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4780710	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masoud%20Jafari%20Jozani	Masoud Jafari Jozani	Masoud Jafari Jozani (; , born 9 December 1948) is an Iranian film director, screenwriter and producer. He has received an award for the best short film at the Fajr International Film Festival. In the Wind's Eye is one of Jafari Jozani's most notable works, which he directed and wrote. This TV series In the Wind's Eye was the first Iranian film to be shot in the United States since the Iranian Revolution (1979) and one of the most expensive films in the history of Iran, with a budget of $12 million. Jozani, Iranian cinema's enduring face, is a post-revolutionary cinema pioneer who introduced Iranian post-revolutionary cinema to international festivals with his debut film, Frosty Roads. He was recognized as a bridge between East and West cinema in 1987 and 1988, when he attended many international film festivals, including the Berlin International Film Festival, the Montreal World Film Festival, the Hawaii International Film Festival, and the Hong Kong International Film Festival. Jozani teaching cinema and graphics in the United States (with a lifetime teaching license), teaching at Iranian universities, and managing the Jozan Film Institute. Early life and education Masoud Jafari Jozani was born 9 December 1948 in Malayer, Hamadan province, Pahlavi Iran. Jozani received an M.A. degree in cinema from the San Francisco State University (1977). He began his cinematic career as a scriptwriter and director of short films. Career 1980–1984: Entering television and animation Towards Freedom (1980) Towards Freedom by Jozani is considered the first political documentary in Iran, played on 10 February 1980 by the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting. Masoud Jafari Jozani founded the IRIB's animation section and produced some animated films. 1984: Beginning a cinematic career Speak to Me (1984) In 1984, Jozani, by making the short film Speak to Me, produced by the Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults, managed to get the honorary diploma for best short film from the third Fajr International Film Festival. Frosty Roads (1984) In 1984, Jafari Jozani was made his debut feature film in his birthplace. Frosty Roads was one of the best-selling films of the first decade of the revolution, and it is valued for its visual structure as much as its substance. The only professional and well-known member of this film was Ali Nassirian. This film opened the path for Hamid Jebeli, Turaj Mansuri, Mahmoud Clari, Alireza Raisian, and Shapur Pouramin to break into the professional film industry. The Stone Lion (1987) (), is the story of a confrontation between tradition and modernity, which won the Crystal Simorgh for Best Screenplay in the fifth Fajr International Film Festival. The killing of one British creates a deadly confrontation between two Bakhtiari leaders, starring Ezzatolah Entezami and Ali Nassirian, making it the most important and most important durable of Jozani's works. Also participated in many international festivals, such as the 11th Montreal World Film Festival (Canada) in 1988, and was appreciated. Eye of the Hurricane (1989) His next movie was Eye of the Hurricane, which had a larger production than The Stone Lion. It was again a compelling story about the presence of foreigners in Iran during World War II. Maturity (1999) After the cultural developments of 1992–2002, he attended to the youth's problems by making the film Maturity and received awards in the 18th Fajr International Film Festival. 2002–2012: Filmmaking the expensive TV series in the history of Iran In the Wind's Eye (2008) He spent most of the 2002–2012 writing and directing the TV series In the Wind's Eye (a 44 piece TV series of 50 minutes each) shown on IRIB TV1, which was a must-see program on TV and told the story of Iran from the Mirza Kuchik Khan's uprising to the Iran–Iraq War. The script was written in two years by Masoud Jafari Jozani. This historical TV series In the Wind's Eye was telling three historical periods: the first was the end of the Qajar Iran and beginning of the Pahlavi dynasty, the second was World War II and a special time after the revolution which was after the Battle of Khorramshahr. Making this series with 480 locations in over 10 other cities and provinces was one of the biggest television productions. 2015: Return to Cinema Iran Burger (2015) The feature film Iran Burger, Jozani's only comedy made, with the help of a local and folkloric atmosphere, and a script is written in situation comedy, was made into a high selling, fun, and respectable film. Behind the Wall of Silence (2017) His other film was Behind the Wall of Silence which is focused on Aids and was made with the help of the people's organizations, was invited by the 61st conference of women (CSW), and was supposed to be shown on 20 March 2017 with the presence of the main characters in the gathering at non-governmental organizations (NGO) and people-centered institutions in support of the mothers and children suffering from HIV/AIDS in the Headquarters of the United Nations in New York in the US was due to the United States president, Donald Trump's discrimination and racist decision of not giving visas to the people of this movie to go to the United Nations and attend the main UN conference and was canceled. Paradise of criminals (2020) In 2020, he began making the film Paradise of Criminals, which also deals with the events of the nationalization of the oil industry. Unfinished projects Masoud Jafari Jozani still has a head filled with ideas and great Iranian characters. Although his three scripts: Ya'qub ibn al-Layth, Pourya-ye Vali, and Cyrus the Great have passed the first stages of production, for various reasons, they have not been completed. Films Baskerville The script is based on the life of Howard Baskerville, who was an American teacher in the American Memorial School in Tabriz who was killed during the Persian constitutional revolution and in an attempt to break the siege Tabriz. Masoud Jafari Jozani wrote this script in 1995, and the Hozeh Honari purchased it the same year. Then, in 1998, Masoud Jafari Jozani and Shahriar Rohani were bought it from the Hozeh Honari, and Ebtekar publishing published it. In the years afterward, Masoud Jafari Jozani has signed contracts with American and Canadian film studios to produce the Baskerville film in Iran. Still, each failed for some reason, except for the most recent agreement signed with the association searching for a common ground, which even obtained official permission from the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance to produce the film. According to the American newspaper Le Figaro, an American producer decided to use Brad Pitt as Howard Baskerville; However, for whatever reason, the film was never made. Finally, the American and Iranian Screenwriters Association in the United States and Canada registered the Baskerville scripts titled after Masoud Jafari Jozani and Mohammad Mehdi Dadgoo. In 2005 Masoud Jafari Jozani was informed that an Iranian filmmaker based in the United States announced that he was planning to travel to Turkey to make Baskerville. Jozani reacted to the media and announced that he was filing a lawsuit for stealing works of art in Iran and the United States. In 2010 Massoud Jafari Jozani, after obtaining a filming license in the United States, decided to make the TV series Baskerville. He tries to make this TV series with the financial assistance of the Iranian and American companies, But it did not work out. Cyrus the Great Masoud Jafari Jozani wrote the screenplay of Cyrus the Great in the style of an adapted screenplay based on the life story of Cyrus the Great with the researcher Fathullah Jafari Jozani and Abdul Karim Younesi. The character of Cyrus is highly significant in terms of historical and national standing. Still, big powers without history and culture are attempting to deny Iran's position in the world, so the construction of this project was on the agenda. Ali Moallem, one of the producers, introduced Masoud Jafari Jozani as the director. After the death of Ali Moallem, Masoud Jafari Jozani handed over the script to the investors. Before that, he covered the project costs with his capital. The project started after concluding a contract with foreign investors but stopped for some reason. Television series Khawaja Nasir al-Din al-Tusi Masoud Jafari Jozani was going to make a TV series about Nasir al-Din al-Tusi after the TV series In the Wind's Eye for Simafilm. Still, unfortunately Khawaja Nasir al-Din al-Tusi did not get made. Pourya-ye Vali Masoud Jafari Jozani wrote the script for Pourya-ye Vali for a TV series in five seasons (52 episodes of 50 min). Although the contract for this series was signed in 2013 by the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting, it was not produced due to a change in management of IRIB, and Finally, Anapana Publishing published it. Fathollah Jafari Jozani and Doctor Abdulkarim Yunesi, the researchers of this script, used over 30 books, including Jami' al-tawarikh, Tarikh-i Jahangushay, and The Cambridge History of Iran. The life story of Pahlavān Mahmoud, more commonly known as Pouryā-ye Vali, begins in 1219 when the Mongolians assaulted Iran. Between 1270 and 1283, Iranian manufacturers were treated as slaves by the Mongol rulers and compelled to build weapons for them. Rural subjects who couldn't pay their taxes for themselves and their families were sold. During this time, Pouria-ye Vali was able to bring together liberals and fighters by organizing and building traditional sporting halls known as Zurkhaneh. The other historical characters of this script we may mention are Saadi Shirazi, Ubayd Zakani, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Rashid al-Din Hamadani, and the wrestling champion File Hamedani. Ya'qub ibn al-Layth Masoud Jafari Jozani and the Farabi Cinema Foundation concluded the contract for Ya'qub ibn al-Layth. Ya'qub ibn al-Layth's screenplay about the founder of the Saffarid dynasty in Sistan and his chivalry, simple life, and his role in history in uniting the Iranian people. Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar was a young Ayyār who was under the influence of Rostam's stories, decided to help the poor and oppressed people with the help of the small group of young Ayyars that had gathered around him and in the opinion of the people of Sistan became a legendary champion. The script will be aired on the Home Video. Jafari Jozani has mentioned this point in one of his interviews that:"Unfortunately, our children know more about Robin Hood than Ya'gub Al-Layth while he is one of the historical figures who has founded Ayyār-i and Futuwwa in Iran and teaches the youth how a better life is possible." Filmography Short films 1976 – Remember the Flight (5 min.) 1977 – Caged (6 min. claymation) 1978 – Conception (20 min., claymation, won the 1978 Student Academy Award, played on the KQED (P.B.S) in the United States and the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting) 1979 – Towards Freedom (100 min. Documentary, played on Iranian television) 1984 – Escape, based on the Masnavi-ye-Man'avi (the book by Rumi the Persian poet, 16 min., Claymation, for the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting) 1984 – Broken Image, based on the Masnavi-ye-Man'avi (the book by Rumi the Persian poet, 25 min. Claymation, for the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting) 1985 – Speak to Me (30 min. for the Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults) Feature films 1985 – Frosty Roads (director) 1986 – () (writer and director) 1989 – Eye of the Hurricane (writer and director) 1991 – Shadow of Imagination (writer and director) 1992 – A Man and a Bear (writer and director) 1992 – Once Upon a Time, Cinema (producer) 1994 – Heart and Dagger (writer and director) 1999 – Puberty (writer and director) 2001 – Her Eyes (writer and producer) 2015 – Iran Burger (writer and director) 2017 – Behind the Wall of Silence (writer and director) 2021 – The Wheels and Feet of the Runner (docudrama / producer) Television series 2009 – 2010 – In the Wind's Eye (writer and director), IRIB TV1 Scripts Type: Awards and honors Frosty Roads was a winner of the Special Jury Award for Best Film from the Fourth Fajr International Film Festival – 1986 Frosty Roads was a winner of the Tablet for Appreciation of Masoud Jafari Jozani as the Best Director from the First Cultural–Artistic Village – 1987 The Stone Lion was a winner of the Crystal Simorgh for best script from the 5th Fajr International Film Festival – 1987 The Crystal Simorgh for Masoud Jafari Jozani's a lifetime of Artistic achievements and celebrating him in the 26th Fajr International Film Festival – 2008 Masoud Jafari Jozani was chosen at the 8th conference of Immanent Faces of Iran – 2010 The President of Iran appreciated Masoud Jafari Jozani in the unveiling of a five-volume of documents of Iran's occupation during World War II – 2011 Masoud Jafari Jozani was presented the Golden Statue at the first International Film Festival of Kish – 2011 In The Wind's Eye (television series) won the Hafiz award for best Television Direction from the Picture World's 12th festivities of Cinema-Television – 2012 Received the first Class Badge for directing and the doctorate in Cinematic Directing – 2015 Masoud Jafari Jozani was appreciated for his many artistic and cultural achievements by the Academy of Iranian-American Doctors – 2016 Ambassador of Water – 2016 Masoud Jafari Jozani was the Iranian Art Ambassador at the 11th Delhi International Arts Festival (DIAF), India – 2017 Masoud Jafari Jozani was celebrated at the first Conference of Development of Malayer in Iran – 2018 In The Wind's Eye (television series) won the best Direction for Television and Best TV series in the 14th edition of Moghavemat International Festival – 2019 Special Appreciation by the international advisor for national commission UNESCO-Iran and the Human Rights Commission for 2nd region of Iran – 2019 The Bukhara magazine held the night of Masoud Jafari Jozani at the House of Humanities Thinkers – 2019 Winner of the Turquoise Statue of Simorgh and the memorial Plaque from Doctor Mohammad Soltanifar, the Deputy Minister of Culture and Islamic Guidance in the first Arman Bartar National Present Festival – 2018 Certificate of Appreciation and Statue from the third Festival of National health Film Festival – 2018 Won the first Statue of Abureyhan at the First National Iranian Film Producers Guild – 2020 National and International Festivals Judgment Chairman of the International Cinema Competition at the fourth International Films for Children and Young Adults – 1989 Jury Member of the Iranian Cinema Competition at the seventh Fajr International Film Festival – 1989 Jury Member of the Iranian Cinema Competition at the tenth Fajr International Film Festival – 1992 Jury Member of the short films at the 14th Fajr International Film Festival – 1996 Jury Member of the International Film at the 6th International Film Festival of the Sacred Defense – 1997 Jury Member of Iranian Cinema at the 13th International Films for Children and Young Adults – 1999 Jury Member of the fifth celebration of Khaneh Cinema – 2002 Jury Member of Iranian Cinema at the 26th Fajr International Film Festival – 2008 Jury Member of Iranian Cinema at the 28th Fajr International Film Festival – 2010 Jury Member of International Film Festival "Varna" in Bulgaria – 2013 Jury Member of the International Film Festival (SAARC) in Sri Lanka – 2016 Jury Member of the first Shanghai Cooperation Organisation "SCO" International Film Festival in China – 2019 Jury Member of National Cinema Competition at the 15th Resistance International Film Festival – 2019 International praise and criticism Los Angeles Times, American newspaper Kevin Thomas, a journalist of the Los Angeles Times newspaper, in an article entitled "Iran's 'Man, a Bear' Finds Humor, Heart" wrote about the movie A Man and a Bear directed by Masoud Jafari Jozani, published on 12 July 1996, issue of Los Angeles Times:"Once past an awkward start, Masoud Jafari Jozani's "A Man, a Bear" emerges as a courageous satirical allegory on authoritarianism and hardship in contemporary Iran." "Yet, along with its outspokenness, "A Man, a Bear" is also a warm, endearing and often very funny film." The Guardian, British newspaper Ben Walters published a report entitled "First Iranian film shot in US since 1979 gets under way" in The Guardian on 1 September 2009:Production is to begin on the first Iranian film shot in the US since the Islamic Revolution. In the Wind's Eye, directed by veteran filmmaker Masoud Jafari Jozani, is also reported to have the highest-ever budget for an Iranian film at $12m (£7.3m). Variety, American newspaper Variety, the oldest and most prestigious magazine in world cinema, in a report on 8 September 2009 entitled "Open door policy: L.A. lures Iran crew" examined the production of the series In the Wind's Eye and stated at the beginning of its report:As the American public was riveted by the spectacle of riot police suppressing the massive demonstrations disputing the results of Iran's June 12 election, one crack appeared in the wall between the two countries. Surprisingly, Iranian helmer Masoud Jafari Jozani managed to secure visas for members of his cast and crew to travel to and film in the U.S. — the first Iranian production to do so since the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Indiewire Indiewire, a film industry and review website, wrote in a report on the production of the series In the Wind's Eye entitled "Jafari project the first Iranian production filming in the U.S. since the Islamic Revolution in 1979": Based on a 52-hour epic television series that took four years to produce and recently began airing on Iranian television, "Dar Chashme Bad", production has begun in Los Angeles on a companion feature film, "In The Wind's Eye". Following three generations of Iranians from 1920 through 1981, with an overall budget of $12 million, the project will be the longest running and most expensive production in that country's film industry's history. It is also the first Iranian production filmed in the US since the revolution in 1979. Veteran filmmaker, Masoud Jafari Jozani, has written and directed each episode of the series, as well as the screenplay for the feature film, which will be released in theatres in Iran. The National, UAE newspaper James Reinl, A reporter from the United States, wrote in a report entitled "Iranian movie cameras roll in US" about the permission to shoot In the Wind's Eye in the National newspaper on 14 September 2009: As Washington and Tehran perform a diplomatic dance over Iran's suspected nuclear weapons programme, one group of Iranian filmmakers has benefited from the apparent thaw in relations between the long-standing enemies. Masoud Jafari Jozani, an Iranian director, secured a dozen visas to enter the United States and film a movie. "This would have been unheard of a year ago," said Jozani, who is filming In the Wind's Eye in California. He described his Iranian crew as the first such group of film-makers granted entry to the United States since the Islamic Revolution in 1979. References External links Iranian film directors Iranian film producers San Francisco State University alumni People from Malayer 1948 births Living people Crystal Simorgh for Best Screenplay winners Iranian Science and Culture Hall of Fame recipients in Cinema
4780935	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moondram%20Pirai	Moondram Pirai	Moondram Pirai () is a 1982 Indian Tamil-language romantic drama film written, directed and filmed by Balu Mahendra. The film stars Kamal Haasan and Sridevi, while Y. G. Mahendran, Silk Smitha and Poornam Viswanathan played supporting roles. It revolves around a school teacher who rescues a woman with retrograde amnesia, from a brothel, and protects her in his house located in Ketti. The rest of the film shows how the woman recovers her memory with the teacher's help. Moondram Pirai is the first film produced by G. Thyagarajan and G. Saravanan's Sathya Jyothi Films. It was predominantly shot in Ooty and Ketti, with further shooting also taking place in Bangalore. The music for the film was composed by Ilaiyaraaja, with lyrics written by Kannadasan, Vairamuthu and Gangai Amaran. It also featured the last song written by Kannadasan to be recorded before his death in 1981. Moondram Pirai was released on 19 February 1982 and received critical acclaim. It was a box office success and had a theatrical run of over a year. The film won two National Film Awards: Best Actor for Haasan, and Best Cinematography for Mahendra. It also won the Best Director – Tamil award for Mahendra at the Filmfare Awards South, and five Tamil Nadu State Film Awards, including Best Film (third prize), Best Actor (Haasan) and Best Actress (Sridevi). Mahendra remade the film in Hindi as Sadma (1983), with Haasan, Sridevi and Smitha reprising their roles. Plot Bhagyalakshmi, a young woman, has a car accident while returning from a party and is hospitalised with severe head injuries. When she recovers, she is diagnosed with retrograde amnesia and she fails to recognise her own parents. She mentally regresses to the state of a child. While she is undergoing treatment, she is kidnapped and sold to the madam of a brothel. R. Srinivas, also known as Cheenu, comes to Madras to meet his old friend. Together, they visit the brothel for services rendered. The madam sends Bhagyalakshmi, renamed Vijaya, to his room. Cheenu realises that she is mentally still a child and pities her. He learns that she is from a cultured family, and that she was kidnapped and forced into prostitution. Cheenu returns the next day and, after paying a huge sum to the madam, takes Vijaya out, supposedly on a pleasure trip. He takes her away to Ketti, where he is working as a school teacher. He takes her to his residence, where he protects her and also looks after her like a child. Viji, as she is called by Cheenu, has completely forgotten her past and becomes very close to him. When Viji accidentally spills ink over Cheenu's documents, angering him, their relationship is threatened, but they reconcile. Later, a local woodcutter named Natarajan lusts for Viji and nearly assaults her, but she manages to save herself. When she tells Cheenu about it, he becomes enraged and almost kills Natarajan, but is stopped by his neighbours who were informed of the incident by Viji. Meanwhile, the wife of Cheenu's headmaster is attracted to Cheenu, but he does not reciprocate her feelings. Viji's father Vedachalam, who was searching her through the police, releases a newspaper advertisement about his lost daughter. A co-passenger who had travelled with Cheenu and Viji from Madras to Ooty by train gives them a lead. Cheenu takes Viji to an Ayurvedic practitioner and leaves her there for a day's treatment. In his absence, the police come to his house searching for Viji. Finally, the police learn that Viji is getting treated at the doctor's place and reach there. Cheenu is unable to come as he is afraid of police action. The treatment goes through successfully. Viji regains her memory, but completely forgets about the period between her accident and recovery. From the doctor, Vedachalam learns that the person who had brought her there had been taking good care of their daughter; he withdraws his police complaint and they begin their journey to Madras with Viji. After the police leave, Cheenu comes running after the car in which Viji is travelling. He follows them to the railway station and tries to gain Viji's attention, but she is unable to recognise him. Cheenu acts like a dancing monkey that Viji developed a liking for, but Viji, unable to comprehend, thinks he is insane and begging for food. Cheenu continues his futile attempts to gain her attention, and the train eventually leaves with Viji not recognising him. Cheenu, who was injured while chasing her car and trying to get her attention, walks away, heartbroken. Cast Kamal Haasan as R. Srinivas "Cheenu" Sridevi as Bhagyalaksmi / Vijaya "Viji" Y. G. Mahendran as Srinivas's friend Silk Smitha as Mrs. Viswanathan Gandhimathi as the madam of the brothel Poornam Viswanathan as Mr. Viswanathan S. R. Veeraraghavan as Vedachalam J. V. Ramana Murthi as the Ayurvedic practitioner K. Natraj as Natarajan, the woodcutter Production Development Moondram Pirai was the first film produced by G. Thyagarajan and G. Saravanan's production company, Sathya Jyothi Films. Thyagarajan, who was looking after Sathya Movies owned by his father-in-law R. M. Veerappan, started Sathya Jyothi Films on his own to make "slightly offbeat films". Mani Ratnam and Thyagarajan had been friends since childhood as both their fathers were partners of Venus Movies. Ratnam introduced the director and cinematographer Balu Mahendra to Thyagarajan as Ratnam felt Thyagarajan would be the right person to produce the film that would later become Moondram Pirai. After hearing Mahendra's story, Thyagarajan's father liked the plot and said "the film will do well like Kalyana Parisu and asked me to proceed without any worry". After the project was finalised, Mahendra took one month time to complete the script and he worked on the budget alongside film's production manager Govind and fixed the budget to . A. Ramaswamy and D. Vasu were in charge of art direction and editing respectively. Casting While discussing about the casting, Mahendra suggested Kamal Haasan as the lead actor as he "would do excellent work". Haasan has stated that, when Mahendra narrated the story of Moondram Pirai to him, he listened to Mahendra for about twenty minutes before accepting the role of the male lead Cheenu. The role of Bhagyalakshmi / Viji was initially offered to Sripriya, who could not accept the role due to her prior commitments. It was Haasan who successfully suggested Sridevi for the role. Silk Smitha, who had done around 20 films by then and was considered only for performing item numbers, was cast as the headmaster's sexually excited wife, as Mahendra wanted a woman who was "sexy and at the same time a rustic beauty". Poornam Viswanathan was initially reluctant to portray the headmaster as it deviated from the character roles he was then known for, but after convincing by Mahendra, agreed. Filming Principal photography began with a puja at Prasad Studios. Moondram Pirai was predominantly shot in Ooty and Ketti, a small town situated close to the former. Shooting also took place in Bangalore. Mahendra shot the montage shots for the songs "Poongatru" and "Kanne Kalaimaane" simultaneously. The interior shots of "Kanne Kalaimaane" were shot within two days with Mahendra "would shoot the exterior portions while we were moving from one location to another". For a minor fight scene involving Cheenu and Natarajan (K. Natraj), Haasan and Mahendra told the stunt choreographer "it shouldn't look like a regular movie fight, but like a street brawl". Natraj and Haasan performed their own stunts by jumping into a stream water. Haasan ensured he looked fit in the song "Ponmeni Uruguthey" and worked out to get a "sculpted physique". This was the film's only song to have rehearsals for one week in Madras (later renamed Chennai). Mahendra did not want to shoot the song in "flat light"; he shot it "in the early morning, from 6am to 8am, then we'd take a break, and then, we'd assemble again by 4.30pm, and then shoot from 5pm to 7pm, as the sun was setting" and managed to finish the song in five days. In April 2006, Mahendra said that the inclusion of the song was "absolutely unnecessary"; the sole reason for its inclusion was the presence of Smitha in the song to help promote the film. Mahendra did not find hiring a train expensive at that time; as a result, he hired a train for the film's scene where Cheenu and Viji depart for Ketti, and another train for the climax which was shot at the Ketti railway station. Although it was raining on the day the climax was shot, Mahendra decided to continue shooting the scene even though the rain was not part of the film's script. It took nearly five days to film the climax. The scene where Cheenu hits himself on the pole while walking towards the train was not planned; Haasan performed it in the middle of the shot. To shoot that scene, Mahendra sat on the steps of the train with a rope tied around his waist with crew holding and preventing him from falling down. Despite being in such a "precarious position", he managed to get the shot right and approved it in a single take. Haasan refused to use a double, and strove to make Cheenu's injuries look real, including giving the character a black eye and swollen lips. In the post-production phase, Smitha's voice was dubbed by Anuradha. Mahendra supervised Anuradha's dubbing session and taught her the methods to emote the dialogues for Smitha in the film. While the film was under production the team was scoffed at for making a film about a youth falling in love with an amnesiac, and that the film would not be a box office success. The film uses intense violin music in both its opening and closing credits. The final length of the film was roughly . Themes and influences Moondram Pirai depicts a young woman whose mental state regresses to that of a child following an accident. Sexuality and the repression of desire are dominant motifs, similar to Balu Mahendra's previous film Moodu Pani (1980). The film also explores the possibility of unresolved sexual tension between the protagonists. When asked about the reason amnesia was chosen for a disability, Mahendra said the disorder is used as a camouflage and as an excuse to portray relationships in the film. Film critic Baradwaj Rangan finds the sequence where Cheenu narrates the story of the Blue Jackal to Viji to be a distant echo of the arc negotiated by Cheenu: "He is, after all, a nobody [like the jackal] who, through a salubrious twist of fate, becomes the ruler of a woman's life, until he is restored, at the end, to the nobody he was, a fraudulent claimant to her emotions." In his book Dispatches from the wall corner: A journey through Indian cinema, Rangan says that although Haasan is inspired by Marlon Brando, the scene where Haasan burns himself while cooking and vents his anger on Sridevi, is reminiscent of the acting style of Marcel Marceau. In another book of Rangan, Conversations with Mani Ratnam, he states that in the scene where Cheenu enters Bhagyalakshmi's room in the brothel, there was fumbling and embarrassment, whereas in another Haasan film Nayakan (1987), his character, Velu Nayakar, behaves as if he has visited a brothel before. Nayakans director Mani Ratnam replied that the two scenes are very different from one another and that it "can't be played the same way". Rangan called Moondram Pirai "The apotheosis of [Balu Mahendra's] art". Nandini Ramnath, writing for the website Scroll.in, noted that Moondram Pirai contains elements common in Balu Mahendra's other films: "realism, evocative and naturalistic cinematography, strong performances, and psychosexual themes that drive the characters to make unusual and often tragic choices." Hari Narayan of The Hindu said Cheenu "looks like a melange of [John] Keats' tragedy and [Sigmund] Freud's psychoanalysis." Narayan explains the idea of Cheenu keeping Bhagyalaskhmi with him not only as an act of sympathy and love, but also with the intention to preserve her like a portrait. Narayan also states that when Bhagyalakshmi recovers her memory and forgets him, Cheenu is hesitant to come back to his quiet existence, realising that in reality, dreams feel like its antithesis. Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu considers the usage of a railway station in the climax scene to reflect the Tamil cinema trope of "Turning points, crucial interludes and significant twists" taking place in such places. According to S. Shiva Kumar of The Hindu, the climax of the film was a clear allusion to Mahendra's then wife Shoba's death. Thyagarajan denied this, saying Mahendra narrated the story to him much before, and Shoba's death occurred only once the project was being finalised. Music The music of the film was composed by Ilaiyaraaja. The soundtrack was released through the record label Agi Music. The number "Kannae Kalaimane", which is based on the Kapi raga, was written by Kannadasan in "about two minutes" time, after listening to the film's story and the situation for the song. According to his daughter Kalaiselvi, the song was written with his wife in mind. Kannadasan was present at the recording session of the song, which took place in September 1981. It was the last recorded song which Kannadasan wrote before his death in October 1981. "Poongatru" was based on the Sindhu Bhairavi raga. Release Moondram Pirai was given an "A" (adults only) certificate by the Central Board of Film Certification. According to Anand Mathew of The Quint, this was done so because of Smitha who "saunters into the film now and then striking Khajuraho inspired poses with Kamal." When the film was screened to distributors at AVM Mena Hall, they were not happy about the film; however one distributor remarked that the film affected him emotionally, giving confidence to the filmmakers. The film was released on 19 February 1982, in 45 theatres in the state of Tamil Nadu. Due to Haasan's popularity, the crowd came in during the first day of the release; however since it was "a slow-moving film", business on the second day was "only OK. The third day was better. Monday was also just OK". The later picked up due to positive word-of-mouth, it became a "silver jubilee hit in many centres" and ran for more than a year in Subam theatre in Madras. According to Sathya Jyothi Films, Moondram Pirai received its highest distributor share in Madras and Coimbatore. The film was also screened at FILCA, a Film Festival held at Thiruvananthapuram in September 2014. Moondram Pirai was dubbed into Telugu under the title Vasantha Kokila. The film was remade in Hindi as Sadma (1983), with Mahendra again directing while Haasan, Sridevi and Smitha reprised their roles. Critical reception Moondram Pirai received critical acclaim. Ananda Vikatan, in its original review of the film, dated 7 March 1982, praised the performances of Haasan and Sridevi, Ilaiyaraaja's background score and songs and the photography by Balu Mahendra, and gave the film 53 marks out of 100. Mid-Day critic wrote that in Moondram Pirai, Mahendra "does not narrate a story in the traditional sense of the term. What embellish the film are not incidents or characters as they are commonly understood. He presents a whole fascinating array of vignetes and couches them in such endearing cinematic terms that it turns out to be a significant achievement not only for himself but also for the ethos he represents." Kalki appreciated Moondram Pirai as a rare film where the lead actress was able to outshine Haasan in acting. The critic also liked the way the story of the Blue Jackal was incorporated into the screenplay, appreciated Mahendra's cinematography, and concluded that the film was as perfect as a full moon. The magazine Aside gave a less favourable review, calling the film "a neon moon" and said, "There was at one time a brooding, premonitory quality about Balu Mahendra's movies ... but (he) has now gone into the trade of picture postcards and pani puri." After a brief word of praise for Haasan's performance in the climax ("darkly luminescent, like a rain drenched monsoon night") the reviewer added, "Kamal makes a very amusing monkey, but should he not rather be playing a human character?" Accolades According to Thyagarajan, Sridevi was a strong contender for the National Film Award for Best Actress, but lost to Shabana Azmi because of politics: "The makers of Arth had lobbied for Shabana Azmi to make her win. By the time we got to know this, it was too late". Legacy Moondram Pirai attained cult status in Tamil cinema for its "unique amalgamation of high emotional quotient and film-making style". The climax scene where Haasan's character, Cheenu, runs after Sridevi's character, Bhagyalakshmi, who has recovered her memory but forgets the incidents that occur between her accident and recovery completely, and Cheenu trying desperately to make Bhagyalakshmi remember the time she spent with him, to no effect, became popular and was parodied many times. The dialogue told by Smitha's character to Cheenu, "You haave a verrry strrong physique, you know", also attained popularity. A. P. Thiruvadi, in his obituary of Balu Mahendra, called him "The Moondram Pirai of Indian cinema". When S. Shiva Kumar of The Hindu suggested to Balu Mahendra that the film's ending lacked logic, Mahendra said, "Believe me there's no logic in life." In November 2004, critics compared the plot of the Kannada film Nalla to Moondram Pirai. In March 2005, Sneha, in an interview with Rediff, listed Moondram Pirai among her favourite films. In July 2007, S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu asked eight Tamil film directors to list their all-time favourite Tamil films; two of them – Mani Ratnam and Ameer – named Moondram Pirai. In September 2009, singer Harini, in an interview with The Hindu, said that her favourite song is "Kanne Kalaimane". In February 2010, director R. Balki, in an interview with Forbes India, called Moondram Pirai as his favourite film. In February 2015, Moondram Pirai topped Indumathy Sukanya of The New Indian Express' list of "Top 5 Tamil Romances". Baradwaj Rangan opined that the film was "a superb example of how the presence of a commercially viable plot and the participation of commercially viable actors and technicians can result in art." In July 2011, Janani Iyer said she considered a role like Sridevi's character, Bhagyalakshmi, as "really challenging." In March 2013, S. Shiva Kumar of The Hindu compared the climax of Sethu (1999) to the climax in Moondram Pirai. In November 2013, S. Saraswathi of Rediff included Moondram Pirai in her list of the "10 best Films of Kamal Haasan". In February 2014, Arundhati said she "would love to play a role like Sridevi's in Moondram Pirai". Sridevi's performance in the film was included in The Times of Indias 2015 list, "Sridevi: 5 times the actress bowled us with her performance". Although no print of Moondram Pirai has survived, the film is still available on home video. Balki mentioned in an April 2016 interview with Indo-Asian News Service, that Moondram Pirai "tremendously influenced" him as a filmmaker. Writer V. Vijayendra Prasad stated that he got the idea to write the story of the Telugu film Simhadri (2003) while watching Moondram Pirai. In popular culture Balu Mahendra's Telugu film Nireekshana (1982) was dubbed and released in Tamil as Kanne Kalaimane. In Manadhai Thirudivittai (2001), Valayapathi (Vivek) pretends to have lost both his hands. His lover then promises to take care of him. The song "Kanne Kalaimane" is heard as the background music for the scene. In a comedy scene from Run (2002), Mohan (Vivek) imitates Haasan's mannerisms from the climax scene in Moondram Pirai to make his friend Shiva (R. Madhavan) recognise him but fails. Mahendra described his 2003 directorial venture Julie Ganapathi as an inverse of Moondram Pirai as it was about "a mad woman who has a normal man in her house". Malathi Rangarajan, in her review of Deiva Thirumagal (2011) said, "Probably because the scene of action is Ooty, the main character is mentally challenged, and the story-telling sequence with Vikram and the kid is familiar, at times [Deiva Thirumagal] reminds you of Balu Mahendra's inimitable Moondraam Pirai." Baradwaj Rangan compares a scene in Barfi! (2012), where Barfi (Ranbir Kapoor) goes after Shruti (Ileana D'Cruz) and stumbles, to that of Moondram Pirai's climax scene. Notes References Bibliography External links 1980s Tamil-language films 1982 films 1982 romantic drama films Films about amnesia Films about disability in India Films directed by Balu Mahendra Films featuring a Best Actor National Award-winning performance Films scored by Ilaiyaraaja Films shot in Bangalore Films shot in Ooty Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography National Film Award Indian romantic drama films Tamil films remade in other languages
