the thần or local spirits with Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism, as well as elements of Catholicism, Spiritism and Theosophy.
Iranian religions
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism was once the state religion of the Persian Empire, but is now a minority mostly found in India (migrated to India due to killing and persecution by Islamic Barbarics) and Iran. It worships a monotheistic god, Ahura Mazda, and was founded by Zoroaster. Zoroastrianism is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of prophet Zoroaster (also known as Zarathustra, in Avestan), probably founded some time before the 6th century BC. The term Zoroastrianism is, in general usage, essentially synonymous with Mazdaism, i.e., the worship of Ahura Mazda, exalted by Zoroaster as the supreme divine authority.
In Zoroastrianism, the Creator Ahura Mazda is all good, and no evil originates from Him. Thus, in Zoroastrianism good and evil have distinct sources, with evil (druj) trying to destroy the creation of Mazda (asha), and good trying to sustain it. Mazda is not immanent in the world, and His creation is represented by the Amesha Spentas and the host of other Yazatas, through whom the works of God are evident to humanity, and through whom worship of Mazda is ultimately directed. The most important texts of the religion are those of the Avesta, of which a significant portion has been lost, and mostly only the liturgies of which have survived. The lost portions are known of only through references and brief quotations in the later works of (primarily) the 9th-11th centuries.
The total number of currently practicing adherents of Zoroastrianism is unknown. A 2004 estimate gives a range of 124,000 to 190,000, roughly half of them in India (the Parsi and Irani groups).
The largest number of Zoroastrians in Asia can be found in India; according to the 2001 census, they amounted 69,000. In Iran, there were some 25,000 according to the 2011 census. In 2012, the numbers for Zoroastrians in Asia were; India (61,000), Iran (15,000 / 22,271), Persian Gulf Countries (1,900), and Singapore (372).
Shamanism and animism
Shamanism and animism have historically been practised in Asia, and is still practiced in most of Asia.
Irreligion
According to a Pew Research Center survey in 2012 religiously unaffiliated (including agnostics and atheists) make up about 21.2% of Asia population. According to the same survey, the religiously unaffiliated are the majority of the population in four Asian countries/territories: North Korea (71%), Japan (57%), Hong Kong (56%), and Mainland China (52%).
Other sources say that in the People's Republic of China, 59% of the population claim to be non-religious. However, this percentage may be significantly greater (up to 80%) or smaller (down to 30%) in reality, because some Chinese define religion differently. Some Chinese define religion as practicing customs (which may be done for cultural or traditional reasons), while others define it as actually consciously believing their religion will lead to post-mortem salvation or reincarnation. A Dentsu statistic states that 46% of Vietnamese and 51% of Japanese are irreligious.
Religious distribution
See also
Abrahamic religions
Agnosticism
Atheism
Buddhism and Eastern religions
Eastern religion
History of religion
Indian religions
List of new religious movements
List of religions and spiritual traditions
List of religious populations
Major religious groups
Monotheism
Northeast China folk religion
Paganism
Polytheism
Regional forms of shamanism
Religions by country
Religion in Africa
Religion in Europe
Religion in Oceania
Religion in North America
Religion in South America
Religion in the Mongol Empire
Tengrism (a Turko-Mongolic religion)
Three Teachings (In Chinese philosophy, the Three Teachings are considered a harmonious aggregate of Confucianism, Taoism and Chinese Buddhism.)
References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loughgall%20ambush
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Loughgall ambush
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The Loughgall ambush took place on 8 May 1987 in the village of Loughgall, County Armagh, Northern Ireland. An eight-man unit of the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) launched an attack on the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) base in the village. An IRA member drove a digger with a bomb in its bucket through the perimeter fence, while the rest of the unit arrived in a van and fired on the building. The bomb exploded and destroyed almost half of the base. Soldiers from the British Army's Special Air Service (SAS) then returned fire both from within the base and from hidden positions around it in a pre-planned ambush, killing all of the attackers. Two of them were subsequently found to have been unarmed when they were killed.
A civilian was also killed and another wounded by the SAS after unwittingly driving into the ambush zone and being mistaken for IRA attackers.
The joint British Army/RUC operation was codenamed Operation Judy. It was the IRA's biggest loss of life in a single incident during the Troubles.
Background and preparations
The IRA's East Tyrone Brigade was active mainly in eastern County Tyrone and neighbouring parts of County Armagh. By the mid-1980s it had become one of the IRA's most aggressive formations. Members of the unit, such as Jim Lynagh and Pádraig McKearney, advocated a strategy of destroying bases and preventing them being rebuilt or repaired in an attempt to "deny ground" to British forces. In 1985, Patrick Joseph Kelly became its commander and began implementing the strategy. In 1985 and 1986, it carried out two major attacks on Royal Ulster Constabulary bases. The first was an attack on the RUC barracks in Ballygawley on 7 December 1985, in which two police officers were shot dead. The second was an attack on an RUC base at The Birches on 11 August 1986. In both attacks, the bases were raked with machine-gun fire and then severely damaged with homemade bombs. In the attack at The Birches, they had breached the base's perimeter fence with a digger that had a bomb in its bucket; it was planned to use the same tactic in an attack on the lightly-manned Loughgall base.
The British security forces however had received intelligence weeks prior to the attack of the IRA's plan and at least 10 days before of the target. It has been alleged that the security forces had a double agent inside the IRA unit, and that he was killed by the SAS in the ambush. Other sources claim that the security forces had instead learned of the planned attack through other surveillance methods, such as a telephone tap. According to historian and former Professor of Politics at Queen's University Belfast Richard English, information of the attack had not come from within the unit, though one member, Tony Gormley, was known to security forces as a well-paid Special Branch informant.
Three local RUC officers worked at the station, which was only open part-time, from 09:00 to 11:00, and from 17:00 to 19:00 daily. On the day of the attack, two RUC Headquarters Mobile Support Unit (HMSU) officers were placed in the station to accompany the local RUC officer who was to carry on the normal running of the station. The HMSU was the RUC's police tactical unit. Six SAS soldiers in plain clothes, including the commander, were positioned inside. Another eighteen SAS soldiers in uniform were hidden in five locations in wooded areas around the station.
The IRA's attack involved two teams. One team was to drive a digger with a bomb in its bucket through the base's perimeter fence and light the fuse. At the same time, another team would arrive in a van and open fire on the base, with the aim of killing the three RUC officers as they came off duty. Both teams would then leave the area in the van. To avoid security checkpoints, the bomb was ferried by boat across Lough Neagh, from Ardboe to Maghery. The van and digger that would be used were hijacked in the hours leading up to the attack. The van, a blue Toyota HiAce, was stolen by masked men from a business in Dungannon. At about the same time, the unit's commander Jim Lynagh was spotted in the town, suggesting the van might be used in the attack. The digger (a backhoe loader) was taken from a farm at Lislasly Road, about two miles west of Loughgall. Two IRA members stayed at the farm to stop the owners raising the alarm. Declan Arthurs drove the digger, while two others drove ahead of him in a scout car. The rest of the unit travelled in the van from another location, presumably also with a scout car. When a covert observation post monitoring the digger reported that it was being moved, the SAS took up its positions. Undercover Army 14 Intelligence Company soldiers drove around the backroads into Loughgall surveilling the unit.
Ambush
The IRA unit arrived in Loughgall from the north-east shortly after 19:00, when the station was scheduled to close for the night. They were armed and wearing bulletproof vests, boilersuits, gloves and balaclavas. The digger drove past the police station, turned around and drove back again with the Toyota van carrying the main IRA assault party doing the same. Not seeing any activity in the station in their two slow passes of it, members of the IRA unit felt that something was amiss, and debated whether to continue, but decided to go ahead with the attack. Tony Gormley and Gerard O'Callaghan got out of the van and joined Declan Arthurs on the digger, according to journalist Peter Taylor, "literally riding shotgun", with weapons in one hand and a lighter in the other. At about 19:15 Arthurs drove the digger towards the station. In the front bucket was of semtex inside an oil drum, partially hidden by rubble and wired to two 40-second fuses. The other five members of the unit followed in the van with Eugene Kelly driving, unit commander Patrick Kelly in the passenger seat, whilst in the rear were Lynagh, Pádraig McKearney, and Seamus Donnelly. The digger crashed through the light security fence and the fuses were lit. The van stopped a short distance ahead and, according to the British security forces, three of the team jumped out and fired on the building with automatic weapons. Author Raymond Murray disputes this. According to Taylor, and co-corroborated by an ECHR judgement, Patrick Kelly jumped from the passenger seat and, followed by others, immediately opened fire on the building, either to encourage the rest to resolve the dispute about going ahead with the attack, or possibly because this was the way previous attacks had begun. At the same time, the bomb detonated, the blast destroying the digger and badly damaging the building. According to author Jonathan Trigg, the bomb in the bucket of the digger detonated several seconds after the SAS had opened fire. An ex-RUC Special Branch officer, John Shackles, described how the SAS had strung detonating cord along a line of fir trees opposite the police station, beyond a playing field. The detonating cord was exploded immediately prior to the SAS initiating the ambush, distracting the IRA team as the SAS members inside the station began firing.
Within seconds the SAS opened fire on the IRA attackers from the station and from hidden positions outside with M16 and H&K G3 rifles and two L7A2 general-purpose machine guns. There were 600 spent British cartridge cases recovered from the scene, with approximately 125 bullet holes in the bodywork of the van, while 78 spent cartridge cases were recovered that were fired from IRA weapons. All eight IRA members were killed in the hail of gunfire; all had multiple wounds to their bodies, including their heads. Declan Arthurs was shot in a lane-way opposite Loughgall F.C. premises; he was unarmed and holding a cigarette lighter in his right hand. Three of the IRA members were shot at close range as they lay either dead or wounded on the ground. Three other IRA members in the scout cars escaped from the scene, managing to pass through British Army and RUC check-points set up after the ambush had been sprung. The two HMSU officers were injured in the explosion with one suffering severe head injuries and the other a broken nose and were helped outside by the uniformed officer with no officer returning fire. An SAS soldier received a facial injury from glass after a window was broken by gunfire.
Two civilians, brothers Anthony and Oliver Hughes, were driving home in a white Citroën GS after repairing a lorry when they, driving behind the van, unwittingly drove into the ambush. Anthony was driving and Oliver, who was wearing blue coveralls similar to those worn by the IRA members, was sitting in the front passenger seat. Roughly from the police station, soldiers opened fire on their car from behind, killing Anthony and badly wounding Oliver. According to the soldiers, the Citroën reversed away slowly then zigzagged at high speed before stopping. Oliver denies that it reversed away at high speed. Oliver managed to get out of the car despite being warned not to move and was shot resulting in him falling to the ground. Two soldiers later gave him first aid. He had been shot 14 times. The Citroën had approximately 34 bullet holes. The villagers had not been informed of the operation and no attempt had been made to evacuate anyone or to seal off the ambush zone, as this might have alerted the IRA. A mother and her child took shelter in the church hall after their Ford Sierra's rear window was hit by a stray bullet from the station.
The security forces recovered eight IRA firearms from the scene: three H&K G3 rifles, one FN FAL rifle, two FN FNC rifles, a Franchi SPAS-12 shotgun and a Ruger Security-Six revolver. The RUC linked the weapons to seven known murders and twelve attempted murders in the Mid-Ulster region. The Ruger had been stolen from Reserve RUC officer William Clement, killed two years earlier in the IRA attack on Ballygawley RUC base. It was found that another of the guns had been used in the murder of Harold Henry, a builder employed by the British Army and RUC in facilities construction in Northern Ireland.
In 2017 declassified documents from the National Archives of Ireland revealed that the British government had ballistic tests which showed that the weapons recovered from the deceased IRA members had actually been used in as many as forty to fifty killings in total, including every fatality in IRA attacks in the counties Fermanagh and Tyrone in 1987 prior to the ambush at Loughgall.
Aftermath
Shortly after the ambush the Provisional IRA released a statement saying: "volunteers who shot their way out of the ambush and escaped saw other volunteers being shot on the ground after being captured".
The IRA members killed in the ambush became known as the "Loughgall Martyrs" among IRA supporters. The men's relatives considered their deaths to be part of a deliberate shoot-to-kill policy by the security forces. Thousands of people attended their funerals, the biggest republican funerals in Northern Ireland since those of the IRA hunger strikers of 1981. Gerry Adams, in his graveside oration, gave a speech stating the British Government understood that it could buy off the government of the Republic of Ireland, which he described as the "shoneen clan" (that is, Anglophile), but added "it does not understand the Jim Lynaghs, the Pádraig McKearneys or the Séamus McElwaines. It thinks it can defeat them. It never will."
The East Tyrone Brigade continued to be active until the last Provisional IRA ceasefire ten years later. SAS operations against the IRA also continued. The IRA set out to find the informer it believed to be among them, although it has been suggested that the informer, if there ever was one, had been killed in the ambush.
On 20 March 1989, RUC Chief Superintendent Harry Breen was shot dead in an IRA ambush near the Irish border together with RUC Superintendent Bob Buchanan. Breen had given a media briefing on the day of the Loughgall ambush at the scene and the following morning displayed the recovered IRA firearms to the media appearing on television and in newspapers. An Irish Tribunal of Inquiry by Judge Peter Smithwick into the deaths of the two senior RUC officers investigating Garda Síochána collusion with the IRA, concluded in 2013 that Breen was the target of the ambush to abduct and interrogate him on how the British security services had advance warning of the Loughgall ambush.
The IRA East Tyrone Brigade attacked the Loughgall RUC station again around 01:00 on 5 September 1990 with a 1000 lb van bomb outside the station. The unmanned station suffered extensive damage with no one injured as a warning was given. Earlier in the week, the date of when the Loughgall ambush inquest was to start 24 September had been announced. In April 1996, the RUC confirmed that the Loughgall police station was to be re-built later that year. The station was in use until its administrative closure in August 2009. In April 2011, it was sold for private development.
Legal proceedings
In September 1988, the Director of Public Prosecutions for Northern Ireland concluded "that the evidence did not warrant the prosecution of any person involved in the shootings". Six families of the IRA members and the family of Anthony Hughes commenced civil proceedings against the Ministry of Defence (MoD). In April 1991, the widow of Anthony Hughes settled out of court. In May 1995, an inquest commenced that was held over four days which concluded that all nine men had died from serious and multiple gunshot wounds. Lawyers representing six families of IRA members withdrew from the inquest on the second day of hearings as the Coroner would not provide copies of witness statements to enable them to prepare. SAS soldiers did not give evidence, with their statements read out.
In 2001, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled that the eight IRA men and one civilian killed at Loughgall had their human rights violated by the failure of the British Government to conduct a proper investigation into their deaths, that was independent and transparent. The applicants, the next-of-kin, claimed that the deaths were an unlawful killing. In December 2011, Northern Ireland's Historical Enquiries Team found that not only did the IRA team fire first but that they could not have been safely arrested. They concluded that the British Army was justified in opening fire.
In January 2014, the High Court ordered that the families of the IRA members suing the MoD could widen their claim to include the RUC Chief Constable. The police later disclosed documents for the court case revealing that IRA members had been under military surveillance for weeks prior to the ambush. In March 2014, the Hughes family received an apology from the MoD for the death of Anthony and for injuring Oliver that both men were "wholly innocent of any wrongdoing".
In September 2015, the Advocate General for Northern Ireland announced that a new inquest would be held. In September 2019, at a preliminary hearing the presiding coroner was told that the inquest may run for three to six months. In April 2020, lawyers acting on behalf of the families lodged a submission with the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe requesting an infringement proceeding in the ECHR for the 2001 judgement as the coroner had not fixed a hearing date for the inquest.
In pop culture
"Loughgall Ambush" is the name of a republican ballad about the attack, recorded by Charlie and the Bhoys amongst others.
The event was also mentioned in the song "Streets of Sorrow/Birmingham Six" by London Irish band The Pogues - "While over in Ireland eight more men lie dead/ Kicked down and shot in the back of the head".
See also
Timeline of Provisional Irish Republican Army actions
Ballygawley bus bombing
Attack on Derryard checkpoint
Coagh ambush
Clonoe ambush
1993 Fivemiletown ambush
1997 Coalisland attack
References
1987 in Northern Ireland
1987 mass shootings in Europe
1980s in County Armagh
1980s mass shootings in the United Kingdom
Ambushes in Northern Ireland
Attacks on buildings and structures in 1987
Attacks on police stations in the 1980s
British Army in Operation Banner
Building bombings in Northern Ireland
Deaths by firearm in Northern Ireland
Improvised explosive device bombings in 1987
Mass shootings in Northern Ireland
1987 crimes
May 1987 events
May 1987 events in the United Kingdom
Military actions and engagements during the Troubles (Northern Ireland)
Military history of County Armagh
Provisional IRA bombings in Northern Ireland
Royal Ulster Constabulary
Special Air Service operations
Terrorist incidents in County Armagh
Terrorist incidents in the United Kingdom in 1987
1980s murders in Northern Ireland
1987 crimes in Ireland
The Troubles in County Armagh
People killed by security forces during The Troubles (Northern Ireland)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulothunga%20III
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Kulothunga III
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Kulothunga III was a Chola emperor who ruled from 1178 to 1218 CE, after succeeding his elder brother Rajadhiraja II. Kulothunga Chola III gained success in war against his traditional foes. He gained victories in war against the Hoysalas, Pandyas of Madurai, Cheras of Venad, the Sinhalese kings of Polonnaruwa, as well as the Telugu Cholas of Velanadu and Nellore. He also restored Chola control over Karur, which were ruled by the Adigaman chiefs as vassals of the Cholas. He drove out the Hoysalas under Veera Ballala II who had made inroads in the Gangavadi and adjoining areas of Tagadur in Kongu country in an effort expand their territory. However, during the last two years of his reign, he lost in war to the resurgent Pandyas, heralded a period of steady decline and ultimately, demise of the Cholas by 1280 CE. Kulottunga III had alliances with the Hoysalas. The Hoysala king Veera Ballala married a Chola queen called Cholamahadevi and gave his daughter Somaladevi in marriage to Kulottunga III.
According to Sastri, "By his personal ability, Kulothunga Chola III delayed the disruption of the Chola empire for about a generation, and his reign marks the last great epoch in the history of Chola architecture and art as he himself is the last of the great Chola monarchs." He is credited with building a number of temples, including the Sarabeswara Temple at Tribhuvanam in Kumbakonam district, Tamil Nadu, as well as the renovation and repairs to the two temples proclaimed as tutelary deities of the Cholas, namely the Shiva temple at Chidambaram and the Sri Ranganathaswami Temple of Srirangam. Kulothunga Chola III is also renowned for his patronage of art and literature. In some of his numerous inscriptions, including those at the Srirangam temple, Kulothunga Chola III has claimed in his inscriptions his pride in wearing the crown of the race of the Sun to which the Chola emperors claimed descent from.
Military campaigns
The reign of Kulothunga Chola III is a story of the triumph of the personal ability of the monarch against the forces of disruption that were steadily increasing in their number and in the intensity of their action. Kulothunga Chola III brought order to the besieged kingdom and reversed the weakness in the Chola administration that had set in during the rule of his predecessors Rajaraja Chola II and Rajadhiraja Chola II. During the rule of his predecessors Rajaraja Chola II and his successor Rajadhiraja Chola II between 1146–1178 CE, the hold of the central administration over the outlying parts of the empire was becoming less firm; and even at the centre, the administrative system was beginning to betray signs of weakness. Everywhere feudatory chieftains were becoming more and more assertive. The growing independence of the central power on the part of feudatories noticed in the reign of Rajaraja Chola II became more pronounced under Rajadhiraja Chola II. The Sambuvaraya, Kadavaraya, Malaiyaman chieftains and the Telugu-Chodas of Nellore were making wars and alliances in the northern half of the Chola kingdom without any reference to the ruling monarch.
Campaigns against the Pandyas(1182 CE, 1188–89 and 1205 CE)
Pandya affairs first claimed the attention of Kulothunga Chola III. The civil war in the Pandya country had not yet settled when he came to the throne, and the Chola forces were still involved in active fighting there. Kulothunga Chola III succeeded for the best part of his reign to continue the Chola hegemony on the Pandya kingdom. Parakramabahu of Sri Lanka, known as Ilangai in Tamil, renewed his efforts against the Cholas and even persuaded Pandya Emperor Vira Pandya to make common cause with him. Vikrama Pandya sought the help of Kulothunga Chola III against Vira Pandya, which led to an invasion of the Pandyan kingdom by Kulothunga Chola III. The battle resulted in the defeat of the Pandya and Sinhala forces, Vira Pandya was driven into exile, and Vikrama Pandya was installed on the throne of Madurai. This campaign ended before 1182. From his exile, with the aid of his allies, Vira Pandya made another effort to retrieve his fortune, but the attempt was stopped by Kulothunga Chola III on the battlefield of Nettur. Thence, Vira Pandya fled to Ceylon'. This was Kulothunga Chola III's first campaign in the Pandyan kingdom and he met with unprecedented success. The success in this war culminated in there being "no further fighting as both the ruler of Venad and Vira Pandya made up their minds to submit to Kulothunga Chola III and offered their obeisance to the open durbar (court) at Madurai, where Chola emperor performed a "Virabhishekam" and anointment of war heroes, who contributed to the Chola victory against the Pandyas and their allies from Sinhala and Venad kingdoms."
Between 1185–1186, Kulothunga Chola III undertook a second campaign against the Pandya King Vira Pandya following a rebellion by him and non-payment of tribute to his Chola overlord. This time, however, Pandya King Vira Pandya did not get the usual support from the Sinhala and Venad kingdoms. Kulothunga Chola III also seems to have grown from strength to strength, for in his first ten years, in addition to his feuds against his traditional enemies the Pandya and Sinhala kingdoms, he was able to reign on his traditional feudatories, who had taken advantage of the relatively weaker authority of Kulothunga Chola III's predecessors Rajaraja Chola II and Rajadhiraja Chola II and had started to assert their independence.
But even after attaining success while vanquishing the combined armies of his enemies, Kulothunga Chola III showed remarkable poise and dexterity in his conduct and treatment of the defeated adversaries. After being caught with his allies on the battlefield after trying to overthrow the Cholas from his exile, 'Vira Pandya was treated better than he had a right to expect. His life was spared and he was allowed some land and other wealth suited to his new station'. Possibly, Kulothunga Chola III also had a hand in the identification and enthronement of the next Pandya monarch Vikrama Pandya after his victory over Vira Pandya.
A few years after Kulothunga Chola III's campaigns in Kongu country to quell Hoysala incursions and restoration of Chola power in the area, the Pandya ruler Jatavarman Kulasekhara Pandyan, who 'succeeded Vikrama Pandyan in 1190 to the throne in Madurai, provoked Kulothunga Chola III by his insubordination. About 1205, Kulothunga Chola III led a third expedition into the Pandya country, sacked the capital and demolished the coronation hall of the Pandya'. The act of demolishing the Coronation Hall of a vanquished enemy is interpreted by historians as either being a conduct indicative of the weakness of his own position, or recognition by the Cholas of the steadily increasing power from 1150 CE of the Pandyas, who in any case never reconciled themselves to Chola suzerainty or domination, but were for the most part powerless in changing their subordinate position. The last quarter of the period 1150–1225 CE, in which Chola kings Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II and Kulothunga Chola III were prominent figures marks some high-points in terms of preservation and extension of traditional Chola territories between 1150–1200 CE, while the last part marks the emergence as the paramount imperial power of the Pandyas, culminating in their becoming the most powerful empire in the region between Deccan in the north, Kalinga in the east, the Konkan and Mysore plateau on the west and south west, and Kanniyakumari and Eelam or Ceylon in the south and south east respectively. The rise of the Pandyas between 1215–1230 CE contrasted directly with the decline of the Cholas which started during the last part of Kulothunga Chola III's reign, mainly between 1214–1217 CE.
War with Hoysalas (1187–1188 to 1215 CE)
After the second Pandya war, Kulothunga Chola III undertook campaign in Kongu to check the growth of Hoysala power in that quarter. Apparently, Hoysala King Veera Ballala II I tried to extend his rule beyond the Kaveri-Tungabhadra basin northwards to the Malaprabha basin in Kannada country. He had gained some success initially against the Western Chalukya King Someshvara IV and against the Yadava-Seuna Dynasty King Bhillama, both of whom he defeated in battle. However, Veera Ballala II had to face hostility initially between 1175–1180 CE from mainly the sons and successors of the Kalachuri king Bijjala of Tardavadi including Sovideva, Someshvara and Sangama between 1175–1185 CE. Though after the rule of King Bijjala, the Kalachuri had not been as strong and ruled in quick succession till 1183 CE, however, they succeeded in keeping up the hostilities against Hoysala Ballala II. The Kalachuris continued to war against the Hoysalas under Veera Ballala II (1173–1220). Faced with reverses from his enemies in the north Kannada country, Hoysala Veera Ballala II tried to expand his territory eastwards and made some inroads into the areas adjoining the Kongu country like Tagadur which were administered by Adigaiman chiefs as vassals of the Cholas.
As a result, by 1186–87, Kulothunga Chola III who wound up his expedition against the Pandyan kingdom, had to deal immediately with the incursion of the Hoysala Veera Ballala II. Kulothunga Chola III set off for 'Kongu to check the growth of Hoysala power in that quarter. He fought successfully against Veera Ballala II in 1187–88, re-established Chola suzerainty over Adigaman chiefs of Tagadur, defeated a Chera ruler in battle and performed a virabhisheka in Karuvur in 1193. His relations with Hoysala Veera Ballala II seem to have become friendly afterwards, for Ballala married a Chola princess'. Kulothunga Chola III's successful diplomacy with the Hoysalas would stand him in good stead in periods of difficulty during the last part of his rule, by which time the Pandyan empire grew into the paramount power in both South India and Deccan
Following his successful campaigns against Pandyans of Madurai, Eelam or Sri Lanka, Cheras of Karur and the kings of Venad, Kulothunga Chola III proudly proclaimed in his inscriptions as the conqueror of these regions and the 'crowned head of the Pandya'. Thus, in terms of military achievements, Kulothunga Chola III rivalled his predecessors. Also, his rule, which was the third longest among the Chola emperors, being for 40 years after Parantaka Chola I (52 years), Kulothunga Chola I (50 years) was for the most part (1178–1215) peaceful, stable and prosperous as borne out in his numerous inscriptions found in Tamil, Telugu and Kannada countries.
Wars in the Telugu country (1187–1208 CE)
In Vengi, about the end of the reign of Rajaraja Chola II, the Velanadu or Velananti Chodas had declared their independence. They were followed by the Nellore branch of the Telugu Chodas which began with Beta, a feudatory of Vikrama Chola. The Velananti and Telugu Chodas had strongly aligned with Vikrama Chola in his war with the Western Chalukya ruler Someshvara III in 1125–1126, which led to the recovery of Vengi after its short occupation by the Western Chalukyas under Vikramaditya VI in 1118–1119. The successor of Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II had very little control over Nellore and Northern Circar areas in Telugu country.
However, Kulothunga Chola III, after his accession in 1178 immediately focussed on recovery of Vengi by reigning in the Velanadu and Telugu Chodas and bringing them back into the Chola fold. The exact years and details of Kulothunga Chola III's campaigns in Nellore against the Telugu Chodas, followed by the war against the Velanadu Chodas are not available. 'But', what is clear is that 'there was a recovery under Kulothunga Chola III, whose sway was acknowledged by the Telugu Choda rulers Nallasidha, and his brother Tammu Siddha, from 1187 to the end of Kulothunga Chola III's reign. There was, however, an interlude during which Nallasiddha occupied Kanchi in 1192–93'. This was the time between 1187–88 to 1191–92, when Kulothunga Chola III was waging wars against Hoysala Veera Ballala II in the Kongu and Kannada countries, against the Cheras of Venad, twice against the Pandyas, who were also aided by the king of Eelam or Ceylon. Being away to the west and south of the Chola country, the hold of Kulothunga Chola III over Kanchipuram, immediately after subduing the Telugu Chodas, was perhaps, not as strong. He also could not turn attention towards the occupation of Kanchipuram by Nallasiddha the Telugu Choda ruler as 'Kulothunga Chola III first had to wind up his campaigns against the Hoysalas, the two wars against the Pandyas and Cheras of Venad, all of which, owing to his valour, leadership and war skills ended successfully', and hence, could not immediately lead an expedition against the Telugu Choda ruler Nallasiddha. However, Kulothunga III met with equally successful results against the Telugu Chodas, as he did in his wars against the Hoysalas, Pandyas aided by the kings of Eelam, and the Cheras in his previous war campaigns, even though there indeed was an interlude of 18 to 20 months between 1193–1195 CE. In 1195 CE Kulothunga Chola III invaded the areas controlled by Nallasiddha Choda and his feudatories, both in the Telugu country, ostensibly with an eye on his subsequent campaign to recover Vengi from the Velanadu Chodas, and 'in Kanchipuram'. The twin attacks on the Telugu Choda positions were a complete success and ultimately Nallasiddha Choda 'was driven out of Kanchipuram by Kulothunga Chola III in 1196'.
Apparently, there was peace for nearly ten years from 1196 CE, following the quelling in war by Kulothunga Chola III of his rivals and feudatories like Hoysalas, Pandyas, Cheras of Venad, and finally the Telugu Chodas. The Telugu Chodas were to acknowledge suzerainty of the Cholas up to 1216–18 CE. This interlude allowed Kulothunga Chola III to consolidate on his war gains and concentrate on administration and development work in the Chola territories. He had also by this time initiated construction work on the famous Sarabeswarar temple at Tribhuvanam, near Kumbakonam in Thanjavur district.
In his inscriptions, Kulothunga Chola III also lists Vengi across the Northern Circars, which is the area comprising modern Prakasham, the West Godavari and East Godavari districts of Andhra Pradesh. 'Kulothunga Chola III waged war once again in the north in 1208 CE when he claims to have subdued Vengi'. Further, Kulothunga Chola III also claims to have 'entered' Warangal, capital of the Kakatiya kingdom, which 'was ruled at the time by the powerful monarch Ganapati'. This is a pointer to the fact that Kulothunga Chola III did venture northwards to Vengi and on the way back there was a skirmish with the Kakatiya forces, which did not lead to any territorial loss to the Cholas. In any case, there is no inscriptional or epigraphical evidence left by the Kakatiyas claiming to have subdued the Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III.
Loss to the Pandyas (1216–1217 CE) and decline of the Cholas (1217–1280 CE)
In the war against the Jatavarman Kulasekhara in 1205, Kulothunga Chola III had demolished the coronation hall of the Pandyas at Madurai, although he followed up his action by restoring the defeated Pandya ruler back to the throne. However, as the future events proved, 'the success of Kulothunga Chola III was by no means complete and the seed was thrown for a war of revenge'. Besides, the other wars waged before and after his Pandya invasions had also drained both the aging Kulothunga Chola III physically, and also his treasury. After the first expedition against the Pandyas between it was mainly between 1192–1205 CE that Kulothunga Chola III had to undertake his expeditions against the Hoysalas, Telugu Chodas in Kanchi, Velanadu Chodas at Vengi, followed by a skirmish with the Kakatiyas between Rajahmundry and Visaiyavadai (modern Vijayawada), followed by his third victorious expedition against the Pandyas in 1205 against Jatavarman Kulasekhara Pandyan. In 1208 CE, Kulothunga Chola III again led an expedition, this time against the Velanadu Chodas. As a consequence, there was overall peace in the Chola dominions, between 1208–1215 CE, after the recovery of Vengi from the Velanadu Chodas. During this period, Kulothunga Chola III concentrated on some developmental activities in his country, including construction, repair and restoration activities in temples and other religious places. He was reassured mainly because his enemies and feudatories had been brought under control and their loyalty had been secured. There was no rebellion from the Pandyas, intrusions from the Telugu or Velanadu Chodas had stopped and the kingdoms of Eelam(Ceylon) and Chera also had been subdued.
Kulothunga Chola III apparently failed to notice that the Pandya princes, who always administered their territory by dividing it among themselves, were more or less united at most times, though they did not have the military strength to overwhelm and overcome the Cholas in war. This was also due to the Pandyas also not having a strong leadership who could mobilize his resources and forces so as to carve out a niche or distinct identity as a powerful kingdom in South India. However, it appears there was a change in approach of the, Cholas, who from the times of Kulothunga Chola I, adopted a policy of letting the defeated kings to rule without there being a Chola representative to administer those provinces despite subjugating the Pandyas and Cheras in South India. This policy reversed the practice followed mainly from the times of Raja Raja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I who, after defeating the Pandyas and conquering Madurai, sent a Chola prince to directly rule the Pandya country with the royal titles Chola-Pandyan. 'After the conquest of the Pandya country by Kulothunga Chola I, the princes of the local royal family were allowed to rule as they liked, subject to the vague suzerainty of the Cholas'. An important reason for this was the involvement of the Chola kings in the periodic but many a times fierce succession disputes that arose among the Pandya princes leading 'to the intervention of the Chola and Sinhalese rulers on opposite sides, which brought no good to either' kingdom. One such prominent war in the Pandyan country took place 'soon after the installation of Rajadhiraja Chola II (1163–1178 CE)', and 'out of the ashes of this civil war arose the Pandya power which in its renewed strength soon swallowed both the Chola and Ceylonese kingdoms'.
Some political setbacks although not in terms of loss of territory in wars, adversely affected the Cholas during the reign of Kulothunga Chola III itself. While he recovered Vengi with ease in 1208 CE from the Velanadu Chodas, their power in any case had disappeared after 1186 CE and their territories had been divided among five chieftains. Ultimately Ganapatideva, the powerful Kakatiya monarch, had made their country subordinate to his rule by 1214 CE. The subsequent defeat of the Telugu Cholas by the Kakatiya Ganapatideva in 1216 also immensely handicapped Kulothunga Chola III, for the services of his erstwhile subordinates and feudatories were no longer available to him.
As a consequence, 'towards the close of reign, the Pandya reprisal overwhelmed him' and heralded the decline of the Cholas which continued till the demise of the Chola empire in 1280 CE. In 1216 CE, 'Jatavarman Kulasekhara, whom Kulothunga Chola III had humiliated in a signal manner in 1205, was followed on the throne, more than ten years later, by his younger brother, Maravarman Sundara Pandya, who wanted to avenge the wrongs he had shared with brother and invaded the Chola country soon after his accession'. Kulothunga Chola III, having ruled for almost 40 years, was aging and did not have the support of his erstwhile feudatories and subordinates at this time.
The zeal and determination of Maravarman Sundara Pandya under whom the Pandyas would gradually but firmly revive and become the paramount power in South India under his capable successors, and 'the swiftness of the attack rendered Chola resistance feeble'. In the absence of any allies to support him against the Pandyas, Kulothunga Chola III had the ignominy of seeing Thanjavur and Uraiyur being sacked by the forces of Maravarman Sundara Pandya. Kulothunga Chola III and his son, yuvaraja Rajaraja Chola III were driven into exile.
It was now Maravarman Sundara Pandya's turn to repeat the act of Kulothunga Chola III, in performing a virabhishekam in the coronation hall of the Cholas at Ayirattali in Thanjavur district. The Pandya monarch did not stop at this, he marched up to Chidambaram where he worshipped at the famous shrine of Nataraja. On his way back, Maravarman Sundara Pandyan fixed his camp at Pon Amaravati in Pudukottai. At this time, Kulothunga Chola III appealed for aid to Hoysala Veera Ballala II, with whom the Chola monarch had marital alliance. Veera Ballala II responded quickly, and 'sent an army under his son Vira Narasimha II to Srirangam. Maravarman Sundara Pandya, therefore, had to make peace with the Cholas and restore the Chola kingdom to Kulothunga Chola III and Rajaraja Chola III, after they made formal submission at Pon Amaravati and acknowledged him as suzerain. This was the beginning of the second empire of the Pandyas though it was not yet quite the end of that of the Cholas. The wheel of fortune had thus, turned a full circle during the last part of Kulothunga III's reign itself, and from being the powerful suzerains of the once-dominated Pandyas, it was the turn of Cholas to remain dominated and subservient to their arch-enemy, during the best part of their remaining existence between 1217 CE to 1280 CE. The period 1217–1280 CE was a period was a period of continuous decline of the Cholas which is also characterized by the steady and constant growth of the renewed power of the Pandyas. Kulothunga Chola III and his son Rajaraja Chola III became tribute-paying subordinates of Maravarman Sundara Pandya. The aging Kulothunga Chola III did not live long after sustaining defeat against the Pandyas and died in 1218 CE. He was succeeded by his son and heir-apparent Rajaraja Chola III (1218–1256 CE).
Administration and architecture
Kulothunga Chola III was a great builder and his reign is a noteworthy period in Chola architecture. Among many well known constructions, He initiated commissioned the Sarabeswara or Kampahareswara temple at Tribhuvanam near Kumbakonam which is considered a great specimen of Dravidian Architecture. Its general design resembles the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur, but the temple of Sarabeswara still has several significant features that distinguish it from their earlier models i.e. the Brihadisvara Temples at both Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapuram. The temple also contains an excellent series of Ramayana reliefs on its walls and was consecrated by Kulothunga Chola III's spiritual guru, Isvarasiva. Besides this temple, Kulothunga also contributed to the extension and renovation of many temples around his kingdom. He also constructed a large number of public buildings, most of which were religious structures, which are enumerated in his inscriptions found at Pudukkottai, Tamil Nadu and in another Sanskrit inscription engraved around the central shrine of Kampahareswara Temple at Tirubhuvanam on the outskirts of Kumbakonam in Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu. This temple is also called the Tribhuvanavireswara temple in his inscriptions.
Kulothunga Chola III also erected the mukha-mandapa of Sabhapati, the gopura of Goddess Girindraja (Sivakami) and the verandah around the enclosure (prakara harmya) in the Siva Temple of Chidambaram. He also improved and expanded the great Shiva temples at Tiruvidaimarudur, Thiruvarur, Ekambareswarar Temple at Kanchipuram and the Halahalasya Temple at Madurai. In addition, the Rajarajeswara (Airavateswara temple) at Darasuram received Kulothunga Chola III's devoted attention. At the Shiva temple at Thiruvarur, Kulothunga Chola III built the sabha mandapam and the big gopura of the shrine of Valmikeswara.
Kulothunga Chola III was keenly aware of the secular religious traditions of the Chola monarchy. Contrary to popular impression, the Chola kings, despite constructing some of the largest temples for Siva, nonetheless considered the Nataraja temple of Chidambaram, called Periya Koil or "big temple" in Saivite parlance as well as the Sri Ranganathaswami Temple of Srirangam, also called Periya Koil or simply "big temple" in Vaishnavite parlance as their "Kuladhanams" or tutelary deities which attests their secular outlook in religious matters. Such a declaration was made for the first time in the inscriptions of the second Chola emperor Aditya I, which was also repeated by his son Parantaka Chola I and this was also repeated by Kulothunga Chola III (in his inscription No. 133) at the Sri Ranganathaswami Temple at Srirangam. "Siddhanta Ratnakara", a theological treatise, was written and composed by Shri Srikantha Sambhu, father of Isvarasiva, the spiritual guide of Kulothunga Chola III during the reign of this monarch.
In the 23rd and 24th years of Kulothunga's reign there was a widespread famine in the Chola kingdom. Kulothunga organised relief by ordering construction of tanks and river embankments. Kulothunga died some time in 1218 and Rajaraja Chola III became the Chola king.
Inscriptions
The inscriptions of Kulottunga III mostly begin with the introduction Puyal vaayttu valam peruga. His achievements are mentioned incrementally, viz., he claims to have taken Madurai and the crowned head of Pandya are found as early as the 4th year, to this Ilam (Sri Lanka) is added in the 10th year and then followed by Karuvur in the 16th year. He also had the alias Tribhuvanaviradeva and bore the title Tribhuvanachakravarthi. An inscription from the Mahalingswami temple in Tiruvidaimarudur dated in the 28th year of the king's reign refers to the 16th year of his predecessor Sungadavirtha Kulottunga Chola I. Among the places mentioned is Vikramasolanallur in Tiruvalundur nadu a sub-division of Jayangondachola valanadu. The king and his namesake, Kulottunga I are both mentioned together in an inscription of their successor Rajaraja III. An inscription from Govindaputtur dated in the sixteenth year of Kulottunga III mentions that as per a sanction accorded in the seventh year of Periyadevar Rajadhiraja Chola II a garden of areca-palms was made a devadana(gift) to the temple. Further it states that an inquiry was held in regards to the management of this gift.
Notes
References
Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1935). The CōĻas, University of Madras, Madras (Reprinted 1984).
Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1955). A History of South India, Oxford University Press, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002), .
Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1980). Advanced History of India, Allied Publishers, New Delhi.
South India and Her Muhammadan Invaders By Krishnaswami Aiyangar
South Indian Inscriptions: Miscellaneous inscriptions in Tamil (4 pts. in 2), By Eugen Hultzsch, Hosakote Krishna Sastri, V. Venkayya, Archaeological Survey of India
1218 deaths
Chola emperors
12th-century Indian monarchs
13th-century Indian monarchs
Year of birth unknown
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chung%20Thye%20Phin
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Chung Thye Phin
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Chung Thye Phin (; 28 September 1879 – 2 April 1935) was a Chinese Malayan business magnate, planter, miner, bureaucrat, and philanthropist who served as the last Kapitan Cina of Perak and Malaya. He was reported to be the richest man in Penang.
The son of tin-mining magnate Chung Keng Quee, he was a pioneer in the tin-mining industry through the introduction of modern equipment and tin-mining techniques in Perak under Western assistance. He was also known for pioneering the cultivation of roselle fibre for the production of ropes and twines, with the creation of the Sweet Kamiri Estate at Sungai Siput.
In his later years, he was a member of the Perak Advisory Board, and eventually became the Kapitan China of Perak. He has been described by his contemporaries as one of the "best known residents of the Chinese community" in British Malaya.
Early years
Early life
Chung Thye Phin was born in the village of Kota,Taiping, at the Perak Sultanate on 28 September 1879. He was the fourth son of Chinese tin-mining business magnate and philanthropist Chung Keng Quee (18271901) and Foo Teng Nyong (18491883), Chung's third wife. His name, Thye Phin (Chinese: 太平), was named after the town of Taiping. Chung had 9 brothers and 6 sisters, including Thye Yong, Thye Ngit, Thye Cheong and Thye Siong, and was an uncle of Chung Kok Ming. His godfather was Chin Seng Yam (d.1898), the leader of the Ghee Hin, a secret society opposed to the Hai San, another secret society led by his father due to tin-mining disputes. The rivalry eventually escalated into the Larut Wars (18651874), which ended in a Ghee Hin victory with the Pangkor Treaty of 1874. However, they were conferred the honorific titles of "Kapitan China".
Chung received his education at St. Xavier's College (St. Xavier's Institution) in George Town. In August 1897, he was subjected to international media attention when reports of him being robbed by armed bandits at Canton River surfaced. The robbery was carried out on a boat hired by Chung while in a trip to their "native lands". Armed with revolvers, Chung and several of his relatives were held hostage for 12 hours, and lost "$70,000 worth of jewellery and cash" in the process. In 1902, he was granted a certificate of naturalization by the government of the Straits Settlements, making him a British citizen.
The tin man
An enterprising youth with a flair for progress, he later started a number of tin mines of his own, including a deep-shaft mine at Tronoh or Teronoh, adjoining the famous mine of the same name, and the hydraulic mine at Batu Tugoh. Tronoh was the centre of the mining field containing the mine of Chung Thye Phin's Tronoh Mines Company Ltd.
His open-cast mines were operated on the most modern system in his time. He had the distinction of being the first Chinese miner to have introduced the latest appliances on the mines, under the supervision of a European engineer.
In 1914 he was elected to the council of the F.M.S. Chamber of Mines.
Together with Ho Man and Foo Choong Nyit, Chung Thye Phin co-founded the Toh Allang Chinese Tin Company in Perak, the first Chinese limited liability company, in 1925. He was also a founder and member of the Board of Directors of the Eastern Smelting Company (1908), Ltd along with Eu Tong Sen, Ng Boo Bee, Ong Hung Chong, Khaw Joo Tok and his nephew Khaw Bian Kee. The Eastern Smelting Company, Penang was registered in August 1907, and in November that year, its prospectus was advertised in various newspapers offering shares to the public. Governor Sir John Andserson officiated at its opening in January 1908. The company appeared to be doing well and at its first ordinary general meeting in October that year a 5 per cent dividend was declared based on the good performance of the prior six months work. Problems arose the following year and by the end of it its works manager had resigned, accusing the managing director and other directors of financial mismanagement. By March 1911 it had been decided to sell off the business to a London company. Newspapers in July 1911 carried the prospectus of the new London-based company that was to acquire the business of the Malayan company. The chairmanship of the London-based public company was Chung Thye Phin's old friend, former British Resident, Sir Ernest Birch. By the end of November 1911 the transfer from old to new company had been completed and the first general meeting of the new London-based company took place. Ownership by the London-company of the Penang-company became complete with the liquidation of the Penang public company.
In 1907 he convened a public meeting held at his offices attended by leading miners and other prominent residents to discuss problems that could arise as a result of the construction of the proposed Tronoh Railway and calling for a memorandum to be sent to the government to postpone the letting of contracts until a full public enquiry could be taken.
He was also active in promoting tin mining and the latest tin mining technologies available at the time.
Revenue farmer
He also had vast interests in some of the Government revenue farm monopolies. On 2 July 1903, the public tenders were declared open for the running of the Kedah and Penang Opium Farms. There were eight tenders. The highest tender was made by Chung Thye Phin for the Penang farm at $260,000 a month.
An understanding was reached that: (i) the government cut the Penang opium farm from the $260,000 a month tendered by Chung Thye Phin to $220,000 (later reduced to $217,000), and agreed that the syndicate could have both the Penang and Kedah farms at an overall price of $260,000 per month; (ii) Gan Ngoh Bee could have half the farm, but the other half should go to Chung Thye Phin, whose tender was the highest; and (iii) the government would undertake to secure the Kedah farm on behalf of the Penang syndicate at $40,000 a month with one-to-three months' deposits.
Public life
Chung Thye Phin was a committee member of the Penang Chinese Chamber of Commerce (檳城華人商部局) which was founded in June 1903 and before that served as a President of the Penang Chinese Town Hall (平章公館) established in 1881. At one time he even led the Penang Chinese Literary Association.
He was a director of the Straits Echo.
Despite his many business concerns, Chung Thye Phin evinced a lively interest in various philanthropic works, foreign famine funds and local charities.
In 1904 he subscribed (1,000) to the building fund for the founding of the Seven States Medical School. At a Chinese concert at Ipoh in 1908 in aid of the Canton famine fund he paid $100 for a plate of ice cream.
According to a deed dating back to 1906, he was one of the trustees of the Penang Chinese Recreation Club.
During the financial depression in Perak in 1908 he was one of the four members of a deputation (the other three being Eu Tong Sen, Foo Choo Choon and Yau Tet Shin) appointed by the whole of the Chinese community in Perak to plead their plight and bring to the attention of the acting resident of Perak, Mr E L Brockman their requests for government aid.
He donated a fountain to the Penang Turf Club. This still exists today. Together with Eu Tong Sen he donated land in Papan for a jail. This same pair contributed $1,500 to the Perak Chinese Recreation Club in 1913.
This worthy scion of Kapitan Chung, Keng Quee was the recipient of a tasseled "gold medal" from the Government of Indo China (Annam) for his liberal gifts to the Relief Fund. (Vide "The Chung Family Record", op. cit., pp. 9–12)
He appears in the 1904 List of Qualified Jurors. He was just 25 years of age at that time.
He was a member of the board of governors of the Yuk Choy school in Ipoh which began Standard 5 and 6 classes in 1908.
He was made a Justice of the Peace in 1917.
He was appointed in March 1918, by Sir Arthur Henderson Young to be a member of the Federal Council of the Federated Malay States during the temporary absence of the Honourable Mr. Eu Tong Sen.
He also served as a member of the Commission to enquire into and report on the Mining Industry, for which all the members were thanked by Mr. E. L. Brockman, Chief Secretary, F. M. S., for "the thoroughness with which you have gone into the various and important points raised and the clearness with which the conclusion arrived at regarding them have been recorded". (K. L., F. M. S. Correspondence Ref: No. 508-1919 dated 29 January 1920)
In October 1920 he was appointed President of the Chinese Widow's and Orphan's Institution, Perak at its seventeenth annual general meeting in Ipoh.
Earlier that year he was part of a deputation, also comprising the Hon. Mr A N Kenion, the Hon. Mr J H Rich, Messrs. F S Physick, Herbert Cooper, C F Green, Chairman, Sanitary Board, Kinta and Cheang Heng Thoy, J. P., who met with the Hon. Mr W George Maxwell, C.M.G. British Resident of Perak to discuss Ipoh's electricity and lighting needs.
He was elected representative vice president of the Garden Club for Penang, a position he was re-elected to for a number of years.
On 24 March 1921, His Highness Iskandar Shah K. C. M. G., the Sultan of Perak, with the advice of Colonel W. J. P. Hume, British Resident, Perak, conferred on him the title of "Kapitan China", in all probability, the last of the Chinese Kapitans in Malaya. He was installed by the Sultan of Perak in Kuala Kangsar amidst much traditional pomp and pageantry. His appointment was so popular with the community that he was escorted to Kuala Kangsar by the delegates of more than 70 Chinese organisations from Perak.
Later that year he was invited to Kuala Lumpur to give his views to the Trade Depression Commission during its two day's sitting in camera.
He was appointed trustee of the resuscitated Perak Miners' and Planters' association in 1922.
In July 1923 he was elected the first president of the newly inaugurated British Chinese Association. In November 1923, at the annual general meeting of the Perak Chinese Dramatic Club, he was elected Patron.
He presided over the Association of States and Straits Representatives (representing Chinese born in the Federated Malay States and the Straits Settlements) in 1923.
In 1926, together with Leong Sin Nam he was elected an honorary member of the Ipoh Club, whose members till then were restricted to the European community. The Times of Malaya said this was a compliment which should further cement the good feeling existing between the European and Chinese communities in Kinta.
In the name of His Majesty the King, His Excellency the High Commissioner awarded him a Certificate of Honour in recognition of his loyal and valuable services to the government of the F. M. S. in June 2007. He was presented the Malayan Certificate of Honour and its accompanying insignia by the Chief Secretary, F. M. S., Sir William Peel, in the throne room at Istana Nagara, Kuala Kangsar in August 1928, having received the same award on the occasion of H. M. the King-Emperor's birthday the year before.
According to berita.perak.gov.my, Foo Yet Kai, another Perak philanthropist, bought Chung Thye Phin's villa in Ipoh from the family of the late Kapitan and later gave permission for it to be converted into a private hospital, then known as Our Lady's Hospital and run by the Franciscan Sisters from Salzkotten, Germany. The hospital subsequently was renamed Kinta Medical Centre in the 1980s when the Foo Yet Kai Foundation took over the administration.
In 1905 together with a few others, he maintained 'Seng Kee' a Mess patronized by wealthy miners and merchants including Foo Choo Choon with whom he had familial and business relations.
The sportsman
It is known that he owned expensive cars, prize-winning horses, and even issued his own currency for use in his mines.
Motoring was one of his passions.
Chung Thye Phin was an enthusiastic sportsman and on more than one occasion won the Blue Ribbon of the Straits Turf apart from many lesser events. Among his racing trophies are one for the 1905 Singapore Derby won by one of his horses, Devilment. He was also a good billiards player.
He was also said to be a first class billiard player and played an exhibition match with world billiard champion John Roberts at the E&O Hotel in the early 1900s.
Minting his own money
At one time, during the latter part of the first World War, he was among the few who were permitted by the Government to print and issue 10-cent notes for circulation. Chung Thye Phin first issued private banknotes in 10 cent denominations on 11 February 1918. These notes were only circulated within his mining concessions and the Kapitan's trading outlets at Phin Kee Chan in Ipoh and were used by large numbers of labourers in the mining areas in exchange for goods (Source: Museum Numismatik Maybank). No other denominations have been discovered. Circa 1918 the notes bear the legends Ten Cents "Phin Kee Chan Ten Cents" at top and bottom border and "Phin Kee Chan" at left and right border. The legend Chung Thye Phin was printed in a black panel diagonally. On the top left corner is a value of "10cents" and written in Chinese on the right is "bearer of this bill may exchange 10c from Phin Kee Chan". Embossed on it was an oval seal bearing the legend of Chung Thye Phin.
Held up by pirates on the Canton River
In 1897, during a trip to China, he found himself and his entourage held up by pirates. What's perhaps even more surprising is that more than a few United States newspapers carried the following story about this son of Malaya:
"Tacoma, Wash., August 30. -- The steamer Columbia, from Yokohama, brings Oriental advices up to July 27. News has just reached Hong Kong of the prevalence of pirates on the Canton River and one of the most daring outrages perpetrated. One of the sons of Capt. Chung Kewi, a Straits millionaire, Chung Ah Phin, was the victim. With a few of his relatives he hired a boat and they were proceeding to their native place. On the second day the boat stuck in the mud and could not proceed. During the night a gang of men with painted faces and fully armed boarded the boat. With revolvers leveled at the passengers they commanded silence, while four men began at once to look for plunder. Ah Phin brought from the Straits jewelry amounting in value to $50,000 and $20,000 in cash. These the pirates took, besides clothing, etc. They left, after threatening the victims with instant death if they made a noise till twelve hours afterwards. In the morning information was sent down to Canton, but before the authorities had time to get a gunboat up the river the pirates had made their escape."
Architectural memorials
Chung Thye Phin Building, 14 Station Road in Ipoh, Perak is a three-storey corner building from 1907. It originally housed the Medical Hall established by Dr. R.M. Connolly, the Oilfileds Dispensaries Ltd. and more recently the George Town Dispensary. Mr W. Cecil Payne, managing director of the Times of Malaya and a member of the Institute of Incorporated Accountants, had offices in Chung Thye Phin's buildings.
Apart from Phin Kee Chan (referred to by many other names, among them the Chung Thye Phin Building), he is also associated with his father's townhouse cum office in Penang, Hye Kee Chan, and with some other structures, like his country house on Dummond Hill in Taiping, Perak.
His villa in the heart of Ipoh, was bought by Foo Yet Kai who later allowed its conversion, free of rent, to a private hospital, then known as Our Lady’s Hospital. It was administered by the Sisters of the Franciscan Missionaries of the Divine Motherhood from April 1964 to Jan 1983 but has now been taken over by The Kinta Medical Centre.
The Chung Thye Phin Mansion at Gurney Drive on Penang island (the address at the time was No 2 Kelawai Road) with its subterranean passageways and chambers was, after his death, sold and turned into a hotel (The Shanghai Hotel) in the late 1930s but was later demolished in 1964 and on its footprint now stands an imposing condominium (1 Gurney Drive). Author Queeny Chang gives an extensive description of the place and her experience of it in her autobiography. At one time it served to house a club for German U-boatmen.
He designed Relau Villa (also on Penang island), his holiday resort with a swimming pool ringed by private and other types of rooms. Its derelict structure can still be seen and explored at Taman Metropolitan, Relau in Penang, today. According to family history Kapitan Chung Thye Phin was inspired by the artistic canals of Venice and the enchanting ponds and lakes of China when he designed the swimming-pool, which was constructed by Mr. B. H. Ung (Ung Ban Hoe was attached to the architectural firm of Stark & McNeil), the first Chinese architect who introduced reinforced concrete buildings to the community, notably the Ban Hin Lee Bank.
A commentary by his grand daughter, Oola goes, "Chung Thye Phin had many residences, some of them mansions, in Penang, Ipoh and Taiping. His residence in what is now Persiaran Gurney was the most famous, with its grand entertaining rooms and undersea wing. It was built before there was a Persiaran Gurney or a Gurney Drive, and was therefore right on the shore. His largest residence in Ipoh was in a street that carried his name (and still does). This mansion now serves as a hospital. He built a summer house on a large estate near Relau and surrounded it with gardens, orchards and fish ponds. However its most striking feature was the fact that it was built around a swimming pool (the first in Penang) in the Roman tradition. This house still exists in its ruined state, now surrounded by high rise 21st century flats. There are indeed many stories to be told about Chung Thye Phin."
He also had property on Penang Hill, as was the way with the rich in those days. His was a bungalow named, simply, "Highlands".
Several articles have been published, mentioning these properties and erroneously attributing them to Thye Phin's father, Chung Keng Quee who died in 1901, well before any of these were built.
The traveller
A widely travelled Malayan, Kapitan Chung Thye Phin had gone round the world on many a business-cum-pleasure trip. On one occasion, he undertook a perilous trip up the scenic gorges of the Yangtze River at Chungking, China, thus earning for himself the distinction of being the first non-China-born Chinese to have made the venture. It was here that he was enraptured by Nature's inimitable splendour.
A road in his honour
In Perak he was honoured with roads named after him. Jalan Chung Thye Phin in Ipoh borders the Kinta Medical Centre. This location is appropriate - the Centre, a private hospital under the administration of the Foo Yet Kai foundation, was formerly the family mansion of Chung Thye Phin. There is another road of the same name also named in his honour in his birthplace of Taiping.
Well connected
Chung Thye Phin rubbed shoulders with the rich and powerful including Sultan Iskandar Shah of Perak, a polo lover. A photograph in the National Archives shows him sitting next to the Sultan.
He was among the group of Chinese towkays who presented the address to King George V when he visited Singapore in 1901 as Duke of Cornwall.
In February 1907 When the Duke and the Duchess of Connaught and Princess Patricia paid an official visit to Penang in Feb. 1907, they were driven by Kapitan Chung Thye Phin in his own private car.
In 1921 he feted Sir Ernest Woodford Birch at his Ipoh residence having invited all the old residents of Perak, European and Chinese.
Chung, Thye Phin and Eu, Tong Sen
Eu Tong Sen and Chung Thye Phin were "blood" brothers. They went through Chinese ceremony to become "Keet Bye Heng Tai". When Chung Thye Phin travelled to Hong Kong, he stayed in Eu Tong Sen's villa there and they kept an account of his expenses in the company's account books. Eu Tong Sen's villa in HK was called "Eucliff". It has been torn down. It was built at Repulse Bay, HK, overlooking the sea. The property was huge. It was built with stone like a castle. It included within its walled area a tennis court and also a swimming pool.
Eu Tong Sen and Chung Thye Phin had common interests – motorcars, racehorses, country houses, etc. 1903 when the Ipoh Gymkhana Club was founded, both of them decided to enter their thoroughbreds regularly in the Ipoh races. They jointly built a weekend retreat, "Forest Lodge", at Gopeng Road with a large stable. In April 1912 Eu Tong Sen was appointed the permanent Chinese Member of the Federal Council, the seat having fallen vacant on the demise of Leong Fee. Chung Thye Phin sold his half-share to Eu Tong Sen who desired grander accommodations following the latter's elevation in status. Chung Thye Phin in turn bought Drummond’s Hill in Taiping, a estate and the former Residency of Sir Hugh Low. In 1908, together with Chung Thye Phin he built a large Chinese theatre in the important mining town of Kampar near Ipoh.
Chung, Thye Phin's Penang firms served as the agent for Eu, Tong Sen in Penang before he (Eu) opened a branch on the island. Eu Tong Sen's Penang branch, at least according to business directories, was the latest in his branch office network. It seemed to have opened only in 1920.
Education and official appointments
He studied at St. Xavier's Institution on Penang Island. He was a patron of the Khek Community Guild (Singapore). He was appointed trustee of the Penang Tseng-Lung Hui-kuan in 1916 and tasked with overhauling the association, removing irresponsible elements from the association and repairing its premises. He also played an important role in the administration of the country, and was both a State Councillor and a Federal Councillor. He was a member of the Perak State Advisory Board and the last Kapitan China of Perak and Malaya. In 1900 he replaced his father as member of the Perak State Council, a position held by Chung Keng Quee since the council was first formed in 1877 and remained on the council till his resignation in 1927. On 24 March 1921, His Highness Iskandar Shah K. C. M. G., the Sultan of Perak, conferred on him the title of "Kapitan China". His installation ceremony was held on 28 March in the royal town of Kuala Kangsar and included a procession that went around the town, accompanied by firecrackers.
Personal life
He was the son of Kapitan Chung Keng Quee (also spelt as Chung Ah Kwee) an immigrant from China. He had 7 wives but was survived by 6 of them who gave him 10 sons and 7 daughters. Chung Thye Phin was born in 1879 in Taiping, lived most of his life in Penang and died in 1935.
Sons:
Chung, Kok Soon (KS, deceased 2006)
Chung, Kok Ching (KC, deceased 1994)
Chung, Kok Choon (Peter, deceased 1996)
Chung, Kok Heng (Frankie deceased)
Chung, Kok Khen (Khen, deceased 2006)
Chung, Kok En (Dennis, deceased 2014)
Chung, Kok Tong (Henry, deceased 2001)
Chung, Kok Leong (Leon, deceased 2014)
Chung, Kok Choy (Kenny, deceased 2005)
Chung, Kok Chuan (George, deceased 2009)
Daughters:
Chung, Yuet See (Mary, deceased 1995)
Chung, Yuet Kuen (Louise, deceased)
Chung, Guat Hooi
Chung, Guat Hong
Chung, Guat Kheng
Chung, Yuet Wah
Chung, Yuet Fong
Quotations
Mr. Chung Thye Phin, M.C. (owner of mines in Gopeng, Taiping, and Tronoh districts): "I do not look for any general expansion of the industry. We are now greatly troubled with our coolies, who are independent and desert freely. In view of these labour troubles, I have installed tramming services where possible, and lengthened the working day."
Sources
Notes
Re-examination of the "Chinese nationalism" and Categorization of the Chinese in Malaya: The Case of the Chinese in Penang, 1890s-1910s by SHINOZAKI Kaori, Ph.D. student, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences University of Tokyo
The Singapore and Straits Directory and the F.M.S. Directory under Eu Tong Sen.
Mr Koh, Keng We co author of Chinese Enterprise in Colonial Malaya: the Case of Eu Tong Sen
THE KAPITAN SYSTEM - XI Sunday Gazette, 19 June 1960, By Wu Liu (pen name of Mr. C. S. Wong/Wong, Choon Sang)
A gallery of Chinese kapitans. by Mr. C. S. Wong/Wong, Choon Sang; Published in Singapore: Ministry of Culture, 1963. 114p. [DS596 Won]
Twentieth Century impressions of British Malaya: its history, people, commerce, industries, and resources, by Arnold Wright, Published 1908 - Page 130, 203, 252, 262, 508, 509, 568
The Record of Meritorious Deeds of the Chung Family, op. cit., pp. 9–12
K. L. F. M. S. Correspondence Ref: No 3663-1917 dated 20 March 1918
K. L., F. M. S. Correspondence Ref: No. 508-1919 dated 29 January 1920
"Miscellaneous Chronicles of Penang", Kuang, Kuo-hsiang op. cit., pp. 112–113
The Case of the Chinese in Penang, 1890s-1910s | SHINOZAKI Kaori, Ph.D. student
200 years of the Hakkas in Penang (檳城客家兩百年) By the Federation of Hakka Associations of Malaysia
Reveal the True Face of Secret Societies (揭開私會黨真面目) Written by Guo Rende (郭仁德) Published by the Malaysian Chinese Cultural Center
"The Luxuriant Tree" and "Chung Keng Kwee, the Hakka Kapitan" by CHUNG Yoon-Ngan (鄭永元)
The installation of Chung Thye Phin as Capitan in 1921. G.1784 (N.22/84) National Archives of Malaysia.
List of Qualified Jurors, Penang, 1904 transcribed from the Straits Settlements Government Gazette, 23 December 1904.
Heritage Road named in honour of Chung Thye Phin by Sita Ram, Stories Of Yesteryear, The Ipoh Echo 16–31 March 2006
Timothy Tye who has been researching Chung Keng Quee for AsiaExplorers and historian Khoo Salma Nasution
The Tin Resources of the British Empire by Norman Mosley Penzer, published by W. Rider in 1921, page 90 of 716 pages.
Chinese Architecture in the Straits Settlements and Western Malaya: Temples, Kongsis, and Houses By David Kohl - Originally published as the author's thesis (M.A.--University of Hong Kong, 1978) - Published by Heinemann Asia, 1984. ,
Chinese Business in Southeast Asia: Contesting Cultural Explanations, Researching Entrepreneurship By H. Hsiao, Edmund Terence Gomez, Xinhuang Xiao, Hsin-Huang Michael Hsiao, Published by Routledge, 2001, ,
Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (Vol. 3, pt. 2 comprises a monograph entitled: British Malaya, 1864–1867, by L.A. Mills, with appendix by C. O. Blagden, 1925. Issued also separately) By Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland Malayan Branch Published by The Branch, 1923
References
1879 births
1935 deaths
Chinese businesspeople
Malaysian businesspeople
Malaysian people of Hakka descent
People from Zengcheng
History of Penang
History of Perak
People from British Penang
Kapitan Cina
Malayan miners
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4753359
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology%20of%20autism
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Epidemiology of autism
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The epidemiology of autism is the study of the incidence and distribution of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). A 2022 systematic review of global prevalence of autism spectrum disorders found a median prevalence of 1% in children in studies published from 2012 to 2021, with a trend of increasing prevalence over time. However, the study's 1% figure may reflect an underestimate of prevalence in low- and middle-income countries.
ASD averages a 4.3:1 male-to-female ratio in diagnosis, not accounting for ASD in gender diverse populations, which overlap disproportionately with ASD populations. The number of children known to have autism has increased dramatically since the 1980s, at least partly due to changes in diagnostic practice; it is unclear whether prevalence has actually increased; and as-yet-unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out. In 2020, the Centers for Disease Control's Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) Network reported that approximately 1 in 54 children in the United States (1 in 34 boys, and 1 in 144 girls) is diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD), based on data collected in 2016. This estimate is a 10% increase from the 1 in 59 rate in 2014, 105% increase from the 1 in 110 rate in 2006 and 176% increase from the 1 in 150 rate in 2000. Diagnostic criteria of ASD has changed significantly since the 1980s; for example, U.S. special-education autism classification was introduced in 1994.
ASD is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder, and although what causes it is still not entirely known, efforts have been made to outline causative mechanisms and how they give rise to the disorder. The risk of developing autism is increased in the presence of various prenatal factors, including advanced paternal age and diabetes in the mother during pregnancy. In rare cases, autism is strongly associated with agents that cause birth defects. It has been shown to be related to genetic disorders and with epilepsy. ASD is believed to be largely inherited, although the genetics of ASD are complex and it is unclear which genes are responsible. ASD is also associated with several intellectual or emotional gifts, which has led to a variety of hypotheses from within evolutionary psychiatry that autistic traits have played a beneficial role over human evolutionary history.
Other proposed causes, such as childhood vaccines, are controversial. The vaccine hypothesis has been extensively investigated and shown to be false, lacking any scientific evidence. Andrew Wakefield published a small study in 1998 in the United Kingdom suggesting a causal link between autism and the trivalent MMR vaccine. After data included in the report was shown to be deliberately falsified, the paper was retracted, and Wakefield was struck off the medical register in the United Kingdom.
It is problematic to compare autism rates over the last three decades, as the diagnostic criteria for autism have changed with each revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), which outlines which symptoms meet the criteria for an ASD diagnosis. In 1983, the DSM did not recognize PDD-NOS or Asperger's syndrome, and the criteria for autistic disorder (AD) were more restrictive. The previous edition of the DSM, DSM-IV, included autistic disorder, childhood disintegrative disorder, PDD-NOS, and Asperger's syndrome. Due to inconsistencies in diagnosis and how much is still being learnt about autism, the most recent DSM (DSM-5) only has one diagnosis, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), which encompasses each of the previous four disorders. According to the new diagnostic criteria for ASD, one must have both struggles in social communication and interaction and restricted repetitive behaviors, interests and activities (RRBs).
ASD diagnoses continue to be over four times more common among boys (1 in 34) than among girls (1 in 154), and they are reported in all racial, ethnic and socioeconomic groups. Studies have been conducted in several continents (Asia, Europe and North America) that report a prevalence rate of approximately 1 to 2 percent. A 2011 study reported a 2.6 percent prevalence of autism in South Korea.
Frequency
Although incidence rates measure autism prevalence directly, most epidemiological studies report other frequency measures, typically point or period prevalence, or sometimes cumulative incidence. Attention is focused mostly on whether prevalence is increasing with time.
Incidence and prevalence
Epidemiology defines several measures of the frequency of occurrence of a disease or condition:
The incidence rate of a condition is the rate at which new cases occurred per person-year, for example, "2 new cases per 1,000 person-years".
The cumulative incidence is the proportion of a population that became new cases within a specified time period, for example, "1.5 per 1,000 people became new cases during 2006".
The point prevalence of a condition is the proportion of a population that had the condition at a single point in time, for example, "10 cases per 1,000 people at the start of 2006".
The period prevalence is the proportion that had the condition at any time within a stated period, for example, "15 per 1,000 people had cases during 2006".
When studying how conditions are caused, incidence rates are the most appropriate measure of condition frequency as they assess probability directly. However, incidence can be difficult to measure with rarer conditions such as autism. In autism epidemiology, point or period prevalence is more useful than incidence, as the condition starts long before it is diagnosed, bearing in mind genetic elements it is inherent from conception, and the gap between initiation and diagnosis is influenced by many factors unrelated to chance. Research focuses mostly on whether point or period prevalence is increasing with time; cumulative incidence is sometimes used in studies of birth cohorts.
Estimation methods
The three basic approaches used to estimate prevalence differ in cost and in quality of results. The simplest and cheapest method is to count known autism cases from sources such as schools and clinics, and divide by the population. This approach is likely to underestimate prevalence because it does not count children who have not been diagnosed yet, and it is likely to generate skewed statistics because some children have better access to treatment.
The second method improves on the first by having investigators examine student or patient records looking for probable cases, to catch cases that have not been identified yet. The third method, which is arguably the best, screens a large sample of an entire community to identify possible cases, and then evaluates each possible case in more detail with standard diagnostic procedures. This last method typically produces the most reliable, and the highest, prevalence estimates.
Frequency estimates
Estimates of the prevalence of autism vary widely depending on diagnostic criteria, age of children screened, and geographical location. Most recent reviews tend to estimate a prevalence of 1–2 per 1,000 for autism and close to 6 per 1,000 for ASD;
PDD-NOS is the vast majority of ASD, Asperger syndrome is about 0.3 per 1,000 and the atypical forms childhood disintegrative disorder and Rett syndrome are much rarer.
A 2006 study of nearly 57,000 British nine- and ten-year-olds reported a prevalence of 3.89 per 1,000 for autism and 11.61 per 1,000 for ASD; these higher figures could be associated with broadening diagnostic criteria. Studies based on more detailed information, such as direct observation rather than examination of medical records, identify higher prevalence; this suggests that published figures may underestimate ASD's true prevalence. A 2009 study of the children in Cambridgeshire, England used different methods to measure prevalence, and estimated that 40% of ASD cases go undiagnosed, with the two least-biased estimates of true prevalence being 11.3 and 15.7 per 1,000.
A 2009 U.S. study based on 2006 data estimated the prevalence of ASD in eight-year-old children to be 9.0 per 1,000 (approximate range 8.6–9.3). A 2009 report based on the 2007 Adult Psychiatric Morbidity Survey by the National Health Service determined that the prevalence of ASD in adults was approximately 1% of the population, with a higher prevalence in males and no significant variation between age groups; these results suggest that prevalence of ASD among adults is similar to that in children and rates of autism are not increasing.
Changes with time
Attention has been focused on whether the prevalence of autism is increasing with time. Earlier prevalence estimates were lower, centering at about 0.5 per 1,000 for autism during the 1960s and 1970s and about 1 per 1,000 in the 1980s, as opposed to today's 23 per 1000.
The number of reported cases of autism increased dramatically in the 1990s and 2000s, prompting ongoing investigations into several potential reasons:
More children may have autism; that is, the true frequency of autism may have increased.
There may be more complete pickup of autism (case finding), as a result of increased awareness and funding. For example, attempts to sue vaccine companies may have increased case-reporting.
The diagnosis may be applied more broadly than before, as a result of the changing definition of the disorder, particularly changes in DSM-III-R and DSM-IV.
An editorial error in the description of the PDD-NOS category of Autism Spectrum Disorders in the DSM-IV, in 1994, inappropriately broadened the PDD-NOS construct. The error was corrected in the DSM-IV-TR, in 2000, reversing the PDD-NOS construct back to the more restrictive diagnostic criteria requirements from the DSM-III-R.
Successively earlier diagnosis in each succeeding cohort of children, including recognition in nursery (preschool), may have affected apparent prevalence but not incidence.
A review of the "rising autism" figures compared to other disabilities in schools shows a corresponding drop in findings of intellectual disability.
The reported increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices, referral patterns, availability of services, age at diagnosis, and public awareness. A widely cited 2002 pilot study concluded that the observed increase in autism in California cannot be explained by changes in diagnostic criteria, but a 2006 analysis found that special education data poorly measured prevalence because so many cases were undiagnosed, and that the 1994–2003 U.S. increase was associated with declines in other diagnostic categories, indicating that diagnostic substitution had occurred.
A 2007 study that modeled autism incidence found that broadened diagnostic criteria, diagnosis at a younger age, and improved efficiency of case ascertainment, can produce an increase in the frequency of autism ranging up to 29-fold depending on the frequency measure, suggesting that methodological factors may explain the observed increases in autism over time. A small 2008 study found that a significant number (40%) of people diagnosed with pragmatic language impairment as children in previous decades would now be given a diagnosis as autism. A study of all Danish children born in 1994–99 found that children born later were more likely to be diagnosed at a younger age, supporting the argument that apparent increases in autism prevalence were at least partly due to decreases in the age of diagnosis.
A 2009 study of California data found that the reported incidence of autism rose 7- to 8-fold from the early 1990s to 2007, and that changes in diagnostic criteria, inclusion of milder cases, and earlier age of diagnosis probably explain only a 4.25-fold increase; the study did not quantify the effects of wider awareness of autism, increased funding, and expanding support options resulting in parents' greater motivation to seek services. Another 2009 California study found that the reported increases are unlikely to be explained by changes in how qualifying condition codes for autism were recorded.
Several environmental factors have been proposed to support the hypothesis that the actual frequency of autism has increased. These include certain foods, infectious disease, pesticides. There is overwhelming scientific evidence against the MMR hypothesis and no convincing evidence for the thiomersal (or Thimerosal) hypothesis, so these types of risk factors have to be ruled out. Although it is unknown whether autism's frequency has increased, any such increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward addressing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics.
Geographical frequency
Africa
The prevalence of autism in Africa is unknown.
The Americas
The prevalence of autism in the Americas overall is unknown.
Canada
The rate of autism diagnoses in Canada was 1 in 450 in 2003. However, preliminary results of an epidemiological study conducted at Montreal Children's Hospital in the 200–2004 school year found a prevalence rate of 0.68% (or 1 per 147).
A 2001 review of the medical research conducted by the Public Health Agency of Canada concluded that there was no link between MMR vaccine and either inflammatory bowel disease or autism. The review noted, "An increase in cases of autism was noted by year of birth from 1979 to 1992; however, no incremental increase in cases was observed after the introduction of MMR vaccination." After the introduction of MMR, "A time trend analysis found no correlation between prevalence of MMR vaccination and the incidence of autism in each birth cohort from 1988 to 1993."
United States
CDC's most recent estimate is that 1 out of every 44 children, or 23 per 1,000, have some form of ASD as of 2018.
The number of diagnosed cases of autism grew dramatically in the U.S. in the 1990s and have continued in the 2000s. For the 2006 surveillance year, identified ASD cases were an estimated 9.0 per 1000 children aged 8 years (95% confidence interval [CI] = 8.6–9.3). These numbers measure what is sometimes called "administrative prevalence", that is, the number of known cases per unit of population, as opposed to the true number of cases. This prevalence estimate rose 57% (95% CI 27%–95%) from 2002 to 2006.
The National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) for 2014–2016 studied 30,502 US children and adolescents and found the weighted prevalence of ASD was 2.47% (24.7 per 1,000); 3.63% in boys and 1.25% in girls. Across the 3-year reporting period, the prevalence was 2.24% in 2014, 2.41% in 2015, and 2.76% in 2016.
The number of new cases of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in Caucasian boys is roughly 50% higher than found in Hispanic children, and approximately 30% more likely to occur than in Non-Hispanic white children in the United States.
A further study in 2006 concluded that the apparent rise in administrative prevalence was the result of diagnostic substitution, mostly for findings of intellectual disability and learning disabilities. "Many of the children now being counted in the autism category would probably have been counted in the mental retardation or learning disabilities categories if they were being labeled 10 years ago instead of today," said researcher Paul Shattuck of the Waisman Center at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, in a statement.
A population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota county found that the cumulative incidence of autism grew eightfold from the 1980–83 period to the 1995–97 period. The increase occurred after the introduction of broader, more-precise diagnostic criteria, increased service availability, and increased awareness of autism. During the same period, the reported number of autism cases grew 22-fold in the same location, suggesting that counts reported by clinics or schools provide misleading estimates of the true incidence of autism.
Venezuela
A 2008 study in Venezuela reported a prevalence of 1.1 per 1,000 for autism and 1.7 per 1,000 for ASD.
Asia
A journal reports that the median prevalence of ASD among 2–6-year-old children who are reported in China from 2000 upwards was 10.3/10,000.
Hong Kong
A 2008 Hong Kong study reported an ASD incidence rate similar to those reported in Australia and North America, and lower than Europeans. It also reported a prevalence of 1.68 per 1,000 for children under 15 years.
Japan
A 2005 study of a part of Yokohama with a stable population of about 300,000 reported a cumulative incidence to age 7 years of 48 cases of ASD per 10,000 children in 1989, and 86 in 1990. After the vaccination rate of the triple MMR vaccine dropped to near zero and was replaced with MR and M vaccine, the incidence rate grew to 97 and 161 cases per 10,000 children born in 1993 and 1994, respectively, indicating that the combined MMR vaccine did not cause autism. A 2004 Japanese autism association reported that about 360.000 people have typical Kanner-type autism.
Middle East
Israel
A 2009 study reported that the annual incidence rate of Israeli children with a diagnosis of ASD receiving disability benefits rose from zero in 1982–1984 to 190 per million in 2004. It was not known whether these figures reflected true increases or other factors such as changes in diagnostic measures.
Saudi Arabia
Studies of autism frequency have been particularly rare in the Middle East. One rough estimate is that the prevalence of autism in Saudi Arabia is 18 per 10,000, slightly higher than the 13 per 10,000 reported in developed countries.(compared to 168 per 10,000 in the USA)
Europe
Denmark
In 1992, thiomersal-containing vaccines were removed in Denmark. A study at Aarhus University indicated that during the chemical's usage period (up through 1990), there was no trend toward an increase in the incidence of autism. Between 1991 and 2000 the incidence increased, including among children born after the discontinuation of thimerosal.
France
France made autism the national focus for the year 2012 and the Health Ministry estimated the rate of autism in 2012 to have been 0.67%, i.e. 1 in 150.
Eric Fombonne made some studies in the years 1992 and 1997. He found a prevalence of 16 per 10,000 for the global pervasive developmental disorder (PDD).
The INSERM found a prevalence of 27 per 10,000 for the ASD and a prevalence of 9 per 10,000 for the early infantile autism in 2003. Those figures are considered as underrated as the WHO gives figures between 30 and 60 per 10,000. The French Minister of Health gives a prevalence of 4.9 per 10,000 on its website but it counts only early infantile autism.
Germany
A 2008 study in Germany found that inpatient admission rates for children with ASD increased 30% from 2000 to 2005, with the largest rise between 2000 and 2001 and a decline between 2001 and 2003. Inpatient rates for all mental disorders also rose for ages up to 15 years, so that the ratio of ASD to all admissions rose from 1.3% to 1.4%.
Norway
A 2009 study in Norway reported prevalence rates for ASD ranging from 0.21% to 0.87%, depending on assessment method and assumptions about non-response, suggesting that methodological factors explain large variances in prevalence rates in different studies.
United Kingdom
The incidence and changes in incidence with time are unclear in the United Kingdom. The reported autism incidence in the UK rose starting before the first introduction of the MMR vaccine in 1989. However, a perceived link between the two arising from the results of a fraudulent scientific study has caused considerable controversy, despite being subsequently disproved. A 2004 study found that the reported incidence of pervasive developmental disorders in a general practice research database in England and Wales grew steadily during 1988–2001 from 0.11 to 2.98 per 10,000 person-years, and concluded that much of this increase may be due to changes in diagnostic practice.
Genetics
As late as the mid-1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism; evidence from genetic epidemiology studies now suggests that it is one of the most heritable of all psychiatric conditions. The first studies of twins estimated heritability to be more than 90%; in other words, that genetics explains more than 90% of autism cases. When only one identical twin is autistic, the other often has learning or social disabilities. For adult siblings, the risk of having one or more features of the broader autism phenotype might be as high as 30%, much higher than the risk in controls. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable Mendelian (single-gene) condition, chromosome abnormality, or other genetic syndrome, and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders.
Since heritability is less than 100% and symptoms vary markedly among identical twins with autism, environmental factors are most likely a significant cause as well. If some of the risk is due to gene-environment interaction the 90% heritability may be too high; However, in 2017, the largest study, including over three million participants, estimated the heritability at 83%.
Genetic linkage analysis has been inconclusive; many association analyses have had inadequate power. Studies have examined more than 100 candidate genes; many genes must be examined because more than a third of genes are expressed in the brain and there are few clues on which are relevant to autism.
Causative factors
A few studies have found an association between autism and frequent use of acetaminophen (e.g. Tylenol, Paracetamol) by the mother during pregnancy. Autism is also associated with several other prenatal factors, including advanced age in either parent, and diabetes, bleeding, or use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy. Autism was found to be indirectly linked to prepregnancy obesity and low weight mothers. It is not known whether mutations that arise spontaneously in autism and other neuropsychiatric disorders come mainly from the mother or the father, or whether the mutations are associated with parental age. However, recent studies have identified advancing paternal age as a significant indicator for ASD. Increased chance of autism has also been linked to rapid "catch-up" growth for children born to mothers who had unhealthy weight at conception.
A large 2008 population study of Swedish parents of children with autism found that the parents were more likely to have been hospitalized for a mental disorder, that schizophrenia was more common among the mothers and fathers, and that depression and personality disorders were more common among the mothers.
It is not known how many siblings of autistic individuals are themselves autistic. Several studies based on clinical samples have given quite different estimates, and these clinical samples differ in important ways from samples taken from the general community.
Autism has also been shown to cluster in urban neighborhoods of high socioeconomic status. One study from California found a three to fourfold increased risk of autism in a small 30 by 40 km region centered on West Hollywood, Los Angeles.
Sex and gender differences
Boys have a higher chance of being diagnosed with autism than girls. The ASD sex ratio averages 4.3:1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment: it may be close to 2:1 with intellectual disability and more than 5.5:1 without. Recent studies have found no association with socioeconomic status, and have reported inconsistent results about associations with race or ethnicity.
RORA deficiency may explain some of the difference in frequency between males and females. RORA protein levels are higher in the brains of typically developing females compared to typically developing males, providing females with a buffer against RORA deficiency. This is known as the Female protective effect. RORA deficiency has previously been proposed as one factor that may make males more vulnerable to autism.
There is a statistically notable overlap between ASD populations and gender diverse populations.
Comorbid conditions
Autism is associated with several other conditions:
Genetic disorders. About 10–15% of autism cases have an identifiable Mendelian (single-gene) condition, chromosome abnormality, or other genetic syndrome, and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders.
Intellectual disability. The fraction of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25% to 70%, a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing autistic intelligence.
Anxiety disorders are common among children with ASD, although there are no firm data. Symptoms include generalized anxiety and separation anxiety, and are likely affected by age, level of cognitive functioning, degree of social impairment, and ASD-specific difficulties. Many anxiety disorders, such as social phobia, are not commonly diagnosed in people with ASD because such symptoms are better explained by ASD itself, and it is often difficult to tell whether symptoms such as compulsive checking are part of ASD or a co-occurring anxiety problem. The prevalence of anxiety disorders in children with ASD has been reported to be anywhere between 11% and 84%.
Epilepsy, with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age, cognitive level, and type of language disorder; 5–38% of children with autism have comorbid epilepsy, and only 16% of these have remission in adulthood.
Several metabolic defects, such as phenylketonuria, are associated with autistic symptoms.
Minor physical anomalies are significantly increased in the autistic population.
Preempted diagnoses. Although the DSM-IV rules out concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism, the full criteria for ADHD, Tourette syndrome, and other of these conditions are often present and these comorbid diagnoses are increasingly accepted. A 2008 study found that nearly 70% of children with ASD had at least one psychiatric disorder, including nearly 30% with social anxiety disorder and similar proportions with ADHD and oppositional defiant disorder. Childhood-onset schizophrenia, a rare and severe form, is another preempted diagnosis whose symptoms are often present along with the symptoms of autism.
References
Autism
Autism
Autism
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4753787
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batopilas%2C%20Chihuahua
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Batopilas, Chihuahua
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Batopilas () is a small town, and seat of the surrounding municipality of the same name, in the Mexican state of Chihuahua, located along the Batopilas River at the bottom of the Batopilas canyon, part of the Copper Canyon. As of 2010, the town of Batopilas had a population of 1,220. Its elevation above sea level is . The town is situated in a narrow valley, bordered by steep canyon walls. The government of Mexico declared it a Pueblo Mágico on October 19, 2012.
Batopilas was a prominent silver-mining center from the early 18th to the early 20th century.
Etymology
Native people of the region, Tarahumara or Rarámuri Indians called the area Bachotigori, meaning "Place of the enclosed waters", as they described the canyon, and its abundance of tropical flora and fauna to the Spanish explorers travelling through this rough part of the Chihuahuan mountains. Batopilas is a mangled Spanish version of the indigenous word Bachotigori.
History
The Tarahumara Indians most likely had known of silver in the area for a long time before a Spanish explorer found silver by the Río Batopilas around 1632. The discovery was in the river itself, near the bank, and the silver ore was pure white and glistening. The mine was named the Nevada Mine because of the white ore color, Nevada meaning "snow-capped" in Spanish. The Spanish exploration party took specimens of the silver ore back to Mexico City and then shipped them to Spain.
Very few local records exist from the period prior to 1845 due to two large fires that ravaged the area, the first one in 1740 and the second in 1845. Most of what is known comes from documents available in the Colonial Archives in Madrid.
Spanish Period (1708-1821)
Batopilas was officially founded in 1708 when Pedro de la Cruz filed a claim to a mine in the vicinity which he named the Guadalupe. Over time, as more and more mines were discovered, the town grew both in size and importance.
One of the most prominent structures, Hacienda San Miguel, was originally erected in the mid seventeenth century, some thirty feet above the Río Batopilas, opposite the town. It was enlarged and rebuilt in the 1740s by Don Juan José de Rivolta, who turned it into a medieval-style castle, surrounded by guard towers and defensive walls. Rivolta made a fortune in Batopilas, and wielded significant power in the area, holding among other titles, that of alcalde (mayor). Following Rivolta's death, the hacienda was occupied by Rafael Alonzo Pastrana, who discovered several rich silver veins in the area. Between 1730 and 1750, the Pastrana vein is estimated to have produced 48 million pesos, making its owner one of the richest men in the world. Pastrana further expanded the hacienda, enlarging the living quarters, and the ore processing facilities. Near the end of eighteenth century, Don Ángel Bustamante took over the hacienda and the Carmen mine. Between 1790 and 1820, the mine produced over 30 million pesos worth of silver ore.
Following his death and the Wars of Independence (1810-1821), Batopilas fell into disrepair and continued deterioration until the second half of the nineteenth century. In 1840 only 10 families remained in Batopilas.
American Investments (1861-1921)
Batopilas fortunes started to turn when Manuel Mendazona, a merchant from Culiacán, came to town in 1852. He bought and restored Hacienda Pastrana and tried to restore both the town and the mines to their former glory. Old San Antonio and Carmen mines were reopened and a tunnel was started in 1854 cutting through several veins. Unfortunately, Mendazona died suddenly in 1856 before he could fully realize his plans. His brother-in-law and executor, Guadalupe Ramírez, continued with the work for the next 5 years before selling the tunnel and mines of San Miguel to an American investor, John R. Robinson in 1861.
John Robinson (1861-1879)
John Riley Robinson, a doctor, railroad superintendent, inventor and a future patent holder, was a gristmill operator in Mansfield in the 1850s, when he formed a partnership with several Wells Fargo financiers, including the president William K. Fargo, and Directors Ashbel H. and Danford N. Barney, among others to buy silver mines in Mexico. By the late 1850s the discovery of new silver mines in California had come to a stop, but the legends of rich Mexican veins were still abound. The partners raised $50,000 to buy the mines in Batopilas, and John Robinson departed for Mexico in February 1861. On May 25, 1861, Robinson was able to buy not only the San Miguel mines and the hacienda, but also the San Antonio complex for 27,700 pesos (approximately $27,000). The newly acquired property was transferred to a newly formed Batopilas Silver Manufacturing Co. in 1862.
During his tenure as a manager of Batopilas Silver Manufacturing Co. Robinson manifested himself as a pragmatic, bent on profits businessman, and a good diplomat. He made fairly minor improvements to the mining and smelting operations to improve efficiency. The town itself grew in size and attracted a mixed group of Mexicans, Americans, Tarahumara Indians, Africans, Chinese immigrants, all of whom came in search of work and better wages. Batopilas at this time was a collection of shacks, occupied by miners, prostitutes and transients. While the mines made the company and its shareholders extremely wealthy, the local populace remained largely poor and malnourished.
During 1860s and 1870s silver and silver ore were transported south to the port of Mazatlán from where it was shipped to San Francisco, Asia, or New York City via Pacific Mail Steamship Company vessels. Mexico received no taxes or duties from this procedure, which eventually forced President Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada in 1872 to require the company to ship all silver to a newly established mint in Chihuahua City.
Continued instability and political strife in Mexico during the French Invasion followed by revolt of general Porfirio Díaz wore Robinson down. He lost his two sons and two grandchildren to typhoid fever, and decided to return to the US and sell the company in 1876. He finally succeeded selling it to a group led by the ex-Governor of Washington, DC Alexander Shepherd in 1879 for $600,000.
While improvements achieved during the tenure of John Robinson were rather modest, the town was able to get back on its feet, which didn't go unnoticed by the State government. By June 2, 1877, decree a new Canton Andrés del Río was created with Batopilas becoming its center.
It is unknown how much silver was extracted during John Robinson tenure, but it is estimated to be worth approximately $3,000,000.
Alexander Shepherd (1879-1921)
After the partners acquired the mines, they developed an ambitious plan to improve production and efficiency of the mines. They recruited several high ranking directors, such as U.S. Senator Jerome B. Chaffee, Andros Boynton Stone, head of an engineering firm, and Benjamin P. Cheney, who provided banking, railroad, and political connections. At the same time, they also retained, recruited or developed good relations with important figures of Mexican elite, such as Enrique Creel and Porfirio Díaz.
Unlike Robinson who largely stayed away from local politics, fighting bandits or modifying labor relations, Shepherd established control during his first years in Batopilas by replacing company experts and local officials with Americans and people loyal to him. He modified labor relations, establishing capitalist hire for wages system, increased the number of guards at the Hacienda San Miguel and largely eliminated organized banditry around Batopilas. The San Miguel tunnel, which was opportunistically rechristened as Porfirio Díaz tunnel, was extended, rails were laid on which the mule-drawn ore cars could be rolled, a new bridge was built across the river to bring the ore to the smelter at the Hacienda for processing. New motorized equipment was also installed at the processing plant. By 1883, the company had produced 1,250,000 pounds of refined silver.
Through his friendship with Díaz, Shepherd gained control of an area covering 132,779 acres, including ranch and timberlands and mining concessions. In 1884 and 1886, further land, mining, water concessions were obtained. The company and Shepherd were also exempted from all taxes for twenty years with the exception of minting fee imposed by the Chihuahua mint. This exemption was later renewed for another 20 years. Through the vast land ownership southwest of Batopilas, Shepherd was also able to secretly smuggle silver south through Mazatlán.
In 1887 Shepherd incorporated the Batopilas Consolidated Mining Company which included 350 separate workings and 10 companies owned by the original Batopilas Mining Company. By this point the population of Batopilas swelled to over 6,500 people. In 1884 the company paid its first dividend worth $2,000,000 at the time the company's stock was introduced on New York Stock Exchange, but stopped the dividend payments in 1887. Falling silver prices towards the end of the 19th century forced the company to invest in technology trying to maintain their profits, resulting in shrinking workforce. By 1906 the town population was reduced to about 4,000 people.
Alexander Shepherd died on September 12, 1902, from complications of peritonitis. He was briefly succeeded by his son-in-law E. A. Quintard, who died a year later. After Quintard's death, Alexander Shepherd Jr., eldest son of Alexander Shepherd, took over as a manager of the company until its closure in 1921.
After Shepherd's death in 1902, the company's directors could finally review the books regarding the true costs and production values of the mines. It was found that Shepherd had wildly overestimated certain expenses, for example, ore refining and ore hauling costs decreased nearly twice after his death. It is also unknown how much silver was transported and sold through the ports on Mexican Pacific coast, which was never reported to the company. Shepherd also reported annual labor costs of approximately $390 per worker to the government, but his personal notes indicated that they were only $75, more in line with similar mines in Sinaloa and Sonora.
One hand, Shepherd did much to improve the town, building bridges, aqueducts, roads, and a hydroelectric plant, which made Batopilas only the second city in Mexico after Mexico City to have electricity. He also opened and improved medical facilities to serve miners and other town residents. Most of these improvements were however primarily built to improve mining operations and living conditions at Hacienda San Miguel. Most miners made barely enough money to get them by, in fact, the average annual labor cost per worker was less than 2% of the value of silver produced on average by each worker annually. Most miners rarely lived past 40, many of them succumbing to silicosis as the company never invested in safety, and the medical facilities were inadequate to provide more than just basic services.
The rise of nationalism in Mexico and dissatisfaction with widespread injustice and corruption of Porfirio Díaz administration finally resulted in the Mexican Revolution in 1910. Most foreigners, especially Americans were forced to abandon their holding in Mexico and flee to the safety of El Paso. Pancho Villa and his lieutenants who controlled most of Northern Mexico made it practically impossible to safely transport silver anywhere from the mines which significantly curtailed the production. Following the years of revolution and subsequent industry, and land nationalization forced the owners of Batopilas mines to close them officially in 1921.
Aftermath (1921-current time)
Following the American withdrawal and mine closing, the company property was divided among the people of the canyons as part of the Mexican agrarian reform. By the late 1990s 670,000 acres were given to 2,369 families in the Batopilas area. Nearly all of the allocated land is only suitable for goat grazing, and only 16,000 acres could be used as farmland. In 1980s Batopilas was considered the leading center of goat production in the State of Chihuahua.
Most people left, and by the mid-1930s there were only a little over 400 people left in Batopilas. The hydroelectric plant built by Shepherd was destroyed in 1940 during a massive flood that devastated the town, and Batopilas had no electricity until 1989. The mineral prices rebounded in the mid-1930s and during the World War 2, and while they had no noticeable effect on Batopilas, the nearby copper works at La Bufa were affected. A one-lane dirt road was cut through the mountains and canyons by the mining company in 1940s connecting Creel to La Bufa. A road construction from La Bufa to Batopilas started in 1975 and finished in 1978, finally breaking the town's isolation.
After 1984 drug raids drove producers from the plains into the mountains, Batopilas along with other remote communities in the Sierra Tarahumara were overtaken by the cartels. It was also reported recently that a former mayor of Batopilas was executed, while the current one survived an assassination attempt.
It is hard to gauge how much silver was mined from Batopilas mines over the years, one estimate (Wilson and Panczner) is that mines in the area have produced seven times as much silver as come from the famous silver mine of Kongsberg in Norway. Little mining is now done in Batopilas, though there is still exploration and claims being assessed in the general area.
Geography
The town of Batopilas lies along the Rio Batopilas, in the narrowest part of the canyon of the same name. It extends about 5 km along the right bank of the river. The main connection to the outside world is a five-hour bus connection to Creel along the newly finished Batopilas Road travelling through a community of Samachique. The road was widened and paved and a new La Bufa bridge was erected in 2016 for the total cost of 1,221,000,000 pesos.
From Batopilas a dirt road extends to a largely abandoned community of Satevó, about 3 miles away. The original road was built by Peñoles, a large mining company, in 1990 while doing explorations in the area. In 1993 the one-lane road was extended to San Ignacio, and from there almost to Sinaloa state-line.
Climate
The climate of Batopilas falls on the boundaries of three climatic types: Aw, tropical savanna; Cwa, subtropical with hot summers and dry winters; and BSh. hot, semi-arid steppe. Using the Köppen climate classification system the climate is Cwa. Using the Trewartha climate classification system the climate is BShl: semi-arid steppe with hot summers and mild winters.
Tourism
Large fortunes that were made in mining can be most visibly observed in several haciendas which belonged to prominent people of Batopilas. The most prominent of them, called the Hacienda San Miguel, was rebuilt and enlarged after Alexander Shepherd moved to Batopilas in 1880. It stands across the river from the town and the most productive mine during Shepherd's residence. The mansion has long been in ruins with an exception of a hotel and a few shacks occupied by local families who give tours to visitors for a small fee (10 pesos as of 2017). Other haciendas include Antigua Casa de Raya, La Casa Cural, La Casa Biggler and Casa Barffuson, residence of Marquis Ángel de Bustamante.
The small downtown area features several restaurants and hotels, and also houses Museo de Batopilas, a small exhibit featuring information and artifacts related to town's mining past.
Lying approximately southeast of Batopilas is Misión Ángel Custodio Satevó, built by Jesuits between 1760 and 1764. This church is unique due its isolation and oftentimes called the "Lost Mission." After the expulsion of the Society of Jesus in 1767, the mission was taken over by the town of Batopilas and was largely neglected until 1974 when the cathedral was transferred to Franciscans. The building was since then restored in 2006-2010.
Notable people
Manuel Gómez Morín, Mexican politician and a founding member of the National Action Party
José María Aguirre y Fierro (1836-1906), poet and politician
Gabriel Aguirre y Fierro (1826-1908), politician and governor of Chihuahua
In popular culture
Batopilas is the subject of an extended, discursive, but highly charged conversation between actors Marlon Brando and Alex Montoya in a pulqueria in the 1966 Hollywood movie The Appaloosa.
Sources
Wendell E. Wilson, Christopher S. Panczner, "Famous Mineral Localities: the Batopilas District, Chihuahua, Mexico," ''The Mineralogical Record, 17(1):61-80, 1986 January–February.
References
External links
Maps of the Tarahumara region.
Populated places in Chihuahua (state)
Pueblos Mágicos
Populated places established in 1708
1708 establishments in New Spain
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold%20mining%20in%20Virginia
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Gold mining in Virginia
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Most gold mining in Virginia was concentrated in the Virginia Gold-Pyrite belt in a line that runs northeast to southwest through the counties of Fairfax, Prince William, Stafford, Fauquier, Culpeper, Spotsylvania, Orange, Louisa, Fluvanna, Goochland, Cumberland, and Buckingham. Some gold was also mined in Halifax, Floyd, and Patrick counties.
History of Virginia gold mining
The earliest recording of gold mining activity in Virginia began about 1804 as placer mining, followed quickly by lode mining. Mining continued unabated until the onset of the California Gold Rush, at which point most serious speculators moved west. Production continued at a low level until the Civil War, when it virtually ground to a halt.
Near the end of the war, Union troops began a systematic campaign to destroy the economic base of the South. Many gold mines were subsequently damaged beyond repair. Most were, by this time, marginal producers, their ores of such low concentrate as to stretch the limits of the mercury amalgam (chemistry) recovery technology of the day. Many of these mines never reopened.
Other mines did, however, and gold production in Virginia continued until World War II, when, on October 8, 1942, the War Production Board issued Limitation Order L-208, which branded gold production as a non-essential and directed all but the smallest of gold mines to shut down so their labor force could be used elsewhere to support the war effort.
Economic conditions following the war were such that few miners returned to mining, so only a handful of mines reopened. For all practical purposes, commercial gold production in Virginia ceased after 1948.
At its peak, Virginia was the third largest gold producing state, and the heart of the gold production area was at the junction of Spotsylvania, Culpeper, Greene near Wood Dr., and Orange counties near Wilderness.
Modern era
More than 300 prospects and mines are known to have existed in Virginia, yet very few, if any at all, are commercially active at this time. Amateur and hobby prospecting continues to this day, primarily consisting of individual or small scale placer operations. Many hobbyists simply use a gold pan or a sluice box.
Museums and displays about gold mining
Lake Anna State Park contains the remnants of the Goodwin mine and some historical displays. Gold panning is permitted on the park grounds.
Monroe Park in Goldvein has a museum about gold mining operations in the area, with some reconstructed buildings and historical artifacts.
List of gold mines, claims, and prospects
Since most commercial gold activity ceased in the late 1940s, records are scant. This list is not complete.
quadrangles are USGS 7.5 minute quads and the coordinates are UTM.
Mines in Buckingham County
Anaconda mine
Quadrangle: Dillwyn
Location: N 4,165,950 E 729,000 (Zone 17)
Anderson mine
Quadrangle: Andersonville
Location:N 4,149,050 E 715,050 (Zone 17)
Apperson mine
Quadrangle: Dillwyn
Location: N 4,160,830 E 724,830 (Zone 17)
Bondurant mine
Quadrangle: Andersonville
Location:N 4,147,630 E 713,180 (Zone 17)
Buckingham (Wiseman) mine
Quadrangle: Dillwyn
Location: N 4,158,740 E 723,820 (Zone 17)
Burnett (Staples) mine
Quadrangle: Dillwyn
Location: N 4,160,010 E 724,400 (Zone 17)
Copal (Kopall) mine
Quadrangle: Andersonville
Location: N 4,147,580 E 715,500 (Zone 17)
Duncan mine
Quadrangle: Dillwyn
Location: N 4,163,050 E 726,150 (Zone 17)
Flood (James Anderson's) mine
Quadrangle: Andersonville
Location: N 4,146.340 E 712.190 (Zone 17)
Ford mine
Quadrangle: Diana Mills
Location: N 4,174,840 E 730,820 (Zone 17)
Gilliam mine
Quadrangle: Andersonville
Location: N 4,145,400 E 711,420 (Zone 17)
Greelsy (Ayers) mine
Quadrangle: Dillwyn
Location: N 4,162,120 E 730,510 (Zone 17)
Hudgins mine
Quadrangle: Arvonia
Location: N 4,173,530 E 737,360 (Zone 17)
Lightfoot (Cowan) mine
Quadrangle: Diana Mills
Location: N 4,175,860 E 731,370 (Zone 17)
London and Virginia mine
Quadrangle: Dillwyn
Location: N 4,418,860 E 723,980 (Zone 17)
Morrow (Booker, Garnett, Moseley) mine
Quadrangle: Willis Mountain
Location: N 4,152,590 E 721,570 (Zone 17)
Morton (Hobson) mine
Quadrangle: Dillwyn
Location: N 4,166,920 E 728,800 (Zone 17)
Philadelphia (Allen)mine
Quadrangle: Dillwyn
Location: Near the London and Virginia mine.
Rough and Ready mine
Quadrangle: Dillwyn
Location:N 4,166,270 E 728,470 (Zone 17)
Seay mine
Quadrangle: Willis Mountain
Location:N 4,152,770 E 721,350 (Zone 17)
Williams mine
Quadrangle: Dillwyn
Location:N 4,158,070 E 723,130 (Zone 17)
Willis Creek mine
Quadrangle: Andersonville
Location:N 4,146,230 E 710,500 (Zone 17)
Mines with insufficient data
Piedmont mine
Walker mine
Mines in Carroll County
Woodlawn mine
Quadrangle: Woodlawn
Location: N 4,063,540 E 515,020 (Zone 17)
Mines in Culpeper County
Childsburg (Childsbury) mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,255,260 E 263,870 (Zone 18)
Cromarty mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,253,500 E 264,790 (Zone 18)
Culpeper (Hempstead) mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,250,700 E 262,790 (Zone 18)
Dry Bottom mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,251,940 E 265,010 (Zone 18)
Eagle mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,251,530 E 263,720 (Zone 18)
Ellis (Eley) mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,254,840 E 264,930 (Zone 18)
Embrey (Embry, Embry and Brooks) mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,250,230 E 263,120 (Zone 18)
Field's mine
Quadrangle: Germanna Bridge
Location: N 4,255,760 E 259,790 (Zone 18)
Greeley Horace mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,251,330 E 263,520 (Zone 18)
Hill mine
Quadrangle: Castleton
Location: N 4,265,890 E 760,320 (Zone 17)
Love mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,251,560 E 263,060 (Zone 18)
Milbank (Millbank) mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: East-northeast of Richardsville, south of the Rappahannock River.
Morganna (Morgana) mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,255,490 E 266,300 (Zone 18)
Ricardsville mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: Near Richardsville
Rossin's (Rossin's Mountain) mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,252,260 E 262,600 (Zone 18)
Smith mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,250,490 E 264,450 (Zone 18)
Urquhart mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,254,490 E 264,450 (Zone 18)
Mines that had insufficient data
Enterprise
Everlasting
Pennsylvania
Mines in Cumberland County
Dickey, C. S. mine
Quadrangle: Lakeside Village
Location: N 4,175,660 E 751,780 (Zone 17)
Mines in Fairfax County
Bull Neck (Kirk) mine
Quadrangle: Falls Church
Location: N 4,315,060 E 307,990 (Zone 18)
Mines in Fauquier County
Fauquier County's Gold Mining Museum at Monroe Park
Bancroft (Bancroff) mine (2 mines)
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,262,340 E 262,680 / N 4,261,490 E 263,260 (Zone 18)
Cool Spring (Stringfellow) mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,260,180 E 266,920 (Zone 18)
Embrey mine
Quadrangle: Midland
Location: N 4,264,900 E 264,190 (Zone 18)
Emigold mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: Near Goldvein, Va
Franklin (Deep Run) mine
Quadrangle: Midland
Location: 4,264,710 E 267,970 (Zone 18)
First mine in the county, opened in 1825.
Gamewood mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,261,890 (Zone 18)
Johnston mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,256,800 E 268,140 (Zone 18)
Kelly (Kelley)mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,260,340 E 260,100 (Zone 18)
Kidwell mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,258,130 E 260,830 (Zone 18)
Kirk mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,264,060 E 267,680 (Zone 18)
Liberty mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,259,310 E 266,380 (Zone 18)
Liepold (Leopold, Stone) mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,263,940 E 263,970 (Zone 18)
Little Elliot mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,260,450 E 266,450 (Zone 18)
Pine View mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,259,640 E 265,380 (Zone 18)
Pollard (Polland) mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,261,520 E 261,360 (Zone 18)
Randolph (Sugar) mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,260,940 E 266,210 (Zone 18)
Union mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,258,030 E 265,730 (Zone 18)
Waterman mine
Quadrangle: Midland
Location: N 4,264,470 E 267,570 (Zone 18)
Wykoff (Wycoff, Quartz) mine
Quadrangle: Richardsville
Location: N 4,263,020 E 266,640 (Zone 18)
Mines in Floyd County
Black Run mine
Quadrangle: Floyd
Location: About northwest of Floyd, in the stream bed of Black run (unable to locate), which empties into Little River, off the northwest side of State Highway 8.
Brush Creek mine
Quadrangle: Pilot
Location: N 4,100,810 E 561,200 (Zone 17)
Laurel Creek mine
Quadrangle: Pilot
Location: N 4,097,270 E 560,250 (Zone 17)
McAlexander, Lester (Luster) mine
Quadrangle: Alum Ridge
Location: About northeast of Alum Ridge, just off the west side of State Road 617 approximately by road north of its intersection with State Highway 8.
Mines in Fluvanna County
Bartlett mine
Quadrangle: Columbia
Location: About north of Columbia on Bartlett Branch, a tributary off the east side of Byrd Creek, approximately northwest of the intersection of Byrd Creek (at old Bowles bridge) with State Road 605.
Bowles mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,194,540 E 755,890 (Zone 17)
Cassell's mine
Quadrangle: Columbia
Location: N 4,191,490 E 751,390 (Zone 17)
Cocke mine
Quadrangle: Columbia
Location: N 4,188,600 E 751,060 (Zone 17)
Fountain mine
Quadrangle: Columbia
Location: N 4,189,630 E 751,990 (Zone 17)
Hughes mine
Quadrangle: Palmyra
Location: N 4,185,510 E 738,510 (Zone 17)
Jennings mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,191,320 E 753,710 (Zone 17)
Marks, Lemuel mine
Quadrangle: Columbia
Location: N 4,190,560 E 752,960 (Zone 17)
McGloam mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,193,320 E 754,840 (Zone 17)
Mosby mine
Quadrangle: Columbia
Location: N 4,190,110 E 752,590 (Zone 17)
Page mine
Quadrangle: Columbia
Location: N 4,192,390 E 743,960 (Zone 17)
Previous User contribution:(Believe this should be the "Long Island Mine", named after the Long Island Creek in Fluvanna where it was located. It was established by George Pace in the 1830s, and thus is also commonly called "the Pace Mine".)
Prospect A
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,190,920 E 753,780 (Zone 17)
Prospect B
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,190,420 E 753,680 (Zone 17)
Scotia (Hodges vein) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,190,740 E 754,090 (Zone 17)
Scotia (Perkins, Telluruim Vein) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,191,920 E 754,410 (Zone 17)
Shaw (2 mines) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,194,260 E 755,130 / N 4,195,130 E 755,150 (Zone 17)
Snead mine
Quadrangle: Palmyra
Location: N 4,184,760 E 741,590 (Zone 17)
Stockton Tunnel mine
Quadrangle: Columbia
Location: N 4,193,840 E 744,450 (Zone 17)
Tellurium mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,192,220 E 754,650 (Zone 17)
Mines that had insufficient data
Chalk Level
Mines in Goochland County
Atmore (Admore) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,188,140 E 754,470 (Zone 17)
Belzord (Belzora, Belzow) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,188,850 E 756,170 (Zone 17)
Benton mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,194,810 E 758,690 (Zone 17)
Bertha and Edith (2 mines) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia / Columbia
Location: N 4,185,880 E 753,100 / N 4,187,300 E 753,100 (Zone 17)
Big Bird mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,188,670 E 756,130 (Zone 17)
Bowles (Boles) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,192,580 E 755,360 (Zone 17)
Busby (Busbee, Groom) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,193,110 E 756,980 (Zone 17)
Chatlier mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,191,720 E 754,900 (Zone 17)
Collins mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,189,130 E 757,160 (Zone 17)
the first gold mine in Goochland county
Dillard mine
Quadrangle: Columbia
Location: About northeast of Columbia, along the west side of Byrd Creek, north of State Road 667 from a point approximately by State Road 667 west of its crossing over Byrd Creek.
Duke mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,188,670 E 755,580 (Zone 17)
Eades mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,188,670 E 756,130 (Zone 17)
Fisher mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,191,260 E 755,750 (Zone 17)
Fleming (Hodge's) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,194,730 E 759,000 (Zone 17)
Goochland mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: Around the headwaters of Little Byrd Creek.
Grannison (2 mines) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,189,060 E 754,030 / N 4,188,690 E 754,520 (Zone 17)
Johnson, David mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,190,000 E 756,490 (Zone 17)
Kent (2 mines) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,187,970 E 753,750 / N 4,187,600 E 753,750 (Zone 17)
Laury mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,188,670 E 756,130 (Zone 17)
Marks, Lancelot mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,188,670 E 756,130 (Zone 17)
Massachusetts mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: Within of the Terllurium mine.
Morgan (Robert Hughes) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,189,370 E 755,920 (Zone 17)
Moss mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,192,720 E 756,450 (Zone 17)
Omohundro mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,190,320 E 756,260 (Zone 17)
Payne mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,193,690 E 757,620 (Zone 17)
Prospect A
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,193,280 E 756,590 (Zone 17)
Prospect B
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,193,100 E 756,280 (Zone 17)
Prospect C
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,192,250 E 755,480 (Zone 17)
Pryor (Pryer) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,192,230 E 757,230 (Zone 17)
Ruth
Quadrangle: Columbia
Location: About northeast of Columbia, along and on both sides of a stream flowing southward and near its confluence with Byrd Creek, about north of State Road 667 from a point approximately by road west of its crossing over Byrd Creek.
Shannon Hill mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,195,680 E 760,100 (Zone 17)
Tellurium (Fisher, Hughes, Red) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,192,420 E 755,030 (Zone 17)
where it is believed that the first stamp mill in the U.S. operated
Thompson, John mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,189,530 E 756,340 (Zone 17)
Toler mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,188,720 E 755,900 (Zone 17)
Waller mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,193,910 E 759,090 (Zone 17)
Young American (Gilmer, Gilmore) (2 mines) mine
Quadrangle: Caledonia
Location: N 4,190,010 E 756,240 / N 4,189,900 E 756,010 (Zone 17)
Mines that had insufficient data
Argus mine
Banks mine
Johnson, Benjamin mine
Manning mine
McGee mine
Moon Sea mine
Nicholas mine
Pace mine
Richmond mine
Taugus mine
Tyler mine
Walters mine
Mines in Halifax County
Luce and Howard (Howard, Tallyhill) mine
Quadrangle: Nelson
Location: N 4,052,860 E 701,730 (Zone 17)
Poole and Harris (Pool) mine
Quadrangle: Nelson
Location: N 4,050,120 E 701,770 (Zone 17)
Red Bank (Goldbank) mine
Quadrangle: Nelson
Location: N 4,052,590 E 701,700 (Zone 17)
Mines in Loudoun County
Loudoun mine
Quadrangle: Harpers Ferry
Location: About north-northwest of Lovettsville, on the right bank of Dutchman Creek where it empties into the Potomac River.
Mines in Louisa County
Allah Cooper (Ali Cooper, Valcooper, Alley-Cooper) mine
Quadrangle: Lake Anna West
Location: N 4,217,670 E 249,180 (Zone 18)
Belden mine
Quadrangle: Mineral
Location: N 4,211,570 E 249,180 (Zone 18)
Bibb mine
Quadrangle: Mineral
Location: N 4,210,130 E 246,440 (Zone 18)
Boxley's mine
Quadrangle: Lake Anna West
Location: About northeast of Mineral, just north of and now in the flooded area of Contrary Creek, just west of its intersection with State Road 652.
Chick mine
Quadrangle: Mineral
Location: N 4,210,880 E 246,880 (Zone 18)
Cooper mine
Quadrangle: Mineral
Location: N 4,213,140 E 245,430 (Zone 18)
Harris mine
Quadrangle: Mineral
Location: N 4,210,310 E 246,560 (Zone 18)
Jenkins mine
Quadrangle: Lake Anna West
Location: N 4,216,520 E 248,960 (Zone 18)
Lett mine
Quadrangle: Mineral
Location: N 4,212,080 E 244,880 (Zone 18)
Louisa mine
Quadrangle: Pendleton
Location: N 4,207,490 E 245,280 (Zone 18)
Luce mine
Quadrangle: Pendleton
Location: N 4,208,410 E 245,260 (Zone 18)
MacDonald mine
Quadrangle: Pendleton
Location: N 4,209,180 E 242,560 (Zone 18)
Morriston mine
Quadrangle: Mineral
Location: N 4,210,720 E 246,800 (Zone 18)
New Luce mine
Quadrangle: Pendleton
Location: N 4,209,020 E 245,670 (Zone 18)
Proffit mine
Quadrangle: Pendleton
Location: N 4,206,950 E 243,670 (Zone 18)
Ricswan mine
Quadrangle: Pendleton
Location: N 4,207,690 E 244,490 (Zone 18)
Slate Hill mine
Quadrangle: Pendleton
Location: N 4,207,930 E 244,740 (Zone 18)
Stockton mine
Quadrangle: Mineral
Location: N 4,210,780 E 246,780 (Zone 18)
Thomasson's mine
Quadrangle: Pendleton
Location: N 4,205,840 E 242,640 (Zone 18)
Tinder (Tinder Flats) mine
Quadrangle: Lake Anne West
Location: N 4,216,660 E 248,020 (Zone 18)
Triple Fork mine
Quadrangle: Mineral
Location: About north of mineral, off the northwest side od US.S. Highway 522 approximately bt road northeast of its intersection with State Road 667.
Twin Vein mine
Quadrangle: Pendleton
Location: About southwest of Mineral; according to the Spotsylvania County Deed Books, the mine is located on the old R.E. Dolan property known as the Louisa Gold Company Land tract comprising 766 arces, which includes the Waddy tract and the Waldorf tract; near the property of Lewis Thomasson on and along the old Richmond Road (U.S. Highway 33)
Walnut Grove mine
Quadrangle: Pendleton
Location: N 4,205,640 E 242,480 (Zone 18)
Walton mine
Quadrangle: Mineral
Location: N 4,212,810 E 245,180 (Zone 18)
Warren Hill mine
Quadrangle: -
Location: On the "Fisher Lode"
Mines by another user contributions
Armenious mine, located somewhere near Mineral, location uncertain
Dolan mine
Hemmer mine, located about north of Mineral
Hunter prospect, located about NW of Mineral south of SR-22
Josh mine, located about SW of Yanceyville
Mines in Montgomery County
Brush Creek mine
Quadrangle: Pilot
Location: N 4,100,370 E 560,420 (Zone 17)
Mines in Orange County
Ambler mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,244,510 E 260,150 (Zone 18)
Dickey mine
Quadrangle: Mine Run
Location: N 4,240,540 E 249,650 (Zone 18)
Gordon's, H (2 mines) mine
Quadrangle: -
Location: N 4,247,870 E 258,640 / N 4,247,540 E 258,480 (Zone 18)
Grasty mine
Quadrangle: Mine Run
Location: N 4,240,470 E 249,470 (Zone 18)
Greenwood (Laird) mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,247,180 E 261,930 (Zone 18)
Jones mine
Quadrangle: Mine Run
Location: N 4,248,500 E 254,140 (Zone 18)
Melville (Rapidan) mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,249,140 E 261,930 (Zone 18)
Old Tinder mine
Quadrangle: Mine Run
Location: N 4,240,350 E 249,370 (Zone 18)
Orange Grove mine
Quadrangle: Mine Run
Location: N 4,246,420 E 258,070 (Zone 18)
Partridge mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,248,830 E 259,860 (Zone 18)
Prospect A mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,244,790 E 260,390 (Zone 18)
Saunders (2 mines) mine
Quadrangle: Lahore
Location: N 4,235,290 E 245,470 (Zone 18)
Seldon mine
Quadrangle: Lahore
Location: N 4,235,330 E 248,270 (Zone 18)
Somerville mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: Just west of Wilderness.
Stuart mine
Quadrangle: Lahore
Location: N 4,234,870 E 242,930 (Zone 18)
Vaucluse (Grimes, Grymes)(2 mines) mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,248,390 E 261,560 / N 4,248,220 E 261,430 / N 4,248,110 E 261,390 (Zone 18)
Wilderness mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,246,430 E 261,240 (Zone 18)
Woodman mine
Quadrangle: Mine Run
Location: Lower Orange County
Woodville mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,246,140 E 260,630 (Zone 18)
Young mine
Quadrangle: Lahore
Location: N 4,234,670 E 245,020 (Zone 18)
Mines with insufficient data
Randolph mine
Mines in Patrick County
Polebridge Creek mine
Quadrangle: Patrick Springs
Location: N 4,064,570 E 576,340 (Zone 17)
Mines in Prince William County
Cabin Branch (Dumfries) mine
Quadrangle: Patrick Springs
Location: N 4,271,980 E 295,420 (Zone 18)
Crawford (Neabsco Creek) mine
Quadrangle: Quantico
Location: N 4,277,360 E 299,620 (Zone 18)
Greenwood Gold Mine
Quadrangle: Independent Hill
Location: N 4,278,360 E 288,260 (Zone 18)
Mines in Spotsylvania County
Anderson's mine
Quadrangle: Belmont
Location: About southwest of Parker, probably on Robertson Run, west of the Old Shady Grove church.
Beazley mine
Quadrangle: Belmont
Location: N 4,236,840 E 258,660 (Zone 18)
Bell mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,246,140 E 274,320 (Zone 18)
Brinton mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,248,350 E 269,930 (Zone 18)
Faws Tract mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: About west of Fredericksburg, near the old Wilderness Tavern, southwest of the Greenwood mine.
Furnace mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,240,960 E 267,950 (Zone 18)
Gardiner mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,245,730 E 271,870 (Zone 18)
Goodwyn (Goodwins, Pocahontas) mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,244,820 E 254,030 (Zone 18)
Grindstone Hill mine
Quadrangle: Belmont
Location: N 4,230,790 E 257,780 (Zone 18)
Higgins (Huggin's) mine
Quadrangle: Brokenburg
Location: On Upper Po River, near the Whitehall mine.
Horde mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: Near the United States Ford at confluence of Rapidan and Rappahannock Rivers.
Hunting Run mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,246,630 E 267,790 (Zone 18)
Johnston's (Johnston) mine
Quadrangle: Belmont
Location: N 4,229,740 E 258,440 (Zone 18)
Julian mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: Tract lies near southwest bank of the Rappahannock River.
Knapp (New Dominion) mine
Quadrangle: Belmont
Location: N 4,224,810 E 254,260 (Zone 18)
Marsden mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,240,150 E 262,150 (Zone 18)
Mitchell (Old Dominion, Emily) mine
Quadrangle: Belmont
Location: N 4,228,700 E 256,340 (Zone 18)
Mott mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,244,630 E 275,710 (Zone 18)
New Grindstone mine
Quadrangle: Belmont
Location: N 4,231,210 E 256,780 (Zone 18)
Powell's (Powells, Jerdones) mine
Quadrangle: Brokenburg
Location: N 4,232,270 E 259,440 (Zone 18)
Prospect A
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,243,350 E 266,790 (Zone 18)
Prospect B
Quadrangle: Belmont
Location: N 4,230,750 E 256,550 (Zone 18)
Quaker mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: N 4,238,590 E 265,430 (Zone 18)
Ramsey mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,246,850 E 274,860 (Zone 18)
Randolph mine
Quadrangle: Brokenburg
Location: N 4,236,570 E 261,310 (Zone 18)
Rawlings mine
Quadrangle: Belmont
Location: N 4,231,450 E 257,010 (Zone 18)
Roney mine
Quadrangle: Belmont
Location: N 4,232,650 E 258,130 (Zone 18)
Smith mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,245,370 E 273,670 (Zone 18)
Starrs (Stajar's Stairs) mine
Quadrangle: Belmont
Location: N 4,225,110 E 254,060 (Zone 18)
Trigg mine
Quadrangle: Chancellorsville
Location: Near Brockville (now Bockroad), According to Spotsylvania County Deed books, the old mine is located near Stephens Station on the south side of the Old Potomac, Piedmont and Fredericksburg Railway; a tract of approximately bounded by lands of Oscar Todd, George Rowe Welford and Alexander B. Hawkins.
UNITED STATES (Welford) mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,248,480 E 270,940 (Zone 18)
Valzinco (Halladay, Holloday) mine
Quadrangle: Belmont
Location: N 4,228,850 E 254,940 (Zone 18)
Whitehall mine
Quadrangle: Brokenburg
Location: N 4,235,680 E 260,320 (Zone 18)
Mines with insufficient data
Donnings mine
Gold Flat mine
Marshall mine
Pulliam (Pullman) mine
Quisenberry mine
Spotsylvania mine
Mines in Stafford County
Eagle (Rappahannock, Smith, Morgan and Rappahannock) mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,249,440 E 272,560 (Zone 18)
Elliot Farm mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,250,400 E 272,290 (Zone 18)
Horse Pen (Horse Pin, Hospen, Rattlesnake) (2 mines) mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,248,860 E 274,170 / N 4,248,750 E 274,020 (Zone 18)
Lee mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,249,290 E 275,130 (Zone 18)
MacDonald mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,249,720 E 274,280 (Zone 18)
Monroe mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,250,370 E 271,960 (Zone 18)
New Hope (Newhope) mine
Quadrangle: Storck
Location: N 4,252,240 E 276,060 (Zone 18)
Pris-King (2 shafts) mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,250,140 E 273,160 / N 4,250,000 E 273,090 (Zone 18)
Prospect A
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,249,830 E 272,920 (Zone 18)
Wiseman mine
Quadrangle: Salem Church
Location: N 4,247,920 E 273,240 (Zone 18)
Mines with insufficient data
Brower mine
Fairview mine
Stafford mine
Mines in Warren County
Gooney-Manor mine
Quadrangle: Front Royal
Location: N 4,307,220 E 739,340 (Zone 17)
Other mines, claims, and prospects
Crawford placer prospect, in Dale City on Neabsco Creek about 500 yards west of I-95
References
Further reading
War Production Board Limitation Order L—208, 7 Fed.Reg. 7992—7993
External links
Virginia Department of Mines Minerals and Energy: Gold
Fauquier County's Gold Mining Museum at Monroe Park
Virginia
Economy of Virginia
Mining in Virginia
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4754010
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Augustine%27s%20College%2C%20Sydney
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St Augustine's College, Sydney
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St Augustine's College, Sydney is an independent Roman Catholic single-sex primary and secondary day school for boys, located in , on the Northern Beaches of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The school caters from approximately 1,200 boys in Year 5 to Year 12 with an education ethos of Augustinian. It was founded by the Priests of the Order of St. Augustine and is situated directly opposite Brookvale Oval.
From its founding until 2003, the college was known as St Augustine's College, Brookvale. When the college began its International Student Program by encouraging enrolments of students from other countries, the name was changed to St Augustine's College, Sydney.
The school is a member of the Independent Sporting Association (ISA), a collection of independent schools grouped primarily for the purpose of sporting competition. Its brother school is Villanova College, located in Brisbane, Queensland also instituted by the Augustinians.
History
The college was founded in 1956 as an all-boys school by Fr. Thomas Alphonsus Hunt, OSA, the Provincial superior of the Province of Australasia of the Order of Saint Augustine, at the request of the then Archbishop of Sydney Norman Cardinal Gilroy. The Augustinians wanted a Parish in Sydney. Cardinal Gilroy offered the Augustinians the Parish of Manly Vale on the condition that they start and run a school for boys within three years of them taking tenure of their Parish. The site of the disused tram terminus in Alfred Road Brookvale was identified and proceedings for its purchase were begun. The land consisted of two lots, A and B in DP - with the easternmost one being purchased by the Sydney Archdiocese and the westernmost one by the Augustinians. Over time, more land surrounding the school has been purchased but ownership of the Eastern lot has remained with the Diocese — now the Diocese of Broken Bay.
In accordance with Augustinian tradition, the Priest who was the head of the school was called "Rector". The first Rector of St Augustine's College's was David John Brimson, OSA who served from 1956 to 1964. The title "Principal" is now used for the lay headmasters.
From its founding, like many Australian Catholic schools of its time, a significant proportion of its staff were professed religious – in this case Augustinian friars or priests – until the order withdrew professed teaching staff when the then Rector Dave Austin retired in 1993 and was succeeded by the first lay Principal – John J. O'Brien. The school then moved to a fully lay Catholic (cf. laity) staff in co-operation with the Augustinian order and ethos.
The College originally operated under the auspices of a College Council and since it was Incorporated in 2004, is operated by a Board of Directors.
The school teaches the curriculum of the NSW Education Standards Authority as well as traditional Catholic values and the Catholic and Augustinian approach to ethics and moral life.
2006 was the 50th year "Golden Jubilee" of the school's operation. All students of the school in 2006 were given a "Jubilee Medallion" to commemorate this occasion. Also, the official school Jubilee tie (to be worn only throughout 2006) was created to celebrate this anniversary. The 50 Year Jubilee Tie is gold with green and red stripes as opposed to the older tie, which was green with gold and red stripes. There was also the creation of a new occasional school emblem/logo (only to be used during the Jubilee year of 2006) which displays this celebration.
In 2016, the college celebrated its 60th Anniversary. On 25 February, over 1200 students, Old Boys, and past and present staff attended the 60th Anniversary Commemorative Mass at St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney. The principal celebrant of this Mass was Peter A Comensoli, Bishop of Broken Bay, assisted by Old Boy of the college, (Class of 1967) Christopher Saunders, Bishop of Broome as well as Dave Austin OSA, Prior Provincial, and several other Augustinians. Students were presented with a new 60 Years tie and lapel pin to wear at the Mass and for the rest of the year. The original Augustinian logo/crest was incorporated into the design of the tie.
Patron
The Patron of the college the 4th century saint, Augustine of Hippo, and its motto "Vincit Veritas" (Truth Conquers) is taken from his writings.
Demographics
The school is located in the Northern Beaches Council area. Most students are Roman Catholic.
Over recent years, the college has offered the opportunity for international students (usually from Asian countries such as China) to study at the school - usually with the hope of progressing on to an Australian University and then returning to their homeland, being educated in both Australian and Augustinian culture. The fees are often significantly higher for a student coming from overseas compared to a local student because the Australian Government does not subsidise their tuition fees. The college usually accepts entrants from overseas in Years 10–12, so that an appropriate ratio of local to overseas students is maintained.
Sport
Since the foundation of the school, sport has been an important part of the college curriculum as a means of promoting teamwork, sportsmanship and fair play. Five Olympians have graduated from the school, and The college has also produced numerous State and National representatives in rugby union, rugby league, football (soccer), basketball, swimming, athletics, cricket, AFL, water polo and rowing.
Rugby
At the time of the college's opening in 1956, Rugby Union was chosen as the Winter sport. It was played between the Colour "Houses" on Thursday afternoons – Sports Day. The various locations for these Colour Comp games were Brookvale Oval; Griffiths Park, Collaroy; Millers Reserve and David Thomas Reserve, Manly Vale; Manly District Park – now known as Nolans – and Kierle Park, Queenscliff.
Another reason for choosing Rugby was that the Brisbane Augustinian School, Villanova College played Rugby and St Augustine's was later to institute annual games against Villanova – the first of which took place at Kierle Park in 1962.
It has also been said that the Augustinians aspired to become a GPS school and GPS Schools played Rugby.
St Augustine's was also to help establish and later join the ISA – Independent Sporting Association and this group of schools also played Rugby.
2008 saw the selection of the first St Augustine's first Australian Schoolboys Representative. The list of reps since then is as follows:
2008 Kotoni Ale
2008 Salesi Manu
2010 Malietoa Hingano
2012 Matt Philip
2015 Will McRae
2017 Albert Hopoate
2018 Daniel Ala
Several boys have also represented as NSW Schoolboys including in addition to those Australian Reps above – Tevita Haliafonua, Salesi Ma’afu and Mitchell Greenway. St Augustine's has, since 2008, won the prestigious state-wide Waratah Shield in nine of the last ten years under the tutelage of Head Coach John Papahatzis and Assistant Coach Mark Downey.
Pastoral Houses
When the college opened in 1956, the boys were allotted to one of three Colour groups named after the college colours of Red, Green or Gold. To make competition easier, a fourth group - Blue - was added. Later these Colour groups became known as Houses each being named after an Augustinian Bishop.
Murray (red), named after James Murray osa. Former Bishop of Cooktown, 1898–1914.
Goold (blue), named after James Alipius Goold osa. First Bishop and Archbishop of Melbourne, 1848–1886
Crane (green), named after Martin Crane osa. First Bishop of Sandhurst, 1874–1901.
Reville (gold), named after Stephen Reville osa. Second Bishop of Sandhurst, 1901–1916.
Hutchinson (purple), named after John Hutchinson osa. Former Bishop of Cooktown, Far North Queensland 1884–1897
Heavey (light blue), named after John Heavey osa. First Bishop of Cairns, Far North Queensland. 1914–1948
The boys now compete against each other annually to win the Bishop's Shield. The yearly sporting events include an athletics carnival, a swimming carnival, and the Easter Road Race, a race relay run at Brookvale Oval where each house has a representative. The Easter Road Race was initially run on the roads around the college and in the college grounds, but over time, this became too dangerous and so the course was transferred to Brookvale Oval.
Co-curricular
Co-curricular sports and clubs at St Augustine's each are designated points depending on the time required to participate. a certain number of points are required of students at the college every year. The most popular choice among current students is to take part in two medium-high point score sports (usually one sport in Summer and one in Winter). Music, art, design, drama, chess and debating as well as Tae Kwon Do, ceramics, public speaking and tennis are also popular student choices.
The Red Land Club named from Australia's "red centre", and uniquely Australian and Indigenous in its focus, the Red Land Club was another early co-curricular organisation at St. Augustine's. This was a student group founded and run from the 1970s by Rod Cameron OSA during his long teaching tenure at St Augustine's College, (1964–1984). Cameron had a long-established extensive personal relationship with Indigenous Elders throughout Australia. The Red Land Club specifically fostered a sense of connection and understanding with Indigenous Australians. It did this through poetry, drama, music, performance, meetings, seminars, regular Aboriginal elder guest speakers such as Mum (Shirl) Smith, as well as travel into indigenous communities and Dreaming sites through Australia.
Music
A choral tradition was established at the Brookvale college from the 1950s.
Instrumental and secular music
Band and Instrumental music were fostered through the music department's many peripatetic teachers, including players and principals from the internationally acclaimed Sydney Symphony such as Walter Suttcliffe (Double Bass) and Edwin Lorentzen (French Horn, band). The full-time music staff included Ronald Bopf O.S.A. (Recorders and classroom music, on staff 1957–1972), Paul Whelan O.S.A. (flute and piccolo, on staff 1962–1966, 1968–1979), Lynne Leak, Gareth Jude (band) and Graham Press (band). Under Ann Sutcliffe, the college taught Early Music through its madrigal group, and its brace of recorders in the recorder group. It also played and sang in Benjamin Britten's Noye's Fludde together with St Andrew's Cathedral School in St Andrew's Anglican Cathedral in 1977. In conjunction with the drama department, the school also produced musicals such as Gilbert and Sullivan operettas including Trial by Jury in 1978 collaboration with Monte Sant' Angelo and Stella Maris Girls College at Manly.
Drama
Shakespeare's plays were among dramas performed by students at the college during the 1970s, under drama head Barry Hayes (on staff 1969–1975). Then from 1977 to 1980 under the direction of Les Solomon (now well known in Australia and New York as a theatrical manager and agent), in 1977 the school produced The Pirates of Penzance (in collaboration with Monte and Stella Maris), 1978 Frank and Eleanor Perry's David and Lisa, Bob Babalan and Gary Burghoff's You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown, 1979 James Hilton's Goodbye, Mr. Chips, The Crucible by Arthur Miller and in 1980 Harvey Schmidt's The Fantasticks. Most recently the school produced "The Musical, The Musical", written by college staff, in the 1990s and again in 2006. In 2008 the school produced the musical Little Shop of Horrors. The school is also involved in the production of short films by students.
In March 2016 the college launched a co-production with Stella Maris College of In The Heights under the musical direction of Joe Montz with Owen Vale and Geoff Cartwright directing.
Facilities
The school's main classrooms and facilities consist of several buildings some stand-alone and some interconnected. In recent years the college has undertaken further refurbishments and expansion meaning many facilities located within the buildings have been moved multiple times. In 2016, two new buildings were constructed and many offices and classrooms renovated. The main buildings in the school are as follows:-
Augustine Wing
The Augustine Wing is the oldest of the buildings at the college. its Foundation Stone was laid and blessed on 1 April 1956. It was initially a two-storey full-brick structure built to house 5 classrooms but was extended to the north to house another 4. The first section was officially blessed and opened by Norman Cardinal Gilroy on 17 March 1957, despite already being used since November of the previous year. The wing, like the school, is named after St. Augustine of Hippo.
Clancy Wing (formerly known as the Mendel Wing)
The Mendel Wing, opened in 1961, was specifically designed to hold the school's science classrooms and laboratories.
The current Clancy Wing - which incorporates the original Mendel Wing - was opened in 2017. It houses the new Good Counsel Wing for the Primary School, teachers' offices and an Open Learning Centre. It is three stories high and was initially named after the Augustinian geneticist, Gregor Mendel. Mendel was Abbot of the Abbey of St. Thomas in Brno in the Czech Republic, and the Brno Augustinian community is unique in having an Abbot rather than a Prior to lead it. It was recently upgraded and the science classrooms moved to a new Mendel block located opposite.
Tolentine Wing
The Tolentine Wing was initially constructed in 1972 as a single storey building to hold the school's expanding library. However, over time, like the Augustine Wing, the building was greatly expanded and eventually became a three-story building used to hold the bulk of the school's classrooms. The building also housed offices and - formally on the ground floor after the Library had been moved in 2003 to the ARC - senior common rooms. It is named after the Augustinian Saint, Nicholas of Tolentino. The common rooms were refurbished to become extra classrooms and moved to the then newly constructed Moran House and Cameron House. The common rooms have now been relocated to the new Clancy Wing following 2017 upgrades. The Tolentine Wing joins to the Clancy Wing via a stairwell and a lift which is used only by students at the College who are injured.
Goold Wing
The Goold Wing – named after James Alipius Goold, the first-ever Augustinian to come to Australia and the first Archbishop of Melbourne – was added to the school in 1987. It was built to contain classrooms, music rooms, an auditorium, and (on the lower floor) staff facilities. In 2005 the second and third floors of the building underwent refurbishment, aimed to coincide with the construction of the new "Lecceto Arts Centre". As part of these upgrades, the auditorium was relocated to the Lecceto Arts Centre. The Goold Wing is currently being demolished and rebuilt as part of a major rebuilding project due to be completed in late 2019. The building was used primarily for Languages and Design and Technology. The Design and Technology Workshops have been (2019) relocated to the lower floor of the Brimson Centre replacing the ARC – the Augustine Resource Centre – which has been relocated to the Clancy/Mendel Wing.
Brimson Centre
The Brimson Centre is a two-storey building that was constructed in 2003 to provide the school with first-class indoor sports and gymnasium facilities. It was designed to house a full-size basketball court as well as many other indoor sports that require a hard-floor surface. The building has a large stage area and is also used to hold whole-school assemblies and productions. Underneath the gymnasium was the Augustine Resource Centre originally colloquially known as the ARC. This section of the Brimson Centre was designed to be the new library. The old library was located on the ground floor of the Tolentine Wing. The ARC was also home to several computer/technology areas and two seminar rooms. The Brimson Centre above the ARC was home to several offices, a weights room, a large industrial kitchen and originally the Principal's Office. The weights room has been reformed into the Monica Chapel, named after the mother of St Augustine, and moved to the Mary MacKillop Building. The Brimson Centre was named after the first Rector of the College - David Brimson OSA, .
Lecceto Arts Centre
The Lecceto Arts Centre was constructed in 2005 as a modern creative arts facility. Prior to its demolition and rebuild in 2019, it housed the music facilities, two computer rooms and a brand-new auditorium (the old auditorium was located in the "G-Block"). The building has a large landing which was often used by the school to hold casual lunches and presentations as well as classrooms adjoining to the Goold Wing that is primarily used for software and engineering classes. It was named after the Lecceto Monastery, in Rosia, Tuscany, an Augustinian monastery which dates back to the "Grand Union" of the Augustinian Order in 1256.
Good Counsel Wing
The original Good Counsel Wing - opened in 1995 and demolished in 2016 - was a u-shaped building located at the back of the College behind the Mendel Wing. It consisted of six classrooms that were used exclusively by the Primary School - years 5 and 6. When the new Clancy/Good Counsel building was opened, it was a three-level structure that houses a ground floor car-park and an all-purpose room named The Haven.
Old School Chapel
The Old School Chapel is the building located at the front of the school, alongside the main driveway. It was constructed in 1955 as a Church by the Manly Vale Parish and was the location of the first classes when the school opened in 1956. It was refurbished into classrooms primarily for the teaching of religion but has further been refurbished with a small stage for drama and the remaining classrooms used primarily for English/Drama due to this also being the location of the English and Drama staff offices. It also houses the only teacher toilet not located inside a building.
Moran and Cameron Houses (Previously Senior Study Centres) and Tolentine Park
Moran House and Cameron House are situated at the back of the Tolentine Wing. They were originally used as Senior Common Rooms and study centres for the Year 11 and Year 12 boys. The two individual free-standing Houses called Cameron House and Moran House are named after past rectors Ralph Cameron OSA and Joseph Moran OSA. They back on to the College grounds, and prior to the building program of 2016/17, were a special domain for the boys to focus on both study and exam preparation. The study rooms also contained kitchen areas for the students to use and were fitted with microwaves, fridges and ovens but have now been refurbished for use by staff of the Religion, History and Geography Departments. Tolentine Park is a beautiful outdoor area which includes three cricket practice nets and the facility to plug-in and uses an electric bowling machine.
Chalets (P Block)
2013 brought the introduction of four new demountable classrooms located behind the current Tolentine wing. The four classrooms can be accessed through Tolentine Park and the back doors of the metal/wood workrooms, and contain smart boards and air conditioning for an enhanced learning environment. As two of the classrooms are located more than 1.5 metres off the ground, a permanent concrete ramp allows for disabled access. These classrooms have now been demolished (2019) and replaced by the renewed reconstruction of the G Block.
Mendel wing (2017)
2016 brought the introduction of two new builds of which Mendel was one. The Clancy block was previously called the Mendel wing. The new Mendel wing contains 6 science classrooms, 6 Laboratories, has 2 seminar rooms and features a large storage facility for scientific equipment as well as a staff room. The building is organised so that the staff car park is on the ground floor and there are two levels of classrooms and an outdoor area above. The classrooms open out onto a paved area that is located directly above the carpark. this joins the wing to the primary school (Years 5-6). The building is joined to the Clancy wing via a two-storey bridge.
Rectors of the College
The Rev'd David Brimson OSA (1956–1964)
The Rev'd Steve Moran OSA (1965–1967)
The Rev'd Ralph Cameron OSA (1968–1974)
The Rev'd Kevin Burman OSA (1975–1982)
The Rev'd David Austin OSA (1983–1993)
Principals of the College
John O'Brien (1994–2001)
Tim Cleary (2001–2016)
Jonathan Byrne (2017–present)
Augustinian friars at the College
The 40 Augustinian friars at St. Augustine's College over its history include:
Rector David Austin (1983–1993, 1996)
Anthony Banks (1985–1990, 2003—present)
Rector David Brimson (1956–1965)
Ronald Bopf (1957–1974)
Patrick Bourke (1964, 1997–1998)
Rector Kevin Burman (1975–1982)
Rector Ralph Cameron (1958–1975)
Roderick Cameron (1964–1984)
Barry Clifford (1982–1984)
Patrick Codd (1974–1984)
Patrick Crilly O.S.A. (1965–1974)
William Donlevy (1964)
Michael Endicott (1970)
Patrick Fahey (1959–1972)
Tom Greally (1975–1987)
Joe Hegarty (1961–1962)
Peter Jones (1990–1992, 1994–1996, 1999–present)
Noel Hackett (1975–1977)
Peter Hayes (1961–1975)
Patrick Love (1983)
John McCall (1963–1983)
Michael McMahon (1970)
Jim Maguire (1962–1971)
Paul Maloney (1967–1974)
Laurence Mooney (1985–1988)
Michael Morahan (1991–1994)
Gerry Moran (1962–1964)
Rector Steve Moran (1956–1969)
David Murrin (1993)
Tom Power (1958–1964)
Michael Price (1956)
Michael Slack (1979–1989)
John Sullivan (1974–1982)
Peter Tangey (1964–1978, 2007–present)
Senan Ward (1975–1982, 1987–1989)
John Paul Whelan (1962–1966, 1968–1979)
Abel van der Veer (1964)
Peter Wieneke (1982–1987)
Notable alumni
Media, entertainment and the arts
Harley Streten (Class of 2009)aka Flume, producer, DJ, musician. Winner of four 2013 ARIA awards including Best Male Artist
James Mathison (Class of 1995)television presenter of Australian Idol and Channel [V]
Dr Andrew Rochford (Class of 1997)Doctor of Medicine, television presenter of Australian health show What's Good For You and The Living Room
Hayden Quinn (Class of 2004)winner TV reality cooking show Masterchef, TV personality
William Singe (Class of 2010)singer, songwriter known for his covers on YouTube. He was a member of The Collective from 2012 during The X Factor Australia, until February 2015
Adrian Thomas (Class of 1989)aka DJ Ajax, music producer and DJ
Matthew White (Class of 1987)TV sports presenter
Sport
Matthew Barton (Class of 1997)Australian tennis player; made his Grand Slam singles debut at Wimbledon in 2016
Michael Blake (Class of 1978)played rugby league for the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles, the Canberra Raiders and South Sydney Rabbitohs
Philip Blake (Class of 1981)played rugby league halfback for the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles
Christopher Cairns (Class of 1975)Olympian yachting winning a bronze medal in the Tornado Class at the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles
Phil Daley (Class of 1981)played rugby league for the Manly Warringah Sea Eagles, also represented The Blues in the State of Origin and the Kanagaroos in the 1980s
Brad Dalton (Class of 1976)represented Australia at the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles and at Seoul in 1988. He went on to play for the Sydney Kings in the National Basketball League in Australia
Mark Dalton (Class of 1982)represented the Sydney Kings in the National Basketball League in Australia
Jack Edwards (Class 2017)played cricket for New South Wales Sheffield team and BBL team - Sydney Sixers
Mickey Edwards (Class 2012)played cricket for New South Wales Sheffield team and BBL team - Sydney Sixers
Steve Hegarty (Class of 1979)played for the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles in 1984 taking over fullback and goal kicking duties from Graham Eadie
Jason King (Class of 1998)played Rugby League prop for the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles
Sam Lane (Class of 2009)played for the Super Rugby team Queensland Reds
Lucas Neill (Class of 1995)captain of the Australian National Association football (soccer) team, played for A-League club Sydney F.C.
Rory O'Connor (Class of 2012)played for the Super Rugby teams Melbourne Rebels and the NSW Waratahs
Matt Philip (Class of 2014)Player for the Melbourne Rebels, and the Wallabies.
Matthew Philip (Class of 2012)played for the Super Rugby team Melbourne Rebels
Matt Shirvington (Class of 1996)six-time 100m Australian Sprint Champion. Currently sports commentator on FOX TV
See also
List of Catholic schools in New South Wales
Catholic education in Australia
References
Bibliography
External links
Saint Augustine's College website
Augustinian schools
Boys' schools in New South Wales
Educational institutions established in 1956
Catholic secondary schools in Sydney
Catholic primary schools in Sydney
Junior School Heads Association of Australia Member Schools
Independent Schools Association (Australia)
Private schools Northern Beaches Sydney
1956 establishments in Australia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20Roman%20Calendar
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General Roman Calendar
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The General Roman Calendar is the liturgical calendar that indicates the dates of celebrations of saints and mysteries of the Lord (Jesus Christ) in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, wherever this liturgical rite is in use. These celebrations are a fixed annual date, or occur on a particular day of the week. Examples are the Feast of the Baptism of the Lord in January and the Feast of Christ the King in November.