4780974	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demand	Demand	In economics, demand is the quantity of a good that consumers are willing and able to purchase at various prices during a given time. The relationship between price and quantity demand is also called the demand curve. Demand for a specific item is a function of an item's perceived necessity, price, perceived quality, convenience, available alternatives, purchasers' disposable income and tastes, and many other options. Factors influencing demand Innumerable factors and circumstances affect a consumer's willingness or to buy a good. Some of the common factors are: The price of the commodity: The basic demand relationship is between potential prices of a good and the quantities that would be purchased at those prices. Generally, the relationship is negative, meaning that an increase in price will induce a decrease in the quantity demanded. This negative relationship is embodied in the downward slope of the consumer demand curve. The assumption of a negative relationship is reasonable and intuitive. For example, if the price of a gallon of milk were to rise from $5 to a price of $15, that would be a big price increase. Such a significant price increase causes the consumer to demand less of that product at the price of $15 because not only is it more expensive, but the new price is very unreasonable for a gallon of milk. Price of related goods: The principal related goods are complements and substitutes. A complement is a good that is used with the primary good. Examples include hotdogs and mustard, beer and pretzels, automobiles and gasoline. (Perfect complements behave as a single good.) If the price of the complement goes up, the quantity demanded of the other good goes down. Mathematically, the variable representing the price of the complementary good would have a negative coefficient in the demand function. For example, Qd = a - P - Pg where Q is the quantity of automobiles demanded, P is the price of automobiles and Pg is the price of gasoline. The other main category of related goods are substitutes. Substitutes are goods that can be used in place of the primary good. The mathematical relationship between the price of the substitute and the demand for the good in question is positive. If the price of the substitute goes down the demand for the good in question goes down. Personal Disposable Income: In most cases, the more disposable income (income after tax and receipt of benefits) a person has, the more likely that person is to buy. Tastes or preferences: The greater the desire to own a good the more likely one is to buy the good. There is a basic distinction between desire and demand. Desire is a measure of the willingness to buy a good based on its intrinsic qualities. Demand is the willingness and ability to put one's desires into effect. It is assumed that tastes and preferences are relatively constant. Consumer expectations about future prices, income and availability: If a consumer believes that the price of the good will be higher in the future, he/she is more likely to purchase the good now. If the consumer expects that his/her income will be higher in the future, the consumer may buy the good now. Availability (supply side) as well as predicted or expected availability also affects both price and demand. Population: If the population grows this means that demand will also increase. This list is not exhaustive. All facts and circumstances that a buyer finds relevant to his willingness or ability to buy goods can affect demand. For example, a person caught in an unexpected storm is more likely to buy an umbrella than if the weather were bright and sunny. The number of consumers in a market: The market demand for a good is obtained by adding individual demands of the present, as well as prospective consumers of a good at various possible prices. The larger the consumer-base is for a good, the greater the market demand for it. Demand function equation and curve The demand equation is the mathematical expression of the relationship between the quantity of a good demanded and those factors that affect the willingness and ability of a consumer to buy the good. For example, Qd = f(P; Prg, Y) is a demand equation where Qd is the quantity of a good demanded, P is the price of the good, Prg is the price of a related good, and Y is income; the function on the right side of the equation is called the demand function. The semi-colon in the list of arguments in the demand function means that the variables to the right are being held constant as one plots the demand curve in (quantity, price) space. A simple example of a demand equation is Qd = 325 - P - 30Prg + 1.4Y. Here 325 is the repository of all relevant non-specified factors that affect demand for the product. P is the price of the good. The coefficient is negative in accordance with the law of demand. The related good may be either a complement or a substitute. If it is a complement, the coefficient of its price would be negative as in this example. If it is a substitute, the coefficient of its price would be positive. Income (Y), has a positive coefficient, indicating that the good is a normal good. If the coefficient were negative, the good would be an inferior good meaning that the demand for the good would fall as the consumer's income has increased. Specifying values for the non-price determinants, Prg = 4.00 and Y = 50, results in demand equation Q = 325 - P - 30(4) +1.4(50) or Q = 275 - P. If income were to increase to 55, the new demand equation would be Q = 282 - P. Graphically, this change in a non-price determinant of demand would be reflected in an outward shift of the demand function caused by a change in the x-intercept. Demand curve In economics the demand curve is the graphical representation of the relationship between the price and the quantity that consumers are willing to purchase. The curve shows how the price of a commodity or service changes as the quantity demanded increases. Every point on the curve is an amount of consumer demand and the corresponding market price. The graph shows the law of demand, which states that people will buy less of something if the price goes up and vice versa. According to Kotler, eight demand states are possible: Negative demand — Consumers dislike the product and may even pay to avoid it. Nonexistent demand — Consumers may be unaware of or uninterested in the product. Latent demand — Consumers may share a strong need that cannot be satisfied by an existing product. Declining demand — Consumers begin to buy the product less frequently or not at all. Irregular demand — Consumer purchases vary on a seasonal, monthly, weekly, daily, or even hourly basis. Full demand — Consumers are adequately buying all products put into the marketplace. Overfull demand — More consumers would like to buy the product than can be satisfied. Unwholesome demand — Consumers may be attracted to products that have undesirable social consequences. Price elasticity of demand The price elasticity of demand is a measure of the sensitivity of the quantity variable, Q, to changes in the price variable, P. It shows the percent by which the quantity demanded will change as a result of a given percentage change in the price. Thus, a demand elasticity of -2 says that the quantity demanded will fall 2% if the price rises 1%. For infinitesimal changes, the elasticity is (∂Q/∂P)×(P/Q). Elasticity along linear demand curve The slope of a linear demand curve is constant. The elasticity of demand changes continuously as one moves down the demand curve because the ratio of price to quantity continuously falls. At the point the demand curve intersects the y-axis, demand becomes infinitely elastic, because the variable Q appearing in the denominator of the elasticity formula is zero. At the point the demand curve intersects the x-axis, the elasticity is zero, because the variable P appearing in the numerator of the elasticity formula is zero. At one point on a linear demand curve, demand is unitary elastic: an elasticity of one. For higher prices, the elasticity is greater than 1 in magnitude: demand is said to be elastic because percentage quantity changes are bigger than price changes. For prices below the point of unit elasticity, the elasticity is less than 1 and demand is said to be inelastic. Constant price elasticity demand Constant elasticity of demand occurs when where a and c are parameters, and the constant price elasticity is Perfectly inelastic demand Perfectly inelastic demand is represented by a vertical demand curve. Under perfect price inelasticity of demand, the price has no effect on the quantity demanded. The demand for the good remains the same regardless of how low or high the price. Goods with (nearly) perfectly inelastic demand are typically goods with no substitutes. For instance, insulin is nearly perfectly inelastic. Diabetics need insulin to survive so a change in price would not effect the quantity demanded. Insulin is not perfectly inelastic, however, as a prohibitively high price would cause some individuals to be incapable of purchasing insulin entirely. On the other hand, if insulin was sold at a very low price, it is possible that some individuals would purchase more insulin if they were not able to afford it before. Because of the effects of extreme pricing, no good can be considered truly perfectly inelastic. Market structure and the demand curve In perfectly competitive markets the demand curve, the average revenue curve, and the marginal revenue curve all coincide and are horizontal at the market-given price. The demand curve is perfectly elastic and coincides with the average and marginal revenue curves. Economic actors are price-takers. Perfectly competitive firms have zero market power; that is, they have no ability to affect the terms and conditions of exchange. A perfectly competitive firm's decisions are limited to whether to produce and if so, how much. In less than perfectly competitive markets the demand curve is negatively sloped and there is a separate marginal revenue curve. A firm in a less than perfectly competitive market is a price-setter. The firm can decide how much to produce or what price to charge. In deciding one variable the firm is necessarily determining the other variable Inverse demand function In its standard form a linear demand equation is Q = a - bP. That is, quantity demanded is a function of price. The inverse demand equation, or price equation, treats price as a function f of quantity demanded: P = f(Q). To compute the inverse demand equation, simply solve for P from the demand equation. For example, if the demand equation is Q = 240 - 2P then the inverse demand equation would be P = 120 - .5Q, the right side of which is the inverse demand function. The inverse demand function is useful in deriving the total and marginal revenue functions. Total revenue equals price, P, times quantity, Q, or TR = P×Q. Multiply the inverse demand function by Q to derive the total revenue function: TR = (120 - .5Q) × Q = 120Q - 0.5Q². The marginal revenue function is the first derivative of the total revenue function; here MR = 120 - Q. Note that the MR function has the same y-intercept as the inverse demand function in this linear example; the x-intercept of the MR function is one-half the value of that of the demand function, and the slope of the MR function is twice that of the inverse demand function. This relationship holds true for all linear demand equations. The importance of being able to quickly calculate MR is that the profit-maximizing condition for firms regardless of market structure is to produce where marginal revenue equals marginal cost (MC). To derive MC the first derivative of the total cost function is taken. For example, assume cost, C, equals 420 + 60Q + Q2. Then MC = 60 + 2Q. Equating MR to MC and solving for Q gives Q = 20. So 20 is the profit maximizing quantity: to find the profit-maximizing price simply plug the value of Q into the inverse demand equation and solve for P. Residual demand curve The demand curve facing a particular firm is called the residual demand curve. The residual demand curve is the market demand that is not met by other firms in the industry at a given price. The residual demand curve is the market demand curve D(p), minus the supply of other organizations, So(p): Dr(p) = D(p) - So(p) Demand function and total revenue If the demand curve is linear, then it has the form: Qd = a - bP, where p is the price of the good and q is the quantity demanded. The intercept of the curve and the vertical axis is represented by a, meaning the price when no quantity demanded. and b is the slope of the demand function. If the demand function has the form like that, then the Total Revenue should equal quantity demanded times the price of the good, which can be represented by: TR= qp = q(a-bq). Is the demand curve for PC firm really flat? Practically every introductory microeconomics text describes the demand curve facing a perfectly competitive firm as being flat or horizontal. A horizontal demand curve is perfectly elastic. If there are n identical firms in the market then the elasticity of demand PED facing any one firm is PEDmi = nPEDm - (n - 1) PES where PEDm is the market elasticity of demand, PES is the elasticity of supply of each of the other firms, and (n -1) is the number of other firms. This formula suggests two things. The demand curve is not perfectly elastic and if there are a large number of firms in the industry the elasticity of demand for any individual firm will be extremely high and the demand curve facing the firm will be nearly flat. For example, assume that there are 80 firms in the industry and that the demand elasticity for industry is -1.0 and the price elasticity of supply is 3. Then PEDmi = (80 x (-1)) - (79 x 3) = -80 - 237 = -317 That is the firm PED is 317 times as elastic as the market PED. If a firm raised its price "by one tenth of one percent demand would drop by nearly one third." if the firm raised its price by three tenths of one percent the quantity demanded would drop by nearly 100%. Three tenths of one percent marks the effective range of pricing power the firm has because any attempt to raise prices by a higher percentage will effectively reduce quantity demanded to zero. Demand management in economics Demand management in economics is the art or science of controlling economic or aggregate demand to avoid a recession. Such management is inspired by Keynesian macroeconomics, and Keynesian economics is sometimes referred to as demand-side economics. Demand management has a defined set of processes, capabilities and recommended behaviors for companies that produce goods and services. Consumer electronics and goods companies often lead in the application of demand management practices to their demand chains; demand management outcomes are a reflection of policies and programs to influence demand as well as competition and options available to users and consumers. Effective demand management follows the concept of a "closed loop" where feedback from the results of the demand plans is fed back into the planning process to improve the predictability of outcomes. Many practices reflect elements of systems dynamics. Volatility is being recognized as significant an issue as the focus on variance of demand to plans and forecasts. Different types of goods demand Negative demand: If the market response to a product is negative, it shows that people are not aware of the features of the service and the benefits offered. Under such circumstances, the marketing unit of a service firm has to understand the psyche of the potential buyers and find out the prime reason for the rejection of the service. For example: if passengers refuse a bus conductor's call to board the bus. The service firm has to come up with an appropriate strategy to remove the misunderstandings of the potential buyers. A strategy needs to be designed to transform the negative demand into a positive demand. No demand: If people are unaware, have insufficient information about a service or due to the consumer's indifference this type of a demand situation could occur. The marketing unit of the firm should focus on promotional campaigns and communicating reasons for potential customers to use the firm's services. Service differentiation is one of the popular strategies used to compete in a no demand situation in the market. Latent demand: At any given time it is impossible to have a set of services that offer total satisfaction to all the needs and wants of society. In the market there exists a gap between desirables and the availables. There is always a search on for better and newer offers to fill the gap between desirability and availability. Latent demand is a phenomenon of any economy at any given time, it should be looked upon as a business opportunity by service firms and they should orient themselves to identify and exploit such opportunities at the right time. For example, a passenger traveling in an ordinary bus dreams of traveling in a luxury bus. Therefore, latent demand is nothing but the gap between desirability and availability. Seasonal demand: Some services do not have a year-round demand, and might be required only at a certain period of time. Seasons all over the world are diverse. Seasonal demands create many problems for service organizations, such as idling the capacity, fixed cost and excess expenditure on marketing and promotions. Strategies used by firms to overcome this may include nurturing the service consumption habit of customers so as to make the demand unseasonal, or recognizing markets elsewhere in the world during the off-season period. Hence, this presents an opportunity to target different markets with the appropriate season in different parts of the world. For example, the need for Christmas cards comes around once a year. Demand patterns need to be studied in different segments of the market. Service organizations need to constantly study changing demands related to their service offerings over various time periods. They have to develop a system to chart these demand fluctuations, which helps them in predicting the demand cycles. Demands do fluctuate randomly; therefore, they should be followed on a daily, weekly or monthly basis. Criticism E. F. Schumacher challenges the prevailing economic assumption that fulfilling demand is the purpose of economic activity, offering a framework of what he calls "Buddhist economics" in which wise demands, fulfilling genuine human needs, are distinguished from unwise demands, arising from the five intellectual impairments recognized by Buddhism: Demand reduction In psychopharmacology Demand reduction refers to efforts aimed at reducing the public desire for illegal and illicit drugs. The drug policy is in contrast to the reduction of drug supply, but the two policies are often implemented together. In energy conservation Energy demand management, also known as demand-side management (DSM) or demand-side response (DSR), is the modification of consumer demand for energy through various methods such as financial incentives and behavioral change through education. See also Consumption Demand chain Demand curve Demand-led growth Derived demand Law of demand Price–performance ratio Production (economics) Law of supply Planned obsolescence Supply (economics) Supply-side economics Supply and demand Utility Notes Further reading Consumer theory
4781170	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoids%3A%20New%20Century	Zoids: New Century	Zoids: New Century, or , is an anime television series created in 2001 by Shogakukan, Inc. It is the second Zoids series created, based on the range of mecha models produced by TOMY. The series has been dubbed and originally released in Western nations under the title Zoids, before being later rebranded as Zoids: New Century by Viz Media, and was the first Zoids series to be dubbed in English. The series has 26 episodes that run for 25 minutes each. In August 2014, a Blu-ray box set of the series was released in Japan. It optionally came with a limited-edition Liger Zero. Series background New Century Zero takes place a long time after the events of Zoids: Chaotic Century. Zoids are no longer used for warfare; instead, the combative natures of both Zoids and humans are focused and contained by a series of battle-competitions and tournaments, run by the Zoid Battle Commission. The Zoid Battle Commission is a significant power on Planet Zi, fielding a considerable arsenal of armed Zoids, orbital platforms serviced by their own launch facilities as well as orbital-based weapons systems. It is not made clear in the series if the Helic Republic and Guylos Empire still exist, although the final battle upon the rusted Ultrasaurus, hinted to be the same one in Zoids: Chaotic Century, could suggest neither were left, and people had free rein to battle in old battlefields. The series focuses on the Blitz Team, in particular the actions of the Liger Zero and Bit Cloud. The series charts the rise of the Blitz Team through various competitions of the Zoid Battle Commission, and the team's efforts to avoid conflict with the criminal organization known as the Backdraft Group. Characters The Blitz Team Bit Cloud Voiced by: Takahiro Sakurai (Japanese), Richard Ian Cox (English), Peter von Gomm (English) Formerly a junk dealer, Bit joins the Blitz Team after he is responsible for damaging one of the team's Zoids during a match. Bit discovers that he is the only person capable of piloting the rare Liger Zero owned by the team's manager. Bit makes both friends and rivals with a number of pilots, including Harry Champ, Jack Cisco, Leon Toros, and Vega Obscura. Bit has a close bond with the Liger Zero, treating the Zoid as a friend instead of just a machine. He is often seen in friendly conflict with Leena Toros, arguing over trivial matters like cookies, doughnuts, and the shower schedule. It was initially thought to be useless, not allowing anyone to pilot it. After befriending Bit, it proved to be adept at close combat, using its superheated "Strike Laser Claw" attack to great effect in many battles. It was equipped with the CAS (usually Changing Armor System, also "Conversion" in parts of the dub) to allow switching to one of three incredible, mighty, and most powerful armors: Liger Zero Jager (German: hunter) unit and its ion boosters for speed and agility; Liger Zero Schneider (German: cutter) and its blades for close combat; and Liger Zero Panzer (German: armor/shield), with heavy armor, cannons, and missiles for beating multiple enemies at once. Over the course of the series, it is learned that the Liger Zero is one of a series of unique Ultimate X Zoids, equipped with an integrated Organoid system and possessing the ability to learn and adapt. This allows it to predict and react to enemy attacks far faster than regular Zoids. Leena Toros Leena Toros is the daughter of the Blitz Team's manager and is portrayed as a stereotypically loud and bubbly sixteen-year-old girl. She pilots two different Zoids over the course of the series, the De-bison and then the Gunsniper, and is regarded as notoriously trigger-happy in combat, bordering on psychotic. She's also known for her sensitivity and short temper, where she physically assaults others in a comical fashion (usually Bit). Leena is the target of Harry Champ's continual advances. She doesn't reciprocate his feelings and isn't above using them against him. For example, in episode 3, she used him just to get back at Bit for finishing off one of her targets in a previous match, or "stealing her prey", as she put it. In the original Japanese version, the character is named . Brad Hunter Brad Hunter is a pilot who began his career as a mercenary and was hired by the Blitz Team before the start of the series to boost their pilot number. He pilots a modified Command Wolf but is later forced to steal a prototype Shadow Fox from Dr. Laon and the Backdraft Group. After receiving the Shadow Fox, Brad engages in combat with Bit and the Liger Zero. After a brisk battle, it is stopped due to both pilots belonging to the Blitz Team, and the Shadow Fox officially becomes a member of the Blitz team thanks to Brad's deception—his plan all along. Brad possesses a notably high physical endurance, shown in one instance when Laon stuck him in a G-Force-esque simulator and he retained consciousness despite the deadly force exerted upon him. Because of his mercenary nature, Brad will rarely enter a fight without a promise of financial compensation, even if the other team members are in trouble. In the original Japanese version, the character is named Ballad. Brad's surname is never given in either the Japanese or English versions, but supporting materials give it as "Hunter". Jamie Hemeros Jamie Hemeros serves as Steve Toros' assistant, the Blitz Team's strategist, combat controller, and occasional backup pilot of the team's sole aerial Zoid. He is believed by the characters to be an orphan because of misinformation given by Dr. Toros, but in fact, his father still lives, and at fourteen years of age he is the youngest member of the team. He initially owns a Pteras, but this was traded in by Dr. Toros for a Raynos, the same kind of Zoid piloted by his father. Jamie is caring towards his fellow teammates, who often annoy him by ignoring his advice and battle plans. It is believed that his surname is derived from Hermes, the winged messenger god. His skills as a pilot are marginal; he crashes his Zoid in almost every engagement he participates in. In Atari's English-language ports of the Zoids video games, his name is given as Jimmy. The Wild Eagle The supersonic capabilities of the Raynos allow for the exposure of Jamie's alter-ego, the Wild Eagle. Wild Eagle is portrayed as the polar opposite of Jamie's personality, and can generally be considered a skilled pilot. However, his skill is often counterbalanced by his cocky hubris, which usually results in serious damage to the Raynos, and a period of unconsciousness for Jamie. The Wild Eagle alter-ego appears to be shared by members of the Hemeros family, as Jamie's father, Oscar, exhibited the same abilities and personality changes when flying certain Zoids. Unfortunately, this eventually led to a high-speed, uncontrolled landing of Oscar's Raynos. Oscar was both injured and seriously unnerved by the accident, as Dr. Toros said he "never flew a Raynos again". He was not, despite what the rest of the characters were led to believe, killed. In fact, he often drops by to check up on his son, though he unintentionally seems to make Jamie somewhat miserable (such as good-humouredly patting Jamie on the back when the latter was injured). Steve Toros Steve Toros is the Blitz Team's manager (but also serves as an inventor and occasionally a combat controller in Jamie's place), whose children are Leena and Leon Toros. He, Dr. Laon, and Oscar are old friends, but when Dr. Toros married the woman (Leena and Leon's mother) loved by Laon, Laon developed a grudge against Dr. Toros and refused to forgive him (his feelings do not extend to Leena, whom he says resembles her mother). Laon incinerated the place where the trio used to gather, completely ending the camaraderie between both of them (Oscar seems to be neutral in the situation). Dr. Toros is 38 years old, he seems to be impulsive (notoriously purchasing weaponry on the basis of being "big" and "shiny"), overdramatic and immature at times, but in all is a knowledgeable man. He built the CAS interchangeable armour system solely for the Liger Zero. He purchased the Liger Zero because white Ligers were rare, but the Zoid was deemed defective because of the scarcity of spare parts for maintenance, as well as its fickle, stubborn personality; it would eject pilots that were forced upon it or deemed unworthy. In many episodes, he is seen playing with model Zoids, of which he's very protective, and frantically panics in comedic fashion whenever he accidentally breaks off a part. He is so fond of them that he's been shown to keep a collection on his bed whenever he sleeps or relaxes. Other characters Oscar Hemeros Voiced by Yukimasa Kishino (Japanese), Brian Drummond (English) A good friend of Dr. Toros having grown up together with the joint ambition of entering the Zoid leagues, he had the misfortune of being the cause of the bitter feud between Dr. Toros and Dr. Laon. Oscar was supposed to write a love letter to a woman whom Dr. Toros and Dr. Laon were courting, but he didn't know that the note was supposed to be from Dr. Laon, not Steve Toros. Oscar was one of the greatest aerial Zoid pilots in his day, earning his moniker "Wild Eagle" for his sheer mastery of aerial stunts and maneuvers. However, one day, he lost control of his Raynos and crashed. The accident forced him into early retirement from the leagues, though he still pilots aerial Zoids in more casual settings. He sent his son, Jamie, to join Dr. Toros' Blitz Team, believing that between him and Toros, they could bring out some of that Wild Eagle blood in Jamie. Dr. Laon Voiced by Michael Dobson (English) He was formerly friends with the Blitz Team's Steve Toros until an argument between the two involving being the future husband of a woman (Leena and Leon's mother) caused the irreparable rift. He is associated with the Backdraft Group, although he often tries to recruit pilots to challenge the Blitz Team and avenge him (Harry Champ, the Tigers Team, Brad Hunter). It is believed that his reason for joining the Backdraft Group was influenced by alcoholism. Although he hates Toros, he deeply cares for Leena (he claims she resembles her mother), as shown in the instance where he shoved all the other Zoids away with his Whale King to shield her from the massive explosion created by three charged particle cannons. The explosion bore a giant hole on his Whale King and severely injured him, thereafter he told Toros he will never stop seeking his vengeance. At the series finale, Oscar is seen visiting Laon in the hospital. Harry Champ Voiced by Wataru Takagi (Japanese), Brad Swaile (English) He is "a man destined to be king," as he regularly states numerous times with each appearance. He is heir to half of the Champ's family fortunes, along with his elder sister, Mary Champ; but he couldn't care less about his fortune when it comes to his unrequited love for Leena Toros. He assumes that Leena returns his feelings, which is why in one instance Dr. Laon kidnapped him and used him as a hostage, assuming that Leena wouldn't fire on him but was proven wrong. At the end of the series, Harry planned on proposing to Leena but never got the chance. Harry also has two robots named Benjamin and Sebastian. Because of his wealth, he owns a menagerie of Zoids, claiming to have everything "from a Gojulas to Cannon Tortoises." His main Zoid is a customized Dark Horn, but he has also piloted an Iron Kong and a Cannon Tortoise. Many more Zoids are seen in his hangar, among them a Red Horn, a Shield Liger, and a Gordos. Jack Sisco Voiced by Keiji Fujiwara (Japanese), Brian Drummond (English) A talented mercenary (having been stated to have never lost prior to his first battle with the Blitz Team) who pilots a cheetah-type Zoid, the Lightning Saix. His personality is depicted as arrogant and aloof. He was initially a free-lance mercenary, but was shown to be very picky with whom he worked for, and only worked for someone with enough money and "luck." Despite being a mercenary, he generally acts as an honorable if not gruff opponent. He later gained two teammates, Kelly and Chris Tasker who also pilot Lightning Saixes, and together, they were able to use a slipstream strategy to defeat the Blitz Team. Bit later defeated him during the Royal Cup. Naomi Fluegel Voiced by Rio Natsuki (Japanese), Saffron Henderson (English) A female pilot under the alias of the "Red Comet" for being skilled in sniping and long-range combat. She pilots a red Gunsniper with a specialized sniping system that includes a gun within the Zoid's tail. At the beginning of the series, Naomi is a solo pilot, until Leon Toros joins her to form the Flugel Team. Prior to her defeat by the Blitz Team, it was claimed that nobody ever reached within of her Gun Sniper. It's implied she and Brad have a romantic interest in each other. Leon Toros Voiced by Susumu Chiba (Japanese), Ted Cole (English) As Dr. Toro's elder son, he was formerly on the Blitz Team until Bit joined the group. Having been invigorated by Bit's latent potential as a Zoid pilot and confident that in his absence the team was in able hands with Bit, Leon left the group in hopes of becoming a better pilot. He later becomes Naomi Fluegel's partner. Leon pilots a Shield Liger at the beginning of the series and is later seen piloting a Red Blade Liger. The Zoids he pilots can serve as a parallel to Van Flyheight, Zoids: Chaotic Century's protagonist. He even mentions that he met his Blade Liger while travelling through a legendary valley where the greatest zoid pilots in history had travelled. Chris and Kelly Tasker Voiced by Kelly Sheridan (English) Twin sisters who join Jack Sisco to form the Lightning Team. Both women pilot Lightning Saixes. The two can be distinguished by their outfits; Kelly wears green while Chris wears blue. Kirkland, Omari, and Lineback Known as the Tigers Team, and mockingly the Fuzzy Pandas Team, these three pilots have a reputation for being losers. Though they start out as capable opponents, they become "comic relief" characters as the series progresses, further supported by Bit's running gag of nicknaming them "The Fuzzy Pandas". In hopes of breaking their unlucky streak (a rather successful move), they rename themselves the Zabre Fangs. They lose in the final battle with the Blitz Team in comedic fashion, where the Judge also referred to them as the Fuzzy Pandas Team, causing their combat systems to freeze and thus allowing the Blitz Team to win by default. They are a reference to the Hanshin Tigers baseball team. Mary Champ Voiced by Lisa Ann Beley (English) She is Harry's older sister who wants her brother to abandon his obsession with Zoid battles and return home to help their father with their company. After Harry once lost all his Zoids to the Backdraft Group, Mary personally arrived at his estate to demand that he return home, threatening to cut him out of the family fortune if he refused. But when Harry explained his problems to the Blitz Team, particularly Bit, she agreed to meet with them. Upon meeting the Blitz Team, she quickly disapproved of Leena as Harry's love interest but falls in love with Bit's Liger Zero (it was cute). She then challenged the Blitz Team to a battle with the Liger Zero at stake, offering ten times the normal prize money as an incentive. To assist the Champ Team, Mary purchased Iron Kongs. When the Champ Team lost the battle, Mary changed her opinion regarding Zoid battles and decided to leave Harry be. Judge Robots Voiced by Colin Murdock (English) These robots serve as the umpires in every sanctioned Zoid battle in the series' world. Aside from having artificial intelligence, Judge robots were developed to be more anthropomorphic as the series progressed. Each Judge is dropped onto the battlefield from an orbital Judge Satellite, which also acts as a means of self-defence through orbital strikes. In episode 18, Benjamin falls in love with a Judge (censored in the English dub as a female Judge); in episode 20, the Judge wrestles a Dark Judge while declaring that Brad registered the Shadow Fox as a Blitz Team member; and the final three episodes where the Judge mistakenly calls the Zaber Fangs Team by their Fuzzy Pandas nickname, causing them to lose their balance and crashing their Zoids. The Judge sheepishly declares the Blitz Team victorious by default when he was shouted at by Kirkland. Backdraft Organization Also known as The Backdraft Group, The Backdraft Organization is a group that acts to undermine the Zoid Battle Commission by running unsanctioned battles. Their main goal is capturing Ultimate X Zoids. There are ranks distributed throughout the group; the backdraft is controlled by a "Committee of Seven" and is notorious for its ruthless, underhanded, and often dangerous battle tactics. Known members of the Backdraft include: Vega Obscura Voiced by Motoko Kumai (Japanese), Alex Doduk (English) An eleven-year-old pilot under the command of the Backdraft Organization (Sarah in particular) who pilots the Berserk Fury (the original uncensored name being Berserk Führer). Because he is basically a child prodigy, his perspective of Zoid battling is mere of a competitive nature: where the next challenge is and the exhilarating high from battling. He and Bit eventually meet in the final rounds of the Royal Cup. He eventually reveals he is as cheerful as Bit and loves the rush of battle. Sarah (overseer) Voiced by Ellen Kennedy (English) A high-ranking member, and also Vega's handler. Though usually cold and severe, she exhibits a maternal side towards Vega; he is the only thing she really cares about. Even after being shot down by the Zoid Battle Commission, she was only worried about whether Vega was all right. Fuma Team A four-member team, usually employed by Altail. Their team leader is a woman named Fuma and the remaining three pilots are Ehga, Koga, and Negola. They initially pilot War Sharks but are given Genosaurers by Altail to sabotage the Berserk Fury and demote Sarah, which ultimately failed. Fuma is also seen piloting a Hammerhead. Pierce Voiced by Alaina Burnett (English) She is skilled in aerial combat, defeated only by Jamie (piloting the Raynos in his Wild Eagle persona) and Bit on two separate occasions, and under the direct command of Altail. She leaves the group after her defeat at the hands of Bit, deciding that Backdraft battles are getting old. She has shown to be quite honorable, debating Altail's orders to attack the innocent. She is last seen with Stoller and Sanders. She piloted a Zabat and later a customized Stormsworder. Major Polta Voiced by Scott McNeil (English) Leader of the Gold Team and a subordinate of Altail, often seen wearing an odd-looking mask. Captain Sanders (adjutant of Elephander Pilot) Voiced by Matt Smith (English) Stoeller's subordinate, a skilled pilot who looks up to Stoeller and defects from Backdraft along with Stoeller. Last seen celebrating the end of the Zoids tournament with Stoeller and Pierce. Captain Stigma Stoeller Voiced by Scott McNeil (English) A senior member of the Backdraft, pilot of the Elephander, and highly respected, until he is defeated by Bit Cloud. A man bound by honour, he defects from the Backdraft Group in order to fight a fair battle against Bit. He is last seen with Sanders and Pierce. Altail (Chief Executive Officer) Voiced by Don Brown The Chief Executive Officer of the Backdraft Group. He believes that Zoids known as Ultimate Xs exist and places his reputation on the line to find them. After recovering the Berserk Fury, he is brushed aside. Henceforth, he attempts to sabotage Sarah to jockey for favor again. Count Voiced by Colin Murdock Boss of Chief Executive Officer Brad Hunter After stealing the Shadow Fox, he "joined" the Backdraft Group briefly in episode 20 upon Dr. Laon's proposal. He later reneged his deal, saying that he only pretended to betray his team for the Shadow Fox (and a chance to battle Bit one-on-one). Dark Judge Voiced by Samuel Vincent The Backdraft Group employs their own Judges with their own satellites, colored black as opposed to the Zoid Battle Commission's white. They are greatly biased in favor of the Backdraft Group and will only announce an enemy team's victory begrudgingly. Episodes Theme songs Opening "No Future" by Nanase Aikawa Ending "Sasuraibito" by DASEIN "No Future (Instrumental)" by Nanase Aikawa (U.S. Ending) References External links Japanese website (archived) New Century Zero 2001 anime television series debuts Japanese children's animated action television series Japanese children's animated adventure television series Japanese children's animated comic science fiction television series Japanese children's animated science fiction television series Adventure anime and manga Mecha anime and manga Viz Media anime Mainichi Broadcasting System original programming TBS Television (Japan) original programming Television shows based on Takara Tomy toys Xebec (studio)
4781546	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20S%C3%A3o%20Paulo	List of people from São Paulo	The people who are born in the City of São Paulo are called Paulistanos in Brazil, while the people who are born in State of São Paulo, independent of the city, are called as Paulistas. These people made extensive contributions to Brazil's (and the world's) history, culture, music, literature, education, science, and technology and a great hub of Brazilian growth and innovation in all these areas. Notable people born in the City or the State of São Paulo include: A Sophia Abrahão (born 1991) – Actress and singer. Lélia Abramo (1911–2004) – Actress and political activist. Elisa Kauffmann Abramovich (1919–1963) – Teacher and communist activist of Jewish origin. Sonia Abrão (born 1963) – Journalist, television presenter and writer. Caroline Abras (born 1987) – Actress. Tiago Abravanel (born 1987) – Actor, voice actor and singer. Alê Abreu (born 1971) – Film director and screenwriter. Silvio de Abreu (born 1942) – Actor, director, and screenwriter. André Abujamra (born 1965) – Score composer, musician, singer, guitarist, actor, and comedian. Clarisse Abujamra (born 1948) – Actress, choreographer, and theatre director. Jerry Adriani (1947–2017) – Singer, musician and actor. Walter Afanasieff (born 1958) – Record producer and songwriter. Roger Agnelli (1959–2016) – Investment banker, entrepreneur and corporate leader. Amador Aguiar (1904–1991) – Businessman. Gianne Albertoni (born 1981) – Top model, actress and television presenter. Maria Lúcia Ribeiro Alckmin (born 1951) – Politician. Frida Alexandr (1906–1972) – Jewish author. Silvio Almeida (born 1976) – Lawyer, philosopher, university professor, and the current Minister of Human Rights and Citizenship Adriana Alves (born 1976) – Actress and former model. Maria Thereza Alves (born 1961) – Installation artist, video artist, activist, filmmaker, and writer. Moreira Alves (1933–2023) – Academic and magistrate. Suzana Alves (born 1978) – Sex symbol. Vida Alves (1928–2017) – Actress and writer. Maria do Carmo Estanislau do Amaral (born 1959) – Botanist, biologist, curator, and academic. Antônio Henrique Amaral (1935–2015) – Painter and printmaker. Sérgio Amaral (1944–2023) – Attorney, diplomat, college professor, and politician. Suzana Amaral (1932–2020) – Film director and screenwriter. Tess Amorim (born 1994) – Actress. Constantine Andreou (1917–2007) – Painter and sculptor. Angeli (born 1965) – Cartoonists. Sandra Annenberg (born 1968) – Journalist. Jhenifer Aquino (born 1994) – Jiu-jitsu black belt practitioner. Ana Paula Arósio (born 1975) – Actress and model. Lucas Arruda (born 1983) – Painter. Sonja Ashauer (1923–1948) – Physicist. Thelma Assis (born 1972) – Doctor, television presenter, dancer and digital influencer. Fábio Assunção (born 1971) – Actor. Konstantino Atan (born 1999) – Actor. Maria Auxiliadora (1935–1974) – Painter. Ramos de Azevedo (1851–1928) – Architect. B Gabriel Bá (born 1976) – Comic book artist. João Baldasserini (born 1984) – Actor. Douglas Baptista (born 1962) – Serial killer. Luiz Cesar Barbieri (born 1981) – Footballer known as "Cesinha". Beatriz Barbuy (born 1950) – Astrophysicist. Luigi Baricelli (born 1971) – Actor and presenter. Lima Barreto (1906–1982) – Film director and screenwriter. Rubens Barrichello (born 1972) – Racing driver. Fabiana de Barros (born 1957) – Photographer and contemporary artist. Rita Batata (born 1986) – Actress. Dircinha Batista (1922–1999) – Actress and singer. Linda Batista (1919–1988) – Popular musician. Ivo Battelli (1904–1994) – Architect and set decorator. Moysés Baumstein (1931–1991) – Artist. Giulia Benite (born 2008) – Actress. Isabele Benito (born 1980) – Journalist, TV presenter, reporter and radio host. Gaia Bermani Amaral (born 1980) – Actress, model and television presenter. Paloma Bernardi (born 1985) – Actress. Yara Bernette (1920–2002) – Brazilian classical pianist. Ivaldo Bertazzo – Dancer, choreographer and movement therapist. Amora Bettany (born 1992) – Video game artist. Danilo Beyruth (born 1973) – Comics artist. Tino Bianchi (1905–1996) – Actor. Bruno Bianco (born 1982) – Attorney and politician. Virgínia Leone Bicudo (1910–2003) – Sociologist and psychoanalyst. Gabriela Biló (born 1989) – Photojournalist dedicated to political journalism. Caroline Bittencourt (1981–2019) – Model and television presenter. Lua Blanco (born 1985) – Actress, singer, songwriter, translator and writer. Caio Blat (born 1980) – Actor. Laís Bodanzky (born 1969) – Film director. Thiago Bordin (born 1983) – Ballet dancer, teacher, and choreographer. Carolina Bori (1924–2004) – Psychologist, specialized in experimental psychology. Alfredo Bosi (1936–2021) – Historian, literary critic, and professor. Fortunato Botton Neto (1963–1997) – Serial killer. Alice Braga (born 1983) – Actress and producer. Daniela Braga (born 1992) – Model. Gabriel Braga Nunes (born 1972) – Actor. Sagramor de Scuvero Brandão (1921–1995) Actress and radio peronality. Karyn Bravo (born 1981) – Journalist and TV host. Kayky Brito (born 1988) – Actor. Sthefany Brito (born 1987) – Actress. Amador Bueno (1584–1649) – Landowner and colonial administrator. Maria Bueno (1939–2018) – Tennis player. Luciano Burti (born 1975) – Racing driver. C Rogério Caboclo (born 1973) – Football executive, and President. Gloria Cabral (born 1982) – Architect. Lília Cabral (born 1957) – Actress. Eliane Caffé (born 1961) – Filmmaker. Cafu (born 1970) – Football player. Mario Caldato Jr. (born 1961) – Record producer and studio engineer. Antônio Calloni (born 1961) – Actor. Sérgio Nascimento de Camargo (born 1965) – Journalist and politician. Tássia Camargo (born 1961) – Actress and TV host. Cidinha Campos (born 1942) – Journalist and radio and television broadcaster. Jean Paulo Campos (born 2003) – Actor, singer and television presenter. Alice Piffer Canabrava (1911–2003) – Economic historian. Laura Cardoso (born 1927) – Actress. Marcelo Cardoso (born 1966) – Businessman. Zilda Cardoso (1936–2019) – Actress. José Eduardo Cardozo (born 1959) – Lawyer, politician and former Attorney General of Brazil. Sueli Carneiro (born 1950) – Philosopher, writer and anti-racism activist. Paulo Caruso (1949–2023) – Satirical cartoonist, caricaturist, illustrator, and television personality. Marcos Caruso (born 1952) – Actor, screenwriter, playwright, and stage director. Josely Carvalho (born 1942) – Artist. Paulo Machado de Carvalho Filho (1924–2010) – Businessman and impresario. Maria Casadevall (born 1987) – Actress. Paco Casal (born 1954) – Entrepreneur. Boris Casoy (born 1941) – Journalist. Domitila de Castro, Marchioness of Santos (1797–1867) – Noblewoman and the long-term mistress and favorite of Emperor Pedro I. Renato Cataldi (1909–1981) – Painter. Leda Catunda (born 1961) – Painter, sculptor, graphic artist and educator. Caroline Celico (born 1987) – Socialite, singer and former Evangelical pastor. Alex Cerveny (born 1963) – Artist, engraver, sculptor, illustrator and painter. Gustavo Chams (born 1994) – Fashion photographer, designer and visual artist. Giovanna Chaves (born 2001) – Actress, singer and songwriter. Mylla Christie (born 1971) – Actress, model, singer, television presenter and businesswoman. Catharina Choi Nunes (born 1990) – Model and beauty pageant titleholder. César Cielo (born 1987) – Swimmer. Marcos Cintra (born 1945) – Economist and politician. Caco Ciocler (born 1971) – Actor and director. Victor Civita (1907–1990) – Journalist and publisher. Milhem Cortaz (born 1971) – Actor. Lígia Cortez (born 1960) – Actress, theatre director, art educator and researcher. Rafael Cortez (born 1976) – Journalist, actor and comedian. Raul Cortez (1932–2006) – Stage, television, and film actor, director and producer. Sandra Corveloni (born 1965) – Film, stage and television actress. Thomaz Costa (born 2000) – Actor. Rochelle Costi (1961–2022) – Artist and photographer. Cláudia Costin (born 1956) – Academic and civil servant. Eduardo Coutinho (1933–2014) – Film director, screen writer, actor and film producer. Maju Coutinho (born 1978) – Journalist, television presenter, and commentator. Cláudio Cunha (1946–2015) – Actor in film and television, and writer. Maria Luisa Monteiro da Cunha (1908–1980) – Librarian. Francisco Cuoco (born 1933) – Actor. Luciana Curtis (born 1976) – Model. D Ubiratan D'Ambrosio (1932–2021) – Mathematics educator and historian of mathematics. Marcelo D'Salete (born 1979) – Comic book writer, illustrator and professor. Akemi Darenogare (born 1990) – Fashion model and tarento. Juan Darthés (born 1964) – Actor and singer. Adriana Degreas (born 1971) – Fashion designer. Pathy Dejesus (born 1977) – Actress, model and television presenter. Denise Del Vecchio (born 1954) – Actress. Maria Deroche (1938–2023) – Architect. Nayara de Deus (born 1984) – Journalist, television presenter, reporter and eventual actress. Laryssa Dias (born 1983) – Actress, model and dancer. Carla Diaz (born 1990) – Actress and singer. Abílio Diniz (born 1936) – Chairman and businessman. Milene Domingues (born 1979) – Top model. João Doria (born 1957) – Politician, businessman and journalist. Cibele Dorsa (1974–2011) – Actress, model and writer. Débora Duarte (born 1950) – Actress. Gustavo Duarte (born 1977) – Cartoonist and comics artist. Elsie Dubugras (1904–2006) – Journalist, medium, parapsychologist and plastic artist. Nicandro Durante (born 1956) – Businessman. Dorinha Duval (born 1929) – Actress and singer. E Guy Ecker (born 1959) – Actor. Eliana (born 1972) – TV presenter. Eliane Elias (born 1960) – Jazz pianist, singer, composer and arranger. Evaristo Conrado Engelberg (1853–1932) – Mechanical engineer and inventor. Eduardo Escorel (born 1945) – Film editor and director. Giovanna Ewbank (born 1986) – Actress, model, and television presenter. F Bruno Fagundes (born 1989) – Actor. Rubens de Falco (1931–2009) – Actor. Rodrigo Faro (born 1973) – TV presenter and actor. Orlando Fedeli (1933–2010) – Traditionalist Catholic historian, teacher and political activist. Diogo Feijó (1784–1843) – Politician and catholic priest. Vicente Feola (1909–1975) – Football coach. Baltasar Fernandes (1580–1667) – Bandeirante. Domingos Fernandes (1577–1652) – Bandeirante. Esther Figueiredo Ferraz (1916–2008) – The