Others relate to the date of Easter. Examples are the celebrations of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and the Immaculate Heart of Mary. National and diocesan calendars, including that of the diocese of Rome itself as well as the calendars of religious institutes and even of continents, add other saints and mysteries or transfer the celebration of a particular saint or mystery from the date assigned in the General Calendar to another date.
These liturgical calendars indicate the degree or rank of each celebration: memorial (which can be merely optional), feast, or solemnity. Among other differences, the Gloria is said or sung at the Mass of a feast but not at that of a memorial. The Creed is added on solemnities.
The last general revision of the General Roman Calendar was in 1969 and was authorized by the motu proprio Mysterii Paschalis of Paul VI. The motu proprio and the decree of promulgation were included in the book Calendarium Romanum, published in the same year by Libreria Editrice Vaticana. This contained the official document Universal Norms on the Liturgical Year and the Calendar, and the list of celebrations of the General Roman Calendar. Both these documents are printed, in their present revised form, in the Roman Missal, after the General Instruction of the Roman Missal.
Selection of saints included
While canonization involves the addition of the saint's name to the Roman Martyrology, it does not necessarily involve the insertion of the saint's name into the General Roman Calendar, which mentions only a very limited selection of canonized saints. There is a common misconception that certain saints, (e.g., Christopher) were "unsainted" in 1969 or that veneration of them was "suppressed". Christopher is recognized as a saint of the Catholic Church, being listed as a martyr in the Roman Martyrology under 25 July.
In 1969, Paul VI issued the motu proprio Mysterii Paschalis. In it, he recognized that, while the written Acts of Saint Christopher are merely legendary, attestations to the veneration of the martyr date from ancient times. His change in the calendar of saints included "leaving the memorial of Saint Christopher to local calendars", because of the relatively late date of its insertion into the Roman calendar.
Liturgical year
In the liturgical books, the document General Roman Calendar, which lists not only fixed celebrations but also some moveable ones, is printed immediately after the document Universal Norms on the Liturgical Year and the Calendar, which states that "throughout the course of the year the Church unfolds the entire mystery of Christ and observes the birthdays of the Saints". The birth of a saint to heaven is as a rule celebrated on a fixed day of the year. Sometimes they may be moved either to or from a Sunday. The mysteries of Christ are often celebrated on dates that always vary from year to year.
The Catholic Church's year combines two cycles of liturgical celebrations. One has been called the Proper of Time or Temporale, associated with the moveable date of Easter and the fixed date of Christmas. The other is associated with fixed calendar dates and has been called the Proper of Saints or Sanctorale. The General Roman Calendar includes celebrations that belong to the Proper of Time or Temporale and is not limited to those that make up the Proper of Saints or Sanctorale. An instance where two observances occur on the same date is called an occurrence.
Transfer of celebrations
Some celebrations listed in the General Roman Calendar are transferred to another date:
List of celebrations inscribed in the GRC
This list contains all celebrations currently inscribed in the General Roman Calendar. It is updated whenever the pope makes changes to the celebrations in the General Roman Calendar.
When no citation is provided for a particular celebration, it comes from Calendarium Romanum Generale (General Roman Calendar) as printed in the Latin original of Roman Missal, ed. typ. tertia (reimpressio emendata), released in 2008. Celebrations that are added or changed are cited from official decrees.
Celebration names are used from English Roman Missal (2018).
January
1 January: Solemnity of Mary, the Holy Mother of God – solemnity
2 January: Saints Basil the Great and Gregory Nazianzen, Bishops and Doctors of the Church – memorial
3 January: The Most Holy Name of Jesus – optional memorial
6 January: The Epiphany of the Lord – solemnity
7 January: Saint Raymond of Penyafort, Priest – optional memorial
13 January: Saint Hilary, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
17 January: Saint Anthony, Abbot – memorial
20 January: Saint Fabian, Pope and Martyr – optional memorial
20 January: Saint Sebastian, Martyr – optional memorial
21 January: Saint Agnes, Virgin and Martyr – memorial
22 January: Saint Vincent, Deacon and Martyr – optional memorial
24 January: Saint Francis de Sales, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – memorial
25 January: The Conversion of Saint Paul the Apostle – feast
26 January: Saints Timothy and Titus, Bishops – memorial
27 January: Saint Angela Merici, Virgin – optional memorial
28 January: Saint Thomas Aquinas, Priest and Doctor of the Church – memorial
31 January: Saint John Bosco, Priest – memorial
Sunday after 6 January: The Baptism of the Lord – feast
The solemnity of Epiphany of the Lord is always celebrated on 6 January in the General Roman Calendar, however, in particular calendars, it might by transferred to Sunday on or after 6 January.
When the solemnity of the Epiphany of the Lord is transferred to Sunday, which occurs on 7 or 8 January, the feast of the Baptism of the Lord is celebrated on the following Monday. (Ubi sollemnitas Epiphaniæ ad dominicam transfertur, quæ die 7 vel 8 ianuarii occurrit, festum Baptismatis Domini celebratur feria secunda sequenti.)
February
2 February: The Presentation of the Lord – feast
3 February: Saint Blaise, Bishop and Martyr – optional memorial
3 February: Saint Ansgar, Bishop – optional memorial
5 February: Saint Agatha, Virgin and Martyr – memorial
6 February: Saints Paul Miki and Companions, Martyrs – memorial
8 February: Saint Jerome Emiliani – optional memorial
8 February: Saint Josephine Bakhita, Virgin – optional memorial
10 February: Saint Scholastica, Virgin – memorial
11 February: Our Lady of Lourdes – optional memorial
14 February: Saints Cyril, Monk, and Methodius, Bishop – memorial
17 February: The Seven Holy Founders of the Servite Order – optional memorial
21 February: Saint Peter Damian, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
22 February: The Chair of Saint Peter the Apostle – feast
23 February: Saint Polycarp, Bishop and Martyr – memorial
27 February: Saint Gregory of Narek, Abbot and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
On 25 January 2021, Pope Francis inscribed Saint Gregory of Narek, Abbot and Doctor of the Church, in the General Roman Calendar.
March
4 March: Saint Casimir – optional memorial
7 March: Saints Perpetua and Felicity, Martyrs – memorial
8 March: Saint John of God, Religious – optional memorial
9 March: Saint Frances of Rome, Religious – optional memorial
17 March: Saint Patrick, Bishop – optional memorial
18 March: Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
19 March: Saint Joseph, Spouse of the Blessed Virgin Mary – solemnity
23 March: Saint Turibius of Mongrovejo, Bishop – optional memorial
25 March: The Annunciation of the Lord – solemnity
April
2 April: Saint Francis of Paola, Hermit – optional memorial
4 April: Saint Isidore, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
5 April: Saint Vincent Ferrer, Priest – optional memorial
7 April: Saint John Baptist de la Salle, Priest – memorial
11 April: Saint Stanislaus, Bishop and Martyr – memorial
13 April: Saint Martin I, Pope and Martyr – optional memorial
21 April: Saint Anselm, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
23 April: Saint George, Martyr – optional memorial
23 April: Saint Adalbert, Bishop and Martyr – optional memorial
24 April: Saint Fidelis of Sigmaringen, Priest and Martyr – optional memorial
25 April: Saint Mark, Evangelist – feast
28 April: Saint Peter Chanel, Priest and Martyr – optional memorial
28 April: Saint Louis Grignon de Montfort, Priest – optional memorial
29 April: Saint Catherine of Siena, Virgin and Doctor of the Church – memorial
30 April: Saint Pius V, Pope – optional memorial
May
1 May: Saint Joseph the Worker – optional memorial
2 May: Saint Athanasius, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – memorial
3 May: Saints Philip and James, Apostles – feast
10 May: Saint John of Ávila, Priest and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
12 May: Saints Nereus and Achilleus, Martyrs – optional memorial
12 May: Saint Pancras, Martyr – optional memorial
13 May: Our Lady of Fatima – optional memorial
14 May: Saint Matthias, Apostle – feast
18 May: Saint John I, Pope and Martyr – optional memorial
20 May: Saint Bernardine of Siena, Priest – optional memorial
21 May: Saint Christopher Magallanes, Priest, and Companions, Martyrs – optional memorial
22 May: Saint Rita of Cascia, Religious – optional memorial
25 May: Saint Bede the Venerable, Priest and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
25 May: Saint Gregory VII, Pope – optional memorial
25 May: Saint Mary Magdalene de’ Pazzi, Virgin – optional memorial
26 May: Saint Philip Neri, Priest – memorial
27 May: Saint Augustine of Canterbury, Bishop – optional memorial
29 May: Saint Paul VI, Pope – optional memorial
31 May: The Visitation of the Blessed Virgin Mary – feast
Monday after Pentecost: Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of the Church – memorial
First Sunday after Pentecost: The Most Holy Trinity – solemnity
Thursday after Holy Trinity: The Most Holy Body and Blood of Christ – solemnity
On 25 January 2021, Pope Francis inscribed Saint John of Avila, Priest and Doctor of the Church, in the General Roman Calendar.
On 25 January 2019, Pope Francis inscribed Saint Paul VI, Pope, in the General Roman Calendar.
On 11 February 2018, Pope Francis inscribed Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of the Church, in the General Roman Calendar. In years when the memorial of the Mother of the Church coincides with another obligatory memorial, only the memorial of the Mother of the Church will be celebrated for that year.
The solemnity of the Most Holy Body and Blood of Christ can be transferred to the following Sunday in particular calendars.
June
1 June: Saint Justin, Martyr – memorial
2 June: Saints Marcellinus and Peter, Martyrs – optional memorial
3 June: Saints Charles Lwanga and Companions, Martyrs – memorial
5 June: Saint Boniface, Bishop and Martyr – memorial
6 June: Saint Norbert, Bishop – optional memorial
9 June: Saint Ephrem, Deacon and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
11 June: Saint Barnabas, Apostle – memorial
13 June: Saint Anthony of Padua, Priest and Doctor of the Church – memorial
19 June: Saint Romuald, Abbot – optional memorial
21 June: Saint Aloysius Gonzaga, Religious – memorial
22 June: Saint Paulinus of Nola, Bishop – optional memorial
22 June: Saints John Fisher, Bishop, and Thomas More, Martyrs – optional memorial
24 June: The Nativity of Saint John the Baptist – solemnity
27 June: Saint Cyril of Alexandria, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
28 June: Saint Irenaeus, Bishop, Martyr and Doctor of the Church – memorial
29 June: Saints Peter and Paul, Apostles – solemnity
30 June: The First Martyrs of Holy Roman Church – optional memorial
Friday after the Second Sunday after Pentecost: The Most Sacred Heart of Jesus – solemnity
Saturday after the Second Sunday after Pentecost: The Immaculate Heart of the Blessed Virgin Mary – memorial
The title Doctor of the Church was conferred to Saint Irenaeus by Pope Francis on 21 January 2022.
In 2022, the solemnity of the Sacred Heart of Jesus coincided with the solemnity of the Nativity of John the Baptist. The Holy See kept the solemnity of the Sacred Heart on 24 June and brought forward the Nativity of John the Baptist to 23 June, except in locations where John the Baptist is the patron saint, where the reverse applied.
In years when the memorial of the Immaculate Heart of the Blessed Virgin Mary coincides with another obligatory memorial, both must be considered optional for that year.
July
3 July: Saint Thomas, Apostle – feast
4 July: Saint Elizabeth of Portugal – optional memorial
5 July: Saint Anthony Zaccaria, Priest – optional memorial
6 July: Saint Maria Goretti, Virgin and Martyr – optional memorial
9 July: Saint Augustine Zhao Rong, Priest, and Companions, Martyrs – optional memorial
11 July: Saint Benedict, Abbot – memorial
13 July: Saint Henry – optional memorial
14 July: Saint Camillus de Lellis, Priest – optional memorial
15 July: Saint Bonaventure, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – memorial
16 July: Our Lady of Mount Carmel – optional memorial
20 July: Saint Apollinaris, Bishop and Martyr – optional memorial
21 July: Saint Lawrence of Brindisi, Priest and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
22 July: Saint Mary Magdalene – feast
23 July: Saint Bridget, Religious – optional memorial
24 July: Saint Sharbel Makhluf, Priest – optional memorial
25 July: Saint James, Apostle – feast
26 July: Saints Joachim and Anne, Parents of the Blessed Virgin Mary – memorial
29 July: Saints Martha, Mary and Lazarus – memorial
30 July: Saint Peter Chrysologus, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
31 July: Saint Ignatius of Loyola, Priest – memorial
Pope Francis raised the rank of the celebration of Saint Mary Magdalene to feast on 3 June 2016.
Pope Francis decreed on 26 January 2021 that Saints Mary and Lazarus of Bethany are to be celebrated alongside of Saint Martha.
August
1 August: Saint Alphonsus Liguori, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – memorial
2 August: Saint Eusebius of Vercelli, Bishop – optional memorial
2 August: Saint Peter Julian Eymard, Priest – optional memorial
4 August: Saint Jean Vianney, Priest – memorial
5 August: The Dedication of the Basilica of Saint Mary Major – optional memorial
6 August: The Transfiguration of the Lord – feast
7 August: Saint Sixtus II, Pope, and Companions, Martyrs – optional memorial
7 August: Saint Cajetan, Priest – optional memorial
8 August: Saint Dominic, Priest – memorial
9 August: Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross, Virgin and Martyr – optional memorial
10 August: Saint Lawrence, Deacon and Martyr – feast
11 August: Saint Clare, Virgin – memorial
12 August: Saint Jane Frances de Chantal, Religious – optional memorial
13 August: Saints Pontian, Pope, and Hippolytus, Priest, Martyrs – optional memorial
14 August: Saint Maximilian Kolbe, Priest and Martyr – memorial
15 August: The Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary – solemnity
16 August: Saint Stephen of Hungary – optional memorial
19 August: Saint John Eudes, Priest – optional memorial
20 August: Saint Bernard, Abbot and Doctor of the Church – memorial
21 August: Saint Pius X, Pope – memorial
22 August: The Queenship of the Blessed Virgin Mary – memorial
23 August: Saint Rose of Lima, Virgin – optional memorial
24 August: Saint Bartholomew, Apostle – feast
25 August: Saint Louis – optional memorial
25 August: Saint Joseph Calasanz, Priest – optional memorial
27 August: Saint Monica – memorial
28 August: Saint Augustine of Hippo, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – memorial
29 August: The Passion of Saint John the Baptist, Martyr – memorial
September
3 September: Saint Gregory the Great, Pope and Doctor of the Church – memorial
8 September: The Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary – feast
9 September: Saint Peter Claver, Priest – optional memorial
12 September: The Most Holy Name of Mary – optional memorial
13 September: Saint John Chrysostom, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – memorial
14 September: The Exaltation of the Holy Cross – feast
15 September: Our Lady of Sorrows – memorial
16 September: Saints Cornelius, Pope, and Cyprian, Bishop, Martyrs – memorial
17 September: Saint Robert Bellarmine, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
17 September: Saint Hildegard of Bingen, Virgin and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
19 September: Saint Januarius, Bishop and Martyr – optional memorial
20 September: Saints Andrew Kim Tae-gon, Priest, Paul Chong Ha-sang, and Companions, Martyrs – memorial
21 September: Saint Matthew, Apostle and Evangelist – feast
23 September: Saint Pius of Pietrelcina, Priest – memorial
26 September: Saints Cosmas and Damian, Martyrs – optional memorial
27 September: Saint Vincent de Paul, Priest – memorial
28 September: Saint Wenceslaus, Martyr – optional memorial
28 September: Saint Lawrence Ruiz and Companions, Martyrs – optional memorial
29 September: Saints Michael, Gabriel and Raphael, Archangels – feast
30 September: Saint Jerome, Priest and Doctor of the Church – memorial
On 25 January 2021, Pope Francis inscribed Saint Hildegard of Bingen, Virgin and Doctor of the Church, in the General Roman Calendar.
October
1 October: Saint Thérèse of the Child Jesus, Virgin and Doctor of the Church – memorial
2 October: The Holy Guardian Angels – memorial
4 October: Saint Francis of Assisi – memorial
5 October: Saint Faustina Kowalska, Virgin – optional memorial
6 October: Saint Bruno, Priest – optional memorial
7 October: Our Lady of the Rosary – memorial
9 October: Saint Denis, Bishop, and Companions, Martyrs – optional memorial
9 October: Saint John Leonardi, Priest – optional memorial
11 October: Saint John XXIII, Pope – optional memorial
14 October: Saint Callistus I, Pope and Martyr – optional memorial
15 October: Saint Teresa of Jesus, Virgin and Doctor of the Church – memorial
16 October: Saint Hedwig, Religious – optional memorial
16 October: Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque, Virgin – optional memorial
17 October: Saint Ignatius of Antioch, Bishop and Martyr – memorial
18 October: Saint Luke, Evangelist – feast
19 October: Saints John de Brébeuf, Isaac Jogues, Priests, and Companions, Martyrs – optional memorial
19 October: Saint Paul of the Cross, Priest – optional memorial
22 October: Saint John Paul II, Pope – optional memorial
23 October: Saint John of Capistrano, Priest – optional memorial
24 October: Saint Anthony Mary Claret, Bishop – optional memorial
28 October: Saints Simon and Jude, Apostles – feast
On 18 May 2020, Pope Francis inscribed Saint Faustina Kowalska, Virgin, in the General Roman Calendar.
On 29 May 2014, Pope Francis inscribed Saint John XXIII, Pope, in the General Roman Calendar.
On 29 May 2014, Pope Francis inscribed Saint John Paul II, Pope, in the General Roman Calendar.
November
1 November: All Saints – solemnity
2 November: The Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed – ranked with solemnities
3 November: Saint Martin de Porres, Religious – optional memorial
4 November: Saint Charles Borromeo, Bishop – memorial
9 November: The Dedication of the Lateran Basilica – feast
10 November: Saint Leo the Great, Pope and Doctor of the Church – memorial
11 November: Saint Martin of Tours, Bishop – memorial
12 November: Saint Josaphat, Bishop and Martyr – memorial
15 November: Saint Albert the Great, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
16 November: Saint Margaret of Scotland – optional memorial
16 November: Saint Gertrude, Virgin – optional memorial
17 November: Saint Elizabeth of Hungary, Religious – memorial
18 November: The Dedication of the Basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul, Apostles – optional memorial
21 November: The Presentation of the Blessed Virgin Mary – memorial
22 November: Saint Cecilia, Virgin and Martyr – memorial
23 November: Saint Clement I, Pope and Martyr – optional memorial
23 November: Saint Columban, Abbot – optional memorial
24 November: Saints Andrew Dung-Lac, Priest, and Companions, Martyrs – memorial
25 November: Saint Catherine of Alexandria, Virgin and Martyr – optional memorial
30 November: Saint Andrew, Apostle – feast
Last Sunday in Ordinary Time: Our Lord Jesus Christ, King of the Universe – solemnity
December
3 December: Saint Francis Xavier, Priest – memorial
4 December: Saint John Damascene, Priest and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
6 December: Saint Nicholas, Bishop – optional memorial
7 December: Saint Ambrose, Bishop and Doctor of the Church – memorial
8 December: The Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary – solemnity
9 December: Saint Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin – optional memorial
10 December: Our Lady of Loreto – optional memorial
11 December: Saint Damasus I, Pope – optional memorial
12 December: Our Lady of Guadalupe – optional memorial
13 December: Saint Lucy, Virgin and Martyr – memorial
14 December: Saint John of the Cross, Priest and Doctor of the Church – memorial
21 December: Saint Peter Canisius, Priest and Doctor of the Church – optional memorial
23 December: Saint John of Kanty, Priest – optional memorial
25 December: Nativity of the Lord – solemnity
26 December: Saint Stephen, the First Martyr – feast
27 December: Saint John, Apostle and Evangelist – feast
28 December: The Holy Innocents, Martyrs – feast
29 December: Saint Thomas Becket, Bishop and Martyr – optional memorial
31 December: Saint Sylvester I, Pope – optional memorial
Sunday within the Octave of Christmas, or, if there is no such Sunday, 30 December: The Holy Family of Jesus, Mary and Joseph – feast
On 31 October 2019, Pope Francis inscribed Our Lady of Loreto in the General Roman Calendar.
Particular calendars
The General Calendar is printed, for instance, in the Roman Missal and the Liturgy of the Hours. These are up to date when printed, but additional feasts may be added later. For that reason, if those celebrating the liturgy have not inserted into the books a note about the changes, they must consult the current annual publication, known as the "Ordo", for their country or religious congregation.
These annual publications, like those that, disregarding the feasts that are obligatory in the actual church where the liturgy is celebrated, list only celebrations included in the General Calendar, are useful only for the current year, since they omit celebrations impeded because of falling on a Sunday or during periods such as Holy Week and the Octave of Easter.
This distinction is made in application of the decision of the Second Vatican Council: "Lest the feasts of the saints should take precedence over the feasts which commemorate the very mysteries of salvation, many of them should be left to be celebrated by a particular Church or nation or family of religious; only those should be extended to the universal Church which commemorate saints who are truly of universal importance."
Institutional and societal calendars
National calendars
Personal jurisdiction calendars
Diocesan and parish calendars
The calendar for a diocese is typically based on a national calendar, with a few additions. For instance, the anniversary of the dedication of the cathedral is celebrated as a solemnity in the cathedral church and as a feast in all the other churches of the diocese. The feast day of the principal patron saint of the diocese is celebrated as a feast throughout the diocese.
See also
Calendar of saints
Institutional and societal calendars of the Roman Rite
National calendars of the Roman Rite
Personal jurisdiction calendars of the Roman Rite
Ranking of liturgical days in the Roman Rite
References
Further reading
External links
Liturgical calendars of the Catholic Church
Roman Rite
Sacred places and times in Catholic canon law
Catholic liturgical law
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4754533
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle%20counter
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Particle counter
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A particle counter is used for monitoring and diagnosing particle contamination within specific clean media, including air, water and chemicals. Particle counters are used in a variety of applications in support of clean manufacturing practices, industries include: electronic components and assemblies, pharmaceutical drug products and medical devices, and industrial technologies such as oil and gas.
Technology
Particle counters function primarily using the principles of light scattering, although other technologies may also be employed. Light scattering by particles use instrumentation comprising a high-intensity light source (a laser), a controlled media flow (air, gas or liquid) and highly sensitive light-gathering detectors (a photo detector).
Laser optical particle counters employ five major systems:
Lasers and optics: A laser operates on a single wavelength, so the light source is consistent with constant power output to illuminate the particle sampling region.
Controlled flow: The viewing volume is a small chamber illuminated by the laser. The sample medium (air, liquid or gas) is drawn into the viewing volume, the laser passes through the medium, the particles scatter (reflect) light, and a photodetector tallies the scattered light sources (the particles).
Photodetector: The photodetector is an electric device that is sensitive to light, and when particles scatter light, the photodetector observes the flash of light and converts it to an electric signal, or pulse. An amplifier converts the pulses to a proportional control voltage.
Pulse height analyzer (PHA): The pulses from the photodetector are sent to a pulse height analyzer (PHA). The PHA examines the magnitude of the pulse and places its value into an appropriate sizing channel, called bins. The bins contain data about each pulse, and this data correlates to particle sizes.
Black box: The black box, or support circuitry, looks at the number of pulses in each bin and converts the information into particle data.
Light obscuration by particles works on the principle where the presence of particles blocks some of the light from the photodetector, typically through either absorbance or light scattering. The photodetector records the obscuration of light and converts this to an electrical signal, this signal is then correlated to a specific sized particle using a PHA as with the scattering description above.
Direct imaging particle counting employs the use of a high-resolution camera and a light source to detect particles. Vision based particle sizing units obtain two dimensional images that are analyzed by computer software to obtain particle size measurement, images can be retained and replayed for additional analysis
Laser diffraction uses the principle that the angle of diffraction increases as particle size decreases, this method is used for measuring sizes between 0.1 and 3,000μm. Laser diffraction measures particle size distributions by concentration either as a percentage or by mass of a dispersed particulate sample.
A Coulter counter is an apparatus for counting and sizing particles suspended in electrolytes. It is typically used for cellular particles. The Coulter principle, and the Coulter counter that is based on it, is the commercial term for the technique known as resistive pulse sensing or electrical zone sensing.
Detection methods
There are several methods used for detecting and measuring particle size or size distribution — light blocking (obscuration), light scattering, Coulter principle and direct imaging. A high intensity light source is used to illuminate the particle as it passes through the detection chamber.
The light blocking optical particle counter method is typically useful for detecting and sizing particles greater than 1 micrometre in size and is based upon the amount of light a particle blocks when passing through the detection area of the particle counter. This type of technique allows high resolution and reliable measurement.
If light scattering is used, then the redirected light is detected by a photo detector. The light scattering method is capable of detecting smaller-sized particles. This technique is based upon the amount of light that is deflected by a particle passing through the detection area of the particle counter. This deflection is called light scattering. Typical detection sensitivity of the light scattering method is 0.05 micrometre or larger. However, employment of the condensation nuclei counter (CNC) technique would allow a higher detection sensitivity in particle sizes down to nanometre range. A typical application is monitoring of ultrapure water in semiconductor fabrication facilities.
If light blocking (obscuration) is used the loss of light is detected. The amplitude of the light scattered or light blocked is measured and the particle is counted and tabulated into standardized counting bins. The light blocking method is specified for particle counters that are used for counting in hydraulic and lubricating fluids. Particle counters are used here to measure contamination of hydraulic oil, and therefore allow the user to maintain their hydraulic system, reduce breakdowns, schedule maintenance during no or slow work periods, monitor filter performance, etc. Particle counters used for this purpose typically use ISO Standard 4406:1999 as their reporting standard, and ISO 11171 as the calibration standard. Others also in use are NAS 1638 and its successor SAE AS4059D.
If direct imaging is used, a halogen light illuminates particles from the back within a cell while a high definition, high magnification camera records passing particles. Recorded video is then analyzed by computer software to measure particle attributes. Direct imaging particle counting employs the use of a high resolution camera and a light to detect particles. Vision based particle sizing units obtain two dimensional images that are analyzed by computer software to obtain particle size measurement in both the laboratory and online. Along with particle size, color and shape analysis can also be determined. Direct imaging is a technique that uses the light emitted by a laser as a source to illuminate a cell where particles are passing through. The technique does not measure the light blocked by the particles, but rather measures the area of the particles functioning like an automated microscope. A pulsed laser diode freezes the particle motion. The light transmitted through the fluid is imaged onto an electronic camera with macro focusing optics. The particles in the sample will block the light, and the resulting silhouettes will be imaged onto the digital camera chip.
Matrices
Applications of particle counters are separated into three primary categories:
Aerosol particle counters
Liquid particle counters
Solid particle counters
Aerosol particle counters
Aerosol particle counters are used to determine the air quality by counting and sizing the number of particles in the air. This information is useful in determining the quantity of particles inside a building or in the ambient air. It also is useful in understanding the cleanliness level in a controlled environment. A common controlled environment aerosol particle counters are used in is a cleanroom. Cleanrooms are used extensively in semiconductor device fabrication, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, disk drives, aerospace and other fields that are very sensitive to environmental contamination. Cleanrooms have defined particle count limits. Aerosol particle counters are used to test and classify a cleanroom to ensure its performance is up to a specific cleanroom classification standard. Several standards exist for cleanroom classification. The most frequently referred to classification is from the United States. Though originating in the United States, the standard Federal Standard 209E was the first and most commonly referred to. This standard was replaced in 1999 by an international standard, but Federal Standard 209E remains today the most widely referenced standard in the world.
There are several direct-reading instruments for measuring aerosol particle emissions. The CPC and differential mobility particle sizers, including the scanning mobility particle sizer and fast mobility particle sizer, can measure aerosol concentration; the diffusion charger and electric low pressure impactor can measure surface area; the size selective static sampler and tapered element oscillating microbalance can measure mass.
For cleanrooms, the replacement standard is ISO 14644-1 and is meant to completely replace Federal Standard 209E. This ISO Standard can be found through the non-profit organization, Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST). Each of these standards represents the maximum allowable number of particles in a unit of air. The typical unit is either cubic feet or cubic meters. The particle counts are always listed as cumulative.
Liquid particle counters
Liquid particle counters are used to determine the quality of the liquid passing through them. The size and number of particles can determine if the liquid is clean enough to be used for the designed application. Liquid particle counters can be used to test the quality of drinking water or cleaning solutions, or the cleanliness of power generation equipment, manufacturing parts, or injectable drugs.
Liquid particle counters are also used to determine the cleanliness level of hydraulic fluids and various other systems including (engines, gears and compressors), the reason being that 75-80% of hydraulic breakdowns can be attributed to contamination. There are various types, installed on the equipment, operated in a laboratory as part of an oil analysis programme.
or portable units that can be transported to site, e.g., a construction site, and then used on the machine, e.g., a bulldozer, to determine fluid cleanliness. By determining and monitoring these levels, and following a proactive or predictive maintenance program, the user can reduce hydraulic failures, increase uptime and machine availability, and to reduce oil consumption. They can also be used to assure that hydraulic fluids have been cleaned using filtration, to acceptable or target cleanliness levels. There are various standards in use in the hydraulic industry, of which ISO 4406:1999, NAS1638 and SAE AS 4059 are probably the most common.
A typical hydraulic oil cleanliness to iso 4406 is 20/18/15.
Solid particle counters
Solid particle counters are used to measure dry particles for various industrial applications. One such application could be for the detection of particle size coming from a rock crusher within a mining quarry. Sieves are the standard instruments used to measure dry particle size. Vision based systems are also used to measure dry particle size. With a vision based system quick and efficient particle sizing can be done with ease and tremendous accuracy.
Specialized types
Remote particle counters
Small particle counters that are used to monitor a fixed location typically inside a cleanroom or mini-environment to continuously monitor particle levels. These smaller counters typically do not have a local display and are connected to a network of other particle counters and other types of sensors to monitoring the overall cleanroom performance. This network of sensors is typically connected to a facility monitoring system (FMS), data acquisition system or programmable logic controller.
This computer based system can integrate into a database, alarming and may have e-mail capability to notify facility or process personnel when conditions inside the cleanroom have exceeded predetermined environmental limits. Remote particle counters are available in several different configurations, from single channel to models that detect up to 8 channels simultaneously. Remote particle counters can have a particle size detection range from 0.1 to 100 micrometres and may feature one of a variety of output options including 4-20 mA, RS-485 Modbus, Ethernet and pulse output.
Manifold particle counters
Modified aerosol portable particle counter that has been attached to a sequencing sampling system. The sequencing sampling system allows for one particle counter to sample multiple locations, via a series of tubes drawing air from up to 32 locations inside a cleanroom. Typically less expensive than utilizing remote particle counters, each tube is monitored in sequence.
Hand-held particle counter
A hand-held particle counter is a small, self-contained device that is easily transported and used, and designed for use with Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) investigations. Though lower flow rates of 0.1 ft3/min (0.2 m3/h) than larger portables with 1 ft3/m (2 m3/h), hand-helds are useful for most of the same applications. However longer sample times may be required when performing cleanroom certification and testing. (Hand-held counters are not recommended for cleanrooms). Most hand-held particle counters have direct mount isokinetic sampling probes. One may use a barbed probe on a short piece of sample tubing, but it is recommended that the length of the tubing not exceed , due to loss of larger particles in the sample tubing.
Applications
Particle counters are used in applications where contamination control in manufacturing is required. Examples of these industries include: semiconductor manufacturing; electronic component manufacture and assembly; photonic and optics manufacture and assembly; aerospace; pharmaceutical and biotech production; medical device manufacturing; cosmetics production; and food and beverage production. They are also used in industrial applications such as oil and gas, hydraulic fluids and automotive assembly and painting.
A primary use of aerosol particle counters is in the determination of contamination levels within a cleanroom or clean containment device. Cleanrooms and clean containment devices maintain low levels of particulate-free air through the use of filters and are classified according to the number of particles permitted; the primary standard for cleanroom or clean air devices is ISO 14644-1, other local standards may also exist such as FED-STD-209E.
Electronics
Electronics manufacturing, and electronics assembly requires stringent environmental controls, especially where processes are performed within reactive conditions. Yields are reduced when components are contaminated with particles, and trace elements. Particle counters demonstrate that these controls are effective, and the production environments are optimized for the quality required.
Depending on the application and size of the particles of interest, different instrumentation is required.
General environments
Air particle monitoring is required for ensuring the manufacturing environment is free from contamination level that will cause defects. It is performed either for the entire cleanroom areas (ballrooms, bays and chases), or specific local controlled environments (tools and minienvironments).
Where large areas are to be monitored a manifold can be used, a manifold is a device used to connect many sample locations via sample tubing lengths, to a central stepper device and a central particle counter, it will sequentially move between tube locations taking a read from each location. Smaller spaces can be monitored using small point of use particle sensors, these are dedicated to sampling at a single location and rely on either a central vacuum supply or an internal sample pump. The contaminant particle size and frequency of measurement are factors in determining which method is most suitable.
Liquid systems
There are two primary liquid applications in the electronics manufacturing processes, fabrication process chemicals and ultra clean water for cleaning and rinsing.
Process chemicals are used in semiconductor and other critical product processing steps (chemical etch, mask removal and chemical mechanical polishing). Particle monitoring in process chemicals, from manufacture through to the point-of-use, is extremely important for these clean processes to be controlled to ensure yield and throughput quality. The use of on-line continuous particle monitoring enables both process engineers and facility engineers to respond rapidly to changes in chemical purity levels throughout the chemical distribution process.
Ultra-Pure Water (UPW) / DI Water is used for critical cleaning and rinsing steps, UPW processes must maintain very low particle concentration levels, typically measured at the 20 nm level. UPW is also commonly used for chemical dilution and flushing steps within chemical blending and distribution systems. The use of on-line continuous particle monitoring, either at the final water purification step or at the wafer point-of-use, provides process engineers the critical particle data needed to effectively manage the water purification and wafer cleaning processes.
Gas Systems. High purity gases are critical to advanced component manufacturing. Products such as integrated circuits require many process gases for: etching, deposition, oxidation, doping, and inert overlaying applications. Impurities in these gas streams can create failures in critical processes and impact yield and throughput. Gases that are explosive of hazardous are tested at pressure using particle counters contained within an inert gas, pressurized enclosure. Non-reactive gases can be depressurized using a clean path gas diffusion device and tested using a portable particle counter.
Life sciences
Life Science applications include industries such as pharmaceutical manufacturing, biotech manufacturing, compounding facilities, medical devices, nutraceuticals and food processing; they are those industries that create products to improve the lives of living organisms. Manufacturing environments should remove or reduce contaminants to minimize the risk of finished product contamination, which may lead to chemical reactions within the product or undesired quality of the product.
The industry is controlled through government oversight for the formulation, manufacture and release of all product, and controls are established and monitored to ensure production is maintained to the agreed quality criteria. Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) ensures that product is manufactured to national and international standards by organizations such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), European Medicine Agency (EMA) and the World Health Organization (WHO), other national governmental bodies also regulate the manufacture of product for their countries.
General environments
Environments for the manufacture of drug products require controls to be used to ensure that total particulate and microbial aerosol burden are maintained at suitable levels to reduce risk of contamination to product. Environmental design considers the contamination in various process steps, including: raw material purification, formulation of product, final filling and packaging. Depending on the type of product being manufactured the level of clean controlled space is initially determined using the cleanroom classification standards, the higher the risk of contamination the cleaner the environment, e.g., aseptic filling is performed in an ISO 5 controlled environment, whereas terminally sterilized product is finished in an ISO 7 area (prior to final sterilization).
The classification of risk also contributes to the type of instrument used. General monitoring on a periodic basis uses portable equipment, moved from location to location as determined by a risk assessment. For more risk critical production these are performed in a machine that isolates the general environment from the process environment, the removal of personnel from the direct area using isolators or RABS increases confidence of control, these machines are monitored continuously using point of sample instruments giving continuous feedback as to the quality of the environment and any contamination events in real time. The primary concern for contamination is risk of adverse effects by the end user, a resultant demonstration of control, is an increase in production. The general environments are also monitored for any microbial contaminants using traditional techniques such as settle plates and volumetric air samplers.
Liquid systems
Liquid systems are used primarily in a laboratory to demonstrate the absence of particles in finished liquid products. Any particles present may be a contaminant or undesired agglomerations of insoluble product. Liquids for injection have regulated limits for maximum particle concentrations, standards contained within the United States Pharmacopeia (USP), European Pharmacopeia (EP) and Japanese Pharmacopeia (JP) define these limits.
Gas systems
Compressed gases used in formulation, conveying and overlaying are required to meet the same standards for GMP compliance as all environmental air quality and should be tested at point of use. Particle counters fitted with gas pressure diffusion devices reduce line pressure to atmospheric without impacting the flow path of particles within the airstream, the gas is then tested at atmospheric pressure.
Industrial
Other industries also use particle counters to control demonstrate either cleanliness of manufacturing environments or quality of finished product, these combine to reduce any additional cleaning processes.
Automotive
Painting automobiles in clean environments reduces the need to rework defects in paint finishes, particle counters located within the clean areas give continuous feedback to quality engineers ensuring clean conditions are maintained. Engines are built to exacting tolerances are cleaned and assembled in clean areas, using cleaning agents verified using particle counters.
Hydraulic fluids
Hydraulic fluids and oils must meet specific ISO 4406 standards, the application of hydraulic fluids vary from aerospace and turbine cooling and lubrication to heavy machinery, the build up and presence of particles can cause failure of bearings, pumps and seals.
Water
Water is a universal product with an unlimited number of applications and can be contaminated due to intentional interactions with processes or unintentional and seasonal variances. Monitoring the quality of water using particle counters, either by spot checking at a sample location or continuously monitoring a distribution system allows quality engineers to react to changes in the processes where water is being used.
Particle counters are used to determine the filtration rates, chemical addition requirements, flushing intervals, sedimentation information, cooling flowrates and many other process variables that allow for continuous feedback ensuring a consistent quality of water to a process.
Environmental
Particulates exist in the atmosphere at concentrations that can be deleterious to health and have been proven to factor into causes of many airborne illnesses such as asthma. Types of atmospheric particles include suspended particulate matter; thoracic and respirable particles; inhalable coarse particles, designated PM10, which are coarse particles with a diameter of 10 micrometers (μm) or less; fine particles, designated PM2.5, with a diameter of 2.5 μm or less; ultrafine particles; and soot.
Particle counters are used to monitor atmospheric contamination levels of these suspended particulates allowing for the reduction of particles associated with a specific source (combustion) or technology (power generation). The modelling of particulate data from particle counters distributed globally gives trend information to the state of quality of air and its migration.
See also
Particle mass analyser
Particulate matter sampler
Aerosol mass spectrometry
References
External links
www.iest.org — Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology
Meteorological instrumentation and equipment
Counting instruments
Particle detectors
Aerosols
Occupational safety and health
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4754868
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurana%20Kanan
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Laurana Kanan
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Laurana Kanan (also known as Lauralanthalasa Kanan), is a fictional character, one of the Heroes of the Lance in the Dragonlance fantasy series, written by Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman, originally published by TSR, Inc. and later by Wizards of the Coast. One of the most beautiful women on all the world of Krynn, she is a skilled fighter, a brilliant tactician, and an inspirational leader, though she is also headstrong and willful and often allows her heart to rule her head.
Concept
Tracy Hickman's wife, Laura, was the inspiration for Laurana.
Early life
Laurana is the youngest child of the elf king Solostaran, the Speaker of the Sun who rules of the elves of the kingdom called Qualinesti. She has two older brothers: Porthios Kanan, heir to the throne, and Gilthanas Kanan.
Laurana was a rather pampered child, skilled at using her good looks and charm to get what she wanted. This trait follows her into adulthood.
When Laurana was a child (by elf reckoning), she fell in love with Tanis Half-Elven. Much of her story revolves around her love for Tanis, and her many attempts to see him return her feelings. Tanis was the ward of her father, who took care of the boy when his mother died. She was the wife of his brother and Tanis was the product of a violent rape by a human. The two youngsters began a youthful romance which was always frowned upon by the king and Laurana's brothers, who did not think it fit that a royal princess should be so infatuated with a bastard half-breed like Tanis. The romance ended when Tanis made up his mind to leave Qualinesti in the company of Flint Fireforge, the dwarf.
The War of the Lance
The two met again, many years later, when Tanis and his companions sought the elves' aid in freeing the human captives in Pax Tharkas. Raistlin Majere, one of the companions who was cursed with eyes that saw things like they grow old and wither within seconds, was surprised that his vision of Laurana was immune to the curse and looked like someone with eternal youth. Laurana sought to rekindle their romance but Tanis broke her heart by telling her he was in love with a human woman named Kitiara Uth Matar and returning the promise ring she had given him years ago. In her anger, she threw the ring away, and was picked up by Tasslehoff, who was eavesdropping nearby. Laurana refused to give up on the relationship and secretly followed Tanis and the other companions to Pax Tharkas. When Tanis found out Laurana had followed him, he angrily rebuked her for acting like an infatuated child. Laurana resolved to try and prove she was more than that and fought bravely in the subsequent battle at Pax Tharkas.
In the weeks that followed, Laurana worked closely with the human cleric of Paladine, Elistan, to help care for the refugees from Pax Tharkas. Tanis was impressed by the compassion Laurana demonstrated in caring for the refugees and felt jealous of her close friendship with Elistan. The half-elf began to wonder if he had made a mistake in rejecting Laurana.
Before Tanis could resolve these new feelings for Laurana, the two were separated during the sack of Tarsis. Laurana even believed Tanis had been killed when she saw a red dragon destroy the inn where Tanis was staying. Overcome by grief at the apparent death of her love, Laurana did not realize an enemy was stalking her.
The Dragon Highlord Kitiara Uth Matar had learned that Tanis was traveling with Laurana and, overcome with jealousy (especially after being told how incredibly beautiful Laurana was) had followed the Companions to Tarsis. There the masked Kitiara attacked Laurana from behind. Kitiara expected an easy victory over her despised rival, but Laurana fought back ferociously, surprising the Highlord with her resistance. It was only with the help of the sivak draconian, Slith, that Kitiara was finally able to overpower Laurana. Together, Kitiara and Slith dragged the elfwoman off to an alley, where Kitiara intended to kill Laurana after questioning her about the status of her relationship with Tanis. However, before Kitiara could kill Laurana, she was interrupted by Derek Crownguard's group of knights and Elistan. Kitiara was forced to flee, promising Laurana that they would meet again.
Laurana, now the de facto leader of the Companions who fled Tarsis with her, decided that they should travel to Icewall in search of the fabled Dragon Orb. Along the way, she shared in the nightmare of the Speaker of the Stars that all the companions endured, due to a magical elven item carried by Sturm called a Star Jewel, given to him by the Princess of the Silvanesti elves, Alhana Starbreeze. In that nightmare, she saw Tanis with Kitiara, saw Sturm Brightblade killed, and his corpse defiled, and then saw her own death.
Laurana's group continued on their way to Icewall and soon encountered the Icefolk. Laurana devised the plan for the attack on Icewall Castle, the stronghold of Dragon Highlord Feal', Thas, which convinced the Icefolk to help her and her companions. She was then given a magical Frostreaver battle axe by the Icefolk. Laurana participated in the successful attack on Icewall Castle and personally killed Dragon Highlord Feal-Thas with the Frostreaver. The lost Dragon Orb was recovered, as well as a broken dragonlance.
The group was travelling to the island of Sancrist to bring the Dragon Orb to the Knights of Solamnia when their ship was attacked by the white dragon, Sleet. Sleet managed to cripple their ship off the coast of Ergoth, but then Laurana drove off the attacking dragon by shooting it in the wing with her bow. Although she and Gilthanas were on board, she proved to be the better marksman than her brother. The shipwrecked group was then captured by the Silvanesti elves who were now living on Southern Ergoth. Once Laurana informed the Silvanesti that she was the daughter of the Qualinesti Speaker of the Sun, they released her and she was reunited with her family and her people. The reunion did not go well, however; Laurana was shunned by her people. She had lost their respect for running away from home to chase after Tanis and was now seen as being no better than a whore. She also quarreled with her father and older brother, Porthios, about what should be done with the dragon orb. Laurana realized that her people would not use the Dragon Orb in conjunction with the other good nations to defeat the Dragonarmies, so she stole the Dragon Orb out of Qualimori. She was present when the silver dragon Silvara gave Theros Ironfeld the ability to forge the dragonlance in the tomb of Huma Dragonbane.
Laurana traveled with Theros Ironfeld to take the completed dragonlances to the Council of Whitestone on Sancrist. She then was called to testify on Sturm Brightblade's behalf at a Knight's Council. Her impassioned speech convinced the Knights of Solamnia to grant Sturm his full knighthood and so impressed the leading knight, Lord Gunthar Uth Wistan, that he asked Laurana to travel to the High Clerist's Tower to teach the knights there how to use the dragonlance. Laurana reluctantly agreed to do this.
Laurana reached the High Clerist's Tower only to find the knights there badly divided. The news that Sturm had been vindicated caused the knight Derek Crownguard to lead his faction of knights in a hopeless attack against the besieging Dragonarmy forces. After Derek's knights had been wiped out, the Blue Dragonarmy officer Bakaris, brought the dead body of Lord Alfred Markenin and the dying Derek up to the tower to taunt the remaining knights. Laurana quickly silenced Bakaris by shooting him in the arm, permanently crippling him.
The Blue Dragonarmy attacked the High Clerist's Tower the next day. Laurana participated in the battle, impressing Sturm with her courage and skill with a bow. The Knights repulsed the Dragonarmy attack but it was clear the tower would fall as soon as the Dragonarmy attacked with its dragons. It was then that Tasslehoff Burrfoot revealed he had found another Dragon Orb inside the tower and Laurana devised a plan to use the orb to create a trap. She successfully used the power of the Orb to summon the dragons so that they could be easily dispatched by dragonlances in the tunnels under the tower, but the price for this victory was high. To buy Laurana enough time to execute her plan, Sturm Brightblade sacrificed his own life, an act that left a mark on Laurana's soul.
Even though Laurana was greatly weakened by her use of the orb, she immediately rushed to the tower wall to try and prevent Sturm's body from being mutilated as she had foreseen in the Dream. There Laurana was again confronted by the Dragon Highlord Kitiara Uth Matar who disarmed Laurana but did not otherwise physically attack her. The two women recognized each other and exchanged words, with Kitiara taunting Laurana about how Tanis was now sharing the Highlord's bed in the city of Flotsam. Laurana did not want to believe Kitiara but in her heart she knew the Highlord was telling her the truth. Badly shaken by this revelation about Tanis, Laurana allowed Kitiara to leave the tower in peace.
After the victory at the High Clerist's Tower, Laurana became a hero to the people of Solamnia. She traveled to the city of Palanthas to try and convince the Palanthians to join the fight against the Dragonarmies. While meeting with the Lord of Palanthas, Amothus, Laurana received a message from Lord Gunthar, now the Grand Master of the Knights of Solamnia, appointing her as the commander of the knights guarding Palanthas, more as a political move than anything else. The Palanthians then agreed to enter the war and gave Laurana command of their army as well. Laurana was also reunited with her brother Gilthanas, who gave her further proof that Tanis was with Kitiara. Convinced she had lost Tanis to Kitiara, a heartbroken Laurana could do nothing but throw herself fully into her new command role.
The appointment of Laurana as a General soon proved to be an inspired choice as she led her army, now aided by good dragons, onto the offensive, defeating the Dragonarmies in a series of battles known as the Vingaard Campaign and freeing the city of Kalaman. Laurana's innovative tactics were instrumental in winning these battles, and the grateful people of Solamnia nicknamed her the "Golden General" for her golden hair and radiant nature. The Solamnics believed she was their good luck charm. The luck would not last.
Kitiara, who dismissed Laurana's many victories over her as a "fluke" was already planning a counterstrike. She believed that if she captured the Golden General it would destroy the morale of the good armies and make it easy to reconquer all the land she had lost in the Vingaard Campaign. To set this clever plan into motion Kitiara used Laurana's weakness: Tanis.
Kitiara believed Laurana would put her feelings for Tanis above the well being of her people, so she set her trap for Laurana by sending the elfwoman a false message claiming that Tanis was dying and wanted to see her which Kitiara would only allow in exchange for Laurana releasing Bakaris (who had been captured during the Vingaard Campaign). Flint Fireforge and Tasslehoff Burrfoot both tried to convince Laurana that Kitiara was lying and the message was a trap, but Laurana, who was already convinced that Tanis was with Kitiara, believed the message and thinking (based on her prior encounter with Kitiara at the High Clerist's Tower where Kitiara had behaved as a honorable enemy and had not tried to harm Laurana even after catching her in an extremely vulnerable position) that she understood Kitiara and could trust her to honor a truce, decided to make the exchange. Flint and Tasslehoff then insisted on accompanying Laurana to the exchange to which she agreed.
Laurana, accompanied by a reluctant Flint and Tasslehoff, took Bakaris to the exchange site where she found not Tanis but the draconian Gakhan and two wyvern. Gakhan then informed Laurana that Tanis's condition had worsened and if she wanted to see him she would have to travel to Dargaard Keep. Laurana refused to do this but was then told that if she did not surrender the wyvern would kill her friends. Finally realizing she had fallen into a trap but fearing for her friend's lives if she resisted, Laurana surrendered herself. She was transported by wyvern to just outside Dargaard Keep, where Bakaris then attempted to rape her. Laurana fought back but was overpowered and dragged by Bakaris into a cave. However, before he could force himself on the elfwoman, Tasslehoff came to her defense, stabbing Bakaris. Laurana then attacked Bakaris in a frenzy and succeeded in killing him. But then before Laurana and her friends could leave the area, they were attacked by the death knight Lord Soth, one of Kitiara's most powerful allies. Lord Soth's fear aura overwhelmed Laurana and her friends, leaving them powerless to resist him, and his chill touch caused Laurana to lose consciousness. Lord Soth then carried Laurana off to Dargaard Keep. A triumphant Kitiara then traveled to the city of Kalaman, where she announced that Laurana was now her prisoner and would be executed in three weeks time unless the good armies surrendered and Berem the Everman was turned over to her.
Tanis, arriving in Kalaman, learned of what had happened and, feeling responsible for Laurana's predicament, set out with the reunited Companions to free Laurana from her prison in Neraka. Upon arriving in Neraka, he made a deal with Kitiara that he would serve in her army if she released Laurana. Kitiara promised to consider this offer but was lying to Tanis as she had already promised Laurana's soul to Lord Soth.
At the Council of Highlords that night in the Temple of Takhisis, the evil goddess Takhisis called for the captured Laurana to be put on display before the assembled Dragonarmies. Lord Soth then carried in a body that had been wrapped from head to toe in winding cloth and placed the cocooned figure at Kitiara's feet, and Kitiara cut open the wrappings to reveal a nearly suffocated Laurana. The captive elfwoman staggered to her feet and was initially defiant. Kitiara then pointed out Tanis, apparently willingly serving her, to Laurana. Laurana was initially hopeful upon seeing Tanis, but to mask his true intentions from Takhisis, Tanis treated Laurana very coldly, disheartening her. Kitiara then roughly handled Laurana and offered the elfwoman as her gift to Takhisis who proclaimed that Laurana was to be tortured to death. Kitiara then asked Takhisis that Tanis be allowed to join the Dragonarmies, and Tanis, who was ordered to stand before Takhisis, prostrated himself before the evil goddess. Kitiara then also asked Takhisis to grant Laurana's soul to Lord Soth. Laurana was devastated at seeing Tanis worshipping Takhisis and terrified at the prospect of being enslaved for all eternity to the death knight.
Kitiara then told Tanis to fulfill his promise and present his sword to the Emperor Ariakas as a sign of fidelity to the Dragonarmies. Tanis was furious about Kitiara offering Laurana's soul to Lord Soth but knew he must continue to play along if he wanted to save Laurana. As Tanis approached Ariakas, he realized what he must do and then, pretending to lay his sword at the Emperor's feet, stabbed Ariakas. Tanis then grabbed the Crown of Power, intending to ransom the Crown for Laurana's life.
Kitiara agreed to exchange Laurana for the Crown and allowed Tanis to release the elfwoman, but Laurana was unaware that Tanis was trying to save her, and so she broke free on her own. Laurana attacked Kitiara, stealing the Highlord's sword and knocking her to the ground. Tanis then tried to stop Laurana from running off, but after seeing him seemingly serving Kitiara and worshipping Takhisis, Laurana no longer trusted Tanis, and so she shoved him off the platform. This caused the half-elf to drop the Crown and all of the Dragonarmy factions to start fighting each other over its ownership. Laurana fought her way out of the Council chambers in the confusion with Tanis chasing after her.
Tanis finally caught up to Laurana but then Kitiara caught up with them as well and offered Tanis the chance to rule at her side. She also warned Tanis that Lord Soth was coming to collect Laurana. Tanis rejected Kitiara's offer, telling her that he would die to protect Laurana. This convinced Laurana that Tanis was not evil and that he did love her. Kitiara then surprisingly allowed Tanis and Laurana to escape. As they were flying the temple they came across Tasslehoff's belongings scattered around and discovered the promise ring amongst the trinkets and saw it as a sign of their rebounding after going through thick and thin. The two then escaped the temple and were reunited with their friends.
The battle which was taking place in Neraka led to the downfall of Takhisis and the end of the War of the Lance. Laurana and Tanis were married following the end of the war and moved to the city of Solanthus.
After the war
Although Laurana was a pivotal character in the Chronicles trilogy, she faded into the background following the end of that series, only being occasionally mentioned until the War of Souls.
During that time, Laurana and Tanis had a son named Gilthas, a sickly and weak child who was doted upon by his overprotective mother. Laurana also worked alongside Tanis as a diplomat between the Elven nations and the Knights of Solamnia. She continued to be extremely popular amongst the Solamnic people, who remembered her as the Golden General who had saved them and she worked tirelessly to try and bring the elven and human nations together.
When a rebellion drove the rightful king of the Qualinesti elves, Porthios, from power, the senators behind the coup needed a new puppet king whom they could manipulate to run the kingdom as they saw fit. Gilthas had a royal connection to the rulership of Qualinesti, so they chose him, also believing that his human blood would make him weak and easily controlled. Eventually, Laurana and Tanis agreed. Although Laurana would be allowed to visit, and still held great popular sway as the Queen Mother, Tanis was forbidden to see his son ever again. Not long after, he was killed during the Chaos War.
Laurana remained in Qualinost following Tanis's death to aid her son in gaining real power in the kingdom. She was there when the great green dragon, Beryllinthranox (Beryl) conquered the forest and made the people her subjects. She was even present for the secret wedding of her son to the Kagonesti elf, Kerianseray, with whom he had fallen in love.
During the War of Souls, Laurana at last returned to some prominence in the series. While living in Qualinost, she helped the people to survive under the oppressive yoke of their Dragon Overlord. She was loved, secretly, by Marshal Alexius Medan, the leader of the Knights of Neraka who were stationed there, but Laurana, although she respected the Marshall, first as a honorable enemy and eventually as a friend, remained true to the memory of Tanis. Medan was assassinated by an Elven servant of Laurana's (to avenge the death of the servant's brother) immediately prior to the ultimate battle with the dragon Beryl who had decided to destroy the Qualinesti. During the final battle against Beryl, Laurana defeated the monstrous dragon, but at the expense of her own life. She did manage to buy enough time for the Qualinesti elves to escape the city via tunnels and, in doing so, paid back the debt that she owed to the fallen Sturm Brightblade.
Character controversy
The character of Laurana caused the first real argument between authors Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman when writing the Chronicles. Weis maintained that Laurana would not abandon her responsibilities as the Golden General to go save her fickle lover while Hickman believed Laurana would choose love over duty. As the plot required Laurana to be captured to set up the end of the story, Weis finally gave in.
Reception
Lauren Davis of io9 called Laurana a "spoiled elven princess", but commented on the "wonderful female characters" in the series, singling out what she considered two of the strongest: "Kitiara Uth Matar and the princess Laurana, are rivals for the heart of Tanis Half-Elven, but their status as romantic rivals isn't what makes them compelling characters. I'll admit that reading the books as a pre-teen, I admired Kitiara, who was sexy and manipulative (and attracted some of the most powerful male characters in the books), but also respected as a military leader and seen as a peer by a mighty dragon. Laurana, however, gets the more significant arc, after starting out as a lovelorn girl with a romantic view of the world. As she is thrust into war-torn Ansalon, however, Laurana proves herself a competent fighter and military leader in her own right, one who watches friends die, who sees herself shunned by her family, but who marches on tirelessly to protect Krynn from the forces of Takhisis. As seductive as Kitiara is, as a young girl I was inspired watching the growth of Laurana."
In the Io9 series revisiting older Dungeons & Dragons novels, Rob Bricken called her "The character best served by Winter Night [...] unequivocally" noting that in her first appearances she was "a completely naïve, lovestruck elf princess chasing after Tanis" who "becomes the leader of her half of the party, kicking ass, taking names, giving genuinely rousing battle speeches, and not fainting dead away when Tanis' ex-girlfriend Kitiara shows up as a Dragon Highlord and taunts her that Tanis has joined the bad guys. It's all very satisfying."
Bricken later described his "least favorite moment in Spring Dawning—and maybe in the entire trilogy" noting that Kitiara sends a message to Laurana "who has been kicking the draconian asses of Takhisis' forces all across Krynn. She's a tactical genius, all the disparate groups under her control believe in her fully, and she's known as the 'Golden General' to her troops and the townsfolk [...] All Laurana needs to do is bring an evil commander she'd captured for a hostage exchange and to come alone. Laurana offers no proof that she has Tanis, and Tas and Flint explain repeatedly that they know Kitiara and she's definitely lying—but ignoring the war, the pivotal role she plays in it, the troops that need her in command, and the people she's supposed to protect, Laurana goes anyway, like she's the moon-eyed girl from Autumn Twilight. She's captured instantly, of course." Brikcen was critical of Weis and Hickman for their depiction of this moment, suggesting they "knew they wanted Laurana at the Temple of Takhisis for the final act but were given 10 minutes to brainstorm on a narratively satisfying way they could make it happen, and this is the best they could come up with. Oh, also, Kitiara tells all the combined forces of good they have three weeks to unequivocally surrender and let the literal embodiment of evil rule over Krynn or Laurana will be killed. Admittedly, Laurana was extremely good at her job, but why would they choose eternal darkness and subjugation over a single person?"
References
Dragonlance characters
Fictional elves
Fictional female soldiers and warriors
Fictional female swordfighters
Fictional queens
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4755179
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin%20Warsh
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Kevin Warsh
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Kevin Maxwell Warsh (born April 13, 1970) is an American financier and bank executive who served as a member of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors from 2006 to 2011.
During and in the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis, Warsh acted as the central bank's primary liaison to Wall Street and served as the Federal Reserve's representative to the Group of Twenty (G-20) and as the Board's emissary to the emerging and advanced economies in Asia. Prior, he served as Special Assistant to the President for Economic Policy and Executive Secretary of the White House National Economic Council.
Warsh is currently the Shepard Family Distinguished Visiting Fellow in Economics at Stanford University's Hoover Institution, a scholar and lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Business, a member of the Group of Thirty, a member of the Panel of Economic Advisers of the Congressional Budget Office, and a former steering committee member of the Bilderberg Group. He has conducted research in the field of economics and finance, and has advised several private and public companies.
Early life
Warsh was born in Albany, New York, the youngest of three children of Judith and Robert Warsh. He was raised in nearby in Loudonville, New York and graduated from Shaker High School in Latham. Warsh is Jewish. He received a Bachelor of Arts in public policy from Stanford University in 1992 with a concentration in economics and political science. He then attended Harvard Law School and graduated cum laude with a J.D. in 1995. He also took coursework in market economics and debt capital markets at MIT Sloan School of Management and Harvard Business School.
In 2007, Warsh returned to upstate New York and spoke about serving at the Federal Reserve: "I have been honored to serve in Washington, D.C. for the past 5-1/2 years. My knowledge of the economy has deepened by working with my colleagues to put fiscal and monetary policy into practice. Nonetheless, with each passing day, it is more obvious that I learned much of what I need to know about the real economy in my first eighteen years here in upstate New York."
Career
From 1995 to 2002, Warsh worked for Morgan Stanley in New York City, rising to executive director in the company's mergers and acquisitions department.
From 2002 to 2006, Warsh was Special Assistant to the President for Economic Policy, and Executive Secretary of the National Economic Council. His primary areas of responsibility included domestic finance, banking and securities regulatory policy, and consumer protection. He advised the President and senior administration officials on issues related to the U.S. economy, particularly fund flows in the capital markets, securities, banking, and insurance issues. Warsh participated in the President's Working Group on Financial Markets and served as the administration's chief liaison to the independent financial regulatory agencies.
Federal Reserve Board
Nomination
President Bush nominated Warsh and Randall Kroszner to fill two Fed vacancies on January 27, 2006. Warsh's nomination drew some criticism, based on his age and inexperience. At 35 years old, Warsh was the youngest appointment in the history of the Federal Reserve. At the time, former Fed vice chairman and Reagan appointee Preston Martin said Warsh's nomination was "not a good idea" and that if he had a voice in the Senate, he would vote no. Ben Bernanke wrote "His youth generated some criticism, including from former Board vice chairman Preston Martin, but Kevin's political and markets savvy and many contacts on Wall Street would prove to be invaluable." In his confirmation documents, Warsh listed two published writings - "Deciding to Run for Congress: An Opportunity Cost Model with Partisan Implications" and "Corporate Spinoffs and Mass Tort Liability."
At his confirmation hearing on February 14, 2006, Warsh touted his experience on Wall Street: "I hope that my prior experience on Wall Street, particularly my nearly 7 years at Morgan Stanley, would prove beneficial to the deliberations and communications of the Federal Reserve."
He took office on February 24, 2006, to fill an unexpired term ending January 31, 2018.
Pre-crisis
His first meeting of the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC), the Fed's policymaking body, was in March 2006. In March 2007 - less than a year before the rescue of Bear Stearns - Governor Warsh spoke about market liquidity:
The benefits of greater liquidity are substantial, through higher asset prices and more efficient transfer of funds from savers to borrowers. Historical episodes indicate, however, that markets can become far less liquid due to increases in investor risk aversion and uncertainty. While policymakers and market participants know with certainty that these episodes will occur, they must be humble in their ability to predict the timing, scope, and duration of these periods of financial distress. . . . If moored from fundamentals, confidence can give way to complacency, complacency can undermine market discipline and liquidity can falter unexpectedly. . . . [L]iquidity is significantly higher than it would otherwise be due to the proliferation of financial products and innovation by financial providers. This extraordinary growth itself is made possible by remarkable improvements in risk-management techniques. Hewing to my proposed definition, we could equally state that financial innovation has been made possible by high levels of confidence in the strength and integrity of our financial infrastructure, markets and laws. Moreover, remarkable competition among commercial banks, securities firms and other credit intermediaries have helped expand access to—and lower the all-in-cost of—credit. Interest rate risk and credit risk exposures are now more diversified. Look no further than dramatic growth of the derivatives markets. In just the past four years, notional amounts outstanding of interest rate swaps and options tripled, and outstanding credit default swaps surged more than ten-fold. These products allow investors to hedge and unwind positions easily without having to transact in cash markets, expanding the participant pool. Syndication and securitization also lead to greater risk distribution. Commercial and industrial (C&I) lending potential has expanded with the adoption of syndication practices, allowing credit risks to be spread across a greater number of participating banks and non-bank lenders. Perhaps an even more significant support for the expansion of C&I loans is the rapid growth of collateralized loan obligations (CLOs)-special purpose entities that buy C&I loans with funds raised from investors seeking different risk exposures. CLOs allow loans to be financed primarily with high-rated debt securities issued to institutions like mutual funds, pension funds, and insurance companies. Indeed, in recent years, the share of syndicated C&I term loans funded by institutional investors is estimated to have exceed that funded by commercial banks. . . . Of course, investor confidence and liquidity can shift. In the aftermath of a financial shock, if buyers and sellers can no longer agree on the distribution of possible outcomes, their ability to price transactions will be severely limited.
Financial Crisis
Warsh played a significant role in navigating the financial market turmoil of 2007 and 2008. According to author David Wessel, "Warsh established himself as the chairman's protector in Republican circles and Bernanke's bridge to Wall Street chief executives." Bernanke would write "Don Kohn, my vice chairman, with his long experience at the Fed, and Kevin Warsh, with his many Wall Street and political contacts and his knowledge of practical finance, were my most frequent companions on the endless conference calls through which we shaped our crisis-fighting strategy."
During the crisis Warsh tried to engineer mergers between Citigroup and Goldman Sachs and Wachovia and Goldman Sachs. These efforts failed. On September 20, 2008, he was granted a waiver to deal with his former employer Morgan Stanley. The next day Morgan Stanley was converted into a bank holding company in order to access Federal Reserve loans, in effect saving the firm. According to the Wall Street Journal, "Timothy Geithner, president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, and Kevin Warsh, a Fed governor and former Morgan Stanley executive, worked in New York to sort out the details with Goldman and Morgan Stanley." The editors summarized the decision-making, "Mr. Warsh was part of former Fed Chairman Ben Bernanke's inner circle during the worst of the panic. Having worked at Morgan Stanley, he provided crucial insight into the real condition of Wall Street, and well before the panic he told his Fed colleagues that the financial system was vastly undercapitalized. 'I think, most fundamentally, that the business model of investment banks has been threatened, and I suspect the existing business model will not endure through this period,' Mr. Warsh told a Fed meeting on March 18, 2008."
Warsh was tasked by Bernanke to help devise a financial reform program to mitigate the risks of future trouble. Bernanke wrote “In late 2008, amid the crisis firefighting, we at the Fed began working on our own proposals for financial reform. I wanted to have a well formulated position before the legislative debates went into high gear. Kevin Warsh led a committee of Board members and Reserve Bank presidents that laid out some key principles. Kevin's committee considered a more explicitly 'macroprudential' or system-wide, approach to supervision and regulation. Historically, financial oversight had been almost entirely 'microprudential' – focused on the safety and soundness of individual firms, on the theory that if you take care of the trees, the forest will take care of itself. In contrast, the macroprudential approach strives for a forest-and-trees perspective.”
Throughout 2008 Warsh predicted that inflation would rise despite financial turbulence and economic weakness:
March 2008: "On the inflation front, there is little reason to be confident that inflation will decline. There are reasons to believe that our inflation problems will become more pronounced and, I fear, more persistent."
June 2008: "Inflation risks, in my view, continue to predominate as the greater risk to the economy."
September 2008: "I'm still not ready to relinquish my concerns on the inflation front."
Many economists and observers, including conservatives, have argued that this focus on inflation and failure to recognize the risk of deflation significantly exacerbated the crisis. In his memoir, Chairman Bernanke writes about his frustration, "I vented in an email the next day to Don Kohn: 'I find myself conciliating holders of the unreasonable opinion that we should be tightening even as the economy and financial system are in a precarious position and inflation/commodity pressures appear to be easing.'"
Warsh's principal concerns about the permanent use of QE were highlighted in a panel discussion later alongside Bernanke. Warsh stated "My overriding concern about continued QE, then and now, involves the misallocations of capital in the economy and the misallocation of responsibility in our government. Misallocations seldom operate under their own name. They choose other names to hide behind. They tend to linger for years in plain sight. Until they emerge with force at the most inauspicious of times and do unexpected harm to the economy."
Recovery
In September 2009, with unemployment at 9.5% and climbing, Warsh argued that the Fed should begin to pull back on its efforts to help the real economy recover: "if policymakers insist on waiting until the level of real activity has plainly and substantially returned to normal — and the economy has returned to self-sustaining trend growth — they will almost certainly have waited too long… There is a risk, of much debated magnitude, that the unusually high level of reserves, along with substantial liquid assets of the banking system, could fuel an unanticipated, excessive surge in lending." The runaway inflation he warned about never appeared. University of Oregon Professor Tim Duy wrote in response to the speech that it looked as though "monetary policymakers are more willing to use unconventional monetary policy to support Wall Street than Main Street."
At the November 2010 FOMC meeting, Warsh was extremely skeptical of the Fed's plan to generate economic activity and jobs by trying to lower long-term interest rates. Although unemployment was close to 10%, Warsh told his colleagues that he would only vote for QE2 out of respect for Chairman Bernanke: "If I were in your chair, I would not be leading the Committee in this direction, and frankly, if I were in the chair of most people around this room, I would dissent." Even if unemployment were "unacceptably high," he suggested that he would vote against the program continuing if inflation inched up a bit: "if inflation were to move up and were to be broadly consistent with the implicit inflation target [2%] in different people's minds around this room, even if unemployment were unacceptably high, I think that would be time to stop this program. If inflation expectations were to move out of the range that they have been in for a long time, that would be a reason to end this program, even if unemployment were exceptionally high and GDP were well below what we think the economy is ultimately capable of." The Federal Reserve has a legal dual mandate to pursue maximum employment as well as to ensure price stability.
He elaborated on his opposition to the program: "I think we are removing much of the burden from those that could actually help reach these objectives, particular the growth and employment objectives, and we are putting that onus strangely on ourselves rather than letting it rest where it should lie. We are too accepting of dangerous policies from others that have been long in the making, and we should put the burden on them." While Federal Reserve officials routinely offer their views on non-monetary questions such as taxes, spending and regulations, it is unusual for a Federal Reserve official to suggest that monetary support should be withheld in order to compel other branches of government to enact the Federal Reserve's favored policies.
Warsh worried about the efficacy of continuing extraordinary monetary policy accommodation. Bernanke would write of Warsh's views in the debate over QE2, "Kevin Warsh had substantial reservations. He was one of my closest advisers and confidants, and his help, especially during the height of the crisis in the fall of 2008, had been invaluable. He had supported the first round of securities purchases, begun in the midst of the crisis. Now that financial markets were functioning more normally, he believed that monetary policy was reaching its limits, that additional purchases could pose risks to inflation and financial stability, and that it was time for others in Washington to take on some of the policy burden. . . . As he had promised, Kevin voted in favor but, the following week he delivered a speech in New York and published an op-ed in the Wall Street Journal that reflected his reservations. He argued that monetary policy alone could not solve the economy's problems, and he called for tax and regulatory reforms aimed at increasing productivity and longer-term growth. I agreed that other Washington policymakers should take more responsibility for promoting economic growth. Federal spending on infrastructure projects such as road buildings, for example, could have helped make our economy more productive in the longer term while putting people back to work right away. Yet nobody expected anything to happen on the fiscal front or in other areas that Kevin highlighted, either. The reality was that the Fed was the only game in town. It was up to us to do what we could, imperfect as our tools might be. . . . I never questioned Kevin's loyalty or sincerity. He had always participated candidly and constructively, as a team player, in our deliberations. And I was grateful that he had voted for the second round of asset purchases despite his unease. I saw his public comments more as an indictment of policymakers outside the Fed than as an attack on the Fed policies. Kevin would leave the Board three months later, but not because of any policy disagreement. We had agreed when he was appointed in 2006 that he would stay for about five years. We remain close to this day.”
Warsh announced his intent to resign from the Board in a letter sent to President Obama on February 10, 2011, effective around or on March 31, 2011. When he left the Fed, CNBC's Larry Kudlow expressed disappointment and described Warsh as a "hard money hawk."
Post-FRB career
Warsh is the Shepard Family Distinguished Visiting Fellow at Stanford University's Hoover Institution, and a scholar and lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Business.
He is also a member of the board of directors at UPS and is an advisory board member for Rubicon Global.
In December 2016, Warsh joined a business forum assembled by then president-elect Donald Trump to provide strategic and policy advice on economic issues.
Personal life
In 2002, Warsh married Jane Lauder, a granddaughter and heiress of Estée Lauder and long-time employee of the family business, the Estée Lauder company.
The couple lives in Manhattan. Formerly general manager of Origins, Lauder has served as the Global Brand President for Clinique since 2014. According to Forbes, her net worth as of September 27, 2017 was $2 billion. Warsh's father in law is Ronald Lauder.
In 2009, Warsh was named to Fortune Magazine's "40 under 40".
References
Further reading
Writings
Warsh, Kevin, and Jeb Bush. "Commentary: A New Strategy for Economic Growth." The Wall Street Journal. August 10, 2011.
Warsh, Kevin. "Commentary: The 'Financial Repression' Trap." The Wall Street Journal. December 6, 2011.
Warsh, Kevin, and Stanley Druckenmiller. "Commentary: The Asset-Rich, Income-Poor Economy." The Wall Street Journal. June 19, 2014.
Federal Reserve
Wessel, David. In Fed We Trust: Ben Bernanke's War on the Great Panic. New York: Crown Business, 2009. "Chapter 6: The Four Musketeers: Bernanke's Brain Trust." pp. 106–115.
External links
Statements and Speeches of Kevin M. Warsh at FRASER
Kevin M. Warsh at Stanford University's Hoover Institution
1970 births
20th-century American Jews
Federal Reserve System governors
Harvard Law School alumni
Lawyers from Albany, New York
Living people
Members of the Steering Committee of the Bilderberg Group
Stanford University alumni
Lauder family
George W. Bush administration personnel
Obama administration personnel
21st-century American Jews
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1972 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1972 24 Hours of Le Mans was a motor race staged at the Circuit de la Sarthe, Le Mans, France on 10 and 11 June 1972. It was the 40th running of the 24 Hours of Le Mans and the ninth race of the 1972 World Championship for Makes.
1972 marked the start of a new era with revised FIA regulations dictating the demise of the 5 Litre Group 5 Sports Car and the 3 Litre Group 6 Sports Prototype categories and their replacement by a new 3 Litre Group 5 Sports Car class. There was also a significant change to the track with the construction of the new technical section subsequently named the Porsche Curves bypassing the dangerous Maison Blanche corner, which had been the site of many serious accidents in the past.
Having already won the World Championship for Makes, Ferrari chose not to contest the race. Matra-Simca were strong favourites for the outright win after not running the other races to focus on its Le Mans preparation. Once the challenge from Alfa Romeo and Lola had dissipated overnight, Matra were able to ease off to secure a popular 1–2 victory for the home country – France's first since 1950. Henri Pescarolo and Graham Hill were the winners, with a comfortable 11-lap margin over teammates François Cevert and Howden Ganley.
However the race was marred by the death of veteran Formula One racer Jo Bonnier who died when his Lola prototype collided with a Ferrari GT and flew over the barriers into the trees on the Sunday morning.
Regulations
Once again, the CSI (Commission Sportive Internationale - the FIA’s regulations body) overhauled its FIA Appendix J, redefining its motorsport categories. The former Group 6 Prototypes and Group 5 Sports categories were combined into a new, third-generation, Group 5 Sports Car class with a 3-litre engine limit (or 2142cc if turbo-powered, using the x1.4 equivalency) with a minimum weight of . There was also no minimum production required. Not for the last time, the FIA’s idea was to encourage manufacturers to build, develop and use engines based around the current Formula One 3.0-litre standard.
Recognising the growing interest in touring car racing, the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) opened the entry list to Group 2 Special Touring Cars, alongside the Group 4 Special GTs and the new Group 5. Entries for the Group 2 and 4 categories had a 2-litre minimum but no upper limit on engine size.
They also revamped the minimum distance and speed requirements. No longer a set lap-time to qualify, all cars had to be within 140% of an average of the three best practice laps put up. Also the sliding scale of target distances was discarded. Now cars had to achieve at least 70% of its class winner to be classified. Therefore the Index of Performance, now redundant, was discontinued. Also, the Index of Thermal Efficiency now only applied to Group 2 and 4.
But the biggest change was to the track layout, with a new series of curves being built between Arnage and the Ford chicane bypassing the dangerously fast Maison Blanche section. Financed by Porsche, it therefore became known as the “Porsche curves”. The Ford chicane was also redesigned with a second chicane added just up the track to allow a dedicated pit-lane entrance lane to be built. This allowed cars to decelerate off the racing line and off the main track, greatly increasing safety. Although the modifications only added to the overall track length, there was a noticeable change in lap times slowing the prototypes' average speeds by 30 km/h (18 mph). The circuit still had cars using full throttle for over 65% of the lap however.
Prize money this year included FF80000 (£6400) for outright victory, and half that to the respective winners of the GT category and Index of Thermal Efficiency.
Entries
With the new regulations there were 91 applications, and this led to a solid 66 arriving for practice and for the first time for a few years a full grid of 55 cars took the start.
In a major surprise, after winning every round in the Championship to date, and dominating the timing in the Test Weekend in March, Ferrari withdrew its works team less than a fortnight before the race. Having just secured the World Championship title, it claimed the engines on the Group 5 312 PB were only good for the 1000 km races, and not 24 hours. This did not sound convincing however, since they had achieved a 1–2 victory at the 12 Hours of Sebring, but during a 24-hour simulation run the flat-12 engine in the Ferrari blew up during the 14th hour. Alfa Romeo had voiced the same concern about their engines’ durability but still showed up to Le Mans. John Wyer also chose not to bring his team's Gulf-Mirages because their Weslake V12 engines were not ready and under-prepared.
Although everyone had been outclassed by the Porsche 917s in 1971, Alfa Romeo had proven the most competitive, even getting three wins that season. For 1972 they had developed the latest iteration of the Tipo 33, the open-top T33/3. Designer Carlo Chiti used a tubular chassis rather than a full monocoque making them narrower and 50 kg lighter. The 3-litre V8 developed 445 bhp. The team picked up a number of ex-Porsche drivers for the three cars entered: Vic Elford/Helmut Marko, Rolf Stommelen/”Nanni” Galli and Nino Vaccarella/Andrea de Adamich.
Matra, like Jaguar in the 1950s, chose to concentrate its efforts for the prestige of a Le Mans victory. The latest version of the 660, the MS660C had been over a second slower than Ickx's Ferrari at the test weekend. But a new model, the MS670 was entered for the race. The 3-litre V12 was detuned for the race down to 450 bhp, pushing it to 310 kp/h (195 mph) on the Mulsanne Straight. With the French media stirring up a patriotic fervour, team director Gérard Ducarouge took no chances and bought 4 cars and 60 crew. Aerodynamic long-tail versions were prepared for Jean-Pierre Beltoise/Chris Amon and François Cevert/Howden Ganley while Henri Pescarolo/Graham Hill (back at Le Mans for the first time since 1966) had a short-tail version. The fourth car was the reliable 660C, given to Jean-Pierre Jabouille/ David Hobbs.
Porsche was now focussing its efforts on its 917 Can-Am project. However, Reinhold Joest got considerable unofficial factory assistance with his 908 LH entry, and sponsored by ATE. The three-year old car had been owned by Jo Siffert who had been killed less than a year ago, and was loaned from the Schlumpf Collection. It was refitted by Porsche with a new 3-litre engine capable of 360 bhp. Other customer teams brought Porsche Group 5 cars: the Spanish Escuderia Montjuich had a 908/03, André Wicky’s Swiss team had one of several 908/02s as well as an older 907.
Jo Bonnier, Lola’s European agent, convinced Eric Broadley to develop a 3-litre version of its successful T210. Designed by Patrick Head and John Barnard, the new T280 used the Cosworth DFV engine. It was very fast and had easily won the four-hour race at the Test Weekend. With works-support, Bonnier entered two cars: one for himself and 1971 winner Gijs van Lennep (released from Mirage for the race) and the other for Gérard Larrousse/Hughes de Fierlandt. Sponsored by Swiss cheese, they were this year’s art-cars painted up with gruyere cheese-holes. There were also a pair of privateer entries.
After a positive first run at Le Mans the previous year, Brit Alain de Cadenet decided to build his own car to race. He employed Brabham designer Gordon Murray to build a car around the Cosworth DFV (developing 390 bhp) and Brabham BT33 suspension. The lightest of the 3-litre prototypes, De Cadenet got sponsorship from Duckhams Oil and the car was just ready in time for the race. Guy Ligier, keen to progress his JS-2 GT racecar, approached Citroën about getting a Maserati engine – whom they had bought out three years previously. They obliged and three 3-litre V6 JS-2s were present. Because insufficient numbers had been produced it had to run in the Group 5 category.
Ferrari had not released its Group 5 car to its customer teams yet, but had been able to homologate the 365 GTB/4 “Daytona” as a GT car, and nine of those cars were entered by the Ferrari agents of six different countries. These comprised Luigi Chinetti’s North American Racing Team (NART), Jacques Swaters’ Ecurie Francorchamps, Georges Filipinetti's Swiss team, Colonel Ronnie Hoare's Maranello Concessionaires from London and Charles Pozzi’s Paris-based team.
Chevrolet had five entries this year to take on the Ferrari challenge. The French teams of Henri Greder (once again with Marie-Claude Beaumont as his co-driver) and the Ecurie Léopard returned. American John Greenwood also brought a pair of specially lightened Corvettes that proved to be very fast, reaching 330 kp/h (210 mph) on the Mulsanne Straight. They ran on standard BF Goodrich radial road-tyres. Their competitor, Goodyear tyres, had run successfully with the Florida-based English Racing Team winning the GT division at Daytona and Sebring. They asked NART if they could use an entry to get to Le Mans, who agreed as long as the car displayed the Ferrari motif on the side of the car.
A new manufacturer for Le Mans was the Italian De Tomaso company. The newly homologated Pantera had a Ford 5.3-litre V8, pushing out 330 bhp was less powerful than the Ferrari and Chevrolet competition. Four cars were entered and the Spanish Escuderia Montjuich ones had strong works support.
In the smaller GT-category, there were seven Porsche 911s from privateer teams. This year NART ran a Dino 246 on behalf of Ferrari to contest the 2.5-litre class. Once again, NART offered its junior car to winners of the Trofeo Chinetti - a competition for young drivers.
The European Touring Car Championship (ETCC) was proving popular with manufacturers and spectators. When the ACO opened the entry list to Group 2 cars, the Ford-Germany works team calculated that their pace in winning the Spa 24 Hours could get them into the top-10 overall at Le Mans. Three cars were prepared: the Capri RS2600 was refitted with a 2.9-litre V6 that could put out almost 300 bhp. Its drivers were all Le Mans debutants: current ETCC champion Dieter Glemser with Alex Soler-Roig, Jochen Mass/Hans-Joachim Stuck and Birrell/Bourgoignie. Their opposition in the ETCC was the Schnitzer Motorsport team running a BMW 2800 CS. Although BMW had recently head-hunted Jochen Neerpasch from Ford-Germany to set up BMW Motorsport, this was essentially a privateer effort for the company's first post-war entry. Despite the BMW's 3-litre engine putting out 340 bhp, the car was 250 kg heavier. The other entry was a British entry of an ex-rally Datsun 240Z.
Practice
Ferrari was fastest in the test weekend in March with a 3:40.4, but they were a no-show for race-week. On the damp first night of practice on Wednesday, it was Stommelen in the Alfa Romeo and Larrousse in the Bonnier-Lola who set the pace. The session was cut short though by a serious accident when an advertising hoarding blew onto the track. The Thompson/Heinz Corvette was damaged but the next lap the 2-litre GRAC sports-prototype crashed and burst into flames. Driver Lionel Noghès (grandson of Antony Noghès, founder of the Monaco GP), received serious burns to his face.
Matra went all out on Thursday and salvaged French pride with a 1-2-3 qualification for Cevert (3:42.2), Pescarolo and Beltoise. Stommelen (3:47.9) and Bonnier were next then Elford's and Vaccarella's Alfas in sixth and seventh. The fourth Matra of Jabouille headed Larrousse with the Joest Porsche (4:03.3) and de Cadenet's Duckhams performing impressively for the cars’ age and youth respectively.
Fastest GT was Migault in his Ferrari in 20th (4:21.7), and the best Touring Car was the Capri of Mass/Stuck in 30th (4:25.9). As if to prove a point, the Capris were right among the Daytonas, faster than most of the Corvettes, Panteras and Porsche 911s. Three of the Panteras blew their engines, traced to a faulty batch of pistons from the US. Fastest in the small GT class was the Kremer 911 which did manage an identical time to the Capri (despite reserve driver Bolanos rolling the car in practice). Last on the grid were the young NART drivers in the Dino (4:53.9), getting in when several faster cars were withdrawn.
Race
Start
For the first time a French President was the honorary starter. In front of Georges Pompidou and a large partisan crowd, Matra started with all four of their French drivers. Pescarolo took the lead from Cevert on the first lap but things started going wrong straight away. On the second lap, Beltoise's engine expired on the front straight and then Bonnier cut through to take the lead on the third lap. During a short rain-shower, Bonnier's teammate de Fierlandt put in some quick laps to take the lead. But the Lolas’ smaller fuel-tanks meant they had to pit earlier, and more often, than the other prototypes. After that, it was the Alfa Romeos’ chance to take up the challenge as first Elford, then Stommelen moved up the order. In the GT class, Migault's French Ferrari had the lead until a jammed gearbox sidelined it, whereupon the sister car of Ballot-Léna/Andruet took over. Three of the Panteras had already retired due to the dodgy pistons – the remaining one of Claude Dubois being the only one that had not used a new American engine.
At 6.20pm, the Jabouille/Hobbs Matra 660 ran out of fuel within reach of the pits. Someone had accidentally flicked it across to the reserve tank, which dropped them down to 12th and 5 laps down. After four hours, the two Matra 670s were being pursued by Larrousse in the Lola. Stommelen had been delayed by a fuel-pump change but the Alfas still ran fourth, fifth and seventh split by Joest's Porsche. Weigel's 908/02 was eighth followed by the Duckhams and the charging Matra 660. The Pozzi Ferrari led GT in 12th and the Glemser/Soler-Roig Capri was 15th.
Another short shower wet the track and de Fierlandt put his car in the sandbank at the Mulsanne corner. He then burnt out an already weakened clutch trying to extricate himself. The Bonnier/van Lennep Lola had also been delayed by gear selection issues and when Bonnier had a tyre blowout at the Mulsanne kink at 320 kp/h (200 mph).
Night
As night fell and the track dried, Bonnier and van Lennep were putting in quick times to catch up and set the fastest lap of the race with a 3:46.9. At quarter-distance still had the two Matras swapping the lead (89 laps) with a comfortable 3-lap margin over the three Alfa Romeos. Sixth was Joest (84 laps)
The Ferraris had a strong hold on GT as the Corvette engines failed; Pozzi leading NART (both 77 laps) while the three Capris were running like clockwork (76 laps).
But during the night first Vaccarella then Elford had clutch problems and each lost half an hour as new ones were fitted. So, by half time, at 4am, the Matras were running 1-2-3. The 670s still exchanging the lead at pit stops (178 laps) and the 660 recovering well, having just overtaken the Alfas (running Stommelen, Elford then Vaccarella - all 171 laps). Seventh was Joest's longtail Porsche (167) with the hard-charging Lola back up to eighth, 15 laps behind the leaders. With Weigel's Porsche ninth (161) and the Duckhams tenth (155 laps) the field was now very strung out. Things were still the same in GT – Pozzi and NART Ferraris on 154 laps, while Mass and Stuck (151) had stolen a 3-lap lead over the team cars in Group 2.
Morning
Right through the night the two leading Matras stayed on the same lap, exchanging places based on pit strategy. A misty dawn broke up the routine, as the Alfa Romeos fell away with their engine issues. The Lola lost over an hour with brake problems and Weigel's Porsche also had clutch problems. Although the BMW had retired with a broken engine there were also cracks in the Capri team too – Mass/Stuck stopped on the Mulsanne Straight with a broken conrod and Glemser's car needed a differential change.
In the early morning, Bonnier (after being again delayed) was running very fast and had got his Lola back up to eighth. Then at 8.25am, he came up to the Filipinetti Ferrari GTB4 of Florian Vetsch on the straight with 2 slight kinks in it between Mulsanne and Indianapolis, with thick forest on either side. The Ferrari kept its line and, deciding to force an overtake before the curve, his Lola hit the Ferrari at speed and flew 100 metres over the barriers into the trees. Fellow driver Vic Elford described Bonnier's Lola as "spinning to the air like a helicopter". Critically injured, Jo Bonnier died soon afterward. He was a veteran of 13 Le Mans and chairman of the Grand Prix Drivers' Association.
Vic Elford, coming upon Vetsch's car on fire, immediately stopped to rescue the driver who had already escaped with burned hands. By coincidence it was right beside a broadcasting television camera. Shaken by the accident, Elford then pulled into the pits to be substituted by Marko, only for them to retire soon after when the replacement clutch packed up. Ninety minutes later the Alfa of Stommelen/Galli also retired with a broken differential, leaving the last Alfa Romeo running in fourth.
It started raining again at 10.30am. The Weigel 907 hit the barrier at the Dunlop Curve while running 7th. Cevert and Ganley lost time in the pits fixing wet electrics. Then just before noon, as the rain got heavier, Ganley was going slowly down the Mulsanne Straight when he was hit from behind by the Corvette of Marie-Claude Beaumont. He made it to the pits to get the rear-end repaired (taking nine minutes), but the Corvette was too badly damaged to continue. This allowed the Pescarolo/Hill car to build a secure lead over Cevert/Ganley and Jabouille/Hobbs, with the Joest Porsche well back in fourth. De Cadenet's Duckhams was doing very well in fifth until a slow brakepad change and bodywork repair dropped behind it the remaining Alfa Romeo.
Finish and post-race
The rain returned with two hours to go and created havoc. Cevert, de Adamich and Craft were on slick tyres and all aquaplaned off the track approaching the waterlogged Esses. The Duckhams had the heaviest damage and fell to 12th before getting back on the track for the final lap. As a final twist, the third-placed Jabouille/Hobbs Matra 660 was stopped by gearbox problems with less than 90 minutes remaining, and the Spanish Porsche running 8th was stopped by a wheel-bearing failure in the final minutes.
In the end, the Matra 670 of Pescarolo and Hill took the chequered flag with a comfortable margin of eleven laps over their teammates Cevert and Ganley. This was the first victory of a French car since the Rosier's Talbot-Lago victory in 1950. It also made Graham Hill the first and, to date, only driver to win the Triple Crown of the 24 Hours of Le Mans, the Indianapolis 500 and the Formula One World Championship. Although aware of the bad accident, Hill was only told of Bonnier's death after the race and was deeply affected. They were former teammates, close friends and had been the “senior statesmen” of the Formula One grid in the early 1970s.
Nine laps further back in third was the unheralded Porsche 908LH driven by Reinhold Joest, Mario Casoni and Michel Weber. It was then a close flurry for the minor places: The sole remaining Alfa Romeo, of Vaccarella and de Adamich finished just a lap ahead of the French Ferrari of Ballot-Léna/Andruet. Charles Pozzi's car was first GT home and also won the Index of Thermal Efficiency doing about 6.75 mpg. A late-race spin for the NART Ferrari cost it time to repair, finishing two laps further back. In a strong performance, five of the nine Ferraris finished, with Mike Parkes’ Filipinetti car just overhauling the Belgian car in the last hour. All the other GT manufacturers had bad races with a number of engine problems. Chevrolet, De Tomaso and Porsche only had a single finisher each. Three months after the race, Porsche unveiled its new 911 customer model: the 2.7-litre Carrera RS to even up the competition in Group 4.
The advent of the Group 2 Touring Cars was successful, with two of the Ford Capris finishing, in 10th and 11th.
René Ligonnet's private entry Lola T290, coming home in 14th became the first Lola to finish at Le Mans.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text.
'Note *: Not Classified because insufficient distance covered.
Did Not Finish
Did Not Start
Class Winners
Note: setting a new class distance record.
Index of Thermal Efficiency
For Group 2 and Group 4 cars.
Statistics
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest Lap in practice –F.Cevert, #14 Matra-Simca MS670 – 3:42.2secs;
Fastest Lap – G. van Lennep, #8 Lola T280 – 3:46.9secs;
Winning Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
Attendance – ?
International Championship for Makes Standings
As calculated after Le Mans, Round 9 of 11
Note: Only the best 8 of 11 results counted to the final Championship points. The full total earned to date is given in brackets
Citations
References
Armstrong, Douglas – English editor (1972) Automobile Year #20 1972-73 Lausanne: Edita S.A.
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Ford and Matra Years 1966-1974' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1970-79 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1972 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 13 Jun 2018
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, quotes, YouTube links). Retrieved 13 Jun 2018
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 13 Jun 2018
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 13 Jun 2018
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 13 Jun 2018
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 13 Jun 2018
Motorsport Memorial – details of the year's fatal accidents. Retrieved 13 Jun 2018
YouTube – Colour footage of Matra's race (9mins). Retrieved 25 Jun 2018
YouTube – Colour footage of Porsche's race with German commentary (20mins). Retrieved 25 Jun 2018
YouTube – Colour amateur footage (no sound), in two parts (20mins). Retrieved 25 Jun 2018
YouTube – Vic Elford talks about Bonnier's fatal crash (2mins). Retrieved 25 Jun 2018
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1972 in French motorsport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%20Monger
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Iron Monger
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Iron Monger is an alias used by multiple fictional characters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The first character to use the alias is Obadiah Stane, who first appeared in Iron Man #163 (Oct. 1982). The Iron Monger armor first appeared in Iron Man #200 (Nov. 1985).
Obadiah Stane has appeared in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, portrayed by Jeff Bridges in the 2008 film Iron Man and the 2019 film Spider-Man: Far from Home (via archive footage), and voiced by Kiff VandenHeuvel in the animated series What If...?.
Publication history
Created by writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Luke McDonnell, the first character to use the alias is Obadiah Stane, who debuted in Iron Man #163 (Oct. 1982). The original Iron Monger armor that Stane wears makes its first appearance in Iron Man #200 (Nov. 1985), created by writer Dennis O'Neil and artist Mark Bright.
Fictional character biography
Obadiah Stane
When Obadiah Stane was a child, his father was a degenerate gambler and Obadiah's mother had already died. One day, his father considered himself on a "lucky streak," played a game of Russian roulette, and shot himself in the head while young Obadiah watched. This trauma caused Obadiah to go bald, and shaped his outlook on life. From then on, Stane was a ruthless manipulator who studied his adversaries to find weaknesses to exploit. Stane enjoys chess, and lives his life with the same kind of methodical logic that he uses in the game. In addition, he is a strong believer in using psychological manipulation to his advantage. For instance, in a childhood chess match against another boy whose skill at least equaled his own, he killed the boy's dog so that the other boy would be distracted from the game.
In adulthood, Obadiah Stane becomes the President and CEO of his own company Stane International as a munitions dealer. He also goes into business with Howard Stark. After the elder Stark's death in a car accident, Stane turns his sights on acquiring control of Stark International now owned by Tony Stark (Howard's son). Stane has his agents – known as the Chessmen – attack Stark Industries and assault James Rhodes (Tony's confidant). He also confronts the younger Stark in person. Stane also sets up Indries Moomji as Stark's lover without Stark knowing that Moomji is actually the Chessmen's Queen. Meanwhile, Stane and his associates conspire to lock Stark International out of various business deals. Stark eventually learns that Stane is the mastermind behind these attacks, but is unable to confront him. Stane's assaults on Stark's business and friends push Stark to the edge, relapsing into alcoholism. With S.H.I.E.L.D.'s help, Stane buys out Stark International which he renames Stane International. Stark (having fallen off the wagon) relinquishes Iron Man's armor to Rhodes and disappears to be a homeless vagrant while Rhodes as Iron Man ignores Stane's demands to relinquish Iron Man's armor. Rhodes eventually thwarts Stane in his attempt to take over Iron Man's battle-suits.
Looking through Stark Enterprises' records, Stane discovers Stark's notes on Iron Man's armor. The notes are incomplete and highly advanced, but Stane assigns a team of scientists to decipher; they eventually create the Iron Monger armor which is "far superior to Stark's Iron Man armor" according to Stane. He even considers selling the suit to the highest bidder or creating an army of Iron Mongers, using them to "take over any country he wanted".
Stane assigns the Termite to sabotage another business rival. He also forms an alliance with Madame Masque.
While living on the streets, Stark befriends pregnant homeless woman Gertl Anders who dies in childbirth, promising to protect the child which helps Stark overcome alcoholism to eventually confront Stane. Stark recovers, joining Rhodes and the Erwin twins (Morley and Clytemnestra) in starting a new company in Silicon Valley, which is then dubbed Circuits Maximus. Stark builds a new prototype armor, resembling his original gray suit, to test new designs; Stark ends up using the armor to stop the out-of-control Rhodes, and then to assist the West Coast Avengers against Doctor Demonicus, while using the Avengers' facilities to construct the advanced Silver Centurion armor.
Realizing that Stark is once again a potential threat, Stane orders Bethany Cabe's abduction, and plans an attack to take out Iron Man whom Stane believes is currently either Rhodes or one of the Erwins. He sends an attack drone known as the Circuits Breaker to destroy Iron Man which both Rhodes and Stark are able to defeat. Stane further plots against Stark by switching the minds of Madame Masque and Cabe, and by abducting Stark's old friends (Happy Hogan, Pepper Potts and Bambi Arbogast). Stane eventually detonates a bomb planted inside the Circuits Maximus dome, killing Morley while wounding Rhodes and Clytemnestra.
When Cly confronts Stark at the hospital, Tony faces Stane directly; Iron Man collects the newly completed Silver Centurion and flies to Long Island. Iron Man confronts Stane on Stane International's property and defeats Stane's agents, including the Chessmen who had proven a match for Iron Man's previous armor. Stane dons the Iron Monger armor and confronts Iron Man personally. The Iron Monger is more powerful than Iron Man's previous armor, but not the Silver Centurion model, which includes such features as the ability to absorb the heat from the Iron Monger's thermal rays and channel into the armor's own energy supplies. Stane tries to defeat Iron Man by tricking him into entering a room where Stark's friends (Happy, Pepper and Mrs. Arbogast) are being held in suspended animation tanks. The room's walls are covered with photo-electric cells that will send 200,000 volts into their bodies if Iron Man moves. Refusing to give in, Iron Man calmly uses his armor's sensors to find the power source of Stane's trap, and destroys it with his chest-plate's uni-beam weapon, which requires no movement to fire.
With Stark's friends freed, Iron Man confronts Stane and the villain learns that even in the Iron Monger armor, he is no match for Stark. Finally, Stane uses his last card: Gertl Anders's infant son whom Stane had abducted from an orphanage. Stane tells Iron Man to remove the helmet or he will crush the baby. Having detected interfering frequencies in the armor systems throughout the battle, Iron Man deduces that Stane is not experienced enough to pilot the Iron Monger armor without some help via an external computer. Stark uses his armor's pulse bolts to destroy the building containing that computer, causing Stane's Iron Monger armor to seize up. Stane (refusing to be arrested and humiliated) fires his repulsor ray beam into his head, disintegrating his skull.
When Stark would make a fresh start with the new company Stark Enterprises, Justin Hammer would take control of Stane International and continue Stane's unethical business practices. It's only when Stark himself is confronted over those practices that learning of Hammer's ownership stake and forces to sell the company back to Stark.
Stane was also an acquaintance of Sonny Burch at one point.
During the "Dark Reign" storyline, Stane in his Iron Monger armor was chosen as a member of Pluto's jury of the damned to decide the fate of Zeus. When the lord of Hades's power was undone, it was Iron Monger who laid the first blow.
During the "Chaos War" storyline, Stane is among the dead characters in the Underworld that Pluto released to defend the Underworld from Amatsu-Mikaboshi.
Other wearers of the Iron Monger armor
Industrialist Simon Steele constructs another suit of Iron Monger armor and has an employee wear it in battle against Dominic Fortune.
After Stane's death, the original Iron Monger armor was obtained by the United States government. General Lewis Haywerth has one of the Guardsmen use it to test the U.S. Agent's combat skills.
Joey Cosmatos was Tony Stark's former college classmate that builds a third version of Iron Monger suit from Obadiah's plans. This suit is worn by the criminal Slagmire, an operative of underworld boss Mr. Desmond.
The Red Skull later has one of his own agents use an Iron Monger suit in an assassination attempt against the Viper, but the suit's wearer is apparently killed by the Viper's men.
A group of renegade New York City Police Department officers calling themselves "the Cabal" commissions Stane International to design a suit of combat armor so they can hunt down and kill criminals like the Punisher. Various members of the Cabal wear the resulting Savage Steel armor at different times, coming into conflict with Iron Man and Darkhawk.
Zeke Stane
Ezekiel "Zeke" Stane is Obadiah Stane's son who would have a vendetta against Tony Stark in his father's name. Obadiah's son gradually adapts his body to be a cyborg to the extent he regenerates injuries very quickly, no longer needs to breathe, and generates at least as much energy as the Iron Man armor. He constructs a special exoskeleton to help him deal with excess heat (and turn into even more usable energy).
Powers and abilities
Obadiah Stane was a genius with an M.B.A.. He was a master of psychological warfare, a cunning business strategist, and a champion chess player. However, he had a classic narcissistic complex; his ego was his greatest vulnerability.
As Iron Monger, Stane also used the Circuits Breaker, a flying robotic weapon that fires air-to-surface missiles. He also used a device created by Dr. Theron Atlanta for exchanging the consciousness of two human subjects.
Armor
The Iron Monger armor, manufactured by Stane International and code-named I-M Mark One, is an armored battle-suit of "omnium steel" (a fictional alloy), containing various offensive weaponry including a powered exoskeleton that amplifies the user's strength, repulsor rays fired from the gauntlets, and an intense laser beam housed in the battle-suit's chest unit. The suit provides the user with the ability of subsonic flight, thanks to magnetically powered turbine boot jets. Since the Iron Monger armor was based on a modified version of Tony Stark's Iron Man design, the armor's abilities are very similar to the original red and gold armor, but with increased power. The repulsors are more powerful and the armor is also larger than the armor of Iron Man. It is presumably proportionally stronger as well. The Iron Monger (unlike the Iron Man armor) is also externally computer-controlled. Stane attempted to use the remote control to compensate for his lack of experience in using the armor – a vulnerability Stark exploited to disable the suit.
Other versions
Earth-6160
During the "Ultimate Invasion", Maker remade Earth-6160 into his own image. Obadiah Stane is an African-American man who is the business partner of Howard Stark. Both of them attended an event in The City at Latveria. When a clone army from the future attacks, Stane dons his armor to fight them until he is killed by a Vision clone.
Ultimate Marvel
The original Ultimate Marvel version of Obadiah Stane is shown as the young son of Loni Stane and Zebediah Stane. During a visit in jail, his mother divorces his father while he gets the other half. The story then fast forwards to Obadiah being enrolled in a special school at his mother's personal request. Shortly after their arrival, Obadiah murders a pair of students (Link and Dodge) and made it look like an accident which hardens Tony Stark's resolve to punish Obadiah. Later, Obadiah visits Howard Stark in jail and has the guards attempt to murder him but they failed. Obadiah reveals that he's working with Dolores and Dolores convinced Obadiah to try and murder Howard. Obadiah drugs a prison guard with a "hypnotizing" bio-drug, and the guard tries to kill Howard. He fails, but Howard gets shot in the process and is in the ICU and Tony sends War Machine to protect his father in the hospital. Iron Man goes to Obadiah's house and confronts him on setting up Howard and sending him to prison for Zebediah's murder. Obadiah says it was all Dolores' idea, and sets up a meeting with Dolores and Tony. Obadiah also figures out that the armor is not a robot, a fact he shares with Dolores before he meets with Tony.
Dolores and Tony make a deal. Dolores will give Tony the information about the terrorists with nukes who plan to bomb the city, and Tony will give Dolores one of his "robots". Tony, knowing that Dolores knows he wears the armor personally decides to trick him and actually bring an Iron Man suit that is remote controlled. Dolores and Tony meet on a plane together, holding each other hostage while their friends confirm each other's end of the bargain. Dolores is skeptical because the robot is not walking smoothly and is clumsy, and Tony is skeptical because the feds found a nuke but no terrorists with it, and the deal for terrorists. Dolores' men plan to kill the Federal agents who delivered them the robot, but Rhodes shows up to save them.
Tony then realizes that Dolores is no longer on the plane, and upon breaking into the cockpit he sees another nuke. He cannot disable it, because then a separate bomb will go off, destroying the nuke and plane. War Machine goes to Dolores' mansion, only to find him dead. Someone booby trapped his piano, and it blew up in his face while he was playing. Tony flies the plane low enough to the water that Obadiah can jump off into the water. He then gets his nanobots to disarm the nuke and set off the smaller bomb while he attempts to jump off the plane. They realize that another arms dealer was out to kill everyone (Dolores, Obadiah and Tony).
Meanwhile, Howard is recovered enough to go to prison, but the guards sent to escort him were not sent by the Police Department. Howard fights them off and escapes. Tony meets with him, and says that he thinks it was Loni that is the mastermind behind the scenes trying to kill them. Iron Man, War Machine, Nifara, Howard and Obadiah set off to Utah to find Loni. They arrive and their chopper explodes, injuring War Machine. Obadiah falls off a cliff, but Iron Man catches him as terrorists arrive on the scene. Iron Man flees, but follows them as they take Obadiah to his mother Loni and their hideout. Iron Man breaks into the compound and Loni floods it with poison gas trying to kill him, abandoning Obadiah. After Tony beats Loni and tends to Howard, Obadiah (mad that his mother abandoned him for dead with the poison gas) enters the room and kills her. However, he decides not to attack Tony, stating that he had saved his life several times and that they are now even. They are all picked up by the feds and go home.
The retconned Ultimate universe has the mastermind of Ultimate Comics: Armor Wars as Howard Stark Sr. in a human/machine armor that resembles Iron Monger with some elements of Titanium Man.
In other media
Television
Obadiah Stane appears in Iron Man: Armored Adventures, voiced by Mackenzie Gray. This version was Howard Stark's VP at Stark International. After the latter is presumed dead in a plane crash, Obadiah inherits the title of CEO as Howard's son Tony was not old enough to do so at the time. Throughout the series, Obadiah serves as an outspoken critic of Iron Man who wishes to possess his armor for himself while supplying criminals with technology from Howard's vault of abandoned projects. Despite his negative traits, Obadiah has at times showed compassion, which he directs primarily towards his daughter Whitney Stane. In the second season, Obadiah creates the Iron Monger mecha, but loses his position at Stark International after Tony discovers evidence that he hired the Ghost to steal Iron Man's armor specs, among other crimes. Seeking revenge, Obadiah uses the Iron Monger to go on a rampage until Whitney talks him down. However, Justin Hammer hijacks the mech's controls to attack the city, causing Obadiah to fall from a great height and end up in a coma. Whitney, as Madame Masque, later temporarily uses the Iron Monger mech to seek revenge against Iron Man, but he is able to defeat her.
Obadiah Stane appears in flashbacks in the Marvel Future Avengers episode "Secret Past of Iron Man", voiced by Yohei Azakami in Japanese and Benjamin Diskin in English. This version was defeated and imprisoned by Iron Man years before the events of the series, leading his son Ezekiel Stane to seek revenge.
Film
Obadiah Stane appears in a flashback in Iron Man: Rise of Technovore, voiced by Takaya Hashi in the Japanese version, and JB Blanc in the English dub.
Marvel Cinematic Universe
Jeff Bridges portrays Obadiah Stane in media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU):
Stane first appears in the live-action film Iron Man (2008). This version is a business partner to Howard Stark and mentor to Howard's son Tony Stark. However, Stane also plans to gain full control of Stark Industries from Tony, and hires the Ten Rings, whom he secretly and illegally sells Stark Industries weapons to, in an unsuccessful attempt to kill him. After subsequent events result in Tony ceasing the manufacturing of weapons, Stane gets an injunction on behalf of the company's shareholders to essentially throw Tony out and take it over before increasing his weapon sales to the Ten Rings. Upon finding out about Tony's Iron Man suit from the Ten Rings, Stane takes the MK I suit the terrorists had salvaged and reverse-engineers his own powered suit of armor before stealing Tony's personal arc reactor to power it. After Tony implants a replacement arc reactor in his chest, he confronts Stane as Iron Man in a battle that results in Stane's death.
Stane appears in a flashback in the live-action film Spider-Man: Far From Home (2019) via archival footage from Iron Man.
An alternate timeline version of Stane makes a minor appearance in the Disney+ animated series What If...? episode "What If... Killmonger Rescued Tony Stark?", voiced by Kiff VandenHeuvel. After Erik "Killmonger" Stevens rescues Tony from the Ten Rings, they return to Stark Industries and publicly expose Stane's involvement with the terrorists. Stane attempts to escape, but is knocked out by Happy Hogan.
Video games
The Obadiah Stane incarnation of Iron Monger appears as the final boss of the 2008 Iron Man film tie-in game, voiced by Fred Tatasciore. This version joined forces with A.I.M. to complete the Iron Monger armor.
The Obadiah Stane incarnation of Iron Monger, based on Jeff Bridges' portrayal, appears as a playable character in Lego Marvel's Avengers.
Toys
Three Iron Monger figures were released in the Iron Man film toy line by Hasbro, one of which features an "opening cockpit" that reveals Stane inside and another repainted to appear more like the comic version.
A figure of Iron Monger, based on his appearance in the Iron Man film, was released in wave 21 of the Marvel Minimates line, with a battle damaged version also released as a retailer exclusive.
A figure of Iron Monger, based on his appearance in the Iron Man film, was released in the "Iron Monger Attacks" 4-pack from the Marvel Super Hero Squad line, packaged with 2 figures of Iron Man and one of War Machine. A second figure, based on his comic book appearance, was released in the "Armor Wars: Part I" 3-pack, packaged with Iron Man and War Machine.
Two figures of Iron Monger were released in Hasbro's 3.75" Iron Man 2 film tie-in line. A figure based on his appearance in the Iron Man film was released in wave 1 and a figure based on the comic book armor was released in wave 4.
Hot Toys released a 1:6 scale Iron Monger figure based on his appearance in the Iron Man film in their "Movie Masterpiece" line.
Literature
An original incarnation of Iron Monger appears in the novel Spider-Man: Venom's Wrath. This version is a teenager named Daniel who is dressed in a "cheesy exoskeleton" and wields a laser weapon he calls a "hydrogel blast".
References
External links
Iron Monger at Marvel.com
Action film villains
Characters created by Dennis O'Neil
Comics characters introduced in 1982
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional suicides
Film supervillains
Iron Man characters
Male film villains
Marvel Comics businesspeople
Marvel Comics film characters
Marvel Comics male supervillains
Marvel Comics scientists
Marvel Comics supervillains
Villains in animated television series
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4755754
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Trek%3A%20The%20Next%20Generation%20%28pinball%29
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Star Trek: The Next Generation (pinball)
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Star Trek: The Next Generation is a widebody pinball game, designed by Steve Ritchie and released in November 1993 by Williams Electronics. It was part of WMS' SuperPin series (see also The Twilight Zone and Indiana Jones: The Pinball Adventure), and was based on the TV series. It is the only pinball machine that features three separate highscore-lists. Apart from the regular highscore-list and the buy-in-list, it also features a reminiscence to The Machine: Bride of Pin*Bot billionaires club. It is also the third pinball game overall based on the Star Trek franchise, following the 1979 pinball game by Bally, and the 1991 game by Data East (both based on the original series), and preceding the 2013 pinball game by Stern (based on the 2009 J. J. Abrams film).
Production notes
According to an interview, Steve Ritchie, a longtime Star Trek fan, stated that getting the license was a challenge, due to Paramount insisting that they don't want to put any violence in the game; however, he told them that he would never violate the Prime Directive.
Originally, the game was supposed to be based on the 1992 film, Under Siege.
The game uses the DCS Sound System and includes voice clips recorded by the cast of the television series, with:
Patrick Stewart as Captain Jean-Luc Picard
Jonathan Frakes as Commander William Riker
Brent Spiner as Lieutenant Commander Data
Gates McFadden as Dr. Beverly Crusher
Michael Dorn as Lieutenant Worf
Marina Sirtis as Counselor Deanna Troi
LeVar Burton as Lieutenant Commander Geordi La Forge
Majel Barrett as the computer voice
John de Lancie as Q.
Launch options
When a new ball is launched into the plunger, the player is given one of five launch awards, which is selected when the ball is fired. Unless otherwise noted, the ball is launched through the spiral ramp and into the lock hole (above the pop bumpers). Another ball is popped from the left scoop and onto the left inlanes.
Start Mission: Starts lit mission.
Flipper Skill Shot: The player has to shoot the ball up the right ramp (the Beta Quadrant) for a random award.
Launch Probe: The ball will be loaded into one of the two cannons, located on top of the slings. Shoot the lit target for a random award. If the player misses, Data will say, "The probe has discovered nothing, sir".
Light Lock / Light Holodeck: Lights the ball lock, and the ball gets locked for multiball. When this option is selected twice, "Light Lock" changes to "Light Holodeck".
Warp Factor: Starts the ball at Warp Factor 4. After the player reaches Warp 9, (depending on the ROM version), the award changes to Warp 9.1, up to 9.9 (the player has only a limited amount of time to make either the left circle or Delta ramp for each point), then changes to "Warp Factor 2". The ball is sent to the pop bumpers.
Scoring and Game Modes
There are several ways to score points outside of the missions as well as unlocking certain game modes. The following modes are available:
Explosive Millions - Shooting the Alpha Quadrant or Beta Quadrant ramps unlocks Explosive Millions. Shooting the same or opposite ramp awards 5 million points, followed by 10 million for another shot, which compounds by 10 million every shot. The player has ten seconds to hit the ramp to score or the mode ends.
Bonus Multipliers - Hitting all three rollover lanes above the bumpers will increase the bonus multiplier for that ball. The first completion raises it to 2X, and subsequent steps raise it 2X at a time to a maximum of 10X. When the 8X is achieved, the Extra Ball light is lit in the "Start Mission" pocket. When the multiplier is maxed, completing the rollovers again awards 10 million, with the value increasing by 10 million every time afterward
Holodeck - The player has two choices. Score 25 million points, or play the "video mode" shuttle cavern. If the player selects the video mode, the player has to go through the caverns in a shuttle, picking up 10 million point cards while avoiding mines and cavern walls. There is an extra ball card somewhere in the caverns, as well as artifact (see below). Reaching the Extra Ball is achieved by alternating Left, Left, Right, Right turns until cavern 7. Depending on how many Extra Balls have already been earned and the games Extra Ball probability configuration it may end up either an Extra Ball or a 10 million point card. Once an Extra Ball has been earned in the Holodeck all subsequent Holodeck runs will not award any Extra Balls, regardless of the path chosen. Collecting the artifact, clearing all caverns, or crashing into a mine or wall immediately ends the video mode scoring the points collected in the mode. A maximum score of 159 million points is possible for a flawless run.
At the start of the Holodeck mode, pressing a flipper button along with pulling the launch trigger starts a "Riker's Poker Night" video mode.
Kickback - Shooting the three left yellow targets lights Kickback, which saves the ball from draining from the left outlane. If the game is in tournament mode this must initially be earned. Otherwise the game starts out with the Kickback lit. The Kickback can be recharged unlimited times by hitting the appropriate targets after it had been depleted.
Shuttles - Each shot to the Beta Quadrant ramp launches one shuttle. Awards such as Light Holodeck, Command Decision, and Light Extra Ball are given for reaching set numbers of shuttles. The ramp entrance is flanked by a pair of stand-up targets, either of which enables the ramp to award two shuttles for a few seconds when hit. If the player hits both targets and then shoots the ramp, four shuttles are awarded.
Once five extra balls are earned during game, for each one earned thereafter, points will be added.
"Missions"
The game features seven "missions/episodes" the player must complete before entering The Final Frontier:
Time Rift
Worm Hole
Search The Galaxy
Battle Simulation
Q's Challenge
Rescue
Asteroid Threat
There are various marked targets around the playfield with the Star Trek insignia. Different combinations of these are lit for different modes, indicating which shots the player needs to make. These modes are not stackable, meaning the player must complete one mission before starting another. There is a hole in the center at the top of the playfield labelled "Start Mission" which will start a mission at any time if the player makes the shot. In addition, hitting the lit "Command Decision" Target allows the player to select which mission to attempt, including already attempted missions (marked as "rerun" missions; varies from no allowable "reruns" to unlimited "reruns", depending on the machine's settings).
In all missions except Q's challenge, if the player fails to complete certain objectives by losing the ball to the drain, Data will say, "Had you projected the ball along the proper trajectory, you would have been rewarded." Pressing both flippers during this line activates an Easter egg, in which Picard will interrupt Data and say, "Thank you, Mr. Data." The Easter egg also adds 10 million points to the score.
"Artifacts"
Each Mission can award one or more "Artifacts", which add to the value and bonuses of the "Final Frontier" Mission. (Artifacts can also be earned during Warp Mode — see "Warp Factors" below - or in the Holodeck video mode.) These Artifacts are, in award order, Dilithium Crystals, an Isolinear Chip, a Duranium Sphere, and a Singing Stone. Once all four Artifacts are awarded, the order starts again with the Dilithium Crystals. Thus, multiples of each Artifact can be awarded. Every Artifact collected is worth 50 million points.
List of Missions
Time Rift
All the signature targets are lit and worth 10 million points. Hitting the Time Rift targets to the left cause the count down timer to add time and the bonus amount to increase by 5 million. Both the time increases and the bonus amount top out once the bonus reaches 25 million; further hits add no extra time or score. Each time the target is hit, a different character speaks. One Artifact is awarded after hitting any 4 Rift Markers (duplicates count).
Worm Hole
The left orbit, Beta Quadrant/Shuttle ramp, and Delta Quardant/Worm Hole ramp are lit. The goal is to shoot the Worm Hole ramp. This is facilitated by hitting the Shuttle ramp, which feeds the right flipper to shoot the left orbit, which feeds the upper right flipper to the Worm Hole ramp. Each completed Shuttle ramp shot increases the value of the Worm Hole target by 10 million, as does the left orbit spinner by 1 million per "spin". Failure to hit the Worm Hole ramp before time expires awards a flat 20 million. Completing the Worm Hole awards the accumulated points and an Artifact.
Search The Galaxy
The three ramp targets light up. Riker tells the player to "set course for the Alpha Quadrant". Technically, the targets can be complete in any order, but if done in the order of Alpha, Beta, and Delta, the Neutral Zone target lights up as a fourth target and is considered the "Gamma Quadrant". After completing a target, Riker orders the player to set course for the next target not yet reached. Base award is 5 million; each Quadrant completed adds 10 million times the order hit. Completing the three Ramp Quadrants in any order awards one Artifact; completing in order AND getting the "Gamma Quadrant" awards a second Artifact and 40 million more points.
Battle Simulation
A ball is loaded up in one of the cannons and the player must either shoot the Neutral Zone targets/hole or the Start Mission hole. The targets alternate, and if successful, another ball is loaded in the other cannon. If the player misses, then they must hit the ball into either of the targets or the Advance Rank hole in order to have another ball loaded into a cannon. Sometimes a player can hit the target of the Neutral Zone, get credit, but not actually sink the ball and have to recover from that. Completing the first 5 "Levels" awards an Artifact. If completed without "losing" the ball to the playfield, it activates a Level 6 which—if hit—awards an extra ball.
Q's Challenge
Q shows up and greets Picard as he often does in the TV series, "Bonjour, mon Capitaine!". Picard responds, "Q, what are you doing here?" Q says, "Let's play a little game." As the ball is being served up to the left flipper, Riker replies, "Q, we don't have time for your games." A couple of the signature targets is lit. There is a tiny target in front of the foremost pop bumpers that has "Q" shown on it. Any time the player hits it, another target lights up. As the player hits targets, others light up. Each completed target awards 10 million times the order hit. Each target also has a time out, where it will fade after a given time period. Completing five Q targets awards an Artifact. If the player drains the ball through the outlanes, or does hit the proper targets, there are several cracks that Q will make:
"Someday you'll learn to play pinball."
"And you were doing so well."
"Pity."
"Is that the best you can do?"
"OK, that's enough."
"Congratulations!"
"Not bad, not bad at all."
"Now, try this!"
Rescue
The goal is to rescue 50 Starfleet personnel. The Alpha ramp, Start Mission, and shuttle ramp targets light up. Any targets on the playfield that get hit cause personnel to be loaded onto the shuttle. Hitting either the Alpha ramp or the shuttle ramp will rescue the personnel currently loaded. When the player hits the Start Mission target, Riker says, "Five to beam up", and an animated graphic plays showing five personnel being rescued. When the player has hit enough targets that there are no more personnel to load, the computer voice instructs the player to board the shuttle at once. Getting 25 personnel to "safety" (either aboard the shuttle OR beamed up) awards one Artifact; saving all 50 awards a second Artifact.
Asteroid Threat
The Start Mission shot lights up as a hurry-up value begins to count down from 20 million and the ship enters an asteroid field. Hitting the shot awards the points, destroys an asteroid, and starts a 30-second timer with all seven major shots lit for the same value. If the countdown reaches 5 million, the asteroid explodes on its own and the timer begins to run with all shots set at 5 million. Each shot destroys another asteroid and goes out of play after being hit. One artifact is awarded for destroying a total of four asteroids, including the one in the initial hurry-up; a second one is given for making every shot before time runs out.
The Final Frontier (Wizard Mode)
After completing all the other missions, Final Frontier can be started by shooting Start Mission or choosing it in a Command Decision. The player receives 100 million points for each individual artifact collected, and an additional billion points for each complete set of four. All six balls are put into play, with the first two fired by the player from the cannons and the other four being auto-plunged. Every major shot is lit, awarding 25 million points times the number of artifacts collected (to a maximum of 250 million), or 10 million if the player has no artifacts. This mode continues until five balls have drained.
Warp Factors
At the start of each ball, the warp factor is set to 1. The right inlane will light the left loop to award a warp factor; the ball must travel fully around the loop in order to advance. Until Warp 9 is reached for the first time, each shot to the Delta Quadrant (left ramp) will also advance the warp factor. Awards for each factor are as follows:
Warp Factor 2: 5 million points.
Warp Factor 3: Million Jets Are Lit. Each pop bumper hit is worth 1 million points in addition to increasing the Borg Jackpot (see below).
Warp Factor 4: Spinner Is Lit. Each turn of the spinner target has its value multiplied by 100 (from 1,000 to 100,000, for example). This increase can only be earned once per ball.
Warp Factor 5: Multipliers Are Held. The player's bonus multiplier at the end of the current ball is carried over to the start of the next one.
Warp Factor 6: Return Lanes Are Lit. The left inlane starts Hurry Up, a bonus score that counts down from 50 million points to 10 million points, and is collected by shooting the right loop. The right inlane starts Super Spinner, in which the spinner awards 10 million points per spin for a limited time; rolling the ball through the inlane again resets the timer.
Warp Factor 7: Double Spinner. This doubles the base value for each turn of the spinner; maxing at 255,000 points [25,500,000 if Warp Factor 4 is active].
Warp Factor 8: Extra Ball Lit. This award is collected by shooting the Start Mission Scoop.
Warp Factor 9: Starts Warp Factor 9 mode. The goal in this mode is to shoot the left loop and/or the Delta Quadrant to advance the level in increments of 0.1 (Warp 9.1, Warp 9.2, etc.), until the engine maxes out at Warp Factor 9.9. Each increment awards points, starting at 20 million with Warp 9.1, and increasing 5 million per increment, maxing out at 60 million points once Warp 9.9 is reached. The player has 10 seconds to make each shot, as counted down by Geordi La Forge. This mode ends when the player drains the ball, fails to make a shot before time runs out, or reaches Warp 9.9; afterward, the warp factor resets to 1.
If the player chooses the "Warp Factor 4" option before plunging the ball, the awards for Warp Factors 2, 3, and 4 all go into effect.
Once Warp Factor 9 mode has been played for the first time, the following changes go into effect:
The "Warp Factor 4" plunger option changes to "Warp Factor 2," awarding 5 million if chosen.
Reaching Warp Factor 8 awards an artifact (see "Missions" above) instead of lighting an extra ball.
The left ramp no longer advances the warp factor, but does remain in play for Warp Factor 9 mode.
If the player locks a ball during Warp Factor 9 mode, the "Warp Factor 4" option changes to award an increment of 0.1 and the corresponding points.
Neutral Zone
Three targets plus a hole in front of the middle one. Shoot the targets three times to light one of the following three missions at random (announced by Worf), then shoot the hole to start it.
Ferengi: A multiball that starts with two balls in play. Each shot to the Neutral Zone within the first 10 seconds adds one ball, to a maximum of four. The Start Mission scoop awards a jackpot that starts at 10 million times the number of balls in play, and every hit to the left bank of stand-up targets adds 2 million to the jackpot to a maximum of 70 million.
Romulan: Three Romulan Warbirds will appear (left orbit, Alpha Quadrant ramp and Beta Quadrant ramp) which the player can force to cloak by shooting the corresponding shot. The mission goal is to cloak all ships simultaneously for a 30 million award. Hitting any of the righthand "Klingon Assistance" targets brings a Klingon Bird-of-prey out of cloak, thus blocking one of the Warbirds (first hit blocks the left orbit ship, second the Beta Quadrant ramp ship; the Alpha Quadrant ramp is never "blocked") and expediting completion of the goal.
Cardassian: A two-ball multiball in which a jackpot can be collected by shooting any Neutral Zone target. The value of the jackpot depends on the shield strength of the Enterprise as follows:
Shields at 100%: 50 Million
Shields at 83%: 30 Million
Shields at 66%: 25 Million
Shields at 50%: 20 Million
Shields at 33%: 15 Million
Shields at 17%: 10 Million
Shields at 0%: 5 Million
During this mission, a Cardassian ship occasionally fires at the Enterprise, damaging its shields and reducing the jackpot. As with Borg Multiball (see below), shots to the spinner repair the shields and raise the jackpot.
Borg Multiball
All hits of the upper playfield pop bumpers increase the base "Borg Jackpot" amount awarded in Borg Multiball mode. To start the mode, and thus the battle with the Borg ship, the player needs to lock three balls. Locks are lit by shooting the right orbit (or selecting "Light Lock" on the start of a ball). Then shoot the right orbit again (or — if either or both are lit — the Delta Quadrant ramp or the Neutral Zone) to lock a ball. The player will then either hear the Borg tell Picard, "If you do not surrender now, you will be destroyed!", or, Picard will announce, "Send to Starfleet: we have engaged the Borg!"
After locking the third ball, Multiball will start with one ball placed into the left cannon and the "Start Mission" hole lit. Shooting the hole damages the Borg Ship and scores the Jackpot. A second hit will score a Double Jackpot, and a third hit destroys the Borg ship and scores the Triple Jackpot. In addition, each cannon shot in the "Start Mission" hole adds 10 million points to the Jackpot. After a Triple Jackpot, levels reset to Single Jackpot, allowing for multiple Triple Jackpots.
The full Multiball mode will start as soon as the player misses a cannon shot or after scoring the Triple Jackpot from the cannon shot, where Picard will call out All hands, prepare for Multiball! During Multiball, "Start Mission" will score cycling Jackpot/Double Jackpot/Triple Jackpot and the left ramp a Triple Jackpot. As the Enterprise is being shot at by the Borg, the "Shields" will drop in strength (from one to three units as with the Cardassian Neutral Zone Mission above). "Start Mission" Jackpots will be unlit as soon as the Shields reach 0%. By hitting the spinner in the left orbit, the shields are rebuilt and the "Start Mission" Jackpot is reactivated.
If a player scores a Triple Jackpot from the Delta Quadrant ramp, the Borg will automatically open fire on the Enterprise and the ball will shoot out of the Borg ship. Any jackpots scored through the "Start Mission" pocket will remain claimed, i.e. if the player has scored a Jackpot and a Double Jackpot, and scores a Triple Jackpot via the Delta Quadrant ramp, sinking the ball through the "Start Mission" pocket will award a Triple Jackpot.
Should the player score at least one Triple Jackpot during the multiball, at the end of the game during the Match Game, the player will hear this dialogue from Picard: "Captain's Log, supplemental: The crew performed admirably in dispatching the Borg threat."
Ranks
Light all three multiplier lanes (above the jet bumpers) to advance bonus and light Advance in Rank at the upper left sinkhole. Ranks add to the end-of-ball bonus count as follows:
Ensign: 5 million (player starts the game with this rank)
Lieutenant: 10 million
Lieutenant Commander: 15 million
Commander: 20 million
Captain: 25 million
Once the player reaches Captain, a successful Advance in Rank shot awards an immediate 100 million.
High Score Lists
Star Trek: The Next Generation is the only pinball machine to feature three separate high score lists. At the end of a game, the player may receive a "buy-in" extra ball in exchange for one credit, either by inserting coins or by using a credit already on the machine. The maximum number of buy-ins per game can be set by the machine operator.
The high scores are classified as follows:
Honor Roll: The highest scores with no more than one buy-in.
Officer's Club: The highest scores with two or more buy-ins.
Q Continuum: Scores of 10 billion or higher, with any number of buy-ins.
Grand Champion: Highest score of all with no more than one buy-in; separate from the other lists.
If a player makes the Officer's Club or Honor Roll, or is Grand Champion, Worf will say, "You are an honorable player!"
Digital version
Star Trek: The Next Generation pinball was available as a licensed machine of The Pinball Arcade for several platforms. (No longer available as of June 30, 2018.)
An unlicensed version is also available for Visual Pinball.
References
External links
IPDB entry for Star Trek: The Next Generation
TNG Pinball Notes from the Pinball Archive
Star Trek TNG technical help article
Pinball machines based on Star Trek
Williams pinball machines
Star Trek: The Next Generation
1993 pinball machines
Television
Pinball machines based on television series
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20vegetable%20oils
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List of vegetable oils
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Vegetable oils are triglycerides extracted from plants. Some of these oils have been part of human culture for millennia. Edible vegetable oils are used in food, both in cooking and as supplements. Many oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, such as in oil lamps and as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels. Some of the many other uses include wood finishing, oil painting, and skin care.
Definition
The term "vegetable oil" can be narrowly defined as referring only to substances that are liquid at room temperature, or broadly defined without regard to a substance's state (liquid or solid) at a given temperature. While a large majority of the entries in this list fit the narrower of these definitions, some do not qualify as vegetable oils according to all understandings of the term.
Classification
Vegetable oils can be classified in several ways. For instance, by their use or by the method used to extract them. In this article, vegetable oils are grouped in common classes of use.
Extraction method
There are several types of plant oils, distinguished by the method used to extract the oil from the plant. The relevant part of the plant may be placed under pressure to extract the oil, giving an expressed (or pressed) oil. The oils included in this list are of this type. Oils may also be extracted from plants by dissolving parts of plants in water or another solvent. The solution may be separated from the plant material and concentrated, giving an extracted or leached oil. The mixture may also be separated by distilling the oil away from the plant material. Oils extracted by this latter method are called essential oils. Essential oils often have different properties and uses than pressed or leached vegetable oils. Finally, macerated oils are made by infusing parts of plants in a base oil, a process called liquid–liquid extraction.
Sources and Uses
Most, but not all vegetable oils are extracted from the fruits or seeds of plants. For instance, palm oil is extracted from palm fruits, while soybean oil is extracted from soybean seeds.
Vegetable oils may also be classified by grouping oils extracted from similar plants, such as "nut oils".
Although most plants contain some oil, only the oil from certain major oil crops complemented by a few dozen minor oil crops is widely used and traded.
Use
Oils from plants are used for several different purposes. Edible vegetable oils may be used for cooking, or as food additives. Many vegetable oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, for instance as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels. Some may be also used for cosmetics, medical purposes, wood finishing, oil painting and other industrial purposes.
Edible oils
Major oils
These oils make up a significant fraction of worldwide edible oil production. All are also used as fuel oils.
Coconut oil, a cooking oil, with medical and industrial applications as well. Extracted from the kernel or meat of the fruit of the coconut palm. Common in the tropics, and unusual in composition, with medium chain fatty acids dominant.
Corn oil, one of the principal oils sold as salad and cooking oil.
Cottonseed oil, used as a salad and cooking oil, both domestically and industrially.
Olive oil, used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps, and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps.
Palm oil, the most widely produced tropical oil. Popular in West African and Brazilian cuisine. Also used to make biofuel.
Peanut oil (Ground nut oil), a clear oil with some applications as a salad dressing, and, due to its high smoke point, especially used for frying.
Rapeseed oil, including Canola oil, the most sold cooking oil all around the world; used as a salad and cooking oil, both domestically and industrially. Also used in fuel industry as bio-fuel.
Safflower oil, until the 1960s used in the paint industry, now mostly as a cooking oil.
Sesame oil, cold pressed as light cooking oil, hot pressed for a darker and stronger flavor.
Soybean oil, produced as a byproduct of processing soy meal.
Sunflower oil, a common cooking oil, also used to make biodiesel.
Nut oils
Nut oils are generally used in cooking, for their flavor. Most are quite costly, because of the difficulty of extracting the oil.
Almond oil, used as an edible oil, but primarily in the manufacture of cosmetics.
Beech nut oil, from Fagus sylvatica nuts, is a well-regarded edible oil in Europe, used for salads and cooking.
Brazil nut oil contains 75% unsaturated fatty acids composed mainly of oleic and linolenic acids, as well as the phytosterol, beta-sitosterol, and fat-soluble vitamin E. Extra virgin oil can be obtained during the first pressing of the nuts, possibly for use as a substitute for olive oil due to its mild, pleasant flavor.
Cashew oil, somewhat comparable to olive oil. May have value for fighting dental cavities.
Jamaican cobnut oil, a sweet, fine-flavored oil pressed from the seeds of Omphalea triandra in the tropical Americas. It is also reported to be used as a lubricant.
Hazelnut oil, mainly used for its flavor. Also used in skin care, because of its slight astringent nature.
Macadamia oil, with a mild nutty flavor and a high smoke point.
Mongongo nut oil (or manketti oil), from the seeds of the Schinziophyton rautanenii, a tree which grows in South Africa. High in vitamin E. Also used in skin care.
Pecan oil, valued as a food oil, but requiring fresh pecans for good quality oil.
Pine nut oil, sold as a gourmet cooking oil, and of potential medicinal interest as an appetite suppressant.
Pistachio oil, a strongly flavored oil with a distinctive green color.
Walnut oil, used for its flavor, also used by Renaissance painters in oil paints.
Pumpkin seed oil
Citrus oils
A number of citrus plants yield pressed oils. Some, such as lemon and orange oil, are used as essential oils, which is uncommon for pressed oils.<ref
group="note">Lime oil, for example, is distilled, not pressed. See Jackson, p. 131</ref> The seeds of many if not most members of the citrus family yield usable oils.
Grapefruit seed oil, extracted from the seeds of grapefruit (Citrus × paradisi). Grapefruit seed oil was extracted experimentally in 1930 and was shown to be suitable for making soap.
Lemon oil, similar in fragrance to the fruit. One of a small number of cold pressed essential oils. Used as a flavoring agent and in aromatherapy.
Orange oil, like lemon oil, cold pressed rather than distilled. Consists of 90% d-Limonene. Used as a fragrance, in cleaning products and in flavoring foods.
Oils from melon and gourd seeds
Members of the Cucurbitaceae include gourds, melons, pumpkins, and squashes. Seeds from these plants are noted for their oil content, but little information is available on methods of extracting the oil. In most cases, the plants are grown as food, with dietary use of the oils as a byproduct of using the seeds as food.
Bitter gourd oil, from the seeds of Momordica charantia. High in α-Eleostearic acid. Of current research interest for its potential anti-carcinogenic properties.
Bottle gourd oil, extracted from the seeds of the Lagenaria siceraria, widely grown in tropical regions. Used as an edible oil.
Buffalo gourd oil, from the seeds of the Cucurbita foetidissima, a vine with a rank odor, native to southwest North America.
Butternut squash seed oil, from the seeds of Cucurbita moschata, has a nutty flavor that is used for salad dressings, marinades, and sautéeing.
Egusi seed oil, from the seeds of Cucumeropsis mannii naudin, is particularly rich in linoleic acid.
Pumpkin seed oil, a specialty cooking oil, produced in Austria, Slovenia and Croatia. Used mostly in salad dressings.
Watermelon seed oil, pressed from the seeds of Citrullus vulgaris. Traditionally used in cooking in West Africa.
Food supplements
A number of oils are used as food supplements (or "nutraceuticals"), for their nutrient content or purported medicinal effect. Borage seed oil, blackcurrant seed oil, and evening primrose oil all have a significant amount of gamma-Linolenic acid (GLA) (about 23%, 15–20% and 7–10%, respectively), and it is this that has drawn the interest of researchers.
Açaí oil, from the fruit of several species of the Açaí palm (Euterpe) grown in the Amazon region.
Black seed oil, pressed from Nigella sativa seeds, has a long history of medicinal use, including in ancient Greek, Asian, and Islamic medicine, as well as being a topic of current medical research.
Blackcurrant seed oil, from the seeds of Ribes nigrum, used as a food supplement. High in gamma-Linolenic, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.
Borage seed oil, from the seeds of Borago officinalis.
Evening primrose oil, from the seeds of Oenothera biennis, the most important plant source of gamma-Linolenic acid, particularly because it does not contain alpha-Linolenic acid.
Flaxseed oil (called linseed oil when used as a drying oil), from the seeds of Linum usitatissimum. High in omega-3 and lignans, which can be used medicinally. A good dietary equivalent to fish oil. Easily turns rancid.
Other edible oils
Amaranth oil, from the seeds of grain amaranth species, including Amaranthus cruentus and Amaranthus hypochondriacus, high in squalene and unsaturated fatty acids.
Apricot oil, similar to almond oil, which it resembles. Used in cosmetics.
Apple seed oil, high in linoleic acid.
Argan oil, from the seeds of the Argania spinosa, is a food oil from Morocco developed through a women's cooperative founded in the 1990s, that has also attracted recent attention in Europe.
Avocado oil, an edible oil used primarily in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. Unusually high smoke point of .
Babassu oil, from the seeds of the Attalea speciosa, is similar to, and used as a substitute for, coconut oil.
Ben oil, extracted from the seeds of the Moringa oleifera. High in behenic acid. Extremely stable edible oil. Also suitable for biofuel.
Borneo tallow nut oil, extracted from the fruit of species of genus Shorea. Used as a substitute for cocoa butter, and to make soap, candles, cosmetics and medicines in places where the tree is common.
Cape chestnut oil, also called yangu oil, is a popular oil in Africa for skin care.
Carob pod oil (Algaroba oil), from carob, with an exceptionally high essential fatty acid content.
Cocoa butter, from the cacao plant, is used in the manufacture of chocolate, as well as in some ointments and cosmetics; sometimes known as theobroma oil
Cocklebur oil, from species of genus Xanthium, with similar properties to poppyseed oil, similar in taste and smell to sunflower oil.
Cohune oil, from the Attalea cohune (cohune palm) used as a lubricant, for cooking, soapmaking and as a lamp oil.
Coriander seed oil, from coriander seeds, used in a wide variety of flavoring applications, including gin and seasoning blends. Recent research has shown promise for use in killing food-borne bacteria, such as E. coli.
Date seed oil, extracted from date pits. Its low extraction rate and lack of other distinguishing characteristics make it an unlikely candidate for major use.
Dika oil, from Irvingia gabonensis seeds, native to West Africa. Used to make margarine, soap and pharmaceuticals, where is it being examined as a tablet lubricant. Largely underdeveloped.
False flax oil made of the seeds of Camelina sativa. One of the earliest oil crops, dating back to the 6th millennium B.C. Produced in modern times in Central and Eastern Europe; fell out of production in the 1940s. Considered promising as a food or fuel oil.
Grape seed oil, a cooking and salad oil, also sprayed on raisins to help them retain their flavor.
Hemp oil, a high quality food oil also used to make paints, varnishes, resins and soft soaps.
Kapok seed oil, from the seeds of Ceiba pentandra, used as an edible oil, and in soap production.
Kenaf seed oil, from the seeds of Hibiscus cannabinus. An edible oil similar to cottonseed oil, with a long history of use.
Lallemantia oil, from the seeds of Lallemantia iberica, discovered at archaeological sites in northern Greece.
Mafura oil, extracted from the seeds of Trichilia emetica. Used as an edible oil in Ethiopia. Mafura butter, extracted as part of the same process when extracting the oil, is not edible, and is used in soap and candle making, as a body ointment, as fuel, and medicinally.
Marula oil, extracted from the kernel of Sclerocarya birrea. Used as an edible oil with a light, nutty flavor. Also used in soaps. Fatty acid composition is similar to that of olive oil.
Meadowfoam seed oil, highly stable oil, with over 98% long-chain fatty acids. Competes with rapeseed oil for industrial applications.
Mustard oil (pressed), used in India as a cooking oil. Also used as a massage oil.
Niger seed oil is obtained from the edible seeds of the Niger plant, which belongs to the genus Guizotia of the family Asteraceae. The botanical name of the plant is Guizotia abyssinica. Cultivation for the plant originated in the Ethiopian highlands, and has since spread from Malawi to India.
Nutmeg butter, extracted by expression from the fruit of cogeners of genus Myristica. Nutmeg butter has a large amount of trimyristin. Nutmeg oil, by contrast, is an essential oil, extracted by steam distillation.
Okra seed oil, from Abelmoschus esculentus. Composed predominantly of oleic and linoleic acids. The greenish yellow edible oil has a pleasant taste and odor.
Papaya seed oil, high in omega-3 and omega-6, similar in composition to olive oil. Not to be confused with papaya oil produced by maceration.
Perilla seed oil, high in omega-3 fatty acids. Used as an edible oil, for medicinal purposes in Asian herbal medicine, in skin care products and as a drying oil.
Persimmon seed oil, extracted from the seeds of Diospyros virginiana. Dark, reddish-brown color, similar in taste to olive oil. Nearly equal content of oleic and linoleic acids.
Pequi oil, extracted from the seeds of Caryocar brasiliense. Used in Brazil as a highly prized cooking oil.
Pili nut oil, extracted from the seeds of Canarium ovatum. Used in the Philippines as an edible oil, as well as for a lamp oil.
Pomegranate seed oil, from Punica granatum seeds, is very high in punicic acid (which takes its name from pomegranates). A topic of current medical research for treating and preventing cancer.
Poppyseed oil, long used for cooking, in paints, varnishes, and soaps.
Pracaxi oil, extracted from the seeds of Pentaclethra macroloba. Similar to peanut oil, but has a high concentration of behenic acid (19%).
Prune kernel oil, marketed as a gourmet cooking oil Similar in composition to peach kernel oil.
Quinoa oil, similar in composition and use to corn oil.
Ramtil oil, pressed from the seeds of the one of several species of genus Guizotia abyssinica (Niger pea) in India and Ethiopia.
Rice bran oil is a highly stable cooking and salad oil, suitable for high-temperature cooking. It also has potential as a biofuel.
Royle oil, pressed from the seeds of Prinsepia utilis, a wild, edible oil shrub that grows in the higher Himalayas. Used medicinally in Nepal.
Sacha inchi oil, from the Peruvian Amazon. High in behenic, omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.
Sapote oil, used as a cooking oil in Guatemala.
Seje oil, from the seeds of Jessenia bataua. Used in South America as an edible oil, similar to olive oil, as well as for soaps and in the cosmetics industry.
Shea butter, much of which is produced by, African women. Used primarily in skin care products and as a substitute for cocoa butter in confections and cosmetics.
Taramira oil, from the seeds of the arugula (Eruca sativa), grown in West Asia and Northern India. Used as a (pungent) edible oil after aging to remove acridity.
Tea seed oil (Camellia oil), widely used in southern China as a cooking oil. Also used in making soaps, hair oils and a variety of other products.
Thistle oil, pressed from the seeds of Silybum marianum. A good potential source of special fatty acids, carotenoids, tocopherols, phenol compounds and natural anti-oxidants, as well as for generally improving the nutritional value of foods.
Tigernut oil (or nut-sedge oil) is pressed from the tuber of Cyperus esculentus. It has properties similar to soybean, sunflower and rapeseed oils. It is used in cooking and making soap and has potential as a biodiesel fuel.
Tobacco seed oil, from the seeds of Nicotiana tabacum and other Nicotiana species. Edible if purified.
Tomato seed oil is a potentially valuable by-product, as a cooking oil, from the waste seeds generated from processing tomatoes.
Wheat germ oil, used nutritionally and in cosmetic preparations, high in vitamin E and octacosanol.
Oils used for biofuel
A number of oils are used for biofuel (biodiesel and Straight Vegetable Oil) in addition to having other uses. Other oils are used only as biofuel.
Although diesel engines were invented, in part, with vegetable oil in mind, diesel fuel is almost exclusively petroleum-based. Vegetable oils are evaluated for use as a biofuel based on:
Suitability as a fuel, based on flash point, energy content, viscosity, combustion products and other factors
Cost, based in part on yield, effort required to grow and harvest, and post-harvest processing cost
Multipurpose oils also used as biofuel
The oils listed immediately below are all (primarily) used for other purposes all but tung oil are edible but have been considered for use as biofuel.
Castor oil, lower cost than many candidates. Kinematic viscosity may be an issue.
Coconut oil (copra oil), promising for local use in places that produce coconuts.
Colza oil, from Brassica rapa, var. oleifera (turnip) is closely related to rapeseed (or canola) oil. It is a major source of biodiesel in Germany.
Corn oil, appealing because of the abundance of maize as a crop.
Cottonseed oil, the subject of study for cost-effectiveness as a biodiesel feedstock.
False flax oil, from Camelina sativa, used in Europe in oil lamps until the 18th century.
Hemp oil, relatively low in emissions. Production is problematic in some countries because of its association with marijuana.
Mustard oil, shown to be comparable to Canola oil as a biofuel.
Palm oil, very popular for biofuel, but the environmental impact from growing large quantities of oil palms has recently called the use of palm oil into question.
Peanut oil, used in one of the first demonstrations of the Diesel engine in 1900.
Radish oil. Wild radish contains up to 48% oil, making it appealing as a fuel.
Rapeseed oil, the most common base oil used in Europe in biodiesel production.
Ramtil oil, used for lighting in India.
Rice bran oil, appealing because of lower cost than many other vegetable oils. Widely grown in Asia.
Safflower oil, explored recently as a biofuel in Montana.
Salicornia oil, from the seeds of Salicornia bigelovii, a halophyte (salt-loving plant) native to Mexico.
Soybean oil, not economical as a fuel crop, but appealing as a byproduct of soybean crops for other uses.
Sunflower oil, suitable as a fuel, but not necessarily cost effective.
Tigernut oil has been described by researchers in China as having "great potential as a biodiesel fuel."
Tung oil, referenced in several lists of vegetable oils that are suitable for biodiesel. Several factories in China produce biodiesel from tung oil.
Inedible oils used only or primarily as biofuel
These oils are extracted from plants that are cultivated solely for producing oil-based biofuel. These, plus the major oils described above, have received much more attention as fuel oils than other plant oils.
Copaiba, an oleoresin tapped from species of genus Copaifera. Used in Brazil as a cosmetic product and a major source of biodiesel.