first female Minister to serve in the government of Brazil. Maximira Figueiredo (1939–2018) – Actress. Otávio Frias Filho (1957–2018) – Newspaper editor. Tarcísio Filho (born 1964) – Cinema and television actor. Ignatius Firzli (1913–1997) – Priest and theologian. Christian Fittipaldi (born 1971) – Racing driver. Emerson Fittipaldi (born 1946) – Racing driver. Diana Fleischman (born 1981) – Evolutionary psychologist. Catia Fonseca (born 1969) – Television presenter. Charles L. Fontenay (1917–2007) – Journalist and science fiction writer. Gordon Fox Rule (1898–1987) – English Brazilian First World War flying ace credited with seven aerial victories. Lúcia França (born 1962) – Politician and professor. Soninha Francine (born 1967) – Journalist, television presenter and politician. Celso Frateschi (born 1952) – Actor, director, author and politician. Johan Dalgas Frisch (born 1930) – Engineer and ornithologist. G Mara Gabrilli (born 1967) – Psychologist, advertiser and politician. Cássio Gabus Mendes (born 1961) – Actor. Tato Gabus Mendes (born 1958) – Actor. Adriane Galisteu (born 1973) – TV presenter. Antonio Galves (1947–2023) – Mathematician. Flávio Galvão (born 1949) – Actor. Helen Ganzarolli (born 1979) – Television presenter and model. Alda Garrido (1896–1970) – Vaudeville actress. Ivone Gebara (born 1944) – Catholic nun, philosopher, and feminist theologian. Michelle Giannella (born 1979) – Journalist, lawyer and television presenter. Raul Gil (born 1938) – TV presenter. Luciana Gimenez (born 1969) – Actress, TV host and former model. Alexandre Giordano (born 1973) – Entrepreneur and politician. Ugo Giorgetti (born 1942) – Filmmaker. Elias Gleizer (1934–2015) – Comedian and actor. Joaquim Floriano de Godoy (1826–1907) – Doctor and politician. Alberto Goldman (1937–2019) – Engineer and politician. Márcia Goldschmidt (born 1962) – Television presenter, writer, digital influencer, YouTuber and businesswoman. Júlia Gomes (born 2002) – Singer and actress. Magda Gomes (born 1978) – Model and television personality. Yan Gomes (born 1987) – Major League Baseball player. Gloria Groove (born 1995) – Singer, rapper, songwriter, actor, voice actor, and drag queen. Gustavo Goulart (born 1989) – Actor and singer. Ailton Graça (born 1964) – Actor. José Gregori (1930–2023) – Lawyer and politician. Allan Gregorio (born 1992) – Visual artist and portrait photographer. Lu Grimaldi (born 1954) – Actress. Serginho Groisman (born 1950) – Television presenter and journalist. Carmela Gross (born 1946) – Visual artist and educator. Marcia Grostein (born 1949) – Public art, sculpture, painting, video art, photography, and portable wearable art/jewelry. Eduardo Guardia (1966–2022) – Economist. Ubiratan Guimarães (1943–2009) – Police officer and politician. Luiz Gushiken (1950–2013) – Union leader and politician. Sidney Gusman (born 1966) – Journalist and editor. Alberto Guzik (1944–2010) – Actor, director, teacher, theater critic, and writer. H Beatriz Haddad Maia (born 1996) – Tennis player. John Herbert (1929–2011) – Actor, director and producer. Alexandre Herchcovitch (born 1971) – Fashion designer. Ana de Hollanda (born 1948) – Politician. Luciano Huck (born 1971) – TV presenter. I Octavio Ianni (1926–2004) – Sociologist graduated, mastered and doctored. Fabio Ide (born 1983) – Actor. Tatiana Issa (born 1974) – Director and executive producer. J José Jobim (1909–1979) – Diplomat and economist. Eder Jofre (1936–2022) – Boxer. Tadeu Jungle (born 1960) – Multimedia artist. Kito Junqueira (1948–2019) – Actor and politician. Roberto Justus (born 1955) – Investor, businessman and television personality. K Stephen Kanitz (born 1946) – Business consultant, lecturer, professor and writer. Gilberto Kassab (born 1960) – Politician, mayor of São Paulo. Tania Khalill (born 1977) – Actress. Ana Khouri (born 1981) – Jewellery designer. Walter Hugo Khouri (1929–2003) – Film director, screenwriter, and producer of Lebanese and Italian descent. Andreas Kisser (born 1968) – Guitarist. Felipe Kitadai (born 1989) – Olympic medalist judoka. João Kléber (born 1957) – Television presenter and comedian. Samuel Klein (1923–2014) – Business magnate and philanthropist. Amyr Klink (born 1955) – Sailor. André Klotzel (born 1954) – Film director, producer and screenwriter. Eduardo Kobra (born 1976) – Muralist. Marcio Kogan (born 1952) – Architect and filmmaker. Mike Krieger (born 1986) – Co-founder of Instagram. Ronny Kriwat (born 1987) – Actor. Mona Kuhn (born 1969) – Photographer. L Debby Lagranha (born 1991) – Veterinarian and businesswoman. Odete Lara (1929–2015) – Film actress. Rita Lee (1947–2023) – Rock and roll singer. Tiago Leifert (born 1980) – Journalist and TV presenter. Jac Leirner (born 1961) – Artist. Nelson Leirner (1932–2020) – Artist. Cláudio Lembo (born 1934) – Lawyer, politician and university professor. Bia Lessa (born 1958) – Filmmaker, theater director and former theater actress, and curator. Rino Levi (1901–1965) – Architect. Gugu Liberato (1959–2019) – Television presenter, entrepreneur, actor and singer. Mariana Lima (born 1972) – Actress and producer. Mário Lima – Actor and film and television producer. Paula Lima (born 1970) – Singer. Ghilherme Lobo (born 1995) – Actor. Lobo (born 1973) – Painter of Pop Art. Bruna Lombardi (born 1952) – Poet, writer, model, and film and TV actress. Rodrigo Lombardi (born 1976) – Actor and voice actor. Gabi Lopes (born 1994) – Actress and model. German Lorca (1922–2021) – Photographer. Michael Löwy (born 1938) – Marxist sociologist and philosopher. Ivete Lucas (born 1983) – Filmmaker, documentarian, producer, editor, and director. Fábio Lucindo (born 1984) – Actor and presenter. Kátia Lund (born 1966) – Film director and screenwriter. Marco Luque (born 1974) – Humorist and stand-up comedian. M Manabu Mabe (1924–1997) – Painter. Evelyn Mary Macdonald (1905–1993) – Occupational therapist. Paollo Madeira (1996–2023) – Football player. Miguel Magno (1951–2009) – Actor, director and author. He acted in theater and television. Dudi Maia Rosa (born 1946) – Artist. Patricia Maldonado (born 1956) – Writer. Anita Malfatti (1889–1964) – Painter. Paulo Maluf (born 1931) – Politician, governor of São Paulo. Mara Manzan (1952–2009) – Actress. Nívea Maria (born 1947) – Actress. César Camargo Mariano (born 1943) – Pianist, arranger, composer and music producer. José Mojica Marins (1936–2020) – Filmmaker, actor, composer, screenwriter, and television horror host. Sergio Marone (born 1981) – Actor. Ubirajara Ribeiro Martins (1932–2015) – Entomologist. Lorenzo Martone (born 1979) – Entrepreneur in the fashion industry. Martyrs of Natal (died 1645) – Were a group of 30 Roman Catholic people of Colonial Brazil – two of them priests – killed in the northern part of the colony in massacres that a large group of Dutch Calvinists led. Roberto Burle Marx (1909–1994) – Landscape architect, painter, print maker, ecologist, naturalist, artist and musician. Teresa Di Marzo (1903–1986) – Aviator. Felipe Massa (born 1981) – Racing driver. Matilde Mastrangi (born 1953) – Actress. Andrea Matarazzo (born 1956) – Entrepreneur, radio host and politician. Andrew Matarazzo (born 1997) – Actor, singer and author. Ciccillo Matarazzo (1898–1977) – Industrialist. Jade Matarazzo (born 1966) – Arts photographer, arts educator, and curator. Maysa Matarazzo (1936–1977) – Singer-songwriter, performer and actress. Monica Mattos (born 1983) – Pornographic actress, director, dancer and television presenter. Rodolfo Mayer (1910–1985) – Actor. Tarcísio Meira (1935–2021) – Actor. Fernando Meirelles (born 1955) – Film director, producer and screenwriter. Krikor Mekhitarian (born 1986) – Chess grandmaster, streamer, and the current Director of Portuguese Content for Chess.com. Emílio de Mello (born 1965) – Actor. Miá Mello (born 1981) – Actress and comedian. Sheila Mello (born 1978) – Dancer, actress and model. Lorenzo Merlino (born 1972) – Fashion designer. Alessandra Meskita – Fashion designer. Vanessa Mesquita (born 1986) – Model, bodybuilder, activist and reality television. 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4781761	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minorities%20in%20Greece	Minorities in Greece	Minorities in Greece are small in size compared to Balkan regional standards, and the country is largely ethnically homogeneous. This is mainly due to the population exchanges between Greece and neighboring Turkey (Convention of Lausanne) and Bulgaria (Treaty of Neuilly), which removed most Muslims (with the exception of the Muslims of Western Thrace) and those Christian Slavs who did not identify as Greeks from Greek territory. The treaty also provided for the resettlement of ethnic Greeks from those countries, later to be followed by refugees. There is no official information for the size of the ethnic, linguistic and religious minorities because asking the population questions pertaining to the topic have been abolished since 1951. The main officially recognized "minority" (μειονότητα, meionótita) is the Muslim minority (μουσουλμανική μειονότητα, mousoulmanikí meionótita) in Thrace, Northern Greece, which numbered 120,000 according to the 2001 census and mainly consists of Western Thrace Turks, Pomaks (both mainly inhabiting Western Thrace), and also Romani, found particularly in central and Northern Greece. Other recognized minority groups are the Armenians numbering approximately 35,000, and the Jews (Sephardim and Romaniotes) numbering approximately 5,500. Religious minorities The Greek constitution defines the Eastern Orthodox Church as the "prevailing religion" in Greece, and over 95% of the population claim membership in it. Any other religion not explicitly defined by law (e.g. unlike Islam and Judaism, which are explicitly recognized) may acquire the status of a "known religion", a status which allows the religion's adherents to worship freely, and to have constitutional recognition. After a court ruling, the criteria for acquiring the status of a "known religion" were defined as being a "religion or a dogma whose doctrine is open and not secret, is taught publicly and its rites of worship are also open to the public, irrespective of whether its adherents have religious authorities; such a religion or dogma needs not to be recognized or approved by an act of the State or Church". This covers most religious minorities such as Roman Catholics, Evangelicals, Pentecostals, Seventh-day Adventists, Methodists, and Jehovah's Witnesses. All known religions to be considered by the Greek state legal entities under private law must establish an association, foundation, or charitable fund-raising committee pursuant to the Civil Code. The Roman Catholic Church refuses to be considered a legal person under private or public law and has requested recognition by its own canon law. In July 1999, following a parliamentary amendment, the legal entity status of all institutions of the Roman Catholic Church established before 1946 was reconfirmed. There is no formal mechanism that exists to gain recognition as a "known religion". There are also around two thousand Greeks who adhere to a reconstruction of the ancient Greek Religion. A place of worship has been recognized as such by court. Muslim There is a Muslim minority who are Greek citizens living in Thrace, concentrated in the Rhodope and Xanthi regional units. According to the 1991 census, there were 98,000 Muslims in western Thrace, 50% of them of Turkish ethnic origin, with 35% Pomaks and the remaining 15% Roma. Other sources estimate the size of the Muslim minority at 0.95% of the population, or approximately 110,000. Aside from the indigenous Muslim minority in Greece, the Muslim immigrant population in the rest of the country was estimated at 200,000 to 300,000, though these are recent migrants and generally not considered a minority. Under Greek administration, the Muslim minority of Greece has adopted a moderate, non-political form of Islam. The Lausanne Treaty and as a result the Greek government define the rights of the Muslim communities in Western Thrace, both Turkish and Pomak, on the basis of religion instead of ethnicity. Turks A Turkish community currently lives in Western Thrace, in the north-eastern part of Greece. According to the 1991 census, there were approximately 50,000 Turks, out of the approximately 98,000 Muslim minority of Greece Other sources estimate the size of the minority between 120,000 and 130,000. The Turks of Thrace descend from Turkish populations living in the area during the Ottoman period. Like the Greeks of Istanbul, they were exempted from the 1923 population exchange; in contrast, Greek Muslims in Macedonia were not exempt from the exchange and so expatriated to Turkey. The Greek government continues to deliver Turkish-language public education, and there are two Islamic theological seminaries, one in Komotini and one in Echinos. The Turkish community of Greece enjoys full equality under the law, adopting Turkish names, publishing numerous Turkish-language newspapers, operating Turkish-language radio stations, converse freely in Turkish and use Turkish in Greek courts. They are allowed to maintain their own Turkish-language schools, which catered to about 8,000 students in the 1999-2000 school year. Since 1920, members of the Turkish minority participate in elections, electing representatives to Parliament. The great majority of Turkic Muslims in Thrace espouse moderate political views and are ready to work and prosper as citizens of the Greek state, with the exception of a relatively small group of ethnocentric activists. In 1922, Turks owned 84% of the land in Western Thrace, but now the minority estimates this figure to be 20–40%. This stems from various practices of the Greek administration whereby ethnic Greeks are encouraged to purchase Turkish land with soft loans granted by the state. The Greek government refers to the Turkish community as Greek Muslims or Hellenic Muslims, and does not recognise a Turkish minority in Western Thrace. Greek courts have also outlawed the use of the word 'Turkish' to describe the Turkish community. In 1988, the Greek High Court affirmed a 1986 decision of the Court of Appeals of Thrace in which the Union of Turkish Associations of Western Thrace was ordered closed. The court held that the use of the word 'Turkish' referred to citizens of Turkey, and could not be used to describe citizens of Greece; the use of the word 'Turkish' to describe 'Greek Muslims' was held to endanger public order. Greece continued this stance in the beginning 21st century when Greek courts ruled to dissolve or prohibit formation of Turkish associations. Apart from Thrace, a small minority of Turks exists in the Dodecanese islands of Rhodes and Kos. They were not included in the 1923 population exchange as the Dodecanese were annexed from Italy in 1947 after World War II. After annexation of islands, their Muslim inhabitants, Greek and Turkish speakers, were granted Greek citizenship. Today, about 5,000 Turks live in the Dodecanese islands of Rhodes (numbering 3,000) and Kos (numbering 2,000) and use Turkish in everyday life. In Rhodes and Kos, the teaching of the Turkish language was de facto abolished in the early 1970s. Pomaks The Muslim Bulgarian-speaking minority are known as Pomaks (, Pomakoi, , Pomatsi). They reside mainly in villages in the Rhodope Mountains in Thrace, in Evros, Xanthi and Rhodope regional units of Greece. According to the 2001 Greek census it is estimated that in total there are 36,000 Pomaks, of whom 23,000 live in Xanthi regional unit, 11,000 live in Rhodope regional unit and 2,000 live in Evros regional unit. The language they speak is generally classified as a dialect of Bulgarian, and more specifically is the "Central Rhodope dialect" or Smolyan dialect. Despite their mother language, many Pomaks also self-identify as Turks This Turkification has a number of reasons, including the fact that Turks and Pomaks were part of the same millet during the years when their homeland was part of the Ottoman Empire. Under Greek law, the Muslim minority (including the Pomaks) has a right to education in its own language. In practice however, only Turkish is used. This is due to the Turkish self-identification of the Pomaks, and the fact that this trend was promoted until recently by the Greek authorities (who from 1968 until the 1980s even officially recognized the Pomaks as Turks) in order to distance them from the Bulgarians. There have been Greek-Pomak dictionaries published and a language primer in the Bulgarian language (in Greek script) has been published for use in Pomak schools. Recently, news have begun to be broadcast in the native language of the Pomaks. Most Pomaks are fluent in their Pomak dialects (spoken amongst themselves), Turkish (their language of education, and the main language of the Muslim minority), Greek (the official language of the Greek state), and may know some Arabic (the language of the Qur'an). Other minorities Armenians There are approximately 35,000 Armenians in Greece out of which approximately 20,000 can speak the Armenian language. The community's main political representative is the Armenian National Committee of Greece; its headquarters are in Athens with branches all over Greece. The community also manages its own educational institutions. Approximately 95% of Armenians in Greece are Armenian Orthodox, with the rest being Armenian Catholics or Evangelicals. Some of these Armenians belong to the Church of Greece, they are called Hayhurum. Jews Population of Thessaloniki The interaction between Greece and the Jews dates back to ancient times. Alexander the Great reached ancient Judea and was welcomed by the Jews. Following his death, war erupted between the Hellenized Jews and Greeks and the Jewish conservative Maccabees that embittered relations between Greeks and Jews for centuries. During the Ottoman Empire, Jews like all other non-Muslims had a degree of autonomy under the Millet system which classified populations according to religion rather than ethnicity or language. Thessaloniki in particular had a large Jewish population, mostly consisting of Sephardim who settled in Ottoman lands after the 1492 expulsion of the Jews from Spain. Sephardim used to speak Ladino until well into the 20th century. The Romaniotes, on the other hand, are Jews who lived in the territory of today's Greece and neighboring areas for more than 2,000 years. Their language is Greek (and a Greek dialect called Yevanic language); they derive their name from the Byzantine name for the Greeks, "Rhomaioi". Since independence in 1821, Greece continued to have a significant and active Jewish community with a long and rich cultural heritage. The Jewish population of Greece increased markedly after the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) when Thessaloniki became part of the Greek kingdom, though the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey diluted the Jewish population of Thessaloniki. During the Holocaust, 86% of Greek Jews, especially those in the areas occupied by Nazi Germany and Bulgaria, were killed, despite efforts by the Greek Orthodox Church hierarchy, the EAM resistance movement and individual Greeks (both Christian and Communist) to shelter Jews. These efforts were particularly notable in Zakynthos, where not a single local Jew was killed in the Holocaust. Ethnic Macedonians The Greek government does not officially recognize an ethnic Macedonian minority of Slavic origin in Greece. Nevertheless, the Greek Helsinki Monitor issued a report in September 1999, which claimed that about 10,000–30,000 ethnic Macedonians live in Greece, but because of the absence of an official census it is impossible to determine the exact number. A political party called "Rainbow" promotes this line and claims minority rights of what they describe as the "Macedonian minority in Greece". In the 2014 European Parliament election, Rainbow tallied a countrywide total of 5,759 votes, or 0.1% percentage. However, 2.5 million ethnic Greeks identify as Macedonian, unrelated to the Slavic people who are associated with the Republic of North Macedonia. In 2008 a United Nations independent expert on minority issues, Gay McDougall, personally visited Greece to check the current situation regarding the minorities. As the report published on the UN Human Rights Council web site says: "The Independent Expert met numerous individuals identifying as ethnic Macedonian." Moreover, she urges: "the Government of Greece to withdraw from the dispute over whether there is a Macedonian or a Turkish minority in Greece and focus on protecting the rights to self-identification, freedom of expression and freedom of association of those communities." Linguistic and cultural communities In addition to the above minorities, there are various ethnolinguistic communities in Greece with a distinct identity and language, but whose members largely identify ethnically as Greeks and do not consider themselves a "minority". Albanian-speaking Albanian economic migrants are not to be confused with the Greek Orthodox Arvanites, a group who traditionally speak a form of Tosk Albanian in addition to Greek and self-identify as Greeks, having played a significant role in the Greek War of Independence and Greek culture in general. The Chams were an ethnic Albanian community that formerly inhabited the area of Thesprotia, part of the Greek region of Epirus. Most of them were expelled into Albania through government-supported ethnic cleansing at the end of World War II. There are other Albanian speaking communities found across other regions of Greece. In the Florina region Albanian speakers can be found in the villages of Flampouro, Drosopigi, Idroussa and Tripotamos. Furthermore, an estimated 39 mainly or partly Albanian-speaking villages can be found in Western Thrace and Central Macedonia. After 1991, with the collapse of communism in Albania, a huge number of Albanian immigrants live and work in Greece. In the 2001 census, 274,390 ethnic Albanians are reported residing in Greece, mostly economic migrants. Albanians constitute 63.7% of the total documented migrant population in Greece, followed by Bulgarians, Georgians, Romanians, Russians, and Ukrainians. Romance-speakers Aromanians In Greece, the Aromanians are called Vlachs (, /'Vlaçi/). There are numerous festivals celebrating Aromanian culture all over Greece. Their language, Aromanian (known in Greek as τα βλάχικα /'vlaçika/), is in danger of extinction and mostly spoken by the elderly. There are, however, small numbers of Aromanians in Greece who call for greater recognition of the Aromanian language, such as Sotiris Bletsas. It is hypothesized that these Vlachs originated from the Roman colonisation of the Balkans and are the descendants of Latinised native peoples and Roman legionaries who had settled in the Balkans. German researcher Thede Kahl claims to have also documented some cases of assimilation of the Aromanian population in regions which are now largely Greek-speaking. The Panhellenic Federation of Cultural Associations of Vlachs has publicly stated that they do not want Aromanian recognized as a minority language nor do they want it inserted into the education system, and the same organization also protested when Thede Kahl discussed in a paper whether they could be designated a "minority". Megleno-Romanians Megleno-Romanians are concentrated in the Moglena region of Greek Macedonia. They speak the Megleno-Romanian language which is known as Vlăhește by its speakers. An estimated 4,000 speakers can be found in the region spanning the Pella and Kilkis regional units of Central Macedonia. The largest Megleno-Romanian settlement is Notia. Romani The history of Romani in Greece goes back over 600 years to the 15th century. The name Gypsy sometimes used for the Romani people was first given to them by the Greeks who supposed them to be Egyptian in origin. Due to their nomadic nature, they are not concentrated in a specific geographical area but are dispersed all over the country. The majority of the Greek Romani are Orthodox Christians who speak the Vlachoura-Roma language in addition to Greek. Most of the Romani who live in Western Thrace are Muslims and speak a dialect of the same language. The Romani in Greece live scattered through the whole territory of the country, but with larger concentration in the bigger cities (mainly Athens and Thessalonica). Notable centres of Romani life in Greece are Agia Varvara, which has a very successful Romani community, and Ano Liosia, where conditions are bad. Romani largely maintain their own customs and traditions. Although a large number of Romani has adopted a sedentary and urban way of living, there are still nomadic settlements in some areas. The nomads at the settlements often differentiate themselves from the rest of the population. They number 200,000 according to the Greek government. According to the National Commission for Human Rights that number is closer to 250,000 and according to the Greek Helsinki Watch group to 300,000. As a result of neglect by the state, among other factors, the Romani communities in Greece face several problems including high instances of child labour and abuse, low school attendance, police discrimination and drug trafficking. The most serious issue is the housing problem since many Romani in Greece still live in tents, on properties they do not own, making them subject to eviction. In the past decade these issues have received wider attention and some state funding. Slavic-speaking Slavic languages have been spoken in the region of Macedonia alongside Greek and others since the invasions of the Slavs in the 6th and 7th centuries AD. In parts of northern Greece, in the regions of Macedonia (Μακεδονία) and Thrace (Θράκη), Slavonic languages continue to be spoken by people with a wide range of self-identifications. The actual linguistic classification of these dialects is unclear, although most linguists will classify them as either Bulgarian or Macedonian taking into account numerous factors, including the resemblance and mutual intelligibility of each dialect to the standard languages (abstand) and the speakers' self-identification. (As however the vast majority do not have a Bulgarian or Macedonian national identity, linguists base their decisions on abstand alone.) Now, these people mainly identify as ethnic Greeks. The Christian portion of Greece's Slavic-speaking minority are commonly referred to as Slavophones (from the Greek Σλαβόφωνοι Slavophōnoi — literally "Slavic-speakers") or Dopii (which means "locals" in Greek). The vast majority of them espouse a Greek national identity and are bilingual in Greek. They live mostly in the region of Western Macedonia and adhere to the Greek Orthodox Church. The fact that the majority of these people self-identify as Greek makes their number uncertain. The second group is made up of those who seem to reject any national identity (Greek or Slav Macedonian) but have distinct ethnic identity, which they may call "indigenous" (dopia), Slavomacedonian, or Macedonian. The smallest group is made up of those who have a clear Macedonian national identity and consider themselves as part of the same nation that predominates in the neighboring Republic of North Macedonia. A crucial element of that controversy is the very name Macedonian, as it is also used by a much more numerous group of people with a Greek national identity to indicate their regional identity. Slavic speakers also use the term "Macedonians" or "Slavomacedonians", though in a regional rather than an ethnic sense. Until and including the 1951 census the question of mother tongue was asked throughout Greece, so this gives a rough idea as to the size of this group, and later estimates are usually based on this figure. The national identity of this community has frequently been loaded with political implications. The Politis-Kalfov Protocol signed on September 29, 1925 purported to recognize the Slav-speakers of Greek Macedonia as Bulgarians, but this protocol was never ratified. A short lived agreement was signed August 1926, which recognized them as a Serbian minority. In the 1951 census, 41,017 people claimed to speak the Slavic language. See also Centre for the Macedonian Language in Greece Demographics of Greece Hellenization Cultural assimilation Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) Grecomans Human rights in Greece Iraqis in Greece Notes References Abstracts "Focus: Minorities in Greece--historical issues and new perspectives", Jahrbücher für Geschichte und Kultur Südosteuropas Review by Adamantios Skordos (History and Culture of South Eastern Europe) 5, 2003. Articles from a conference held in Berlin. Richard Clogg, ed., Minorities in Greece: Aspects of a Plural Society, London, 2003. . Further reading External links Languages of Greece according to the Rosetta Project Research Center for Minority Groups Society of Greece Ethnic groups in Greece
4781788	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Silva	David Silva	David Josué Jiménez Silva (born 8 January 1986) is a Spanish former professional footballer who played mainly as a central or an attacking midfielder but also played as a winger or second striker. His passing ability and possession-retaining qualities earned him the nicknames Merlin (reference to the legendary wizard Merlin) and El Mago from his teammates and fans. He is considered one of the greatest midfielders of his generation and one of Manchester City's greatest ever players. Silva spent seven years of his professional career with Valencia, playing from 2004 to 2010, and won the Copa del Rey in 2008. In the summer of 2010, he moved to Manchester City and appeared in over 400 matches for the club, winning four Premier League titles, two FA Cups and five League Cups. Silva was also named in the PFA Team of the Year three times and is the youngest player to reach 200 wins in the Premier League. He left Manchester City in 2020 after a ten-year tenure and returned to La Liga with Real Sociedad, where he won his second Copa del Rey in 2020. Later on, he sustained an anterior cruciate ligament injury during preseason training with Real Sociedad, which forced him to retire in July 2023. Silva represented Spain, from his debut for the senior team in 2006 until his international retirement in 2018. He formed a midfield partnership with Xavi and Andrés Iniesta which led to three consecutive international tournament victories – UEFA Euro 2008, 2010 FIFA World Cup, and UEFA Euro 2012. One of 13 Spanish players to have amassed 100 caps, Silva scored 35 goals for Spain, making him the 4th highest goalscorer in their history, and also provided 29 assists, making him the second-highest assist provider in their history. Early life David Silva was born in Arguineguín, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, to Fernando Jiménez, a former municipal police officer who eventually was responsible for the safety of the Valencia CF stadium and Eva Silva. His father, Fernando, is Spanish (Canarian) while his mother, Eva, is of Japanese descent, claimed by the Canarian media. David Silva began playing football in the youth team of UD San Fernando, near Maspalomas. Originally, he played as a goalkeeper, before becoming a winger and mirrored his game around his footballing idol as a youth, Michael Laudrup. When he was 14, he received an offer to become a youth player at Valencia CF, which he accepted. He stayed in Valencia's youth set-up until he was 17. Club career Valencia A product of Valencia's youth system, Silva made his professional debut in 2004–05, with Segunda División's Eibar, while on loan from Valencia, playing 35 league games and scoring on five occasions. In the following season, he was again out on loan, this time to Celta de Vigo, where he played 34 matches, scoring four goals. After two late substitute appearances, the first in a 2–0 home win over Málaga on 28 August 2005, Silva finished as an undisputed starter as the Galician side reached the UEFA Cup straight from the second-tier. Silva returned to Valencia in the summer of 2006, becoming an automatic first-choice despite his young age of 20. In two seasons combined, he only missed six matches and netted 14 goals, his first league goal coming on 5 November 2006 in a 1–1 draw at Espanyol. In August 2008, he extended his contract by five years, amidst interest of several Premier League teams. He won the Copa del Rey 2008, his first title in Spain. After not appearing in the first three months of 2008–09 due to a chronic ankle ailment, Silva returned to the call-ups in mid-December. On 3 January 2009, he scored twice in a 3–1 home win over Atlético Madrid, still contributing with 19 matches (four goals) as the Che qualified for the Europa League. In the 2009–10 season, Silva scored a career-best eight goals, as Valencia finished in third position and returned to the UEFA Champions League. On 15 April 2010, he scored a brace against Athletic Bilbao for a 2–0 home win, adding three assists in the 4–4 thriller at Werder Bremen for the Europa League's round of 16. Manchester City 2010–11: Debut season, ending the trophy drought On 30 June 2010, Manchester City announced that they had reached an agreement with Valencia over the transfer of Silva and that he would join the club on a four-year deal, prior to the start of the 2010–11 season. On 14 July, the Premier League side completed the signing and Silva was awarded the number 21 shirt, the same number he wore for Valencia and when playing for Spain. Manchester City had previously tried to sign Silva and his Valencia teammate David Villa in 2008, but were put off when Valencia quoted a £135 million combined price tag on both players. City manager Roberto Mancini mainly deployed Silva as a winger and later in a trequartista role in his first season. Silva made his Premier League debut on 14 August 2010 in a 0–0 draw against Tottenham Hotspur at White Hart Lane. He scored his first goal for the club on 16 September, eight minutes into the Europa League group match against Red Bull Salzburg. On 17 October, he scored his first league goal in a game against Blackpool, netting City's third goal in a 3–2 away win. He received three consecutive Manchester City Player of the Month awards from October to December 2010. Following his debut season in the Premier League, Silva emerged as one of the league's finest playmakers. Carlos Tevez lauded him as "the best signing we [Manchester City] have made." Silva finished the 2010–11 campaign with four goals and seven assists in 35 league appearances. 2011–12: Premier League win, assist leader Silva began the 2011–12 season in fine form, scoring the third goal in City's 4–0 thrashing of Swansea City and was voted man of the match. He also scored the following week against Bolton Wanderers, and was again named man of the match. Silva then set up two of Sergio Agüero's three goals in City's second home game against Wigan Athletic. He was beginning to form a great understanding with the Argentine, with the pair having combined to score three goals already. After a series of magnificent displays from Silva, City boss Roberto Mancini compared him to fellow Spain internationals Xavi and Andrés Iniesta and said that Silva is "one of the best players in the world." On 1 October, Silva was awarded the Premier League Player of the Month for his outstanding performances, making it the first time ever that two Manchester City players have won the award in back-to-back months with Edin Džeko winning it the month before. In the first Manchester Derby of the season at Old Trafford, Manchester City won 6–1, with Silva proving, yet again, to be instrumental in the Manchester City attack, scoring the fifth goal, setting up Edin Džeko's second with a chested volley pass through the United defense, and participating in the first two goals with excellent passing to James Milner to assist Mario Balotelli. He was described as having been "two steps ahead of all the United players" in the aftermath of the match. On 25 October 2011, in an interview with a Spanish radio station, Silva revealed that he turned down Barcelona and Real Madrid so he could sign for City, and that he wants to stay at the club for years. He commented, "Madrid and Barcelona are great teams, but I'm happy here and I would like to stay here for many years." Former City and England defender Earl Barrett said he is almost impossible to stop due to his ability to create space and Andy Cole, who mostly played for Manchester United, has stated that Silva "is a joy to watch." Having done well to cut the gap between them and Manchester United to just three points, City went into April's Manchester Derby knowing that a win would be enough to send them top of the Premier League on goal difference. In a match widely billed as the biggest game in Premier League history, Silva delivered a corner which was headed home by Vincent Kompany for the winner. City triumphed 1–0, and returned to the league summit having been eight points behind their city rivals as recently as the start of that month. On 13 May 2012, with City heading into the final day of the season needing a win over QPR to secure their first top flight title in 44 years, Silva delivered a cross for Edin Džeko to score the equaliser in the 91st minute of the match. In addition to winning his first Premier League medal with Manchester City, he also finished the season on top of the assists table with 15 assists to his name and was one of four City players who made it in the PFA's Premier League Team of the Year. 2012–13: Premier League, FA Cup runner-up On 17 September 2012, Silva signed a new five-year deal at City, committing himself to the Etihad Stadium until 2017. Just six days after signing his new contract, Silva got off the mark in the 2012–13 Premier League season, registering an assist for Joleon Lescott in a 1–1 draw with Arsenal. He followed this up with another assist the following week, as he played in Aguero to score against Fulham at Craven Cottage. He injured himself playing for Spain in October, which meant he had to miss three games for Manchester City. On 11 November, he provided the crucial assist, a lofted through-ball, to striker Edin Džeko, who converted in the 88th minute to steal a 2–1 victory over Tottenham Hotspur. His first league goal of the season came in a 5–0 thrashing of Aston Villa at home in the very next league match, on 17 November. On 19 January 2013, Silva scored twice against Fulham at home in a 2–0 win. On 9 March, he scored the fifth and final goal in Manchester City's 5–0 win against Barnsley at the City of Manchester Stadium in the quarter-finals of the FA Cup, sealing progression to the semi-finals. Despite missing the clash with Chelsea through injury, City prevailed 2–1 through goals from Aguero and Samir Nasri, leading them to their second FA Cup Final in three seasons. They would face relegation-threatened Wigan Athletic at Wembley. Silva started the match and played the full 90 minutes, but the Blues were rocked by a Pablo Zabaleta red card, with a late Ben Watson header compounding their misery. It was one of the great FA Cup upsets, and ended up costing City boss Mancini his job. In the penultimate Premier League game against Reading, Silva made a superb pass to Džeko which took the entire Reading defense out of the game. Džeko scored, sealing a 0–2 win in City's first match since the sacking of Roberto Mancini. Silva finished the season with four goals and ten assists in 32 league appearances for a City squad that finished runners-up to city rivals Manchester United for the Premier League title. 2013–14: Premier League and League Cup double The 2013–14 Premier League season was a tough one for Silva, as numerous injuries limited him to just 27 league appearances. Nonetheless, he did well to maintain his stellar record of goals and assists for Manchester City. On 19 August 2013, Silva scored Manchester City's opening goal of the campaign in a 4–0 win against Newcastle United at the City of Manchester Stadium. He followed this up with an assist in the 3–2 defeat at Cardiff, crossing for Alvaro Negredo to score. On 5 October, Silva began one of his most productive spells in the Premier League. Making his first league start since August following a number of injury setbacks, he assisted Sergio Aguero to score against Everton, before scoring once and setting up another in a 3–1 victory over West Ham. Silva then scored again in the 7–0 home win over Norwich on 2 November, but his good form was curtailed by a calf injury, which ruled him out of City's next six games. He made his return on 14 December, scoring at home in a 6–3 win over Arsenal, before setting up goals in each of the next two games against Fulham and Liverpool. Silva was also enjoying one of his most productive UEFA Champions League campaigns to date, having managed three assists and a goal in Group D, including a strike in a 3–2 win over champions Bayern Munich in December. City had also progressed deep into the League Cup, eliminating Leicester and Newcastle to reach the semi-final, where they would face West Ham United. Silva played 73 minutes of the first leg, which City won by a large 6–0 scoreline, meaning he was rested for the return leg (a routine 3–0 win). He was restored to the starting lineup in the final, where goals from Yaya Touré, Nasri and substitute Jesús Navas earned City their first League Cup triumph since 1976. The month of March was a productive one for Silva, as he registered two goals and two assists in the league, along with a slew of excellent performances. He was named Manchester City's Player of the Month for March 2014, after scoring in away matches against Hull City and Arsenal. Silva followed this up with a goal and assist against Liverpool at Anfield, but could not prevent the Blues slipping to a 3–2 defeat. However, following a strong run of form in the final five games of the season, City pipped the Merseysiders to the title, and Silva claimed his second Premier League winners medal to add to the one from 2011 to 2012. He ended the campaign with eight goals and 16 assists in all competitions. 2014–15: Contract extension, Premier League runner-up On 10 August, Silva played in the 2014 FA Community Shield, a match City lost 3–0 to Arsenal. Two days later, he signed a five-year contract extension with City. Like the previous season, on 17 August, Silva scored Manchester City's opening goal of the 2014–15 Premier League season in a 2–0 away win against Newcastle United. Silva then scored against West Brom on Boxing Day. On 21 February 2015, Silva scored a brace against Newcastle United in a 5–0 win. He won the Etihad Player of the Month award for his performances in February. On 4 March, Silva scored in 1–0 win against Leicester City to take him to ten league goals in a season for the first time in his career. Jamie Redknapp described him as a "maestro" for his performances for City, while his teammate Edin Džeko called him "the best player in the Premier League." Three days later, City took on Barcelona at the Etihad Stadium in the first leg of their UEFA Champions League Round of 16 clash. The Blues were largely blown away by Barcelona's immense quality, but the game was marked by an ingenious backheel flick from Silva to Aguero, who scored to pull one back for City. On 19 April, in a 2–0 victory over West Ham, Silva was caught in the face by the elbow of Cheikhou Kouyaté, requiring eight minutes of treatment before being substituted for Samir Nasri. Tests confirmed that he had not fractured his cheekbone. On 10 May, Silva scored a goal in City's 6–0 win over Queens Park Rangers, which resulted in the latter's relegation. He ended the campaign with 12 goals and 10 assists in all competitions, with all 12 strikes coming in the Premier League- a career high. 2015–16: UEFA Champions League semi-final In the opening match of the Premier League season, in a 0–3 win at West Brom, Silva delivered a performance his manager Manuel Pellegrini labelled "unbelievable". As well as assisting the team's third goal, a clever backheel flick on Yaya Touré's long range drive sent the ball spinning into the net. After providing another three assists for the team in August (in wins against Chelsea and Watford), Silva was nominated for both of the Manchester City and Premier League Player of the Month Awards for August, winning the former. Silva was injured for most of October and November after picking up an ankle injury, while playing for Spain on 9 October. He made his return, as a 75th-minute substitute, in a 3–1 league defeat of Southampton on 28 November. He netted the opener in the last UEFA Champions League group stage match on 8 December, in a 4–2 home defeat of Borussia Mönchengladbach, which resulted in Manchester City topping their group for the first time. Silva provided another three assists in home victories against Tyne-Wear rivals Newcastle United and Sunderland. Silva warming up before a preseason match against Tottenham in July 2017 In a 4–0 home league win against Crystal Palace on 16 January 2016, Silva scored one, set-up another two goals and played a key pass in the remaining goal. Having started every match of City's League Cup campaign since the quarter-final stage, he started the 2016 Football League Cup Final on 28 February, playing 110 minutes against Liverpool as the match went to extra time. He was replaced 10 minutes from time by Wilfried Bony, and Manchester City went on to defeat the Reds 3–1 on penalties, with Silva winning his second League Cup with the club. He claimed another brace of assists in a 4–0 home defeat of Aston Villa six days later. On 24 February, Silva scored City's second as they beat Dynamo Kyiv 3–1 in the first leg of their Champions League Round of 16 tie, his second strike of the European campaign. He proceeded to start City's next four games in the competition, as the Blues made their deepest run in history, reaching the semi-finals. However, having started as one of City's brightest players in the semi-final first leg against Real Madrid, Silva was forced off after just 40 minutes due to injury. This caused him to miss the second leg at the Santiago Bernabeu, and his team suffered in his absence- the Blues were beaten 1–0 on the night and on aggregate. Pellegrini lamented the loss of his main playmaker, asserting that the absence of Silva had crippled his side and hamstrung their ability to create chances. Silva ended the campaign with four goals and 12 assists in 36 matches, a disappointing campaign for him personally, and one in which he missed 22 matches due to a persistent ankle injury, amongst other issues. Nonetheless, it was a trophy-winning season, the ninth major honour of his career. 