Jatropha oil, widely used in India as a fuel oil. Has attracted strong proponents for use as a biofuel.
Jojoba oil, from the Simmondsia chinensis, a desert shrub.
Milk bush, popularized by chemist Melvin Calvin in the 1950s. Researched in the 1980s by Petrobras, the Brazilian national petroleum company.
Nahor oil, pressed from the kernels of Mesua ferrea, is used in India as a lamp oil.
Paradise oil, from the seeds of Simarouba glauca, has received interest in India as a feed stock for biodiesel.
Petroleum nut oil, from the Petroleum nut (Pittosporum resiniferum) native to the Philippines. The Philippine government once explored the use of the petroleum nut as a biofuel.
Pongamia oil (also known as Honge oil), extracted from Millettia pinnata and pioneered as a biofuel by Udipi Shrinivasa in Bangalore, India.
Drying oils
Drying oils are vegetable oils that dry to a hard finish at normal room temperature. Such oils are used as the basis of oil paints, and in other paint and wood finishing applications. In addition to the oils listed here, walnut, sunflower and safflower oil are also considered to be drying oils.
Dammar oil, from the Canarium strictum, used in paint as an oil drying agent. Can also be used as a lamp oil.
Linseed oil's properties as a polymer make it highly suitable for wood finishing, for use in oil paints, as a plasticizer and hardener in putty and in making linoleum. When used in food or medicinally, linseed oil is called flaxseed oil.
Poppyseed oil, similar in usage to linseed oil but with better color stability.
Stillingia oil (also called Chinese vegetable tallow oil), obtained by solvent from the seeds of Sapium sebiferum. Used as a drying agent in paints and varnishes.
Tung oil, used as an industrial lubricant and highly effective drying agent. Also used as a substitute for linseed oil.
Vernonia oil is produced from the seeds of the Vernonia galamensis. It is composed of 73–80% vernolic acid, which can be used to make epoxies for manufacturing adhesives, varnishes and paints, and industrial coatings.
Other oils
A number of pressed vegetable oils are either not edible, or not used as an edible oil.
Amur cork tree fruit oil, pressed from the fruit of the Phellodendron amurense. It has been studied for insecticidal use.
Artichoke oil, extracted from the seeds of the artichoke fruit, is an unsaturated semi-drying oil with potential applications in making soap, shampoo, alkyd resin and shoe polish.
Astrocaryum murumuru butter is employed in lotions, creams, soaps hair conditioners, facial masks, shampoo, oils and emulsions, skin moisturizer, products for the nutrition of the hair and restore damaged hair, depilatory waxes.
Balanos oil, pressed from the seeds of Balanites aegyptiaca, was used in ancient Egypt as the base for perfumes.
Bladderpod oil, pressed from the seeds of Physaria fendleri, native to North America. Rich in lesquerolic acid, which is chemically similar to the ricinoleic acid found in castor oil. Many industrial uses. Possible substitute for castor oil as it requires much less moisture than castor beans.
Brucea javanica oil, extracted from the seeds of the Brucea javanica. The oil has been shown to be effective in treating certain cancers.
Burdock oil (Bur oil) extracted from the root of the burdock. Used as an herbal remedy for scalp conditions.
Buriti oil, extracted from the Mauritia flexuosa fruit, is high in carotenoids and monounsaturated fatty acids, and of consequent nutritional interest. It is also used in the cosmetics industry.
Candlenut oil (Kukui nut oil), produced in Hawai'i, used primarily for skin care products.
Carrot seed oil (pressed), from carrot seeds, used in skin care products.
Castor oil, with many industrial and medicinal uses. Castor beans are also a source of the toxin ricin.
Chaulmoogra oil, from the seeds of Hydnocarpus wightiana, used for many centuries, internally and externally, to treat leprosy. Also used to treat secondary syphilis, rheumatism, scrofula, and in phthisis.
Crambe oil, extracted from the seeds of the Crambe abyssinica. High in erucic acid, used as an industrial lubricant, a corrosion inhibitor, and as an ingredient in the manufacture of synthetic rubber.
Croton oil (tiglium oil) is pressed from the seeds of Croton tiglium. Highly toxic, it was formerly used as a drastic purgative.
Cuphea oil, from a number of species of genre Cuphea. Of interest as sources of medium chain triglycerides.
Cupuaçu butter is closely analogous to cocoa, and is used to make white chocolate.
Honesty oil, from the seeds of Lunaria annua, which contain 30–40% oil. The oil is particularly rich in long chain fatty acids, including erucic and nervonic acid, making it suitable for certain industrial purposes.
Illipe butter, from the nuts of the Shorea stenoptera. Similar to cocoa butter, but with a higher melting point. Used in cosmetics.
Jojoba oil, used in cosmetics as an alternative to whale oil spermaceti.
Mango oil, pressed from the stones of the mango fruit, is high in stearic acid, and can be used for making soap.
Mowrah butter, from the seeds of the Madhuca latifolia and Madhuca longifolia, both native to India. Crude Mowrah butter is used as a fat for spinning wool, for making candles and soap. The refined fat is used as an edible fat and vegetable ghee in India.
Neem oil, from Azadirachta indica, a brownish-green oil with a high sulfur content, used in cosmetics, for medicinal purposes, and as an insecticide.
Ojon oil extracted from the nut of the American palm (Elaeis oleifera). Oil extracted from both the nut and husk is also used as an edible oil in Central and South America. Commercialized by a Canadian businessman in the 1990s.
Passiflora edulis Passion fruit oil is extracted from the seeds and composed mainly of linoleic acid (62%) with smaller amounts of oleic acid (20%) and palmitic acid (7%). It has varied applications in cosmetics manufacturing and for uses as a human or animal food.
Rose hip seed oil, used primarily in skin care products, particularly for aging or damaged skin.
Rubber seed oil, pressed from the seeds of the Rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis), has received attention as a potential use of what otherwise would be a waste product from making rubber. It has been explored as a drying oil in Nigeria, as a diesel fuel in India and as food for livestock in Cambodia and Vietnam.
Sea buckthorn oil, derived from Hippophae rhamnoides, produced in northern China, used primarily medicinally.
Sea rocket seed oil, from the halophyte Cakile maritima, native to north Africa, is high in erucic acid, and therefore has potential industrial applications.
Snowball seed oil (Viburnum oil), from Viburnum opulus seeds. High in tocopherol, carotenoides and unsaturated fatty acids. Used medicinally.
Tall oil, produced as a byproduct of wood pulp manufacture. A further byproduct called tall oil fatty acid (TOFA) is a cheap source of oleic acid.
Tamanu or foraha oil from the Calophyllum tacamahaca, is important in Polynesian culture, and, although very expensive, is used for skin care.
Tonka bean oil (Cumaru oil), popular ingredient in cologne, used medicinally in Brazil.
Tucumã butter is extracted from both the pulp and seed of the fruit of Astrocaryum vulgare, a South American oil palm. The pulp oil is used as a skin conditioner. The seed oil is sold for use as a cooking oil and for making soap due to its high lauric acid content.
Ucuhuba seed oil, extracted from the seeds of Virola surinamensis, is unusually high in myristic acid.
See also
Carrier oil discusses the use of (pressed) vegetable oils, mixed with essential oils
Fatty acid discusses the components of most vegetable fats and oils
International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients explains naming conventions for oils used in cosmetics and soaps
List of essential oils
Notes
References
Further reading
An older version of this site was very helpful in making this list more comprehensive.
Compiles useful information on vegetable oils from a number of sources.
The site contains a large set of resources on castor oil and many other oils, particularly those used to make biodiesel.
List of about 300 plants that grow in India, and that yield oil. Also includes common names in languages spoken in India.
Old reference with basic information on an unusually large variety of plant oils.
Comprehensive information on cooking oils that are used for flavoring foods.
Cooking fats
Vegetable oils
Vegetable oils
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrison%20White
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Harrison White
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Harrison Colyar White (born March 21, 1930) is the emeritus Giddings Professor of Sociology at Columbia University. White played an influential role in the “Harvard Revolution” in social networks and the New York School of relational sociology. He is credited with the development of a number of mathematical models of social structure including vacancy chains and blockmodels. He has been a leader of a revolution in sociology that is still in process, using models of social structure that are based on patterns of relations instead of the attributes and attitudes of individuals.
Among social network researchers, White is widely respected. For instance, at the 1997 International Network of Social Network Analysis conference, the organizer held a special “White Tie” event, dedicated to White. Social network researcher Emmanuel Lazega refers to him as both “Copernicus and Galileo” because he invented both the vision and the tools.
The most comprehensive documentation of his theories can be found in the book Identity and Control, first published in 1992. A major rewrite of the book appeared in June 2008. In 2011, White received the W.E.B. DuBois Career of Distinguished Scholarship Award from the American Sociological Association, which honors "scholars who have shown outstanding commitment to the profession of sociology and whose cumulative work has contributed in important ways to the advancement of the discipline." Before his retirement to live in Tucson, Arizona, White was interested in sociolinguistics and business strategy as well as sociology.
History
Early years
White was born on March 21, 1930, in Washington, D.C. He had three siblings and his father was a doctor in the US Navy. Although moving around to different Naval bases throughout his adolescence, he considered himself Southern, and Nashville, TN to be his home. At the age of 15, he entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), receiving his undergraduate degree at 20 years of age; five years later, in 1955, he received a doctorate in theoretical physics, also from MIT with John C. Slater as his advisor. His dissertation was titled A quantum-mechanical calculation of inter-atomic force constants in copper. This was published in the Physical Review as "Atomic Force Constants of Copper from Feynman's Theorem" (1958). While at MIT he also took a course with the political scientist Karl Deutsch, who White credits with encouraging him to move toward the social sciences.
Princeton University
After receiving his PhD in theoretical physics, he received a Fellowship from the Ford Foundation to begin his second doctorate in sociology at Princeton University. His dissertation advisor was Marion J. Levy. White also worked with Wilbert Moore, Fred Stephan, and Frank W. Notestein while at Princeton. His cohort was very small, with only four or five other graduate students including David Matza, and Stanley Udy.
At the same time, he took up a position as an operations analyst at the Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University from 1955 to 1956. During this period, he worked with Lee S. Christie on Queuing with Preemptive Priorities or with Breakdown, which was published in 1958. Christie previously worked alongside mathematical psychologist R. Duncan Luce in the Small Group Laboratory at MIT while White was completing his first PhD in physics also at MIT.
While continuing his studies at Princeton, White also spent a year as a fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, California where he met Harold Guetzkow. Guetzkow was a faculty member at the Carnegie Institute of Technology, known for his application of simulations to social behavior and long-time collaborator with many other pioneers in organization studies, including Herbert A. Simon, James March, and Richard Cyert. Upon meeting Simon through his mutual acquaintance with Guetzkow, White received an invitation to move from California to Pittsburgh to work as an assistant professor of Industrial Administration and Sociology at the Graduate School of Industrial Administration, Carnegie Institute of Technology (later Carnegie-Mellon University), where he stayed for a couple of years, between 1957 and 1959. In an interview, he claimed to have fought with the dean, Leyland Bock, to have the word "sociology" included in his title.
It was also during his time at the Stanford Center for Advanced Study that White met his first wife, Cynthia A. Johnson, who was a graduate of Radcliffe College, where she had majored in art history. The couple's joint work on the French Impressionists, Canvases and Careers (1965) and “Institutional Changes in the French Painting World” (1964), originally grew out of a seminar on art in 1957 at the Center for Advanced Study led by Robert Wilson. White originally hoped to use sociometry to map the social structure of French art to predict shifts, but he had an epiphany that it was not social structure but institutional structure which explained the shift.
It was also during these years that White, still a graduate student in sociology, wrote and published his first social scientific work, "Sleep: A Sociological Interpretation" in Acta Sociologica in 1960, together with Vilhelm Aubert, a Norwegian sociologist. This work was a phenomenological examination of sleep which attempted to "demonstrate that sleep was more than a straightforward biological activity... [but rather also] a social event"
For his dissertation, White carried out empirical research on a research and development department in a manufacturing firm, consisting of interviews and a 110-item questionnaire with managers. He specifically used sociometric questions, which he used to model the "social structure" of relationships between various departments and teams in the organization. In May 1960 he submitted as his doctoral dissertation, titled Research and Development as a Pattern in Industrial Management: A Case Study in Institutionalisation and Uncertainty, earning a PhD in sociology from Princeton University. His first publication based on his dissertation was ''Management conflict and sociometric structure'' in the American Journal of Sociology.
University of Chicago
In 1959 James Coleman left the University of Chicago to found a new department of social relations at Johns Hopkins University, this left a vacancy open for a mathematical sociologist like White. He moved to Chicago to start working as an associate professor at the Department of Sociology. At that time, highly influential sociologists, such as Peter Blau, Mayer Zald, Elihu Katz, Everett Hughes, Erving Goffman were there. As Princeton only required one year in residence, and White took the opportunity to take positions at Johns Hopkins, Stanford, and Carnegie while still working on his dissertation, it was at Chicago that White credits as being his "real socialization in a way, into sociology." It was here that White advised his first two graduate students Joel H. Levine and Morris Friedell, both who went on to make contributions to social network analysis in sociology. While at the Center for Advanced Study, White began learning anthropology and became fascinated with kinship. During his stay at the University of Chicago White was able to finish An Anatomy of Kinship, published in 1963 within the Prentice-Hall series in Mathematical Analysis of Social Behavior, with James Coleman and James March as chief editors. The book received significant attention from many mathematical sociologists of the time, and contributed greatly to establish White as a model builder.
The Harvard Revolution
In 1963, White left Chicago to be an associate professor of sociology at the Harvard Department of Social Relations—the same department founded by Talcott Parsons and still heavily influenced by the structural-functionalist paradigm of Parsons. As White previously only taught graduate courses at Carnegie and Chicago, his first undergraduate course was An Introduction to Social Relations (see Influence) at Harvard, which became infamous among network analysts. As he "thought existing textbooks were grotesquely unscientific," the syllabus of the class was noted for including few readings by sociologists, and comparatively more readings by anthropologists, social psychologists, and historians. White was also a vocal critic of what he called the "attributes and attitudes" approach of Parsonsian sociology, and came to be the leader of what has been variously known as the “Harvard Revolution," the "Harvard breakthrough," or the "Harvard renaissance" in social networks. He worked closely with small group researchers George C. Homans and Robert F. Bales, which was largely compatible with his prior work in organizational research and his efforts to formalize network analysis. Overlapping White's early years, Charles Tilly, a graduate of the Harvard Department of Social Relations, was a visiting professor at Harvard and attended some of White's lectures - network thinking heavily influenced Tilly's work.
White remained at Harvard until 1986. In addition to a divorce from his wife, Cynthia, (with whom he published several works) and wanting a change, the sociology department at the University of Arizona offer him the position as department chair. He remained at Arizona for two years.
Columbia University
In 1988, White joined Columbia University as a professor of sociology and was the director of the Paul F. Lazarsfeld Center for the Social Sciences. This was at the early stages of what is perhaps the second major revolution in network analysis, the so-called "New York School of relational sociology." This invisible college included Columbia as well as the New School for Social Research and New York University. While the Harvard Revolution involved substantial advances in methods for measuring and modeling social structure, the New York School involved the merging of cultural sociology with network-structural sociology, two traditions which had previously been antagonistic. White stood at the heart of this, and his magnum opus Identity and Control was a testament to this new relational sociology.
In 1992, White received the named position of Giddings Professor of Sociology and was the chair of the department of sociology for various years until his retirement. He now resides in Tucson, Arizona.
Contributions
A good summary of White's sociological contributions is provided by his former student and collaborator, Ronald Breiger:
White addresses problems of social structure that cut across the range of the social sciences. Most notably, he has contributed (1) theories of role structures encompassing classificatory kinship systems of native Australian peoples and institutions of the contemporary West; (2) models based on equivalences of actors across networks of multiple types of social relation; (3) theorization of social mobility in systems of organizations; (4) a structural theory of social action that emphasizes control, agency, narrative, and identity; (5) a theory of artistic production; (6) a theory of economic production markets leading to the elaboration of a network ecology for market identities and new ways of accounting for profits, prices, and market shares; and (7) a theory of language use that emphasizes switching between social, cultural, and idiomatic domains within networks of discourse. His most explicit theoretical statement is Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action (1992), although several of the major components of his theory of the mutual shaping of networks, institutions, and agency are also readily apparent in Careers and Creativity: Social Forces in the Arts (1993), written for a less-specialized audience.
More generally, White and his students sparked interest in looking at society as networks rather than as aggregates of individuals.
This view is still controversial. In sociology and organizational science, it is difficult to measure cause and effect in a systematic way. Because of that, it is common to use sampling techniques to discover some sort of average in a population.
For instance, we are told almost daily how the average European or American feels about a topic. It allows social scientists and pundits to make inferences about cause and say “people are angry at the current administration because the economy is doing poorly.” This kind of generalization certainly makes sense, but it does not tell us anything about an individual. This leads to the idea of an idealized individual, something that is the bedrock of modern economics. Most modern economic theories look at social formations, like organizations, as products of individuals all acting in their own best interest.
While this has proved to be useful in some cases, it does not account well for the knowledge that is required for the structures to sustain themselves. White and his students (and his students' students) have been developing models that incorporate the patterns of relationships into descriptions of social formations. This line of work includes: economic sociology, network sociology and structuralist sociology.
Identity and control
White's most comprehensive work is Identity and Control. The first edition came out in 1992 and the second edition appeared in June 2008.
In this book, White discusses the social world, including “persons,” as emerging from patterns of relationships. He argues that it is a default human heuristic to organize the world in terms of attributes, but that this can often be a mistake. For instance, there are countless books on leadership that look for the attributes that make a good leader. However, no one is a leader without followers; the term describes a relationship one has with others. Without the relationships, there would be no leader. Likewise, an organization can be viewed as patterns of relationships. It would not “exist” if people did not honor and maintain specific relationships. White avoids giving attributes to things that emerge from patterns of relationships, something that goes against our natural instincts and requires some thought to process.
Identity and Control has seven chapters. The first six are about social formations that control us and how our own judgment organizes out experience in ways that limit our actions. The final chapter is about “getting action” and how change is possible. One of the ways is by “proxy,” empowering others.
Markets from networks
Harrison White also developed a perspective on market structure and competition in his 2002 book, Markets from Networks, based on the idea that markets are embedded in social networks. His approach is related to economic concepts such as uncertainty (as defined by Frank Knight), monopolistic competition (Edward Chamberlin), or signalling (Spence). This sociological perspective on markets has influenced both sociologists (see Joel M. Podolny) and economists (see Olivier Favereau).
Latest work
White's most recent work discussed linguistics. In Identity and Control he emphasized “switching” between network domains as a way to account for grammar in a way that does not ignore meaning as does much of standard linguistic theory. He has a long-standing interest in organizations, and before he retired, he worked on how strategy fits into the overall models of social construction he has developed.
Influence
In addition to his own publications, White is widely credited with training many influential generations of network analysts in sociology. Including the early work in the 1960s and 1970s during the Harvard Revolution, as well as the 1980s and 1990s at Columbia during the New York School of relational sociology.
White's student and teaching assistant, Michael Schwartz, took notes in the spring of 1965, known as Notes on the Constituents of Social Structure, of White's undergraduate Introduction to Social Relations course (Soc Rel 10). These notes were circulated among network analysis students and aficionados, until finally published in 2008 in Sociologica. As popular social science blog Orgtheory.net explains, "in contemporary American sociology, there are no set of student-taken notes that have had as much underground influence as those from Harrison White’s introductory Soc Rel 10 seminar at Harvard."
The first generation of Harvard graduate students that trained with White during the 1960s went on to be a formidable cohort of network analytically inclined sociologists. His first graduate student at Harvard was Edward Laumann who went onto develop one of the most widely used methods of studying personal networks known as ego-network surveys (developed with one of Laumann's students at the University of Chicago, Ronald Burt). Several of them went on to contribute to the "Toronto school" of structural analysis. Barry Wellman, for instance, contributed heavily to the cross fertilization of network analysis and community studies, later contributing to the earliest studies of online communities. Another of White's earliest students at Harvard was Nancy Lee (now Nancy Howell) who used social network analysis in her groundbreaking study of how women seeking an abortion found willing doctors before Roe v. Wade. She found that women found doctors through links of friends and acquaintances and was four degrees separated from the doctor on average. White also trained later additions to the Toronto school, Harriet Friedmann ('77) and Bonnie Erickson ('73).
One of White's most well-known graduate students was Mark Granovetter, who attended Harvard as a phd student from 1965 to 1970. Granovetter studied how people got jobs, discovered they were more likely to get them through acquaintances than through friends. Recounting the development of his widely cited 1973 article, The Strength of Weak Ties, Granovetter credits White's lectures and specifically White's description of sociometric work by Anatol Rapaport and William Horrath that gave him the idea. This, tied with earlier work by Stanley Milgram (who was also in the Harvard Department of Social Relations 1963–1967, though not one of White's students), gave scientists a better sense of how the social world was organized: into many dense groups with “weak ties” between them. Granovetter's work provided the theoretical background for Malcolm Gladwell's the Tipping Point. This line of research is still actively being pursued by Duncan Watts, Albert-László Barabási, Mark Newman, Jon Kleinberg and others.
White's research on “vacancy chains” was assisted by a number of graduate students, including Michael Schwartz and Ivan Chase. The outcome of this was the book Chains of Opportunity. The book described a model of social mobility where the roles and the people that filled them were independent. The idea of a person being partially created by their position in patterns of relationships has become a recurring theme in his work. This provided a quantitative analysis of social roles, allowing scientists new ways to measure society that were not based on statistical aggregates.
During the 1970s, White work with his student's Scott Boorman, Ronald Breiger, and Francois Lorrain on a series of articles that introduce a procedure called "blockmodeling" and the concept of "structural equivalence." The key idea behind these articles was identifying a "position" or "role" through similarities in individuals' social structure, rather than characteristics intrinsic to the individuals or a priori definitions of group membership.
At Columbia, White trained a new cohort of researchers who pushed network analysis beyond methodological rigor to theoretical extension and the incorporation of previously neglected concepts, namely, culture and language.
Many of his students and mentees have had a strong impact in sociology. Other former students include Michael Schwartz and Ivan Chase, both professors at Stony Brook; Joel Levine, who founded Dartmouth College's Math/Social Science program; Edward Laumann who pioneered survey-based egocentric network research and became a dean and provost at University of Chicago; Kathleen Carley at Carnegie Mellon University; Ronald Breiger at the University of Arizona; Barry Wellman at the University of Toronto and then the NetLab Network; Peter Bearman at Columbia University; Bonnie Erickson (Toronto); Christopher Winship (Harvard University); Joel Levine (Dartmouth College), Nicholas Mullins (Virginia Tech, deceased), Margaret Theeman (Boulder), Brian Sherman (retired, Atlanta), Nancy Howell (retired, Toronto); David R. Gibson (University of Notre Dame); Matthew Bothner (University of Chicago); Ann Mische (University of Notre Dame); and Kyriakos Kontopoulos (Temple University).
Selected books
Harrison C. White (2008), Identity and Control: How Social Formations Emerge (Second Edition), Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
Harrison C. White (2002), Markets from Networks: Socioeconomic Models of Production, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
Harrison C. White (1993), Careers and Creativity: Social Forces in the Arts. Boulder, CO: Westview Press
Harrison C. White (1992), Identity and Control: A Structural Theory of Social Action, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
Selected articles
Harrison C. White, Frédéric C. Godart, and Victor P. Corona (2007), Mobilizing Identities: Uncertainty and Control in Strategy, Theory, Culture & Society 24:181-202.
Harrison C. White (1997), Can Mathematics Be Social? Flexible Representation for Interaction Process in its Socio-Cultural Constructions, Sociological Forum 12:53-71.
Harrison C. White (1995), Network Switchings and Bayesian Forks. Reconstructing the Social and Behavioral Sciences, Social Research 62:.
Harrison C. White (1995), Social Networks Can Resolve Actor Paradoxes in Economics and in Psychology, Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics, 151:58-74.
Harrison C. White (1994), Values Comes in Styles, Which Mate to Change, Chapter 4th in Michael Hechter, Lynn Nadel and R. Michod, eds., The Origin of Values. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Harrison C. White and Cynthia A. White (1993), Canvases and Careers: Institutional Change in the French Painting World, University of Chicago Press, Chicago (French translation, La Carriere Des Peintres au XIXe Siecle: Du systeme academique au marche des impressionistes, Antoine Jaccottet, tr., Preface by Jean-Paul Bouillon, Flammarion Press: Paris, 1991.)
Harrison C. White (1992), Markets, Networks and Control, in S. Lindenberg and Hein Schroeder, (eds.), Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Organization, Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press, 1992.
Harrison C. White (1988). Varieties of Markets, in Barry Wellman and S.D. Berkowitz, (eds.), Social Structures: A Network Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Notes
References
External links
Faculty Website at Columbia University
Interview with Harrison White by Alair MacLean and Andy Olds
SocioSite: Famous Sociologists - Harrison White Information resources on life, academic work and intellectual influence of Harrison White. Editor: dr. Albert Benschop (University of Amsterdam).
1930 births
Living people
American sociologists
Carnegie Mellon University faculty
Columbia University faculty
Harvard University faculty
Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science alumni
Princeton University alumni
University of Arizona faculty
University of Chicago faculty
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Blockmodeling
Network scientists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five%20Eyes
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Five Eyes
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The Five Eyes (FVEY) is an intelligence alliance comprising Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. These countries are parties to the multilateral UK-USA Agreement, a treaty for joint cooperation in signals intelligence. Informally, Five Eyes can also refer to the group of intelligence agencies of these countries.
The origins of the FVEY can be traced to informal secret meetings during World War II between British and American code-breakers, which started before the US formally entered the war, followed by the Allies' 1941 Atlantic Charter that established their vision of the post-war world. Canadian academic Srdjan Vucetic argues the alliance emerged from Winston Churchill's Iron Curtain speech in 1946, which warned of open conflict with the Soviet bloc unless the English-speaking democracies learned to cooperate:
Neither the sure prevention of war, nor the continuous rise of world organisation will be gained without what I have called the fraternal association of the English-speaking peoples. This means a special relationship between the British Commonwealth and Empire and the United States... the continuance of the intimate relationship between our military advisers, leading to common study of potential dangers..."
As the Cold War deepened, the intelligence sharing arrangement became formalised under the ECHELON surveillance system in the 1960s. This was initially developed by the FVEY to monitor the communications of the former Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, although it is now used to monitor communications worldwide.
In the late 1990s, the existence of ECHELON was disclosed to the public, triggering a major debate in the European Parliament and, to a lesser extent, the United States Congress. The FVEY further expanded their surveillance capabilities during the course of the "war on terror", with much emphasis placed on monitoring the World Wide Web. Former NSA contractor Edward Snowden described the Five Eyes as a "supra-national intelligence organisation that does not answer to the known laws of its own countries". Documents leaked by Snowden in 2013 revealed that the FVEY has been spying on one another's citizens and sharing the collected information with each other, although the FVEY nations maintain that this was done legally. It has been claimed that FVEY nations have been sharing intelligence in order to circumvent domestic laws, but only one court case in Canada has found any FVEY nation breaking domestic laws when sharing intelligence with a FVEYs partner.
In spite of continued controversy over its methods, the Five Eyes relationship remains one of the most comprehensive known espionage alliances in human history.
Since processed intelligence is gathered from multiple sources, the intelligence shared is not restricted to signals intelligence (SIGINT) and often involves defence intelligence as well as human intelligence (HUMINT) and geospatial intelligence (GEOINT).
Organisations
The following table provides an overview of most of the FVEY agencies involved in such forms of data sharing.
History
Origins (1941–1950s)
The earliest origins of the Five Eyes alliance are secret meetings between British and US code-breakers at the British code-breaking establishment at Bletchley Park in February 1941 (before the US entry into the war). A February 1941 entry in the diary of Alastair Denniston, head of Bletchley Park, reading "The Ys are coming!" ("Ys" referring to "Yanks") is the first record, followed by "Ys arrive" on 10 February. The British and US agencies shared extremely confidential information, including the British breaking of the German Enigma code, and the US breaking of the Japanese Purple code. From then key figures travelled back and forth across the Atlantic, including Denniston and code-breaking expert Alan Turing. The practical relationship established for wartime signals intelligence developed into a formal signed agreement at the start of the post-war Cold War.
The formal Five Eyes alliance can be traced back to the Atlantic Charter, which was issued in August 1941 to lay out the Allied goals for the post-war world. On 17 May 1943, the British–US Communication Intelligence Agreement, also known as the BRUSA Agreement, was signed by the UK and US governments to facilitate co-operation between the US War Department and the British Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS). On 5 March 1946, the secret treaty was formalized as the UKUSA Agreement, which forms the basis for all signal intelligence cooperation between the NSA and GCHQ to this day.
In 1948, the treaty was extended to include Canada, followed by Norway (1952), Denmark (1954), West Germany (1955), Australia (1956), and New Zealand (1956). These countries participated in the alliance as "third parties". By 1955, the formal status of the remaining Five Eyes countries was officially acknowledged in a newer version of the UKUSA Agreement that contained the following statement:
The "Five Eyes" term has its origins as a shorthand for a "AUS/CAN/NZ/UK/US EYES ONLY" (AUSCANNZUKUS) releasability caveat.
Cold War
During the Cold War (generally accepted to be approximately the period 1947–1991), GCHQ and the NSA shared intelligence on the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China, and several eastern European countries (known as Exotics). Over the course of several decades, the ECHELON surveillance network was developed to monitor the military and diplomatic communications of the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc allies.
During the Vietnam War, Australian and New Zealand operators in the Asia-Pacific region worked directly to support the United States, while GCHQ operators stationed in the (then) British colony of Hong Kong were tasked with monitoring North Vietnamese air defence networks. During the Falklands War, the British received intelligence data from its FVEY allies such as Australia, as well as from third parties such as Norway and France. In the aftermath of the Gulf War, a technician of the ASIS was used by SIS to bug Kuwaiti government offices.
In the 1950s, SIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the overthrow of Iran's Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh. In the 1960s, SIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the assassination of the Congolese independence leader Patrice Lumumba. In the 1970s, the ASIS and the CIA jointly orchestrated the overthrow of Chile's President Salvador Allende. Also in the 1970s, a senior officer (Ian George Peacock) in the counterespionage unit of Australia's ASIO stole and sold highly classified intelligence documents shared with Australia to the Russians for at least five years. Peacock held the title of supervisor-E (espionage) and had top-secret security clearance. He retired from the ASIO in 1983 and died in 2006. During the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, SIS and the CIA took part in Operation Yellowbird to rescue dissidents from the Chinese regime.
ECHELON network disclosures (1972–2000)
By the end of the 20th century, the ECHELON surveillance network had evolved into a global system capable of sweeping up massive amounts of private and commercial communications, including telephone calls, fax, email and other data traffic. This was done through the interception of communication bearers such as satellite transmission and public switched telephone networks.
The Five Eyes has two types of information collection methods: the PRISM program and the Upstream collection system. The PRISM program gathers user information from technology firms such as Google, Apple and Microsoft, while the Upstream system gathers information directly from the communications of civilians via fiber cables and infrastructure as data flows past. The program's first disclosure to the public came in 1972 when a former NSA communications analyst reported to Ramparts magazine that the NSA had developed technology that "could crack all Soviet codes". In 1988, Duncan Campbell revealed in the New Statesman the existence of ECHELON, an extension of the UKUSA Agreement on global signals intelligence [Sigint]. The story, 'Somebody's listening,' detailed how the eavesdropping operations were not only being employed in the interests of 'national security,' but were regularly abused for corporate espionage in the service of US business interests. The piece passed largely unnoticed outside of journalism circles.
In 1996, a detailed description of ECHELON was provided by New Zealand journalist Nicky Hager in a book titled Secret Power – New Zealand's Role in the International Spy Network', which was cited by the European Parliament in a 1998 report titled "An Appraisal of the Technology of Political Control" (PE 168.184). On 16 March 2000, the Parliament called for a resolution on the Five Eyes and their ECHELON surveillance network, which, if passed, would have called for the "complete dismantling of ECHELON".
Three months later, the Temporary Committee on ECHELON was set up by the European Parliament to investigate the ECHELON surveillance network. However, according to a number of European politicians such as Esko Seppänen of Finland, these investigations were hindered by the European Commission.
In the United States, congressional legislators warned that the ECHELON system could be used to monitor US citizens. On 14 May 2001, the US government cancelled all meetings with the Temporary Committee on ECHELON.
According to a BBC report in May 2001, "the US Government still refuses to admit that Echelon even exists."
War on Terror (since 2001)
In the aftermath of the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the surveillance capabilities of the Five Eyes were greatly increased as part of the global war on terror.
During the run-up to the Iraq War, the communications of UN weapons inspector Hans Blix were monitored by the Five Eyes. The office of UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan was bugged by British agents. An NSA memo detailed plans of the Five Eyes to boost eavesdropping on UN delegations of six countries as part of a "dirty tricks" campaign to apply pressure on these six countries to vote in favour of using force against Iraq.
SIS and the CIA forged a surveillance partnership with Libya's ruler Muammar Gaddafi to spy on Libyan dissidents in the West, in exchange for permission to use Libya as a base for extraordinary renditions.
, the Five Eyes also have access to SIPRNet, the US government's classified version of the Internet.
In 2013, documents leaked by the former NSA contractor Edward Snowden revealed the existence of numerous surveillance programs jointly operated by the Five Eyes. The following list includes several notable examples reported in the media:
PRISM – Operated by the NSA together with GCHQ and the ASD
XKeyscore – Operated by the NSA with contributions from the ASD and the GCSB
Tempora – Operated by GCHQ with contributions from the NSA
MUSCULAR – Operated by GCHQ and the NSA
STATEROOM – Operated by the ASD, CIA, CSE, GCHQ, and NSA
In March 2014, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ordered Australia to stop spying on East Timor. This marks the first such restrictions imposed on a member of the FVEY.
In November 2020, the Five Eyes alliance criticised China's rules which disqualified elected legislators in Hong Kong.
Competition with China (since 2018)
On 1 December 2018, Meng Wanzhou, a Huawei executive, was arrested by Canadian authorities at Vancouver International Airport, in order to face charges of fraud and conspiracy in the United States. China responded by arresting two Canadian nationals. According to the South China Morning Post this conflict was seen by analysts as the beginning of a direct clash between the CCPs leadership of China and members of the Five Eyes alliance. In the months that followed, the United States placed restrictions on technology exchanges with China. Following prompting by parliamentarians in Australia and by US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, the UK Government announced it would reduce the presence of Huawei technology in its 5G network to zero. The newspaper reported that these events were seen by Beijing as political warfare "waged with the world’s oldest intelligence alliance, the Five Eyes."
In mid-April 2021, the New Zealand Foreign Minister Nanaia Mahuta issued a statement that New Zealand would not let the Five Eyes alliance dictate its bilateral relationship with China and that New Zealand was uncomfortable with expanding the remit of the intelligence grouping. In response, the Australian Government expressed concern that Wellington was undermining collective efforts to combat what it regarded as Chinese aggression. Mahuta's remarks were echoed by New Zealand Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern who claimed that while New Zealand was still committed to the Five Eyes alliance, it would not use the network as its first point for communicating on non-security matters. While The Telegraph defence editor Con Coughlin and British Conservative Member of Parliament Bob Seely criticised New Zealand for undermining the Five Eyes' efforts to put a united front against Beijing, the Chinese Global Times praised New Zealand for putting its own national interests over the Five Eyes.
In late April 2021, the Global Times reported that employees of companies and organisations considered to be "at-risk" of foreign infiltration travelling to the Five Eyes countries would be monitored by the Chinese Ministry of State Security. These employees will be required to report their travel destinations, agendas, and meetings with foreign personnel to Chinese authorities. Other security measures include undergoing "pre-departure spying education" and leave their electronic devices at home and bring new ones abroad. These measures came at a time of heightened tensions between China and the Five Eyes countries.
In mid-December 2021, the United States Secretary of State Antony Blinken along with the Foreign Ministers of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United Kingdom issued a joint statement criticising the exclusion of opposition candidates, the Hong Kong national security law, and urging China to respect human rights and freedoms in Hong Kong in accordance with the Sino-British Joint Declaration. In response, the Chinese Government claimed the Hong Kong elections were fair and criticised the Five Eyes for interfering in Hong Kong's domestic affairs.
2023 meeting
In October 2023, the first known public meeting of the Five Eyes leaders occurred, at Stanford University's Hoover Institution, California, USA. They had been meeting in private at nearby Palo Alto. Present were:
Australia's ASIO Director General Mike Burgess,
Canada's CSIS head David Vigneault,
New Zealand's NZSIS Director General Andrew Hampton,
UK's Director General of MI5 Ken McCallum, and
USA's FBI Director Christopher Wray.
Matters covered in public statements included:
the death in Canada of Hardeep Singh Nijjar
Chinese state-backed hackers
Domestic espionage sharing controversy
One of the core principles is that members do not spy on other governments in the alliance. US Director of National Intelligence Admiral Dennis C. Blair said in 2013: "We do not spy on each other. We just ask."
In recent years, documents of the FVEY have shown that they are intentionally spying on one another's citizens and sharing the collected information with each other, although the FVEYs countries claim that all intelligence sharing was done legally, according to the domestic law of the respective nations. Shami Chakrabarti, the director of the advocacy group Liberty, claimed that the FVEY alliance increases the ability of member states to "subcontract their dirty work" to each other. The former NSA contractor Edward Snowden described the FVEY as a "supra-national intelligence organisation that doesn't answer to the laws of its own countries". While many claims of illegal intelligence sharing among FVEY nations have been made, only once has any FVEY intelligence agency been shown to have broken the law with intelligence sharing in Canada.
As a result of Snowden's disclosures, the FVEY alliance has become the subject of a growing amount of controversy in parts of the world:
: In late 2013, Canadian federal judge Richard Mosley strongly rebuked the CSIS for outsourcing its surveillance of Canadians to overseas partner agencies. A 51-page court ruling asserts that the CSIS and other Canadian federal agencies have been illegally enlisting FVEY allies in global surveillance dragnets, while keeping domestic federal courts in the dark.
: In 2014, the NZSIS and the GCSB of New Zealand were asked by the New Zealand Parliament to clarify if they had received any monetary contributions from members of the FVEY alliance. Both agencies withheld relevant information and refused to disclose any possible monetary contributions from the FVEY. David Cunliffe, leader of the Labour Party, asserted that the public is entitled to be informed.
: In early 2014, the European Parliament's Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs released a draft report which confirmed that the intelligence agencies of New Zealand and Canada have cooperated with the NSA under the Five Eyes programme and may have been actively sharing the personal data of EU citizens. The EU report did not investigate if any international or domestic US laws were broken by the US and did not claim that any FVEY nation was illegally conducting intelligence collection on the EU. The NSA maintains that any intelligence collection done on the EU was in accordance with domestic US law and international law. So far, no court case has found the NSA broke any laws while spying on the EU.
: In 2013, the British Parliament's Intelligence and Security Committee conducted an investigation and concluded that the GCHQ had broken no domestic British laws in its intelligence sharing operations with the NSA. According the investigation "It has been alleged that GCHQ circumvented UK law by using the NSA’s PRISM programme to access the content of private communications. From the evidence we have seen, we have concluded that this is unfounded. We have reviewed the reports that GCHQ produced on the basis of intelligence sought from the US, and we are satisfied that they conformed with GCHQ’s statutory duties. The legal authority for this is contained in the Intelligence Services Act 1994. Further, in each case where GCHQ sought information from the US, a warrant for interception, signed by a Minister, was already in place, in accordance with the legal safeguards contained in the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000."
: So far, no court case has been brought against any US intelligence community member claiming that they went around US domestic law to have foreign countries spy on US citizens and give that intelligence to the US.
Other international cooperatives
Beginning with its founding by the United States and United Kingdom in 1946, the alliance expanded twice, inducting Canada in 1948 and Australia and New Zealand in 1956, establishing the Five Eyes as it remains to this day. Further, there are nations termed "Third Party Partners" that share their intelligence with the Five Eyes despite not being formal members. While the Five Eyes is rooted in a particular agreement with specific operations amongst the five nations, similar sharing agreements have been set up independently and for specific purposes; for example, according to Edward Snowden, the NSA has a "massive body" called the Foreign Affairs Directorate dedicated to partnering with foreign countries beyond the alliance.
Six Eyes (proposed)
Several countries have been prospective members of the Five Eyes. Israel, Singapore, South Korea, and Japan have or continue to collaborate with the alliance, though none are formally members. According to French news magazine L'Obs, in 2009, the United States propositioned France to join the treaty and form a subsequent "Six Eyes" alliance. French President at the time Nicolas Sarkozy required that France have the same status as the other members, including the signing of a "no-spy agreement". This proposal was approved by the director of the NSA, but rejected by the director of the CIA and by President Barack Obama, resulting in a refusal from France.
In 2013 it was reported that Germany was interested in joining the Five Eyes alliance. At that time, several members of the United States Congress, including Tim Ryan and Charles Dent, were pushing for Germany's entrance to the Five Eyes alliance.
Five Eyes Plus
Since 2018, through an initiative sometimes termed "Five Eyes Plus 3", Five Eyes formed associations with France, Germany and Japan to introduce an information-sharing framework to counter threats arising from foreign activities of China as well as Russia. Five Eyes plus France, Japan and South Korea share information about North Korea's military activities including ballistic missiles, in an arrangement sometimes dubbed "Five Eyes Plus".
Nine Eyes
The Nine Eyes is a different arrangement that consists of the same members of Five Eyes working with Denmark, France, the Netherlands and Norway.
Fourteen Eyes
According to a document leaked by Edward Snowden, there is another working agreement among 14 nations officially known as SIGINT Seniors Europe, or "SSEUR". These "14 Eyes" consist of the same members of Nine Eyes plus Belgium, Germany, Italy, Spain and Sweden.
Further intelligence sharing collaborations
As spelled out by Privacy International, there are a number of issue-specific intelligence agreements that include some or all the above nations and numerous others, such as:
An area specific sharing amongst the 41 nations that formed the allied coalition in Afghanistan;
A shared effort of the Five Eyes nations in "focused cooperation" on computer network exploitation with Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey;
Club of Berne: 17 members including primarily European States; the US is not a member;
Maximator: an intelligence alliance between Denmark, Germany, France, the Netherlands and Sweden
The Counterterrorist Group: a wider membership than the 17 European states that make up the Club of Berne, and includes the US;
NATO Special Committee: made up of the heads of the security services of NATO's 31 member countries
See also
ABCANZ Armies
Air and Space Interoperability Council (air forces)
Allied technological cooperation during World War II
Anglosphere
ANZUS — Trilateral security pact between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States
AUKUS — Trilateral security partnership between Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States
AUSCANNZUKUS (navies)
Border Five
CANZUK
Combined Communications-Electronics Board (communication-electronics)
Five Country Conference (immigration)
Five Nations Passport Group
Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (Quad) — Strategic dialogue among Australia, India, Japan and US
The Technical Cooperation Program (technology and science)
Tizard Mission
International relations
Australia–Canada relations
Australia–New Zealand relations
Australia–United Kingdom relations
Australia–United States relations
Canada–New Zealand relations
Canada–United Kingdom relations
Canada–United States relations
New Zealand–United Kingdom relations
New Zealand–United States relations
United Kingdom–United States relations
References
Further reading
Williams, Brad. "Why the Five Eyes? Power and Identity in the Formation of a Multilateral Intelligence Grouping." Journal of Cold War Studies 25, no. 1 (2023): 101-137.
External links
UKUSA Agreement at The National Archives
UKUSA Agreement at the National Security Agency
From Insularity to Exteriority: How the Anglosphere is Shaping Global Governance – Centre for International Policy Studies
Anglosphere
Global surveillance
Espionage
Intelligence operations
National security
Espionage scandals and incidents
Australia–United Kingdom relations
Australia–United States relations
Australia–New Zealand relations
Australia–Canada relations
Canada–United Kingdom relations
Canada–United States relations
Canada–New Zealand relations
New Zealand–United Kingdom relations
New Zealand–United States relations
United Kingdom–United States relations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta%20Gaming%2C%20Liquor%20and%20Cannabis%20Commission
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Alberta Gaming, Liquor and Cannabis Commission
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The Alberta Gaming, Liquor and Cannabis Commission (AGLC) is an agency of the government of the Canadian province of Alberta, and regulates alcoholic beverages, recreational cannabis, and gaming-related activities. References to cannabis were added to AGLC's name and governing legislation (without adding an extra "C" to the organization's long-standing initials) as cannabis in Canada moved towards legalization in 2018. AGLC was created in 1996 as the Alberta Gaming and Liquor Commission by combining the responsibilities and operations of the Alberta Liquor Control Board (ALCB), Alberta Lotteries, the Alberta Gaming Commission, Alberta Lotteries and Gaming and the Gaming Control Branch. The current Chief Executive Officer is Kandice Machado.
Legislation
AGLC operates in accordance with:
The Gaming, Liquor and Cannabis Act;
The Gaming, Liquor and Cannabis Regulation; and
The Criminal Code.
Alberta Gaming, Liquor and Cannabis also enforces certain aspects of the Tobacco Tax Act under a memorandum of understanding with Alberta Finance which administers the act, and licenses all racing entertainment centres located at racetracks under the authority of the Horse Racing Alberta Act.
Alberta is currently the only Canadian province to have completely privatized its liquor retailing. All other provinces maintain government ownership and control over much of the liquor industry, especially with respect to distilled spirits. Alberta's privatization was carried out in late 1993 and early 1994 under the auspices of one of AGLC's predecessors, the ALCB.
Effective October 2018, Alberta has a privatized cannabis retail model, while the Government of Alberta controls all online sales in the province.
History
The sale and distribution of beverage alcohol in Alberta had been conducted privately, under licence until 1916 when, during the height of Canada's Prohibition during the First World War, the Liberal government called a referendum in which Albertans voted in favour of the Liquor Act, which closed private liquor stores and the sale of alcohol beverage other than weak beer in privately owned bars. (Alcohol was still available from willing pharmacists.)
Prohibition achieved the result that family savings doubled within a short time, and the use of mental asylums and prisons dropped. The policy of prohibition was affirmed in a 1920 referendum. Meanwhile, the Royal North-West Mounted Police (RNWMP) passed over enforcement to the newly created Alberta Provincial Police (APP). However, there grew a hard-core of bootleggers who used guns against police enforcing the lawresulting in the death of two policemen in Alberta (Osgoode and Lawson). The United Farmers government that replaced the Liberals in 1921 called a referendum to allow voters to show their determination to continue with prohibition, bring back the pre-war wild times or establish government-owned stores and allow increased sales through tightly regulated taverns. The referendum was conducted in November 1923 and Albertans chose a government-controlled system. The Liquor Act was replaced by the Liquor Control Act and the Alberta Liquor Control Board (ALCB) was created. The first hotels to be relicensed were the Palliser Hotel in Calgary and the Hotel Macdonald in Edmonton.
The ALCB maintained tight control over the Alberta liquor industry for the next seven decades. Hotels that met the strict requirements for a liquor licence had to adhere to strict rules regarding the décor, cleanliness and aura of the establishment. According to historian David Leonard, the idea was to make drinking establishments as sparse as possible. Patrons were not allowed to stand up with their drinks in hand, and entertainment in a licensed beverage room was prohibited. Although women were allowed to drink alongside their male counterparts at first, "mixed" drinking was later blamed for riotous behaviour, and in 1928 the Liquor Control Act was amended so that special rooms had to be created for "ladies and escorts". In the 1930s, the ALCB hired armed officers to enforce the Liquor Control Act. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) assumed enforcement duties (where no municipal police had jurisdiction) after taking over provincial policing duties from the APP in 1932.
Beer off-sales were permitted from hotels starting in 1934, however the sale of wine and hard liquor remained more tightly controlled. As was the case in most Canadian provinces, the only legal way to purchase spirits in Alberta was to travel to a deliberately uninviting ALCB store, where the customer had to apply on a paper form indicating what they wanted to purchase. The requested product was then fetched by a staff member after the customer's age was carefully checked. The ALCB did not permit individualized packaging for wine or spirits. It purchased wine and spirits from wineries and distillers in bulk barrels, then bottled them into stone jars and bottles with the ALCB brand for resale in stores. ALCB stores were few and far between (especially in rural areas), and spirits were frequently watered down prior to bottling.
A Social Credit government assumed office in 1935, going on to dominate Albertan politics for the next three decades. The socially conservative governments of Premiers William Aberhart and Ernest Manning were slower to relax liquor laws compared to most of their contemporaries in other provinces. In one notable policy, the Social Credit government refused to license commercial airlines during their tenure and took vigorous steps to ensure that commercial flights were not serving alcohol whilst travelling through Alberta airspace.
The Alberta government and ALCB began loosening some restrictions in the 1950s and 1960s. Clubs and canteens could be licensed from 1950 onwards. In the 1957 Alberta Liquor Plebiscite, voters in and near Edmonton and Calgary voted overwhelmingly to de-segregate beverage rooms; however, men and women were not allowed to drink together province-wide until 1967. Having repealed the requirement for customer signatures on counter slips to purchase alcohol in 1965, in 1969 the ALCB opened its first self-serve liquor store in Edmonton. By 1970 the ALCB was no longer bottling products and commercial product packaging became normal.
The Progressive Conservative government replaced the Socreds in 1971, and moved to loosen restrictions further, lowering the drinking age from 21 to 18. Although some Alberta MLA's since then have mooted raising the drinking age back to 19 to match the laws of neighbouring British Columbia and Saskatchewan, the lower drinking age remains in effect . Responsibility for domestic beer warehousing was transferred to the Alberta Brewers' Agents Limited in 1973.
The 1980s saw restrictions relaxed further, with the first wine stores licensed in 1985 and the first hotel-based cold beer stores approved in 1988. In 1990 hotel off-sales expanded from beer only to beer, wine and spirits.
Privatization
The complete privatization of Alberta liquor retailing following former Calgary mayor Ralph Klein's accession of the premiership in 1992 is the most notable event in the ALCB's history, and for many Canadians it is also the most controversial event in the recent history of alcoholic beverage distribution in Canada. Klein promised Albertan voters the liquor industry would be privatized if he was elected in the 1993 election. After he won the election, the Klein government carried out the privatization almost immediately.
Under Municipal Affairs Minister Steve West, privatization was carried out, and the 202 ALCB liquor stores were systematically sold off. Where private interests believed an existing ALCB store could be profitably operated as a privately owned liquor store, the store continued to operate under new ownership. Liquor stores that were not economically viable in the private sector were closed down with the properties sold to the highest bidder. Between September 4, 1993, and March 5, 1994, every ALCB store was either sold or shut down. With respect to the ALCB stores that were converted to private liquor stores, the Alberta Union of Provincial Employees (AUPE) was denied successor rights to the private stores. Whereas all non-management ALCB employees in 1993 belonged to the AUPE, no privately owned liquor store was known to have become unionized except for those owned and operated by Loblaws under the Real Canadian Liquorstore and those owned and operated by Safeway in their grocery stores.
The ALCB initially retained warehousing and distribution responsibilities for wine, coolers, imported beer and spirits. The warehousing operation was contracted out to a private operator, Connect Logistics in June 1994. Connect Logistics leased the ALCB's existing warehouse in St. Albert and continues to warehouse all wine, coolers, imported beer and spirits legally sold in Alberta. Domestic beer is warehoused and distributed by Brewer's Distributor Limited. The AUPE was again denied successor rights to the Connect Logistics–operated warehouse and the warehouse thus became a non-union operation.
Privatization was controversial, attracting criticism from people who worried about the social costs of liquor privatization.
ALCB workers had taken strike action earlier in 1993 causing an interruption in service at liquor stores. Compared to other Canadian provinces, Albertans are generally seen as less friendly to unions, and many Albertans were disappointed by what they interpreted as the union's lack of concern for Albertans' social lives (the strike over the Victoria Day weekend). Some Alberta labour leaders continue to view the privatization as a retaliation against a legal strike. It is still debated whether this strike directly influenced the Tories' election promise and subsequent decision to privatize liquor store, or influenced some Albertans to vote for Klein as a result.
Distribution delays by Connect Logistics became a problem in 2006 with complaints from liquor retailers that they were not receiving stock on time and had empty shelves as a result. Some retailers also initiated legal action against AGLC.
In response, AGLC hired a 3rd-party consultant, Price Waterhouse Coopers, to review the province's liquor distribution system. The report was publicly released in March 2007.
The report did not make any drastic recommendations on how liquor products are distributed in Alberta. It recommended that Connect Logistics remain in its role and continue to warehouse and distribute wine, spirits, and imported beer to maintain "stability" in the system. The biggest difference in this arrangement would now require a formalized contract between Connect Logistics and AGLC including "performance indicators" for things like consumer service and on-time delivery.
One of the more controversial recommendations was for a new warehouse pricing system. In July 2007, AGLC approved the new prices for storage, warehousing and distribution. Connect Logistics claims the new prices better reflected the actual handling costs of each product. Some managers of smaller liquor stores believed that the system worked to the advantage of larger operators.
Over the 2007 Christmas season, the stories of empty liquor store shelves and product shortages disappeared from the media as shelves remained stocked.
A follow-up report was released in June 2009.
Today
Although Alberta has deregulated its retail liquor industry to a greater extent compared to any other province, its Connect Logistics–administered monopoly on the wholesaling of wine and distilled spirits is comparable to the systems which in the U.S. would be considered an alcoholic beverage control state. This means that by U.S. standards, Alberta would be defined as a "control" jurisdiction.
When the U.S. abolished prohibition in 1933 the bordering U.S. state of Montana modelled its own liquor control board on the one in place in Alberta. Montana has made similar changes to Alberta over the years and its present liquor distribution system is still very similar to the present Albertan system. It is considered to be one of the 18 "control" states in the U.S.
In 2007–2008 disorderly conduct at and near licensed establishments was identified as a growing problem, particularly in the major cities. The province's economic boom and the resulting affluence of its youth were identified as the root cause of the increase in binge drinking. Some blamed inadequate restrictions on alcohol sales in establishments (compared to other provinces) as contributing to the problem. In July 2008, the Alberta government responded to complaints by police and other groups by introducing new regulations to restrict the sale of alcohol in restaurants and bars. Among other things, as of August 1, 2008:
Happy hours are still allowed, but they can no longer run past 8 p.m. Drinks sold after this time must be sold for the establishment's regular menu price, thus all-night drink specials which entail selling certain categories of drink for a discount are no longer legal.
Minimum prices are in effect. Alcoholic beverages may not be sold for below these minimums. They vary by beverage:
$2.75 each for spirits and liqueurs.
$0.35 per ounce for wine (i.e. $1.75 for a glass).
$0.16 per ounce for draught beer (i.e. $3.20 for a pint).
$2.75 per bottle or can of beer, cider or coolers.
The number and size of drinks that can be sold to a patron after 1 a.m. is limited to two standard servings per orderone standard serving being defined as of distilled spirit or one bottle or can of beer.
Possession of more than two drinks after 1 a.m. in a licensed establishment is prohibited.
AGLC is responsible for enforcing these new rules.
In response to the above industry concerns, AGLC instituted a certification course called ProServe. Proserve covers symptoms of intoxication, liquor law, identifying minors, dealing with intoxicated people, and other issues that a licensed establishment may face. As of January 1, 2010, all people selling and serving liquor must be certified.
On November 26, 2010, AGLC temporarily halted registration of beers with an alcohol content higher than 11.9% (while allowing current retail stocks to still be sold). The restriction was lifted three weeks later on December 16, once a new policy had been developed to deal with a potential influx of ultra-high alcohol beers. The new policy equalized markup rates so that high-alcohol beers were treated the same as other liquor products with similar alcohol levels.
On February 6, 2018, Premier Rachel Notley ordered AGLC to cease importing wine from British Columbia, as an economic sanction against the province's decision to perform further environmental reviews over a proposed expansion of the Trans Mountain Pipeline.
Organization and mandate
AGLC consists of a board and a corporation. The corporation acts as the operational arm of the organization, while the board is responsible for reflecting the government's direction through policy and regulatory matters.
Although liquor is retailed in Alberta by private interests on a competitive basis, like its predecessor AGLC has maintained a monopoly over the wholesaling of wine, coolers, imported beer and spirits. AGLC is the wholesale-level purchaser of these products and thus Alberta liquor taxes (which are still high compared to taxes in the U.S.) are termed as the liquor markup. The wholesaling operation itself is mostly handled by Connect Logistics, a contract distributor based in St. Albert. Maintaining a monopoly over the wholesale business allows AGLC to maintain tighter controls over liquor distribution than an entirely privatized system would allow. In particular it allows the government to ensure that it does not miss out on any "markup" (the bulk of the liquor tax in any Canadian province, including Alberta, is the provincial liquor markup).
Between 1999 and 2006 AGLC operated as part of the Ministry of Gaming. When Ed Stelmach became premier, he restructured government so there were fewer ministries and ministers. The Ministry of Gaming was abolished following December 2006's reorganization, and AGLC was assigned to report through the Solicitor General and Minister of Public Security, at the time Frank Oberle Jr. AGLC later reported via Ministers Ron Liepert and Doug Horner, until AGLC was directed to report through Treasury Board and Finance to Robin Campbell.
Following the provincial election of 2015, which saw the Alberta New Democratic Party form government, AGLC reported to Treasury Board and Finance Minister Joe Ceci.
References
Crown corporations of Alberta
Alcohol in Alberta
Canadian provincial alcohol departments and agencies
1996 establishments in Alberta
Canadian provincial cannabis departments and agencies
St. Albert, Alberta
Cannabis regulatory agencies
Cannabis in Alberta
Gambling regulators
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1971 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1971 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 39th Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 12 and 13 June 1971. It was the ninth round of the 1971 International Championship for Makes.
This year would be the swansong of the mighty 5-litre engines – the incoming regulations would put a 3-litre limit on engine capacity for Group 5 Sports Cars. As it turned out, there was a perfect confluence of the fastest and most powerful racing cars yet seen at Le Mans, a long fast track and extended good weather to produce the fastest race in the event's history to date setting a record that would stand for almost 40 years.
Although there were few accidents this year, there were many cars delayed or forced to retire with mechanical problems and only twelve cars were classified at the finish. Winners, at a record speed, were Gijs van Lennep and Helmut Marko in their Team Martini Porsche 917.
Regulations
With the imminent ban of engines over 3-litres for the upcoming 1972 season, the FIA made no changes to their standing regulations. The Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) likewise made very few changes. The experiment of the standing-start in echelon from the previous year was discarded. A 2-by-2 rolling start behind a safety car became the most preferred way, which remains the tradition up to the modern day. This allowed an Armco guardrail to be erected between the pits and the main straight, greatly increasing the safety of the pit-crews. Drivers were also now permitted to stay in their cars during refuelling.
On race-week plans were unveiled for an extensive realignment of the circuit, making it self-contained. It included a new Mulsanne straight alongside the public highway and a new series of curves to cut out the dangerous Maison Blanche corner – the scene of many major race accidents over the years.
This year, first prize for outright victory was US$13000 – barely the cost of a top-tier racing engine, and not reflecting the huge preparation and work required. But such was the stature of the race it kept drawing strong fields. Finally, after fourteen years, the ban on female drivers was lifted with the ACO accepting top French rally-driver Marie-Claude Beaumont in the Greder Corvette entry – the first female driver at Le Mans since 1951.
Entries
The ACO received 80 entries for the race, which it reduced to 63 for qualifying, though only 53 cars arrived to practice. Noticeable was the very low turnout from manufacturers' works teams. Given the dominance of the big Sports Cars on fast tracks like Le Mans, there were few Prototypes entered. Ferrari and Alfa Romeo withdrew their works teams to concentrate on next year's models. However, a vast fleet of privateer Porsche 911s arrived to fill the gap, making the GT category the strongest-supported group.
Over the winter, extensive development work was done on the 917L (langheck or 'long-tail'). Using the French SERA aerodynamics laboratory, the chassis was further streamlined. Now running 17" rear tyres made its handling almost as good as the K-version (kurzheck or 'short-tail') much to the drivers' satisfaction. Porsche also supplied a slightly larger 5.0-litre engine (vs 4.9L) using high-performance nickel-silicon cylinder-liners from NSU that improved oil consumption and reduced wear. This pushed its output up to 620 bhp. It also came with a new 4-speed gearbox, but as all the teams chose to use the tried-and-tested 5-speed gearbox the new engines were not used either.
With four victories to date in the 1971 Championship, the JW Automotive team were favourites for outright victory. They certainly had the strongest driver line-up with Pedro Rodriguez/Jackie Oliver and by Jo Siffert and Derek Bell in langhecks. Their third team car, a 917K, was driven by 1970 race-winner Richard Attwood with Herbert Müller.
The cars and equipment of the previous year's successful Porsche Salzburg team was purchased for the Martini Racing Team by Conte Gregorio Rossi di Montelera (of the Martini & Rossi company). They entered three cars – a long-tail for Vic Elford/Gérard Larrousse (winners at Sebring and the Nürburgring) and a magnesium-alloy chassis short-tail for Gijs van Lennep/Helmut Marko. (JWA was not offered these experimental options) The third was an experimental short-tail version. The 917/20 was built as a test-bed for future Can-Am parts and aerodynamic low-drag concepts. Shorter and much wider than the 917K, it was designed and tested by Robert Choulet and the SERA wind tunnel, after their other work on the 917. Nicknamed "the Pig" by the company, it was driven by Reinhold Joest/Willi Kauhsen. Following up the psychedelic paintjob of their car the previous year Martini, with tongue in cheek, had the chunky car painted in pink for the race with names of pieces of meat written across it.
After the 1970 race, Ferrari set about improving the 512. Widened by 100mm, with an improved and lightened aerodynamic chassis, the V12 engine was also uprated to produce 580 bhp. The new version, the 512M (modificato) debuted at the end of the 1970 season with a win to Ickx/Giunti. The 512M modifications were offered to the customer teams, but not applied to the works cars as Ferrari had decided to give up any official effort with the 512 in order to prepare the new 312PB for 1972.
Between them, the customer teams put up a competent challenge to Porsche. The North American Racing Team (NART) had three entries. The Penske team, very competitive at the American rounds of the championship, arrived on one of the NART entry tickets. Their chassis was made by Holman & Moody and the engine prepared by Can-Am V8 specialist Traco (claiming 614 bhp). A number of quick-change modifications were added for wheels, brakes and refuelling to save valuable minutes in the pits. The blue, Sunoco-sponsored, car was driven by Mark Donohue/David Hobbs. The regular NART 512M also had a Traco engine and was driven by Sam Posey/Tony Adamowicz. And there was an open-top, spyder, version was for Masten Gregory/George Eaton.
The Scuderia Filipinetti also entered a much-modified Ferrari. Known as the "512F", it was designed by former Ferrari racing engineer/driver Mike Parkes it had a bigger rear-wing and used the Porsche 917 windscreen which was 120mm narrower, allowing for better water- and oil-cooler placement. With regular co-driver Jo Bonnier unavailable for personal reason, Henri Pescarolo was brought in as his co-driver.
José Juncadella of Escuderia Montjuich had employed 1964-winner Nino Vaccarella. Ecurie Francorchamps, Georg Loos and Corrado Manfredini also returned with their modified cars. David Piper's entry was used by American privateer David Weir who had bought the spare car off Steve McQueen's Solar Productions film company.
Just after the 1970 Le Mans, Chrysler completed the takeover of Simca creating Chrysler Europe, and this also meant the Matra company was renamed Matra-Simca. Matra entered only one 660 for its F1 drivers Chris Amon and Jean-Pierre Beltoise. Beltoise had recently recovered his racing license after investigation in an accident at January's Buenos Aires 1000km that had killed Ferrari driver Ignazio Giunti. After a poor race the previous year, the engine was strengthened and now put out 420 bhp.
While Guy Ligier's GT car was on hold pending homologation, he entered a one-off special – the JS3. Fitted with the Ford-Cosworth DFV F1 engine (that only arrived at the start of race-week, making its Le Mans debut) that was limited to 8800 rpm, allowing around 400 hp. The car had finished second in the Test Weekend race, and for this race was driven by former Matra team manager Claude LeGuezec and Patrick Depailler. Against the French prototypes were a collection of privateer Porsche 908s, including French importer Auguste Veuillet's Sonauto car that had won the three-hour race at the Test Weekend. The 3-litre flat-8 was beginning to show its age and only put out 350 bhp, well below the French competition.
The under-2 litre classes in both Group 5 Sports Cars and Group 6 Prototype-Sports Cars were poorly supported, with no entries in the Sports category. Team Huron could not supply their new cars, so Guy Edwards took one of their entry spots with his Lola T212. With no Chevrons present, its only competition was an older Porsche 907 from the André Wicky team.
In the GT category, the Grand Touring trophy was split into over- and under-2.0 litre classes. In the Over-2 litre class, the two French Corvettes were set to take on the veritable army of privateer Porsche 911s. Once again, rally-specialist Henri Greder and Claude Aubriet's Ecurie Léopard bought their Chevrolet Corvettes as the biggest cars in the entry list. Greder also made waves by nominating his French female rally-driver teammate, Marie-Claude Beaumont, as his co-driver. Female racers had been banned after the death of Annie Bousquet in the 1956 12 Hours of Reims. The American Troy Promotions team had also intended to bring its two Yenko-prepared cars over after strong showings in the American races but were later withdrawn.
Due to insufficient production, Ferrari's current GT car, the 365 GTB/4 "Daytona" had to run in the Group 5 Sports category. Effectively a GT road-car, its 4.4-litre V12 (developing 350 bhp) put it head-to-head against the Porsche 917s and Ferrari 512s. NART entered a single car for Bob Grossman and Luigi Chinetti Jr., son of team owner Luigi Chinetti.
Porsche had now made available a new 2.4-litre engine, alongside the current 2.25 and 2.2-litre versions. It developed 245 bhp that now got the car up to about 255 kp/h (160 mph) on the Mulsanne Straight. Eight of these uprated Porsches were present, including ones for race-winner turned team manager Masten Gregory and the German Kremer Racing team. Kremer himself rejoined Nic Koob in another 2.4, along with Günther Huber in what was the first example of a triple-driver combination. In a reduced under-2 litre class, the Écurie Léopard tried taking on the Porsches with a 1.6-litre Alpine A110.
So Porsche established a single-make record with 33 starters from the field of 49 – a trend that would carry on through the 70s and 80s.
Practice
The test weekend in April had shown the chassis development on the 917 had made them even faster. Jackie Oliver becoming the first person to record a 250 kp/h lap with an incredible time of 3:13.6 equating to 250.5 kp/h (155.6 mph). In June, Rodríguez followed up that form with a 3:13.9 in the JWA Porsche to put a 917 on pole. This was underlined by Vic Elford coming in second, going five seconds faster using the same car as he had the previous year.
Third was the second Wyer car, nearly four seconds behind his teammate. Jo Siffert had had a big moment during practice when he approached Maison Blanche at near 290 kp/h (180 mph). Bill Tuckett in the Paul Watson Porsche did not see him approaching and took his standard line. Swerving to avoid the 911, Siffert got the car into a series of spins but amazingly only lightly tapped the barriers situated right next to the track. He got back to the pits, shaken and livid, and stormed off to the stewards' office to protest.
After a problematic practice session, Penske's Mark Donohue was the fastest of the Ferraris, in fourth just ahead of the second Martini Porsche and Vaccarella in the Spanish Ferrari. The "Pink Pig" Martini 917/20 special was a strong 7th with a 3:21.1. After blowing their engine up on Thursday, the Filipinetti 512F team was able to borrow one from the Penske crew and with it they qualified 8th. Likewise, the Piper Ferrari had problems in practice. The clutch had broken on Wednesday and on Thursday the car kept jumping out of gear. At one point Chris Craft was approaching Maison Blanche at 280 km/h when it skipped into neutral. Despite that he was able to get 9th on the grid. Fastest of the 3-liter Prototypes was the Matra in 16th (3:31.9), well ahead of the Ligier in 17th (3:39.8), while the Léopard Corvette was the fastest GT in 26th (4:09.5).
Another major incident in practice was when André Wicky's 908 lost its rear suspension doing 290 kp/h (180 mph) along the Mulsanne and dragged its tail for over half a kilometre. Wicky was not injured, but the car came to rest over a blind brow and a 917 came flying along the straight to find a marshal on the track sweeping away debris, emphasising the issue of spotting yellow flags at 200 mph!
Regulations dictated that all cars had to be within 140% of the time of the fastest qualifier. This put pressure on the smaller GTs, especially with the big 917s in record-breaking mood. Non-qualifiers included three of the Porsche 911s and the little Alpine. Even that caused a great differential in speeds that many drivers thought dangerous. Once he had recovered after his wild ride during practice, Jo Siffert commented
”I have never seen anything so dangerous as this profusion of slow cars. Le Mans may be the world’s greatest race, but despite its glorious title they must realise that things aren’t right with it. In a lifetime you only have a moment like that, and get away with it, once".
Race
Start
Despite stormy weather through the week, the practice sessions had been dry and race-day was sunny. Honorary starter this year was Hollywood actor Steve McQueen with the opening of his film "Le Mans" that had been shot with footage from the 1970 race.
Left in the pits was the Piper Ferrari and the NART Ferrari spyder with fuel system problems. The Piper car fired up and joined the back of the field, but was delayed again at 5pm when the fuel pump packed up again dropping it well down the field. It was worse for the NART car though, which came straight in at the end of the formation lap and did not get out until a half-hour had passed. It then only managed 7 laps until retired at 7.40pm with clutch failure.
For the first time, and ever since, races begin with rolling starts. At the end of the first lap Rodriguez led from Larrousse, Siffert and the Ferraris of Vaccarella and Donohue. Rodriguez was lapping backmarkers by just the second lap. At the one-hour mark the two Wyer cars of Rodriguez and Siffert were lapping together, having done 17 laps. Larrousse was ten seconds back with ahead of the Ferraris of Donohue, Vaccarella and Parkes. Next were the Porsches of Attwood, Marko and Kauhsen and they were only cars still on the lead lap. Poirot's 910 hit the sandbank at Arnage and although he limped back to the pits on 3 wheels the car was out of the race.
After three hours Rodriguez (52 laps) led from Elford, Donohue in the Penske Ferrari, then Siffert and Marko in the second team Porsches all on the same lap (both having been delayed by loose engine parts). Vaccarella's Spanish Ferrari was sixth ahead of the third team Porsches of Müller and Kauhsen. Donohue soon moved up into second only to have the car hit with terminal engine trouble around 8.15pm. The Lola led the Prototypes (42 laps) and the Léopard Corvette, in 22nd, (41 laps) let the GTs.
Soon after, the cooling fan blew off Elford's Porsche overheating the engine. This left the JWA Porsches running 1-2-3 after 6 hours. The Montjuich Ferrari was fourth ahead of the Martini 917/20 "Pink Pig", the Matra and Marko's recovering Porsche. The Belgian and Piper Ferraris were next and the Ligier rounded out the top-10. The Léopard Corvette (17th) was in a tussle with the Ferrari Daytona (18th) for nominal GT honours. Posey's NART Ferrari was having issues – it had run out of petrol twice, flattened its battery and now was running low oil pressure.
Night
During the night all three Wyer cars were badly delayed. Just before 10pm, the Siffert/Bell car lost over an hour getting its rear end replaced, dropping it to 13th. At 3am, Oliver bought his JWA car with the same issue and while it was spending 30 minutes getting repaired (dropping it to 4th) the second-placed Attwood/Müller car came in without fifth, needing a half-hour gearbox change.
During this the Pink Pig special had moved up to third when its cooling fan also started coming loose. They had made it back to 3rd after the delay when Joest found he had no brakes approaching Arnage, went up the escape road and crashed out into retirement in the early hours of the morning. The Filipinetti Ferrari had been running 5th early on, then got delayed fixing its fuel pump. Rushing to catch up, Parkes crashed at Maison Blanche at 1 am. Despite extensive damage, it was repaired but Pescarolo had to park it at 3am with no oil pressure.
This put the Montjuich Ferrari into the lead for an hour until it in turn broke its gearbox right on halftime. The Marko/van Lennep Martini Porsche took first, with a five-lap lead now over the Matra of Beltoise/Amon, delighting the partisan crowd. Eighth-placed Guy Chasseuil crashed the French Sonauto Porsche 908 at Maison Blanche. Although the car caught fire, the driver escaped uninjured. Coming up to 5am, Rodriguez was racing toward Indianapolis corner when he was sprayed with hot oil. He got back to the pits but the engine was ruined.
Given the Porsche 911's reputation for reliability it was surprising that by 1am, after 9 hours of racing, already nine of the eighteen entries were out of the race.
Morning
At 6.20am the Matra went into the pits with a misfire. Changing the sparkplugs, then the fuel meter, let the Attwood/Müller Porsche back into second place. With all the other cars' delays the Piper Ferrari had steadily moved up the order. They had just got to third around 9am when it lost another clutch. At 9:40am, Amon coasted to a stop at the end of the Mulsanne straight. The faulty fuel-meter had finally packed up and run him out of fuel. Soon after the Siffert/Bell Porsche was retired from sixth after it had been delayed further with a cracked crankcase. This had moved the NART Ferrari of Posey/Adamowicz up to third and the Ligier prototype into fifth. But then the Ligier's gearbox seized. JW Automotive gave them Hewland parts to repair it but three hours were lost in the process.