2016–17: Manchester City Player of the Year With Pep Guardiola arriving as Manchester City's new manager to much fanfare, it was the beginning of a new era for City. Having put pen to paper on a three-year contract with the Blues, the legendary manager stated that one of the reasons he had come to the club was to work with Silva, whom he described as a special player, and one of the best he had ever trained. In Guardiola's first season at the club, Silva scored one goal in a 5–0 win over Steaua București in the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League play-off round. He enjoyed a relatively productive European campaign that season- having provided an assist for Raheem Sterling against Celtic, he later scored the equalising goal in a 1–1 draw against Borussia Mönchengladbach in the group stage. The Blues progressed to the knockout stages where they would face Monaco in the Round of 16, but despite another pinpoint Silva cross to assist Aguero, City crashed out of the tournament on away goals following a 6–6 aggregate draw. In the league, despite a bright opening to the campaign when City stormed to the top of the table, it proved a difficult season for the Blues, as they eventually fell away and ended up finishing third, 15 points behind winners Chelsea. It was a season in transition for the team, who under Guardiola were beginning to implement a distinct footballing philosophy. Despite the team's under-performance, Silva ended the campaign with eight goals and 11 assists in all competitions, and he beat off competition from Sergio Aguero and Kevin De Bruyne to be named Manchester City's Player of the Season. It was his second time being recognised as such, following his winning of the award in 2011–12, with the Spaniard fast becoming one of Pep Guardiola's favourites in the City side. 2017–18: Third Premier League and League Cup win Silva started the 2017–18 season with yet another display of finesse, providing eight Premier League assists in 14 appearances, which was the highest total for any player in Europe's top five leagues. The 2017–18 season was an especially difficult time for the Spaniard, with his newborn son having been born extremely prematurely. This led to him having to jet back and forth between England and Spain to visit his son and partner in a hospital in Madrid. Despite this, Silva continued to produce excellent performances, and on 30 November 2017, he signed a one-year contract extension with Manchester City keeping him at the club until 2020. On 10 December, Silva scored the winner in a closely fought Manchester Derby at Old Trafford, stabbing the ball past David de Gea from close range. Silva was forced to miss a crucial game against Tottenham Hotspur at the Etihad Stadium in December, as he was with his son in Spain. In his absence, City delivered a sumptuous performance, smashing Tottenham 4–1 following an urging from manager Pep Guardiola to secure the win for Silva and his partner Yessica. Midfielder Kevin De Bruyne held his fingers up to show the number 21, Silva's shirt number, after scoring City's second, in a touching tribute to the Spaniard. Manchester City ended up winning the Premier League with a record 100 point tally, leading to the team being nicknamed The Centurions. The 19 point gap to second-placed Manchester United was also a record winning margin, which stands to this day. Silva also scored in the 2018 EFL Cup Final against Arsenal. For his contributions, Silva was nominated for the PFA Player of the Year and named in the PFA Team of the Year for the second time as City won the Premier League. It was the third Premier League title of Silva's career and his second time being named in the PFA Team of the Year, and he finished the season with 10 goals and 14 assists across all competitions. 2018–19: Four titles in one season On 15 September 2018, in a 3–0 home win over Fulham, Silva scored his 50th Premier League goal in his 253rd appearance in the competition, also making his 350th appearance for Manchester City in the same match. City and Liverpool went head to head in an absorbing title race, which ended up with City pipping the Reds to the title by a single point. It was a remarkable season for the Blues, as they went on to win the Community Shield, League Cup and FA Cup too, with Silva scoring in the final of the latter tournament. In doing this, they became the first club in English football history to win all four domestic honours in a single season. Silva played in 33 of City's 38 league games, registering 10 goals and 14 assists in all competitions as he picked up his second FA Cup, fourth League Cup and fourth Premier League title. 2019–20: Fifth League Cup win, departure, statue Following the departure of Vincent Kompany in 2019, Silva inherited the club captaincy. On 26 June 2019, Silva announced that he would leave Manchester City at the end of the 2019–20 season. The campaign began with City facing Liverpool in the Community Shield at Wembley- City won on penalties following a 1–1 draw, with Silva producing a brilliant pass to assist Raheem Sterling for City's goal. On 8 July, he provided two assists, the second of which was his 10th of the season, and scored a free kick as City beat Newcastle United 5–0. With the free kick goal, he reached 150 Premier League goals and assists, which only a few midfielders had done before. On 1 March 2020, City took on Aston Villa in the League Cup final, their third such final in as many years and fifth in seven seasons. The Blues won 2–1, with goals from Sergio Aguero and Rodri, and lifted the trophy for the third time in a row. It was Silva's only trophy as captain of Manchester City, and his fifth League Cup title overall, making him the most decorated player in the competition's 60-year history. On 26 July 2020, Silva played his final Premier League game for Manchester City, a 5–0 win over Norwich City. He was substituted late on in the match, to applause from all present. Just under a month later, he played his last game in a City shirt, in a disappointing 3–1 defeat to Olympique Lyon in the Champions League quarter-finals, coming on as a late substitute. At the age of 34, Silva ended the campaign with a respectable return of six goals and 11 assists in all competitions, enough to earn himself a third appearance in the PFA Team of the Year despite City's underwhelming season. On 17 August 2020, Manchester City chairman Khaldoon Al Mubarak announced plans for a statue of Silva, along with teammates Sergio Aguero and Vincent Kompany, to be installed at the Etihad Stadium to commemorate his 10-year "transformational" contribution at City. The statues of Silva and Kompany were unveiled on 28 August 2021. Real Sociedad On 17 August 2020, Spanish club Real Sociedad announced the signing of Silva on a free transfer, despite reports of a move to Italian side Lazio. Silva made his debut for the club in a 0–0 home draw against Real Madrid, coming on as a substitute in the second half. On 25 October 2020, Silva provided two assists as La Real beat Huesca 4–1 in La Liga. A week later, he scored his first goal for the club, in a 4–1 away win against Celta Vigo. Following his excellent performances for Sociedad, Silva was named in WhoScored's La Liga Team of the Month for November, as well as being named Real Sociedad Player of the Month. On 21 February 2021, Silva once again provided two assists as Real Sociedad defeated Alaves 4–0 in the league. This propelled La Real to 5th in the table, while Silva became the only player to provide two assists in two different La Liga games that season. On 3 April 2021, Silva started in and played 85 minutes of the 2020 Copa del Rey final against local rivals Athletic Bilbao. The match was settled by a 63rd minute penalty from La Real captain Mikel Oyarzabal, after Cristian Portu had been brought down in the box. Silva was substituted late in the game to a standing ovation from the Sociedad bench, and along with his teammates went on to lift the Copa Del Rey, Real Sociedad's first major trophy since 1987. It was the 16th major honour of David Silva's career, and his second Copa Del Rey title. This final was postponed from a year earlier, so Silva and Carlos Fernández had taken no part in the other rounds played in the 2019−20 season. On 21 July 2023, Silva ruptured his anterior cruciate ligament. Just 6 days later, on 27 July, he announced his retirement from football aged 37. International career Silva first represented Spain in the 2003 FIFA U-17 World Championship in Finland, scoring three goals. In 2006, he became an under-21 international and scored four goals during the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship; this was enough to earn him joint-fourth place in the goal ranking, alongside Italian striker Graziano Pellè. Silva made his senior international debut in the 1–0 friendly home defeat to Romania on 15 November 2006, and continued to receive call-ups to the side after good contributions in his first games. On 22 August 2007, he scored his first two goals for Spain, netting twice in a 3–2 friendly win versus Greece, and was then called up to the squad of 23 for UEFA Euro 2008. UEFA Euro 2008 Silva started five of Spain's six matches at Euro 2008. In Spain's second group stage match against Sweden in Innsbruck, he assisted Fernando Torres with a pinpoint cross from the edge of the box, with the Liverpool forward scoring the opener in an eventual 2–1 win. In the semi-finals game versus Russia, Silva scored the third goal for Spain after a quick counter-attack in which Cesc Fàbregas delivered a low cross, and he sent the ball into Igor Akinfeev's goal with his left foot. In the final, he was involved in an incident with Germany's Lukas Podolski. After he pulled Podolski to the ground, the German approached Silva, which resulted in an angry exchange of words and a coming together of heads that the referee decided not to punish. Shortly afterward, Spanish coach Luis Aragonés substituted Silva for Santi Cazorla in an attempt to calm the tensions. 2010 FIFA World Cup After appearing regularly during 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification, Silva was also picked for the squad for the finals in South Africa. He played in the first match against Switzerland which ended in a 1–0 defeat, then against Germany in the semi-finals, as a late substitute in a 1–0 victory. Spain eventually won their first World Cup title after beating the Netherlands 1–0 after extra time in the final. UEFA Euro 2012 Qualifying On 11 August 2010, during an international friendly with Mexico, Silva scored two minutes into second-half injury time, ending the game with a 1–1 draw. In a Euro 2012 qualifier against Liechtenstein on 3 September 2010, Silva scored after 62 minutes, in a 4–0 away win. The following month, in the same competition, he scored through a rare header, as the national team downed Lithuania in Salamanca (3–1).In a friendly against Colombia on 9 February 2011, he came off the bench to score the game's only goal with just four minutes remaining, helping Spain to a hard-fought 1–0 win. He scored twice and provided one assist in Spain's 3–1 victory against Scotland in their final match of the Euro 2012 qualifiers. The win saw the Spaniards enter the tournament with a perfect qualifying record by winning all their group games. He scored the first goal in Spain's 2–2 comeback against Costa Rica, a friendly match where he came on as a substitute in the second half with Spain trailing 2–0. He once again scored in a friendly against Venezuela to make the score 2–0 in a match that ended in a 5–0 win. Heading into Euro 2012, he scored in their pre-tournament friendly against China by finishing off a short give and go from Andrés Iniesta in the 84th minute. UEFA Euro 2012 Silva was a starter in all six matches of Spain's Euro 2012 campaign. In their opening match of the tournament against Italy, he delivered a superb flicked through ball to Cesc Fàbregas, who scored to level the game up at 1–1. In Spain's second Group C match against the Republic of Ireland, Silva produced one of the performances of the tournament, scoring one and providing two assists in a 4–0 win. His goal was mesmeric, as he left Sean St. Ledger on the floor and beat Stephen Ward before coolly slotting it past former Manchester City teammate Shay Given. In the 14th minute of the UEFA Euro 2012 Final, he headed home a Cesc Fàbregas cross, giving Spain a 1–0 lead. The match ended 4–0 and concluded the tournament in which Silva scored two goals and made three assists, the best efficiency (goals and assists) of any player at the Euros. He was subsequently named in UEFA's Euro 2012 Team of the Tournament for his performances. He also finished as the joint highest assist provider at the Euros, with three. 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup Silva was named in Vicente del Bosque's 23-man squad list for Spain's contestation of the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, held in Brazil. On 20 June 2013, he scored two goals and assisted one for David Villa in Spain's 10–0 group stage demolition of Tahiti at the Maracanã. Spain would go on to reach the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup Final, where they were soundly beaten 3–0 by hosts Brazil. 2014 FIFA World Cup Silva was part of Spain's 23-man squad which traveled to Brazil for the 2014 World Cup. With La Roja looking to defend the title they captured four years ago in South Africa, Silva started the opening match against the Netherlands in Bahia. However, they were unable to repeat their success over the Oranje from 2010, and succumbed to a 5–1 loss, despite taking an early lead. Silva started the second group stage game, against Chile, playing the full 90 minutes. However, it was another bad outing for the side, who were soundly beaten 2–0 and eliminated from the tournament. Despite the team's under-performance, Silva was one of the brighter sparks for La Roja, creating seven chances for his team, the most of any Spanish player at the World Cup. UEFA Euro 2016 Euro 2016 was one of Silva's best outings for the National Team at a major tournament. Starting in all four matches, Silva began the tournament with a show stopping display against the Czech Republic, in which he created six chances for his team- the most of any Spain player in a single match at the tournament. The game ended in a 1–0 victory for the reigning European champions. In the second group game, a clash with Turkey in Nice, Silva was a key cog as Spain produced one of their best performances of the tournament, dispatching the Turks 3–0. Silva was mesmeric throughout, and received a standing ovation from Spain and Turkey fans alike when he was substituted late in the game. Silva played the full 90 minutes in La Roja's third group stage game against Croatia. It was an exceptional display, with the midfielder playing a sublime through ball to teammate Cesc Fàbregas, who squared for Alvaro Morata to score the opener. He later won a penalty, which was missed by Sergio Ramos, as Spain fell to a 2–1 defeat. Despite this, Silva created five chances in the game, the second most of any Spain player in a Euro 2016 match, after himself. Spain were eventually eliminated in the round of 16 by Italy, who beat them 2–0. Silva ended the tournament averaging 3.3 chances created per 90, the third highest at the tournament. Later years and retirement Silva continued his goal scoring record under new boss Julen Lopetegui, scoring 9 times in 12 matches. In May 2018, Silva was named to Spain's squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. He started all their matches in their World Cup campaign, which eventually ended with a 3–4 penalty shootout defeat to hosts Russia in the Round of 16. After the 2018 World Cup, Silva announced his retirement from international football. He ended his international career with 125 caps for Spain, having scored 35 goals. Following his retirement, Silva drew plaudits from many of his former teammates, being described as "one of the best ever" and "one of the most talented players Spain has ever produced, without a shadow of a doubt" by midfield partners Andres Iniesta and Xavi Hernandez. Vicente del Bosque, who led Spain to the 2010 World Cup and Euro 2012 titles, even went as far as to declare Silva "Spain's Lionel Messi". Style of play A talented and agile left-footed player, Silva is known for having an excellent first touch, good dribbling skills, and outstanding technical ability, which, along with his intelligent attacking movements, allow him to retain possession in tight spaces, and to create space for himself and teammates to open up a defence. Silva's composure on the ball, as well as his vision, passing accuracy, ability to read the game, pick a pass, and control the tempo of his team's play have seen him become one of the best players in the world in his position, as well as one of the best midfielders in Premier League history, and earned him the nicknames Merlin (reference to the legendary wizard Merlin) and El Mago. He is also considered one of the greatest midfielders of his generation and one of Manchester City's greatest ever players. Although he primarily serves as a playmaker for his team, he is capable of scoring goals himself as well as creating them, which enables him to be deployed in several offensive roles: he is usually fielded in a free role as an attacking midfielder, where he is given space to roam the pitch, but has also been used as a winger, as a false 9, as a second striker or as a deeper-lying central midfielder. Personal life During December 2017, Silva had been missing games to return to Spain for personal reasons. On 3 January 2018, he said that his newborn son, Mateo, had been born extremely prematurely and was fighting to stay alive. On 11 May 2018, Mateo was reported as healthy and was allowed to come home. Silva is a devout Catholic. Career statistics Club International Spain score listed first, score column indicates score after each Silva goal. Honours Valencia Copa del Rey: 2007–08 Manchester City Premier League: 2011–12, 2013–14, 2017–18, 2018–19 FA Cup: 2010–11, 2018–19 Football League/EFL Cup: 2013–14, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20 FA Community Shield: 2012, 2019 Real Sociedad Copa del Rey: 2019–20 Spain U19 UEFA European Under-19 Championship: 2004 Spain FIFA World Cup: 2010 UEFA European Championship: 2008, 2012 Individual FIFA U-17 World Championship Bronze Ball: 2003 Pedro Zaballa Award: 2005 Premier League Player of the Month: September 2011 Most assists in the Premier League: 2011–12 Most assists in the UEFA European Championship: 2012 Manchester City Player of the Season: 2016–17 Manchester City Players' Player of the Season: 2011–12 PFA Team of the Year: 2011–12 Premier League, 2017–18 Premier League, 2019–20 Premier League UEFA European Championship Team of the Tournament: 2012 Premier League Player of the Year by Northwest Football Awards: 2017 Orders Medalla de Oro de Canarias: 2010 Prince of Asturias Award for Sports: 2010 Gold Medal of the Royal Order of Sporting Merit: 2011 See also List of footballers with 100 or more caps References External links National team data at BDFutbol Profile at the Real Sociedad website 1986 births Living people Spanish people of Japanese descent People from Mogán Footballers from the Province of Las Palmas Spanish men's footballers Men's association football midfielders Valencia CF Mestalla footballers Valencia CF players SD Eibar footballers RC Celta de Vigo players Manchester City F.C. players Real Sociedad footballers Segunda División B players Segunda División players La Liga players Premier League players Spain men's youth international footballers Spain men's under-21 international footballers Spain men's international footballers UEFA Euro 2008 players 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup players 2010 FIFA World Cup players UEFA Euro 2012 players 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup players 2014 FIFA World Cup players UEFA Euro 2016 players 2018 FIFA World Cup players FIFA Men's Century Club UEFA European Championship-winning players FIFA World Cup-winning players Spanish expatriate men's footballers Spanish expatriate sportspeople in England Expatriate men's footballers in England
4782171	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JS%20Kabylie	JS Kabylie	Jeunesse Sportive de Kabylie (in Kabyle: Ilemẓiyen inaddalen n leqbayel, in Tamazight: ⵉⵍⵎⵣⵢⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴷⴰⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵇⵠⴰⵢⵍ), known as JS Kabylie or JSK, is an Algerian professional football club based in Tizi Ouzou, Kabylia. The club is named after the cultural, natural and historical region that is home to the Kabyle Berber people speaking Kabyle (the letters ⵊ ⵙ ⴽ on the badge are Tifinagh letters for JSK). The club was founded in 1946 and its colours are yellow and green. Their home stadium, 1 November 1954 Stadium, has a capacity of 25,000 spectators. The club is currently playing in the Algerian Ligue Professionnelle 1. JS Kabylie is the most successful Algerian club at the national level having won the Algerian Ligue Professionnelle 1 title 14 times (record in Algeria), the Algerian Cup five times, the Algerian League Cup once and the Algerian Super Cup once. It is the only Algerian club that has never been relegated to the second division with 55 seasons in the row at the high level since the 1969–1970 season. He is elected as the best Algerian club of the 20th century. JS Kabylie is also the most successful Algerian club at the African level having won a number of African titles, including the most prestigious African competition CAF Champions League twice in 1981 and 1990, the African Cup Winners' Cup once in 1995, the CAF Cup three times in 2000, 2001 and 2002 and the first ever African Super Cup once in 1982 during the Tournament of Fraternity. JS Kabylie has a total of 28 official trophies (record in Algeria). On the African level, JS Kabylie is the most successful Algerian club, but also the one which has played the most African competitions matches and the only club of three in Africa to have won the three different African competitions before 2005 (CAF Champions League, African Cup Winners' Cup and CAF Cup). It is also the only club of two in Africa to win an African competition three times in a row which is a record. According to CAF, this performance ranks the club among the ten best African clubs of the 20th century (9th place) and the IFFHS considers JS Kabylie to be one of the best African clubs of the previous century, occupying the 7th place in its ranking all eras combined. In Africa, JS Kabylie is the 6th most successful club. History 1929–1946: The beginnings of the club In the 1920s, young Kabyles who played football in the streets of the city of Tizi-Ouzou organized a mini inter-district championship under the leadership of Ahmed Astouati. Each district of the upper town (the indigenous town, taddart or tribe) had its team; participated in this tournament, young people from the districts of Aïn Hallouf, Tazegourt, Ihammoutène, Zellal and Tabnahlit. It is from these neighborhoods that a group of young people will emerge who aspired to the creation of a football club different from the Olympique de Tizi-Ouzou, a club created by the Europeans of Algeria. These young people formed a neighborhood selection made up of brothers Mesbahi Saïd and Ramdane, brothers Sebti Samir and Sofiane and brothers Rafaï Mohamed and Hocine, Harchaoui Omar, Zemirli Saïd, Souibes Rabah, Loukab Mohamed, Mekacher Amar, Boussad Ouamar, Mammar Mohamed, cousins Hammoutène Abderezak and Mohamed, Belhadj Khelifa, Chabaraka Ahmed, Assas Hocine, grouped around their dean Chikhaoui Mohamed Seghir then aged twenty, to create a sports society in order to participate in an official championship. The Rapid Club of Tizi-Ouzou (1929–1932) From the beginning of the year 1929 and after many difficulties, the young Kabyles who had come together to form a sports association, managed to finalize and file their status. The sports company called Rapid Club de Tizi-Ouzou was born, the name of the association was borrowed from the Austrian club Rapid Vienne, as well as its colors: green and white. The declaration of the association also appears in the JORF. For the costs of commitments to the championship of the season 1929–1930 and the purchase of equipment, each member brought back his own equipment (shoes, stockings, shorts). As for the jerseys and the expenses, they were the object of a quest from their parents, allies and friends and from certain notables of the village. The football was bought and graciously donated by Chikhaoui Mohamed Seghir, team captain. The first season was very difficult not from the point of view of sporting results but from a financial point of view. The money was sorely lacking, it was then that they were aware that they could not get by on their own; they got in touch with personalities of the city able to bring them a financial help and a representativeness near the administration to have a possible subsidy and certain facilities of access to the municipal stadium for the drives. This is how they entrusted their association to Nouri Mohamed Saïd;nj elected president and to Derridj Idir and Kezzoul Ahmed in charge of finance and administration. The functions of assessor are occupied by the players themselves responsible in particular for the equipment and the organization. Belhadj Khelifa and Chikhaoui Mohamed Seghir are in charge of the technical aspect (coaches). The 1930–1931 season was full of promise, the sporting results were encouraging; the young people and the association were starting to be talked about in the region. This beginning of notoriety aroused some questions among the leaders of the OTO who were not long in manifesting themselves during the 1931–1932 season. They approached the leaders of the RCTO in order to integrate them into the ranks of the OTO while showing interest in certain players. Finally no longer being able to support themselves with their derisory means, the young people of the Rapid could not ensure the start of the 1932–1933 season and had to forfeit and dissolve their sports society. Faced with the insistence and threats of the leaders of the OTO and some local elected officials, some players joined the OTO, others the Jeunesse Sportive Isserville-Les Issers, while others again put an end to their adventure. Sidi Said Hanafi's attempt (1942–1943) It was not until ten years after the dissolution of the Rapid Club of Tizi-Ouzou that there was talk of the creation of an "indigenous" football club in the city of Tizi-Ouzou, following the installation of Master Sidi Saïd Hanafi, criminal lawyer, in the rue Saint-Eustache in 1942. His meeting with some nationalist personalities who gathered at the bookseller Keddache Youcef, made it possible to relaunch the project of creation of a sports society, called Association Sportive de Kabylie (ASK) representing the whole region, replacing the former Rapid society which had lacked the support of its leaders. The idea began to take shape and Sidi Saïd Hanafi was given the task of initiating the procedure for creating the sports company by preparing the statutes and compiling an approval file. Former Rapid and OTO players were approached to be part of the new company, but following the death of Sidi Hanafi in July 1943, the project fell apart. stopped. The project was taken over by a group of former Olympique de Tizi-Ouzou players, who attempted to complete the affiliation arrangements players. The massacres of Sétif, Guelma and Kherrata jeopardized this project: less than a week later, on , an order was promulgated in which a prohibition on any Muslim from creating an association and to come together is imposed. Indeed, nationalist militants from the Comité d'Action Révolutionnaire Nord-Africain had infiltrated the various cultural and sports associations to promote the idea of independence, following the events that occurred in Setif. The fear was then that it would immediately be assimilated to a plot aimed at state security. Finally, in order to calm things down, on the ban on Muslims creating associations was lifted: with this gesture the French administration tried to restore order and ease tensions within the country. The creation of the Sports Youth of Kabylia (1946) During the year 1946, the union section of the CGT of Tizi Ouzou launched the project to create a football club in the corporate setting. Alongside this initiative, some young "natives" from the same locality who practice this sport and are interested in the project, jump at the chance to speed up the process. Contacts were very quickly made and a few meetings were thus organized at the CGT headquarters, chaired by Hamouda Abbas with the sponsorship of Saadi Ouakli, a retired former school principal and president of the district's veterans. The latter, well known and respected by the colonial authorities, was often called upon to chair conciliation meetings or meetings of civil society on the right or on the left. The colonial authorities did not lend too much interest to these groupings for union purposes and the creation of a football team within the corporative framework did not risk any inconvenience. At the end of the last meeting held at the headquarters of the CGT with the aim of finalizing the project by preparing the statutes with the constitution of the first general assembly of the club, a questioning of the objective of the creation of the new sports society divided the leaders and the young people. Indeed, the latter proposed rather the affiliation of the future company to the FFFA instead of making it a corporate team. This discrepancy angered Abbas, who threatened to withdraw and at the same time to deprive the future sports association of its domicile as well as the elements of the CGT. Nevertheless, after a final debate, he invited all the actors present to finalize the preparation of the constitution of the sports society and to leave the choice of the objective to the members of the assembly. On 29 July 1946, the session is chaired by Abbas Hamouda, member of the CGT. Were present : CGT members: Abbas Hamouda, Hamoutène Rabah, Oumerzouk Mohamed, Saadi Ouakli; members of civil society: Mohamed Seghir dit Dris, Rezki Bournane dit Diouani, Mohamed Saïd Nouri, Khelifa Belhadj, Ali Benslama, Boualem Iratni, Ramdane Kara, Amar Berdjani, Saïd Amirouche, Saïd Zemirli, Rezki Belhocine, Saïd Tabti, Meziane Aouchiche, Saïd Cherdioui, Mohamed Hamouche, Dahmane Khelfi, Rezki Zeggaoui, Akli Mezbout, Saïd Hassoun, Mohamed Saheb, Mohamed Amirouche, Mohamed Rafaï, Hocine Rafaï, Saïd Mesbahi, Ramdane Mesbahi, Omar Harchaoui, Lounès Harchaoui, Ali Stambouli, Ali Bouzar. On the eve of the month of Ramadan of the year 1946, it is at the café called "La Jeunesse Sportive" located rue de l'ancienne poste held by Mohamed Seghir Baïlèche dit Dris and Rezki Bournane dit Diouni, that the invitations of the members of the constituent general assembly were grouped together and distributed by Saïd Amirouche, Ali Benslama, Boualem Iratni and Ali Stambouli. On Monday coinciding with the start of Ramadan, the majority of those invited showed up at the meeting at the CGT headquarters despite some absentees who were excused because of professional obligations. or family. After a debate, the members present agreed on the creation of an omnisports civil society within the civil framework representing the youth of Kabylia. Thus the sports association would bear the name of Jeunesse Sportive de Kabylie (JSK) after having rejected those of "Association Sportive de Kabylie" and "Union Sportive Musulmane de Tizi-Ouzou", and the colors retained are green and red. Affiliation would be with the FFFA in the civilian context and two teams (senior and reserve) would be involved in competitions. Among the members of the CGT present at this meeting, Hamouda Abbas who wanted to make the club a sports company with a corporate purpose and therefore an affiliation to the FSGT, signified his disagreement and the withdrawal of his institution. This resulted in the refusal of domiciliation of the new sports company at the headquarters of the CGT. Mohamed Seghir Baïleche offered his commercial premises to house the headquarters of the new association while waiting to find something better, and so the "Café de la Jeunesse" served as a gathering place for the JSK. A few days later, on , the club is officially founded as an association whose decision is published in the edition of the Official Journal of the French Republic published on on page 7348; as well as to the FFFA under number 8153. The year 1946 therefore saw the beginnings of the club in competition at Tizi Ouzou at the Arsène Weinmann Stadium, which began in a particular context because it was the first season since the end of World War II, after years of regional criteriums. 1946–1955: The debut in the Algiers Football League The beginning: JSK in the third division (1946–1947) The 1946–1947 season of the Ligue d'Alger de Football Association was a pivotal season. This marked the end of the critériums de guerre for a return to normal; but also the entry into the running of the JSK in sports competition. In order to understand the sporting beginnings of the club, it is useful to recall a little the particular sporting context of the league at the start of the season. Indeed, the "Bureau of the League" at a meeting in August 1946 and after careful consideration decided on the following arrangements for the organization of the season. First of all, in order to break definitively with these criteria of war, the Bureau reconsidered the situation of all the existing clubs before the war and decided on the composition of the divisions with the newcomers of which the JSK is a part. The Office of the League of Algiers therefore decided on the composition of each of the divisions; i.e. ten clubs in the Honor Division, eighteen clubs in the First Division (two groups of nine); sixteen Second Division clubs; as for the Third Division: all other clubs. The club, affiliated with the FFFA, made its entry into the history of Algerian football. As provided for in the regulations, the JSK is integrated into the third division of the Algiers League, the equivalent of the Algerian seventh division. During its first season of existence, the club finished 3rd in its championship, which allowed it to move up to the second division of the Algiers league. The assured maintenance: the JSK in the second division (1947–1948) During the 1947–1948 season, the JSK maintained it. The narrowly missed accession (1948–1949) In 1948–1949, the club managed to win its group and therefore qualified for the inter-group play-offs in order to reach the second division. Qualified along with Widad Adabi Boufarik, GS Hydra and OM Saint-Eugénois, the JSK must avoid the last place of this pool in order to move up to the first division of Algiers. By losing in each of its three games, the JSK does not reach the next level and therefore remains in the second division of Algiers. The JSK champion of the second division (1949–1950) The following season, the club still wins the title of group champion which allows it to reach the same stage as last season. This time the club finished first in its pool (1 win and 1 draw) and was crowned champion. The JSK therefore reaches division one. The confrontation with the Olympic Tizi Ouzou : the JSK in the first division (1950–1951) The first season in the 1st division of Algiers ended with a second place in the league, which allowed the club to compete in the play-offs which were ultimately unsuccessful. The withdrawal of Saâdi Ouakli (1951–1952) A new generation of players (1952–1953) The missed chance with the elite (1953–1954) The JSK in honor promotion (1954–1955) Two seasons without relief followed, before the rise in the pre-honor category obtained during the 1953–1954 season thanks to the title of champion of division one. 1955–1962 : Withdrawal of the JSK from all sports competitions Algeria's war of independence led to the interruption of all sports competitions. On May 13, 1956, at the request of the FLN, all the Algerian associations ceased to participate in the official competitions of the 3 regional leagues: the JSK stopped its activities. During the freezing of sports activities advocated by the FLN between 1956 and 1962, the JSK went into the back burner until independence in 1962. The JSK taking part in the struggle for the independence of Algeria : the martyrs of the club (1956–1962) Several JSK players died during the Algerian War. From the 1956–1957 season, all the Muslim clubs put their associations to sleep and froze their participation in the various championships which took place throughout the Algerian territory. At the end of 1956, war was everywhere and the JSK, like all Muslim clubs, would not take part in the various championships for the 1956–1957 season or the following ones. All have put their sports companies to sleep by declaring a general package. Only colonial (European) clubs took part in the championships. In Tizi-Ouzou, the Olympic resumed its activities, some Muslim elements stopped their activities and joined the ranks of the FLN organization and its armed branch the ALN in the same way as some JSK players. Many members of the JSK: leaders, players and supporters were militants of the National Liberation Front like the secretary general, Mohamed Baïlèche, who was responsible for political and military Tizi-Ouzou. Several of them will join the ranks of the National Liberation Army for the independence of Algeria. Many of them will die in combat, some with arms in their hands, others under torture, or under the guillotine. The return to competition (1962–1963) In the aftermath of independence in Algeria, sports associations return to the field where several friendly tournaments are organized in order to prepare for the resumption of competitions. On September 16, 1962, the representatives of the regional leagues (Oran, Algiers and Constantine) met at the headquarters of the Algiers league to discuss the launch and organization of football competitions across the national territory, pending the installation of a national federation. They agree to launch a first large-scale championship, where each league organizes its championship bringing together all the existing Algerian clubs. Those who evolved during the colonial era in the first four levels (Honour Division, Honor Promotion, 1st Division and 2nd Division) form the Honor Criterium; all the others as well as the new affiliated clubs form the Regional Criterium, a kind of second level, with the aim of creating a hierarchy of football. The JSK belonging to the central region, whose football is governed by the League of Algiers, therefore disputes the Criterium Honor of the central region during the 1962–1963 season. The draw places JSK in Group I of this region along with nine other clubs, where only the first has the opportunity to play the final tournament of the region (with the winners of the other groups) and then possibly the national tournament if he qualifies. JSK finally finished the season in second place in Group I, although tied behind MC Alger on goal difference, following an honorable run of which they were winter champions. The latter played in the regional tournament and lost to USM Algiers. The final national tournament taking place in Algiers, the winner of the central region and his runner-up are therefore both qualified. Finally, we find the two representatives of the central region in the final of the competition and it is once again the USMA which wins against the MCA, making it the first Algerian football champion. In the Algerian football cup, which is also the first edition, the final victory goes to ES Sétif who win two goals to nil against ES Mostaganem. JSK, meanwhile, stopped in the fourth round of the competition against Stade Guyotville, defeated by the rule of the first goal scored, while the match ended in a draw of three goals everywhere. Workforce rejuvenation (1963–1964) After a complex first season in terms of organization, Algerian football experienced a major change in the organization of its competitions for the 1963–1964 season. This proceeds to the establishment of a new division called "Honour Division" abandoning the complex system of regional criteria. A new hierarchy of Algerian football appears, which is then composed of five levels which are the championships of the Honor Division, the Honor Promotion, the 1st division, the 2nd division and the 3rd division. The determination of the Honor Division group is based on the rankings obtained by the clubs in the different groups during the group stage of the previous season. Thus we have for the center group of the Honor Division the first, second and third of each of the five groups of the Criterium Honor last season, plus a team drawn from the play-offs at the end of a tournament. JSK, having finished second in its group last year, is therefore qualified to compete in this new format. In addition, the system of maintenance and relegation as it had been stopped, will allow for this second season, to have a championship in the round trip phase consisting of: a group of sixteen clubs for the central region, a group of seventeen clubs for the western region and two groups of eight clubs each for the eastern region which is responsible for organizing the final tournament. At the end of the competition, the winners of each of the four groups (the Eastern region having two groups), compete for the title of Algerian football champion, which takes place in Constantine. The leaders of the JSK appeal to a former glory of the club, Hassoun Saïd to succeed Hassan Hammoutène and take over the reins of the team. He advocates the policy of rejuvenating the workforce and integrates the club's ex-juniors, namely Djaffar Harouni, Ferhat Merad, Smaïl Karamani and Aziz Tamine. Other players from elsewhere are: Rabah Ziane, Ramdane Djezzar and Yahia Ouahabi, complete the arrivals in the workforce. This inexperienced youth started the season timidly and recorded three draws and one defeat for its first four games of the season. At the end of the first leg, the first results are mixed since JSK find themselves in eleventh place in the standings with six draws, five defeats and only four wins. The return phase is much better, the team plays better and records this time, six wins, five draws and four defeats. She even allows herself to hang on her list of winners a prestigious victory against the reigning Algerian champion USMA and another against a serious contender for the title NAHD, later crowned winner of the Center group. Finally the young players of the JSK manage to stay in the middle of the ranking and end the season in eighth place, something to hope for better for the future. NA Hussein Dey, first in the standings, represents the central region in the national tournament but is defeated in the final by USM Annaba with a score of one goal to nil, thus succeeding USM Algiers. In the Algerian Cup, ES Sétif did it again and kept the trophy by winning the final against MO Constantine with a score of two goals to one. As for the JSK, its journey ends at the same stage as last year, that is to say in the fourth round of the competition defeated one goal to nil by ESM Algiers. Learning and development of the club (1964–1965) The 1964–1965 season saw the appearance of a new competition system with the creation of the National Division. After the first two seasons of regional championships followed by a final national tournament, the leaders of Algerian football decided to create a national elite grouping together the first four in the classification of the Center and West groups of the Honor Division during the 1963 season. 1964 and the first two of each of the two East groups. Added to this are promotion play-offs for teams that finished fifth in the Center and West groups and third and fourth in the two East groups, giving a total of sixteen teams to make up the elite. JSK, having finished last season in eighth place, cannot claim to join the elite for this season. It remains in the Honor Division which then becomes the second level in the new hierarchy of Algerian football. Coach Hassoun Saïd is not taking over the technical management of the club this season to resume his position as leader and follow the progress of the team. The one who took the responsibility of trusting the young people of the club gave way to the new Hungarian coach Guela Leneïr whom the club management went to seek to supervise this new generation. The latter imports a European innovation in the design and organization of training. He had a wall built on which squares are drawn to improve the accuracy of passes and shots on goal, and before starting training he drove stakes on the sideline allowing players to do slaloms with or without balls. These new changes did not take long to show convincing results since the young people of JSK finished the first leg of the Honor Division championship in first place with ten wins for two draws and only one defeat. Unfortunately during the return phase, although the results of the JSK remain correct, it plummets to third place in the standings following its defeat two goals to nil against the WAB, a place it did not leave until at the end of the season. The RCK is finally crowned champion of the Honor Division for the Center region and reaches the National Division; Next in the standings are OMR, second in the standings, one point behind the leader, and JSK third, five points behind. In the Algerian Cup, it stops in the fifth round of the competition by losing heavily four goals to one against CR Belcourt, in an edition which saw MC Saïda winner of the trophy in the final against ES Mostaganem who lost for the second time at this stage of the competition. Confirmation of young recruits (1965–1966) Shortly before the start of the 1965–1966 season, the Hungarian technician Leïner, who had brought rigor and discipline to the team last year, decided not to renew his contract. The president of the club Hassan Hamoutène who had officiated during the first post-independence season as a coach, therefore resumes service in order to ensure the interim. During the period of friendly matches, JS Kabylie is invited to a tournament organized by OM Ruisseau, which it wins. For this season, the Center group of the Honor Division is made up of the OMR, downgraded champion of the past season in favor of the RCK and are added two old acquaintances of the JSK, namely the MCA and the USMA who demote of the National. JSK started the season with three draws and two wins and ended the first leg in fourth place in the standings behind USMA, WAB and MCA who monopolized the first three places in the standings. During the return phase, the JSK recorded uneven results and never won against the top three in the standings; a defeat against the WAB on the score of three goals to one on the occasion of the twenty-second day of the championship and another against the USMA on the score of four goals on the occasion of the twenty-seventh daytime. She managed to share the best points at home against MCA, three goals everywhere while she was leading three goals to two with one minute remaining. Finally, the team finished the season in fifth place in the standings with the satisfaction of having been able to stay in a very strong group in the Honor Division. For the record the USMA and the MCA which finish in the first two places do not reach the National Division but in a new level of Algerian football the National II. In the Algerian Cup, CR Belcourt won the trophy for the first time against RC Kouba, an edition which saw JS Kabylie lose at the stage of the 32nd finals against their pet peeve WA Boufarik with a score of two goals to nil. Under the direction of Abderrahmane Defnoun (1966–1967) In 1966, Algerian football changed and experienced a new hierarchy of its elite with the creation of a level below the National Division, called National II. This is made up of the top two from each of the Honor Division groups plus the four teams relegated from the National Division last year. JSK, having finished the previous year in fifth place in the ranking, cannot claim to be part of it and remains once again in the Center group of the Honor Division which then becomes the third level in the new hierarchy of Algerian football. New leaders joined the management committee of the JSK, which then had five sports sections (Athletics, Basketball, Boxing, Football and now Volleyball). Omar Bouzar, a former Tizi-Ouzou Olympique player, becomes the manager of the JSK football section. He will convince Abderrahmane Defnoun, the former defender of SCO Angers and the FLN football team, to leave the NAHD team of which he was the coach, in order to take charge of that of the JSK. For its first match of the season, JSK moves on the field of Hydra AC which defeats it with the score of three goals to zero. Nevertheless, reservations are filed by the secretary of the JSK on the identity, participation and qualification of the HAC players, reservations which were supported by justifications and which gave the victory of the match on green carpet by penalty (three goals to nil) for the benefit of the JSK. The defeat on the pitch will not affect the morale of the JSK players who will chain four wins and three draws, propelling them to the top of the championship followed closely by the WAB and the OMR. During the sixth day, the JSK receives the WAB, one of its direct competitors for the title but the game ends in a draw of zero everywhere. It was not until the ninth day of the championship to see the JSK lose their first match of the season and at the same time their chair as leader; was faced with the OMR on the score of two goals to one allowing the WAB to take control of the championship. On the evening of the eleventh day and despite a one-goal victory over Bordj Menaïel's neighbor, the JSBM, the JSK finished the phase: Go, in second place behind the WAB but ahead of the OMR. The twelfth day of the championship which is the first of the return phase, the JSK loses against all odds on its ground against AU HAC which takes its revenge on the score of a goal to nil. It will be the same the following day with the USMMC at Stade Lavigerie. The JSK is in crisis and the coach is blacklisted not because of his choices but because he is far from his group. Indeed, Defnoun lives in Algiers and the regular back and forth between Algiers and Tizi-Ouzou is not made to weld and follow his team. The workforce eventually recovered and the club went on to win two and a draw, before moving onto the pitch of its pet peeve, the WAB. The game began at a committed and sustained pace, the first to stand out were the Kabyles who, thanks to a magnificent left-footed shot from Karamani, allowed his club to lead in the twelfth minute. The boufarikois then leveled the mark, one from their own, although in an offside position, therefore equalized because the goal was granted by Aouissi, the referee of the meeting. However, just before half-time, the Kabyles react again, a strike from Ouahabi accompanied by Kolli allows JSK to lead two goals to one. But the meeting was unusually long because the referee had both teams play for one hundred and five minutes. The final whistle sounded sixty minutes later as the ball had just entered the nets of JSK, final score two goals everywhere. In Boufarik it's madness, this result allows WA Boufarik to come back up to the Kabyles and still claim the title. Following this incredible meeting which ended in a draw, two victories followed by the same score of a goal to nil, whose scorer was none other than Karamani who scored respectively against AS Orléansville then the WO Rouiba. The two victories are followed by two defeats, one, by the same score of one goal to nil against OM Ruisseau, his second defeat of the season against the same club, then one, by three goals to one against MS Cherchell who will have taken five points from him this season. JSK will finally end the season with a victory against JS Bordj Menaiel, on the score of three goals to one, condemned to relegation. This last victory will be insufficient, OM Ruisseau finishes Champion of the Center Group of the Honor Division with four points in advance and reaches National II alone. His only satisfaction was to be ahead of his pet peeve in the standings by one point, despite the result and the course of the match having counted for the seventeenth day of the championship. In the Algerian Cup, the JSK will be beaten in the 32nd round stage, by AS Orléansville in Mouzaia, in an edition marked by the final victory of ES Sétif, which won its third title. Chasing the first national titles (1967–1977) The JSK champion of Honor Division (1967–1968) The JSK champion of National II (1968–1969) The JSK therefore disputed the National II in 1968–1969. From its first season, the club crowned with the title of champion reached the first division of the Algerian championship during the 1969–1970 season and this by winning against the team of widad de Boufarik 2-1, for then not never leave it until today. Discovering the elite (1969–1970) For its first appearance in the first division, the JSK made an honorable run by finishing in sixth place. The ephemeral passage of Abdelaziz Bentifour (1970–1971) The JSK had a difficult season finishing in seventh place, marked in particular by the death of its coach Abdelaziz Ben Tifour but also of the president of the Algerian Football Federation, doctor Mohand Amokrane Maouche. The JSK becomes the "Jamiat Sari Kawkabi" (1971–1972) The JSK champion of National I (1972–1973) During the 1972–1973 season, for its 4th season in the elite, the JSK won its first Algerian championship title. The club was then renamed Jamiat Sari' Kawkabi by the then president, Houari Boumediene. The JSK double champion of National I (1973–1974) The following season, JSK were crowned Algerian champions for the second consecutive time. The next two seasons were mixed, with seventh place in 1974–1975 and third place in 1975–1976. Instability of the technical staff and transition (1974–1975) JSK back on the podium (1975–1976) The first Cup – Championship double (1976–1977) The 1976–1977 season saw the club regain the title of Algerian champion. Striker Mokrane Baïleche finished top scorer in the competition with 20 goals. At the same time, the club achieved its first Cup-Championship double. The era of the "Jumbo Jet" or the era of Benkaci, Khalef and Zywotko (1977–1990) The JSK becomes the "Electronic Youth Tizi-Ouzou" (1977–1978) During the 1977–1978 season, the team changed its name once again, this time to be called the Electronic Youth of Tizi-Ouzou. This season ends in 2nd place in the championship and marks the debut of the Mahieddine Khalef - Stefan Zywotko tandem. Following its championship title in the 1976–1977 season, JSK played for the first time in an international club cup. She will lose in the quarter-finals of the African Cup of Champions Clubs against the Congolese club AS Vita Club. The 1978–1979 season ended with a double disappointment, as JSK finished 2nd in the championship and finalist in the Algerian Cup. During the 1979-1980 season, JE Tizi Ouzou (JSK) finished in first place in the championship, becoming champion of Algeria for the fourth time in its history. JET narrowly misses the double "Cup – Championship" (1978–1979) In 1978, the club moved from the Oukil Ramdane stadium to the November 1, 1954 stadium. The first season in this new stadium ended with a second place. The JET champion for the fourth time (1979–1980) During the 1979–1980 season, the JSK (which at that time was still called JE Tizi-Ouzou), finished the season in first place in the standings. JET African club champions (1980–1981) In 1981 JSK won the African Cup of champion clubs without losing a match by beating in the final the Congolese of AS Vita Club 5-0 over the two matches (4-0 at the go then 1-0 on the return). The club therefore joined its rival MC Algiers, the only other Algerian club to win this African competition in 1976 (ES Sétif won it in 1988), and achieved the double African Cup of Champions Clubs–Championship. The JET champion for the fifth time and first ever African Super champion (1981–1982) In 1982, due to its status as African clubs champion in 1981, the club received an invitation to participate in the Tournament of Fraternity in Ivory Coast. JSK wins the first ever African Super Cup against Union Douala, Cameroonian club winner of the African Cup Winners' Cup 1981 with the score of 1-1 (after extra time, 4-3). The JET champion for the sixth time (1982–1983) The defense of its title of African champion will be unsuccessful because the JSK will bow as soon as it enters the running against the Sudanese club Al Hilal Omdurman. At the national level, the following year, the club managed for the second time in history to retain its title of Algerian champion. This is the club's sixth title. The JET overtaken by "WEST" (1983–1984) The JET finished in 3rd place in 1984, 2 points behind the champion GCR Mascara and was defeated in the semi-final of the Algerian Cup by MC Oran, winner of the event. The JET champion for the seventh time (1984–1985) The JSK became champion again for the seventh time in its history in 1985. JET achieves its second "championship cup" double (1985–1986) The year 1986 ended with a new title with 98 points on the clock (record for a championship with 20 clubs). The club also won the Algerian Cup, and Nacer Bouiche finished top scorer in the championship for the second time in his career with 36 goals, an unequaled record to date. The JET off the podium, a first in ten years (1986–1987) Two seasons without titles follow, completed in the 6th. The JSK becomes the "Tizi-Ouzou Sports Youth" (1987–1988) The JST champion for the ninth time (1988–1989) For their last year together, the two technicians won a new title of champion in 1989. Ten times champion of Algeria and double champion of Africa (1989–1990) The club retains its title during the 1989–1990 season, and becomes double Algerian football champion for the fourth time in its history. This is his tenth championship title. Also note that during this season, the Algerian Cup is not organized. The 1990–1991 season ended with a fourth place in the championship and a cup final lost to USM Bel-Abbès. At the same time, the JSK carried out a fine African competition by winning for the second time in its history the African Cup of champion clubs on penalties against the Zambian club Nkana Red Devils (1-1 in the two matches then 5-3 on penalties). It is the first Algerian club to have won the prestigious African Cup of Champions Clubs twice (ES Sétif will win it in 1988 and 2014). Period of transition and questions (1990–1992) After a long cohabitation of twelve years, the coaching duo Mahieddine Khalef and Stefan Zywotko are retiring but remain at the club as advisers. During their joint stint at the head of JSK, the club won six championships, a national cup, an African Cup of champion clubs and an African Super Cup. In the league, JSK has only finished off the podium once during these 12 seasons. The 1991–1992 championship was catastrophic for the JSK which finished 13th and first non-relegation. The club won all the same during this season its third Algerian Cup. During the 1992–1993 season, the JSK won a new national trophy in its list, namely the Algerian Supercup against MC Oran (2-2 then 6-5 on penalties). The Hannachi era (1993–2017) Participations in African competitions (1993–1996) On the African side, it is participating for the very first time in the African Cup Winners' Cup. The club made an honorable run in this competition by failing in the quarter-finals. The 1993–1994 season ended in third place in the standings. The club retains the Algerian Cup (there was no cup the previous season). The year 1994–1995 saw the arrival of a new president at the JSK, Mohand Chérif Hannachi, who trusted the Djaâfar Harouni-Djamel Menad duo. A new African title : African Cup Winners' Cup (1995) The JSK won during the 1995 season, for the first and last time in its history (given that this competition no longer exists), the African Cup Winners' Cup (C2) against the Nigerians of Julius Berger (3-2 in both games). This is the first and only Algerian club to win this African trophy. It is also playing for the first time in its history, the CAF Super Cup, (match between the winner of the Cup of Champions Clubs and the winner of the Cup Winners' Cup at the time). She is playing this competition against the South African club Orlando Pirates, winner of the 1995 African Cup of Champions Clubs. Unfortunately, she will lose away on the score of one goal to nil. His title of champion, authorizes him to play the African Cup of champion clubs, where the team reaches the semi-finals, but fails against the Nigerian team of Shooting Stars FC. Period of great uncertainty (1996–2000) Kamel Mouassa was appointed coach at the start of the 1996–1997 season. The club finished 8th. The following season, the Algerian football championship takes place in the form of a group. By finishing 2nd in its own, the JSK did not play in the championship final. The following year 1998–1999, the club finished in second place. The only consolation, the player Farid Ghazi finished top scorer in the championship with a total of 19 goals. The club also failed in the Algerian Cup final against USM Alger. In 1999–2000, JSK coach Kamel Mouassa was replaced by Bulgarian Janko Guelov. This takes the JSK to a disappointing sixth place. In the Algerian Cup, despite a good run, the club stopped in the semi-finals. The JSK reconnects with African success : Three consecutive CAF Cups (2000, 2001, 2002) The Bulgarian coach was fired before the start of the 2000-2001 season and Nedjmeddine Belayachi replaced him when JSK were in the quarter-finals of the CAF Cup. At this stage, the JSK has the Tunisian club Etoile Sportive du Sahel in the competition (4-1 victory on penalties in Tunisia, each having won 1-0 at home) and eliminates the Nigerian club Heratland. After a heavy defeat against Entente sportive Sétifienne in the league, Belayachi was ousted a few days before the first leg of the CAF Cup final, he was replaced by the duo Mahieddine Khalef and Nacer Sandjak. The final therefore opposes JSK to the Egyptian club Ismaily SC. On December 1, 2000, JSK won the first CAF Cup in its history thanks to the away goals rule (1-1 then 0-0). This is the first C3 won by an Algerian club. With this title, the club enters a closed circle of African clubs to have won the three competitions. The following season, 2001-2002, marked a new change at the technical helm with the return of Kamel Mouassa who succeeded with the team in the feat of retaining their African CAF Cup title against the Tunisians of Sporting star of the Sahel thanks to the away goals rule (2-1 then 1-0). In 2002-2003, the French technician Jean-Yves Chay was chosen to lead the team this season. The club won the C3 for the third consecutive time this season (the first club in the world to win the continental C3 three times in a row), this time against the Cameroonians of Tonnerre Yaoundé (4-1 over the two games). During this period, the Algerian Championship was somewhat neglected because the JSK did not win it, finishing respectively 3rd in 2001, 2nd in 2002 and 4th in 2003. With its title of winner of the CAF Cup, JSK participated in the 2003 edition, but lost this time in the quarter-finals against Cotonsport Garoua. National Renewal (2004–2011) In 2004, after nine years of Waiting, the JSK reconquers the Championship of Algeria. JSK misses the double by failing against USM Algiers in the final of the Algerian Cup five shots on goal to four (0-0 in regulation time). The 2004–2005 season saw two coaching duos succeed each other at the head of the club (Kamel Mouassa and Moussa Saïb then Christian Coste and Kamel Aouis), and the team finished runner-up to USM Algiers in the league. During the 2005–2006 season, the club reached the group stage of the CAF Champions League, for the first time in the Champions League system, but did not manage to reach the semis-finals. This season also saw a new title of Algerian champion for JSK, its 13th title. Hamid Berguiga is the league's top scorer for the second time in a row with 18 goals to his name. The following season, the club finished in second place on the podium, and was eliminated in the semi-finals of the Algerian Cup by USM Alger. The 2007–2008 season was a good season for JSK, since the only team capable of holding its own in the league would be the outgoing champions of the last exercise, ES Sétif. The suspense of the championship remains intact, as these two teams are close to each other throughout the season. Finally, a match lost on green carpet by ES Sétif, for having refused to play a match against JSK, marked a decisive turning point in the season. This allows the JSK to win its 14th title of champion of Algeria. Once again, a club player finished top scorer of the season. This is Nabil Hemani with a personal total of 16 goals. Another highlight of this season, Kabylie is at the top of Algerian football with a victory in the Algerian Cup for the other Kabyle club JSMB. This bodes well for an Algerian Super Cup between these two formations, for an unprecedented Kabyle derby at this national level, which was ultimately not contested because of the work on the ground at the stadium on July 5, 1962, but also because the JSK is playing the CAF Champions League with a particularly busy schedule and therefore refuses to participate in this competition. The two teams therefore ignore this trophy by mutual agreement. Beaten in the round of 16 of the CAF Champions League, JSK is transferred to the Confederation Cup, passes a round, but fails to qualify for the final in the pool round. During the 2008–2009 season, JSK obtained third place in the 2008 North African Cup of Champions Clubs by drawing a draw against the Libyan club Al Ittihad Tripoli. However, and despite a catastrophic start to the season, JSK ended the 2008–2009 season in second place in the championship for the tenth time in its history. This recovery is only possible after a series of eleven consecutive games without defeat. The JSK, during the 2009–2010 season, obtained places of honor but did not win any trophies (3rd in the league, semi-finalist in the Algerian Cup and semi-finalist in the CAF Champions League). In 2011, JSK won its fifth Algerian Cup, after 17 years, against USM El Harrach (1-0). Crossing the Desert (2011–2018) During the 2010–2011 season, JSK finished in 11th place only 1 point ahead of the first relegated (USM Annaba). In the Confederation Cup, the club reaches the group stage but loses its six matches. The season was saved by winning the Algerian Cup at the expense of USM El Harrach (1-0). This cup victory qualified the Canaries for the 2012 Confederation Cup, but club president Mohand Chérif Hannachi decided not to register the club to focus on the championship. The 2011–2012 season is no better since it ends in ninth place and by elimination in the round of 16 of the Algerian Cup. In July 2012, Italian coach Enrico Fabbro was recruited, but he was fired in November (due to a disastrous start to the season including seven defeats in ten games). Nacer Sandjak replaced him and the club ended the championship in seventh place. In addition, the team is eliminated from the round of 16 of the Algerian Cup. After three difficult seasons, JSK began the 2013–2014 season with the return of Azzedine Aït Djoudi as coach. He aims to conquer an African place for the following season. The club finished in second place in the final standings, fourteen points behind rival USM Alger, and thus qualified for the 2015 CAF Champions League. In the 2014 Algerian Cup, JSK lost in the final against MC Alger on penalties. Tragic death of Albert Ebossé Bodjongo (2014) The 2014–2015 season got off to a very bad start for this club : on August 23, 2014 during the match between JSK and USM Algiers on the second day of the championship (1-2 defeat), the club's Cameroonian striker Kabyle, Albert Ebossé, who is also his team's only scorer, dies after the match. A few weeks later, the Belgian coach Hugo Broos, in office since July 2014, decided to resign after verbal remarks received by the president of the club. At the end of the championship, the JSK finished in twelfth position just one point behind the first relegated ASO Chlef. Thousands of supporters are unhappy with the results and large marches take place in the streets of Tizi Ouzou to demand the departure of President Mohand Cherif Hannachi. During the 2015–2016 season, the team finished in 3rd place, thus qualifying for the 2017 Confederation Cup. During the 2016–2017 season, the team finished in 12th place two points behind the first relegation club Relizane and the club was eliminated by TP Mazembe in the third round of the 2017 Confederation Cup. In August 2017, the board of directors decided to dismiss president Mohand Cherif Hannachi as head of the club and he was replaced by Abdelhamid Sadmi, a former emblematic player of the club, but he resigned from his post in November 2017. Noureddine Saâdi, arrived in the luggage of the new president Mellal last January, failed to impose himself at the head of the technical bar of the Canaries, his results were very meager, was sacked. End of cycle for Hannachi President of the club for 24 years, successfully during the first half of his reign, he has since disappointed the supporters of JSK, which has ended up losing its former luster due to chaotic management. Since 2010, no investor has been able to bail out the club's coffers. Under Hannachi's leadership, the club won ten trophies including four African titles and six national titles. Cherif Mellal period (2018–2021) On February 8, 2018, the board of directors decided to appoint a businessman, Cherif Mellal, as president of the club. The new president decides to appoint Youcef Bouzidi as the new coach. In this season, with a rather well reorganized team at the end of the championship, the club did not manage to win the Algerian Cup, beaten in the final by USM Bel-Abbes 2-1. For the 2018–2019 season, President Mellal appoints Franck Dumas as the club's new coach. The club finished the season in second place and qualified for the 2019 CAF Champions League. The club is therefore celebrating its return to the Champions League after nine years of absence. Under the Mellal era, the club was restructured: more importance given to the youth categories who all finished 4th in the standings or even higher. Work on a training center was launched with the help of Issad Rebrab, a Kabyle industrialist and the richest businessman in Algeria. Communication is also improved by the creation of official accounts on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram which cover all the club's news. Nine years after their last participation in the group stage of the Champions League, JSK qualified by eliminating the Guineans of Horoya AC on penalties 5-3, after a score of 2-2 in the two games. However, the club finished 3rd in the group stages and failed to qualify for the quarter-finals. Due to the Covid-19 pandemic, the 2019–2020 season is frozen at the 22nd day (fourth in the standings) and the cancellation of the Algerian Cup allows JSK to compete in the 2021 Confederation Cup. JSK qualifies for the group stage of the 2021 Confederation Cup after passing the two qualifying rounds against the Nigerians of the USGN and against the Malian stadium. The club qualified for the quarter-finals after finishing 1st in the group where they will meet Tunisians CS Sfaxien. Due to the impossibility of amateur clubs to play the Algerian Cup due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the FAF decided to replace it with the League Cup which concerns the 20 Ligue 1 clubs. The club is exempt of the preliminary round because it plays the Confederation Cup and therefore begins the competition in the round of 16 where it beats NAHD 2-0. The club has an official website on April 20 (in homage to the Berber spring). The club qualified for the semi-finals of the Confederation Cup after beating the Tunisians 2-1 on aggregate (1-0 away and 1-1 at home); they will find the Cameroonians of Coton Sport that they had beaten twice in the group stage. The club qualified for the semi-finals of the Coupe de la Ligue after beating US Biskra 2-0 on the road. The club qualified for the final of the League Cup after beating Tlemcen 1-0 at home, they will face NC Magra. JSK qualified for the Confederation Cup final (19 years after their last African final) after beating Coton Sport 5-1 on aggregate (2-1 away win and 3-0 win home) ; they will face Moroccans Raja Casablanca in the final. The club loses the Confederation Cup final to Raja Casablanca 2-1 in a unique final in Cotonou. The club added a new line to its record by winning the Algerian League Cup against NC Magra on penalties 4-1 after a score of 2-2 and ending a ten-year drought. With this victory, the club qualifies for the Confederation Cup 2021–2022. On March 21, 2021, Cherif Mellal was dismissed from his post as president by the CSA and then officially replaced by Yazid Yarichene on September 15, 2021. Stadiums Oukil Ramdane Stadium Main article: Oukil Ramdane Stadium The Oukil Ramdane Stadium is the oldest stadium in the city of Tizi Ouzou. Dating from the colonial era, it then bore the Arsène Weinman Stadium name from the name of a former lawyer who settled in the old street Saint Eustache in the city of Tizi Ouzou in the 1920s. This man worked a lot in his time for the promotion of sport in the city, he had enormously contributed to the development of football in the city and was at the origin of the realization of this Municipal Stadium of Tizi Ouzou. When he died, the stadium was renamed after him. This stadium was tenanted at that time by the settler club called the Olympique of Tizi Ouzou, which had in its ranks the future founders of the JSK. In the 1940s, when JSK made its appearance, it also used it, it is the first stadium where it evolved, from 1946 (since the colonial era therefore) until 1978 (date of opening of the 1 November 1954 Stadium). This stadium saw JSK's first national crowns, and its rise from the equivalent of the seventh division of the colonial era to the national one of the current Algerian football championship. It currently bears the name of a former club player, Oukil Ramdane, who played in the junior and reserve team during the colonial era. This honor was done to him, because he died during the Algerian War. He is considered both as a martyr of the club but also and above all as a hero of the Algerian revolution. During the Algerian War, it was used as a regrouping camp, which put it in a very bad state at the end of the war. The first president of the JSK, Abtouche Mansour will make every effort to make it practicable for the first Algerian championship, the famous "criterium". Nowadays, this stadium is home to the club AS Tizi Ouzou, as well as the Union Sportif de Kabylie, clubs from lower divisions. Sometimes, the categories of young people of the JSK also evolve there. The stadium is not just for football. As is customary in Algeria, it is also used for outdoor musical performances by famous singers; thus several great singers of traditional Kabyle music have organized concerts in this place. Currently with a capacity of 5,000, the Oukil Ramdane Stadium recently benefited from a tartan coating in 2009 and continues to exist despite its more than 100 years of existence. 1 November 1954 Stadium Main article: 1 November 1954 Stadium The 1 November 1954 Stadium is the stadium where the JSK has been playing since March 12, 1978 and is the property of the municipality of the city of Tizi Ouzou. This stadium has seen several upgrades, such as during the 2007–2008 season, with the installation of a new fifth-generation synthetic turf and the addition of new places. The stadium thus becomes the second largest stadium in Kabylie with a capacity of 25,000 seats, linked by the Maghrebi Unity Stadium of Béjaïa, with a capacity of 30,000 seats, which has enabled it to achieve more than 8 million Algerian dinars in revenue in 2009. Highly criticized and little liked by the Kabyles, particularly for its architecture (a single covered stand, fence avoiding seeing the match) and the insecurity that reigns there, the 1 November 1954 Stadium is still the object of several projects aimed at improving it. Hocine Aït Ahmed Stadium Main article: Hocine Aït Ahmed Stadium The new JSK stadium is the club's third football stadium after the Oukil Ramdane Stadium (1946–1978) and the 1 November 1954 Stadium of Tizi-Ouzou (1978–). This stadium has a capacity of 50,766 seats. It is integrated by a group of companies made up of the Spanish group Fomento de Construcciones y Contratas and the Algerian group ETRHB Haddad with an estimated value of 930 million Algerian dinars (the equivalent of €9,400,000) with a duration of the works spread over 13 years since 2010. The JSK had succeeded in obtaining the promise of the construction of this new stadium from the former President of the Republic Abdelaziz Bouteflika, just after the club's third consecutive coronation in the Cup of the CAF of 2002. Rivalries JS Kabylie has a rivalry with MC Alger (the Algerian classico) and USM Alger. The match with JSM Béjaïa is known as the Derby of Kabylia. MC Alger The matches between JS Kabylie and MC Alger is the most important matches in the Algerian League. This rivalry has been full of excitement, anger and conflicts from 1960's. USM Alger The matches between JS Kabylie and USM Alger is one of the most important matches in the Algerian League. This rivalry has been full of excitement, anger and conflicts from 1995, and peaked between 2001 and 2006 when the two teams dominated the Algerian football. JSM Béjaïa JSM Béjaïa faces JS Kabylie, in a very popular derby in the Kabylia region. After the independence of the country the two clubs finally faced each other after 36 years of waiting, in a friendly tournament in 1970 that the green and red won 1 to 0. During the 1998-1999 season, the first leg ended in favor of JSK with a score of 3 to 2, on the return leg the JSMB won by the smallest step of 1 to 0. Honours Domestic International Friendly tournaments & trophies Trophy of champions (Algeria) Winners: 1973 Maghreb champions cup (Algeria) Finalist: 1974 International trophy of Mallorca (Spain) Third: 1977 Tournament of Fraternity (Ivory Coast) Winners: 1982 African Super Cup (1) (Ivory Coast) Winners: 1982 Tournament Indoor of Bercy (France) Third: 1984 Tripartite tournament of Dakar (Senegal) Winners: 1985 Tournament la Presse (Tunisia) Third: 1986 Arab club champions cup (Saudi Arabia and Morocco) Third: 1987, 1989 and 1994 North African cup of champions (North Africa) Third: 2008 Sporting results Results of JS Kabylie in competitions during the colonial period from 13 October 1946 to 11 March 1956 The JSK, officially created in 1946, entered the competition in the Third Division and played its first official match on 13. Affiliated to both the French Football Association and the Algiers Football Association League, it participated in all possible competitions in Algeria governed by these two organizations. The JSK won only one title during this period, it is a title of champion of the Second Division acquired at the end of the 1949–1950 season. An unofficial title of Premier Division champion also appears in its record when the team reached the Honorary Promotion Division. Finally the JSK will play its last match on 11 March 1956 and will cease all its activities following the appeal of the FLN. Players The Algerian teams are limited to three foreign players. The squad list includes only the principal nationality of each player. Current squad . Reserve squad Personnel Current technical staff Management Club personalities Presidents JSK is the most stable club in Algeria. It has only known 20 presidents (Rabah Mohammedi take two terms) since its creation in 1946. The president who has been the club president the shortest is Mouloud Iboud for a period of three months. The longest presidency of the JSK is that of Mohand Chérif Hannachi who was in office for 24 years. The most successful president is Boussad Benkaci with 14 titles in 15 years. No activity between 1956 and 1962 due to the Algerian war. The presidents who have succeeded at its head are: Coaches From Ali Benslama in 1946 to Rui Almeida, 82 changes of trainers have taken place. They involved 72 different people and the club has known no less than 18 coaching duos during its history. Some coaches have been at the head of JS Kabylie several times, such as Abderrahmane Boubekeur and Mahieddine Khalef. During this period, a coach stays in place for an average of one year and four months, or just over a championship season. The instability in this position is particularly strong during the period 1965–1977 since the club knows 15 changes of coaches during this period, which is equivalent to a different coach every seven and a half months. The arrival of the duo Mahieddine Khalef and Stefan Zywotko at the technical bar of the JSK for 13 seasons (from 1977 to 1990) stops this instability. However, after the departure of this duo, the JSK knows again a new waltz of coaches, which lasts until today, like the 29 coaches or duo of coaches that the club had between 1989 and 2011, or a trainer every nine months or so. Mahieddine Khalef is the most successful Algerian and JSK coaches (13 titles), with eight Algerian championship titles (1977, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1985, 1986, 1989 and 1990), two Algerian Cup (1977 and 1986), an African Cup of Champions Clubs in 1981 as well as an African Super Cup in 1982. He also won the CAF Cup in 2001 with Nasser Sendjak. The Khalef–Zywotko duo is the most successful technical staff (9 titles) with the JSK since they won the Algerian championships 1980, 1982, 1983, 1985, 1986, 1989 as well as the Algerian Cup in 1986, the African Cup of Champion Clubs in 1981 and the African Super Cup in 1982. This duo is considered "legendary" in the ranks of JSK supporters. Other coaches brought titles to the club: the JSK thus won the CAF Cup under the orders of the Sendjak–Khalef duo (who replaced Nadjmeddine Belayachi just before the final of 2000), Kamel Mouassa, and Jean-Yves Chay in 2000, 2001 and 2002 respectively. Djamel Menad, while being at the same time assistant coach of Djaâfar Harouni and player, allows the club to win the African Cup winners' Cup in 1995 and the championship. After nine years without a title of champion (longest period of famine in the history of the club), the JSK won the title of champion of Algeria under the leadership of Azzedine Aït Djoudi in 2004. After ten years without a title, the JSK won the Algerian League Cup in 2021 under the direction of Denis Lavagne and added a new line to its list. Among the coaches of the JSK, there are 31 foreign technicians who are twelve French, four Romanians, three Tunisians, three Belgians, two Hungarians, a Polish, a Yugoslav, a Swiss, a Brazilian, a Bulgarian, a Italian and an Portuguese. The longevity record is attributed to Stefan Zywotko (summer 1977 to December 1991, 14 years and 6 months). Unless otherwise indicated, the periods indicated in the following table begin and end respectively at the start and end of the season. No activity between 1956 and 1962 due to the Algerian war. Iconic players Some players have contributed to the great successes of this team, and a few have become legends for fans of the "canaries". Here are some big names of football players who have worn the colors of the JSK. means winner of African Games football, being a JSK player. means winner of the Africa Cup of Nations, being a JSK player means winner of Mediterranean Games football, being a JSK player. Captains of JS Kabylie To date, there have been 32 players who become captains (Mustafa Rafaï and Driss Kolli take two captaincies). No activity between 1956 and 1962 due to the Algerian war. Records The club had many records in Algeria, in Africa and in the World. Best Algerian club in the twentieth century. The CAF classify the club in one of the best ten clubs in Africa of the twentieth century (9th). The club is ranking 7th in Africa during the decade (2001–2011) by the IFFHS and also among the top ten of all times. The club has a total of 28 official trophies (record in Algeria). The club is the only Algerian club that has never been relegated to the second division. He has 55 seasons in the row in top level since the 1969–1970 season. In Algeria, the club is the most successful club in African cups with seven African titles in nine finals played. In Africa, the club is the 6th most successful club. JSK is the second Algerian club to have won the CAF Champions League. It was also the second Algerian club to win an African trophy. JSK is the first Algerian club to have won the CAF Champions League twice. JSK is the fastest Algerian club to win the CAF Champions League twice in a space of nine years. JSK has never lost in the final of the CAF Champions League. JSK is the first and only Algerian club to achieve twice the double CAF Champions League – Championship, in 1981 and 1990. JSK is the first and fastest Algerian club to win two African titles (December 1981 for the CAF Champions League and January 1982 for the African Super Cup). In the season 1981–1982 JSK won the treble CAF Champions League, African Super Cup and Algerian Championship. JSK twice achieved the double Algerian Cup – Championship in 1977 and 1986. JSK won twice in a row the Algerian Cup in 1992 and 1994 (the 1993 edition was not played). JSK participated four times in a row to the Algerian Super Cup final in 1992, 1994, 1995 and in 2006. JSK holds the record for the Algerian League Cup with a title tied with MC Oran, MC Alger and CR Belouizdad. JSK is the first and only Algerian club to have won the African Cup Winners' Cup. JSK is the first and only Algerian club to win the CAF Cup. JSK holds two other African records: it won the CAF Cup three times and consecutively in 2000, 2001 and 2002. JSK is the first club in the world to win the Continental C3 three times in a row. JSK is the only club in Africa with Al Ahly of Egypt to win an African competition clubs three times in a row which is a record. JSK is the only club in Africa with Étoile Sportive du Sahel of Tunisia that have played every finals of African competitions clubs that have existed (CAF Champions League, African Cup Winners Cup, CAF Cup, CAF Confederation Cup and CAF Super Cup). Only the African competition that started in october 2023 African Football League misses the list of both clubs. JSK is part in Africa of the very closed circle of clubs having won the three different African competitions before 2005 : the CAF Champions League, the African Cup Winners Cup and the CAF Cup, a record shared with Espérance Sportive de Tunis and Étoile Sportive du Sahel. JSK is the first club in Algeria and in Africa to win the African Super Cup at the Tournament of Fraternity in 1982. JSK is the only Algerian club that played two African Super Cup finals in 1982 and 1996. JSK is the Algerian club which has played the most African games (213 matches) including (122 matches) in the CAF Champions League as well as the club with the most of participation in African Cups (30 times). JSK holds the record in Algeria of victories in African competitions with 106 victories (62 victories in CAF Champions League). JSK holds the record in Algeria of goals scored in African competitions with 265 goals. The JSK is the Algerian club which has played the most national and continental finals in all competitions: nine African finals, one tournament of fraternity final, one tripartite tournament final, one Maghrebian final, 11 finals in the Algerian Cup, four finals in the Algerian Super Cup, one final of the trophy of champions, one final in the Algerian Championship and one final in the Algerian League Cup (30 in total). JSK is the most successful club in the Algerian Championship (14 titles). The JSK holds the record for the highest number of points in the Algerian Championship with on the counter achieved during the season 1985–1986, in a 20 clubs Championship (38 fixtures). JSK is the third Algerian club which has played the most finals in the Algerian Cup (11 finals). At the end of the season 2022–2023, JSK is the club with the most wins in the league (751 victories) in 54 seasons, having scored the most goals (2162 goals) and the third club having played the most top-flight matches (1649 matches). JSK holds the record for a club in Algeria of total matches played in one season with 57 matches in the 2020–2021 season. JSK holds the record for the greatest goal difference in a season with 89 goals scored for 22 goals conceded (+67) during the season 1985–1986 (38 fixtures). JSK achieved the best defense in its history during the 1997–1998 Championship with only 11 goals conceded in a 14 fixtures. The JSK also holds the record for the greatest number of Championship victories: 27 victories in 38 matches during the season 1985–1986. The JSK jointly hold the record for the largest victory in the league with a score of 11–0, against JHD Algiers, achieved in Championship during the season 1985–1986. JSK also holds the record for the greatest number of doubles in the Algerian Championship with four doubles. JSK holds the record in the Algerian Championship for the most podiums with 32 podiums. Nacer Bouiche is the Algerian golden shoe, the most prolific in the history of the Championship, with a record of 36 goals scored during the 1985–1986 (38 fixtures) with the club. He scored a total of 46 goals in that season which is a record in Algeria. Mouloud Iboud has played 424 matches in the Algerian Championship which is a record in Algeria. The JSK also has the record for the greatest number of Algerian golden shoes: 12 in total. JSK is part of the very closed circle of clubs which have never known relegation to the second division in the world since its accession to the first division in 1969. Statistics Players with most appearances in officials competitions Players with most goals in officials competitions Players with most titles in officials competitions Individual trophies Crest Notes References External links 1946 establishments in Algeria African Cup Winners Cup winning clubs Algerian Ligue Professionnelle 1 clubs Association football clubs established in 1946 CAF Champions League winning clubs CAF Cup winning clubs Football clubs in Algeria Kabylie Tizi Ouzou Province