Finish and post-race
The order stayed pretty static through the afternoon and the race came to a subdued, incident-free end. Marko and van Lennep won by three laps from Attwood and Müller who had eased off their charge back up the field.
The two Porsches were the first cars to cover over 5000 km in the race, easily beating that milestone. Putting it in context, it was equivalent to crossing the Atlantic, from Le Mans to Maine in 24 hours. It was a distance record that stood for a remarkable 39 years until beaten by Audi in 2010. What was significant this year was that virtually no car had a trouble-free run, with a number of engine, gearbox and suspension rebuilds required keeping all the pitcrews very busy.
Only two makes were among the classified finishers. Third place, a very distant 29 laps (386 km) further back, was the NART Ferrari. The Piper Ferrari of Weir/Craft had struggled on, but was never under threat despite finishing fourth with only second and fifth gears left.
Fifth was the NART Ferrari Daytona after a reliable run, which also won the Index of Thermal Efficiency.
Half of the twelve classified finishers were Porsche 911s. All of them had been delayed by various mechanical issues. Winner of the GT category was the 2.4-litre ASA Cachia car of Couroul/Anselme (battling an oil-leak) taking sixth in the last hour and finishing barely 40 metres ahead of the André Wicky Porsche 907 of Walter Brun/Peter Mattli. With all the 3-litre cars retiring the Wicky Porsche 907 was the sole Prototype finisher.
Tenth was the Kremer-prepared Porsche of Nicolas Koob. They had been leading the category after the halfway mark until delayed for an hour in the morning to replace the gearbox. Last classified finisher was that of Vestey/Bond, managed by Adrian Hamilton and Stuart Rolt, sons of the 1953 race winners.
The JWA team had a tragic end to 1971. Less than a month later, after winning the next round at Österreichring, Pedro Rodriguez was killed driving a Ferrari 512 at Germany's Norisring in a non-championship sports car race. Then in October Jo Siffert died at the World Championship Victory Race at Brands Hatch when his BRM crashed, rolled and caught fire with him trapped underneath. At the 2018 race, marking Porsche's 70th anniversary the European Porsche GT team revived the "Pink Pig" colour-scheme for one of its entries.
This race marked an end of an era, with the FIA regulations changing in 1972 such that Group 5 cars were limited to a maximum engine capacity of 3 litres and Group 6 was discontinued. It was the last time the Index of Performance prize was awarded. It was also the last run on a circuit layout that had been essentially unchanged for 39 years, with a new part of the track opened in the next year that bypassed the dangerous and fast Maison Blanche stretch.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text.
'Note *: Not Classified because insufficient distance covered.
Did Not Finish
Did Not Start
Class Winners
Note: setting a new class distance record.
Index of Thermal Efficiency
Index of Performance
Taken from Moity's book.
Note: Only the top ten positions are included in this set of standings. A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance.
Statistics
Pole position – P. Rodríguez, #18 Porsche 917L – 3:13.9 s
Taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Fastest Lap in practice – J. Oliver, #18 Porsche 917L – 3:13.9secs;
Fastest Lap – J. Oliver, #18 Porsche 917L – 3:18.4secs;
Winning Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
Attendance – ?
International Championship for Makes Standings
As calculated after Le Mans, Round 9 of 11
Note: Only the best 8 of 11 results counted to the final Championship points. The full total earned to date is given in brackets
Citations
References
Armstrong, Douglas – English editor (1972) Automobile Year #19 1971-72 Lausanne: Edita S.A.
Clarke, R.M. – editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Ford and Matra Years 1966-1974' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1970-79 Yeovil, Somerset: Haynes Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1971 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 29 May 2018
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, quotes, YouTube links). Retrieved 29 May 2018
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 29 May 2018
Team Dan – results & reserve entries, explaining driver listings. Retrieved 29 May 2018
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 29 May 2018
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 29 May 2018
Motorsport Memorial – details of the year's fatal accidents. Retrieved 29 May 2018
YouTube – German colour footage, incl. Race-prep (12mins). Retrieved 13 June 2018
YouTube – Colour amateur footage (no sound), in two parts (20mins). Retrieved 13 June 2018
YouTube – B/w French news report of race, incl. Onboard footage in Ligier (2mins). Retrieved 13 June 2018
YouTube – Modern engine-run & engine view of #21 Elford/Larrousse Martini Porsche 917 (2mins). Retrieved 13 June 2018
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1971 in French motorsport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Garden%20Tomb
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The Garden Tomb
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The Garden Tomb (Arabic: بستان قبر المسيح, Hebrew: גן הקבר, literally "the Tomb Garden") is a Christian pilgrimage site in Jerusalem that contains an ancient tomb, also named the Garden Tomb, considered by some Protestants to be the empty tomb from whence Jesus of Nazareth resurrected. This belief contrasts with an older tradition according to which the death and resurrection of Jesus occurred at a site known as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The Garden Tomb is adjacent to a rocky knoll known as Skull Hill. In the mid-nineteenth century, some Christian scholars proposed that Skull Hill is Golgotha, where the Romans crucified Jesus. Accordingly, the Garden Tomb draws hundreds of thousands of annual visitors, especially Evangelicals and other Protestants.
The organization that owns and maintains the Garden Tomb is a non-denominational charitable trust based in the United Kingdom named The Garden Tomb (Jerusalem) Association, a member of the Evangelical Alliance of Israel and the World Evangelical Alliance. The association refrains from claiming that the Garden Tomb is the authentic tomb of Jesus, and instead emphasizes the site's utility as a visual aid because of certain similarities to the biblical descriptions of Golgotha and the empty tomb.
The rock-cut tomb was unearthed in 1867. The Israeli archaeologist Gabriel Barkay points out that the tomb does not contain any features indicative of the 1st century CE, when Jesus was buried, and argues that the tomb was likely created in the 8th–7th centuries BCE. The Italian archeologist Ricardo Lufrani argues instead that it should be dated to the Hellenistic era, the 4th–2nd centuries BCE. The re-use of old tombs was not an uncommon practice in ancient times, but this would seem to contradict the biblical text that speaks of a new, not reused, tomb made for himself by Joseph of Arimathea (Matthew 27:57–60, John 19:41).
Site inside the church: attitudes throughout history
According to the Bible, Jesus was crucified near the city of Jerusalem, outside its walls, and there has always been concern on the issue of the tomb of Jesus being inside the city walls, with various explanations coming up during the centuries.
Early medieval views
For example, as early as 754 AD Saint Willibald wrote that Helena, after finding the Cross, included the site within the city walls. Some two-and-a-half centuries later, Saewulf (c. 1108 AD) maintained that it was Hadrian who enclosed the traditional Golgotha and Tomb of Christ within the city limits when he rebuilt the city during the second century AD, though they were previously outside the city. The two explanations obviously contradicted each other, since Hadrian's rebuilding of Jerusalem as Aelia Capitolina predated Helena's pilgrimage there by close to two centuries.
Doubts after Reformation
After the Reformation there were increasing doubts regarding the traditional holy places. In 1639 Quaresmius speaks of "western heretics" who argue that the traditional site could not possibly be the true tomb of Christ. The first extant publication which argues a case against the traditional location was written by the German pilgrim Jonas Korte in 1741, a few years after his pilgrimage to Jerusalem. His book contained a chapter titled "On Mount Calvary, which now lies in the middle of the town and cannot therefore be the true Calvary".
19th-century Protestant doubts
In 1812, also Edward D. Clarke rejected the traditional location as a "mere delusion, a monkish juggle"<ref>Clarke, Edward Daniel (1817). Travels in various countries of Europe, Asia and Africa: Part II – Greece, Egypt, and the Holy Land, section I (vol. IV), 4th edition, London, p. 335</ref> and suggested instead that the crucifixion took place just outside Zion Gate. During the 19th century travel from Europe to the Ottoman Empire became easier and therefore more common, especially in the late 1830s due to the reforms of the Egyptian ruler, Muhammad Ali.Kark, Ruth and Frantzman, Seth J. "The Protestant Garden Tomb in Jerusalem, Englishwomen, and a Land Transaction in Late Ottoman Palestine" in Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 142, 3 (London 2010), pp. 199–216 The subsequent influx of Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem included more Protestants who doubted the authenticity of the traditional holy sites – doubts which were exacerbated by the fact that Protestants had no territorial claims at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and by the feeling of Protestant pilgrims that it was an unnatural setting for contemplation and prayer.
In 1841, Dr. Edward Robinson's "Biblical Researches in Palestine", at that time considered the standard work on the topography and archaeology of the Holy Land, argued against the authenticity of the traditional location, concluding: "Golgotha and the Tomb shown in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre are not upon the real places of the Crucifixion and Resurrection". Robinson argued that the traditional location would have been within the city walls also during the Herodian era, primarily due to topographical considerations. Robinson was careful not to propose an alternative site and had concluded that it would be impossible to identify the true location of the holy places. However, he did suggest that the crucifixion would have taken place somewhere on the road to Jaffa or the road to Damascus. Skull Hill and the Garden Tomb are located in close proximity to the Damascus road, about 200 m. from Damascus Gate.
Contemporary scholarship
Contemporary scholars, such as Professor Dan Bahat, one of Israel's leading archaeologists, have concluded that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is located in an area which was outside the city walls in the days of Jesus and therefore indeed constitutes a plausible location for the crucifixion and burial of Jesus.
Discovery
Skull Hill identified as Calvary
Motivated by these concerns, some Protestants in the nineteenth century looked elsewhere in the attempt to locate the site of Christ's crucifixion, burial and resurrection.
Otto Thenius
In 1842, heavily relying on Robinson's research, Otto Thenius, a German theologian and bible scholar from Dresden, was the first to publish a proposal that the rocky knoll north of Damascus Gate, which, as Thenius noticed, resembled a skull, was the biblical Golgotha. The site he suggested contains a few natural cavities as well as a man-made cave, which Christians call Jeremiah's Grotto. Thenius went so far as to suggest that Jeremiah's Grotto was in fact the tomb of Christ.Thenius, Otto (1842). "Golgatha et Sanctum Sepulchrum" (in Latin). In Zeitschrift fir die historische Theologie. Though his proposal for the tomb of Christ did not have a lasting influence, his proposal for Golgotha was endorsed by several other Protestant scholars and pilgrims. Since Golgotha is the Aramaic word for skull, and may perhaps refer to the shape of the place, Thenius concluded that the rocky escarpment was likely to have been Golgotha.
Fisher Howe
A few years later the same identification was endorsed by the American industrialist Fisher Howe, who was also one of the founding members of the board of directors of Union Theological Seminary in New York. In 1850, Howe visited the Holy Land, and endorsed the view that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre could not be the true site of Christ's death and resurrection. Instead, he pointed to the hill containing Jeremiah's Grotto as the true Calvary, though he had only argued this view in length in an essay published in 1871, just after his death. In that essay Howe described the hill in these terms: "[The] hill is left steeply rounded on its west, north, and east sides forming the back and sides of the kranion, or skull. The skull-like front, or face, on the south side is formed by the deep perpendicular cutting and removal of the ledge. To the observer, at a distance, the eyeless socket of the skull would be suggested at once by the yawning cavern, hewn within its face, beneath the hill." Howe claimed that he developed his theory completely independently of Otto Thenius, and that he stumbled upon Thenius' claims only in the course of researching for his essay.
H. B. Tristram
Another early proponent of the theory that Skull Hill is Golgotha was the English scholar and clergyman Canon Henry Baker Tristram, who suggested that identification in 1858 during his first visit to the Holy Land, chiefly because of its proximity to the northern gate, and hence also to the Antonia Fortress, the traditional site of Christ's trial. (Canon Tristram was also one of the advocates of purchasing the nearby Garden Tomb in 1893.)
Claude R. Conder
Another prominent proponent of the "new Calvary" was Claude R. Conder, a lieutenant in the Royal Engineers, who was appointed in 1872 by the Palestine Exploration Fund to conduct a mapping survey of Western Palestine. Conder was repulsed by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and especially by the annual "miracle of the Holy Fire", as believed in by Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolical and Coptic Christians.
Based on topographical and textual considerations, Conder argued that it would be dangerous and unlikely, from a town-defense point of view, for the walls to have previously been east of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, concluding that the Church would have been inside the city walls and thus not the authentic tomb of Christ. He instead proposed that the true Calvary was the "rounded knoll" above Jeremiah's Grotto (i.e. Skull Hill). He based this identification on several arguments. First of all, since the Gospel according to John places Golgotha in the near vicinity of a garden and a tomb (John 19:41–42) Conder argued that Golgotha must be close to the necropolis found just north of Jerusalem, near the main road to Nablus, "among the olive-gardens and vineyards of Wady el-Joz". Secondly, Conder proposed that Calvary was the public place of execution and especially noted that Sephardic Jews had regarded the site next to Jeremiah's Grotto as traditionally being a place of stoning, which he saw as corroborative evidence that it was indeed Golgotha. He also pointed to a Christian tradition which associated that general area with the martyrdom of St. Stephen as additional evidence that it was a public place of execution during the New Testament era. Conder actually downplayed the supposed resemblance to a skull which he viewed as immaterial, remarking: "I should not like to base an argument on so slight a resemblance". In his writings Conder refers to Skull Hill by the Arabic name El-Heidhemiyeh which he interpreted as "the rent", and which he proposed was a corruption of El-Heiremiyeh – "the place of Jeremiah".Warren, Charles and Conder, Claude R. (1884). The Survey of Western Palestine: Jerusalem. The Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund, London, pp. 380–393. However, later research has shown that the name is actually a corruption of El-Adhamiyeh, named after a zawiya which according to Muslim tradition was founded by the celebrated Sufi saint Ibrahim ibn Adham.Hanauer, J. E. "Notes on Skull Hill" in Palestine Exploration Fund – Quarterly Statement for 1894 Charles Wilson spelled the name as El Edhemîyeh.
Proponents in the 1870s
Additionally, in the 1870s the site of Skull Hill was being strongly promoted by several notable figures in Jerusalem, including the American consul to Jerusalem, Selah Merril, who was also a Congregationalist minister and a member of the American Palestine Exploration Society, the Protestant Bishop of Jerusalem Samuel Gobat, who presided over the joint bishopric for Anglicans, Lutherans and Calvinists in the Holy Land, as well as Conrad Schick, a prominent Jerusalem-based architect, city planner, and proto-archaeologist of Swiss origins who penned hundreds of articles for the Palestine Exploration Fund.
In 1879 the French scholar Ernest Renan, author of the influential and controversial Life of Jesus also considered this view as a possibility in one of the later editions of his book.
General Gordon
However, the most famous proponent of the view that Skull Hill is the biblical Golgotha was Major-General Charles Gordon who visited Jerusalem in 1883. His name has become so entwined with Skull Hill that many contemporary news articles and guide books erroneously state that Gordon was the first to discover the site. In reality Gordon was very much influenced by the arguments of Conder and by his conversations and correspondence with Schick.
Gordon went beyond Howe and Conder to passionately propose additional arguments, which he himself confessed were "more fanciful" and imaginative. Gordon proposed a typological reading of Leviticus 1:11: "[The sheep for a burnt-offering] shall be slaughtered on the north side of the altar before the LORD". Gordon interpreted this verse to mean that Christ, the prototype, must also have been slain north of the "altar" (Skull Hill being north of Jerusalem and of the Temple Mount). This typological interpretation is obviously theological and not scientific in nature, which leads to a very skeptical mention by a prominent detractors of "Gordon's Calvary", the researcher and Army officer Charles W. Wilson. Gordon also commented on the appropriateness of the location in a letter he sent to his sister on January 17, 1883, his second day in Jerusalem:
Garden Tomb identified as Jesus' tomb
The Church of the Holy Sepulchre has the tomb just a few yards away from Golgotha, corresponding with the account of John the Evangelist: "Now in the place where he was crucified there was a garden; and in the garden a new sepulchre, wherein was never man yet laid." KJV (). In the latter half of the 19th century a number of tombs had also been found near Gordon's Golgotha, and Gordon concluded that one of them must have been the tomb of Jesus. John also specifies that Jesus' tomb was located in a garden (); consequently, an ancient wine press and cistern have been cited as evidence that the area had once been a garden, and the somewhat isolated tomb adjacent to the cistern has become identified as the Garden Tomb of Jesus. This particular tomb also has a stone groove running along the ground outside it, which Gordon argued to be a slot that once housed a stone, corresponding to the biblical account of a stone being rolled over the tomb entrance to close it.
Evangelicals and other Protestants consider the site to be the tomb of Jesus.
Affiliation
The garden is administered by the Garden Tomb Association, a member of the Evangelical Alliance of Israel and the World Evangelical Alliance.
Archaeological investigation and critical analysis
Golgotha
In the church
In the 20th century, archaeological findings enhanced the discussion concerning the authenticity of the traditional site at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre:
Prior to Constantine's time (r. 306–337), the site was a temple to Venus, built by Hadrian some time after 130.
Archaeology suggests that the traditional tomb would have been within Hadrian's temple, or likely to have been destroyed under the temple's heavy retaining wall.
The temple's location complies with the typical layout of Roman cities (i.e. adjacent to the forum, at the intersection of the main north-south road with the main east-west road), rather than necessarily being a deliberate act of contempt for Christianity, as claimed in the past.
A spur would be required for the rockface to have included both the alleged site of the tomb and the tombs beyond the western end of the church.
The tombs west of the traditional site are dated to the first century, indicating that the site was outside the city at that time.
Knoll next to Garden Tomb
Besides the skull-like appearance (a modern-day argument), there are a few other details put forward in favour of the identification of Skull Hill as Golgotha. The location of the site would have made executions carried out there a highly visible sight to people using the main road leading north from the city; the presence of the skull-featured knoll in the background would have added to the deterrent effect.
Ancient views
Eusebius (260s – c. 340) comments that Golgotha was in his day pointed out "north of Mount Zion". Both the Garden Tomb's Golgotha and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre are north of the hill currently referred to as Mount Zion. Although in the Hebrew Bible the term Mount Zion referred to the Temple Mount or the spur south of it, which both lay east of Jerusalem's Central Valley, the name Mount Zion has been used for Jerusalem's western hill, both by Josephus in the first century AD, and in the Byzantine period by Christian sources.
Christian traditions
An extra-biblical Christian legend maintains that Golgotha (lit. "the skull") is Adam's burial site, while Talmudic-period Judaism held that Adam is buried in the cave of Machpelah in Hebron, and the name Golgotha is absent from Talmudic literature.Golgotha (literally, "the skull"). Jewish Encyclopedia (1906). The 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia states that the Talmudic-period rabbis created the concept that "Adam was created from the dust of the place where the sanctuary was to rise for the atonement of all human sin", i.e. the Jerusalem Temple's Holy of Holies, so that sin should not constitute a constant or characteristic attribute of human nature; Christians adapted this thought and relocated Adam's grave to what they considered to be the new place of atonement, Jesus' crucifixion site at Golgotha.
The Garden Tomb
The earliest detailed investigation of the tomb itself was a brief report prepared in 1874 by Conrad Schick, a German architect, archaeologist and Protestant missionary, but the fullest archaeological study of the area has been the seminal investigation by Gabriel Barkay, professor of Biblical archaeology at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and at Bar-Ilan University, during the late twentieth century.
The tomb has two chambers, the second to the right of the first, with stone benches along the back wall of the first chamber, and along the sides of each wall in the second chamber, except the wall joining it to the first chamber; the benches have been heavily damaged but are still discernible. The edge of the groove outside the tomb has a diagonal edge, which would be unable to hold a stone slab in place (the slab would just fall out); additionally, known tombs of the rolling-stone type use vertical walls on either side of the entrance to hold the stone, not a groove on the ground.
Barkay concluded that:
The tomb is far too old to be the tomb of Jesus, as it is typical of the 8th–7th centuries BCE, showing a configuration which fell out of use after that period. It fits well into a wider necropolis dating to the First Temple period which also includes the nearby tombs on the grounds of the Basilica of St Stephen.
The groove was a water trough, built by the 11th-century Crusaders for donkeys/mules.
The cistern was built as part of the same stable complex as the groove.
The waterproofing on the cistern is of the type used by the Crusaders, and the cistern must date to that era.
In 1986, Barkay criticized defenders of the location of the garden and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre for making more theological and apologetic than scientific arguments.
In 2010, the director of the garden, Richard Meryon, claimed in an interview with The Jerusalem Post'' that each camp had academic and archaeological evidence in favor of the actual location, and that only one of the two could be right, but that the important thing was the symbolism of the place and especially the history of Jesus and not a guarantee of the exact site. In the same interview, Steve Bridge, a retired pastor volunteering in the garden, claimed that Catholic groups came to the site regularly, and that the guides did not play politics, with the emphasis on the crucifixion and the resurrection of Jesus.
Reception by Christian denominations
Due to the archaeological issues the Garden Tomb site raises, several scholars have rejected its claim to be Jesus' tomb. Author and explorer Paul Backholer concludes the emphasis on feelings in evangelical circles, has encouraged many to ‘feel’ the Garden Tomb is the location, despite evidence to the contrary. However, despite the archaeological discoveries, the Garden Tomb has become a popular place of pilgrimage among Protestants including, in the past, Anglicans. As such, St. George's Anglican Cathedral was built away from the Garden Tomb.
The Garden Tomb has been the most favoured candidate site among leaders of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
Major Christian denominations, including the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, do not accept the Garden Tomb as being the tomb of Jesus and hold fast to the traditional location at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. However, many may also visit the site in order to see an ancient tomb in a location evocative of the situation described in .
The British author, barrister and civil servant, Arthur William Crawley Boevey (1845–1913) produced for the Committee of the Garden Tomb Maintenance Fund in Jerusalem an introduction and guidebook to the site in 1894. The booklet has subsequently been revised and enlarged on several occasions, including by Mabel Bent in the early 1920s.
See also
Zedekiah's Cave, part of the same ancient quarries
References
Bibliography
Access to cited text currently not allowed (August 2021).
Good text scan, but with blurred illustrations and captions; or here, a darker scan, but with fully visible illustrations.
External links
This contains a detailed summary of the then-current theories as to the location of the tomb, with an extensive bibliography.
Buildings and structures completed in the 8th century BC
Buildings and structures completed in the 7th century BC
1867 archaeological discoveries
Alleged tombs of Jesus
Archaeological sites in Jerusalem
Rock-cut tombs
Anglican pilgrimage sites
Shrines in Jerusalem
Christian buildings and structures in the State of Palestine
Calvary
Tombs in the State of Palestine
East Jerusalem
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20invasion%20of%20Thailand
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Japanese invasion of Thailand
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The Japanese invasion of Thailand (, ; ) occurred on 8 December 1941. It was briefly fought between the Kingdom of Thailand and the Empire of Japan. Despite fierce fighting in Southern Thailand, the fighting lasted only five hours before ending in a ceasefire. Thailand and Japan then formed an alliance making Thailand part of the Axis alliance until the end of World War II.
Background
Hakkō Ichiu
The origin of Japanese invasion of Thailand can be traced to the principle of hakkō ichiu as espoused by Tanaka Chigaku in the mid- to late-1800s. Tanaka interpreted the principle as meaning that imperial rule had been divinely ordained to expand until it united the entire world. While Tanaka saw this outcome as resulting from the Emperor's moral leadership, Japanese nationalists used it in terms of freeing Asia from colonizing powers and establishing Japan as the leading influence in Asia. The concept became expressed in the .
In 1940, the concept was expanded by Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe, who sought to create the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, including Japan, Manchukuo, China, and parts of Southeast Asia. This would, according to imperial propaganda, establish a new international order seeking "co-prosperity" for Asian countries which would share prosperity and peace, free from Western colonialism and domination under the umbrella of a benevolent Japan. The 30 man Number 82 Section (also known as the Taiwan Army Research Unit or Doro Nawa Unit) Strike South planning was formed in 1939 or 1940 to bring this about. In its final planning stages, the unit was commanded by Colonel Yoshihide Hayashi.
Prelude
As part of conquering Southeast Asia, the Japanese military planned to invade Malaya and Burma. In order to do this, they needed to make use of Thai ports, railways, and airfields. They did not want conflict with the Thai military, as this would delay the invasion and significantly reduce the element of surprise. The Japanese plan was seen by the Nazi government of Germany as helpful in diverting the United Kingdom's military forces, and thus assisting Germany in its own conflict.
Thailand had a well-disciplined military, and after a series of border skirmishes in 1940 had invaded neighbouring French Indochina to recover provinces lost in the Franco-Siamese War of 1893. The Japanese, who wanted to use the Indo-Chinese ports and air-bases, acted as negotiators to bring about a settlement between the French and Thais on 31 January 1941. As part of the process, secret discussions were held with Thai Prime Minister Plaek Phibunsongkhram, in which the Japanese military sought free passage through Thailand. Phibun had responded positively, but his later actions showed he may have been very uncertain, as he had concluded the British–Thai Non-Aggression Pact on 12 June 1940. By February, the British were beginning to suspect the Japanese were planning to attack their possessions in Southeast Asia and were concerned Japan might set up bases in Thailand to that end.
The situation Phibun faced was that France had now been defeated by Germany, and Britain was heavily engaged in Europe; the United States had until then taken a neutral stance on both the European war and the Japanese war with China; and Japan was a superpower with a growing buildup of forces in French Indochina. Phibun could have decided he had little choice, as his own forces would have been unable to defeat the Japanese by themselves. Thailand's invasion of French Indochina in 1940 also made it difficult for the United States government to support Phibun.
Midway through 1941, Phibun sought British and American guarantees of effective support if Japan invaded Thailand. Neither the United Kingdom nor the United States could give them, although British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was in favour of a public warning to Japan that an invasion of the Southeast Asian kingdom would result in a British declaration of war. However, the United States was unwilling to agree to this, and Britain was not prepared to make it alone.
By August, the United Kingdom and the United States had placed sanctions against Japan. (For further information, see the Hull note and the McCollum memo.) The Japanese sought to have the sanctions lifted by promising not to encroach on Thailand and withdrawing their forces from Indochina, provided the United States withdrew its support for China. This was unacceptable to both Britain and the United States because of its impact on China.
Final days
In late November, the British became aware of a probable attack on Thailand by Japan because of the rapid buildup of Japanese troops in Indochina. On 1 December 1941, Prime Minister Tojo of Japan stated that he was uncertain where Thailand stood regarding allowing Japanese troops free passage through its territory, but was hopeful a clash could be avoided. Further negotiations took place between the Japanese diplomatic representative, Tamara, and Phibun on 2 December. Phibun was prepared to look the other way if Japan invaded the Kra Peninsula, but wanted them to avoid passing through the Bangkok Plain. After further discussions on 3 December, Phibun agreed to passage through Thailand, provided Thailand could regain the territories ceded in the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909, as well as Burma's Shan State.
On 2 December, the Japanese military issued the order "Climb Mount Niitaka", which set in motion the war in the Pacific. The main invasion fleet for Operation "E", the invasion of Malaya and Thailand, sailed from Sanya, Hainan Island, China on 4 December. Further troops and ships joined the fleet from Cam Ranh Bay, Indochina. While the Japanese were preparing, the British and Americans were formulating their response to the Japanese troop buildup and the potential invasion of Thailand. Phibun, on the same day he reached an agreement with the Japanese, was advised by the British that Thailand was about to be invaded by the Japanese.
At noon on 6 December, one of three RAAF No 1 Squadron Lockheed Hudsons on a reconnaissance flight over the South China Sea, located three Japanese ships steaming west, and about 15 minutes later, sighted the IJN Southern Expeditionary Fleet convoy, consisting of a battleship, five cruisers, seven destroyers and 22 transports. One of the two merchant seaplane tenders with the convoy, the Kamikawa Maru, launched a Mitsubishi F1M "Pete" floatplane to intercept the Hudson, which eluded it by taking cover in the clouds. A few minutes later, a second Hudson also sighted the convoy.
Air Chief Marshal Sir Robert Brooke-Popham was advised of the sightings at 14:00. He was not authorised to take any action against the convoy, as Britain was not at war with Japan, the Japanese intentions were still unclear, and no aggressive action had yet been taken against British or Thai territory. He put his forces in Malaya on full alert and ordered continued surveillance of the convoy.
On 7 December at 03:00, Vice-Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa ordered patrols in the area between the convoy and Malaya. The convoy was about from Kota Bharu. There was heavy rain and zero visibility. The Kamikawa Maru and Sagara Maru launched 11 F1M2's and six Aichi E13A's. About west northwest of Panjang Island at 08:20, an E13A1 ZI-26 from the Kamikawa Maru, piloted by Ensign Ogata Eiichi, spotted a No. 205 Squadron RAF Consolidated PBY Catalina reconnaissance flying boat (W8417), piloted by Warrant Officer William E Webb. Ogata attacked the Catalina from the rear, damaging it and destroying its radio. Ogata shadowed the Catalina for 25 minutes until five Nakajima Ki-27 "Nate" fighters from the JAAF's 1st Sentai in Indo-China arrived and shot it down. Webb and his crew were the first casualties of the Pacific War. Unaware of this incident, the British took no action. Ogata would later be killed in the Battle of the Coral Sea.
At 23:00 on 7 December, the Japanese presented the Thai government with an ultimatum to allow the Japanese military to enter Thailand. The Thais were given two hours to respond.
Military forces
Thailand
Thailand had a well-trained military of 26,500 men, together with a reserve force which brought the army's numbers up to about 50,000.
The Royal Thai Air Force possessed some 270 aircraft, of which 150 were combat aircraft, many of them American. Japan had provided Thailand with 93 more modern aircraft in December 1940.
The Royal Thai Navy was poorly trained and equipped, and had lost a substantial number of vessels in its conflict with French Indochina. However, the Thai Navy had two operating submarines, HTMS Matchanu and HTMS Wirun, which were a cause of concern for the Japanese commanders.
The Royal Thai Army started to set up the new military units in the Kra Peninsula including:
Chumphon
the 38th Infantry Battalion stationed at Ban Na Nian, Tambon Wang Mai, Muang District of Chumphon (9 km from Provincial Hall).
Nakhon Si Thammarat
the 39th Infantry Battalion stationed at Tambon Pak Phoon, Muang District of Nakhon Si Thammarat.
the 15th Artillery Battalion stationed at Tambon Pak Phoon, Muang District of Nakhon Si Thammarat.
Headquarter of the Sixth Division at Tambon Pak Phoon, Muang District of Nakhon Si Thammarat.
Trang
the 40th Infantry Battalion.
Songkla
the 5th Infantry Battalion stationed at Tambon Khao Kho Hong, Hat Yai District of Songkla, transferred from Bang Sue to Hat Yai by military train on 18 February 1940, the first unit that moved to the south.
the 41st Infantry Battalion stationed at Suan Tun, Tambon Khao Roob Chang, Muang District of Songkla.
the 13th Artillery Battalion stationed at Suan Tun, Tambon Khao Roob Chang, Muang District of Songkla.
Pattani
the 42nd Infantry Battalion stationed at Tambon Bo Thong, Nong Jik District of Pattani.
Japan
Army units
Japan had units of its 15th Army under Lieutenant General Shōjirō Iida and 25th Army under Lieutenant General Tomoyuki Yamashita stationed in Indochina. Both armies had combat aircraft units. The 15th Army was tasked with the attack on Burma and the 25th with Malaya and Singapore. In order to attack Burma, the 15th Army needed to pass over the Bangkok plain, while the 25th Army needed to attack Malaya via the Kra Peninsula. The attack through Thailand on Malaya and Singapore was planned by Colonel Masanobu Tsuji while he was part of Unit 82. The Japanese had about 100,000 troops who needed to pass through Thailand.
Naval forces
Ships from IJN 2nd Fleet under Admiral Nobutake Kondō provided support and cover for the landings in Thailand and at Kota Baru in Malaya.
The known IJN ships participating, apart from those sent to Kota Baru, were:
the cruiser IJN Kashii escorted seven transports carrying troops of the 143rd Regiment from Saigon
Destroyers Asagiri, Amagiri, Sagiri, Yugiri, Shirakumo, and Shinonome supported the 25th Army landings in southern Thailand
Escort ship IJN Shimushu escorted transports Zenyo Maru, Miike Maru and Toho Maru''' to Nakorn Sri Thammarat, southern Thailand, with more of the 143rd Regiment
Merchant seaplane carriers Kamikawa Maru, Sagara MaruIn total there were 18 transports involved, which included three landing troops at Kota Baru.
Japanese invasion
Japanese troops invaded Thailand from Indochina and with landings south of Bangkok and at various points along the Kra Peninsula several hours after Thailand had not responded to their ultimatum. While the government debated a response, Phibun could not be located and was unaware of the ultimatum until late morning.
15th Army objectives
Phra Tabong Province
At dawn the Imperial Guards Division under Lieutenant-General Takuma Nishimura and IJA 55th Division under Lieutenant-General Hiroshi Takeuchi of the 15th Army crossed the border from Indo-China into Thailand's recently reclaimed Phra Tabong Province at Tambon Savay Donkeo, Athuek Thewadej District (Russei) of Battambang. The Japanese encountered no resistance, and from Sisophon swung north-westwards into Aranyaprathet (then still a district of Prachinburi Province) along the nearly finished railway link between Aranyaprathet and Monkhol Bourei. (It opened for traffic on 11 April 1942.)
Chumphon
The Japanese 1st Infantry Battalion of the 143rd Infantry Regiment (part of the IJA 55th Division) landed at Chumphon on the morning of 8 December from two troop ships. They managed to form a perimeter around their landing areas, but were pinned down by determined resistance by Thai 'Yuwachon Thahan' ('youth soldier' cadets of the 52nd Yuwachon Thahan Training Unit from Sriyaphai Secondary School), along with the regular army 38th Infantry Battalion and Provincial Police of Chumphon. Fighting ended in the afternoon when the Thais received orders to cease fire. The Thai had lost Captain Thawin Niyomsen (commanding the 52nd Yuwachon Thahan Unit, posthumously promoted to Lt. Col.), some provincial policemen and a few civilians.
Nakhon Si Thammarat
Nakhon Si Thammarat was the site of the 6th Army Region headquarters and the 39th Infantry Battalion and 15th Artillery Battalion. Three Japanese troopships, Zenyo, Miike, and Toho Maru'', landed troops at Nakhon Si Thammarat, covered by the Shimushu, dropped anchor a few kilometres off the coast during the night of 7 December. The ships carried 1,510 men and 50 trucks of the 3rd Infantry Battalion of the 143rd Infantry Regiment, the 18th Air District Regiment along with an army air force signals unit, the 32nd Anti-Aircraft Battalion, and the 6th Labour Construction Company. Shortly after midnight, they began disembarking their troops at Tha Phae canal (AKA Pak Phoon Canal), north of Camp Vajiravudh.
The landing was made adjacent to the main Thai army camp, Camp Vajiravudh. The Thais, notified earlier of the Japanese invasion at Songkhla, immediately went into action. The battle lasted until midday, when the prime minister's orders for a ceasefire were received.
Prachuap Khiri Khan
Prachuap Khiri Khan was home to the Royal Thai Air Force's Fifth Wing, under the command of Wing Commander Mom Luang Prawat Chumsai. The Japanese 2nd Infantry Battalion of the 143rd Infantry Regiment under Major Kisoyoshi Utsunomiya landed at 03:00 from one troopship, and occupied the town after having crushed police resistance there.
Further landings took place near the airfield to the south. The Japanese laid siege to the airfield, but the Thai airmen along with Prachuap Khirikhan Provincial Police managed to hold out until noon on the next day, when they too received the ceasefire order. The Japanese lost 115 dead according to Japanese estimates, and 217 dead and 300+ wounded according to Thai estimates. The Thais lost 37 dead and 27 wounded.
Samut Prakan
The Japanese 3rd Battalion of the 4th Guards Infantry Regiment landed at Samut Prakan in the early hours of 8 December. It was tasked with the capture of Bangkok. The force was met by a small Thai police detachment. Despite a tense confrontation, fighting did not occur and the Japanese subsequently agreed not to enter the Thai capital until formal negotiations were concluded.
Bangkok
The Japanese bombed Bangkok with one bomb falling on the main post office, which failed to explode. While police rounded up Japanese residents, the Thai cabinet debated its options while they waited for the prime minister to arrive. Some favoured continued resistance, including the establishment of a government-in-exile, but when Phibun finally arrived, the decision was made to relent, and the Thais caved into Japan's demands. The Japanese then moved into Bangkok, occupying Chinatown (Sampeng) and turning the Chamber of Commerce Building into a command post.
Don Muang
The Japanese air force attacked Don Muang Royal Thai Air Force Base, which was defended by the Thai air force. The Thais lost six fighter planes to a numerically superior Japanese force.
Surat Thani
A Japanese infantry company from the 1st Battalion of the 143rd Infantry Regiment landed from one troopship at the coastal village of Ban Don in the early hours of 8 December. They marched into Surat Thani, where they were opposed by Royal Thai Police and civilian volunteers. The desultory fighting took place amid a rainstorm, and only ended in the afternoon when the hard-pressed Thais received orders to lay down their arms. The Thais lost 17 or 18 dead, but the number of injured was not known.
25th Army objectives
Pattani
Due to its closeness to the Malayan border, Pattani was the second most important objective of the Japanese 25th Army. Eight IJN destroyers including the Shirakumo and Shinonome provided support for the five troop transports.
The landings by the 42nd Infantry Regiment of the IJA 5th Division led by Major Shigeharu Asaeda were made despite the rough seas and on unsuitable landing grounds. The invaders were effectively opposed by the Thai 42nd Infantry Battalion, Pattani Provincial Police, and Thai Yuwachon Thahan units (the 66th Yuwachon Thahan Training Unit from Benjama Rachoothit School), until the battalion was ordered to cease fire at midday. The Thai battalion commander, Khun (ขุน) Inkhayutboriharn, was killed in action along with 23 other ranks, 5 Provincial Police, 4 Yuwachon Thahan members, and 9 civilians.
Major Shigeharu Asaeda, when a member of Taiwan Army Unit 82, had been involved with intelligence-gathering in Burma, Thailand, and Malaya prior to the outbreak of war and had selected Pattani as a suitable landing site. Unknown to him, beyond the sandy beach, was a muddy sea bed which caused the invading force considerable difficulty.
Songkhla (also known as Singora)
The port city of Songkhla was one of the main objectives of Yamashita's 25th Army. During the early hours of 8 December, three regiments of the IJA 5th Division led by Colonel Tsuji under Lieutenant General Matsui Takuro landed there from 10 troop transports. The landing was supported by IJN destroyers , , , and .
The Thai garrison at Khao Khor Hong (the 41st Infantry Battalion and the 13th Artillery battalion) immediately occupied positions alongside the roads leading down to Malaya, but were brushed aside into positions the main Japanese advance could ignore. A further clash occurred at Hat Yai. The Thais lost 15 dead (8 KIA from 41st Inf. Bat. and 7 from the 5th Inf. bat.) and 30-55 wounded.
The fighting ceased at noon when orders for an armistice to be arranged was received.
Malaya
While these landings were taking place in Thailand, troops from the Japan's 25th Army also landed further south at Kota Bharu in Malaya.
Once Thailand was secured the 15th Army's 143rd Regiment moved north to replace the Imperial Guards. The Imperial Guards headed south to join the 25th Army and participate in the invasion of Malaya and Singapore. The 15th Army moved to attack Burma.
Aftermath
Phibun's decision to sign an armistice with Japan effectively ended Churchill's hopes of forging an alliance with Thailand. Phibun also granted Japan permission to use Thailand as a base of operations to invade neighbouring Malaya. Within hours after the armistice came into effect, squadrons of Japanese aircraft had flown into Songkla airfield from Indochina, allowing them to carry out air raids on strategic bases in Malaya and Singapore from a short distance.
On 14 December, Phibun signed a secret agreement with the Japanese committing Thai troops in the Malayan Campaign and Burma Campaign. An alliance between Thailand and Japan was formally signed on 21 December 1941. On 25 January 1942, the Thai government declared war on the United States and the United Kingdom. In response, all Thai assets in the United States were frozen by the federal government. While the Thai ambassador in London delivered the declaration of war to the British administration, Seni Pramoj, Thai ambassador to Washington, D.C., refused to do so, instead organising the Free Thai Movement.
See also
For further information about the predominant Japanese philosophy and reasoning
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
Hakkō ichiu
Japanese nationalism
For events directly relating to the invasion
Bombing of Bangkok
Franco-Thai War - Thai invasion of French Indochina in early 1941
Thailand in World War II - history post-invasion
Japanese Order of Battle, Malayan Campaign
Operation Krohcol - unsuccessful British Operation from 8 to 10 December 1941 to occupy Southern Thailand after the Japanese invasion
Operation Matador (1941) - planned British Operation to occupy Southern Thailand in the event of a Japanese invasion
Japanese invasion of Malaya - a simultaneous attack on Kota Bharu
Masanobu Tsuji of Malaya
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Thailand and the Second World War
Japanese Order of Battle
Thai Order of battle
Thailand in World War II
Conflicts in 1941
South-East Asian theatre of World War II
Military history of Thailand during World War II
World War II operations and battles of the Southeast Asia Theatre
1941 in Thailand
Japan–Thailand military relations
Thailand
Invasions of Thailand
World War II invasions
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4756819
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20newspapers%20in%20Michigan
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List of newspapers in Michigan
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This is a list of newspapers in Michigan.
Daily and weekly newspapers (currently published)
The Alcona Review - Harrisville
Cadence Newspaper - Ada
Access - Adrian
The Daily Telegram - Adrian
Michigan Christian Advocate - Adrian
Siena Heights University Spectra - Adrian
The Recorder - Albion
The Allegan County News - Allegan
Grand Valley Advance - Allendale
The Alpena News - Alpena
The Ann Arbor Independent - Ann Arbor
The Ann Arbor News - Ann Arbor
Washtenaw Jewish News - Ann Arbor
The Michigan Daily - Ann Arbor, University of Michigan
Monroe Street Journal - Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, Ross School of Business
Montmorency County Tribune - Atlanta
Huron Daily Tribune - Bad Axe
Huron County View - Bad Axe
Lake County Star - Baldwin
Battle Creek Enquirer - Battle Creek
Battle Creek Shopper News - Battle Creek
Senior Times Newspaper - Battle Creek
The Bay City Times - Bay City
Beaverton Clarion - Beaverton
The Antrim Review - Bellaire
Belleville Area Independent - Belleville
Belleville Enterprise - Belleville
The Eagle - Belleville
Northeast Advance - Belmont
Benton Spirit - Benton Harbor
The Herald-Palladium - Benton Harbor
MailMax - Benton Harbor
Southfield Eccentric - Berkley
Woodward Talk - Berkley
The Journal Era - Berrien
Birmingham-Bloomfield Eagle - Beverly Hills
[[The Pioneer (Big Rapids)|The Pioneer]] - Big Rapids
Birmingham-Bloomfield Eagle - Bingham Farms
Birch Run/Bridgeport Herald - Birch Run
Observer Eccentric - Birmingham
Birmingham-Bloomfield Eagle - Birmingham
The Oakland Press - Birmingham
Blissfield Advance - Blissfield
Birmingham-Bloomfield Eagle - Bloomfield Hills
The Oakland Press - Bloomfield Hills
Birmingham-Bloomfield Eagle - Bloomfield Township
The Boyne City Gazette - Boyne City
Birch Run/Bridgeport Herald - Bridgeport
Inside Business Journal - Brighton
Bay Mills News - Brimley
Bronson Journal-ceased publication on Nov. 16, 2017. - Bronson
The Exponent - Brooklyn
Brown City Banner - Brown City
Berrien County Record - Buchanan
Burton View - Burton
The South Independent - Byron
Southwest Advance - Byron Center
Cadillac Evening News - Cadillac
The Sun & News - Caledonia
Southeast Advance - Caledonia
The Eagle - Canton
Canton Observer - Canton and Canton Township
Tuscola County Advertiser - Caro
Carson City Gazette - Carson City
Cadence Newspaper - Cascade
Cass City Chronicle - Cass City
Cassopolis Vigilant - Cassopolis
The Cedar Springs Post - Cedar Springs
Northeast Advance - Cedar Springs
Warren Weekly - Center Line
Central Lake News - Central Lake
Central Michigan Life - Central Michigan University
Charlevoix Courier - Charlevoix
Community Newspaper - Charlotte
Eaton Rapids Community News - Charlotte
The County Journal - Charlotte
Cheboygan Daily Tribune - Cheboygan
Straitsland Resorter - Cheboygan
Chelsea Standard (Ceased publication June 25, 2015) - Chelsea
The Sun Times News - Chelsea
Tri-County Citizen - Chesaning
The North Independent - Chesaning
The Clare County Review - Clare
Clarkston News - Clarkston
The Oakland Press - Clarkston
Clawson Mirror - Clawson
Royal Oak Review - Clawson
Southfield Eccentric - Clawson
Climax Crescent - Climax
Clinton Local - Clinton
Clinton Township Chronicle - Clinton Township
Mount Clemens-Clinton-Harrison Journal - Clinton Township
Fraser-Clinton Twp. Chronicle - Clinton Township
The Daily Reporter - Coldwater
Northwest Advance - Coopersville
The Herald (Discontinued in 2017) - Cornerstone University
The North Independent - Corunna
Southeast Advance - Cutlerville
Davison Index - Davison
Dearborn Times-Herald - Dearborn
Iraq Sun (Described as defunct in this wiki article) - Dearborn
Press and Guide - Dearborn
Sada al-Watan (Arab American News) - Dearborn
Delta Collegiate - Delta College
Advertiser Times - Detroit
Between the Lines - Detroit
The Building Tradesman - Detroit
Crain's Detroit Business - Detroit
De Mujer A Mujer - Detroit
Detroit Free Press - Detroit
The Jewish News - Detroit
Detroit Legal News - Detroit
Detroit Monitor - Detroit
The Detroit News - Detroit
Dziennik Polski - Detroit
El Central Hispanic News - Detroit
La Prensa - Detroit
Latino Press - Detroit
Legal Advertiser - Detroit
Metro Times - Detroit
Michigan Chronicle - Detroit
Polish Weekly - Detroit
Real Detroit Weekly (Ceased 2014) - Detroit
Ukrain'ski Visti (Ceased May 30, 2000, according to Library of Congress) - Detroit
Dexter Leader (Ceased publication in 1995) - Dexter
Penasee Globe - Dorr
Daily News - Dowagiac
Drummond Island Digest - Drummond Island
The Independent - Dundee
The South Independent - Durand
Southeast Advance - Dutton
Cadence Newspaper - East Grand Rapids
The State News - East Lansing, Michigan State University
Roseville-Eastpointe Eastsider - Eastpointe
Iosco County News-Herald - East Tawas
The Eastern Echo - Eastern Michigan University
Flashes Advertising & News - Eaton Rapids
Telegram Newspaper - Ecorse
Edwardsburg Argus - Edwardsburg
Town Meeting - Elk Rapids
The Daily Press - Escanaba
Farmington Observer - Farmington
The Hills Herald - Farmington Hills
Farmington Press - Farmington and Farmington Hills
Fenton Patch - Fenton
Tri-County Times - Fenton
Southfield Eccentric - Ferndale
Oakland County 115 - Ferndale
Woodward Talk - Ferndale
Ferris State University/ The Torch - Ferris State University
The Flint Journal - Flint
Genesee County Legal News - Flint
Flint Township View - Flint Township
Cadence Newspaper - Forest Hills
Fowlerville News and Views - Fowlerville
The Flushing Observer - Flushing
Frankenmuth News - Frankenmuth
Benzie County Record Patriot - Frankfort
Birmingham-Bloomfield Eagle - Franklin
Fraser-Clinton Twp. Chronicle - Fraser
Times Indicator - Fremont
Garden City Observer - Garden City
Otsego County Voice - Gaylord
Gaylord Herald Times - Gaylord
Beaverton Clarion - Gladwin
Gladwin County Record - Gladwin
Grand Blanc View - Grand Blanc
Grand Haven Tribune - Grand Haven
Community News - Grand Ledge
Business Update - Grand Rapids
El Informador - Grand Rapids
El Vocero Hispano - Grand Rapids
Grand Rapids Business Journal - Grand Rapids
Grand Rapids Legal News - Grand Rapids
The Grand Rapids Press - Grand Rapids
Grand Rapids Times - Grand Rapids
Latino News - Grand Rapids
Lazo Cultural - Grand Rapids
Cadence Newspaper - Grand Rapids (northeast) Ada
Collegiate (newspaper) - Grand Rapids Community College
Grand Rapids Township -- Cadence Newspaper Grand Valley Lanthorn - Grand Valley State University
Times of Grass Lake - Grass Lake
Grand Valley Advance - Grandville
The Grass Lake Times - Grass Lake
Grayling
Crawford County Avalanche - Grayling
The Daily News - Greenville
Ile Camera (Ceased publication in September 2009) - Grosse Ile
Grosse Pointe News - Grosse Pointe
Grosse Pointe Times-Serving all five Grosse Pointes - Grosse Pointe
Penasee Globe - Gun Lake
Hamtramck Review - Hamtramck
Harbor Beach The Lakeshore Guardian, serving Huron, Sanilac, St. Clair, and Tuscola Counties, Michigan
Harbor Light - Harbor Springs
Advertiser Times - Harper Woods
Clare County Cleaver - Harrison
Mount Clemens-Clinton-Harrison Journal - Harrison Township
Alcona County Review - Harrisville
Oceana's Herald-Journal - Hart
Hastings Banner - Hastings
Madison-Park News - Madison Heights
The North Independent - Henderson
Henry Ford College/ Mirror News - Henry Ford College
Spinal Column Newsweekly - Highland
Hillsdale Daily News - Hillsdale
The Collegian - Hillsdale College
Montmorency County Tribune - Hillman
The Collegian - Hillsdale
The Holland Sentinel - Holland
Holt Community News - Holt
Homer Index - Homer
Penasee Globe - Hopkins
The Daily Mining Gazette - Houghton
Michigan Tech Lode - Houghton Michigan Technological University
Houghton Lake Resorter - Houghton Lake
Roscommon County Herald-News - Houghton Lake
Livingston County Daily Press & Argus - Howell
The Livonia Observer, Livonia, Michigan, ceased printing in December 2022, but an online edition persists. That paper had an circulation of over 14,000. It was part of a larger slaughter of local newspapers. Gannett shut six newspapers down in a stroke. "The publisher said publications will continue online and there were no new layoffs associated with the print finale. Currently are only five reporters to cover the communities that number about one million people. Gannett said they will maintain print editions in Northville, Novi, Milford and South Lyon."
Hudson Post-Gazette - Hudson
Grand Valley Advance - Hudsonville
Southfield Eccentric - Huntington Woods
Woodward Talk - Huntington Woods
Tri-City Times - Imlay City
Straitsland Resorter - Indian River
Inkster Ledger Star - Inkster
The Eagle - Inkster
Ionia Sentinel-Standard - Ionia
The Daily News - Iron Mountain
The Iron County Reporter - Iron River
Ironwood Daily Globe - Ironwood
Gratiot County Herald - Iathaca
Jackson Citizen Patriot - Jackson
Jackson County Legal News - Jackson
Grand Valley Advance - Jenison
Community Voices Magazine - Kalamazoo
Kalamazoo Gazette - Kalamazoo
The Kalkaskian - Kalkaska
West Bloomfield Beacon - Keego Harbor
Southeast Advance - Kentwood
* The Daily News (Kingsford) - Kingsford
L'Anse Sentinel - L'Anse
The North Independent - Laingsburg
The Missaukee Sentinel - Lake City
Lake Orion Eccentric - Lake Orion
The Oakland Press - Lake Orion
Leelanau Enterprise - Lake Leelanau
Lakewood News - Lake Odessa
The Lake Orion Review - Lake Orion
Lakeview Area News - Lakeview
Bridge Magazine - Lansing
City Pulse - Lansing
Lansing State Journal - Lansing
The Lookout (newspaper) - Lansing Community College
County Press, formerly Lapeer County Press - Lapeer
Lapeer Area View - Lapeer
Southfield Sun - Lathrup Village
The Leelanau Enterprise - Leland
The South Independent - Lennon
Livingston County Daily Press & Argus - Livingston County
Between The Lines - Livonia
Livonia Observer Ceased printing in December 2022, but an on line edition persists.
Lowell Ledger - Lowell
Ludington Daily News - Ludington
Mackinac Island Town Crier - Mackinac Island
Macomb Legal News - Macomb County, Michigan
The Macomb Daily - Macomb
Macomb Chronicle - Macomb Township
Italian Tribune-La Tribuna del Popolo - Macomb
Madison-Park News - Madison Heights
Manchester Enterprise - Manchester
Manchester Mirror - Manchester
Michigan Advance News Advocate - Manistee
Pioneer-Tribune - Manistique
The Marion Press - Marion
The Marlette Leader - Marlette
The Mining Journal - Marquette
Northern Michigan University North Wind - Marquette
Ad-visor & Chronicle* - Marshall
Ingham County Legal News - Mason
Michigan Tech Lode - Michigan Technological University
The Sun & News - Middleville
Midland Daily News - Midland
Michigan Capitol Confidential - Midland
Milan News - Milan
The Milan Eagle - Milan
Milford Times - Milford
The Oakland Press - Milford
Minden City Herald - Minden City
Monroe Business Journal - Monroe
Monroe Evening News - Monroe
Monroe Guardian - Monroe
Monroe News - Monroe
The Agora - Monroe County Community College
Montmorency County Tribune - Montmorency County
Morenci Observer - Morenci
State Line Observer - Morenci
The Macomb Daily - Mount Clemens
Mount Clemens-Clinton-Harrison Journal - Mount Clemens
Mount Morris/Clio Herald - Mount Morris
Morning Sun - Mount Pleasant
Munising News - Munising
Muskegon Chronicle - Muskegon
Norton-Lakeshore Examiner - Muskegon
Muskegon County Legal News - Muskegon
The Bay Window - Muskegon Community College
Maple Valley News - Nashville
The Voice - New Baltimore
Harbor Country News - New Buffalo
New Buffalo Times - New Buffalo
Newberry News - Newberry
The North Independent - New Lothrop
Daily Star - Niles
Northville Record - Northville
The Eagle - Northville
The Current - Norway
Michigan Lawyers Weekly - Novi
Novi News - Novi
Oakland County Legal News - Oakland County, Michigan
The Oakland Press - Oakland County
Oakland County 115 - Oakland County
Oakland Lakefront Lifestyle Magazine - Oakland County
Rochester Post - Oakland Township
The Oakland Post - Oakland University
The Echo - Olivet College
The Onaway Outlook - Onaway
The Ontonogan Herald - Ontonogan
West Bloomfield Beacon - Orchard Lake
The Citizen - Ortonville
Oscoda Press - Oscoda
The Union Enterprise - Otsego
Argus-Press - Owosso
Independent Newsgroup - Owosso
The North Independent - Owosso
Oxford Eccentric - Oxford
Oxford Leader - Oxford
Paw Paw -The Courier-Leader The South Independent - Perry
Petoskey News-Review - Petoskey
Pinconning Journal - Pinconning
Cadence Newspaper - Plainfield
The Union Enterprise - Plainwell
Woodward Talk - Pleasant Ridge
Plymouth Observer - Plymouth
The Eagle - Plymouth
The Oakland Press - Pontiac
Port Austin Times - Port Austin
The Times Herald - Port Huron
Portland Review & Observer - Portland
Herald-Review (Reed City) - Reed City
Redford Neighborhood Connection - Redford
Redford Observer - Redford
Richland Express - Richland
Rochester Eccentric - Rochester
Rochester & Rochester Hills Gazette - Rochester Hills
Rochester Post - Rochester and Rochester Hills
Northeast Advance (ceased publication in 2019) - Rockford
Rockford Squire - Rockford
Presque Isle County Advance - Rogers City
Presque Isle County Advance (and Onaway Outlook) - Rogers City
The Romeo Observer - Romeo
Detroit Metropolitan Airport News - Romulus
Huron River Weekly - Romulus
Romulus Roman - Romulus
The Eagle - Romulus
Roscommon Roscommon County Voice Houghton Lake Resorter & Roscommon County Herald-News - Roscommon
Gazette van Detroit - Roseville
Roseville-Eastpointe Eastsider - Roseville
Daily Tribune - Royal Oak
Royal Oak Review - Royal Oak
Southfield Eccentric - Royal Oak
The Saginaw News - Saginaw
The Township View - Saginaw
The Valley Vanguard - Saginaw Valley State University
Saline Reporter - Saline
Sanilac County News - Sandusky
Sandusky Tribune & Deckerville Recorder & Marlette Leader - Sandusky
Sanilac County Jeffersonian - Sandusky
The Commercial Record - Saugatuck
The Evening News - Sault Sainte Marie
South County News - Schoolcraft
The Connection - Schoolcraft College
Newsweekly - Sebewaing
The South Independent - Shaftsburg
Shelby-Utica News - Shelby
The Southwester - Southwestern Michigan College
Erie Square Gazette - St. Clair County Community College
St. Clair Shores Sentinel - St. Clair Shores
The St. Ignace News - St. Ignace
The Herald-Palladium - St. Joseph
Trade Lines - St. Joseph
South Lyon Herald - South Lyon
The Jewish News - Southfield
Southfield Eccentric - Southfield
Southfield Sun - Southfield
The Heritage Sunday - Southgate
The News-Herald - Southgate
South Haven Tribune - South Haven
Northwest Advance - Sparta
Springport Signal - Springport
Menominee County Journal - Stephenson
Sterling Heights Sentry - Sterling Heights
Town Crier - Stockbridge
Sturgis Journal - Sturgis
Swartz Creek View - Swartz Creek
West Bloomfield Beacon - Sylvan Lake
Iosco County News-Herald - Tawas City
Tecumseh Herald - Tecumseh
Bedford Now - Temperance
The South County Gazette - Three Oaks
Three Rivers Commercial-News - Three Rivers
Grand Traverse Business News - Traverse City
Grand Traverse Herald - Traverse City
Northern Express - Traverse City
Traverse City Record-Eagle - Traverse City
Nordamerikansiche Wochen-post - Troy
Oakland Observer - Troy
Troy Eccentric - Troy
Troy-Somerset Gazette - Troy
Troy Times - Troy
The Oakland Press - Troy
Hometown Gazette - Union City
The Varsity News - University of Detroit Mercy
The Michigan Daily - University of Michigan
Source/Advisor Newspaper - Utica
Shelby-Utica News - Utica
Vanderbiltmich.com - Vanderbilt
Pioneer Times - Vassar
The South Independent - Vernon
South County News - Vicksburg
Grand Valley Advance - Walker
Northwest Advance - Walker
Warren Weekly - Warren
Washtenaw Voice - Washtenaw Community College
Spinal Column Newsweekly - Waterford
The Oakland Press - Waterford
Penasee Globe - Wayland
Journal Newspaper - Wayne
The South End - Wayne State University
West Bloomfield Eccentric - West Bloomfield
West Bloomfield Beacon - West Bloomfield
Northwest Advance - West Grand Rapids
Westland Observer - Westland
White Lake Beacon - Whitehall
Williamston Enterprise - Williamston
El Informador - Wyoming, Michigan
Southwest Advance - Wyoming
The Yale Expositor - Yale
Ypsilanti Courier - Ypsilanti
Zeeland Record'' - Zeeland
See also
Media in Detroit
Media in Grand Rapids, Michigan
References
External links
. (Survey of local news existence and ownership in 21st century)
Mass media in Michigan
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4757039
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Man%20from%20London
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The Man from London
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The Man from London () is a 2007 Hungarian film directed by Béla Tarr and Ágnes Hranitzky. It is an adaptation by Tarr and his collaborator-friend László Krasznahorkai of the 1934 novel L'Homme de Londres by prolific Belgian writer Georges Simenon. The film features an international ensemble cast including Czech actor Miroslav Krobot, Briton Tilda Swinton, and Hungarian actors János Derzsi and István Lénárt. The plot follows Maloin, a nondescript railway worker who recovers a briefcase containing a significant amount of money from the scene of a murder to which he is the only witness. Wracked by guilt and fear of being discovered, Maloin sinks into despondence and frustration, which leads to acrimony in his household. Meanwhile, an English police detective investigates the disappearance of the money and the unscrupulous characters connected to the crime.
The French, German and Hungarian co-production of the film was fraught with difficulty and obstacles. The first of these was the suicide of the film's French producer, Humbert Balsan in February 2005, days before shooting was due to begin. As the original financing of the film collapsed, the remaining producers managed to secure stop-gap funding which allowed them to shoot nine days of footage on the expensive Corsican sets, until they were shut down through legal action by the local subcontractor. After many expressions of support from European film organisations, production companies and government bodies, a new co-production contract was signed in July 2005 with a revised budget and shooting schedule. It then emerged that all rights to the film had been ceded to a French bank under the original production agreement, and only after further changes in the film's backers was a deal struck with the bank to allow shooting to resume in March 2006, over a year later than had been originally envisaged.
The Man from London was the first of Tarr's films to premiere in competition at the Cannes Film Festival, but despite being highly anticipated, it won no prize. The French distributor blamed this on poor dubbing and a late showing, though the press was put off by the film's extended shots and leaden pace. After being re-dubbed, it was shown on the international film festival circuit.
Critical reception to The Man from London was generally positive, though less adamant than that of the director's previous two works; while reviewers spoke in glowing terms of the formidable cinematography and meticulous composition, they felt the film lacked compelling characters. Variety reviewer Derek Elley commented that the film was unlikely to reconcile the division between viewers of Tarr's films who find the director to be "either a visionary genius or a crashing bore".
Plot
The film concerns a middle-aged railway pointsman, Maloin (Miroslav Krobot), who lives in a decrepit apartment in a port town with his highly-strung wife Camélia (Tilda Swinton) and his daughter Henriette (Erika Bók). One night while in his viewing tower at the port's rail terminus, Maloin witnesses a fight on the dockside. One of the shady combatants is knocked into the water along with the briefcase he carries; when the other flees the dark quayside, Maloin makes a clandestine descent from the tower and retrieves the briefcase, which he finds full of sodden English banknotes. Maloin conceals the money and tells no-one of what he has seen. The next morning, he visits a tavern where he plays chess with the barkeep (Gyula Pauer). On his way home, he stops by the butcher's where his daughter works, and finds to his indignation that they have her washing the floor. Later, from the window of his apartment, he notices Brown (János Derzsi) watching him from below. At dinner, Maloin is increasingly irascible, addressing Henriette brusquely and arguing with Camélia. Meanwhile, Brown searches the water at the dock's edge without success before noticing the watchtower overlooking the quayside, and Maloin within.
Later at the tavern, a police inspector from London named Morrison (István Lénárt) discusses with Brown the matter of the stolen money. Morrison claims to be working on behalf of a theater owner named Mitchell, a theatre owner from whose office safe the £55,000 was stolen. Morrison proposes that Brown, being intimately familiar with Mitchell's office, is the only man he knows who was capable of making away with the money without raising alarm. Morrison indicates that Mitchell cares only that the money is returned swiftly, and is even prepared to offer a two nights' theater takings in exchange. When Morrison mentions having visited Brown's wife and asks what he should tell Mitchell, Brown leaves the room under a pretense and slips out a side door. Nearby playing chess with the barkeep, Maloin has overheard the conversation.
Maloin calls to the butcher's and drags Henriette from the store against her will and over the protestations of the butcher's wife (Kati Lázár). He brings her to the tavern for a drink, where he overhears the barkeep telling another patron the story of Brown's meeting with the inspector, revealing that Morrison had called the local police when Brown absconded. Though Henriette refuses her drink, Maloin buys her an expensive mink stole. They return home to the consternation of Camélia, who cannot comprehend why Maloin has ruined Henriette's chances of a job and spent what little savings the family had on the extravagant stole. During Maloin's shift the next night he is visited by Morrison, who questions him as to the previous night's events as the body of the drowned man is retrieved from the quayside below.
The next day at the tavern, Morrison meets Brown's wife (Agi Szirtes), and tells her that Brown is under suspicion for the theft and for the murder at the quayside. He asks for her help in finding him and repeats to her Mitchell's offer to Brown, but she remains silent. At home, Henriette tells Maloin she found a man in their hut at the seaside, and in fear locked the door and ran home. An agitated Maloin tells her not to tell anyone, and leaves for the hut. He unlocks the door, and receiving no response to his calling Brown's name, steps inside, closing the door behind. Minutes later he re-emerges, breathing heavily. After pausing to compose himself, he locks the door and leaves. In the next scene, Maloin presents the briefcase to Morrison in the tavern, and asks him to arrest him, confessing to having killed Brown an hour ago. Morrison leaves with Maloin for the hut, dismissing the frenzied inquiries of Brown's wife about her husband and handing the briefcase to the barkeep on the way out. Brown's wife follows the men to the hut, and emerges weeping with Morrison moments later. Back at the tavern, Morrison prepares two envelopes with a small portion of the recovered money in each. One he leaves with the grieving widow to whom he apologizes and wishes well, while the other he gives to Maloin, telling him that his case was one of self-defense. As he is preparing to leave, Morrison advises Maloin to go home and forget the whole affair. The camera focuses on the expressionless face of Brown's wife momentarily before fading to white.
Cast
Miroslav Krobot as Maloin
Tilda Swinton as Maloin's wife
Erika Bók as Henriette
János Derzsi as Brown
Analysis
According to critic Martha P. Nochimson, the film is an exploration of the place of anonymous breakdowns of social order in personal life. For the most part, questions of justice operate in the background of The Man From London, which foregrounds the perceptions and point of view of an accidental witness to the murder, who, like the viewer, has no connection with anyone involved. The film principally concerns the texture of the world of the protagonist Maloin as he experiences it first hand: fog, light, shadow, skin, walls, floors, windows, sounds. These are much closer to Maloin than any broken laws involving strangers as in the killing at the dock. As distinct from the trope of crime functioning as a break from the boredom of the mundane for the Hitchcockian ordinary man "excitingly" caught up in it, the interjection of crime in the lives of the characters of The Man from London is a phantom occurrence for those burrowed into the center of the mundane details of their lives. In other words, Tarr's film suggests the possibility that it is only on an abstract plane that murder committed by and on strangers causes a stir and demands an investigation. In this context, it is fitting that the investigation must be undertaken by a stranger, the man from London, since abstraction entails distancing from an enveloping context. Only the appearance of the man from London, Brown, impels Maloin to struggle with his de facto alienation, as an ordinary man, from moral principle, an alienation linked, counterintuitively, to the absence of desire in his daily grind.
Background
Director Béla Tarr and novelist-screenwriter László Krasznahorkai had been collaborators since making Damnation in 1987. With The Man from London, they sought to adapt the 1934 French language novel L'Homme de Londres by the Belgian writer Georges Simenon. The novel had been twice adapted for film previously; as The London Man by Henri Decoin in 1943, and as Temptation Harbour by Lance Comfort in 1947 with William Hartnell, Robert Newton, and Simone Simon in the lead roles. The Man from London was something of a departure from the social realism of the collaborators' preceding films, as the characters exemplify no social classes and the film focuses on their internal and interrelational dynamics rather than their environment. Tarr explained that he had been drawn to adapt the novel because "it deals with the eternal and the everyday at one and the same time. It deals with the cosmic and the realistic, the divine and the human, and to my mind, contains the totality of nature and man, just as it contains their pettiness." It was the first of the director's films not to feature the Hungarian language or an Eastern European setting. The ensemble cast of the film included Czech Miroslav Krobot, Briton Tilda Swinton, and the Hungarians János Derzsi and István Lénárt. Tarr shared directorial credit with Ágnes Hranitzky – the film's editor and his long-time collaborator.
Production history
The development of the film was problematic, with threats to shut down the production, lack of financing, and ultimately a return to work. The project first faltered in February 2005, when the film's producer Humbert Balsan committed suicide. Tarr reported receiving word of his producer's death two days before shooting was scheduled to begin in Bastia, Corsica. Balsan's death led to significant financial difficulties for the production. The film had been established as a co-production with French, German and Hungarian financing. Tarr's Budapest-based production company T. T. Filmműhely were to provide the Hungarian funding for the project, while Balsan had secured the French and German financing for the film by warranting a loan from the French bank Coficiné. Upon learning of his death, the bank withdrew its support for the production, which was then postponed.
After securing additional financing from Eurimages and ARTE, Tarr used these and the Hungarian funds to undertake nine days of shooting on sets he had built at a cost of €2 million. The French funding was cross-financed for the shoot by T. T. Filmműhely. As funds were frozen however, the Corsican subcontractor Tanit Films (controlled by the film's then-executive producer Jean-Patrick Costantini), terminated their contract with Balsan and through legal action compelled the production to dismantle the sets and leave the shooting location. At that point, Ognon Pictures shut the production down and disassociated themselves from the film, and Tarr withdrew to Hungary to regroup.
Expressions of sympathy and solidarity from the European film community manifested in renewed assurances of continued support from the production's German partners, ARTE, and the French National Film Centre (whose support was conditional on the film having 51% of its dialogue in French). New French financing was secured from production company Mezzanine Film, and in Hungary, the Hungarian Motion Picture Foundation (MMKA) and the Minister of Culture pledged to back the production if a guarantee could be made that the film would be finished safely. A compromise filming schedule was negotiated whereby a quarter of the shoot would take place in Eastern Europe rather than Corsica and fewer shooting days would be allotted. This allowed the original €5 million budget to be reduced by €700,000 to the amount available. With the funding promises secured and a revised shooting schedule, the film's producers forged a new co-production contract in July 2005.
While the production's lawyers worked to clarify its legal standing in the Summer of 2005, it emerged that Humbert Balsan's deeply indebted production company Ognon Pictures had pledged all rights to the production to Coficiné in exchange for loans. With production in legal stasis and faced with a lengthy court battle to recover the rights, the producers agreed to a settlement with Ognon's bankruptcy officer. In the meantime, the French partners Mezzanine Film declared their discomfort with the scale of the production, and after mutual agreement with the producers, left the project on September 5, 2005. After meeting with the producers and their new French partner, Paul Saadoun of 13 Production, Coficiné consented to completing the film. On February 6, 2006, Tarr and producer Gábor Téni issued a press release which documented at length the developments with the troubled production to that date, and expressed their hope and intent to persevere in completing the film. Tarr duly restarted shooting in March 2006, after a year of inactivity. The filmmakers dedicated The Man from London to their late colleague Humbert Balsan.
Release
The Man from London premiered in competition at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival, Tarr's first film to do so. Although its showing was highly anticipated, the slow pace and prolonged shots of the film "had the press fleeing like panicked slaughterhouse cattle" as The New York Times put it, and it won no prize. This failure was attributed by the film's French distributor Shellac to its late showing and the poor quality of the dubbing. A proposal for the film to open the Hungarian Film Week out of competition had previously been rejected by the festival's board. Following its Cannes appearance, the film was screened at the film festivals of Toronto, Melbourne, Edinburgh, Split, Vancouver and New York. It proved controversial in New York, where elements of the audience reacted favourably when the film appeared to end prematurely due to a technical fault; others greeted the actual conclusion with fervent applause and calls of bravo.
Global sales rights to the film were bought by Fortissimo Films, and it was re-dubbed in French and English. The new version had its North American premiere at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City in September 2008. In the United Kingdom, distributor Artificial Eye released the film theatrically in December 2008, 18 months following its Cannes premiere. They later released a DVD box set of Tarr's films which collected The Man from London with Damnation (1988) and Werckmeister Harmonies (2000). In the United States the film was given a limited release in May 2009 by IFC Films, who later made it available through video-on-demand.
Critical reception
Critical reaction to The Man from London generally praised its formalist aesthetic and painstakingly composed scenes, while criticizing its slow pace and lack of a compelling plot. Most argued the film fell short of Tarr's previous efforts. Varietys Derek Elley rated the film on a par with his Damnation (1988) but as inferior to Sátántangó (1994) and Werckmeister Harmonies (2000), remarking it was improbable that The Man From London would put an end to the polarization of Tarr's audiences into those who hail him as a director of "visionary genius" and those for whom he is a "crashing bore". Martin Tsai of The New York Sun allowed that Tarr "makes it easy for viewers to get lost in his beautifully bleak world and lose track of time" but complained that in comparison with its predecessors, the film's central theme of guilt seemed insubstantial and the film itself felt "slight and incomplete".
The New York Times reviewer Nathan Lee described The Man from London as "bloated, formalist art", and an "outrageously stylized, conceptually demanding film" that dehumanizes and alienates its audience. Conversely, Jeff Reichert of Reverse Shot, a long-time Tarr enthusiast, commended the film for its technical dexterity and authoritative camera movement, comparing Tarr to Taiwanese director Hou Hsiao-hsien for his cinematic rigor. He did, however, consider the source material sub-par, and the musical score by Mihály Víg to be "whirring [and] grat[ing]". In The Hollywood Reporter, Kirk Honeycutt complimented the intricacy of the cinematography and the monochrome photography, but judged the film to be "tedious", "repetitive" and "nearly unwatchable". In a review of Cannes' offerings for Time Out, Dave Calhoun too drew attention to the meticulous cinematography and signature shot lengths of Tarr's "austere and mesmeric" film, and declared Swinton's dubbing into Hungarian one of the festival's strangest instances of cultural displacement.
Reporting from Cannes, The Guardians Peter Bradshaw described the film as "bizarre and lugubrious, but mesmeric", and praised the muted performance of Agi Szirtes in the role of Brown's wife as "strangely compelling". Reviewing the film following its theatrical release, he found the dubbed dialogue affected and odd, the score doom-laden, the occasional humour mordant, and the cinematography mesmerising, remarking that net effect was "unsettling, sometimes absurd, sometimes stunning". Ed Gonzalez of The Village Voice concluded that the film "stands as an example of style for the sake of pure and intense but dispassionate style".