4782296	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme%20Executive%20Council%20of%20the%20Commonwealth%20of%20Pennsylvania	Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania	The Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania was the collective directorial executive branch of the Pennsylvanian state government between 1777 and 1790. It was headed by a president and a vice president (analogous to a governor and lieutenant governor, respectively). The best-known member of the Council was Benjamin Franklin, who also served as its sixth president. 1776 Constitution The 1776 Constitution of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania was framed by a constitutional convention called at the urging of the Continental Congress. The convention began work in Philadelphia on July 15, 1776, less than two weeks following adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The Constitution was adopted September 28 of the same year. The document included both A Declaration of the Rights of the Inhabitants of the Commonwealth and a Plan or Frame of Government. The latter includes 47 sections, several of which deal with the formation and function of the Supreme Executive Council. Section 3: "The supreme executive power shall be vested in a president and council." Section 19: "For the present the supreme executive council of this state shall consist of twelve persons chosen in the following manner..." The city of Philadelphia and the eleven counties existing at that time each elected a representative to sit on the Council. These eleven counties were Philadelphia (at that time a governmental entity distinct from the City of Philadelphia), Chester, Bucks, Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Berks, Northampton, Bedford, Northumberland, and Westmoreland. Seats were added for Washington, Fayette, Franklin, Montgomery, Dauphin, Luzerne, Huntingdon, and Allegheny as those counties were established. Many of these counties occupied considerably different and often much larger territories in the late 18th century than they presently. Counsellors were elected to three-year terms; the terms were staggered so that one third would be contested each year. (Counsellors is the spelling used in the Constitution itself, although the word is also rendered councillors, counsellors, and councilors in other documents.) The president and vice-president of the Council were chosen from those twelve counsellors, elected to one-year terms by an annual joint ballot of the Council and the General Assembly (the state legislature), usually held in November. Section 20: The Council and its president were given power to appoint judges, attorneys general, naval officers, and other officers fill offices vacant due to death, resignation, removal, or disqualification correspond with other states prepare business to present to the General Assembly serve as judges on cases of impeachment grant pardons and remit fines (except in cases of impeachment) grant reprieves in cases of treason and murder ensure that the laws and other acts of the General Assembly were carried out lay embargoes and prohibit the export of any commodity (in certain circumstances) Additionally: the president of council was to serve as commander in chief of the military forces of the state the Council was ordered to keep an accurate record of its proceedings Meeting place and time The 1776 Constitution stipulated that the Council meet at the same time and location as the General Assembly. In practice, the Council sat year-round: there was no formal cycle of sessions (e.g. 110th United States Congress) and no specific date for the start of term of councilors or council officers. The Supreme Executive Council formally convened March 4, 1777. The first president and vice-president were elected the following day. The Council sat in the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia, now known as Independence Hall. It met in what had been the Governor's Council Chamber during British rule. The Executive Council, along with the General Assembly, moved to Lancaster, Pennsylvania ahead of the British occupation of Philadelphia in the fall of 1777—the last meeting in Philadelphia took place on September 23 and the first in Lancaster on October 1. The Council returned to Philadelphia June 26, 1778. The Council was replaced by a single governor on December 21, 1790. Presidents of Council Seven men served as president of the Supreme Executive Council. (One, George Bryan, was never elected to the position, but today is considered by the Commonwealth to have been a full-fledged governor of Pennsylvania, perhaps due to the length of his term as acting president.) Several figure prominently in the history of Pennsylvania, but none more so than Dr. Benjamin Franklin. His presidency was one of his last acts of public service, and he died less than two years after leaving office. Franklin was also the longest-serving president, having held the office for slightly over three years. There is some question about the de facto end of his term, suggesting that the aging Franklin was not actively involved in affairs of state toward the end of his presidency. (This is certainly not a consensus view, as other sources report that all actions of the Council during his term had Franklin's approval, even if that meant convening the Council at Franklin's home.) The shortest term was that of George Bryan, who served as acting president for just over six months. Although these men may be referred to properly as Presidents of Pennsylvania their office is analogous to the modern office of governor, and they are often included in lists of those who have held the latter title. Presidents and vice-presidents were styled His Excellency. Legacy The neighborhood of South Philadelphia contains a series of east-west streets named in honor of Pennsylvania's presidents and early governors. Moving south on South 25th Street are Wharton, Reed and Dickinson Streets. (Bryan, never officially elected to the office, is omitted.) Moore Street, out of sequence, follows after two intervening streets (Tasker and Morris). There is no Franklin Street in the immediate neighborhood, probably because there already was a North Franklin Street on the west side of Franklin Square, these being two of the numerous memorials to Franklin already in Philadelphia. Moore is followed by Mifflin Street, McKean Street, and Snyder Street (the latter being Pennsylvania's second and third governors under the 1790 Constitution). Wharton Street borders Wharton Square Park, although it is not clear if the park is named after Thomas Wharton or another member of his prominent family. Dickinson College and the Dickinson School of Law, both in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, were named after John Dickinson. Vice-presidents of Council Similarly, the office of Vice-President of Pennsylvania is analogous to the modern office of Lieutenant Governor. Of the ten men who held the office, two succeeded to the presidency (the first—Bryan—de facto, the second—Moore—de jure). The longest vice-presidential term was that of George Bryan; he served over two and a half years, although he also served as de facto acting president for six months concurrent with his vice-presidential term. The shortest term was that of Matthew Smith, who served for twelve days in October 1779. "Acting" presidents At least one source credits four vice-presidents with having served as acting presidents: George Bryan (acting president May 23, 1778 – December 1, 1778) James Potter (acting president October 8 – November 7, 1782) Charles Biddle (acting president October 10–18, 1785) David Redick (acting president October 14 – November 5, 1788) With the exception of Bryan, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania makes no such distinction, and its listing of the state's early governors includes neither Potter, Biddle, nor Redick. (presidents of Pennsylvania are sometimes included in the listing of former governors). None of these men (including Bryan) was given the title of acting president during his time in office—each continued to be addressed as Vice-President and was titled Acting President only after the fact. (And, regarding all but Bryan, the honor is strictly unofficial.) During George Bryan's "term" as acting president, the office of president was, in fact, vacant—Thomas Wharton died May 23, 1778, and an election to choose his successor was not held until December 1—due perhaps to the Council's evacuation to Lancaster during that time. At over seven months, Bryan's tenure was such that today he is considered a full-fledged governor by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The situations of the three other "acting presidents" is less clear, although there are some similarities. In each instance the president was replaced—or due to be replaced—as his county's Counsellor before the completion of his term as President. For example, Redick's supposed acting presidency spanned the final three weeks of Dr. Franklin's presidential term. Franklin's three-year term as counsellor from the City of Philadelphia was to expire on or around October 17, 1788—two weeks before the conclusion of his final one-year presidential term on October 31. The 1776 Constitution is not specific on the matter, but as the president and vice-president were chosen from among the members of the Council, it appears that most presidents chose to leave that office, or were replaced, prior to the expiration of their term as counsellor, rather than have an executive preside over a body of which he was no longer a member. Thus, these "acting presidencies" may have spanned the period between the de facto end of one presidency (due to term limits) and the formal election of a successor. Franklin, for instance, was succeeded as counsellor for the City of Philadelphia by Samuel Miles on October 20, but his presidency officially did not end until November 5. If Franklin did indeed continue to exercise the office during those final weeks not only would he have been presiding beyond the end of his term as counsellor but also beyond the three-year term limit established by the 1776 Constitution. The official minutes of the Council contain no indication that the president in any of these situations (Moore, Dickinson and Franklin, respectively) had formally left, relinquished or been removed from office; nonetheless during these periods the president was absent from council meetings, which were thus overseen by the vice-president. This suggests that any "interim administration" was established quietly and "off the record". A similar situation occurred at the end of Joseph Reed's presidency. Reed was succeeded as counsellor from Philadelphia County by John Bayard on October 16, 1781 but ostensibly remained president until William Moore took office on November 15. Yet no claims of an "acting presidency" have been made for Moore, who held the Vice-Presidency during this interim period, immediately prior to his election as president. Similarly, Charles Biddle appears to have retained the Vice-Presidency—at least officially—even after leaving his seat on the Council. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania reports that Biddle's vice-presidential term extended to October 31, 1787, at which time Peter Muhlenberg succeeded him in that office. However, Biddle's term as counsellor from Berks County ended eighteen days earlier, on October 13, when he was succeeded in that office by James Read. Furthermore, Biddle was elected secretary of the Council on October 23, a clerical position that likely would not have been assumed by one who was also an officer of the Council and a high state official. Leadership elections The first election of a president and vice-president of Pennsylvania took place March 5, 1777, the day after the Council first convened. Thereafter, leadership elections took place in the fall, generally in November, following the popular election (held the second Tuesday in October) in which counsellors and Assemblymen were elected by eligible citizens. Routine elections involved a joint ballot of the Council and the General Assembly. Several other elections were held to fill vacancies resulting from resignation; these involved only a vote by the Council rather than a joint ballot with the Assembly. More often than not, records do not list contenders (other than the winners) or vote tallies, saying simply that a particular gentleman was duly elected president and another vice-president. Presidents and vice-presidents were elected to one-year terms. They could be reelected, but their term as president or vice-president could not (in theory) extend beyond the end of their three-year term as counsellor. Discrepant dates and the oath of office Throughout the history of the Council it was standard practice for newly elected presidents and vice-presidents to take office immediately upon election. However, there were a few instances in which an individual did not take the oath of office until the day following his election. Section 40 of the 1776 Constitution stipulates: "Every officer, whether judicial, executive or military, in authority under this commonwealth, shall take the following…oath of office before he enters on the execution of his office," meaning that an individual could not assume the duties of his office before taking the necessary oath. Cross referencing the election dates above with the preceding listings of terms in office will thus reveal several slight discrepancies, all resulting from a delayed administration of the oath: George Bryan, elected vice-president March 5, 1777, took office March 6. William Moore, elected president November 14, 1781, took office November 15. James Potter, elected vice-president November 14, 1781, took office November 15. No reasons for the delays are noted in the minutes of the Council. Neither set of dates involved a conflict with the sabbath. There were other instances that involved reelections of men who had already been sworn into office at the start of their previous term and which thus caused no delay. These are not noted here. Counsellors Counsellors were elected to represent each county in Pennsylvania as well as the city of Philadelphia. They were elected to three-year terms. Many served less than a full three, while others appear to have served slightly more. The Council sat year-round and there was no specific date set for the start of a session or of any counsellor's term. Rather, new counsellors appear to have begun their terms whenever they were able to reach Philadelphia following their elections. The general election at that time was held on the second Tuesday in October and most counsellors took office in late October or in November. In most instances it is easy to fix the date on which a particular counsellor's term began, as the Minutes of the Council will note that on a particular date a particular gentleman was administered the oath and admitted to his seat. Many counsellors had sporadic attendance, and several were absent for a year or more at a time. This was particularly true of representatives from the distant western counties, although the phenomenon was certainly not limited to those gentlemen. Some counsellors simply sat out the last several months of their terms, their names disappearing from the Minutes by late summer or early autumn. Thus, the following list of counsellors generally notes only the day on which each began his term; unless indicated otherwise it is assumed that each term extended to the beginning of the next, regardless of the incumbent's actual attendance. Counsellors were accorded the title of Esquire. Term limits With the Council set to be dissolved in December 1790, a provision of the new state constitution allowed counsellors and council officers whose terms would have expired that autumn to remain in office until December 21, rather than hold elections for new counsellors who would sit for only one or two months. Also, a review of the dates on which a particular county's counsellors began their terms will reveal several instances in which more than three years elapsed between the start of successive terms. It is uncertain whether the seat technically became vacant after exactly three years or if the incumbent's term extended to the start of his successor's, even if this meant exceeding the three-year term limit imposed by the 1776 Constitution. List of counsellors The home counties of two early counsellors, John Evans and John Lowdan, has not yet been determined. Both were sitting when the Council first convened on March 4, 1777. It appears that one likely represented Chester County and the other York. City of Philadelphia George Bryan (March 4, 1777) William Moore (October 18, 1779) James Irvine (October 14, 1782) Benjamin Franklin (October 17, 1785) Samuel Miles (October 20, 1788 – December 21, 1790) Philadelphia County Joseph Wharton (March 4, 1777; died in office May 23, 1778) Joseph Reed (November 24, 1778) John Bayard (October 16, 1781) John Dickinson (November 4, 1782) Henry Hill (October 17, 1785) Thomas Mifflin (October 20, 1788 – December 21, 1790) Chester County John Mackey (McKay, MacKay, Macky) (November 21, 1777) Dr. Joseph Gardner (October 23, 1779) John McDowell (November 2, 1782) Evan Evans (October 28, 1785) Richard Willing (October 16, 1788 – December 21, 1790) Bucks County Joseph Hart (July 23, 1777) Gen. John Lacey Jr. (October 28, 1779) George Wall Jr. (October 29, 1782) Samuel Dean (November 1, 1785) Amos Gregg (October 21, 1788 – December 21, 1790) Lancaster County John Hubley (March 10, 1777) John Bailey (June 2, 1777) Col. Matthew Smith (May 28, 1778) James Cunningham (January 5, 1781) Samuel John Atlee (October 21, 1783) John Whitehill (December 22, 1784) George Ross (October 16, 1787 – December 21, 1790) York County Jason Edgar (November 4, 1777) James Ewing (February 9, 1779; withdrew a few days later due to questions regarding his election) Mr. Thompson (March 8, 1779) James Ewing (October 26, 1781) Richard McCallister (McAlister) (October 26, 1784) Andrew Bellmeyer (Billmeyer) (January 19, 1787) Samuel Edie (October 25, 1787 – December 21, 1790) Cumberland County Jonathan Hoge ( March 4, 1777) James McLene (McClean, M'Lean, McLean) (November 9, 1778) Robert Whitehill (December 28, 1779) John Buyers (Byers) (November 20, 1781) Jonathan Hoge (November 3, 1784) Frederick Watt (October 26, 1787 – December 21, 1790) Berks County Jacob Morgan (September 3, 1777) James Read (July 1, 1778) Sebastian Levan (October 31, 1781) Charles Biddle (October 30, 1784) James Read (October 13, 1787 – December 21, 1790) Northampton County George Taylor (March 4, 1777) Jacob Arndt (Orndt) (November 8, 1777) John VanCampen (November 4, 1780) Stephen Balliot(Balliet) (November 3, 1783) Robert Trail (October 23, 1786) Jonas Hartzell (October 20, 1789 – December 21, 1790) Bedford County Thomas Urie (November 14, 1777) John Piper (November 17, 1780) Isaac Meason (Mason) (November 12, 1783) seat vacant approximately one year due to election irregularities George Woods (November 1, 1787) James Martin (November 12, 1789 – December 21, 1790) Northumberland County Capt. John Hambright (Hambidght) (November 4, 1777) Brig. Gen. James Potter (November 16, 1780) John Boyd (November 25, 1783) William McClay (October 23, 1786) William Wilson (October 23, 1789 – December 21, 1790) Westmoreland County John Proctor (March 4, 1777) Thomas Scott (November 29, 1777) Christopher Hayes (February 17, 1781) Bernard Dougherty (November 11, 1783) John Baird (Beard) (November 17, 1786) William Findley (November 25, 1789 – December 21, 1790) Washington County (erected 1781) Dorsey (Dorset) Pentecost (November 19, 1781) Gen. John Neville (November 11, 1783) David Redick (November 20, 1786) Henry Taylor (December 3, 1789 – December 21, 1790) Fayette County (erected 1783) John Woods (November 6, 1784) John Smilie (November 2, 1786) Nathaniel Breading (November 19, 1789 – December 21, 1790) Franklin County (erected 1784) James McLene (February 2, 1785) Abraham Smith (October 24, 1787 – December 21, 1790) Montgomery County (erected 1784) Daniel Hiester (October 15, 1784) Peter Muhlenberg (October 24, 1785) Zebulon Potts (October 16, 1788 – December 21, 1790) Dauphin County (erected 1785) William Brown (November 14, 1785) Christopher Kucher (November 1, 1787 – December 21, 1790) Luzerne County (erected 1786) Col. Nathan Denison, Jr. (March 2, 1787) Lord Butler (October 30, 1789 – December 21, 1790) Huntingdon County (erected 1787) John Cannon (November 21, 1787) Benjamin Elliott (December 30, 1789 – December 21, 1790) Allegheny County (erected 1788) Dr. John Wilkins Jr. (November 20, 1789 – December 21, 1790) 1790 Constitution A constitutional convention was called in 1789 and a new state constitution was adopted the following year. The 1790 Constitution did away with the Supreme Executive Council and vested supreme executive power in the office of governor. On December 21, 1790 Thomas Mifflin, the last President of Pennsylvania, took office as the state's first governor. (The title of governor had been used during the Colonial era, although it referred to the appointed representative of the monarch or the Proprietor, rather than to an elected official.) The executive branch of the state government has been headed by a governor since that time. The 1790 Constitution made no provision for a lieutenant governor. Upon the death or resignation of the governor the office would be assumed by the Speaker of the State Senate. (This position no longer exists.) The office of lieutenant governor was created by the 1873 State Constitution and first occupied (by John Latta) in 1875. See also French Directory, a similar joint-executive arrangement during the French First Republic possibly inspired by the Supreme Executive Council References Government of Pennsylvania History of Pennsylvania Governors of Pennsylvania Lieutenant Governors of Pennsylvania Pennsylvania in the American Revolution State executive councils of the United States
4782478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NZR%20RM%20class%20%2888%20seater%29	NZR RM class (88 seater)	The NZR RM class 88-seaters were a class of railcar used in New Zealand. New Zealand Government Railways (NZR) classified them as RM (Rail Motor), the notation used for all railcars, numbering the 35 sets from RM100 to RM134. They were the most numerous railcars in NZR service. Their purchase and introduction saw the demise of steam-hauled provincial passenger trains and mixed trains, and was part of a deliberate effort to modernise NZR passenger services at a time of increasing competition from private motor vehicles. Being diesel powered and lighter the railcars were less expensive to operate and able to maintain quicker timetables, although became plagued with mechanical and electrical problems, with a number of the class eventually being turned into depowered locomotive-hauled carriages and reclassified as the AC class "Grassgrubs". Background In the early 1950s, NZR was in the process of replacing steam traction with diesel and modernising the railways to cope with vastly increased traffic, the after-effects of wartime stringency, and increasing competition from motor vehicles and aeroplanes. As part of this modernisation process, it was decided to upgrade provincial passenger services, which were provided by a combination of steam-hauled passenger trains that operated several times a week, and "mixed" trains that carried both freight and passengers. NZR had experimented with several different classes of railcars, but it was not until after the second World War that railcars began to replace provincial passenger services en masse. Following the success of the Vulcan railcars introduced in the 1940s, NZR began investigating the replacement of the older Wairarapa class railcars in the mid-1940s with larger diesel-electric railcars. A tender for 25 replacement railcars was approved by Cabinet in 1944, but the second World War delayed responses being completed until 1947. In 1948, NZR decided not to proceed with this tender as the prices received were considered too high. In 1949, Cabinet approved a new tender to replace the Wairarapa railcars and other steam-hauled services, which were to have 88 seats and have braking equipment for the centre rail on the Rimutaka Incline. A total of 35 railcars were now specified. It was decided that engines for the railcars should be mounted underfloor for increased passenger capacity and for a parcels and baggage compartment, with trussed-chassis to support the braking equipment. Tenders were received from English Electric and the Drewry Car Company. Drewry's tender presented a design for an articulated railcar with seating for 88 passengers, with either Hercules or Fiat engines. An order was placed with Drewry in the United Kingdom in March 1950 for the railcars with the Fiat engines. Drewry had supplied some smaller diesel shunting locomotives (DSA class and DSB class locomotives) to NZR previously. Due to the progress of the Rimutaka Tunnel (which opened in November 1955), and the impending closure of the Rimutaka Incline, it was decided by NZR to remove the requirement for centre-rail braking and the trussed-chassis required to hold the braking equipment. Introduction The railcars were constructed under subcontract by the Birmingham Railway Carriage and Wagon Company from Drewry. There were significant delays in delivering the railcars, with one (RM 120) damaged in transit, and used as a spare parts source for the other railcars. The first railcar was delivered in November 1954 and the last in May 1958. The arrival of the first railcars was greeted with enthusiasm by local newspapers, and were described as a "new-dawn for long-distance rail travel" in New Zealand. A number of "ministerial special" promotional services were run in March 1955, and the first service operated by an 88-seater railcar was the Wellington-Gisborne daily service on 6 April 1955. Following their introduction, the railcars suffered overheating from ballast dust and engine failure, which led to railcars running 20 to 30 minutes late every two to three days. This was despite two Fiat fitters being in New Zealand as the railcars went into service. The railcars also suffered frequent internal fires, which led to external fires in the farmland and foliage along the tracks. Both types of fire were due to excessive hot carbon particles in the exhaust emissions. These problems were most notable in the South Island on steep West Coast railway lines and the steep Scargill and Dashwood sections of the Main North Line. The crankcases were not strong enough to absorb the power of the diesel engines that drove the railcars. These issues were considered so serious that NZR called a meeting with Drewry and Fiat in March 1957. Ten of the railcars had wrecked crankcases and blown motors. Following the meeting, a number of replacement motors and crankcases were ordered in late 1957. Additional Fiat staff and fitters came to New Zealand from Italy and essentially rebuilt the engines and power systems of all the railcars. The rebuilding was completed in March 1959, and the Minister reported that the railcars were giving "much better service" as a result. Second batch The second batch of 15 railcars was authorised by the government in October 1955, but cancelled in 1956 due to the unsatisfactory performance of the first batch of railcars, in particular, their high cost in repairs and excessive diversion of skilled labour for those repairs, particularly in Auckland. In service In early December 1955, NZR ran a four-day demonstration train from Picton to Invercargill, creating much public interest. After initial trials around Wellington, the railcars were deployed on a wide variety of provincial services. In the North Island they ran: Auckland – Okaihau and Opua (starting 12 November 1956); Auckland – Te Puke (starting 8 February 1959); Auckland – Rotorua (starting 8 February 1959); Auckland – Taumarunui and New Plymouth (starting 26 November 1956); Wellington – Napier and Gisborne (starting 1 August 1955) In the South Island they ran: Christchurch – Picton (starting 12 February 1956); Christchurch – Invercargill (starting 13 February 1956); Christchurch – Greymouth and Ross in conjunction with the Vulcan class (starting 20 February 1956). Operation From almost the beginning the railcars faced mechanical problems, with cooling being the primary issue, along with crankcase failures and electrical fires towards the end of their lives. Although modifications were made they continued to have a reputation for unreliability throughout their career, frequently having to run with one motor isolated. The 1950s was a period of increased prosperity and saw massive increases in the numbers of private motorcars, along with improvements to roads such as the tar sealing of main highways, and the construction of new roads such as the Auckland Harbour Bridge. Growing road traffic led to the requirement in 1956 that all railcars have headlights on at all times. While the delay in introducing the railcars on the Rotorua route (1959) and the difficult geography of the Northland and Bay of Plenty service meant poor patronage, the railcars stabilised NZRs long-distance rail patronage at 3 million passengers annually from 1959 to 1964. But by the mid-1960s the railcars were dated, patronage fell and services became unprofitable. Main trunk services The 1952 Royal Commission recommended railcar services on the North Island Main Trunk and replacing the daylight multiple stops train on the Main South Line (which supplemented the South Island Limited and other fast express services) leaving Dunedin at 8:05 am and Christchurch at 9:40 am on Monday, Wednesday and Friday and replace local trains between Auckland and Hamilton, Wellington and Palmerston North, Christchurch and Ashburton. These services did not eventuate following the decision to cancel the second batch of railcars in 1956. Replacement engines NZR requested the calling of tenders for new engines and crankshafts for all 35 railcars plus spares for £1.05 million New Zealand pounds in July 1966. In January 1967 the Cabinet approved only replacement crankshafts to continue the railcars for five years on the Wairarapa, Wellington-Napier-Gisborne and Auckland-New Plymouth routes and to conduct trials of fast upgraded railcar service between Auckland and Hamilton (later known as the "Blue Streak" service) and Wellington and Palmerston North. At the time it was intended to scrap all railcar services in the South Island, except for Vulcans on the Picton (Vulcan railcars and summer passenger trains replaced the 88-seaters on this route from 1967 to 1968) and West Coast services. Service cancellations From 31 July 1967 all railcar services between Auckland and Northland were cancelled, along with services from Auckland and Hamilton to Tauranga and Te Puke. The railcar service to New Plymouth was kept but was cut back to operate between New Plymouth and Taumarunui in 1971, with passengers making connections to North Island Main Trunk trains. This service lasted until 11 February 1978 when it was replaced by a carriage train. The final run of an 88-seater railcar was in 1978 from Greymouth to Christchurch. The last trip came to an ignominious end when an engine failure and fire meant that passengers had to be taken onwards from Otira by bus. Almost all cancelled trains were replaced by New Zealand Railways Road Services buses. Withdrawals By 1971, 10 of the original 35 railcars had been withdrawn, due to engine problems or collisions with motor vehicles. In 1976 it was announced that no more railcars would receive major overhaul works, and they would be withdrawn from service as they wore out. Although the remaining services were to areas not well served by road, the mechanical condition of the railcars meant that by the mid-1970s replacement was becoming urgent. By 1978, the only remaining railcars in NZR service were the Silver Ferns. Blue Streaks In 1968, at the suggestion of Hamilton City Council, an 88-seater was refurbished for a new fast service between Hamilton and Auckland aimed at business customers, and it started on Monday, 8 April 1968. It was fitted with carpet and re-upholstered fabric-covered seats, and was painted in a new two-tone blue colour scheme that prompted the nickname Blue Streak. The seating was reduced to 84 to accommodate a servery area from which light meals and assorted alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks could be purchased. This was notable as the first time that a regularly scheduled passenger train service in New Zealand had reinstated onboard catering since dining cars had been withdrawn across the network as an economy measure during World War I. This initial service was unsuccessful, with patronage well below the levels needed to be profitable. The service might have been successful if run the other way round from Hamilton to Auckland in the morning but in 1968 the Wellington-Auckland Limited and Express were still timetabled to cater for the early morning commuter market from Hamilton and Huntly or in the other direction from Palmerston North and Levin and those leaving Auckland or Wellington in the evening for the Waikato or Manawatu or Horowhenua, while the NZR long term desire to maintain the New Plymouth- Auckland railcar service was much more because it brought people into Auckland in the morning, leaving Taumarunui at 6.30 am and Hamilton at 9.30 am and returned in the afternoon rather than for its night social and paper service through the King Country which Government saw as essential. Therefore, the Hamilton commuter market was served by many other services at lower second class fare cost in 1968 and the Blue Streak experiment was simply in the wrong direction at the wrong time. It was decided to introduce the railcar to a daytime service between Auckland and Wellington. This service, which started on Monday 23 September 1968, was highly successful and prompted the conversion of two further cars to 82 seats each to accommodate larger servery areas and, later, the purchase of the Silver Fern diesel-electric railcars for this service. Initially, the Main Trunk Blue Streak railcar ran from Wellington to Auckland on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays and on Tuesdays and Thursdays from Auckland to Wellington until a second railcar was refurbished for the Christmas 1968 and New Year 1969 period and a third for the 1969 Easter holidays. The service proved so popular that it was not uncommon to see two of the railcars running in multiple. On Thursday 18 December 1972, the Blue Streak services were replaced by the new Silver Fern railcars and were transferred to the Wellington-to-New Plymouth service, replacing Standard railcars. They continued in this service until Friday 30 July 1977. By that time they were no longer serviceable, patronage had continued to decline and the service was replaced with buses. Grassgrubs In March 1976, NZR general manager Tom Small instructed his chief mechanical engineer to prepare plans to convert 14 railcars to unpowered carriages. In April 1976 the chief mechanical engineer reported that 23 railcars were suitable for conversion to locomotive-hauled passenger carriages. A formal white paper proposal was put to Treasury on 23 July 1976. The paper argued that conversion of the railcars to locomotive-hauled carriages was the most viable option given that most railcars were expected to have to be withdrawn by mid 1977 due to mechanical problems. The paper noted that as locomotive-hauled carriages, the railcars would not be able to maintain the same schedules, having to be slower when towed. While the paper recommended conversion, it also noted that the conversions were only a medium-term solution to maintain rail passenger services. Cabinet agreed to the proposal following Treasury advice to convert 14 railcars on 27 September 1976. NZR's workshops began the conversions of the railcars. The workshops removed the railcars engines and drivers' cabs, added new lighting, seating, heaters, generators and new vinyl flooring. The carriages were classified as "AC". These carriages were refurbished painted a unique grass green (a Resene paint known as "Trendy Green.") with grey roofs and came to be known as "Grassgrubs" following an article in The Press describing the converted railcars as "The Grass-Grub Express" in an article on the trial run of the carriages on 1 December 1977. Small's successor as general manager, Trevor Hayward, insisted on this scheme, as railway historian David Leitch put to Hayward in a letter that traditional Midland red was associated with poor service, arguing that if the public saw the carriages as just old red railcars hauled by locomotives, that would have negative connotations. The first Grassgrub train ran on 5 December 1977 from Picton to Christchurch. The Napier-Gisborne Grassgrub service began on 20 March 1978, and proved popular. Between May and August average daily ridership was 61 per cent of capacity. The Grassgrubs were also used on the New Plymouth to Taumarunui, Wellington to Palmerston North via the Wairarapa and Christchurch to Greymouth services. The Grassgrubs were ill-fated. Their drawgear and bodies were not designed to be locomotive-hauled and they quickly wore out. By 1985 they had all been withdrawn from service due to metal fatigue. The South Island based Grassgrubs were the first to be replaced by 56-foot carriages on the Picton-Christchurch and Christchurch-Greymouth services by 1983. The remaining Grassgrubs were moved to Wellington and remained in use on the Wellington-Gisborne, Wellington-Wairarapa services. The Gisborne service Grassgrubs were withdrawn by 1984, along with the Wellington-Wairarapa services in 1985. Most of the passenger runs were continued after their demise, but the New Plymouth-Taumarunui service ended on 23 January 1983 (having already had its rolling stock replaced by 56-foot carriages.) The Wellington to Gisborne service eventually terminated at Napier following Cyclone Bola in March 1988. By July 1988, the Wellington-Wairarapa service was abbreviated to terminate in Masterton as patronage on the Masterton – Palmerston North section was often fewer than 20 passengers per trip, due to improved highways and bus services. The Grassgrubs were sent to Douglas, Taranaki for scrapping, after their useful parts were stripped out of them at Easttown Workshops. One set was sold to the Ministry of Transport for fire service training at Auckland International Airport and has been preserved (see below). Preservation Following withdrawal from service, a number of the 88 seaters were stored around the country. Several units along with a Vulcan railcar were sold to the Southern Rail preservation project at Christchurch where they were later scrapped; the cab and baggage car section of the No.1 end of RM 119 on the leading bogie together with some engines and gearboxes were kept at this time. After the project was wound up, the partial section of RM 119 was moved to Linwood Locomotive Depot where it remained in storage for several years. Subsequently, the further abbreviated RM 119 consisting of just the cab and part of the baggage compartment was stored in a Bromley scrapyard, where it was found and purchased by the RM 133 Trust Board. By the early 1990s, the only known survivor was RM 133 in its "Grassgrub" form as AC 8140, used for fire training at Auckland Airport. In 2001 the RM 133 Trust Board was able to obtain this car. Before the railcar could be removed a fire broke out in the No 2 end of the railcar, damaging the body. The RM 133 Trust decided to look for any other extant railcar halves to pair with the No 1 end of RM 133, which had been moved to the Pahiatua Railcar Society's site. The No 1 end of RM 121 was discovered at a holiday camp in Waitomo in 2001 - 02. The ends had been separated in the mid-1980s after the railcar was used as offices at a former theme park in East Tamaki, Auckland, and the No 1 end had then gone to Kaukapakapa until 1996 when it went to Waitomo. On New Year's Eve 2002, the trust located the No 2 end of RM 121 in a quarry at Kerikeri, where it had been since the ends were separated. Its move to Kerikeri was reported in railway publications at the time, but it fell off the radar after that. Although the car was in a weathered condition and had been cut in half at some point, it was still relatively complete despite missing the seats, bogies (removed in the late 1970s at Otahuhu Workshops), and its diesel engines. This railcar was purchased to become the replacement for the damaged half of RM 133 and moved to Pahiatua where restoration work began. The Trust negotiated with the owners of the No 1 end of RM 121 to buy it and were eventually able to do so in 2011 in exchange for two former wooden passenger cars. It was then trucked to Pahiatua to be reunited with the No 2 end there. The two ends of RM 121 are now being restored at Pahiatua; the two halves of the No 2 end have been welded together again and a new cab structure and cowcatcher built. The No 1 end has been stripped of any fittings from its time spent at Waitomo and various reconstruction work is taking place. The resultant car will utilise the bogies from RM 133. The two ends of RM 133 are in storage at Pahiatua. References Footnotes Citations Bibliography External links Pahiatua Railcar Preservation Society Trainweb Drewry Railcar Page RM class (88 seater) Articulated passenger trains Fiat multiple units Rail transport in New Zealand