References
External links
The Man from London at the Cannes Film Festival
Trailer at Cineuropa.org
Interview with Tarr from May 23, 2007 at Cineuropa.org
2007 crime drama films
German crime drama films
2007 films
French black-and-white films
German black-and-white films
Hungarian black-and-white films
Films based on Belgian novels
Films based on works by Georges Simenon
Films based on crime novels
Films directed by Béla Tarr
Film noir
Films shot in France
Films shot in Haute-Corse
French crime drama films
Remakes of French films
Hungarian-language films
English-language German films
English-language French films
English-language Hungarian films
2000s French-language films
Police detective films
Films with screenplays by László Krasznahorkai
2000s French films
2000s German films
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4757213
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting%20oscillation
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Hunting oscillation
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Hunting oscillation is a self-oscillation, usually unwanted, about an equilibrium. The expression came into use in the 19th century and describes how a system "hunts" for equilibrium. The expression is used to describe phenomena in such diverse fields as electronics, aviation, biology, and railway engineering.
Railway wheelsets
A classical hunting oscillation is a swaying motion of a railway vehicle (often called truck hunting or bogie hunting) caused by the coning action on which the directional stability of an adhesion railway depends. It arises from the interaction of adhesion forces and inertial forces. At low speed, adhesion dominates but, as the speed increases, the adhesion forces and inertial forces become comparable in magnitude and the oscillation begins at a critical speed. Above this speed, the motion can be violent, damaging track and wheels and potentially causing derailment. The problem does not occur on systems with a differential because the action depends on both wheels of a wheelset rotating at the same angular rate, although differentials tend to be rare, and conventional trains have their wheels fixed to the axles in pairs instead. Some trains, like the Talgo 350, have no differential, yet they are mostly not affected by hunting oscillation, as most of their wheels rotate independently from one another. The wheels of the power car, however, can be affected by hunting oscillation, because the wheels of the power car are fixed to the axles in pairs like in conventional bogies. Less conical wheels and bogies equipped with independent wheels that turn independently from each other and are not fixed to an axle in pairs are cheaper than a suitable differential for the bogies of a train.
The problem was first noticed towards the end of the 19th century, when train speeds became high enough to encounter it. Serious efforts to counteract it got underway in the 1930s, giving rise to lengthened trucks and the side-damping swing hanger truck. In the development of the Japanese Shinkansen, less-conical wheels and other design changes were used to extend truck design speeds above . Advances in wheel and truck design based on research and development efforts in Europe and Japan have extended the speeds of steel wheel systems well beyond those attained by the original Shinkansen, while the advantage of backwards compatibility keeps such technology dominant over alternatives such as the hovertrain and maglev systems. The speed record for steel-wheeled trains is held by the French TGV, at .
Kinematic analysis
While a qualitative description provides some understanding of the phenomenon, deeper understanding inevitably requires a mathematical analysis of the vehicle dynamics. Even then, the results may be only approximate.
A kinematic description deals with the geometry of motion, without reference to the forces causing it, so the analysis begins with a description of the geometry of a wheel set running on a straight track. Since Newton's second law relates forces to the acceleration of bodies, the forces acting may then be derived from the kinematics by calculating the accelerations of the components. However, if these forces change the kinematic description (as they do in this case) then the results may only be approximately correct.
Assumptions and non-mathematical description
This kinematic description makes a number of simplifying assumptions since it neglects forces. For one, it assumes that the rolling resistance is zero. A wheelset (not attached to a train or truck), is given a push forward on a straight and level track. The wheelset starts coasting and never slows down since there are no forces (except downward forces on the wheelset to make it adhere to the track and not slip). If initially the wheelset is centered on the railroad track then the effective diameters of each wheel are the same and the wheelset rolls down the track in a perfectly straight line forever. But if the wheelset is a little off-center so that the effective diameters (or radii) are different, then the wheelset starts to move in a curve of radius (depending on these wheelset radii, etc.; to be derived later on). The problem is to use kinematic reasoning to find the trajectory of the wheelset, or more precisely, the trajectory of the center of the wheelset projected vertically on the roadbed in the center of the track. This is a trajectory on the plane of the level earth's surface and plotted on an - graphical plot where is the distance along the railroad and is the "tracking error", the deviation of the center of the wheelset from the straight line of the railway running down the center of the track (midway between the two rails).
To illustrate that a wheelset trajectory follows a curved path, one may place a nail or screw on a flat table top and give it a push. It will roll in a circular curve because the nail or screw is like a wheelset with extremely different diameter wheels. The head is analogous to a large diameter wheel and the pointed end is like a small diameter wheel. While the nail or screw will turn around in a full circle (and more) the railroad wheelset behaves differently because as soon at it starts to turn in a curve, the effective diameters change in such a way as to decrease the curvature of the path. Note that "radius" and "curvature" refer to the curvature of the trajectory of the wheelset and not the curvature of the railway since this is perfectly straight track. As the wheelset rolls on, the curvature decreases until the wheels reach the point where their effective diameters are equal and the path is no longer curving. But the trajectory has a slope at this point (it is a straight line which crosses diagonally over the centerline of the track) so that it overshoots the centerline of the track and the effective diameters reverse (the formerly smaller diameter wheel becomes the larger diameter and conversely). This results in the wheelset moving in a curve in the opposite direction. Again it overshoots the centerline and this phenomenon continues indefinitely with the wheelset oscillating from side to side. Note that the wheel flange never makes contact with the rail. In this model, the rails are assumed to always contact the wheel tread along the same line on the rail head which assumes that the rails are knife-edge and only make contact with the wheel tread along a line (of zero width).
Mathematical analysis
The train stays on the track by virtue of the conical shape of the wheel treads. If a wheelset is displaced to one side by an amount (the tracking error), the radius of the tread in contact with the rail on one side is reduced, while on the other side it is increased. The angular velocity is the same for both wheels (they are coupled via a rigid axle), so the larger diameter tread speeds up, while the smaller slows down. The wheel set steers around a centre of curvature defined by the intersection of the generator of a cone passing through the points of contact with the wheels on the rails and the axis of the wheel set. Applying similar triangles, we have for the turn radius:
where is the track gauge, the wheel radius when running straight and is the tread taper (which is the slope of tread in the horizontal direction perpendicular to the track).
The path of the wheel set relative to the straight track is defined by a function (), where is the progress along the track. This is sometimes called the tracking error. Provided the direction of motion remains more or less parallel to the rails, the curvature of the path may be related to the second derivative of with respect to distance along the track as approximately
It follows that the trajectory along the track is governed by the equation:
This is a simple harmonic motion having wavelength:
This kinematic analysis implies that trains sway from side to side all the time. In fact, this oscillation is damped out below a critical speed and the ride is correspondingly more comfortable. The kinematic result ignores the forces causing the motion. These may be analyzed using the concept of creep (non-linear) but are somewhat difficult to quantify simply, as they arise from the elastic distortion of the wheel and rail at the regions of contact. These are the subject of frictional contact mechanics; an early presentation that includes these effects in hunting motion analysis was presented by Carter. See Knothe for a historical overview.
If the motion is substantially parallel with the rails, the angular displacement of the wheel set is given by:
Hence:
The angular deflection also follows a simple harmonic motion, which lags behind the side to side motion by a quarter of a cycle. In many systems which are characterised by harmonic motion involving two different states (in this case the axle yaw deflection and the lateral displacement), the quarter cycle lag between the two motions endows the system with the ability to extract energy from the forward motion. This effect is observed in "flutter" of aircraft wings and "shimmy" of road vehicles, as well as hunting of railway vehicles. The kinematic solution derived above describes the motion at the critical speed.
In practice, below the critical speed, the lag between the two motions is less than a quarter cycle so that the motion is damped out but, above the critical speed, the lag is greater than a quarter cycle so that the motion is amplified.
In order to estimate the inertial forces, it is necessary to express the distance derivatives as time derivatives. This is done using the speed of the vehicle , which is assumed constant:
The angular acceleration of the axle in yaw is:
The inertial moment (ignoring gyroscopic effects) is:
where is the force acting along the rails and is the moment of inertia of the wheel set.
the maximum frictional force between the wheel and rail is given by:
where is the axle load and is the coefficient of friction. Gross slipping will occur at a combination of speed and axle deflection given by:
this expression yields a significant overestimate of the critical speed, but it does illustrate the physical reason why hunting occurs, i.e. the inertial forces become comparable with the adhesion forces above a certain speed. Limiting friction is a poor representation of the adhesion force in this case.
The actual adhesion forces arise from the distortion of the tread and rail in the region of contact. There is no gross slippage, just elastic distortion and some local slipping (creep slippage). During normal operation these forces are well within the limiting friction constraint. A complete analysis takes these forces into account, using rolling contact mechanics theories.
However, the kinematic analysis assumed that there was no slippage at all at the wheel-rail contact. Now it is clear that there is some creep slippage which makes the calculated sinusoidal trajectory of the wheelset (per Klingel's formula) not exactly correct.
Energy balance
In order to get an estimate of the critical speed, we use the fact that the condition for which this kinematic solution is valid corresponds to the case where there is no net energy exchange with the surroundings, so by considering the kinetic and potential energy of the system, we should be able to derive the critical speed.
Let:
Using the operator:
the angular acceleration equation may be expressed in terms of the angular velocity in yaw, :
integrating:
so the kinetic energy due to rotation is:
When the axle yaws, the points of contact move outwards on the treads so that the height of the axle is lowered. The distance between the support points increases to:
(to second order of small quantities).
the displacement of the support point out from the centres of the treads is:
the axle load falls by
The work done by lowering the axle load is therefore:
This is energy lost from the system, so in order for the motion to continue, an equal amount of energy must be extracted from the forward motion of the wheelset.
The outer wheel velocity is given by:
The kinetic energy is:
for the inner wheel it is
where is the mass of both wheels.
The increase in kinetic energy is:
The motion will continue at constant amplitude as long as the energy extracted from the forward motion, and manifesting itself as increased kinetic energy of the wheel set at zero yaw, is equal to the potential energy lost by the lowering of the axle load at maximum yaw.
Now, from the kinematics:
but
The translational kinetic energy is
The total kinetic energy is:
The critical speed is found from the energy balance:
Hence the critical speed is given by
This is independent of the wheel taper, but depends on the ratio of the axle load to wheel set mass. If the treads were truly conical in shape, the critical speed would be independent of the taper. In practice, wear on the wheel causes the taper to vary across the tread width, so that the value of taper used to determine the potential energy is different from that used to calculate the kinetic energy. Denoting the former as , the critical speed becomes:
where is now a shape factor determined by the wheel wear. This result is derived in Wickens (1965) from an analysis of the system dynamics using standard control engineering methods.
Limitation of simplified analysis
The motion of a wheel set is much more complicated than this analysis would indicate. There are additional restraining forces applied by the vehicle suspension and, at high speed, the wheel set will generate additional gyroscopic torques, which will modify the estimate of the critical speed. Conventionally a railway vehicle has stable motion in low speeds, when it reaches to high speeds stability changes to unstable form. The main purpose of nonlinear analysis of rail vehicle system dynamics is to show the view of analytical investigation of bifurcation, nonlinear lateral stability and hunting behavior of rail vehicles in a tangent track. This study describes the Bogoliubov method for the analysis.
Two main matters, namely assuming the body as a fixed support and influence of the nonlinear elements in calculation of the hunting speed, are mostly focused in studies. A real railway vehicle has many more degrees of freedom and, consequently, may have more than one critical speed; it is by no means certain that the lowest is dictated by the wheelset motion. However, the analysis is instructive because it shows why hunting occurs. As the speed increases, the inertial forces become comparable with the adhesion forces. That is why the critical speed depends on the ratio of the axle load (which determines the adhesion force) to the wheelset mass (which determines the inertial forces).
Alternatively, below a certain speed, the energy which is extracted from the forward motion is insufficient to replace the energy lost by lowering the axles and the motion damps out; above this speed, the energy extracted is greater than the loss in potential energy and the amplitude builds up.
The potential energy at maximum axle yaw may be increased by including an elastic constraint on the yaw motion of the axle, so that there is a contribution arising from spring tension. Arranging wheels in bogies to increase the constraint on the yaw motion of wheelsets and applying elastic constraints to the bogie also raises the critical speed. Introducing elastic forces into the equation permits suspension designs which are limited only by the onset of gross slippage, rather than classical hunting. The penalty to be paid for the virtual elimination of hunting is a straight track, with an attendant right-of-way problem and incompatibility with legacy infrastructure.
Hunting is a dynamic problem which can be solved, in principle at least, by active feedback control, which may be adapted to the quality of track. However, the introduction of active control raises reliability and safety issues.
Shortly after the onset of hunting, gross slippage occurs and the wheel flanges impact on the rails, potentially causing damage to both.
Road–rail vehicles
Many road–rail vehicles feature independent axles and suspension systems on each rail wheel. When this is combined with the presence of road wheels on the rail it becomes difficult to use the formulae above. Historically, road–rail vehicles have their front wheels set slightly toe-in, which has been found to minimise hunting whilst the vehicle is being driven on-rail.
See also
Frictional contact mechanics
Rail adhesion
Rail profile
Speed wobble
Vehicle dynamics
Wheelset
For general methods dealing with this class of problem, see
Control engineering
References
Oscillation
Rail technologies
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4757827
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dariush%20Mehrjui
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Dariush Mehrjui
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Dariush Mehrjui (; 8 December 1939 – 14 October 2023) was an Iranian filmmaker and a member of the Iranian Academy of the Arts.
Mehrjui was a founding member of the Iranian New Wave movement of the early 1970s, which also included directors Masoud Kimiai and Nasser Taqvai. His second film, The Cow, is considered to be the first film of this movement. Most of his films are inspired by literature and adapted from Iranian and foreign novels and plays.
In 2022, Mehrjui publicly dared the officials of the Islamic Republic to kill him for his opposition to censorship. On 14 October 2023, Mehrjui and his wife were found stabbed to death in their home in the city of Karaj, near Tehran.
Biography
Early life and education
Dariush Mehrjui was born to a middle-class family in Tehran. He showed interest in painting miniatures, music, and playing santoor and piano. He spent a lot of time going to the movies, particularly American films which were un-dubbed and inter-spliced with explanatory title cards that explained the plot throughout the films. At this time Mehrjui started to learn English so as to better enjoy the films. The film that had the strongest impact on him as a child was Vittorio De Sica's Bicycle Thieves. At the age of 12, Mehrjui built a 35 mm projector, rented two-reel films and began selling tickets to his neighborhood friends. Although raised in a religious household, Mehrjui said that, at the age of 15, "The face of God gradually became a little hazy for me, and I lost my faith."
In 1959, Mehrjui moved to the United States to study at University of California, Los Angeles' (UCLA) Department of Cinema. One of his teachers there was Jean Renoir, whom Mehrjui credited with teaching him how to work with actors. Mehrjui was dissatisfied with the film program due to its emphasis on the technical aspects of film and the quality of most of the teachers. Mehrjui said of his educators, "They wouldn't teach you anything very significant... because the teachers were the kind of people who had not been able to make it in Hollywood themselves... [and would] bring the rotten atmosphere of Hollywood to the class and impose it on us." He switched his major to philosophy and graduated from UCLA in 1964.
Mehrjui started his own literary magazine in 1964, Pars Review. The magazine's intention was to bring contemporary Persian literature to western readers. During this time he wrote his first script with the intention of filming it in Iran. He moved back to Tehran in 1965, and found employment as a journalist and screenwriter. From 1966 to 1968 he was a teacher at Tehran's Center for Foreign Language Studies, where he taught classes in literature and English language. He also gave lectures on films and literature at the Center for Audiovisual Studies through the University of Tehran.
Early film career 1966–1972
Dariush Mehrjui made his debut in 1966 with Diamond 33, a big budget parody of the James Bond film series. The film was not financially successful. But his second feature film, Gaav (The Cow), brought him national and international recognition. The film Gaav, a symbolic drama, is about a simple villager and his nearly mythical attachment to his cow.
The film is adapted from a short story by renowned Iranian literary figure Gholamhossein Sa'edi. Sa'edi was a friend of Mehrjui and suggested the idea to him when
Mehrjui was looking for a suitable second film, and they collaborated on the script. Through Sa'edi, Mehrjui met the actors Ezzatolah Entezami and Ali Nassirian, who were performing in one of Sa'edi's plays. Mehrjui would work with Entezami and Nassirian throughout his career. The film's score was composed by musician Hormoz Farhat. The film was completed in 1969.
In the film, Entezami stars as Masht Hassan, a peasant in an isolated village in southern Iran. Hassan has a close relationship with his cow, which is his only possession (Mehrjui said that Entezami even resembled a cow in the film). When other people from Hassan's village discover that the cow has been mysteriously killed, they decide to bury the cow and tell Hassan that it has run away. While in mourning for the cow, Hassan goes to the barn where it was kept and begins to assume the cow's identity. When his friends attempt to take him to a hospital, Hassan commits suicide.
Gaav was banned for over a year by the Ministry of Culture and Arts, despite being one of the first two films in Iran to receive government funding. This was most likely due to Sa'edi being a controversial figure in Iran. His work was highly critical of the Pahlavi government, and he had been arrested sixteen times. When it was finally released in 1970, it was highly praised and won an award at the Ministry of Culture's film festival, but it was still denied an export permit. In 1971, the film was smuggled out of Iran and submitted to the Venice Film Festival where, without programming or subtitles, it became the largest event of that year's festival. It won the International Critics Award at Venice, and later that year, Entezami won the Best Actor Award at the Chicago International Film Festival.
Along with Masoud Kimiai's Qeysar and Nasser Taqvai's Tranquility in the Presence of Others, the film Gaav initiated the Iranian New Wave movement and is considered a turning point in the history of Iranian cinema. The public received it with great enthusiasm, despite the fact that it had ignored all the traditional elements of box office attraction. It was screened internationally and received high praise from many film critics. Several of Iran's prominent actors (Entezami, Nassirian, Jamshid Mashayekhi, and Jafar Vali) played roles in the film.
While waiting for Gaav to be released and gaining international recognition, Mehrjui was busy directing two more films. In 1970 he shot Agha-ye Hallou (Mr. Naive), a comedy which starred and was written by Ali Nassirian. Mehrjui had said that, "After all the censorship problems with Gaav, [he] wanted to do a no-problem film." The film also starred Fakhri Khorvash and Entezami.
In the film, Nassirian plays a simple, naive villager who goes to Tehran to find a wife. While in the big city he is treated roughly and constantly fooled by local hustlers and con artists. When he goes into a dress shop to purchase a wedding gown, he meets a beautiful young woman (Fakhri Khorvash) and proposes to her. The young woman turns out to be a prostitute who rejects him and takes his money, spending him back to his village empty handed but more world-wise.
Agha-ye Hallou was screened at the Sepas Film Festival in Tehran in 1971 where it won awards for Best Film and Best Director. Later that year it was screened at the 7th Moscow International Film Festival. It was a commercial success in Iran.
After finishing Agha-ye Hallou in 1970, Mehrjui traveled to Berkeley, California and began writing an adaptation of Georg Büchner's Woyzeck for a modern-day Iranian setting. He went back to Iran later in 1970 to shoot Postchi (The Postman), which starred Nassirian, Entezami and Jaleh Sam.
In the film, Nassirian plays Taghi, a miserable civil servant whose life spirals into chaos. He spends his days as an unhappy mail carrier and has two night jobs in order to pay his debts. His misery has caused impotence and he is experimented upon by an amateur herbalist who is one of his employers. His only naive hope is that he will win the national lottery. When he discovers that his wife is the mistress of his town's wealthiest landowner, Taghi escapes to the local forest where he experiences a brief moment of peace and harmony. His wife comes looking for him, and in a fit of rage Taghi murders her and is eventually caught for his crime.
Postchi (The Postman) faced the same censorship issues as Gaav, but was eventually released in 1972. It was screened in Iran at the 1st Tehran International Film Festival and at the Sepas Film festival. Internationally it was screened at the Venice Film Festival, where it received a special mention, the 22nd Berlin International Film Festival, where it received the Interfilm Award, and the 1972 Cannes Film Festival, where it was screened as part of the Directors' Fortnight.
The Cycle 1973–1978
In 1973 Mehrjui began directing what was to be his most acclaimed film, The Cycle. Mehrjui got the idea for the film when a friend suggest that he investigate the black market and illicit blood traffic in Iran. Horrified with what he found, Mehrjui took the idea to Gholamhossein Sa'edi, who had written a play on the subject, "Aashghaal-duni". The play became the basis for the script, which then had to be approved by the Ministry of Culture before production could begin. With pressure from the Iranian medical community, approval was delayed for a year until Mehrjui began shooting the film in 1974. The film stars Saeed Kangarani, Esmail Mohammadi, Ezzatollah Entezami, Ali Nassirian and Fourouzan.
In the film, Kangarani plays Ali, a teenager who has brought his dying father (Mohammadi) to Tehran in order to find medical treatment. They are too poor to afford any help from the local hospital, but Dr. Sameri (Entezami) offers them money in exchange for giving illegal and unsafe blood donations at a local blood bank. Ali begins giving blood and eventually works for Dr. Sameri in luring blood donors, despite spreading diseases in the process. Ali meets another doctor (Nassirian) who is attempting to establish a legitimate blood bank, and helps Dr. Sameri in sabotaging his plans. Ali also meets and becomes the lover of a young nurse, played by Fourouzan. As Ali becomes more and more involved in the illegal blood trafficking, his father's health worsens until he finally dies and Ali must decide what path his life will take. The film's title, Dayereh mina, refers to a line from a poem by Hafiz Shirazi: "Because of the cycle of the universe, my heart is bleeding."
The film was co-sponsored by the Ministry of Culture but encountered opposition from the Iranian medical establishment and was banned for three years. It was finally released in 1977, with help from pressure from the Carter administration to increase human rights and intellectual freedoms in Iran. Because of a crowded film marketplace, the film premiered in Paris, and then was released internationally where it received rave reviews and was compared to Luis Buñuel's Los Olvidados and Pier Paolo Pasolini's Accattone. The film won the Fédération Internationale de la Presse Cinématographique Prize at the Berlin Film Festival in 1978.
During this time, Iran was going through great political changes. The events leading up to the Iranian Revolution of 1979 were causing a gradual loosening of strict censorship laws, which Mehrjui and other artists had great hopes for.
While waiting for The Cycle to be released, Mehrjui worked on several documentaries. Alamut, a documentary on the Isamailis, was commissioned by Iranian National Television in 1974. He was also commissioned by the Iranian Blood Transfusion Center to create three short documentaries about safe and healthy blood donations. The films were used by the World Health Organization in several countries for years. In 1978, the Iranian Ministry of Health commissioned Mehrjui to make the documentary Peyvast kolieh, about kidney transplants.
Film career after the 1979 Iranian Revolution
The Iranian Revolution had been ongoing since 1978 through strikes and demonstrations. The Iranian monarchy collapsed on 11 February 1979 when guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran voted by national referendum to become an Islamic Republic on 1 April 1979, and to approve a new theocratic constitution whereby Khomeini became Supreme Leader of the country, in December 1979.
Mehrjui stated that he, "enthusiastically took part in the revolution, shooting miles of reels of its daily events." After the revolution, the censorship of the Pahlavi regime was lifted, and for a time, artistic freedom seemed to flourish in the country. It was reported that the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini saw Gaav on Iranian television and liked it, calling it "very instructive" and commissioning new prints to be made for distribution. However the Khomeini government would go on to impose its own rules for censorship in Iran, specifically laws that were in accordance to Islamic law. It was also required that a government official be present during the shooting of all films.
Mehrjui then directed Hayat-e Poshti Madrese-ye Adl-e Afagh (The School We Went to) in 1980. The film stars Ezzatollah Entezami and Ali Nassirian and is from a story by Fereydoon Doostdar. The film was sponsored by the Iranian Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults, whose filmmaking department was co-founded by Abbas Kiarostami. The film, seen as an allegory for the recent revolution, is about a group of high school students who join forces and rebel against their authoritative and abusive school principal. Film critic Hagir Daryoush criticized both the film and Mehrjui as propaganda and a work of the new regime more than Mehrjui himself.
In 1981, Mehrjui and his family traveled to Paris and remained there for several years, along with several other Iranian refugees in France. During this time he made a feature-length semi-documentary about the poet Arthur Rimbaud for French TV, Voyage au Pays de Rimbaud in 1983. It was shown at the 1983 Venice Film Festival and at the 1983 London Film Festival.
In 1985, Mehrjui and his family returned to Iran and Mehrjui resumed his film career under the new regime.
In Hamoun (1989), a portrait of an intellectual whose life is falling apart, Mehrjui sought to depict his generation's post-revolutionary turn from politics to mysticism. Hamoon was voted the best Iranian film ever by readers and contributors to the Iranian journal Film Monthly.
In 1995, Mehrjui made Pari, an unauthorized loose film adaptation of J. D. Salinger's book Franny and Zooey. Though the film could be distributed legally in Iran since the country has no official copyright relations with the United States, Salinger had his lawyers block a planned screening of the film at Lincoln Center in 1998. Mehrjui called Salinger's action "bewildering," explaining that he saw his film as "a kind of cultural exchange." His follow-up film, 1997's Leila, is a melodrama about an urban, upper-middle-class couple who learn that the wife is unable to bear children.
His last film, titled Laminor, was released in 2019.
Cinematic style and legacy
Modern Iranian cinema begins with Dariush Mehrjui. Mehrjui introduced realism, symbolism, and the sensibilities of art cinema. His films have some resemblance with those of Rosselini, De Sica and Satyajit Ray, but he also added something distinctively Iranian, in the process starting one of the greatest modern film waves.
The one constant in Mehrjui's work was his attention to the discontents of contemporary, primarily urban, Iran. His film The Pear Tree (1999) has been hailed as the apotheosis of the director's examination of the Iranian bourgeoisie.
Since his film The Cow in 1969, Mehrjui, along with Nasser Taqvai and Masoud Kimiai, was instrumental in paving the way for the Iranian cinematic renaissance, the so-called "Iranian New Wave."
2022 'Kill me' speech
In March 2022, Mehrjui publicly denounced the state censorship. In front of a filled cinema crowd, Mehrjui announced,
Death
Daryoush Mehrjui and his wife, Vahideh Mohammadifar, were found stabbed to death on 14 October 2023, in their villa in Meshkin Dasht, Karaj. Neither the identity of the perpetrators nor their motives have been disclosed, and further details are not available. Prior to this incident, Vahideh had posted on her social media page about anonymous personal threats, including threats from a non-Iranian individual with a knife. On October 17 Iranian police arrested ten individuals suspected of being involved in the murders, including "the main killer."
Their funeral was held at Roudaki Performance Hall in Tehran, with tributes from Jafar Panahi, Masoud Kimiai, Mohammad Rasoulof and Bahman Farmanara.
Filmography
Diamond 33 (1967)
The Cow (1969)
Mr. Naive (1970)
The Postman (1971)
The Cycle (1975)
The School We Used to Go (1981)
Journey to the Land of Rimbaud (1983) (documentary in France)
The Lodgers (1987)
The Wild Bafti (1988)
Hamoun (1990)
The Lady (1991)
Sara (1993)
Pari (1995)
Leila (1996)
The Pear Tree (1998)
The Mix (2000)
To Stay Alive (2002)
Mum's Guest (2004)
Santouri (2007)
Beloved Sky (2010)
The Orange Suit (2012)
Good To Be Back (2013)
Ghosts (2014)
La minor (2020)
Awards
Mehrjui has received 49 national and international awards including:
Golden Seashell, San Sebastián International Film Festival 1993.
Silver Hugo, Chicago International Film Festival 1998.
Crystal Simorgh, Fajr Film Festival 2004.
Won Lifetime Achievement Award 1st Diorama International Film Festival & Market (2019)
Hamid Dabashi, Masters & Masterpieces of Iranian Cinema, 451 p. (Mage Publishers, Washington, DC, 2007); Chapter IV, pp. 107–134: Dariush Mehrjui; The Cow.
References
External links
Firouzan Films Iranian Movie Hall of Fame Inductee Dariush Mehrjui
, FirouzanFilms, 25 November 2008: (4 min 37 sec).
1939 births
2023 deaths
Iranian film directors
Iranian screenwriters
Persian-language film directors
Film people from Tehran
UCLA Film School alumni
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
People murdered in Iran
Iranian documentary filmmakers
Crystal Simorgh for Best Director winners
Producers who won the Best Film Crystal Simorgh
Producers who won the Audience Choice of Best Film Crystal Simorgh
Crystal Simorgh for Best Screenplay winners
2023 murders in Iran
Iranian murder victims
Deaths by stabbing in Iran
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoxne%20Hoard
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Hoxne Hoard
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The Hoxne Hoard ( ) is the largest hoard of late Roman silver and gold discovered in Britain, and the largest collection of gold and silver coins of the fourth and fifth centuries found anywhere within the former Roman Empire. It was found by Eric Lawes, a metal detectorist in the village of Hoxne in Suffolk, England in 1992. The hoard consists of 14,865 Roman gold, silver, and bronze coins and approximately 200 items of silver tableware and gold jewellery. The objects are now in the British Museum in London, where the most important pieces and a selection of the rest are on permanent display. In 1993, the Treasure Valuation Committee valued the hoard at £1.75 million (about £ in ).
The hoard was buried in an oak box or small chest filled with items in precious metal, sorted mostly by type, with some in smaller wooden boxes and others in bags or wrapped in fabric. Remnants of the chest and fittings, such as hinges and locks, were recovered in the excavation. The coins of the hoard date it after AD 407, which coincides with the end of Britain as a Roman province. The owners and reasons for burial of the hoard are unknown, but it was carefully packed and the contents appear consistent with what a single very wealthy family might have owned. It is likely that the hoard represents only a part of the wealth of its owner, given the lack of large silver serving vessels and of some of the most common types of jewellery.
The Hoxne Hoard contains several rare and important objects, such as a gold body-chain and silver-gilt pepper-pots (piperatoria), including the Empress pepper pot. The hoard is also of particular archaeological significance because it was excavated by professional archaeologists with the items largely undisturbed and intact. The find helped to improve the relationship between metal detectorists and archaeologists, and influenced a change in English law regarding finds of treasure.
Archaeological history
Discovery and initial excavation
The hoard was discovered in a farm field southwest of the village of Hoxne in Suffolk on 1992. Tenant farmer Peter Whatling had lost a hammer and asked his friend Eric Lawes, a retired gardener and amateur metal detectorist, to help look for it. While searching the field with his metal detector, Lawes discovered silver spoons, gold jewelry, and numerous gold and silver coins. After retrieving a few items, he and Whatling notified the landowners (Suffolk County Council) and the police without attempting to dig out any more objects.
The following day, a team of archaeologists from the Suffolk Archaeological Unit carried out an emergency excavation of the site. The entire hoard was excavated in a single day, with the removal of several large blocks of unbroken material for laboratory excavation. The area was searched with metal detectors within a radius of from the find spot. Peter Whatling's missing hammer was also recovered and donated to the British Museum.
The hoard was concentrated in a single location, within the completely decayed remains of a wooden chest. The objects had been grouped within the chest; for example, pieces such as ladles and bowls were stacked inside one another, and other items were grouped in a way consistent with being held within an inner box. Some items had been disturbed by burrowing animals and ploughing, but the overall amount of disturbance was low. It was possible to determine the original layout of the artefacts within the container, and the existence of the container itself, due to Lawes' prompt notification of the find, which allowed it to be excavated in situ by professional archaeologists.
The excavated hoard was taken to the British Museum. The discovery was leaked to the press, and the Sun newspaper ran a front-page story on 19 November, alongside a picture of Lawes with his metal detector. The full contents of the hoard and its value were still unknown, yet the newspaper article claimed that it was worth £10 million. In response to the unexpected publicity, the British Museum held a press conference at the museum on 20 November to announce the discovery. Newspapers lost interest in the hoard quickly, allowing British Museum curators to sort, clean, and stabilise it without further disruption from the press. The initial cleaning and basic conservation was completed within a month of its discovery.
Inquest and valuation
A coroner's inquest was held at Lowestoft on 3 September 1993, and the hoard was declared a treasure trove, meaning that it was deemed to have been hidden with the intention of being recovered at a later date. Under English common law, anything declared as such belongs to the Crown if no one claims title to it. The customary practice at the time was to reward anyone who found and promptly reported a treasure trove with money equivalent to its market value, the money being provided by the national institution that wished to acquire the treasure. In November 1993, the Treasure Trove Reviewing Committee valued the hoard at £1.75 million (about £ in ), which was paid to Lawes as finder of the treasure, and he shared it with farmer Peter Whatling. The Treasure Act 1996 was later enacted, allowing the finder, tenant, and landowner to share in any reward.
Subsequent archaeological investigations
The Suffolk County Council Archaeological Service surveyed the field in September 1993, after it was ploughed, finding four gold coins and 81 silver coins, all considered part of the same hoard. Both earlier Iron Age and later mediaeval materials were also discovered, but there was no evidence of a Roman settlement in the vicinity.
A follow-up excavation of the field was carried out by the Suffolk County Council Archaeological Service in 1994, in response to illegal metal detecting near the hoard find. The hoard burial hole was re-excavated, and a single post hole was identified at the southwest corner; this may have been the location of a marker post to enable the depositors of the cache to locate and recover it in the future. Soil was removed in spits for analysis in the area around the find spot, and metal detectors were used to locate metal artefacts. This excavation recovered 335 items dating to the Roman period, mostly coins but also some box fittings. A series of late Bronze Age or early Iron Age post holes were found which may have formed a structure. However, no structural features of the Roman period were detected.
The coins discovered during the 1994 investigation were spread out in an ellipse centred on the hoard find spot, running east–west up to a distance of on either side. This distribution can be explained by the fact that the farmer carried out deep ploughing in 1990 in an east–west direction on the part of the field where the hoard was found. The farmer had ploughed in a north–south direction since 1967 or 1968, when the land was cleared for agricultural use, but the absence of coins north and south of the find spot suggests that the ploughing before 1990 had not disturbed the hoard.
Items discovered
The hoard is mainly made up of gold and silver coins and jewellery, amounting to a total of of gold and of silver. It had been placed in a wooden chest, made mostly or entirely of oak, that measured approximately 60×45×30 cm (23.6×17.7×11.8 in). Within the chest, some objects had evidently been placed in smaller boxes made of yew and cherry wood, while others had been packed in with woollen cloth or hay. The chest and the inner boxes had decayed almost completely after being buried, but fragments of the chest and its fittings were recovered during the excavation. The main objects found are:
569 gold coins (solidi)
14,272 silver coins, comprising 60 miliarenses and 14,212 siliquae
24 bronze coins (nummi)
29 items of jewellery in gold
98 silver spoons and ladles
A silver tigress, made as a handle for a vessel
4 silver bowls and a small dish
1 silver beaker
1 silver vase or juglet
4 pepper pots, including the "Empress" Pepper Pot
Toiletry items such as toothpicks
2 silver locks from the decayed remains of wooden or leather caskets
Traces of various organic materials, including a small ivory pyxis
Coins
The Hoxne Hoard contains 569 gold solidi, struck between the reigns of Valentinian I (364–75) and Honorius (393–423); 14,272 silver coins, including 60 miliarenses and 14,212 siliquae, struck between the reigns of Constantine II (337–40) and Honorius; and 24 bronze nummi. It is the most significant coin find from the end of Roman Britain and contains all major denominations of coinage from that time, as well as many examples of clipped silver coinage typical of late Roman Britain. The only find from Roman Britain with a larger number of gold coins was the Eye Hoard found in 1780 or 1781, for which there are poor records. The largest single Romano-British hoard was the Cunetio Hoard of 54,951 third-century coins, but these were debased radiates with little precious-metal content. The Frome Hoard was unearthed in Somerset in April 2010 containing 52,503 coins minted between 253 and 305, also mostly debased silver or bronze. Larger hoards of Roman coins have been found at Misrata, Libya and reputedly also at Evreux, France (100,000 coins) and Komin, Croatia (300,000 coins).
The gold solidi are all close to their theoretical weight of 4.48 g ( of a Roman pound). The fineness of a solidus in this period was 99% gold. The total weight of the solidi in the hoard is almost exactly 8 Roman pounds, suggesting that the coins had been measured out by weight rather than number. Analysis of the siliquae suggests a range of fineness of between 95% and 99% silver, with the highest percentage of silver found just after a reform of the coinage in 368. Of the siliquae, 428 are locally produced imitations, generally of high quality and with as much silver as the official siliquae of the period. However, a handful are cliché forgeries where a core of base metal has been wrapped in silver foil.
Historical spread and minting
Coins are the only items in the Hoxne Hoard for which a definite date and place of manufacture can be established. All of the gold coins, and many of the silver coins, bear the names and portraits of the emperor in whose reign they were minted. Most also retain the original mint marks that identify where they were minted, illustrating the Roman system of regional mints producing coins to a uniform design. The coins' manufacture has been traced back to a total of 14 sources: Trier, Arles and Lyon (in Gaul), Ravenna, Milan, Aquileia, Rome (in modern Italy); Siscia (modern Croatia), Sirmium (modern Serbia), Thessaloniki (Greece), Constantinople, Cyzicus, Nicomedia, and Antioch (modern Turkey).
The coins were minted under three dynasties of Roman emperors. The earliest are the successors of the Constantinian dynasty, followed by the Valentinianic emperors, and finally the Theodosian emperors. The collegiate system of rule (or Consortium imperii) meant that imperial partners would mint coins in each other's names at the mints under their jurisdiction. The overlapping reigns of Eastern and Western emperors often allow changes of type to be dated to within part of a reign. So the latest coins in the hoard, of Western ruler Honorius (393–423) and his challenger Constantine III (407–11), can be demonstrated to belong to the earlier parts of their reigns as they correspond to the lifetime of the Eastern Emperor Arcadius, who died in 408. Thus, the coins provide a terminus post quem or earliest possible date for the deposition of the hoard of 408.
The siliquae in the Hoard were struck mainly at Western mints in Gaul and Italy. It is unknown whether this is because coins from further East rarely reached Britain through trade, or because the Eastern mints rarely struck siliquae. The production of coins seems to follow the location of the Imperial court at the time; for instance, the concentration of Trier coins is much greater after 367, perhaps associated with Gratian moving his court to Trier.
Clipping of the silver coins
Almost every silver siliqua in the hoard had its edge clipped to some degree. This is typical of Roman silver coin finds of this period in Britain, although clipped coins are very unusual through the rest of the Roman Empire. The clipping process invariably leaves the imperial portrait intact on the front of the coin but often damages the mint mark, inscription, and image on the reverse.
The possible reasons for clipping coins are controversial. Possible explanations include fraud, a deliberate attempt to maintain a stable ratio between gold and silver coins, or an official attempt to provide a new source of silver bullion while maintaining the same number of coins in circulation.
The huge number of clipped coins in the Hoxne Hoard has made it possible for archaeologists to observe the process of coin-clipping in detail. The coins were evidently cut face-up to avoid damaging the portrait. The average level of clipping is roughly the same for coins dating from 350 onwards.
Gold jewellery
All the jewellery in the hoard is gold, and all gold items in the hoard are jewellery, other than the coins. None of the jewellery is unequivocally masculine, although several pieces might have been worn by either sex, such as the rings. There are one body chain, six necklaces, three rings, and nineteen bracelets. The total weight of the gold jewellery is about , and the average metal content of the jewellery pieces is 91.5% gold (about 22 carat), with small proportions of silver and copper in the metal.
The most important gold item in the hoard is the body chain, which consists of four finely looped gold chains, made using the "loop-in-loop" method called "fox tail" in modern jewellery, and attached at front and back to plaques. At the front, the chains have terminals in the shape of lions' heads and the plaque has jewels mounted in gold cells, with a large amethyst surrounded by four smaller garnets alternating with four empty cells which probably held pearls that have decayed. At the back, the chains meet at a mount centred on a gold solidus of Gratian (r. 375–383) which has been converted from an earlier use, probably as a pendant, and which may have been a family heirloom. Body chains of this type appear in Roman art, sometimes on the goddess Venus or on nymphs; some examples have erotic contexts, but they are also worn by respectable high-ranking ladies. They may have been regarded as a suitable gift for a bride. The Hoxne body chain, worn tightly, would fit a woman with a bust-size of . Few body chains have survived; one of the most complete is from the early Byzantine era, found in Egypt, and it also is in the British Museum.
One of the necklaces features lion-headed terminals, and another includes stylised dolphins. The other four are relatively plain loop-in-loop chains, although one has a Chi-Rho symbol (☧) on the clasp, the only Christian element in the jewellery. Necklaces of similar lengths would normally be worn in the Roman period with a pendant, but no pendants were found in the hoard. The three rings were originally set with gems, which might have been natural gemstones or pieces of coloured glass; however, these were taken from the rings before they were buried, perhaps for re-use. The rings are of similar design, one with an oval bezel, one with a circular bezel, and one with a large oblong bezel.
There were 19 bracelets buried in the hoard, including three matching sets of four made of gold. Many similar bracelets have survived, but sets of four are most unusual; they may have been worn two on each arm, or possibly were shared by two related women. One set has been decorated by corrugating the gold with lateral and transverse grooves; the other two sets bear pierced-work geometric designs. Another five bracelets bear hunting scenes, common in Late Roman decorative art. Three have the designs executed in pierced-work, whereas two others are in repoussé. One bracelet is the sole gold item in the hoard to carry an inscription; it reads: "" in Latin, meaning "Use happily, Lady Juliane". The expression utere felix (or sometimes uti felix) is the second most common inscriptional formula on items from Roman Britain and is used to wish good luck, well-being, and joy. The formula is not specifically Christian, but it sometimes occurs in an explicitly Christian context, for example, together with a Chi-Rho symbol.
The jewellery may have represented the "reserve" items rarely or never used from the collection of a wealthy woman or family. Some of the most common types of jewellery are absent, such as brooches, pendants, and earrings. Items set with gems are notably missing, although they were very much in the taste of the day. Catherine Johns, former Senior Curator for Roman Britain at the British Museum, speculates that the current or favourite jewellery of the owner was not included in the hoard.
Silver items
The hoard contains about 100 silver and silver-gilt items; the number is imprecise because there are unmatched broken parts. They include a statuette of a leaping tigress, made as a handle for an object such as a jug or lamp; four pepper-pots (piperatoria); a beaker; a vase or juglet (a small jug); four bowls; a small dish; and 98 silver spoons and ladles. The beaker and juglet are decorated with similar leaf and stem patterns, and the juglet has three gilded bands. In contrast, the small bowls and dish are plain, and it is presumed that the owners of the Hoard had many more such items, probably including the large decorated dishes found in other hoards. Many pieces are gilded in parts to accentuate the decoration. The technique of fire-gilding with mercury was used, as was typical at the time.
Piperatoria
The pepper-pots include one vessel, finely modelled after a wealthy or imperial lady, which soon became known as the "Empress" pepper-pot. The woman's hair, jewellery, and clothing are carefully represented, and gilding is used to emphasise many details. She is holding a scroll in her left hand, giving the impression of education as well as wealth. Other pepper-pots in the hoard are modelled into a statue of Hercules and Antaeus, an ibex, and a hare and hound together. Not all such spice dispensers held pepper — they were used to dispense other spices as well — but are grouped in discussions as pepper-pots. Each of those found in this hoard has a mechanism in the base to rotate an internal disc, which controls the aperture of two holes in the base. When fully open, the containers could have been filled using a funnel; when part-open they could have been shaken over food or drink to add the spices.
Piperatorium is generally translated as pepper-pot, and black pepper is considered the most likely condiment these were used for. Pepper is only one of a number of expensive, high-status spices which these vessels might have dispensed, however. The piperatoria are rare examples of this type of Roman silverware, and according to Johns the Hoxne finds have "significantly expanded the date range, the typology and the iconographic scope of the type". The trade and use of pepper in this period has been supported with evidence of mineralized black pepper at three Northern Province sites recovered in the 1990s, and from the Vindolanda tablets which record the purchase of an unspecified quantity of pepper for two denarii. Archaeological sites with contemporary finds have revealed spices, including coriander, poppy, celery, dill, summer savory, mustard, and fennel.
Other silver pieces
The tigress is a solid-cast statuette weighing and measuring from head to tail. She was designed to be soldered onto some other object as its handle; traces of tin were found beneath her rear paws, which have a "smoothly concave curve". She looks most aesthetically pleasing when the serpentine curves of her head, back, rump, and tail form a line at an angle of about 45°, when the rear paws are flat, allowing for their curve. Her gender is obvious as there are six engorged teats under her belly. She is carefully decorated on her back, but her underside is "quite perfunctorily finished". Her stripes are represented by two engraved lines, with a black niello inlay between them, in most places not meeting the engraved lines. Neither her elongated body, nor the distribution of the stripes are accurate for the species; she has a long dorsal stripe running from the skull along the spine to the start of the tail, which is typical of tabby cats rather than tigers. The figure has no stripes around her tail, which thickens at the end, suggesting a thick fur tip as in a lion's tail, which tigers do not have, although Roman art usually gives them one.
The large collection of spoons includes 51 cochlearia, which are small spoons with shallow bowls and long, tapering handles with a pointed end which was used to pierce eggs and spear small pieces of food—as the Romans did not use forks at the table. There are 23 cigni, which are much rarer, having large rather shallow spoons with shorter, bird-headed handles; and about 20 deep round spoons or small ladles and strainer-spoons. Many are decorated with abstract motifs and some with dolphins or fanciful marine creatures. Many of the spoons are decorated with a Christian monogram cross or Chi-Rho symbol, and sometimes, also with the Greek letters alpha and omega (an appellation for Jesus, who is described as the alpha and omega in the Book of Revelation). Three sets of ten spoons, and several other spoons, are decorated with such Christian symbols. As is often the case with Roman silver spoons, many also have a Latin inscription on them, either simply naming their owner or wishing their owner long life. In total, eight different people are named; seven on the spoons, and one on the single beaker in the hoard: Aurelius Ursicinus, Datianus, Euherius, Faustinus, Peregrinus, Quintus, Sanctus, and Silvicola. The most common name is "Aurelius Ursicinus", which occurs on a set of five cochlearia and five ladles. It is unknown whether any of the people named in these inscriptions would have been involved in hiding the hoard or were even alive at the time it was buried.
Although only one of these inscriptions is explicitly Christian (vivas in deo), inscriptions on silver spoons comprising a name followed by vivas or vivat usually can be identified as Christian in other late Roman hoards; for example the Mildenhall Treasure has five spoons, three with Chi-Rho monograms, and two with vivas inscriptions (PASCENTIA VIVAS and PAPITTEDO VIVAS). The formula vir bone vivas also occurs on a spoon from the Thetford Hoard, but whereas the Thetford Hoard spoons have mostly pagan inscriptions (e.g. Dei Fau[ni] Medugeni "of the god Faunus Medugenus [the Mead begotten]"), the Hoxne Hoard does not have any inscriptions of a specifically pagan nature, and the hoard may be considered to have come from a Christian household (or households). It often is assumed that Roman spoons with Chi-Rho monograms or the vivas in deo formula are either christening spoons (perhaps presented at adult baptism) or were used in the Eucharist ceremony, but that is not certain.
There are also a number of small items of uncertain function, described as toiletry pieces. Some are picks, others perhaps scrapers, and three have empty sockets at one end, which probably contained organic material such as bristle, to make a brush. The size of these would be appropriate for cleaning the teeth or applying cosmetics, among other possibilities.
The average purity of the silver items is 96%. The remainder of the metal is made up of copper and a small amount of zinc, with trace amounts of lead, gold, and bismuth present. The zinc is likely to have been present in a copper brass used to alloy the silver when the objects were made, and the lead, gold, and bismuth probably were present in the unrefined silver ore.
Iron and organic materials
The iron objects found in the hoard are probably the remains of the outer wooden chest. These consist of large iron rings, double-spiked loops and hinges, strap hinges, probable components of locks, angle brackets, wide and narrow iron strips, and nails.
Organic finds are rarely well documented with hoards because most coin and treasure finds are removed hastily by the finder or have previously been disrupted by farm work rather than excavated. The Hoxne organic finds included bone, wood, other plant material, and leather. Small fragments were found from a decorated ivory pyxis (a cylindrical lidded box), along with more than 150 tiny shaped pieces of bone inlay or veneer, probably from a wooden box or boxes that have decayed. Minuscule fragments of wood adhering to metal objects were identified as belonging to nine species of timber, all native to Britain; wood traces associated with the iron fittings of the outer chest established that it was made of oak. Silver locks and hinges were from two small wooden boxes or caskets, one made of decorative cherry wood and one made of yew. Some wheat straw survived from padding between the plain silver bowls, which also bore faint traces of linen cloth. Leather fragments were too degraded for identification.
Scientific analysis of finds
The initial metallurgical analysis of the hoard was carried out in late 1992 and early 1993 by Cowell and Hook for the procedural purposes of the coroner's inquest. This analysis used X-ray fluorescence, a technique that was applied again later to cleaned surfaces on specimens.
All 29 items of gold jewellery were analysed, with silver and copper found to be present. Results were typical for Roman silver in hoards of the period, in terms of the presence of copper alloyed with the silver to harden it, and trace elements. One repaired bowl showed a mercury-based solder.
The large armlet of pierced gold (opus interrasile) showed traces of hematite on the reverse side, which probably would have been used as a type of jeweller's rouge. This is the earliest known and documented use of this technique on Roman jewellery. Gilt items showed the presence of mercury, indicating the mercury gilding technique. The black inlay on the cast silver tigress shows the niello technique, but with silver sulphide rather than lead sulphide. The settings of stones where garnet and amethyst remain, in the body chain, have vacant places presumed to be where pearls were set, and show elemental sulphur as adhesive or filler.
Burial and historical background
The Hoxne Hoard was buried during a period of great upheaval in Britain, marked by the collapse of Roman authority in the province, the departure of the majority of the Roman army, and the first of a wave of attacks by the Anglo-Saxons. Attacks on Italy by the Visigoths around the turn of the fifth century caused the general Stilicho to recall Roman army units from Rhaetia, Gaul, and Britannia. While Stilicho held off the Visigoth attack, the Western provinces were left defenceless against Suebi, Alans, and Vandals who crossed the frozen Rhine in 406 and overran Gaul. The remaining Roman troops in Britain, fearing that the invaders would cross the Channel, elected a series of emperors of their own to lead the defence.
The first two such emperors were put to death by the dissatisfied soldiery in a matter of months, but the third, who would declare himself Constantine III, led a British force across the English Channel to Gaul in his bid to become Roman Emperor. After scoring victories against the "barbarians" in Gaul, Constantine was defeated by an army loyal to Honorius and beheaded in 411. Meanwhile, Constantine's departure had left Britain vulnerable to attacks from Saxon and Irish raiders.
After 410, Roman histories give little information about events in Britain. Writing in the next decade, Saint Jerome described Britain after 410 as a "province fertile of tyrants", suggesting the collapse of central authority and the rise of local leaders in response to repeated raids by Saxons and others. By 452, a Gaulish chronicler was able to state that some ten years previously "the Britons, which to this time had suffered from various disasters and misfortunes, are reduced by the power of the Saxons".
Burial
Exactly who owned the Hoxne Hoard, and their reasons for burying it, are not known, and probably never will be. However, the hoard itself and its context provide some important clues. The hoard evidently was buried carefully, some distance from any buildings. The hoard very likely represents only a portion of the precious-metal wealth of the person, or people, who owned it; many common types of jewellery are missing, as are large tableware items such as those found in the Mildenhall Treasure. It is unlikely that anyone would have possessed the rich gold and silver items found in the Hoxne Hoard without owning items in those other categories. Whoever owned the hoard also would have had wealth in the form of land, livestock, buildings, furniture, and clothing. At most, the Hoxne Hoard represents a moderate portion of the wealth of someone rich; conversely, it may represent a minuscule fraction of the wealth of a family that was incredibly wealthy.
The appearance of the names "Aurelius Ursicinus" and "Juliane" on items in the Hoxne Hoard need not imply that people by those names owned the rest of the hoard, either at the time of its burial or previously. There are no historical references to an "Aurelius Ursicinus" in Britain in this period. While a "Marcus Aurelius Ursicinus" is recorded in the Praetorian Guard in Rome in the period 222–235, a soldier or official of the late fourth or early fifth century would be more likely to take the imperial nomen Flavius, rather than Aurelius. This leads Tomlin to speculate "The name "Aurelius Ursicinus" might sound old-fashioned; it would certainly have been more appropriate to a provincial landowner than an army officer or government official".
There are a number of theories about why the hoard was buried. One is that the hoard represented a deliberate attempt to keep wealth safe, perhaps in response to one of the many upheavals facing Roman Britain in the early fifth century. This is not the only hypothesis, however. Archaeologist Peter Guest argues that the hoard was buried because the items in it were used as part of a system of gift-exchange, and as Britain separated from the Roman Empire, they were no longer required. A third hypothesis is that the Hoxne Hoard represents the proceeds of a robbery, buried to avoid detection.
Late Roman hoards
The Hoxne Hoard comes from the later part of a century (c. 350–450) from which an unusually large number of hoards have been discovered, mostly from the fringes of the Empire. Such hoards vary in character, but many include the large pieces of silver tableware lacking in the Hoxne Hoard: dishes, jugs and ewers, bowls and cups, some plain, but many highly decorated. Two other major hoards discovered in modern East Anglia in the last century are from the fourth century; both are now in the British Museum. The Mildenhall Treasure from Suffolk consists of thirty items of silver tableware deposited in the late fourth century, many large and elaborately decorated, such as the "Great Dish". The Water Newton Treasure from Cambridgeshire is smaller, but is the earliest hoard to have a clearly Christian character, apparently belonging to a church or chapel; the assorted collection probably includes items made in Britain. The Kaiseraugst Treasure from the site at Augusta Raurica in modern Switzerland (now in Basel) contained 257 items, including a banqueting service with sophisticated decoration. The Esquiline Treasure, found in Rome, evidently came from a wealthy Roman family of the late fourth century, and includes several large items, including the "Casket of Projecta". Most of the Esquiline Treasure is in the British Museum, as are bowls and dishes from the Carthage Treasure which belonged to a known family in Roman Africa around 400.
The Mildenhall, Kaiseraugst, and Esquiline treasures comprise large items of tableware. Other hoards, such as those found at Thetford and Beaurains, consist mostly of coins, jewellery, and small tableware items; these two hoards probably are pagan votive offerings. A hoard from Traprain Law in Scotland contains decorated Roman silver pieces cut up and folded, showing regard for the value of their metal alone, and may represent loot from a raid.
Local context
Hoxne, where the hoard was discovered, is located in Suffolk in modern-day East Anglia. Although no large, aristocratic villa has been located in the Hoxne area, there was a Roman settlement nearby from the first through fourth centuries at Scole, about north–west of Hoxne, at the intersection of two Roman roads. One of these, Pye Road, (today's A140), linked Venta Icenorum (Caistor St Edmund) to Camulodunum (Colchester) and Londinium (London).
The field in which the hoard was discovered was shown by the 1994 excavation to probably have been cleared by the early Bronze Age, when it began to be used for agriculture and settlement. Some settlement activity occurred near the hoard findspot by the first half of the first millennium BC, but there is no evidence of Roman buildings in the immediate vicinity. The field where the hoard was deposited may have been in cultivation during the early phase of the Roman period but the apparent absence of fourth-century coins suggests that it may have been converted to pasture or else had reverted to woodland by that time.
The Hoxne Hoard is not the only cache of Roman treasure to have been discovered in the area. In 1781 some labourers unearthed a lead box by the river at Clint Farm in Eye, south of Scole and south–west of Hoxne. The box contained about 600 Roman gold coins dating to the reigns of Valens and Valentinian I (reigned 364–375), Gratian (375–383), Theodosius I (378–395), Arcadius (395–408), and Honorius (393–423). This was the largest hoard of Roman gold coins ever discovered in Britain, but the coins were dispersed during the 18th and 19th centuries, and cannot now easily be identified in coin collections. As a result, the relationship (if any) between the Eye hoard and that in Hoxne cannot be determined, even if the proximity suggests they may have been related.
Soon after the Hoxne Hoard was discovered, there was speculation, based on the name "Faustinus" engraved on one of the spoons, that it may have come from the "Villa Faustini" that is recorded in Itinerary V of the Antonine Itinerary. The exact location of Villa Faustini is unknown, but as it was the first station after Colchester, it is believed to have been somewhere on the Pye Road (modern A140) and one of the possible locations for it is the modern village of Scole, only a couple of miles from Hoxne. This early theory has since been rejected, however, because "Faustinus" was historically a common name, and it only occurs on a single spoon in the hoard. Furthermore, the logic of using inscriptions on individual items in the hoard to determine ownership of the hoard as a whole is considered flawed. Based on the dating of the coins in the hoard, the majority of which belong to the period 394–405, it also has been speculated that the contents of the hoard originally belonged to a military family that accompanied Count Theodosius to Britain in 368–369, and which may have left with Constantine III in 407.
Acquisition, display, and impact
The hoard was acquired by the British Museum in April 1994. As the Museum's entire purchase fund amounted to only £1.4 million at the time, the hoard had to be purchased with the assistance of donors that included the National Heritage Memorial Fund, the National Art Collections Fund (now the Art Fund), and the J. Paul Getty Trust. The grants from these and other benefactors enabled the museum to raise the £1.75 million needed for the acquisition.
Items from the hoard have been on display almost continuously since the treasure was received at the British Museum. Some items were displayed at the Museum as early as September 1993 in response to public interest. Much of the hoard was exhibited at Ipswich Museum in 1994–1995. From 1997, the most important items went on permanent display at the British Museum in a new and enlarged Roman Britain gallery (Room 49), alongside the roughly contemporary Thetford Hoard, and adjacent to the Mildenhall Treasure, which contains large silver vessels of types that are absent from the Hoxne Hoard. Some items from the Hoxne Hoard were included in Treasure: Finding Our Past, a touring exhibition that was shown in five cities in England and Wales in 2003. A perspex reconstruction of the chest and inner boxes in which it was deposited was created for this tour, showing the arrangement of the different types of items with sample items inside. It is now part of the permanent display in London, along with other items laid out more traditionally.
The first comprehensive research on the Hoard was published in the full catalogue of the coins by Peter Guest in 2005, and the catalogue of the other objects by Catherine Johns in 2010. The hoard was third in the list of British archaeological finds selected by experts at the British Museum for the 2003 BBC Television documentary Our Top Ten Treasures, which included archive footage of its finder, Eric Lawes, and the "Empress" pepper-pot was selected as item 40 in the 2010 BBC Radio 4 series A History of the World in 100 Objects.
The discovery and excavation of the Hoxne Hoard improved the relationship between the archaeological profession and the community of metal detectorists. Archaeologists were pleased that Lawes reported the find promptly and largely undisturbed, allowing a professional excavation. Metal detectorists noted that Lawes' efforts were appreciated by the archaeological profession. The Treasure Act 1996 is thought to have contributed to more hoards being made available to archaeologists. The act changed the law so that the owner of the land and the person who finds the hoard have a strong stake in the value of the discovery. The manner of the finding of the Hoxne Hoard by metal detector, and its widespread publicity, contributed to changing the previous system of common law for dealing with treasure trove into a statutory legal framework that takes into account technology such as metal detectors, provides incentives for treasure hunters to report finds, and considers the interests of museums and scholars.
See also
Romano-British culture
Lava Treasure
Trier Gold Hoard
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
External links
British Museum: The Hoxne Hoard
1992 in England
Archaeological sites in Suffolk
History of Suffolk
Hoards of jewellery
Romano-British objects in the British Museum
Treasure troves in England
Treasure troves of late antiquity
Treasure troves of Roman Britain
Metal detecting finds in England
1992 archaeological discoveries
Hoxne
Hoards from Roman Britain
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonian%20Australians
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Macedonian Australians
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Macedonian Australians (Macedonian: Македонски Австралијанци) are Australian citizens of Macedonian descent. Many arrived in the 1920s and 1930s, although larger numbers came to Australia after World War II and the Greek Civil War. By far the largest wave of immigration was during the 1960s and 1970s. As of the 2021 Australian census, Macedonian is the most-spoken Eastern European language in Australia.
Demography
In the 2011 Census, 40,222 Australian residents are listed as having been born in the Republic of Macedonia. A total of 93,570 residents declared their ancestry as Macedonian, either alone or in combination with another ancestry. In 2011 Macedonian was spoken at home by 68,843 residents. In 2001, Macedonia was the 26th most common birthplace in Australia.
Australian cities with the largest Macedonian-born communities are Melbourne (17,286, in particular the outer suburbs), Sydney (11,630, in particular in the Southern) and Wollongong (4,279 - about 1.6% of the Wollongong population).
In 2001, 81,898 people claimed Macedonian Ancestry, in 2006 this rose to 83,978 in 2006. Macedonian was the 21st most common ancestry group. Of the total number who claimed Macedonian ancestry in 2001, 39,244 or 47.9% were born in Macedonia, 35,805 or 43.7% were born in Australia, 2,919 or 3.6% were born in Greece and roughly 5% were born elsewhere.
Most Macedonian Australians are of the Orthodox Christian faith, although there is a small number of Methodists and Muslims. 36,749 Macedonian-born Australian residents declared they were Christian, and 2,161 stated they were Muslim. In 2001 there were a total of 53,249 adherents to the Macedonian Orthodox Church. 28,474 or 53.5% of these were born in Macedonia, 21,324 or 40% were born in Australia, 1,340 or 2.5% were born in Greece and roughly 4% were born elsewhere.
Language
Macedonian was the tenth most common language spoken in Australia after English. In 2011, 68,843 people spoke Macedonian at home. In 2001, one-third of Macedonian speakers were aged over 65, 25.9% were aged from 55 to 64, 31.8% were aged from 25 to 54, 1.2% were aged from 13 to 24 and 7.7% were aged from 0–12. 53.2% or 38,826 speakers were born in Macedonia, 37.6% or 27,051 speakers were born in Australia, 4.4% or 3,152 speakers were born in Greece and a further 1.3% or 908 speakers were born in Yugoslavia.
Most Australians born in territory of Macedonia use Macedonian at home (35,070 or 86% out of 40,656 in 2006). Proficiency in English for Australians born in Macedonia was self-described by census respondents as very well by 33%, well by 33%, 26% not well (8% didn't state or said not applicable).
The most significant populations of Macedonian speakers as of 2001 were Melbourne - 30,083, Sydney - 19,980, Wollongong - 7,420, Perth - 5,772, Newcastle - 1,993, Geelong - 1,300, Queanbeyan - 1,105.
Many suburbs have large Macedonian speaking communities, the largest are Port Kembla (20.9%), Thomastown (16.7%), Banksia (16.1%), Coniston (15.9%) and Lalor (14.8%). In 2001, Cringila was titled the "most Macedonian" suburb in all of Australia with 32.8% of its population speaking Macedonian at home.
History of Macedonians in Australia
Macedonians have been arriving in Australia since the late 1880s as Pečalba. These Pečalbari (the man in the family) would go and work overseas to earn money then return home with the spoils. This restricted major settlement. The two major waves of early Macedonian immigration, according to Peter Hill, were when in 1924 America implemented tougher immigration policies and in 1936 when the Ioannis Metaxas regime came into power. By 1921 there were 50 Macedonians in Australia, by 1940 this number had reached over 6,000, the majority of whom were from Florina, Kastoria and Bitola. However, before the Second World War, when the Macedonian identity gained popularity, many Macedonians did not have a strong sense of national identity, but of regional one. The general population pre-WWII commonly considered themselves ethnically as Macedonian Bulgarians or simply as Bulgarians. Until then the number of Macedonian immigrants in Australia was negligible.
After World War II and the Greek Civil War many Macedonians from Greece came to Australia; these people are known as Aegean Macedonians, settling in areas including Richmond and Footscray. When the Yugoslav policies that encouraged its citizens to work overseas were introduced, many ethnic Macedonians within Yugoslavia left for Australia. The peak of this emigration was in the early 1970s. They settled in mainly industrial districts, particularly in Wollongong and Newcastle, in the Melbourne suburb of Thomastown and the Sydney suburb of Rockdale. Many Macedonians from Yugoslavia would also settle in isolated parts of Australia such as Port Hedland. Most of these immigrants were from an agricultural background. Macedonian migration had slowed by the 1980s only to restart in the early 1990s after the breakup of Yugoslavia.
As at the 2006 census 64% of Australian residents born in Macedonia had arrived before 1980.
Macedonians in Victoria
Macedonians have been migrating to Victoria since the late 1880s. Many "pečalbari" decided to settle and they travelled the countryside looking for work as itinerant labourers. Others established market gardens or small businesses in both rural and city areas. Many thousands of Aegean Macedonians came to Victoria in the post war period, today the largest group of Aegean Macedonians can be found in Victoria. During the 1960s and 1970s they were joined by thousands of Macedonians from the Socialist Republic of Macedonia. In 1982, KUD Jane Sandanski was established in St Albans and is still in operation to this day. In 1991, Macedonia declared its independence from the Yugoslav federation. Business migrants from Macedonia soon began to arrive in Australia. By 1986 there were 24,090 Macedonian speakers in Victoria, this reached a peak in 1996 with 32,949 people using Macedonian at home. As of 2006 37,434 people in Victoria had either full or partial Macedonian ancestry. Currently, there are over 40,000 people in Greater Melbourne of Macedonian descent, making up around one percent of the population - the 17th largest ethnicity in the city behind Lebanese but ahead of Croatian.
In Victoria, Macedonians established St. George in Fitzroy, Melbourne during the late 1950s as the first independent Macedonian Orthodox church inside Australia and outside of Macedonia. In Melburnian suburbs with Macedonian communities, other churches were established such as St. Ilija, St. Dimitrija, St. Nikola, St. George & St. Mary, St. Mary, St. Petka, and in Geelong St. John the Baptist. Macedonian Melburnians also built the first Macedonian Orthodox monastery St. Kliment Ohridski - Chudotvorec in the vicinity of King Lake. The Macedonian community of Australia views the Macedonian Orthodox Church as a "Guardian" of Macedonian identity, its people and cultural traditions.
After the Republic of Macedonia gained independence in 1991, Greek Australians opposed the move through local protests and tense relations developed with Macedonian Australians. There were some businesses, community buildings and Orthodox churches belonging to both groups which were either destroyed and attacked. Australia recognised Macedonia under its temporary name as "FYROM". Responding to the Greek government stance, the Australian Federal Government issued a directive that its agencies and departments call Macedonians as "Slav-Macedonians" and some people from the north of Greece as "persons associated with Slav-Macedonians". Government owned media, the ABC and SBS dismissed the federal government decision.
In the mid 1990s, Victorian Premier Jeff Kennett backed the Greek position over the Macedonian question in his attempts to shore up local electoral support. At Kennett's insistence, his state government in 1994 issued its own directive that all its departments refer to the language as "Macedonian (Slavonic)" and to Macedonians as "Slav Macedonians". Reasons given for the decision were "to avoid confusion", be consistent with federal naming protocols toward Macedonian Australians and repair relations between Macedonian and Greek communities. It was accepted that it would not impact the way Macedonians self identified themselves. The decision upset Macedonians, as they had to use the terms in deliberations with the government or its institutions related to education and public broadcasting.
In mid 1995, the Macedonian Community through its organisation, the Australian Macedonian Human Rights Commission challenged the decision on the basis of the Race Discrimination Act at the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC). The plaintiffs described that the government directive treated Macedonian differently and with an unequal status from other officially recognised languages. The commissioner acknowledged the distress the directive caused, but upheld it due to its intent of decreasing community tensions and not causing discrimination based on ethnic background. After the case was dismissed, the Macedonian community went to the Federal Court. The judge stated that HREOC had made errors in its interpretation of various terms and ruled that discrimination had occurred based on ethnic background. The Federal Court repealed the decision in 1998 and since then the prefix "slavo-" has been dropped, on the basis of racial discrimination.
The new state government lost an appeal challenging the decision and then went to the High Court of Australia where it was defeated in 2000 after a ruling was made favouring Macedonians in Australia. As a result of local Greek community pressure, the language name matter was still not addressed in Victoria, causing further distress among parts of the Macedonian community. The issue returned to HREOC and in late December 2000, the commissioner ruled that the directive was not in accordance with the law and that it was discrimination based on ethnic background. The commissioner stated that people from the Macedonian community had experienced distress and humiliation as the Victorian Government had not conducted itself lawfully. The state government said it would remove the language directive and Premier Steve Bracks urged acceptance of the ruling among local communities.
In early 2018, amid efforts by the Republic of Macedonia and Greece to resolve the Macedonia naming dispute, some Macedonian Orthodox churches and sporting centres in Melbourne were vandalised with racist and violent graffiti causing distress among the Macedonian community. The Macedonian community organised rallies in Sydney, Melbourne and Perth in support of the Macedonian state retaining its name. Macedonian Australians viewed the name change Macedonian referendum (2018) as a flawed process and a majority of community members expressed that they would boycott the vote.
Thomastown (10%)
South Morang (7%)
Mill Park (7%)
Lalor (10%)
Epping (6%)
Geelong
A prominent group of Macedonians has existed in the Geelong area since the 1950s. The first Macedonians, primarily from Aegean Macedonia, arrived in the late 1930s to work in the Industries which surrounded the city. This community, composed mainly of single males, did not establish any form of community or cultural amenities. By the Second World War much of this community had left to seek employment in Melbourne. AftSome suburbs with significant Macedonian populations (percentage with Macedonian ancestry) incer the Second World War the Geelong branch of the Macedonian-Australian People's League had been founded. By 1955 a large group of Aegean Macedonian refugees had arrived in the city. in 1956 the first Macedonian soccer club had been founded in the area. This group was active in the establishment of the Macedonian Communist in Geelong. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s this group of Macedonians was joined by immigrants from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. A KUD Biser/Pearl was founded in the area and plans to consecrate a Macedonian Orthodox Church were drawn up. In 1965 the Macedonian-based soccer club "West Geelong" was founded.
Eventually as more and more Macedonians immigrated to the area another KUD was founded and the plans for the Macedonian Orthodox Church were realised. The church "St Jovan the Baptist" was built in the suburb of Batesford. The community was soon involved with the Macedonian Cultural Week program throughout the 1980s. During the 1990s the community was able to establish itself in the area while the "Macedonian Orthodox Centre" and organisations such as the "Macedonian Senior Citizens Club" were founded. In the following years the community helped to support the Federation of Macedonian Cultural Artistic Associations of Victoria. In 1996 there were 1,341 speakers of Macedonian in the Geelong area this fell to 1,167 in 2006. The number of people born in the Republic of Macedonia also fell from 839 in 1996 to 752 in 2006. The number of people claiming Macedonian ancestry in 2006 was 1,415. The largest groups of Macedonians in the Geelong area could be found in Bell Post Hill (6.1%), Norlane (3.5%), North Geelong (1.3%), Hamlyn Heights (2.5%) and Lovely Banks (5.3%).
Shepparton
A community of Macedonians has existed in Shepparton since the 1930s. It is considered to be one of the original Macedonian settlements in Australia. Early pioneers from Aegean Macedonia began to come to Shepparton in the 1920s and 1930s. Many of them established Market Gardens. After the Second World War and the Greek Civil War a large number of Aegean Macedonians emigrated to Shepparton. The Macedonians of Shepparton soon became an active force in the Macedonian-Australian People's League and a branch was et up in Shepparton in 1946. Picnics, dances and functions were organised by the local branch. Although some Macedonians came to Shepparton in the 1960s and 1970s from Yugoslavia, the majority of the community were Aegean Macedonians. In the 1970s the St George, Orthodox Church was built although the local congregation was primarily Macedonian. The "Florina Saturday School and Community Centre" was built in 1978 next to the church. The school is still open today and teaches both Greek and Macedonian. Shepparton formed sister city arrangements with the two Macedonian cities of Resen and Salonica. In 1986 the first annual "Macedonian Cultural Day" was held. A 1966 figures puts the number of Macedonians in Shepparton at 600. In 1996, 322 people were speaking Macedonian at home, by 2006 this number had fallen to 213. In 2006, 254 people claimed Macedonian ancestry, of which 78 were born in the Macedonia.
Werribee
The city of Werribee between Melbourne and Geelong was one of the original Macedonian settlements in Australia. The first Macedonians arrived in Werribee in 1924, and had great success growing peas, cauliflowers and tomatoes. Many also took to dairy farming and market-gardening. In 1934 the "Greek Macedonian Community of Weribee South" was founded among the Grecophile Macedonians. By 1940 many more had come to the Weribee area, a Macedonian cafe and restaurant had also been set up. In 1947 a branch of the Macedonian-Australian People's League opened in Weribee. It took an instrumental role in the Hospital Appeals. The branch went on to establish a local KUD and social group. After the Greek Civil War a large influx of Aegean Macedonians came to the Weribee area. They would form the backbone of the Macedonian community in Werribee. In the 1960s many Macedonians from Yugoslavia also came to Australia. By the 1970s a Macedonian hall had been set up and two more KUD's had been founded in the area. The Macedonians are well established in the Weribee area and have made a lasting contribution to the region. By 1991 there were 565 Macedonians speakers in Weribee, this rose to 964 in 2006. The number of people claiming Macedonian ancestry are 1,154.