4782774	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durbanville	Durbanville	Durbanville is a town in the Western Cape province of South Africa, part of the greater Cape Town metropolitan area. Durbanville is a semi-rural residential suburb on the north-eastern outskirts of the metropolis surrounded by farms producing wine and wheat. History Precolonial period (before 1652) The first modern humans indigenous to the Cape area included the Khoina and the Khoisan tribes. The indigenous people lived in the Cape and its surrounding coastal areas dating as far back as 60 000 years ago. They migrated from the interior of the country, what is today the Northern Cape province, and from Botswana and Namibia to the Cape. Dutch colonial period (1652-1795) Durbanville's inception can be traced to a fresh water spring located in the town. The spring is currently situated behind the Durbanville Children's Home. The spring was designated by the VOC (Dutch East India Company, Dutch: Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie) in the mid-1600s to be used as a water replenishment station for travelers on their way from Cape Town to the interior of southern Africa. In 1661 rhinoceros and ostrich were known to inhabit the area. Durbanville was originally known as Pampoenkraal (from the Afrikaans words pampoen meaning pumpkin, and kraal meaning corral - an enclosure for livestock). This name was attributed to the town because of a pumpkin patch which grew alongside a dam located behind the current Town Hall. Due to the natural spring, Pampoenkraal became a preferred resting place for travellers before continuing on their journey into the interior. During the late 1600s, the VOC allocated farms to free burghers situated around the town. Some of those farms are still in existence today, many of which are renowned for their wine production. These include Bloemendal, Meerendal, Diemersdal and Altydgedacht. British colonial period (1795-1902) The first portions of land were earmarked as residential properties and allocated in 1806, signifying the start and development of Durbanville. In 1825 a group of local farmers requested permission from Lord Charles Somerset (governor of the Cape Colony at that time) to build their own church. The Dutch Reformed Church was commenced in 1825 and inaugurated a year later on 6 August 1826. A small village grew between the church and the outspan (overnight stop). During 1836 the inhabitants of Pampoenkraal petitioned the Governor of the Cape Colony, Sir Benjamin d'Urban, for permission to rename the village D'Urban in his honour. Permission was duly granted and the new name persisted until 1886 when it was renamed to Durbanville in order to avoid confusion with Durban - a major port city in the east of South Africa. Durbanville had its own court house, jail and magistrate from the 1870s and became a Magisterial District of Bellville. The court house complex still exists in altered form within the Rust-en-Vrede complex, originally erected in 1850. A village management board was established in 1897 and a municipality in 1901. The first mayor elected was John King. The village grew rapidly after the turn of the 19th century and a local wagon industry developed. The King Brothers Wagon Works' used to be South Africa's biggest wagon works. At the turn of the century, it employed more than 200 men, which just about accounted for the entire village. Post-Apartheid (1994-) In 1996, Durbanville lost its municipal status and was dissolved into the Tygerberg Municipality along with Bellville, Parow and Goodwood as part of the transition in local government. As of 2000, Durbanville was amalgamated into the City of Cape Town Metropolitan Municipality and is effectively a suburb of the City of Cape Town. Although Durbanville is now part of the City of Cape Town it is still a town in its own right Durbanville today Over the past years, Durbanville has seen considerable development in the greater area which has seen the town evolve from a rural area into a large middle-income residential area with a strong suburban character evident in its leafy neighbourhoods, parks, greenbelts and sophisticated infrastructure. Due to its location on edge of the metropolis, Durbanville has experienced a growing demand for secure country living, resulting in the development of a number of gated communities, the most prominent being Pinehurst Garden City, Graanendal and Clara Anna Fontein, which have caused much of the surrounding farmland to be absorbed into the town. As a result, Durbanville is now considered as one of the most sought-after addresses in the northern suburbs of Cape Town. In spite of the influx of infrastructure and residential development in the area, Durbanville has consistently remained a residential area (compared to its neighbouring suburbs) and still strongly preserves its distinctly "semi-rural" and scenic feel, with a number of its suburbs still backing on vineyards, wheat farms and smallholdings. Geography Durbanville lies nestled between the Tygerberg Hills and the Koeberg Hills in the northern suburbs of Cape Town, approximately 28 kilometres (17.4 mi) from the city. The town has Bellville to the south, Brackenfell to the south-east and Kraaifontein to the east as its neighbours which have expanded to such an extent there is barely any green space left between these towns, while to the north and west of the town, the suburban area dissolves into the wine and wheat farms. The elevations of the area range from 100 m (328 ft) to 240 m (787 ft) in the south-western neighbourhood of Durbanville Hills. Suburban Areas Amanda Glen (Residential) Aurora (Residential) Avalon Estate (Residential) Bergsig (Residential) Brentwood Park (Residential) Country Places (Residential) D'urbanvale (Residential) Durbanville Hills (Residential) Durbell (Residential) Durmonte (Residential) Everglen (Residential) Eversdal (Residential) Eversdal Heights (Residential) Goedemoed (Residential) Graanendal (Residential) Halali (Residential) Kenridge (Residential) Kenridge Heights (Residential) Klein Nederburg (Residential) Langeberg Village (Residential) Morningstar (Residential) Nerina (Residential) Pinehurst (Residential) Proteaville (Residential) Rosedale (Residential) Schoongezicht (Residential) Sonstraal (Residential) Sonstraal Heights (Residential) Tara (Residential) The Crest (Residential) Uitzicht (Residential) Valmary Park (Residential) Vergesig (Residential) Vierlanden (Residential) Vygeboom (Residential) Welgevonden Estate (Residential) Wellway Park (Residential) Wellway Park East (Residential) Economy With Durbanville as a peri-urban town, the urban economy largely based on retail, hospitality and real estate co-exists with the traditional rural economy largely based on agriculture and rural tourism. The rural economy continues to be a central part of the local economy with the main farming categories including viticulture, dairy and wheat. Durbanville also functions as a service hub to the surrounding rural and peri-urban population in Fisantekraal, Philadelphia and Klipheuwel which have close economic ties with the town. Agriculture Viticulture Durbanville is a wine-producing region forming part of the Durbanville Wine Valley, home to thirteen wine estates set on the Tygerberg Hills. Many of the wine estates offer wine tastings and fine dining restaurants too. Durbanville is also well-known as the "Sauvignon Blanc Country" owing to the amount of sauvignon blanc produced in the wine valley which is favoured by winemakers for its cooler climate (by comparison to the Boland wine region) influenced by the winds of Table and False bays resulting in a different style of wine produced within the valley. The picturesque hilly landscape of the Durbanville wine valley and its close proximity to Cape Town (roughly a 30 minute-drive) by comparison to the Paarl, Stellenbosch and Franschhoek winelands have made it an increasingly popular tourist destination among local residents and visitors. Dairy Durbanville is home to the dairy farm ("Welgegund") of Fair Cape, one of the Western Cape's largest dairy producers, situated just north of Durbanville along Malanshoogte Road. Retail Central Business District The historical Durbanville CBD still remains the traditional commercial centre of the town with shops, bars, cafés, boutiques and restaurants along the main high street of Wellington Road and many more tucked away down the side streets. Shopping centres There are three major shopping malls in the Durbanville CBD serving Durbanville including: De Ville Centre, Durbanville Town Centre and The Village Square. A number of smaller suburban shopping centres in Durbanville are also within easy access such as such as Cobble Walk, Graanendal Shopping Centre, Ipic Shopping Centre Aurora, Ipic Shopping Centre Kenridge, Ipic Shopping Centre Sonstraal and Pinehurst Centre. Markets Durbanville maintains a country and agricultural community with many fresh produce and weekend markets in and around the town such as the Durbanville Market, Market at the Barn and Anna Beulah Farm. Mining and Industries Durbanville is surrounded by a number of stoning quarries on the Tygerberg range with companies such as Afrimat, Portland and Ciolli Bros operating around the area. Although mostly a residential area, Durbanville has a small area of light industry located just outside Durbanville named Durbanville Industrial Park. Culture Languages Afrikaans and English are the main languages spoken in Durbanville. In the past Afrikaans predominated culturally, but this has changed with the rapid development of the town. However the majority (59%) of the town still speaks Afrikaans as a first language. The principal religion of the population is Christianity with a wide variety of churches in the community Historical attractions Owing to the rich history and heritage of the town, Durbanville boasts its fair share of historical features and attractions largely situated in the CBD and its immediate surroundings including: Rust-en-Vrede Art Gallery on Wellington Road (built in the 1840s and was originally used as a prison and police headquarters, then a magistrate’s court) Onze Molen Windmill Durbanville Synagogue Durbanville Dutch Reformed Church Original Cape Dutch houses on historical streets such as Church Street, Gladstone Street, Main Street, Oxford Street, Queen Street and Scher Street Demographics According to the 2011 Census, the population of Durbanville was 54,286. The following tables show various demographic data about Durbanville from that census. Gender Racial Makeup Home Language Education The town has the following public high schools: Durbanville High School (an Afrikaans-medium school) Fairmont High School (an English-medium school) Stellenberg High School (a dual-medium school) - although it is located in Bellville, it falls under Durbanville’s feeder area. There are numerous primary schools, including: Durbanville Preparatory Durbanville Primary Eversdal Primary Gene Louw Primary Kenridge Primary The Valley Primary The area also has a number of private schools: Curro Durbanville El Shaddai Christian School. Meridian Pinehurst Reddam House Durbanville Healthcare Durbanville is served by Mediclinic Durbanville, a private hospital owned by one of South Africa's largest private healthcare groups, Mediclinic International. Durbanville is also served by the Durbanville Community Day Centre (also known as Durbanville Clinic) operated by the Western Cape Department of Health and Wellness. For public hospitals, residents of Durbanville normally use the Karl Bremer Hospital in Bellville or Tygerberg Hospital in Parow. Transport Air Cape Winelands Airport is located approximately 13 km NE of Durbanville. Located in the Western Cape winelands, Cape Winelands Airport (formerly Fisantekraal Airfield) is an ex–South African Airforce airfield now operating privately as a general flying airfield and used for aviation training. Of the four original runways, two remain operational while the other two are used for film production. It has been in private ownership since 2021. Operators at the airfield are Cape Town Flight Training Centre and Aerosport Training. The Fighting on Fire organisation also has a summer base at Cape Winelands Airport. The ICAO designator is FAWN. Located on a 150ha site, Cape Winelands Airport has a number of aircraft hangars for the storage and maintenance of private aircraft and helicopters. However Cape Town International Airport, located 19 kilometres to the south is the only airport within the Greater Cape Town region to offer scheduled international and domestic flights. Bus and taxi transit Durbanville is served by Golden Arrow Bus Services which operates commuter bus services from Durbanville to various parts of the Greater Cape Town region as far as the City Centre, Atlantis, Killarney Gardens, Fisantekraal, Kraaifontein and Khayelitsha. Minibus taxis are a major form of public transportation in Durbanville with the majority of minibus taxis terminating at the Durbanville Public Transport Interchange in Durbanville Central. Rail transportation Durbanville is one of the few areas in the Greater Cape Town region that do not have a railway passing through, however the nearest railway stations are conveniently located within a 10 kilometre radius including Kraaifontein Station, Bellville Station, and Brackenfell Station. Road transportation Freeways Durbanville is not directly linked to any major freeway but is connected to the N1 freeway (to Cape Town and Paarl) via the R302, M16, M31, M100 and M137 and the N7 freeway (to Cape Town and Malmesbury) via the M13 and M48. Regional routes The main route through Durbanville is the R302 regional route leading south to Bellville as Main Street and Durbanville Avenue and north to Klipheuwel and Malmesbury as Wellington Road and Klipheuwel Road. The R312 regional route begins just outside Durbanville leading to Fisantekraal and Wellington as Lichtenburg Road. Metropolitan routes Durbanville is situated along a number of metropolitan routes connecting to neighbouring towns including: Bellville via Jip de Jager Drive (M16), Tygerberg Valley Road (M31) and Eversdal Road (M124), Brackenfell via De Bron Road (M73), Brackenfell Boulevard (M100) and Okavango Road (M137) and Kraaifontein via Langeberg Road (M15) and Okavango Road (M137). There are also smaller rural metropolitan routes connecting Durbanville to further distant settlements including: Milnerton via Tygerberg Valley Road (M13), Vissershok via Vissershok Road (M48) and Philadelphia via Adderley Road (M58). Nature Reserves The two nature reserves in Durbanville include the Durbanville Nature Reserve situated adjacent the racecourse along Race Course Road and the Uitkamp Wetland Nature Reserve situated in D'Urbanvale, north of Durbanville. Recreation Affectionately known as the "Jewel of the North", the Durbanville Golf Club is a large 18-hole golf course that was opened in 1967 and is located south of the Durbanville CBD. Notable people Mark Shuttleworth, founder of Thawte and second self-funded space tourist. Amore Bekker, radio personality, author, MC and columnist. Jody Williams, winner of Idols season 4 Daniele Pascal, French Chanteuse, Actor and Playwright, and owner of Villa Pascal Guest House (B+B) and Theatre Annelisa Weiland, actress. Played Hilda de Kock on popular South African soapie 7de Laan for almost 20 years. Duane Vermeulen, rugby union player for Western Province, Stormers and the Springboks. Jack Parow, Afrikaans rapper. Zanne Stapelberg, international operatic soprano. Coat of arms The Durbanville municipal council assumed a coat of arms, designed by Ivan Mitford-Barberton and H. Ellis Tomlinson, in April 1948, and registered them at the Bureau of Heraldry in February 1981.The National Archives and Records Service of South Africa (NARSSA) The arms, derived from those of Sir Benjamin d'Urban, were : Or, on a chevron between in chief two six-pointed stars Sable and in base a bunch of grapes proper, three garbs Or. In layman's term, the shield is gold and depicts, from top to bottom, two black six-pointed stars, a blue chevron bearing three golden sheaves of wheat, and a bunch of grapes. The crest was a red sphinx charged with three golden rings, and the motto Sit nomine digna. References Suburbs of Cape Town Populated places established in 1825
4783017	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Legend%20of%20the%20Galactic%20Heroes%20characters	List of Legend of the Galactic Heroes characters	This is a list of characters and their voice actors from Legend of the Galactic Heroes. Main characters Reinhard von Lohengramm Reinhard von Lohengramm, voiced by Ryō Horikawa (OVA series), is one of the protagonists in the series along with Yang Wen Li. Nicknamed The Golden Brat by his foes and The Golden Lion by his supporters, he was born into a noble but poor family as Reinhard von Müsel. As a child, he lived with his father and his older sister, Annerose. (He encountered his mother's death when he was still very young and thus his memories of her were very faint.) It is in a middle-class neighborhood, into which Reinhard's family moves, that Reinhard meets Siegfried Kircheis, with whom he develops an intimate friendship. When his father was compelled to sell Annerose for money as a concubine of Emperor Friedrich IV, young Reinhard swears to put an end to the Goldenbaum Dynasty. His determination to avenge the corrupted society thereupon kindles. He decides to leave home to join the Cadet School, and persuades Kircheis to come with him. At the age of 15, Reinhard and Kircheis enter their first active service in the army; their rapid promotion in rank follows, owing it to their outstanding contributions to the country. With brilliancy in military strategy especially at a macro-level, and giftedness in civil affairs and in identifying ones with talent, Reinhard succeeds in attracting a great number of able officers, gaining as well the admiration of the public. In solidifying his grounds by gathering advocates, Reinhard does not miss an opportunity to take advantage of his handsomeness and other charming qualities. After being admitted to admiralty at the age of 21, Friedrich IV confers Reinhard the name of Lohengramm, a name of high noble rank which had been defunct until the occasion. As his next step, he quickly extends his influence over state matters, and shortly after the decease of the Emperor, eventually overthrows the pre-existing dynasty and marks the beginning of the Lohengramm Dynasty. Reinhard's coronation does not precede his own death by much. Believing that the Universe should be reigned over by the most powerful and capable person, Reinhard leaves a will to his Empress consort Hildegard, in which he states that if their son (Alexander Siegfried) fails to prove promising as his successor, there should be no reason for the Lohengramm Dynasty to continue. He dies of an unprecedented congenital disease for which no cure seems to have existed at the time. The disease is posthumously named The Emperor's Sickness by the confused physicians. Though a matchless genius by all account, Reinhard's main flaw lies in the restriction of his emotions, as he opens his heart to two people only: his beloved sister Annerose and his closest friend and loyal companion Kircheis. Not even his wife Hildegard is allowed within. Annerose describes him as a star that shines brightly until it completely burns itself out; that the day Reinhard slows down his pace would be the dawn of his end. The flagship of Reinhard is called Brünhild. As it is exclusively painted in white, the flagship is easily distinguishable. Built with the latest technology of the time, the battleship earns a sobriquet ‘The Unsinkable Ship', for surviving all of her battles without a single damage in spite of its constant acting as a spearhead of the fleet. The only damage Brünhild ever receives is caused by an infiltration from which a direct engagement of battle ensues with a boarding party of 730 combatants led by Julian Mintz towards the end of the series. The ship is decommissioned after Reinhard's death and thereafter remains in Dock 01 of the Galactic Empire Odin as a memento. The name Lohengramm is also a reference to Lohengrin, a character from German Arthurian literature. In the 2018 series, he is voiced by Mamoru Miyano in Japanese and by Aaron Dismuke in English. Yang Wen Li Yang Wen Li, voiced by Kei Tomiyama (OVA series), later by Hozumi Gōda (Gaiden series), is one of two protagonists within the series. Like Reinhard, both of them share similar roles within their respective nations as famous national heroes renowned for their military skill. Compared to Reinhard, Yang is much more humble and dislikes his popularity as being a burden. Yang originally wanted to become a historian and only attended the Free Planets Defense Force Command Academy so he can get free education, while Reinhard relishes his fame and was ambitious to overthrow the empire. At the start of the series, Yang has gained some fame as the "Hero of El Facil" for his exploits in the evacuation of the planet before Imperial occupation, and gains much more fame to become a national hero by the end of the first season. During the second season, he generally takes a lesser role compared to Reinhard, but returns in full force in Season 3 before he is assassinated by members of the Terraist Church. Yang was a mild-tempered person who lives on red tea, a genius tactician and strategist that rivals Reinhard. Yang's weakness lies in his unwillingness to risk democracy by assuming more direct powers and responsibilities. Not willing to take on a bigger role or responsibility, he and Reinhard's battle were never in equal footing and at same time handcuffing him from doing things that could change the scale of the power balance. He also openly respects Reinhard and considers him to be a true genius as Reinhard's ability does not seem to confine in just military affairs and is able to act on what his mind tells him while Yang might be reluctant to do so if given same situation. He also agrees that benevolent autocracy is better and more efficient than corrupted democracy if social change is needed, and noted that if he was born in the empire, he would actually volunteer to serve under Reinhard despite his dislike of military. On the other hand, he was glad to be born in the Free Planets Alliance as it gives him freedom, and believes that while democracy is less efficient and can be slowed dramatically with corruption it nevertheless is better because it is less likely to be corrupted completely and no one has absolute power, because after all, a good and wise Emperor such as Reinhard doesn't come along often. The Hyperion is the flagship of Yang Wen Li. It is retrofitted from a frontier security squadron flagship. It is lightly armed, possessing only 32 forward cannons which comprise its main armament. It possesses a large and spread out multi-level bridge with a large conference table commonly used for meetings by Admiral Yang and his staff, as well as a large tactical viewscreen used during battle to display fleet movements. In the 2018 series, he is voiced by Kenichi Suzumura in Japanese and by Ian Sinclair in English. Hildegard von Mariendorf Hildegard von Mariendorf, voiced by Masako Katsuki, is one of the principal characters in the series. She served as the New Galactic Fleet's Chief Advisor, and later reigned with Reinhard von Lohengramm when she became his wife and Empress in 801 UC. Hildegard, usually referred to by the nickname Hilda, was born in 777 UC into a distinguished noble family of the Goldenbaum Dynasty, the sole daughter of the benevolent and just Count Franz von Mariendorf. From an early age, she was distinguished from the other girls of the aristocrat society by her independent ideas. Completely unconcerned, Hilda pursued her own interests in reading, politics and history. Her mother having died when Hilda was young, her open-minded father respected Hilda's unique ideas and choices in life. In 797 UC, the old Galactic Empire split into civil war, where the old nobility stood against the new emerging camp of military elites led by Reinhard von Lohengramm. Hilda convinced her father to plea allegiance to the latter, whereupon she met Reinhard for the first time and impressed him with the clarity of her insight. When the Lohengramm camp emerged victorious from the civil war, Reinhard gained complete political and military power in the empire, and Hilda became Reinhard's chief secretary and assisted him in the progressive reforms that swept across the empire. From 798 UC to 800 UC, Hilda played an active role on the galactic stage, advising Reinhard wisely on imperial policies and tactics, and became one of his most valued and trusted staff. During Operation Ragnarök, where the empire battled the Alliance, Hilda served as a staff officer on board the flagship Brünhild. During the critical Battle of Vermilion, she perceived that the situation was in Reinhard's disfavour, and persuaded Admirals Mittermeyer and Reuenthal to mobilize forces against the Alliance capital, turning the war to Reinhard's tactical victory and saving his life. Admiral Mittermeyer later praised Hilda that "her intelligence is worth more than a fleet." Her role gradually became more public after Reinhard's coronation as the first Emperor of the new Lohengramm Dynasty. In the year UC 800, in the Ninth Battle of Iserlohn, Hilda succeeded Admiral Steinmetz to become the Fleet's Chief Advisor, formally capable of representing the Emperor and command on his behalf on the battlefield. Conscious of her military position, Hilda withheld her political role and refused to advise Reinhard on political matters, despite his repeated requests for her counsel. In August 800 UC, Reinhard was attacked by an assassin who sought vengeance for Reinhard's inaction in the Westerland tragedy. Overcame with regret and emotional agony, Reinhard withdrew into his own quarters and Hilda entered to console him. Subconsciously realizing that his reliance on her has deepened past their professional relationship, he asked her to stay, and she agreed, determined to help him to the best of her abilities. The morning after, Reinhard came to Hilda's home and proposed marriage, and Hilda did not immediately reply for the uncertainty whether she can truly give him happiness. She also did not reveal her pregnancy to him until after the Urvashi affair and Reuenthal's subsequent rebellion, which deepened the insight of both Hilda and Reinhard toward their own feelings. When peace was restored, Hilda accepted Reinhard's second proposal, and they were married on January 19, 801 UC. The officials of the empire greeted their new Empress with enthusiasm and joy. On May 14, while Reinhard was away at war, Hilda give birth to a son, whom Reinhard named Alexander Siegfried von Lohengramm. Reinhard's illness seriously exacerbated a mere sixteen days later and was diagnosed with a rare form mutative connective tissue disease, with no known cure. Despite the illness, Reinhard decided to return to the imperial capital for the sake of the people awaiting him there. On July 18, Reinhard and Hilda were re-united. On July 26, the dying Reinhard said his final words to Hilda: "My Empress, you shall rule the universe more wisely than I. If you think setting up a constitution is the better way then so be it. The universe would be fine as long as the strongest and wisest among all the living governs it. If Alexander Seigfried lacks that ability, there is no need for Lohengramm dynasty to continue. Do everything as you wish; that is my greatest wish..." He died at the age of twenty-five, with their son succeeding him and Hilda ruling as the Empress dowager. In the 2019 film trilogy, she is voiced by Kana Hanazawa in Japanese and by Brittany Lauda in English. Siegfried Kircheis Siegfried Kircheis, voiced by Masashi Hironaka, is Reinhard's closest friend and confidant. Even though Kircheis died very early in the series while protecting Reinhard, he serves as an important role in the series. Reinhard refer him by his last name Kircheis despite their close relationship because Reinhard thought the name Siegfried is too common and boring, while his sister Annerose refer him as Sieg. Kircheis is one of the two most important people in Reinhard's life. Not only does he offer his advice to Reinhard, but he is someone that helps him stay on the right path. Reinhard has always said that Kircheis is someone that can see someone virtuous even in a sewer, and has always had positive thinking no matter what the situation. Kircheis dislikes bloodshed, instead he would rather enemies surrender peacefully and will not pursue a retreating enemy for a kill. He is like Reinhard's shadow even though he is just as talented and intelligent, but Sieg is very satisfied and does not care for power or position, instead he would rather stay by Reinhard's side and protect him. 10 years before the start of the series, Kircheis made a promised Annerose to protect Reinhard and has faithfully kept it ever since. It is hinted that Kircheis is in love with Annerose and that the feeling was mutual, despite neither ever expressing it to each other (at least not shown in any media version). Throughout the series many character have expressed their feelings on how Reinhard might act differently had Kircheis stayed alive. Fans theorize that Kircheis hadn't died so early he may have helped Reinhard become even more powerful and serve as his second in command. As a military commander, Kircheis was given the highest praise by Yang, stating that Kircheis has no opening for him to take advantage of nor able to allowing him to retreat successfully. Yang also commented after the prisoner exchange that he is more fond of Kircheis (despite it being a quick meeting) than any of politicians in his own country. For the short time he was active in the novel, he was referred to as Reinhard's "Undefeatable Admiral" or as the "Red-hair Brat" by the high nobles. Kircheis earned the respect of all of Reinhard's other admirals and effectively secured his place as the "Number 2" man in Lord Reinhard's ranks. Kind and handsome, he is described to have "flame-like" red hair. Kircheis and Lord Reinhard were inseparable as both friends and war comrades. During the first season, Lady Annerose told Kircheis that should Lord Reinhard one day stop listening to him, then he will walk down the path of self-destruction. His flagship Barbarossa was originally going to be a Brunhild class ship like Reinhard's but Kircheis decided that Brunhild should be in a class by its own and declined it in the novel. The ship's body is painted in red in reference to his "flame-like" hair. It is also the only ship in series that was never damaged, and according to the databooks, it was decommissioned after Kircheis's death and awarded the spot of Dock 02, docked right next to Brunhild as memento. Despite various posthumous titles given to him by Reinhard, on his tombstone there was only an engraving of his name and phrase "My friend". In the 2018 anime series, he is voiced by Yūichirō Umehara in Japanese and by Clifford Chapin in English. Julian Mintz Julian Mintz, voiced by Nozomu Sasaki is the adopted teenage son of Yang Wen Li. Julian's role as Yang Wen Li's assistant starts as a minor character in the beginning of the series, usually seen as taking care of his messy and haphazard adopted guardian, but as the story progresses he becomes more central to the story of the Free Planets Alliance's struggle. Yang Wen Li regularly expressed a desire that Julian would not become a soldier, rather advocating that Julian take a civilian role, perhaps in government, but eventually consents to Julian's entry into the armed forces. After a successful mission to Earth to uncover and eventually (with the inadvertent assistance of the Imperial troops) destroy the headquarters of the notorious Terraist Church, he rises in stature before finally rising after the events of the third series to the reluctant military leader of the Iserlohn Republic Government, at age 18. An astute military commander not unlike his guardian, Julian succeeded into entering negotiations with Kaiser Reinhard after the Battle of Shiva where he negotiated for the autonomy of the planet Heinessen and its surrounding starzone in exchange for control of Iserlohn Fortress. In the 2018 series he is voiced by Yūki Kaji in Japanese and by Matt Shipman in English. Supporting characters Oskar von Reuenthal Oskar von Reuenthal, voiced by Norio Wakamoto, flagship Tristan, is someone with vast intelligence and talent. Nicknamed "Bewitching Eyes" for his complete heterochromia. He swore his loyalty to Reinhard when he asked Reinhard to save Mittermeyer from the Goldenbaum Dynasty. Even though he is loyal, he sometimes has thoughts about attaining even more power for himself, which led to his downfall. He has no problems finding women, but he despises the idea of settling down and having children because his mother attempted to kill him when he was an infant due to his heterochromatic eyes. In the end his pride compelled him to rebel after being framed for an assassination attempt against Reinhard and died of wounds taken during a battle against Mittermeyer, but in his heart he was still supportive and loyal to him. Reuenthal left the son that he had with Elfriede von Kohlrausch, to Mittermeyer. In the 2018 anime, he is voiced by Yūichi Nakamura in Japanese and by Ricco Fajardo in English. Wolfgang Mittermeyer Wolfgang Mittermeyer, voiced by Katsuji Mori, flagship Beowulf, is best friends with Reuenthal and both were together referred to as the "Twin Pillars of the Empire", after the death of Kircheis. Mittermeyer served with Reunthal as Reinhard's Fleet Admirals in the new dynasty. Mittermeyer is highly disciplined and moral, finding himself often siding with Reunthal against Oberstein, but also just as often keeping Reunthal's musings in check. At the same time Mittermeyer is extremely loyal to his leader and friend Kaiser Reinhard, choosing to personally confront Reunthal in battle to avoid harbouring any ill will towards the Kaiser should Reunthal have been killed. His attacks were often seen as swift as a gale of wind, earning him the nickname "The Gale Wolf". Mittermeyer is also married to Evangeline, whom he met when young and still loves very much. They had tried to have children for many years without success, and later adopted Reuenthal's son as his own, his wife naming the child Felix. In the 2018 anime, he is voiced by Daisuke Ono in Japanese and by Josh Grelle in English. Paul von Oberstein Paul von Oberstein, voiced by Kaneto Shiozawa, first served as Reinhard's advisor and later as Minister of Military Affairs. He has two cybernetic eyes as well as a cold and emotionless personality which makes most people dislike him. He is a strategic genius but is weak wherever human emotions are involved. He is, however, one of Reinhard von Lohengramm's most efficient subordinates, and extremely concerned about the well-being of the new dynasty. He dies during a terrorist attack conducted by the Terraist Church. It is not clear whether he died as a decoy for Reinhard or if it was simply a miscalculation on his plan. He has a dog, for whom he cares deeply. In the 2018 anime, Paul is voiced by Junichi Suwabe in Japanese and by J. Michael Tatum in English. Fritz Josef Bittenfeld Fritz Josef Bittenfeld, voiced by Keiichi Noda, flagship Königs Tiger (King Tiger), is the commander of the Schwarz Lanzenreiter (Black Lancers), who are experts in hunter-killer tactics. Bittenfeld was in Reinhard's fleet when Reinhard was just a vice admiral. Bittenfeld is known as a 'wild boar' because of his aggressiveness and temper, and often has problems with Paul von Oberstein because of that. In the 2018 anime, he is voiced by Tetsu Inada in Japanese and by Austin Tindle in English. Ulrich Kesler Ulrich Kesler, voiced by Shūichi Ikeda, usually does administrative police work and helps Reinhard investigate. He is a righteous individual and very reliable. Reinhard first heard of Kesler from police records where Kesler defended a woman who was supposed to be tortured to death for stepping on a painting of the Kaiser. Kesler was usually sent to serve in rural areas or in similar unpopular assignments as indirect punishment for his integrity under the corrupt old rule. During the 6th Iserlohn battle, Reinhard told Kesler when he gained more power he would give Kesler a position in Odin that is suited for his abilities. After Reinhard's coronation he is assigned as the leader of the military police. While preventing an assassination attempt against Kaiserine Hildegard and Crown Princess Annerose by the Terraist cult, he meets Marika von Freuerbach, a servant, whom he marries two years later. He is also promoted to Fleet Admiral after Reinhard's death. Neidhardt Müller Neidhardt Müller, voiced by Yū Mizushima, flagship Lübeck, is known as the "Iron Shield" in honor of successfully defending Reinhard in the Battle of Vermillion to the point of changing his command to five different ships after the destruction of the previous ones, including his own flagship. Müller was awarded the new class battleship Percivale in recognition of his service. He is the youngest of all Reinhard's admirals. Adalbert von Fahrenheit Adalbert von Fahrenheit, voiced by Shō Hayami, flagship Ahsgrimm, is known for his strong offensive tactics. Fahrenheit opposed Reinhard during the Lippschadt war, but surrendered and was given amnesty after the war ended. Highly valued for his capabilities, Fahrenheit was restored to active duty as one of Reinhard's admirals. He is later killed in battle at the Isherlohn Corridor. In the 2018 anime he's voiced by Ryōta Takeuchi in Japanese and by Daman Mills in English. Ernst von Eisenach Ernst von Eisenach, voiced by Masane Tsukayama, known as the Silent Admiral. He is not really mute and is known for surprising all the admirals once by uttering merely "Checkmate" after a strategic meeting. He usually uses hand signs in lieu of verbal commands to direct his fleet in battle. His most significant maneuver came in the Battle of Shiva, where he nearly wiped out the entirety of the Iserlohn Fleet along with Fritz Josef Bittenfeld. In that maneuver, his fleet caused significant damage to the Flagship Hyperion, killing High Admiral Merkatz. Groups Galactic Reich / Empire Lohengramm faction Großadmiral Reinhard von Lohengramm (von Müsel) - Ryō Horikawa, Miki Narahashi (in childhood, ep. 85) Generaladmiral (after death: Großadmiral, Großherzog) Siegfried Kircheis - Masashi Hironaka Großadmiral Paul von Oberstein - Kaneto Shiozawa Leading admirals Großadmiral Oskar von Reuenthal (767 - December 16, 800 UC, Heinessenpolis) - Norio Wakamoto Großadmiral Wolfgang Mittermeyer - Katsuji Mori Großadmiral Ernest Mecklinger - Takaya Hashi, Mahito Ohba (2018 anime) (Japanese), Aaron Roberts (2018 anime) (English) Großadmiral Fritz Josef Bittenfeld - Keiichi Noda Generaladmiral (after death: Großadmiral) Karl Gustav Kempf (762 - May 798 UC, Geiersburg Fortress ) - Tesshō Genda, Hiroki Yasumoto (2018 anime) (Japanese), Robert McCollum (2018 anime) (English) Generaladmiral (after death: Großadmiral) Cornelius Lutz ( - October 8, 800 UC, Uruvasi ) - Katsunosuke Hori, Hirofumi Nojima (2018 anime) (Japanese), Brandon McInnis (2018 anime) (English) Großadmiral August Samuel Wahlen - Masaaki Okabe, Hisao Egawa (2018 anime) (Japanese), Brandon Potter (2018 anime) (English) Großadmiral Ulrich Keßler - Shūichi Ikeda Großadmiral Neidhardt Müller - Yū Mizushima Generaladmiral (after death: Großadmiral) Karl Robert Steinmetz ( - 6 May, 800 UC, Iserlohn Corridor ) - Hiroya Ishimaru Generaladmiral (after death: Großadmiral) Adalbert von Fahrenheit ( - 30 April, 800 UC, Iserlohn Corridor ) - Shō Hayami Großadmiral Ernst von Eisenach - Masane Tsukayama Generaladmiral Helmut Rennenkampf, - July 23, 799 UC, Heinessenpolis, suicide) - Takeshi Watabe Staff Hildegard von Mariendorf - Masako Katsuki Konteradmiral Arthur von Streit - Kōji Totani, Kenji Yamauchi (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese), David Wald (2019 film trilogy) (English) Leutnant Theodor von Lücke - Yasunori Matsumoto Konteradmiral Anton Ferner - Kenyū Horiuchi, Isshin Chiba (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese), Brandon Winckler (2019 film trilogy) (English) Emil von Seclä - Ryōtarō Okiayu Cabinet ministers Graf Franz von Mariendorf - Tadashi Nakamura, (Japanese), Jerry Jewell (2018 anime) (English) Karl Bracke - Yūji Fujishiro Eugen Richter - Mahito Tsujimura Bruno von Silverberche () - Kōichi Yamadera Gluck - Atsushi Gotō Julius Elsheimer - Kiyonobu Suzuki Heydrich Lang - Hitoshi Takagi (2nd season), Tarō Ishida (3rd & 4th seasons) Civilians Gräfin (later Großherzogin) Annerose von Grünewald - Keiko Han, Maaya Sakamoto (2018 anime) (Japanese), Amber Lee Connors (2018 anime) (English) Evangeline Mittermeyer - Yuriko Yamamoto Felix Mittermeyer - Tomoe Hanba Freiin Magdalena von Westpfahle- Mari Yokoo Konrad von Moder - Masami Kikuchi Heinrich Lambertz - Kappei Yamaguchi Marika von Feuerbach - Aya Hisakawa Elfriede von Kohlrausch - Michie Tomizawa Freiherr Heinrich von Kümmel - Yūji Mitsuya Lohengramm Fleet Vizeadmiral Isak Fernand von Turneisen - Shinya Ōtaki Freiherr Kalnap - Ryoji Yamamoto Admiral Rolf Otto Brauhitsch - Jūji Matsuda Flottillenadmiral Siegbert Seidritz Mittermeyer Fleet Karl Eduard Bayerlein - Hisao Ōyama (1st season), Nobutoshi Canna (2nd season - 4th season) Volker Axel von Bülow - Akira Murayama, Yōichi Nishijima (2018 anime) (Japanese), Alejandro Saab (2018 anime) (English) Droysen - Shigeru Saitō Horst Sinzer - Kazuo Hayashi Armsdorf - Motomu Kiyokawa (1st season), Kiyomitsu Mizuuchi (2nd season -) Dickel - Kazuhiro Nakata Reuenthal Fleet Hans Eduard Bergengrün - Ryōichi Tanaka, Kōji Hiwatari (2018 anime) (Japanese), Newton Pittman (2018 anime) (English) Emil von Reckendorf - Makoto Ataka Bruno von Knapfstein - Nobuyuki Hiyama Alfred Grillparzer - Nobuo Shimazaki (2nd season), Shunsuke Sakuya (3rd & 4th seasons) Fritz Joseph Bittenfeld - Schwarz Lanzenreiter (Black Lancers) Admiral Halberstadt Admiral Grebner Konteradmiral Eugen High nobles Herzog Otto von Braunschweig - Osamu Kobayashi, Jiro Saito (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese), Patrick Seitz (2019 film trilogy) (English) Fürst Wilhelm von Littenheim III - Mikio Terashima, Eiji Hanawa (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese) Fürst Klaus von Lichtenrade (became Herzog after the death of Friedrich IV) Freiherr Flegel - Issei Futamata, Tōru Furuya (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese), Jason Liebrecht (2019 film trilogy) (English) Graf Alfred von Lansberg - Yoku Shioya, Masayoshi Sugawara (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese), Chris Cason (2019 film trilogy) (English) Herzog Maximilian von Kastrop - Hideyuki Hori, Takahiro Yoshino (2018 anime) (Japanese), Kyle Phillips (2018 anime) (English) Fürst Wilhelm von Klopstock - Kinpei Azusa Graf Jochen von Remscheid Kyoji Kobayashi, Mitsuaki Madono (2018 anime) (Japanese), Doug Jackson (2018 anime) (English) Other admirals Großadmiral Gregor von Mückenberger - Hidekatsu Shibata, Ikuya Sawaki (2018 anime) (Japanese), Bruce DuBose (2018 anime) (English) Generaladmiral Ovlesser - Daisuke Gōri, Tsuyoshi Koyama (2018 anime) (Japanese), Bryan Massey (2018 anime) (English) Admiral Staaden - Ichirō Murakoshi, Kiyomitsu Mizuuchi (2018 anime) (Japanese), Charles C. Campbell (2018 anime) (English) Admiral Fürst Richard von Grinmelshausen - Ryūji Saikachi Admiral Thomas von Stockhausen - Ichirō Nagai, Eizō Tsuda (2018 anime) (Japanese), Jim White (2018 anime) (English) Admiral Hans Dietrich von Seeckt - Shōzō Iizuka, Yō Kitazawa (2018 anime) (Japanese), Mike Pollock (2018 anime) (English) Konteradmiral Erlache - Masaharu Satō (1st season), Yūsaku Yara (Movie), Naomi Kusumi (2018 anime) (Japanese), Bill Jenkins (2018 anime) (English) General des Technik Anton Hilmer von Schaft Konteradmiral (after death: Admiral) Hermann von Lüneburg - Nachi Nozawa, 11th Commander of the Rosenritter Regiment Flottillenadmiral Ansbach - Makio Inoue, Hiroki Tōchi (2018 anime) (Japanese), David Matranga (2018 anime) (English) Other soldiers Kapitän Christopf von Köfenhiller Kapitänleutnant Fügenberg - Toshihiko Seki Erich von Hardenberg - Isao Sasaki Tonio - Michitaka Kobayashi Civilians Therese Wagner - Noriko Hidaka Fürstin Susanna von Benemünde - Toshiko Fujita Cabinet ministers Reichsminister Klaus von Lichtenrade - Kohei Miyauchi (OVA series) Hiroshi Ito (Gaiden series), Kazuo Oka (2018 anime) Tomomichi Nishimura (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese), Barry Yandell (English) Gerlach - Jōji Yanami, Takaya Hashi (2018 anime) (Japanese), Christopher Guerrero (2018 anime) (English) Kaiser/Emperor Rudolf the Great (Rudolf von Goldenbaum, reign 1 IC - 42 IC) - Chikao Ōtsuka Sigismund I Richard I Otfried I (reign - 123 IC) Kaspar I (reign 123 IC - 124 IC) Julius I (reign 124 IC - 144 IC) Sigismund II (reign 144 IC - 159 IC) Otfried II (reign 159 IC - 165 IC) August I (reign 165 IC - ) Erich I Richard II Otto Heinz I Richard II (reign - 247 IC) August II (reign 247 IC - 253 IC) Erich II (reign 253 IC - ) Friedrich I Leonhard I Friedrich II Leonhard II Friedrich III (reign 330 IC - 336 IC) Maximilian Joseph I (reign 336 IC - 336 IC) Gustav I (reign 336 IC - 337 IC) Maximilian Joseph II (reign 337 IC - 350s IC) Cornelius I (reign 350s IC - ) Manfred I Helmut I Manfred II (reign 398 IC - 399 IC) Wilhelm I Wilhelm II Cornelius II Otfried III Erwin Joseph I Otfried IV Otto Heinz II Otfried V (reign - 456 IC) Friedrich IV (reign 456 IC - 487 IC) - Osamu Saka, Minoru Inaba (2018 anime) (Japanese), Bill Flynn (2018 anime) (English) Erwin Joseph II (reign 487 IC - 489 IC) - Hiroko Emori, Wakana Kingyo (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese), Luci Christian (2019 film trilogy) (English) Katharin I (reign 489 IC - 490 IC) Free Planets Alliance Yang Fleet Yang Wen Li - Kei Tomiyama (series), Hozumi Gouda (Gaiden) Julian Mintz - Nozomu Sasaki Yang's adopted son, he later served as commander of the Iserlohn Republic Military at the age of eighteen. Frederica Greenhill - Yoshiko Sakakibara, Aya Endo (2018 anime) (Japanese), Madeleine Morris (2018 anime) (English) Frederica Greenhill first met Yang during the evacuation of El Facil. She joined the military to find him again and was assigned as his adjutant. Before the Battle of Vermilion, Yang proposed marriage to her and she accepted, and the two of them lived a married life for a few months before Yang was arrested by the Galactic Empire. During their time at the El Facil Revolutionary Government, she continued to serve as his adjutant. If not for a fever, she would have joined Admiral Yang aboard the Leda II when he was assassinated. After his death, she served as the leader of the Iserlohn Republic Supreme Council Alex Cazellnu or Alex Cazerne - Keaton Yamada, Tokuyoshi Kawashima (2018 anime) (Japanese), Chuck Huber (2018 anime), Anthony Bowling (2019 film trilogy) (English) Admiral in charge of logistics and supply as well as being the Administrator of Iserlohn Fortress. He often remains behind as fortress commander when the Yang Fleet is in the field. Dusty Attenborough - Kazuhiko Inoue, Kaito Ishikawa (2018 anime) (Japanese), Jordan Dash Cruz (2018 anime) (English) One of the commanding officers of the 13th fleet, and later, space fleet commander of the Iserlohn Republic. Achieved the rank of Vice Admiral at his late twenties, even faster than Yang. Edwin Fischer - Taimei Suzuki, Osamu Sonoe (2018 anime) (Japanese), Kenny Green (2018 anime) (English) Admiral in charge of fleet maneuvers. Nguyen Van Huu - Masayuki Omoro, Kenta Miyake (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese), Jarrod Greene (2019 film trilogy) (English) Murai - Takeshi Aono, Hochu Otsuka (2018 anime) (Japanese), Mike McFarland (2018 anime) (English) Fyodor Patrichev - Kōzō Shioya, Masami Iwasaki (2018 anime), Jeremy Inman (2018 anime) (English) Bagdash - Akira Kamiya, Shigeru Ushiyama (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese), Chris Hackney (2019 film trilogy) (English) A staff officer who was originally sent as a spy, he was later recruited as Yang's head Intelligence Officer. Olivier Poplan - Toshio Furukawa, Tatsuhisa Suzuki (2018 anime) (Japanese), Orion Pitts (2018 anime) (English) Ivan Konev - Hirotaka Suzuoki, Kousuke