Macedonians in New South Wales
Many of the first Macedonians came to New South Wales. During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s many Aegean Macedonians settled in Crabbes Creek, Queanbeyan, Newcastle and Richmond. By the time of the Macedonian-Australian People's League Macedonians could be found all over the state. Branches were opened in Sydney (Vesela Makedonija), Queanbeyan (Alexander the Great), Richmond (Kotori), Crabbes Creek (Sloboda), Katoomba, Port Kembla, Forbes, Braidwood, Beechwood (Wauchope), Lithgow, Captains Flat, Newcastle, Bonnyrigg and Griffith. The first Macedonian hall built in Australia was the Macedonian Cultural Hall in Crabbes Creek. From the 1960s thousands of Macedonians from the Bitola, Prespa, Struga and Ohrid regions of Macedonia would come to New South Wales. Many of these immigrants settled in Wollongong, Sydney and Newcastle. Today the Macedonian Community in New South Wales is the second largest in Australia. By 2001, 30,658 people were speaking Macedonian at home with 19,057 of these born in the North Macedonia. In 2006, 34,316 people claimed Macedonian ancestry but community spokesperson claim that in New South Wales there are over 70,000 Macedonians.
Sydney
Sydney is home to one of the largest concentrations of Macedonians in Australia and in the diaspora. The first Macedonians came to Sydney in the early 1920s before making their way to the coal fields of the Illawarra or Hunter Valley, the heavy industrial centers of Port Kembla and Newcastle, or heading inland to places like Broken Hill and Richmond. The first Macedonian to settle in Rockdale was Risto Belcheff from the village Capari in 1945. By 1946 a branch of the Macedonian-Australian People's League was opened in Sydney, it was known as Vesela Makedonija. The Vesela Makedonija branch founded the Ilinden Soccer Club in the same year. In 1948 the group established a KUD also known as "Vesela Makedonija". From 1948 - 1953 the Macedonian Newspaper "Makedonska Iskra" was published in Sydney. From 1946 to 1960 Macedonian dances were often held in the Zora Hall. In 1957 the first Easter dance took place in the Trades Hall, the Russian Club was also a common hall for dances and celebrations. From 1960 onwards thousands of Macedonians from the Bitola and Prespa regions of Macedonia settled in Sydney, most notably: Rockdale, Arncliffe, Bexley, Bankstown, Yagoona and Banksia. The Macedonians started to meet every Christmas Day in the Royal National Park, this tradition continues today. A second, KUD Ilinden was set up. In 1969 and the only Macedonian Orthodox Cathedral in NSW and the first Macedonian Church in Sydney, Свети Кирил и Методиј/Saints Cyril and Methodius of Rosebery was built.
In 1975 the Macedonian Orthodox Church, Света Петка/Saint Petka of Rockdale was established by Macedonians from the village of Capari. In 1976 the Macedonian Ethnic School, 11 October was founded in Yagoona followed by a second in Canley Vale, St Nikola, in the following year. In 1977 the foundation stone was laid for Свети Никола/Saint Nikola of Cabramatta was laid. Soccer clubs such as Bankstown City Lions (Sydney Macedonia), Rockdale City Suns (Rockdale Ilinden), Yagoona Lions Soccer Club and Arncliffe Macedonia Soccer Club were all founded by Macedonians. The Macedonian Literary society of "Gligor Prličev" was founded in Sydney in 1978. The Society releases a quarterly journal called Povod. The society maintains a Macedonian-language library. The society organises competitions for literature. And in 1985 the society published a volume of poems called Vidici (Vistas) with poems from 31 Australian Macedonian poets, this was done with the help of the Australia Council. Members of the Society have been invited to the prestigious Struga Poetry Evenings. In 1983 ties with SR Macedonia were strengthened as Bitola and Rockdale became sister cities.
In 1985 the Macedonian-language newspaper "Makedonski Vesnik was first printed in Rockdale, New South Wales, while The Australian Macedonian Weekly was another Macedonian-language newspaper that was printed in Victoria. The First Macedonian Cultural Day was held in Rockdale in 1986. By 1987 two more ethnic schools had opened in Arncliffe and Rockdale. By 1989 nearly 20 additional KUD's were operating in Sydney they were; KUD Tanec, KUD Orce Nikolov, KUD Mirče Acev, KUD Dame Gruev, KUD Sv Naum, KUD Kiril I Metodij, KUD Kitka, KUD Karpoš, KUD Makedonka, KUD Makedonski Orel, KUD Egejska Makedonija, and KUD Gerdan. The "Australian-Macedonian Mountaineering Association" was established by Dimitar Illievski. After the Breakup of Yugoslavia in the early 1990s many more Macedonians began to immigrate to Sydney. Much of the second generation began to migrate westwards to Fairfield and Liverpool as they gained affluence. It soon emerged that there were three major concentrations of Macedonians in Sydney, the Rockdale-Hurstville Area, Bankstown-Yagoona and Bonnyrigg-Fairfield. Today around 12 Radio programs service the Macedonian community in Sydney. Another church Света Богородица Пречиста/Holy Mother of God in Liverpool has also opened and Macedonian is now taught at Macquarie University.
By the 1990s the Macedonian Community had constructed numerous halls the largest is the "Ilinden Centre" in Rockdale. Burek Shops, Kafani and Macedonian Associations have been the most prominent impact that Macedonian immigrants have had on the local community. The "Australian-Macedonian Mountaineering Association" operates from Holsworthy. Many pensioner groups and youth associations have been set up to cater for a diverse demographic. The most notable Macedonian soccer team in Sydney are the Rockdale City Suns otherwise known as Rockdale Ilinden. The total number of Macedonian speakers reached a peak in 2001 with 19,980 speakers, this fell to 19,033 speakers in 2006. The number of Macedonian born has fallen to 11,630 while the total number of people claiming Macedonian ancestry is 22,068. Community spokespersons claim that over 30,000 Macedonians reside in Sydney.
Richmond
Richmond was one of the original Macedonian Settlements in Australia. The first Macedonian to come to Richmond was Steve Pandu, from the village Kotori in Lerin, Macedonia (Florina, Greece) in 1927. He was joined by many other Macedonians and by 1938 they had established many farms and market-gardens. Soon more Macedonians came to establish orchard's in the Agnes Banks area. Many family members were brought out from Yugoslavia and Greece. in 1946 a chapter of the Macedonian-Australian People's League opened in Richmond. The Macedonians in Richmond were an integral part in Macedonian-Australian society. By 1950 a large concentration of Aegean Macedonians from the village Kotori was present. After the Macedonian-Australian People's League decentralized the Richmond Macedonian Association was founded in 1961. Later still in 1980, this organisation split half, forming the Aegean Macedonian Social and Cultural Society and the Macedonian Cultural and Art Society, Pelister. The Aegean Macedonian Social and Cultural Society went on to raise over $100,000 to build their own cultural centre which was opened on 26 December 1983, the Macedonian Hall, Kotori. Today both groups still operate independently although talks of re-unification have been fruitless. In Richmond two KUDs were set up, KUD Pelister and KUD Kotori. Community spokespersons claim that there are over 700 Macedonians in the Richmond Area.
The 1996 census recorded 267 Macedonian speakers; this fell to 218 in 2006. The total number of people claiming Macedonian ancestry in the Richmond area in 2001 was 291.
The community frequent the local Catholic church or the other Macedonian Churches in Sydney. Many Macedonians have large amounts of real-estate in the Richmond area. Macedonians have played an important part in shaping the history of Richmond.
Illawarra
The first Macedonian to arrive in the Illawarra was Ilčo Stojkov in 1924. He initially arrived to work in the Port Kembla Steelworks. It is estimated only a few hundred Macedonians immigrated to the Illawarra region in the pre-World War Two period. Despite this the first Macedonian cafe was founded in 1943 by Trajan Rakovitis from the Lerin village of Rakovo. in 1946 a branch of the Macedonian-Australian People's League opened in Port Kembla. Most of the Macedonians in Wollongong are post-war migrants from the Socialist Republic of Macedonia. From 1960 onwards thousands of Macedonians were employed in the Port Kembla Steelworks, they primarily settled in the nearby suburbs of Cringila, Warrawong and Coniston.
In 1971 the first Sredselo was introduced to Lake Heights by Lambe Nestoroski, Trajan Ristanovski and Sergija Sekuloski, it soon spread to Cringila. The first Macedonian Orthodox Church, Свети Димитрија Солунски/Saint Dimitrija of Solun of Wollongong was built in 1972. The Macedonians founded many soccer clubs such as, Wollongong United or Wollongong Makedonija, Warrawong United, Lake Heights Junior Soccer Club, Cringila Lions Soccer Club, Coniston Macedonia Soccer Club, Shellharbour Barbarians and Pelister Illawarra Soccer Club. A friendly rivalry exists between Wollongong United whose fans base is primarily from Bitola, Cringila Lions Soccer Club whose fan base is primarily from Struga and Warrawong United whose supporters are primarily from the Mariovo area. A Macedonian Theatre was established in Cringila in the late 1970s, The "Macedonian theatre of the Illawarra" produced many notable performances and was later renamed after its patron, Bill Neskovski. By the 1970s an estimated 85% of Cringila and 55% of Port Kembla, 35% of Coniston and Warrawong were Macedonians.
The second church built was, Свети Климент Охридски/Saint Kliment of Ohrid of Port Kembla, was consecrated in 1989. By 1986 an estimate 4% of the total Illawarra region was Macedonian. During the 1980s many Macedonians migrated to more affluent suburbs in the Illwarra and to Canberra. A branch of the VMRO political party was also founded in Wollongong. Many Macedonian "Cultural and Folkloric Groups" () such as; KUD Makedonija, KUD 11ti Oktomvri, KUD Biljana, KUD Nikola Karev, KUD Mlada Makedonka and KUD Makedonski Biseri were founded. By 2001 only 32% of Cringila and 21% of Port Kembla were Macedonians, while 11% of Blackbutt and 7% of Barrack Height were Macedonian. In 2006 there were 8,111 Macedonians in the Illawarra and 7,420 speakers of Macedonian. The custom of Sredselo still continues in Cringila today and is the highlight of the Macedonian Social Year. The first Macedonian Orthodox monastery in NSW, Света Петка/Saint Petka, was built in Kembla Grange in 2006. Two Macedonian-language radio stations service the community along with a range of support services, the community has a quarterly journal called "KOMPAS".
Newcastle
Many of the first Macedonians would often go to work at the Newcastle Steelworks. By the early 1930s various "Kafani" had been established. As whole families began to immigrate many social and cultural amenities were established. In 1946 the Newcastle branch of the Macedonian-Australian People's League From the 1960s many Macedonians from the Socialist Republic of Macedonia came to Newcastle. A KUD was established and the Macedonian-Australian People's League helped to engage the Macedonian Novacastrians with the rest of the Macedonian Australian community. Many would attend dances in the Trades Hall, Sydney. The first time Macedonian was broadcast in Australia occurred in Newcastle in 1949 as the local branch of the MAPL held a commemorative Ilinden broadcast.
After the decentralization of the Macedonian-Australian People's League the Greek orientated, "Pavlos Melas" society was founded. This in turn was replaced by the "Macedonian Community of Newcastle". In 1970 the community built the Света Богородица/Holy Mother of God Macedonian Orthodox Church in Adamstown. The soccer clubs of Red Star, Newcastle-Macedonia, The Macedonian junior soccer club and Broadmeadow Magic were all founded by Macedonians. Another 3 KUD's, KUD Ilinden, KUD Bitola and KUD "Stiv Naumov" were all founded, the latter which still operates today. A sredselo was established as another church was constructed. In 1986 the first Macedonian Cultural Day was held and the "Goce Delcev" ethnic school was founded. The first non-English language Newspaper in Newcastle was the Macedonian paper "Kopnež" which was launched in 1984 by the "Macedonian Community of Newcastle". After the Breakup of Yugoslavia a number of Macedonians came to the Newcastle region. In the early 1990s a branch of the VMRO party was set up. A Macedonian welfare centre was built on the site of the Macedonian Orthodox Church. Peter Hill estimates that there are 3,600 Macedonians in the Newcastle region. In 1996, 2,095 people spoke Macedonian at home compared with the 1,863 in 2006. In 2006 the number of people with Macedonian ancestry in the Newcastle area was 2,424 of whom Aegean Macedonians comprise 20%.
Canberra/Queanbeyan
The first Macedonians to arrive in the Queanbeyan area were Aegean Macedonians from the Florina and Kastoria regions. They established market-gardens or became Eucalypt cutters near Braidwood. By 1920 an estimated 250 Macedonian had come to the Queanbeyan area. After the Second World War and the Greek Civil War many Aegean Macedonians came to the Queanbeyan region. In 1946 a chapter of the Macedonian-Australian People's League was founded, it was called Mladi Goce after the name of the commander of the First Aegean Partisan Brigade which operated in Macedonia in 1944/1945. After the collapse of the Macedonian-Australian People's League a split occurred in the community between pro-Greek and pro-Macedonian factions. The Greek-orientated "Society of Kastorians and Florinians" was set up in Queanbeyan. The Greek Orthodox Community in Queanbeyan is dominated by Macedonians. In 1969 the Macedonian Orthodox Church, Свети Илија/Saint Ilija of Queanbeyan was consecrated.
In 1983 the foundation stone for the Macedonian Orthodox Cathedral, Свети Климент Охридски/Saint Kliment of Ohrid in Red Hill was laid. The cathedral was designed by Macedonian Australian, Vlase Nikoleski. As part of Macedonian Cultural Week a performance is traditionally held in Canberra. The Department of Immigration and Ethnic Affairs estimated that there are 3,000 Macedonians in the Canberra/Queanbeyan region, of whom two-thirds are Aegean Macedonians. Two Cultural and Folkloric Groups, KUD Egejska Makedonija and KUD Razigrana Makedonka were founded in Queanbeyan, along with the Soccer Club, The Wolverines. The Bitola social club or "Tumbe Kafe" was founded in Canberra. A third church was built in Canberra, Свети Климент Охридски/Saint Kliment of Ohrid in Narrabundah along with a Macedonian Ethnic School. Another Macedonian ethnic school, "Goce Delčev", operates in Queanbeyan. The number of Macedonian speakers in the Queanbeyan/Canberra region fell from 1,761 in 1996 to 1,550 in 2006. The total number of Macedonians in the Queanbeyan/Canberra region was 1,991 in 2006 of these only 927 were born in the Republic of Macedonia.
Western Australia
Western Australia has traditionally had one of the largest Macedonian Australian communities in Australia. Thousands of pre-war immigrants came to the state in search of riches. Here they set up the Macedonian "villages" of Wanneroo and Upper Wanneroo. The Western Australian branches of the Macedonian-Australian People's League were the driving force behind the movement's inception. By this time the migrants had scattered to Manjimup, Geraldton and Kalgoorlie. The immigrants were joined by post war Aegean Macedonians and Yugoslav migrants. Many then headed north to Port Hedland and Broome. After the breakup of Yugoslavia another wave of Macedonians came to Western Australia. By 2001 there 6,184 Macedonian speakers in Western Australia with 8,043 people claiming Macedonian Ancestry. The Macedonians of Western Australia have helped drive the state into the 21st century.
Perth
One of Australia's oldest Macedonian communities can be found in Perth. It is said Boris Šmagranov arrived in Perth in 1908, the first Macedonian to do so. A steady wave of Macedonians began to arrive in Perth after the First World War. Many of these were Aegean Macedonians from the Florina, Kastoria and Edessa regions. Many Macedonians left Perth for other areas where Macedonians had settled such as Manjimup, Balcatta, Geraldton and Kalgoorlie. In the early 1920s the "Makedonski Dom" (Macedonian Home) was founded in Perth. This soon became the heart of the Macedonian community in Perth. Attempts to found a branch of the Macedonian Patriotic Organization were unsuccessful. A concentration of Macedonians had been set up in the Wanneroo area and soon it was declared a Macedonian village. The mainstay of the village was Market Gardening and small-scale farming. Through chain migration Perth soon became the largest centre of Macedonian immigration to Australia. The first genuine Macedonian settlement with wives and families in Australia was Wanneroo. By the 1930s there were over 150 Macedonians in the Wanneroo area. Another Macedonian village was soon founded at Upper Wanneroo or 27 Mile. Although the area was a swamp it was soon made suitable for farming.
In 1939 the "Edinstvo" group was founded which would dominated Macedonian social life for the next two decades. The "Edinstvo" group soon began to organise socials, functions and gatherings. The group's motto soon became "Слободна, Независна, Еднокупна Македонија" (Free, Independent and United Macedonia), referring to the irredentist concept of a United Macedonia. The group founded the "Edinstvo Perth Soccer Club" in the early 1940s. Community and youth groups were also founded. The first president of Edinstvo was George Dženev. On 18 September 1941, Naume Sharin was elected president with Mick Veloskey and Pavle Bozhinov as secretaries. During World War II many members of the Edinstvo group were called up to fight for their new mother country. After World War Two attempts by Edinstvo were made to create a unified Macedonian Australian Organisation. The Edinstvo group started radio sessions and eventually the group founded the "Makedonska Iskra" newspaper which went on to national distribution. On 24 and 25 August 1946 the Edinstvo group held an inaugural conference for all the Macedonian organisations in Australian. It was decided that the Macedonian-Australian People's League should be founded. The Edinstvo group was soon incorporated as a branch of the new organisation. The returned members would go on to found the Macedonian Australian Ex-Servicemen's League in 1947. After the creation of the People's Republic of Macedonia many Macedonians left to help rebuild the devastated country, while thousands of Aegean Macedonian refugees came to Australia, of which a large proportion settled in Perth.
During the years of the Macedonian-Australian People's League the Perth group was by far the most influential branch of the organisation. The group helped organise the "Miss Macedonia" competition and other events to raise money for the Macedonian Hospital Appeals. During the first appeal the West Australian branches managed to raise over £5,500 for the Macedonian hospitals. In 1948 the Makedonska Iskra newspaper was moved to Sydney. The "Macedonian Soccer Club" which was disbanded during World War Two was eventually replaced by "Makedonija" in 1947, "Alexander" in 1954 and finally "Olympic" in 1956.
In 1948 the organisation took the initiative to build a Macedonian Hall in Perth. The contributed drive was to come from the "Macedonian Ladies Section" of the group. On 23 May 1948 Mrs Diana Pappas was elected as President of the group. At this meeting it was agreed that a hall was needed for the "Edinstvo" group, "Macedonian Soccer Club" and the "Macedonian Ladies Section". In 1949 the group purchased a hall in Leederville with a deposit of £80. However, there was friction within the group and the Hall was sold. The profits were put into buying a block of land in Church Street, Perth.
At the General Meeting of "Edinstvo" on 17 October 1954 in the Trades Hall the group passed the following resolutions:
1. that a Macedonian centre be erected in Perth for the Macedonian Migrants
2. that an amount of £10 be donated by each migrant from the age of 16 years without difference of men or women and be paid within a period of one year
3. that the Hall and property be registered under the name of the Macedonian-Australian People's League, Branch "Edinstvo", Perth, W.A and that the hall be called the "Macedonian Hall"
4. that every Macedonian migrant settled in Western Australia who has paid his or her nominated £10 had rights in the hall
By 1957 the group was financially secure and began to erect a hall on Church Street. The Perth community was seriously affected when the Macedonian-Australian People's League resolved to decentralize in 1957. In 1958 the "Stirling Soccer Club" was founded it was renamed to "West Perth Macedonia" in the 1960s. During this period "Edinstvo" was going through a period of structural changes and in 1960 it changed its name to the "Macedonian Community of Western Australia" and plans were made for the future. In 1963 after the collapse of the Tobacco industry in Manjimup many Macedonians migrated to Perth. By this time many Macedonians from the People's Republic of Macedonia began to immigrate to Perth. In 1966 the foundation stone to the "Macedonian Community Centre" was laid and the building was completed in 1968. It include a chapel dedicated to Saint Nicholas. In 1969 a second level was added to the Community Centre.
In 1968 the "Vardar Club" (East Perth) soccer club was founded. In 1969 the "Olympic" soccer team broke with the Macedonian community and established its club-rooms and grounds in Kingsway. Another Macedonian soccer club "Macedonia United" (West Perth) was founded in 1970 under the auspices of the "Macedonian Community of Western Australia", which was the first United Macedonian club in Western Australia. The Community also went on to found a Basketball club and cricket club. In 1969 the first Macedonian Church in Western Australia was founded. The Macedonian Orthodox Church Свети Никола/Saint Nicholas was consecrated on 6 April 1969. In 1969 the "Macedonian Community of Western Australia" founded the "Goce Delčev Macedonian Choir" and the KUD-Goce Delčev. The Vestnik/Newspaper was founded in 1971. It began as Mesečni Novini/Monthly News and then became "Newsletter of the Macedonian Communities in Australia". It printed mainly news from Western Australia in English and Macedonian.
In 1976 "The Macedonian Club" was founded on the site of the Macedonian Community Centre. Ever since its foundation it has been the centre of the Macedonian community in Perth. During 1977 a split within the Saint Nicholas church community led some parishioners to leave the original church and purchase another church just 500 metres from the original "Saint Nicholas" church. This new church was also named the Macedonian Orthodox Church of Свети Никола/Saint Nicholas. This church founded the KUD-Ilinden and other social groups. By 1983 the Vardar Club had acquired premises in North Perth. From here they are able organise socials, dances and picnics. They also founded the KUD-Vardar group along with other social events such as "Miss Macedonia (W.A)". In 1985 the "Macedonian Community of Western Australia" acquired 10 hectares of land in Balcatta. The development known as "Macedonia Park" was to include a nursing home, C grade hospital, a chapel, rectory, halls, bars and a wide range of sporting amenities. On 22 May 1986 the sporting complex was officially opened by West Australian premier, Brian Burke. In 1985 the community had over 2,000 full or social members. Perth now has over 5 Macedonian clubs. Another social club the "Ilinden Club" was also founded the group went on to build a hall in North Perth.
During the early 1990s many Macedonians immigrated to Perth from the newly independent Republic of Macedonia. The "Macedonian United Organisation of Perth and WA Inc." was founded as a uniting organisation within Western Australia, the group has members from the "Macedonian Community of Western Australia", "Vardar Club", both Churches, the Romany Community and the Ilinden Club. The Church street was renamed "Macedonia Place" in recognition of the great contribution that Macedonians had given to Perth. The "Macedonia Park" in Balcatta was expanded and a number of ethnic schools founded throughout Perth. Radio programs and KUD's were all expanded. By 1976 there were 3471 Macedonian speakers in Perth by 2001 this had risen to 5,772. 7,435 people claimed Macedonian ancestry in the 2006 census although community spokespersons put the number of Macedonians at over 12,000.
Macedonians in Perth Today
Today the Macedonian community in Perth is one of the most influential in Australia and the Diaspora. The Macedonian community in Perth is represented by a number of organisations and Churches including: The Macedonian Australian Community Organisation "Vardar" [in Macedonian: Македонска Народна Општина - Вардар] which has a community center in Malaga, Perth, The Macedonian Community of Western Australia [in Macedonian: Македонска Општина на Западна Австралија] which has a community center in North Perth, Perth and also a sports stadium (Macedonia Park) in Balcatta, The Macedonian Cultural Center "Ilinden" [in Macedonian: Македонски Културен Центар - Илинден] located in Balcatta, Perth, which also has a community center located there, and finally, The Macedonian Orthodox Church of "Saint Nikola" (Angove Street, North Perth) and the Macedonian Orthodox Church of "Saint Nikola" (Macedonia Place, North Perth).
There are also a number of smaller unofficial and official Macedonian groups and organisations in Perth including the Bitolsko Drustvo, Komitetot na VMRO-DPMNE Pert, Prilepski Odbor, Mislesevsko Drustvo, Penzionerskoto Drustvo, a number of women's annexes and organisations, youth groups such as the Mladinsko Drustvo pri Makedonskata Narodna Opstina and so forth. For major Macedonian events such as the Commemoration of the Ilinden Uprising of 1913, most of the above-mentioned organisations opt to unite under the banner of the United Macedonian Communities of Western Australia [in Macedonian: Обединети Македонски Организации на Западна Австралија] at events held at the Kings Park War Memorial in conjunction with the RSL of Western Australia.
The Macedonians of Perth also have their very own ethnic Macedonian radio station which runs 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The radio station is called MAK FM and is aired on 103.3fm from their station in Malaga, Perth. The above-mentioned organisations also have their own respective radio programs on another multi-ethnic radio station (6eba World Radio, 95.3fm) of which the largest and longest program is held by the Macedonian Australian Community Organisation (every Sunday from 19:30-22:30).
The Macedonians of Perth also hosted Australia's first "Macedonian Food Festival" in April 2011. This festival was organised at Edith Cowan University (ECU), Joondalup campus. The festival was organized by Robert Pasquale, Dame Krcoski and others members off the UMD. The festival was attended by approximately 1,000 guests. As of 2022, the food festival still continues at ECU and has grown to include other a variety ethnic groups. It is now known as the International Food Festival.
Further to this, Pasquale established the first Macedonian Student Association, at Edith Cowan University with approximately 50 members. ECU Vice Chancellor Prof. Cox named a street at the university Prilep Drive in honour of the university's Macedonian links.
Wanneroo
Wanneroo is one of the original Macedonian settlements in Australia. It was also the first "Macedonian village" in Australia. Approximately 25 kilometres from Perth it was an attractive location for many early Macedonian migrants. Many of these were Aegean Macedonians from the Florina and Kastoria regions. The first Macedonian to come to Wanneroo was Stojan Angelcoff who immigrated to Australia in 1923. He later brought out his wife and many other relatives. Many of the early migrants made a living through Market Gardening and scrub clearing. Soon families and wives were brought out to the settlement and it was referred to as the "Macedonian Village". It would be these wives and families who would later go on to found the social and cultural organisations found in the area. By 1930 there were some 150 Macedonians in Waneroo which was steadily increasing. Another settlement was founded at Upper Waneroo. The area was well suited to growing vegetables in the summer.
By World War Two the Macedonian community of Perth was primarily centred on Wanneroo. It was here that the "Edinstvo" group conducted many of its early functions and picnics. As the Perth metropolitan area was expanded Waneroo was gradually absorbed as a suburb of Perth. The lack of immigrants in the 1960s and 1970s led to the ageing of the community. Although many others came to the Waneroo area in the 1980s and 1990s. Some of the early areas of Macedonian settlement are still dominated by Market-gardening and second and third generation Macedonians. Today it is estimated that the original Macedonian community of Wanneroo numbers over 400 persons.
Manjimup
Manjimup is considered as one of the original Macedonian settlements in Australia. One of the first Macedonians to arrive in Manjimup was Risto Marin in 1924. It was here he established a market garden before returning to the region of Macedonia. Many of the original Macedonian immigrants ended up cutting railway sleepers or scrub-clearing. Eventually permanent immigrants arrived and many market gardens were set up. Many of these immigrants were Aegean Macedonians from Greece, especially after the village of Babčor was destroyed by American Bombers in 1948. Many people from Babčor came to Australia and settled in Manjimup. Macedonians played an instrumental role in the foundation of the Tobacco industry in Manjimup. Other notable Macedonians who had arrived by 1930 included Risto Numev, Lazo Miče, The Milentises and Kole Palasin who would go on to have great influence in the regions local tobacco industry. A Greek entrepreneur, Peter Michelidis would turn the tobacco venture into a major industry of the 1930s, 40s and 1950s. At the height of the tobacco industry there were 1,600 Macedonians in Manjimup and the industry was worth £500,000 per annum to the district. Although in 1963 the industry collapsed when government regulations and competition seriously damaged the growers. It was said that many Anglo-Australians gloated at the ruin of the Macedonians, but in fact many Australians were also affected and a local department store closed within months of the tobacco collapse. Many Macedonians left the area to other tobacco growing areas or to Perth.
After the collapse of the Tobacco industry Market-gardening had become the mainstay of Macedonian life in Manjimup. In 1942 the Macedonians in Manjimup created the Sloboda organisation. In 1947 it evolved to become a branch of the Macedonian-Australian People's League. It soon became the centre of the Community. The Sloboda organisation remained even after the dentralisation of the Macedonian-Australian People's League. A film based on the experiences of Stase Manov, a Macedonian in Manjimup, called Stari Kraj (Old Country) was shown on Yugoslavian television. It was a great success. The community which had originally held dances and functions in tobacco sheds began to use the Town Hall. They have always been staunch supporters of the "Macedonian Community of Western Australia", whereas many Macedonians in Perth were against its inception. From 1970 the population of Macedonians had stabilised at 350 from a peak of 1,600. In 1982, of land was donated to the community in Ipsen Street. It was here that the community built the Macedonian Community Centre which was blessed by Father Petre Nanevski from Perth on 3 August 1983. The hall was officially opened on 3 May 1987 by the then premier of Western Australia, Brian Burke. Many Macedonians from Manjimup would go on to play for the Macedonian soccer teams in Perth or Geraldton.
A KUD was organised in the hall and functions and weddings were also held in the Macedonian Community Centre. The KUD often performs in statewide multicultural events. The community is still present in Manjimup as the second and third generation Macedonians take control of the community. Many people still speak Macedonian and follow Macedonian customs. Many have gone on to manage and own business' where their fathers were not accepted even as labourers. In 1991, 185 people claimed to speak Macedonian in the Manjimup area by 2006 this had fallen to 98. Although in 2006 there were 175 people of Macedonian ancestry down from the 200 in 2001. The number of Macedonian born has traditionally been low denoting the presence of Aegean Macedonians in Manjimup. The community was recently visited by the Macedonian Ambassador to Australia, which shows that Macedonians are still present in the Manjimup area The Macedonians have left a lasting imprint on the Manjimup community.
South Australia
South Australia is home to a small but compact Macedonian community. The first Macedonians immigrants were scrub clearers in Ceduna and grape harvesters in the Riverland region. Permanent immigrants established market gardens in Fulham Gardens, Flinders Park and later in Virginia. Soon a community of Aegean Macedonians had established themselves in South Australia, most notably in Fulham Gardens. Coffee Shops, were established by Macedonians and they soon became the original meeting place for the Macedonian community. In 1947 a chapter of the Macedonian-Australian People's League known as "Alexander the Great" opened in South Australia. In 1947, the group raised over £350 for the Macedonian Hospital Appeal. After the decantralization of the Macedonian-Australian People's League the "Macedonian Orthodox Community of South Australia" was founded in 1957. In 1967, the Macedonian Orthodox Community of South Australia constructed the Macedonian Hall which became the center of Macedonian social activities in Adelaide.
On 28 April 1968, a statue memorial to Macedonian National Hero Goce Delčev, Cyrillic: Гоце Делчев was unveiled. In 1969 the first Macedonian Orthodox Church in South Australia was built on the site of the Macedonian Community property. In 1982 the first Macedonian Orthodox Church in South Australia, Saint Naum of Ohrid, Cyrillic: Свети Наум Охридски was consecrated. The Macedonian Community collected donations from groups such as Yugoslavian Airlines and Stopanska Banka in building the church. The cultural dancing groups Sloboda/Freedom and KUD Makedonka were also established. The Macedonia United Soccer team was also founded by Macedonians in Adelaide. Another church, Света Богородица Пречиста/Holy Mother of God of Woodville South was also acquired more recently. A range of Macedonian radio programs also exist in Adelaide. A 1970 estimate put the number of Macedonians in South Australia at 1,200. While the 1976 census recorded 676 Macedonian speakers in 1976. By 1996 this number had risen to 923 falling to 705 in 2006. In 2006 there were only 400 Macedonian born people living in South Australia while 1,424 people claimed Macedonian Ancestry. In the census of 2011, across South Australia, 727 respondents reported speaking Macedonian at home, the highest concentration of this group (14%) was in the 5024 postal area (Fulham Gardens, Fulham and West Beach).
Queensland
There has traditionally been a small Macedonian community in Queensland. Relatively few immigrants arrived before the Second World War. In the late 1940s the Brisbane Branch of the Macedonian-Australian People's League was founded. After Crabbes Creek was devastated by a cyclone in the 1960s more Macedonians came to Brisbane. There were relatively few immigrants in Queensland until many Macedonians already in Australia decided to immigrate north. Despite this by 1986 there were still only 376 Macedonians in Queensland, although the community was still growing. Plans for a church in the Gold Coast were founded and planning soon began. A soccer club, "Brothers United" was founded by the community in the late 1980s. It was decided that the first ever Macedonian hall built in Crabbes Creek should be sold and the proceeds go towards founding Sveta Bogorodica church. In the 1990s a Macedonian Orthodox church was founded. Света Богородица/Sveta Bogorodica soon became the center of the Macedonian community in Queensland. Soon afterwards a KUD and an Ethnic School were also set up. In late 2002 an appeal to build a second church began. Construction of the Света Недела/’'Sveta Nedela'’ church soon began. An Australia wide cultural day was held on the Gold Coast during the Christmas of 2006 to help raise funds for the Church. It was a success with Macedonians from all parts of Australia travelling to the event. As of mid-2008 the church is nearing completion. Today Queensland has the fastest growing Macedonian community in Australia. Community spokespersons claim that there are over 4000 Macedonians in Queensland. Although only 927 Macedonians speakers were recorded in the 1996 census and 1,144 in 2006. In 2006 1,829 persons claimed Macedonian Ancestry.
Aegean Macedonians
The Aegean Macedonian people have had a long history in Australia. In 19th Century pečalba, working away from home, was a widespread Macedonian custom. The first Aegean Macedonian was Stojan Kenkov who came to Australian in 1914. Pre-World War Two migration occurred in two waves: the first, in 1924, when the USA imposed heavy immigration restrictions and the second, after 1936, when the 4 August Regime of General Ioannis Metaxas took power in Greece. The third wave occurred after the Greek Civil War when many ethnic Macedonians fled Greece. Charles Price estimates that by 1940 there were 670 Ethnic Macedonians from Florina and 370 from Kastoria resident in Australia. Peter Hill also estimates a figure of 50,000 Aegean Macedonians (including those born in Australia and excluding Slavophone Macedonians who identify as Greeks). 2.5% of adherents to the Macedonian Orthodox Church in Australia were born in Greece while 3,152 speakers of Macedonian were born in Greece and 2,919 people born in Greece claimed ethnic Macedonian ancestry or roughly 3.6% of the total population group.
Aegean Macedonians were essential in the establishment of the Macedonian Australia People league (Macedonian: Makedono-Avstraliski Naroden Sojuz) which dominated ethnic Macedonian life throughout the 1940s and 1950s. They then went on to establish organisations and events such as Macedonian Cultural Week, Preston Makedonija, Makedonska Iskra, Macedonian Community of S.A, Nova Makedonija and many others. There are Aegean Macedonian minorities in Richmond, Melbourne, Manjimup, Shepparton, Wanneroo and Queanbeyan. The Church of St George and the Florina Community Centre and Day Care center was built in Shepparton the Aegean Macedonian hall - Kotori was built by 32 families from the village Kotori in Richmond. Another Church was established by Aegean Macedonians in Queanbeyan and a hall erected in Manjimup. Other Aegean Macedonians organisations include the "Macedonian Aegean Association of Australia" and the "Richmond Aegean Macedonian Cultural and Sporting Association.
Sports
Many Macedonians in Australia are involved with Soccer and other sports. Some of the various clubs they have helped to establish are:
New South Wales
Sydney
Bankstown City Lions or Sydney MacedoniaRockdale City Suns or Rockdale IlindenYagoona Lions or Yagoona MacedoniaArncliffe Scots or Arncliffe MacedoniaWollongong
Wollongong United or Wollongong MacedoniaLake Heights JFC
Cringila Lions
Coniston Lions or Coniston MacedoniaShell Cove Barbarians or Illawarra PelisterNewcastle
Broadmeadow Magic or Newcastle MacedoniaNewcastle Suns
Macedonia Junior SC
Queanbeyan
Queanbeyan City or Queanbeyan MakedoniaVictoria
Melbourne
Preston Lions or Preston Makedonia (originally "the Makedonia Soccer Club")
Altona Magic or Altona VardarPascoe Vale or PelisterSydenham Park SC or Sydenham Park MacedoniaPlenty Valley Lions or LerinLalor United or Lalor SlogaPlenty Valley Lions or Lerin FCKeilor Wolves or Keilor PelagonijaNoble Park SC or Vesela MakedoniaAltona Lions or Altona IlindenFootscray United Vardar
Geelong
Geelong SC or Geelong MacedoniaShepparton
Shepparton SC or Shepparton MakedoniaWestern Australia
Stirling Macedonia
South Australia
Macedonia United Lions SC
Queensland
Sunshine Lions FC
Defunct teams
Balcatta Ilinden
North Perth Vardar
Point Cook Lions
Slivica
Mogila
Beranci
Ohrid SC
Warrawong United
Mladost
Macedonian Eagles
Manjimup Macedonia
Religion
Most Macedonians in Australia are followers of the Macedonian Orthodox Church. Although there are many Macedonian Muslims and people who follow other branches of Christianity. In 1996 there were 53,152 followers of the Macedonian Orthodox Church, in 2001 there were 53,244 adherents. in 2006 this number had fallen to 48,084 people. There is a diocese of the Macedonian Orthodox Church for Australia and New Zealand. The Macedonian Orthodox Church is often shortened to MPC.
There are over 40 Macedonian Orthodox Churches in Operation throughout Australia, 3 monasteries and two Cathedrals. Most of them fall under the jurisdiction of the Macedonian Orthodox Church - Diocese for Australia and New Zealand. The monasteries are MPM- Свети Прохор Пчински/Saint Prohor Pcinski of Donnybrook, MPM- Свети Наум Охридски/Saint Naum of Ohrid of Kinglake and MPCO- Света Петка/Saint Petka of Kembla Grange. The Cathedrals are Macedonian Orthodox Cathedral- Свети Климент Охридски/Saint Kliment of Ohrid of Red Hill and Macedonian Orthodox Cathedral- Свети Кирил и Методиј/Saints Cyril and Methodius'' of Rosebery (autocephalous).
The Macedonian Orthodox Church "St George" was founded in 1959 before full Autocephaly had been declared. The Greek Orthodox Community of Shepparton is primarily Macedonian. In 1975 the "Macedonian Church of St Cyril and Methodius" was founded in Sydney.
Although most Macedonians are adherents of the Macedonian Orthodox Church many follow a different faith. In Melbourne there are two Macedonian Protestant Churches; the Macedonian Church in East Preston (Uniting Church) and Macedonian Baptist Community of Regent. There is another Macedonian Baptist Church in Sydney. Another Macedonian Methodist Community was established in Melbourne. Furthermore, Melbourne is home to a Macedonian-speaking Seventh-Day Adventist church in Footscray.
List of notable Macedonian Australians
Artists and media
Sports
Music
Media
See also
Altona Magic SC
Australia–North Macedonia relations
Bankstown City Lions
Broadmeadow Magic FC
European Australians
Europeans in Oceania
Geelong SC
Immigration to Australia
Macedonian diaspora
Macedonian-Australian People's League
Macedonians
North Macedonia
Preston Lions FC
Rockdale City Suns
Stirling Macedonia FC
Wollongong United FC
References
The Australian Bureau of Statistics: www.abs.gov.au
External links
Australia Wide
United Macedonian Diaspora Australia
Macedonian Human Rights Committee - Australia
Macedonian Embassy in Australia
Macedonian Orthodox Church - Australia and New Zealand
Australian Macedonian Business Directory
SBS- Macedonian language program
Ties With Tradition - Macedonian apron designs
Local Archive Groups
A Multicultural Landscape: National Parks and the Macedonian Experience
Macedonian Community Council of Victoria
Macedonian Australian Welfare Association of Sydney Inc.
Australian Macedonian Weekly, the Macedonian Newspaper for Macedonian Australians
Macedonian Dance Group in Queanbeyan, KUD Razigrana Makedonka
Federation of Macedonian Cultural Artistic Associations of Victoria
Port Kembla Macedonian Welfare Association Inc.
Macedonian Community of Adelaide and South Australia
The Macedonians of Crabbes Creek
Macedonian - West Australian Business and Economic Forum
Makedonska Iskra Newspaper
Stirling Lions Soccer Club
Wollongong United Soccer Club
Preston Lions Soccer Club
Rockdale City Suns Soccer Club
Broadmeadow Magic Soccer Club
European Australian
Macedonian diaspora
Immigration to Australia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese%20occupation%20of%20Malaya
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Japanese occupation of Malaya
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Malaya, then under British administration, was gradually occupied by Japanese forces between 8 December 1941 and the Allied surrender at Singapore on 15 February 1942. The Japanese remained in occupation until their surrender to the Allies in 1945. The first Japanese garrison in Malaya to lay down their arms was in Penang on 2 September 1945 aboard .
Prelude
The concept of a unified East Asia took form based on an Imperial Japanese Army concept that originated with Hachirō Arita, who served as Minister for Foreign Affairs from 1936 to 1940. The Japanese Army said the new Japanese empire was an Asian equivalent of the Monroe Doctrine, especially with the Roosevelt Corollary. The regions of Asia, it was argued, were as essential to Japan as Latin America was to the U.S.
The Japanese Foreign Minister Yōsuke Matsuoka formally announced the idea of the Co-Prosperity Sphere on 1 August 1940, in a press interview, but it had existed in other forms for many years. Leaders in Japan had long had an interest in the idea. The outbreak of World War II fighting in Europe had given the Japanese an opportunity to demand the withdrawal of support from China in the name of "Asia for Asiatics", with the European powers unable to effectively retaliate. Many of the other nations within the boundaries of the sphere were under colonial rule and elements of their population were sympathetic to Japan (as in the case of Indonesia), occupied by Japan in the early phases of the war and reformed under puppet governments, or already under Japan's control at the outset (as in the case of Manchukuo). These factors helped make the formation of the sphere while lacking any real authority or joint power, come together without much difficulty. The sphere would, according to imperial propaganda, establish a new international order seeking "co prosperity" for Asian countries which would share prosperity and peace, free from Western colonialism and domination under the umbrella of a benevolent Japan. ธิชาภัทร สมใจ(1987)
Preparation
Japanese Military Affairs Bureau Unit 82 was formed in 1939 or 1940 and based in Taiwan to bring this about. In its final planning stages, the unit was under the then-Colonel Yoshihide Hayashi. Intelligence on Malaya was gathered through a network of agents which included Japanese embassy staff; disaffected Malayans (particularly members of the Japanese established Tortoise Society); and Japanese, Korean, and Taiwanese business people and tourists. Japanese spies, which included a British intelligence officer, Captain Patrick Stanley Vaughan Heenan and Lord Sempill also provided intelligence and assistance. Heenan's intelligence enabled the Japanese to destroy much of the Allied air forces on the ground.
Prior to hostilities, Japanese intelligence officers like Iwaichi Fujiwara had established covert intelligence offices (or Kikans) that linked up with the Malay and Indian pro-independence organisations such as Kesatuan Melayu Muda in Malaya and the Indian Independence League. The Japanese gave these movements financial support in return for their members providing intelligence and later assistance in determining Allied troop movements, strengths, and dispositions prior to the invasion.
By 1941 the Japanese had been engaged for four years in trying to subjugate China. They were heavily reliant on imported materials for their military forces, particularly oil from the United States. From 1940 to 1941, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands imposed embargoes on supplying oil and war materials to Japan. The object of the embargoes was to assist the Chinese and encourage the Japanese to halt military action in China. The Japanese considered that pulling out of China would result in a loss of face and decided instead to take military action against US, British and Dutch territories in South East Asia. The Japanese forces for the invasion were assembled in 1941 on Hainan Island and in French Indochina. The troop build-up in Indo-China and Hainan was noticed by the Allies and, when asked, the Japanese advised that it related to its operations in China.
Conquest
The occupation commenced with Imperial Japanese Army landings at Padang Pak Amat beach Kota Bharu just after midnight on 8 December 1941, triggering a ferocious battle with the British Indian Army an hour before the attack on Pearl Harbor. This battle marked the official start of the Pacific War and the start of the Japanese occupation of Malaya. Kota Bharu airport was occupied in the morning. Sungai Patani, Butterworth, and Alor Star airports were captured on 9 December 1941. Japanese soldiers landing at Kota Bharu divided into two separate forces, with one moving down the east coast towards Kuantan, and the other southwards towards the Perak River. On 11 December 1941, the Japanese started bombing Penang. Jitra and then Alor Star fell into Japanese hands on 12 December 1941. The British had to retreat to the south. On 16 December 1941, the British left Penang to the Japanese, who occupied it on 19 December.
The Japanese continued to advance southwards, capturing Ipoh on 26 December. Fierce resistance to Japanese progress in the Battle of Kampar lasted three days and three nights between 30 December 1941 and 2 January 1942, before the British had to retreat once again. On 7 January 1942, two brigades of the 11th Indian Infantry Division were defeated in the Battle of Slim River, giving the Japanese army easy passage to Kuala Lumpur, the capital of Malaya. On 9 January, the British position was becoming more desperate and the ABDACOM Supreme Commander, General Wavell, decided to withdraw all the British and Commonwealth forces south to Johor, thus abandoning Kuala Lumpur (which was captured by the Japanese on 13 January).
The British defensive line was established in north Johor, from Muar in the west, through Segamat, and then to Mersing in the east. The 45th Indian Infantry Brigade were placed along the western part of the line between Muar and Segamat. The Australian Imperial Force (AIF) were concentrated in the middle, from where they advanced north from Segamat, clashing with the advancing Japanese army at Gemas on 14 January. The 15th Division (forming the main Japanese force) arrived on 15 January and forced the Australians back to Segamat. The Japanese then proceeded west towards the inexperienced 45th Indian Brigade, easily defeating them. The Allied command directed the Australian 2/19th and 2/29th Battalions to the west; the 2/19th Battalion engaged the Japanese on 17 January 1942 to the south of Muar.
Fighting continued until 18 January, and despite efforts by the 2/19th and 2/29th Battalions, the Johor defensive line collapsed. The Allies had to retreat across the Johor Causeway to Singapore. As 31 January 1942 approached, the whole of Malaya had fallen into Japanese hands.
Occupation
Japanese policy
Japanese policy for the administration of occupied territories was developed in February 1941 by Colonel Obata Nobuyoshi (Section Chief of Intelligence – Southern Army), and Lt Colonels Otoji Nishimura and Seijiro Tofuku of the General Staff. They set out five principles: acquisition of vital materials for national defence, restoration of law and order, self-sufficiency for the troops in the occupied territories, respect for established local organisations and customs, and no hasty discussion of future status of sovereignty. Administrative-wise, the Straits Settlements were to be placed directly under the Japanese Army, the Federated Malay States and Johor will remain as autonomous protectorates under their sultans, while the four northern states were to eventually revert to Thai rule.
Once occupied Malaya was placed under the Malay Military Administration (Malai Gunsei Kumbu) of the Imperial Japanese Army. The 25th Army's chief of staff was the superintendent and its Chief of General Affairs Department Colonel Watanabe Wataru its executive officer. It was Wataru that implemented the occupation policies. He had a particularly hard-line view, treating the Chinese particularly harshly because of their support for mainland China against Japanese. Malays and Indians were dealt with more moderately because of their cooperation.
Wataru strongly believed British rule had introduced a hedonistic and materialistic way of life to the indigenous people. He considered that they needed to be taught to endure hardship with physical and spiritual training and education. Wataru also believed that they must also be ready to give their lives if necessary to establish Hakkō ichiu (the whole world under one roof) and the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.
When Wataru was replaced in March 1943 by Major-General Masuzo Fujimuro, the Japanese war position had deteriorated and they recognized that they needed the co-operation of the entire population. Gradually the more repressive policies towards the Chinese were lifted and advisory councils were formed. In March 1944 Colonel Hamada Hiroshi established a public reading room to engage in discussion with the Chinese community leaders and youth.
Cultural and geographic changes
The Japanese sought to change the common language of Malaya to Japanese. Its initial moves were to change shop signs and street names. Penang was renamed Tōjō Island (東條島, Tōjō-tō) and Malaya renamed Malai (馬来, Marai). The time zone was also moved to align with Japan.
The Japanese custom of bowing was also introduced with the populace expected to bow to Japanese soldiers on guard duty. Malay was considered a dialect and the Japanese wanted it to be standardised with Sumatran.
Propaganda
The invading Japanese forces used slogans such as "Asia untuk orang Asia" (translation: Asia for Asians) to win support from the local Malays. Malay radicals had been given strict instruction to abide by Japanese military plans to create "Asians for Asians" and a "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" with Malaya as an important base. The Japanese worked hard to convince the local population that they were the actual saviours of Malaya while Britain was portrayed as an imperialist force that wished to exploit Malaya's resources. However, in November 1943, when the Japanese held the Greater East Asia Conference, both Malaya and Indonesia were excluded as the Japanese Military wanted to annex both regions.
Newspapers
The Japanese news agency, Dōmei Tsushin, was granted a monopoly covering Malaya, Singapore, and British Borneo. All news publications in this region fell under its control. An exception may have been The Perak Times which was published by John Victor Morais in Ipoh from 1942 to 1943.
In Penang, on 8 December 1942 the Penang Malay, Chinese, and English newspapers were combined in the Penang Shimbun. Abdullah Ariff, a pioneer Malay watercolourist, drew cartoons for the newspaper. Ariff became an active member of the pro-independence UMNO after the war and eventually a Penang City Councillor from 1955 to 1957. The Malai Sinpo replaced the Malay Mail on 1 January 1943 and was published in Kuala Lumpur. The Jawi script Warta Malaya, owned by Ibrahim Yaacob and financed by the Japanese, ceased publication prior to the Japanese invasion and resumed for a short period from mid 1942 until 14 August 1942. During that brief period, it was managed by the Japanese.
Garrisons
The 25th Army Headquartered at Singapore provided garrison duty in Malaya until January 1944. It was replaced by the 29th Army's, 94th Infantry Division, under Lieutenant General Teizo Ishiguro, which was Headquartered in Taiping, Perak until the end of the war.
The Second (with the 25th Army) and later the Third (with the 29th Army) Field Kempeitai Units of the Southern Expeditionary Army Group provided military police and maintained public order in the same manner as the German SS. These units were able, at will, to arrest and interrogate, with torture, both military and civilians. The civilian police force was subservient to them. The Commander of the 2nd Field Kempeitai unit was Lieutenant Colonel Oishi Masayuki. No 3 Kempeitai was commanded by Major-General Masanori Kojima. By the end of the war there were 758 Kempeitai stationed in Malaya, with more in the Thai occupied Malay states.
Penang submarine base
During the occupation Penang was used as a submarine port by the Japanese, Italian, and German navies. The Imperial Japanese Navy's 6th fleet Submarine Squadron 8 was based at Penang from February 1942 under Rear-Admiral Ishizaki Noboru. The base was used as a refuelling depot for submarines bound for German-occupied Europe and for operations in the Indian Ocean. In early 1943 the first German and Italian submarines began to call at Penang. In April 1943 under Kapitanleutnant Wilhelm Dommes was sent to set up and command the German U-boat base at Penang. This base was the only operational base used by all three Axis navies.
Japanese submarines from Penang participated in the Battle of Madagascar on 29 May 1942 attacking shipping in Diego Suarez harbour. Seven Italian BETASOM submarines were adapted to carry critical matériel from the Far East (Bagnolin, Barbarigo, , Giuseppe Finzi, Reginaldo Giuliani, , and ) of which two were sunk by the Allies, two were captured at Penang by the Germans after the September 1943 Italian surrender and used by them, and a fifth was captured in Bordeaux by the Germans, but not used.
Of the first 11 U-boats assigned to the Monsun Gruppe at the base, only , , , and arrived between October and November 1943. Of the second group sent in late 1943 only made it through the Allied-held oceans. It arrived in April 1944 at a time when the focus had changed from combat missions to transport between Europe and Asia. These cargo missions were to transport much-needed war supplies between Germany and Japan.
By March 1944 the base was running short of supplies, was under a growing threat from Allied anti-submarine patrols. It lacked air support and reconnaissance. The Japanese had pulled their submarines out of Penang before the end on 1944 because the base had fallen within Allied bombing range. The Germans remained until December 1944 before withdrawing to Singapore.
When Germany surrendered the surviving submarines were taken by the Japanese and the German sailors moved to Batu Pahat. When the British returned in 1945 the sailors were imprisoned at Changi, with the last, Fregattenkapitän Wilhelm Dommes, being repatriated to Germany in 1947.
Civil service
Overall control and administration was the responsibility of the 25th Army. The transfer of the northern Malay states to Thailand moved them to Thai control. With the transfer of Malaya from the 25th to the 29th Army, Johore was placed under control of the Southern Army based at Singapore.
Japanese and Taiwanese civilians headed the Malayan civil service and police during the occupation. The structure remained similar to that of Malaya's pre-war civil service with many for Civil Servants being reappointed. Many of the laws and regulations of the British administration continued in use. The Sultans were initially allowed to continue as nominal rulers, with the intent that they would eventually be completely removed from power.
Thai annexation of northern Malaya states
Up until 1909 Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Terengganu were Thai territories. As part of an agreement in 1909 Thailand transferred them to British control.
In July 1943, Japanese Prime Minister Hideki Tojo announced that Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Terengganu were to be returned to Thailand as part of the military alliance signed between Thailand and Japan on 21 December 1941. Thailand administered the states as Syburi, Palit, Kalantan and Trangkanu provinces from 18 October 1943 until the surrender of the Japanese at the end of the war. Japanese troops and Kempeitai continued to be stationed at the aforementioned states.
Living conditions
Recruiting campaigns
The Japanese undertook recruiting, particularly with the Indian and Malay populations, both prior to and after the occupation.
Indian Independence League
Prior to the invasion of Malaya, Japanese intelligence officer Major Iwaichi Fujiwara had formed links with Pritam Singh Dhillon of the Indian Independence League. Fujiwara and Dhillon convinced Major Mohan Singh to form the Indian National Army (INA) with disaffected Indian soldiers captured during the Malayan Campaign. Singh was an officer in 1 Battalion of the 14th Punjab Regiment and had been captured after the Battle of Jitra. As the Japanese campaign progressed more Indian troops were captured with significant numbers being convinced to join the new force under Singh.
After the fall of Singapore, the army came into being. By 1 September 1942, it numbered 40,000 volunteers drawn from both former soldiers and civilians in Malaya and Singapore. Singh, now designated a general, was to command it. Already at a conference held in Bangkok during 15–23, June 1942, the Indian Independence League under the leadership of Rash Behari Bose, had appointed Singh its commander-in-chief.
Though Singh had a good relationship with Fujiwara he became disenchanted with some orders from the Imperial Japanese Army. This led to arrest on 29, December 1942, by the Kempeitai. With the return of Subhas Chandra Bose, from Germany in June 1943 the Indian National Army was revived in the form of Azad Hind Fauj. Bose organised finance and manpower under the cause for Indian independence among the expatriate Indian population. The INA had a separate women's unit, the Rani of Jhansi Regiment (named after Rani Lakshmi Bai) headed by Captain Lakshmi Swaminathan, which was seen as a first of its kind in Asia.
Even when faced with military reverses in the later stages of the war, Bose was able to maintain support for the Azad Hind movement.
Kesatuan Melayu Muda
Another link forged by Fujiwara was with Ibrahim Yaacob of Kesatuan Melayu Muda a pro-independence Malay organisation. On the eve of World War II, Yaacob and the members of Kesatuan Melayu Muda actively encouraged anti-British sentiment. With Japanese aid the organisation purchased the influential Singapore-based Malay publication Warta Malaya. Close to the time of the Japanese invasion Yaacob, Ishak Muhammad and a number of Kesatuan Melayu Muda leaders were arrested and imprisoned by the British.
During the Battle of Malaya, Kesatuan Melayu Muda members assisted the Japanese as they believed that the Japanese would give Malaya independence. When the Japanese captured Singapore the arrested members released by the Japanese. Mustapha Hussain, the organisation's vice-president and the others requested the Japanese grant Malaya independence but request was turned down. The Japanese instead disbanded Kesatuan Melayu Muda and established the Pembela Tanah Ayer (also known as the Malai Giyu Gun or by its Malay acronym PETA) militia instead. Yaacob was given the rank of lieutenant colonel in charge of the 2,000 man militia.
Atrocities
Once the Japanese had taken Malaya and Singapore from the British their attention turned to consolidating their position. Of primary concern were the ethnic Chinese who were known to financially support both Nationalist and Communist forces in China fighting the Japanese. In December 1941 a list of key elements to eliminate within the Chinese population had been drawn up. On 17 February 1942 Lieutenant-General Tomoyuki Yamashita, commander of the 25th Army, ordered anti-Japanese elements within the Chinese be eliminated. The method employed had been used by the occupying divisions; the 5th, 18th, and Imperial Guards in earlier actions in China, whereby suspects were executed without trial. That same day 70 surviving soldiers of the Malay Regiment were taken out of the prisoner of war holding area at Farrer Park, Singapore by the Japanese to the battlefield at Pasir Panjang and shot. Some Malay Regiment officers were beheaded by the Japanese. An explanation given in a proclamation by Yamashita on 23 February 1942 was that they were dealing with rebellious Chinese. This message was elaborated on in a Syonan Times article of 28 February 1942 titled Sword that kills one and saves many.
Commencing in February in Singapore and then throughout Malaya a process of rounding up and executing those Chinese perceived as being threats began. This was the start of the Sook Ching massacres in which an estimated 50,000 or more ethnic Chinese were killed, predominantly by the Kempeitai.
Specific incidents include Kota Tinggi, Johore on 28 February 1942 (2,000 killed); Gelang Patah, Johore on 4 March (300 killed); Benut, Johore on 6 March (number unknown); Johore Baharu, Senai, Kulai, Sedenak, Pulai, Rengam, Kluang, Yong Peng, Batu Pahat, Senggarang, Parit Bakau, and Muar between February and March (estimated up to 25,000 Chinese were killed in Johore); Tanjong Kling, Malacca on 16 March (142 killed); Kuala Pilah, Negeri Sembilan on 15 March (76 killed); Parit Tinggi, Negeri Sembilan on 16 March (more than 100 killed, the entire village); Joo Loong Loong (near the present village of Titi) on 18 March (1474 killed, entire village eliminated by Major Yokokoji Kyomi and his troops); and Penang in April (several thousand killed by Major Higashigawa Yoshinura). With increased guerilla activity more massacres occurred, including Sungei Lui, a village of 400 in Jempol District, Negeri Sembilan, that was wiped out on 31 July 1942 by troops under a Corporal Hashimoto.
News of the Sook Ching massacres reached the west by February 1943, with Chinese sources stating that 97,000 suspected anti-Japanese Chinese had been imprisoned or killed by the Japanese in Singapore and Malaya. The same article also stated that the Japanese had set up mutual guarantee units whereby a group of 30 Chinese families would guarantee that none of their members would oppose the Japanese. If they did then the whole group was executed.
As is with the Changi Prison in Singapore, major civilian prisons throughout Malaya (such as the Pudu Prison and Taiping Prison) were reconstituted by the Japanese for use as detention and execution grounds. Various schools, including the Malay College at Kuala Kangsar, were also repurposed as interrogation facilities for the Japanese.
The Japanese were also accused of conducting medical experiments on Malayans, and were known to have taken Malay and Chinese girls and women to serve as comfort women.
Hardships
The Japanese required the Chinese community through the Japanese controlled Overseas Chinese Organisation to raise Malaya $50 million as atonement for its support of the Chinese war effort. When the organisation only raised $28 million, the organisation was required to take out a loan for the balance.
Initially, Malaya's two other major ethnic groups, the Indians and Malays, escaped the worst of Japanese maltreatment. The Japanese wanted the support of the Indian community to free India from British rule, and did not consider the Malays to be a threat. All three races were encouraged to assist the Japanese war effort by providing finance and labour. Some 73,000 Malayans were thought to have been coerced into working on the Thai-Burma Railway, with an estimated 25,000 dying. The Japanese also took the railway track from Malacca and other branch lines for construction of the railway.
As the war progressed all three ethnic communities began to suffer deprivations from increasingly severe rationing, hyper-inflation, and a lack of resources. A blockade by Allied forces on the Japanese occupied territories coupled with a submarine campaign reduced the ability of the Japanese to move supplies between its occupied countries. Both the Malay and Indian communities gradually came into more conflict with the occupying Japanese prompting more joining the resistance movement, including Abdul Razak bin Hussein, and Abdul Rahman bin Hajih Tiab. Yeop Mahidin Bin Mohamed Shariff, a former Royal Malay Regiment officer, founded a Malay-based resistance group immediately after the fall of Singapore in February 1942.
Commerce
About 150,000 tons of rubber was taken by the Japanese, but this was considerably less than Malaya had exported prior to the occupation. Because Malaya produced more rubber and tin than Japan was able to utilize, Malaya's export income fell as it no longer had access to world markets. Real per capita income fell to about half its 1941 level in 1944 and less than half the 1938 level in 1945. A further factor was a lack of available merchant shipping, noticeable from early in 1942. As an alternative to shipping the Japanese sought to create a rail link from Malaya to Manchukuo.
Prior to the war, Malaya produced 40% of the world's rubber and a high proportion of the world's tin. It imported more than 50% of its rice requirements, a staple food for its population. The Allied blockade meant that both imports and the limited exports to Japan were dramatically reduced. In June 1943 tin was in short supply in Japan despite it occupying Malaya because of the transport problems.
During the occupation the Japanese replaced the Malayan dollar with their own version. Prior to occupation, in 1941, there was about Malaya $219 million in circulation. Japanese currency officials estimated that they had put $7,000 to $8,000 million into circulation during occupation. Some Japanese army units had mobile currency printing presses and no record was kept of the quantity or value of notes printed. When Malaya was liberated there was $500 million of uncirculated currency held by the Japanese in Kuala Lumpur. The unrestrained printing of banknotes in the final months of the war created hyperinflation with the Japanese money becoming valueless at the end of the war.
During the war the Allies dropped propaganda leaflets stressing that the Japanese issued money would be valueless when Japan surrendered. This tactic was suggested by Japanese policymakers as one of the reasons for the currencies falling value as Japanese defeats increased. Although a price freeze was put in place in February 1942, by the end of the war prices in Malaya were 11,000 times higher than at the start of the war. Monthly inflation reached over 40% in August 1945. Counterfeiting of the currency was also rife with both the British Special Operations Executive (SOE) printing $10 notes and $1 notes and the American Office of Strategic Services (OSS) printing $10 notes.
Resistance movements
Following the Japanese invasion of Malaya on 8 December 1941, the British colonial authorities accepted the Malayan Communist Party's (MCP) standing offer of military co-operation and on 15 December, all left-wing political prisoners were released. From 20 December, the British military began to train party members in guerilla warfare at the hastily established 101st Special Training School (101st STS) in Singapore. About 165 MCP members were trained before the fall of Singapore to the Japanese. These fighters, scantily armed and equipped by the hard-pressed British, hurriedly dispersed and attempted to harass the occupying army.
Just before Singapore fell on 15 February 1942, the party began organise armed resistance in Johor. 4 armed groups, which became known as 'Regiments', were formed, with the 101st Special Training School's (101st STS) trainees serving as nuclei. In March, this force was dubbed the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army (MPAJA) and began sabotage and ambushes against the Japanese. The Japanese responded with reprisals against Chinese civilians. These reprisals, coupled with increasing economic hardship, caused large numbers of Malayan Chinese to flee the cities. They became squatters at the forest margins, where they became the main source of recruits, food, and other assistance for the MPAJA. The MPAJA consolidated this support by providing protection.
In February 1942, Lai Teck, an alleged British agent who had infiltrated the Malayan Communist Party (MCP) was arrested by the Japanese. He became a double agent providing information to the Japanese on the MCP and MPAJA. Acting on information he provided the Japanese attacked a secret conference of more than 100 MCP and MPAJA leaders on 1 September 1942 at the Batu Caves, north of Kuala Lumpur, killing most of them. The loss of personnel forced the MPAJA to abandon its political commissar system, and the military commanders became the heads of the regiments. Following this setback and under the leadership of Lai Teck, the MPAJA avoided engagements and concentrated on consolidation, amassing 4,500 soldiers by early 1943. Lai Teck was not suspected as being a traitor until after the war. He was eventually tracked down and assassinated by Viet Minh operatives.
From May onward, British commandos from Force 136 infiltrated Malaya and made contact with the guerrillas. In 1944, an agreement was reached whereby the MPAJA would accept some direction from the Allied South East Asia Command (SEAC), and the Allies would give the MPAJA weapons and supplies. It was not until the spring of 1945, however, that significant amounts of material began to arrive by air drop.
Also operating at the same time as the MPAJA was the Pahang Wataniah, a resistance group formed by Yeop Mahidin. Mahadin had formed the group with consent of the Sultan of Pahang and set up a training camp at Batu Malim. The unit had an initial strength of 254 men and was assisted by Force 136, which assigned Major Richardson to help train the unit. Mahidin earned him the nickname "Singa Melayu" (Malay Lion) for his bravery and exploits. Between the Japanese surrender announcement and the return of the British the Wataniah provided protection for the Sultan from the MPAJA.
After the war ended the MPAJA was banned due to their communist ideologies and the Pahang Wataniah was reorganised, becoming the Rejimen Askar Wataniah, a territorial army.
Allied action in Malaya during occupation
Allied strategic doctrine
The principles of Allied strategic doctrine in the event of Japan entering the war were established at a secret conference between 29 January 1941 and 27 March 1941. The strategy set forth the principle of Europe first, with the Far East being a defensive war. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the British prime minister, Winston Churchill, and the American president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, met at the First Washington Conference. This conference reaffirmed the doctrine of Europe first. At the third Washington Conference in May 1943 alleviating pressure on China was discussed, in particular through the Burma campaign. At the Quebec Conference in August intensifying the war against Japan was decided and South East Asia Command reorganised. The Second Quebec Conference in September 1944 discussed the involvement of the British Navy against the Japanese.
Strategic bombing
The first strategic bombing raid was carried out by American Flying Fortresses on 2 February 1942 against Kuantan and Kuala Lumpur's airfields. These may have been planes from the 7th Bombardment Group operating out of Java.
Missions did not resume against Malaya until 27 October 1944 when B-24 Liberators of No. 159 Squadron RAF flying from Khargpur mined the Penang Strait causing its eventual abandonment by Japanese submarine forces. They laid more mines on 26 November and 23 January 1945.
On 11 January 1945 B-29's of the 20th Air Force attacked Penang. A further attack on Penang occurred on 24 February. This was followed by an attack on the marshaling yards in Kuala Lumpar and Alor Star airfield on 10 March. The Royal Selangor museum was hit by bombs on 15 March. The bombs were intended for the Kuala Lumpar marshaling yards. On 28 March mines were dropped in several harbours and the last Malaya mission by the 20th Air Force took place on 29 March when attack was made on a mix of targets. Attacks on the ports ceased around this time as Mountbatten intended to use the ports during the proposed invasion of Malaya. Attacks continued against rail, coastal shipping, and other targets.
Action in Malaya and the Straits of Malacca
After the defeat by the Japanese, a number of Allied personnel and European civilians retreated into the jungle. Some, including British woman Nona Baker, joined the MPAJA. Others, such as Freddie Spencer Chapman, were Force 136 operatives who sought to begin a sabotage campaign against the occupying Japanese forces. In August 1943 the Allies set up South East Asia Command to oversee the war in South East Asia, including Malaya. As the war progressed further Allied operatives were landed either from submarine or be parachuted in to provide assistance to the resistance movements.
Allied navy units, particularly submarines, attacked Japanese shipping throughout the occupation and on occasion brought Force 136 operatives to Malaya. Air action was primarily confined to B-24 Liberators or Navy PB4Y Privateers supplying the resistance with arms and supplies, until late 1944 when B-29's of the US Twentieth Air Force carried out raids on installations at Penang and Kuala Lumpur. In May 1945 a British task force sank the Japanese cruiser Haguro in the Battle of the Malacca Strait.
Tun Ibrahim Ismail landed in Malaya in October 1944 as part of a Force 136 operation to convince the Japanese that the Allies were planning landings on the Isthmus of Kra, 650 miles to the north to establish a beachhead in Malaya under Operation Zipper. This was to be followed by a drive south to liberate Singapore, Operation Mailfist, and an offensive to retake northern Malaya designated Operation Broadsword. In preparation for the landings, a British task force sailed through the Straits of Malacca in July 1945 clearing mines and attacking Japanese facilities. British carrier borne aircraft attacked targets along the West Coast of Malaya and aircraft of the United States Seventh Fleet attacked targets on the East Coast as a prelude to Operation Zipper. Before the Operation could commence the war ended.
Surrender
On 15 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito gave a recorded radio address to the Empire announcing acceptance the terms for ending the war that the Allies had set down in the Potsdam Declaration. British B-24 and Mosquito bombers then undertook reconnaissance and leaflet drops over Malayan cities after the surrender announcement. One Mosquito bomber developed engine problems and was forced to land at the Japanese held Sungai Besi aerodrome near Kuala Lumpur. The Japanese provided assistance to the aircrews until they were picked up by another Mosquito.
In the period between the Emperor's announcement and the arrival of Allied forces in Malaya sporadic fighting broke out between the Chinese and Malay communities, particularly in Perak. The MPAJA launched reprisals against collaborators in the Malay police force and the civilian population and began to forcibly raise funds. Many in the rank and file advocated revolution. The cautious approach prevailed among the majority of the leadership at Lai Teck's instigation, a decision which would later be viewed as a major missed opportunity. A few of the Japanese occupation troops also came under attack from civilians during this period as they withdrew from outlying areas.
Under Operation Jurist, Penang became the first state in Malaya to be liberated from Japanese rule. The Japanese garrison in Penang surrendered on 2 September 1945 aboard HMS Nelson and a party of the Royal Marines retook Penang Island the following day. The British subsequently recaptured Singapore, with the Japanese garrison on the island surrendering on 12 September. After the Singapore surrender, British forces reached Kuala Lumpur, where the Commander of the 29th Army surrendered on 13 September 1945. Another surrender ceremony was held in Kuala Lumpur on 22 February 1946 for General Itagaki, the Commander of the 7th Area Army.
On 12 September 1945, the British Military Administration (BMA) was installed in Kuala Lumpur. This was followed by the signing of the Malaya surrender document at Kuala Lumpur by Lieutenant-General Teizo Ishiguro, commander of the 29th Army; with Major-General Naoichi Kawahara, chief of staff; and Colonel Oguri as witnesses.
Later that year, the MPAJA reluctantly agreed to disband. Weapons were handed in at ceremonies where the wartime role of the army was praised.
Aftermath
Repatriation
Japanese troops who remained in Malaya, Java, Sumatra, and Burma at the end of the war were transferred to Rempang and Galang Islands from October 1945 on to await repatriation to Japan. Galang was renamed Sakae by the troops. Lieutenant-General Ishiguro was put in charge of the island by the Allies under supervision of five British officers. More than 200,000 Japanese troops passed through the island under Operation Exodus. A newspaper reported that Kempeitai troops were mistreated by their compatriots. The last troops left the islands in July 1946.
In addition to Japanese troops, some 7,000 Japanese civilians who had lived in Malaya prior to or during the occupation were also repatriated to Japan.
War crimes
Members of the Kempeitai and camp guards were treated as prisoners of war because of their treatment of military and civilians. There were a number of war crimes trials. One held in 1947 found 7 Japanese officers guilty. Two were executed: Lieutenant Colonel Masayuki Oishi, commander of 2 Field Kempeitai and Lieutenant General Saburo Kawamura on 26 June 1947. Lieutenant General Takuma Nishimura, one of the five given life sentences, was later found guilty of the Parit Sulong Massacre by an Australian court and executed.
Captain Higashikawa, head of the Penang Branch of the Kempeitai, was executed. Higashikawa's actions were brutal enough for Captain S Hidaka, Penang Chief of Staff for the Imperial Japanese Navy, to raise the matter with Lieutenant-General Ishiguro. Ishiguro had Higashikawa transferred and replaced by Captain Terata.
Sergeant Eiko Yoshimura, the head of Kempeitai in Ipoh, was sentenced to death by hanging for the torture and abuse of civilians, including Sybil Kathigasu. Malay author Ahmad Murad Nasaruddin wrote a book, Nyawa di-hujong pědang, about her family's incarceration.
Others executed were Colonel Watanabe Tsunahiko, commander of the 11th Regiment by firing squad for his part in the Kuala Pilah massacre; and Captain Iwata Mitsugi, Second Lieutenant Goba Itsuto, and Second Lieutenant Hashimoto Tadashi by hanging at Pudu Jail on 3 January 1948.
War graves and memorials
Cemeteries for Malayan and Allied military personnel were created at Kranji War Cemetery in Singapore and Taiping War Cemetery in Bukit Larut (Maxwell Hill), Taiping, Perak. An expedition was mounted October 1946 by the Number 46 War Graves Unit to recover and rebury all personnel they could locate.
The main national war memorial is the National Monument in Kuala Lumpur. This memorial commemorates those who served in both World War Two and the Malayan Emergency that followed the war.
Independence movement
See also
Battle of Malaya
Battle of Borneo (1941–42)
Borneo campaign (1945)
Battle of North Borneo
Japanese invasion of Malaya
Japanese occupation of Singapore
Japanese occupation of British Borneo
Sook Ching massacre
Weeratunge Edward Perera
British Military Administration (Malaya)
Collaboration with Imperial Japan
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
References
British Malaya
Military history of Malaya during World War II
1940s in British Malaya
Malaya
Malaya
South-East Asian theatre of World War II
South West Pacific theatre of World War II
Japan–Malaysia relations
Federated Malay States
Former colonies in Asia
Malaya, North Borneo and Sarawak
Military history of Malaysia
1941 establishments in British Malaya
1946 disestablishments in British Malaya
Military history of the British Empire and Commonwealth in World War II
British Malaya in World War II
Axis powers
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