Toriumi (2018 anime) (Japanese), Micah Solusod (2018 anime) (English) Warren Hughes - Kazuki Yao, Takashi Ohara (2018 anime) (Japanese), Tyler Walker (2018 anime) (English) Salé Aziz Cheikly - Yoshikazu Hirano, Hiroshi Kawaguchi (2018 anime) (Japanese), David Wald (2018 anime) (English) Willibald Joachim von Merkatz - Gorō Naya, Unshō Ishizuka (2018 anime) Kazuhiro Yamaji (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese), Mark Stoddard (2018 anime) (English) High Admiral under Kaiser Freidrich IV who takes refuge with Yang at Iserlohn after the Lippschadt war. Later forced into becoming the Space Fleet Commander-in-Chief of the Goldenbaum government in exile. Bernhard von Schneider - Yūichi Meguro, Daisuke Hirakawa (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese), Bryson Baugus (2019 film trilogy) (English) Louis Mashengo - Ryūsei Nakao Nilsson - Ryūsuke Ōbayashi Hazuki - Takeshi Kusao Simon - Nobuo Tobita Katerose von Kreutzer - Kotono Mitsuishi Fighter pilot who is also the daughter of Walter von Schenkoppf. Hortence Cazellnu - Keiko Matsuo The wife of Alexander Cazellnu and mother of their two daughters. Charlotte Phyllis Cazellnu - Yuri Amano Jean Robert Lap - Hideyuki Tanaka, Yuuki Ono (2018 anime) (Japanese), Christopher Wehkamp (2018 anime) (English) - Mami Koyama, Sayaka Kinoshita (2018 anime) (Japanese), Dawn M. Bennett (2018 anime) (English) Rosenritter Regiment Colonel Hermann von Lüneburg - Nachi Nozawa, 11th Commander of the Rosenritter Regiment Colonel Otto Frank von Wahnschaffe, 12th Commander of the Rosenritter Regiment Brigadier General Walter von Schenkopp or Walter von Schönkopf (July 28, 764 - June 1, 801, Shiva Starzone ) - Michio Hazama, Shinichiro Miki (2018 anime) (Japanese), Christopher R. Sabat (2018 anime) (English) 13th Commander of the Rosenritter Regiment, a feared ground assault unit within the Free Planets Alliance Infantry Forces. Originally, he came from the Galactic Reich, but defected to the Free Planets Alliance at a young age. He is one of the more outspoken members of the Yang Fleet, especially when it comes to Yang taking over the government. Colonel Kasper Lintz - Jūrōta Kosugi, Kenji Hamada (2018 anime), Michael A. Zekas (2018 anime) (English) 14th Commander of the Rosenritter Regiment Lieutenant Colonel Rainer Blumhardt - Keiichi Nanba, Tsuguo Nogami (2018 anime), Marcus D. Stimac (2018 anime) (English) Lieutenant Karl von der Decken High Councilors Job Trünicht - Unshō Ishizuka, Kazuhiro Anzai (2018 anime) (Japanese), Dave Trosko (2018 anime) (English) Joan Lebello - Iemasa Kayumi, Daisuke Egawa (2018 anime) (Japanese), Michael Johnson (2018 anime) (English) Huang Louis - Kaneta Kimotsuki, Hidenari Ugaki (2018 anime) (Japanese), Francis Henry (2018 anime) (English) Negroponty - Takanobu Hozumi, Taketora (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese) Walter Islands - Yasurō Tanaka, Tomoyuki Shimura (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese) Cornelia Windsor - Minori Matsushima, Kumiko Takizawa (2018 anime) (Japanese), Casey Casper (2018 anime) (English) Lisa Wamban - Nataka Meza Other admirals/soldiers Sidney Sithole - Kenji Utsumi, Masaki Aizawa (2018 anime) (Japanese), Ray Hurd (2018 anime) (English) Lazar Lobos - Tamio Ōki, Eiji Hanawa (2018 anime) (Japanese), John Baker (2018 anime) (English) Dwight Greenhill - Issei Masamune, Mitsuaki Hoshino (2018 anime) (Japanese), Sonny Strait (2018 anime) (English) Alexander Bucock - Kōsei Tomita, Bon Ishihara (2018 anime) (Japanese), Kent Williams (2018 anime) (English) Trung Yu-Chang - Akio Ōtsuka Paeta - Kan Tokumaru, Shinya Fukumatsu (2018 anime) (Japanese), Chris Rager (2018 anime) (English) Hawood - Shinji Ogawa, Hayato Fujii (2018 anime) (Japanese), Paul Slavens (2018 anime) (English) Vice-Admiral and commander of the 7th Fleet of the Alliance. Appleton - Takkō Ishimori, Katsuhisa Hōki (2018 anime) (Japanese), Jeremy Schwartz (2018 anime) (English) Vice-Admiral and commander of the 8th Fleet of the Alliance. al-Salem - Yonehiko Kitagawa, Keiko Sakai (2018 anime) (Japanese), Brad Hawkins (2018 anime) (English) Vice-Admiral and commander of the 9th Fleet of the Alliance. Uranff - Ryūsuke Ōbayashi, Toshiharu Sakurai (2018 anime) (Japanese), Philip Weber (2018 anime) (English) Vice-Admiral and commander of the 10th Fleet of the Alliance. Borodin - Masaru Ikeda, Masafumi Kimura (2018 anime) (Japanese), John Burgmeier (2018 anime) (English) Vice-Admiral and commander of the 12th Fleet of the Alliance. Evans - Michihiro Ikemizu Andrew Fork- Tōru Furuya, Hiroshi Kamiya (2018 anime) (Japanese), Justin Briner (2018 anime) (English) Arthur Lynch - Masashi Hirose, Issei Futamata (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese), Jay Hickman (2019 film trilogy) (English) Valerie Lynn Fitzsimmons - Mika Doi Franz Valleymont - Shigeru Nakahara Mafia of 730 (Second Battle of Tiamat) Bruce Ashbey (710 - December 11, 745, Tiamat Starzone ) - Morio Kazama Frederick Jasper ("March" Jasper, 710 - 771) - Keiji Fujiwara Wallice Warwick ("Baron" Warwick, 710 - 766) - Rikiya Koyama John Drinker Cope (710 - 751, Palantia Starzone ) - Masato Sako Vittorio di Bertini (710 - December 11, 745, Tiamat Starzone ) - Kenji Nomura Fang Tchewling (710 - 773) - Takayuki Sugō Alfred Rosas (710 - 788) - Tetsurō Sagawa (old), Toshihiro Inoue (young) Battle of Dagon Lin Pao Yūsuf Topparol or Yusuf Tpalour () Naismith Ward Olewinsky András Mungai Hugh Erstedt Ortrich Birolinen Historians E. J. Mackenzie - Shigeru Chiba Phezzan Adrian Rubinsky - Kiyoshi Kobayashi, Hideaki Tezuka (2018 anime) (Japanese), Jason Douglas (2018 anime) (English) Dominique Saint-Pierre - Fumi Hirano, Mie Sonozaki (2018 anime) (Japanese), Janelle Lutz (2018 anime) (English) Rupert Kesselring - Hirotaka Suzuoki Nikolas Boltik – Tatsuyuki Jinnai, Masato Obara (2018 anime) (Japanese), Randy Pearlman (2018 anime) (English) Boris Konev - Yoshito Yasuhara, Masami Kikuchi (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese), Sam Black (2019 film trilogy) (English) Marinesk - Kenichi Ogata, Kenichi Mochizuki (2019 film trilogy), Kenny James (2019 film trilogy) (English) Terraism The Terraist Church is a secret society which emphasized that humans should all return to their home planet of Earth and re-establish its fame as the capital of the universe. While their capital and holiest temple is on Earth beneath the rubble of Mount Kangchenjunga, they have many churches around the galaxy from the Free Planets Alliance capital of Heinessen to the former Imperial capital of Odin, and a very strong presence in the new capital of Phezzan. In particular, they held great influence over the former Phezzani government before its overthrow and re-annexation by the Empire. The terms "terraism" and "terraist" are also a pun on "terrorism" and "terrorist". Grand Bishop - Teiji Ōmiya (1st - 3rd season), Dai Sasahara (4th season), Ikkyuu Juku (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese), Brendan Blaber (2019 film trilogy) (English) De Villiers - Banjō Ginga, Hideyuki Hori (2019 film trilogy) (Japanese) Others Narrator - Yūsaku Yara, Yoshimitsu Shimoyama (2018 anime) (Japanese), Cris George (2018 anime) (English) Sources References Encyclopaedia Die Legende der Sternhelden: エンサイクロペディア銀河英雄伝説, Tokuma, July 1992, . Legend of the Galactic Heroes Legend of the Galactic Heroes
4783222	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorlice%E2%80%93Tarn%C3%B3w%20offensive	Gorlice–Tarnów offensive	The Gorlice–Tarnów offensive during World War I was initially conceived as a minor German offensive to relieve Russian pressure on the Austro-Hungarians to their south on the Eastern Front, but resulted in the Central Powers' chief offensive effort of 1915, causing the total collapse of the Russian lines and their retreat far into Russia. The continued series of actions lasted the majority of the campaigning season for 1915, starting in early May and only ending due to bad weather in October. Mackensen viewed securing a breakthrough as the first phase of an operation, which would then lead to a Russian retreat from the Dukla Pass, and their positions north of the Vistula. Background In the early months of war on the Eastern Front, the German Eighth Army conducted a series of almost miraculous actions against the two Russian armies facing them. After surrounding and then destroying the Russian Second Army at the Battle of Tannenberg in late August, Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff wheeled their troops to face the Russian First Army at the First Battle of the Masurian Lakes, almost destroying them before they reached the protection of their own fortresses as they retreated across the border. At the same time, the Austro-Hungarian Army launched a series of attacks collectively known as the Battle of Galicia that were initially successful but soon turned into a retreat that did not stop until reaching the Carpathian Mountains in late September. Over the next weeks, Russian troops continued to press forward into the Carpathian passes in the south of Galicia. In fierce winter fighting General Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, the chief of staff of the Austro-Hungarian Army, attacked the Russians in an attempt to push them back. Both sides suffered appallingly, but the Russians held their line. By this time half of the Austro-Hungarian Army that had entered the war were casualties. Conrad pleaded for additional German reinforcements to hold the passes. German Chief of German Great General Staff Erich von Falkenhayn refused, but in April 1915 Conrad threatened a separate peace if the Germans would not help. According to Prit Buttar, "...it did seem as if the Russian Army had been gravely weakened by the recent campaigns...both AOK and OHL knew about Russian losses and difficulties with ammunition supply. Therefore, merely reducing the pressure on the k.u.k. Army would not be sufficient; Falkenhayn wished to strike a blow that would permanently diminish the ability of the Russian Army to mount offensives in future..." Falkenhayn wrote Conrad on 13 April, "Your excellency knows that I do not consider advisable a repetition of the attempt to surround the Russian extreme (right) wing. It seems to me just as ill-advised to distribute any more German troops on the Carpathian front for the sole purpose of supporting it. On the other hand, I should like to submit the following plan of operations for your consideration...An army of at least eight German divisions will be got ready with strong artillery here in the west, and entrained for Muczyn-Grybów-Bochnia, to advance from about the line Gorlice-Gromnik in the general direction of Sanok." Conrad met Falkenhayn in Berlin on 14 April, where final details of Falkenhayn's plan were agreed upon, and two days later orders were issued for the creation of the Eleventh Army. According to Buttar, the Eleventh Army would consist of the "...Guards Corps reinforced by the 119th Division, XLI Reserve Corps reinforced by 11th Bavarian Infantry Division, and X Corps. Archduke Joseph Ferdinand's Fourth Army would be subordinated to the new German army. Eventually, 119th Infantry Division and 11th Bavarian Infantry Division were grouped together in Korps Kneussl, and additional troops in the form of the Austro-Hungarian VI Corps were added to the Eleventh Army." Buttar goes on to state, "Impressed by the resilience of German troops on the Western Front when the French attacked in late 1914 and again in early 1915, Falkenhayn had adopted the proposal of Oberst Ernst von Wrisberg...and ordered some divisions to give up one of their four regiments and to reduce their artillery batteries from six guns to four." These forces were used to create new divisions for the new Eleventh Army. Conrad had to bow to Falkenhayn's conditions. The joint attack would be by an Austro-German Army Group commanded by a German, whose orders from Falkenhayn would be transmitted via the Austro-Hungarian command. The Group would contain the Austro-Hungarian Fourth Army (eight infantry and one cavalry divisions) under Archduke Joseph Ferdinand, an experienced soldier. The Germans formed a new Eleventh Army made up of eight divisions, trained in assault tactics in the west. They were brought east on 500 trains. The Eleventh Army was led by the former commander of the German Ninth Army, General August von Mackensen, with Colonel Hans von Seeckt as chief of staff. They would be opposed by the Russian Third Army with eighteen and a half infantry and five and a half cavalry divisions, under General D. R. Radko-Dmitriev. Mackensen was provided with a strong train of heavy artillery commanded by Generalmajor Alfred Ziethen, which included the huge German and Austro-Hungarian mortars that had crushed French and Belgian fortresses. Airplanes were provided to direct artillery fire, which was especially important since ammunition was short on both sides: only 30,000 shells could be stockpiled for the attack. Another significant plus was the German field telephone service, which advanced with the attackers, thereby enabling front-line observers to direct artillery fire. To increase their mobility on the poor roads, each German division was provided with 200 light Austro-Hungarian wagons with drivers. The German Eleventh Army was ready to start artillery operations by 1 May, with the Korps Kneussl deployed southwest of Gorlice, with the XLI Reserve Corps led by Hermann von François, Austro-Hungarian VI Corps led by Arthur Arz, and the Guards Corps led by Karl von Plettenberg, deployed south to north, while the X Corps was held in reserve. Joseph Ferdinand's Fourth Army was deployed north of the Germans at Gromnik. The Russian Third Army was deployed with the X Corps led by Nikolai Protopopov, XXI Corps led by Jakov Shchkinsky, and IX Corps led by Dmitry Shcherbachev, deployed south to north. The battle Falkenhayn moved German Supreme Headquarters, OHL (Oberste Heeresleitung), to Pless in Silesia, an hour's drive from Austrian headquarters. To prevent spying, the local inhabitants were moved out of the buildup area. In the north the German Ninth and Tenth armies made diversionary attacks that threatened Riga. On 22 April, the Germans launched the first poison gas attack near Ypres, divulging what might have been a decisive weapon merely to distract the Allies in the west. Mackensen had ten infantry and one cavalry divisions (126,000 men, 457 light guns, 159 heavy pieces, and 96 mortars) along the length of the breakthrough sector. Facing him were five Russian divisions consisting of 60,000 men but desperately short on artillery. For fire support, the Russians could only count on 141 light artillery pieces and four heavy guns. One of the four burst as soon as the battle began. The Russian supreme commander, the Grand Duke Nicholas Nicholaevitch, learned that Germans had arrived on their flank but did not make a counter-move. On 1 May, the Central Powers' artillery opened harassing fire, zeroing in their guns. The following morning at 0600 they began a sustained bombardment from field guns to heavy howitzers, at 0900 the mortars joined in. The huge mortar shells were especially terrifying, their blast killed men tens of meters from the explosion. The Russian fortifications were "... more ditches than trenches." According to François, "The mortars began their destructive work. The ground trembled, hell seemed to be let loose." According to Arz, "Our tension peaked as the infantry set off from their assault positions precisely at 10 o'clock." Mackensen had already defined "lines that should be reached in a uniform and if possible simultaneous manner, without preventing the troops from collectively moving on to secure the next sector where possible." After the first day, Mackensen reported, So far, everything is proceeding well", and on 3 May he reported 12,000 prisoners had been captured. François reported, "Gorlice was almost demolished; the section of the town that had been fighting resembled a sea of ruins." Mackensen then issued orders for the advance upon the River Wisłoka as the next objective, which constituted the Russian third and final line of defense. In the meantime, Russian reserves in the form of the III Caucasian Corps, could not provide relief for at least a day. Yet, since this corps was committed to battle piecemeal, they proved of limited value in hindering the German advance. Radko Dimitriev quickly sent two divisions to stem the Austro-German breakthrough, but they were utterly annihilated before they could even report back to headquarters. From the Russian point of view, both divisions simply disappeared from the map. On 3 May the Grand Duke Nicholas was sufficiently concerned to provide three additional divisions and to authorize a limited withdrawal. The Russian XII Corps near the Dukla Pass began its withdrawal, as did the XXIV Corps near Nowy Żmigród, signifying Russian control of the Carpathians was becoming ever more tenuous. The Korps Emmich 20th Infantry Division, Korps Kneussl was renamed after Otto von Emmich took over command, captured Nowy Żmigród. Using an intact bridge over the Wisłoka, this division was able to advance to Wietrzno. By 5 May the attackers were through the three trench lines that had opposed them, by 9 May they had reached all assigned objectives. Grand Duke Nicholas permitted a limited withdrawal, but rejected advice to construct a well fortified position far behind the frontline and then to pull back to it. At this point the Russian counterattacks grew ever more desperate, often throwing brand new recruits into battle, some armed only with grenades or wooden clubs. On 6 May, Mackensen noted, "Along the entire line from the Vistula far into the Carpathians, the enemy is retreating. Today I calculate we already have 60,000 prisoners." By 11 May, Emmich's men had reached the outskirts of Sanok, while François' reached the San River, an advance of in ten days. Mackensen's objective then became the securing of the San line, before advancing onwards to Rawa-Ruska. At this stage of the battle, according to Buttar, the Russian "X and XXIV Corps had effectively ceased to exist, while IX Corps had lost 80 per cent of its establishment strength," and the III Caucasian Corps had lost two thirds of its fighting strength. On 10 May, Vladimir Dragomirov had written Grand Duke Nicholas, "The strategic position of our forces is hopeless. In particular, I consider it my duty to note the position of Fourth Army, which will become very dangerous if the enemy breaks through along the lower San." On 12 May, Mackensen ordered bridgeheads established at Jaroslau and Radymno. By 15 May, Jaroslau had been captured and the Germans started crossing the San there on 17 May. Radymno was captured on 24 May. Dimitriev's Third Army XXI and XII Corps were transferred under the control of Aleksei Brusilov's Eighth Army in an attempt by Grand Duke Nicholas to stem the German breakthrough. Soon after, Dimitriev was dismissed, replaced by Leonid Lesh. On 28 May, the German XLI Corps 81st Infantry Division captured Stubno and Nakło north of the Przemyśl Fortress. On 31 May, the Germans started capturing the forts surrounding the fortress, and Brusilov ordered its abandonment. Kneussl's 11th Bavarian Infantry Division marched in unopposed on 3 June. Lesh's Third Army then retreated to the Tanew River, while Brusilov's Eighth Army retreated towards Lemberg near Gródek. Furthermore, Brusilov was ordered to relinquish his V Caucasian and XXII Corps, so that the Third Army could form a southern flank in combination with their II Cauciasian and XXIX Corps. This Third Army southern flank, led by Vladimir Olukhov, was supposed to prevent the 'Mackensen phalanx' from gaining any additional territory. The Central Powers' next objective was a continued advance towards the east from a bridgehead at Magierów, and the ultimate recapture of Lemberg, which would sever lines of communication between the Russian Northwest and Southwest Fronts. Mackensen would not only command his Eleventh Army but also the Austro-Hungarian Fourth Army, augmented with the X and XVII Corps, on his northern flank, and the Austro-Hungarian Second Army, augmented with the Beskidenkorps, on his southern flank. The Eleventh Army Order of battle, north to south, consisted of Karl von Behr's Corps, Emmich's X Corps, Eugen von Falkenhayn's XXII Reserve Corps, Plettenberg's Guards Corps, Arz's Austro-Hungarian VI Corps, and François' XLI Reserve Corps. The attack commenced on 13 June, and by 17 June, the Germans had pushed the front line back to positions near Gródek. The German attack commenced again on 19 June, after the previous day was spent bringing forward their heavy artillery with matching aerial reconnaissance. The Russians reverted to a headlong retreat, and on 21 June the Grand Duke Nicholas ordered abandonment of Galicia. On 22 June Mackensen's Austro-Hungarians entered Lemberg after an advance of , an average rate of per day. The Galician oil fields, crucial for the German navy, were soon back in production and 480,000 tons of badly-needed oil was captured. Casualties and losses The battles on the Bug and Zlota Lipa Rivers ended the Gorlice–Tarnów offensive, during which the armies of the Central Powers managed to inflict the largest defeat on the troops of the Russian Empire. The operation, which lasted 70 days, in terms of the number of troops involved (taking into account the replenishment of combat and non-combat сasualties – 4.5 million men on both sides), in terms of сasualties of the opponents (on both sides more than 1.5 million men), in terms of trophies, became the largest during the First World War. Heavy сasualties in the May battles forced the Russian armies to retreat from Galicia in early June 1915, and so hastily that the fortified positions prepared in the rear remained abandoned. The low stability of the troops of the Russian 8th Army, which left Lvov on June 22, became the reason for sharp reprimands from the front headquarters. In the Russian armies south of the Pilica River, 26 infantry divisions were transferred and put into battle in 70 days, two more guard divisions remained in reserve. But for the armies of the Central Powers, the victory came at a high price. The arriving reserves (6.5 divisions) brought into action during the offensive were fully utilized by the beginning of July. Although the Russian troops at certain moments of the battles lacked artillery shells (while the consumption of shells was the highest since the beginning of the war), they were well equipped with rifle cartridges and retained an advantage in the number of machine guns. Skillfully directed fire from hand weapons was very effective, and massive frontal assaults cost the victorious troops dearly, which was reflected in the gradual narrowing of the breakthrough front. The available official information about the trophies of the warring parties allows us to clarify the number of those who died in the operation. This number is made up of those killed and missing, not taken prisoner. The Austria-Hungary's Army Higher Command (AOK) and the German Supreme Commander of All German Forces in the East (Ober Ost) announced the capture in May – early July 1915 in Galicia, Bukovina and the Kingdom of Poland 3 generals, 1,354 officers and 445,622 soldiers of the Russian army, 350 guns, 983 machine guns. The Russian side officially announced the capture in May-June 1915 of 100,476 prisoners (of which 1,366 officers), 68 guns, 3 mortars and 218 machine guns of the Central Powers. Based on these data, it can be assumed that 170,628 men died on the part of the Russian troops in the operation, and 140,420 men died on the part of the Central Powers. After the retreat of the Russian troops from Galicia, only within the military districts of Kraków, Lvov (Lemberg) and Przemyśl, 566,833 soldiers of the Russian, German and Austro-Hungarian armies who had died since the beginning of the war were officially buried. At the same time, the foundation was laid for the creation of a network of war memorials. Analysis The Gorlice–Tarnów offensive and the subsequent offensive of the Northern armies of the AOK in Galicia is regarded as the largest, if not the main, victory of the Central Powers in the Russian theater of operations. For 10 weeks, the Russian armies of the Southwestern Front and the left flank of the armies of the Northwestern Front were thrown back in Galicia – across the Bug, Zlota Lipa and Dniester rivers, retaining only a small part of the Austria-Hungary’s territory, and in the Kingdom of Poland they retreated beyond the Vistula to Józefów , across the Tanew River, to Krasnystaw and Hrubieszów – approximately to the lines from which the Russian invasion of Galicia began in August 1914. Almost all the replenishment that came to the front was destroyed in the battles. The Russian Imperial army for the first time completely switched to strategic defense. The armies of the Central Powers failed to encircle the Russian armies and withdraw the Russian Empire from the war, but such a goal was not set before the start of the Gorlice–Tarnów offensive. The planning of the operation in Galicia by the Austria-Hungary's Army Higher Command and the Supreme Commander of All German Forces in the East (Ober Ost), proceeded in stages, depending on the result achieved. At first, the goal was to oust the Russian armies from the Carpathian ridge, which was achieved after the retreat of the Russian troops behind the San and Dniester rivers; then the task of recapturing central Galicia and Przemysl was set, followed by the capture of Lemberg and the liberation of eastern Galicia. Finally, the goal was set to push the Russian troops as far north as possible between the Vistula and the Bug (therefore, A. von Mackensen considered the offensive of his army group in July–August 1915 to be a continuation of the Gorlice–Tarnów offensive ). The last goal, not achieved as a result of the Russian counterattack at Kraśnik, became the limit of the development of the Gorlice–Tarnów offensive, since, firstly, the further actions of the Central Powers against Russia became a general offensive along the entire front, and secondly, from the Russian side they received the character of a targeted defense, and not attempts to turn the tide of the struggle and seize the offensive initiative, thirdly, they demanded that the enemy conduct separate preparations for the operation, including the redeployment of two armies. The reasons for the defeat of the Russian armies in the 1915 campaign, which became the most important operation, were usually called the overwhelming numerical superiority of the Central Powers, insufficient technical equipment and lack of artillery ammunition, and the excessive persistence of the Russia Headquarters in defending the conquered Galicia. One of the first researchers of the First World War in Russia, Andrei Zayonchkovski, saw the causes of defeats primarily in the shortcomings of the Russian troops command and control system: the lack of a single plan of action (and as a result, the initiative was ceded to the enemy), neglect of assessing the capabilities of the terrain and the position of the troops (as a result – "throwing suitable reserves from side to side"), weakness of technical training (creation of reserves, organization of supplies), biased attitude towards the enemy and his underestimation, distrust of the troops and individual commanders. All this resulted in the fact that “on the Russian side, there were, as it were, two independent organisms – the high command. … and the troops with their commanders", and "the doctrine of a concentrated strike, preached in the Russian army throughout the nineteenth century, in practice resulted in separately operating tentacles. Aftermath Seeckt proposed that the Eleventh Army should advance north towards Brest-Litovsk, with their flanks shielded by the rivers Vistula and Bug. Mackensen and Falkenhayn supported this strategy of attacking the Russian salient in Poland, and forcing a decisive battle. Ober Ost, led by Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff, would attack towards the southeast, while Mackensen turned north, and the Austro-Hungarian Second Army attacked east. The Grand Duke Nicholas issued orders that yielded to the pressure step by step, evacuating both Galicia and the Polish salient to straighten out their front line, hoping to buy the time to acquire the weapons they so desperately needed, for example 300,000 rifles. This enormous movement is known as the Great Retreat of 1915. Warsaw was evacuated and fell to the new Twelfth German Army on 5 August, and by the end of the month Poland was entirely in Austro-German hands (see Bug-Narew Offensive). Order of Battle Central Powers (arrayed north to south): Austro-Hungarian 4th Army (Austro-Hungarian units unless otherwise indicated): Combined Division “Stöger-Steiner”; XIV Corps (German 47th Reserve Division, Group Morgenstern, 8th & 3rd Infantry Divisions); IX corps (106th Landsturm & 10th Infantry Divisions); In reserve behind IX Corps: 31st Infantry Brigade (“Szende Brigade”), 11th Honved Cavalry Division. German 11th Army (German units unless otherwise indicated): Guards Corps (1st & 2nd Guards Divisions); Austro-Hungarian VI Corps (39th Honved Infantry & 12th Infantry Divisions); XXXXI Reserve Corps (81st & 82nd Reserve Divisions); Combined Corps “Kneussl” (119th and 11th Bavarian Infantry Divisions); In reserve: X Corps (19th & 20th Infantry Divisions). Austro-Hungarian 3rd Army, X Corps (21st Landsturm, 45th Landsturm, 2nd Infantry & 24th Infantry Divisions) Russian 3rd Army (north to south): IX Corps (3 militia brigades, 3 regiments of 5th Infantry Division, 2 militia brigades, 3 regiments of 42nd Infantry Division, 70th Reserve Division, 7th Cavalry Division [in reserve]); X Corps (31st Infantry & 61st Reserve Divisions, 3 regiments of 9th Infantry Division); XXIV Corps (3 regiments of 49th Infantry Division, 48th Infantry Division & 176th (Perevolochensk) Infantry Regiment of 44th Infantry Division); XII Corps (12th Siberian Rifle Division, 12th & 19th Infantry Divisions & 17th (Chernigov) Hussar Regiment); XXI Corps (3 regiments of 33rd Infantry Division & 173rd (Kamenets) Regiment of 44th Infantry Division); XXIX Corps (Brigade of 81st Infantry Division, 3rd Rifle Brigade, 175th (Batursk) Infantry Regiment of 44th Infantry Division & 132nd (Bender) Infantry Regiment of 33rd Infantry Division); 11th Cavalry Division. Behind the Russian front lines: Scattered across the rear of 3rd Army: 3rd Caucasus Cossack Division, 19th (Kostroma) Infantry Regiment of 5th Infantry Division, 33rd (Elets) Infantry Regiment of 9th Infantry Division; 167th (Ostroisk) Infantry Regiment of 42nd Infantry Division; Army Reserve: Brigade of 81st Infantry Division, 3 regiments of 63rd Reserve Division, Composite Cavalry Corps (16th Cavalry Division (less 17th Hussar Regiment), 2nd Consolidated Cossack Division); 3rd Don Cossack Division See also German Gorlice breakthrough References Further reading DiNardo, Richard L. (2010) Breakthrough: The Gorlice-Tarnow Campaign, Praeger, Santa Barbara, California Stone, Norman (1975) The Eastern Front 1914–1917, Hodder & Stoughton Ltd., London: 348 pp. Tunstall, Graydon J. (2010) Blood on the Snow: The Carpathian Winter War of 1915'', University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas External links Map of Europe at the end of the Gorlice–Tarnów offensive at omniatlas.com A British observer's account of the Gorlice-Tarnow campaign, 1915 Grand Duke Nikolai on the Battle of Gorlice-Tarnow, 3 June 1915 German Press Statement on the Opening of the Battle of Gorlice-Tarnow, 2 May 1915 Week of Successes for German Arms on Eastern and Western Battle Fronts; Defeat in Galicia May Cause Collapse of Carpathian Campaign, NY Times May 9, 1915 (pdf file) 1915 in Austria-Hungary Conflicts in 1915 Battles of the Eastern Front (World War I) Battles of World War I involving Austria-Hungary Battles of World War I involving Germany Battles of World War I involving Russia 1915 in the Russian Empire History of Lesser Poland Voivodeship May 1915 events June 1915 events History of Podkarpackie Voivodeship History of Lviv Oblast
4783392	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafort%20Saga	Seafort Saga	The Seafort Saga is a series of science fiction novels written by American author David Feintuch. The novels are set from the late 22nd century to the mid-23rd century and relate the adventures of Nicholas Seafort, an officer in the (fictional) UNNS\|United Nations Naval Service. The series is a collection of personal accounts, usually from the perspective of Nicholas Seafort, describing Seafort's adventures, beginning as a lowly midshipman, to the elected leader of earth, and finally to the captain of the UNNS flagship Olympiad. Although most books in the series are told from a single perspective, usually Seafort's, Voices of Hope is a collection of accounts from several sources: Seafort's son, PT, the son of a friend of Seafort's, and a transient boy named Pook. Additionally, Children of Hope is narrated by Randy Carr, the son of a close friend of Seafort's. Reception The main character has been described as an anti-hero. Gwyneth Jones critized the series as "repetitive and formulaic", with "some of the least scientific science fiction, and the least convincing alien monsters (giant spacefaring goldfish), of modern times", noting that nonetheless the series "rolls on, from one dreadful humiliation to the next, with occasional bursts of brilliant action, to the guilty satisfaction of many readers". Characters Vax Holser Alexi Tamarov Derek Anthony Carr Edgar Tolliver Philip Tyre "PT" Seafort Robert Boland Randolph "Randy" Carr Books Midshipman's Hope Midshipman's Hope was published in 1994 as the first book in the saga; it depicts the first voyage of UNNS officer Nicholas Seafort. In May 2015, Clover Red LLC started a Kickstarter crowdfunding campaign to help fund the development of a screenplay adapting Midshipman's Hope. The campaign ended on June 12, 2015, falling short of the funding goal. Plot Nicholas Seafort is a seventeen-year-old midshipman who boards the UNS Hibernia on his first space assignment, a three-year interstellar voyage to the colonies of Hope Nation and Detour. He beats back a challenge to his authority as senior midshipman by Vax Holser, the next most senior. During the trip, he strikes up friendships with Third Lieutenant Harv Malstrom and an attractive passenger, Amanda Frowel. A disastrous rescue of a passenger injured while sightseeing on the wreck of another ship results in the deaths of Captain Haag and his two senior lieutenants, elevating Malstrom to the captaincy and Seafort to second-in-command of Hibernia. When Maelstrom falls ill with a quick-acting cancer, Seafort, believing himself to be unqualified to command, begs him to promote Holser to lieutenant, but Maelstrom dies without doing so. The other surviving officers (outside the chain of command) share Seafort's opinion of his leadership abilities and try to get him to relieve himself, but he cannot find any regulations that permit it. They back down when Seafort points out the penalty for mutiny. Seafort is immediately faced with a difficult decision. Malstrom had condemned three crewmen to death for assaulting the sergeant-at-arms in an attempt to conceal their drug-making operation. Their punishment was extremely unpopular with the rest of the crew. However, despite the danger of a revolt, Seafort has two of the men hanged; the third's sentence is commuted to several months' confinement. His resolute handling of the situation quells the unruly crewmen. This action estranges him from Amanda, who feels the executions to be barbaric. Other dangers follow. By thoroughness and sheer stubbornness, Seafort discovers that the ship's sentient computer, Darla, has been corrupted by careless naval programmers and would have sent the ship hopelessly off-course on the next leg of their journey. Darla was also responsible for the explosion that killed Captain Haag. To fix the problem, Seafort has a backup restored. When the ship arrives at its next stop, Miningcamp, a small mining colony in an otherwise uninhabitable system, mutineers from the space station try to take over the ship. Seafort single-handedly holds them off until the crew can regroup and deal with the intruders. Eventually, Seafort ends the rebellion and finds out the cause. An ore barge and the starship Telstar are long overdue, which resulted in the panic that led to the trouble. When the Hibernia reaches Hope Nation, Seafort expects to be relieved, but discovers that not only has the admiral in command of the naval garrison died in a strange viral epidemic, but a captain has deserted, leaving a Hope Nation commanding officer who is junior to Seafort. Seafort finds himself in charge of all naval forces in the system. During a tour of the planet, Seafort, Amanda (with whom he has reconciled) and one of his officers run into the captain who had deserted. He is hiding in the mountains with his wife because he believes he saw meteors spraying something in the sky shortly before the epidemic broke out. Believing the man to be mad, Seafort dismisses his story as fantasy, but does not force the couple to return to civilization. Seafort recruits several officers from the local personnel, then continues on to the next stop, Detour. He finds that two of the new men are poor officers, dumped on him by their former commanders. However, he manages to deal with the situation. Then Hibernias sensors detect Telstar, adrift in space with massive rents in her hull. Seafort leads a boarding party to investigate and, to his horror, encounters a strange alien life form resembling an amoeba in the ship's corridor. When it attacks, it becomes clear that it was responsible for the disabling of Telstar and the death of its crew. Fortunately, Seafort is able to escape unharmed. After a stop at Hope Nation to warn the residents, Seafort takes Hibernia back to Earth to report the news. Feature film In 2015, Clover Red LLC obtained the rights for the film adaptation of Midshipman's Hope. In May 2015 Clover Red LLC started a crowdfunding campaign to fund the development of the screenplay; the crowdfund fell short of the funding goal on June 12, 2015. Challenger's Hope Published in 1995. Plot Nicholas Seafort, newly assigned commander of UNS Challenger and part of Admiral Geoffrey Tremaine's task force, has his ship taken from him when Tremaine decides to make Challenger his flagship, under the command of Captain Hasselbrad. Seafort is given command of the admiral's far smaller original flagship, UNS Portia. Tremaine's task force has the task of reaching Hope Nation and eliminating any of the hostile aliens (nicknamed "Fish") if found on the way. Portia is given the task of transporting a group of Lower New York 'transpops'—uneducated and often violent street children—to the colony of Detour beyond Hope Nation. Seafort initially sees the transpops as simply a danger to his ship (drugging or imprisoning them were considered as solutions). The squadron is attacked by Fish that board Portia, releasing their lethal virus into the ship and killing dozens of her crew and passengers, including Seafort's baby son. Amanda Seafort, driven insane by grief, commits suicide, and Nicholas suffers a temporary breakdown as a result. After his recovery, Portia encounters Challenger, crippled by a Fish attack. Seafort is transferred to the ship and is left alone, save for passengers and crew that Tremaine hates, including the transpops, and abandoned in space. After overcoming a mutiny, Seafort sets about preparing Challenger for an eighty-year voyage back to Earth, conscripting passengers into the Naval Service and scavenging from the wrecked sections of the ship. Barely weeks into the trip, radiation from the ship's damaged propulsion systems attracts the aliens, leading to a series of desperate battles in which Challenger is further damaged, and more of her already tiny crew killed. Ultimately, Seafort uses his dying ship to ram an alien, only for it to Fuse (accelerate to faster-than-light speed), taking Challenger with it. For sixty days, Challenger remains lodged in the alien, her crew dying of malnutrition until, almost miraculously, the dying Fish Defuses in Earth's solar system. In the aftermath of the voyage, Seafort meets his father at a naval base on the moon, and is given command of his old ship, Hibernia, to return to Hope Nation. Prisoner's Hope Published in 1995. Plot Captain Nicholas Seafort is planetside on Hope Nation while recuperating from injuries, some of which were sustained from a duel with Admiral Tremaine. The injuries include a lung which must be replaced, as well as psychological trauma accumulated due to the many traumatic experiences he has been through. Among the injuries Seafort has sustained is the ruined friendship with his former shipmate, Vax Holser. Vax resents Seafort sending him away from Challenger, wanting to remain with his captain no matter what. The admiral in charge of the United Nations fleet in the sector makes a bargain with Seafort: due to his supposed good relations with some of the planters, he can meet with and report on what their grievances are and attempt to allay them. This appointment does not sit well with him, as he would much prefer to be assigned a captaincy. However, the UN space fleet retreats Earthward after tangling with the space threat discovered by Seafort in his first voyage on Hibernia. This leaves Seafort the sole United Nations authority on the planet, which makes him a target. Some of the planters, disaffected by the long history of unfulfilled promises and seeking greater autonomy in their future, mount a rebellion. The initial casualties include Alexi Tamarov, who is injured in an explosion meant to kill Seafort, but which instead leaves him in a coma. Coming out of the coma, Alexi has suffered amnesia, not knowing his old friend or anything about his naval responsibilities. Additionally, Seafort marries the former transient Annie Wells, but is left feeling betrayed when she has what she considers a meaningless sexual encounter with an old friend. Seafort must avert the rebellion while dealing with his wounds, both mental and physical, and lead the colonists against the space invaders, who have begun to attack not just the fleets in orbit but also the planet. To do so, he must turn his back on his oath to the UN Navy and commit high treason. Reaching the station in orbit above Hope Nation, Seafort manages to transmit skewed N-Waves which attract the "fish", and uses the automated weapons on board the station to kill thousands of them. He also arranges for the stations fusion reactor to detonate, which is tantamount to a nuclear explosion. Such an act is punishable by death, but Seafort no longer cares about his life. In the process of conducting this exercise, Vax Holser arrives at the last minute with a ship and arranges to come aboard the station. While there, he incapacitates Seafort, and sends him back on his launch, remaining in his place. This results in Vax's death. Seafort must assume command of Vax's old ship, with a crew who do not trust him (blaming him for their captain's death), passengers who do not like him (including Annie, who has been driven insane after an attempted rape by criminals on Hope Nation; Alexi with his amnesia; and Jarence Branstead, who is a potential goofjuice addict) as well as wrestling with his own sense of justice, which he feels demands his death for his failures. Reaching Earth, Seafort finds that the ban on nuclear weapons has been lifted due to repeated attacks by the Fish, and his actions are deemed laudable by the navy. Feeling unworthy, Seafort seeks to resign. Instead, he is persuaded to take over the command of the naval academy, training the next generation of cadets. Fisherman's Hope Published in 1996. Captain Seafort has been made commandant of the naval academy, a promotion which does not sit well with him. Having no tolerance for the political machinations which he must deal with, he struggles to accomplish anything he feels is worthwhile. Additionally his wife, Annie Wells, is still suffering mental trauma from her rape while on Hope Nation. While receiving treatment, she runs away from her clinic and takes to the streets of Old New York City. Captain Seafort must turn to an old acquaintance, Eddie Boss, in an effort to try and find her. In the process, he must also risk his own life while braving the transient-controlled streets. Back at the academy, Seafort is helpless to do anything when the Fish attack the home system. He comes up with a desperate plan which may save the home system, but would also mean his certain death, as well as the deaths of cadets who have placed their trust in him. Somehow surviving the attack, but now firmly scarred mentally and emotionally from what the survival of home system has cost him, Seafort finally resigns his commission. In an epilogue, it is revealed that Captain Seafort finds comfort in the seclusion of a monastery. As part of his penance and treatment, the head of the monastery encourages him to write down his life story to try to help purge him of his feelings of guilt. After several years of seclusion, he is persuaded to enter politics, using his support to help strengthen the navy to the best of his ability. He divorces Annie and marries an old academy classmate, Arlene Sanders. His unswerving devotion to honesty in all things leads to his government being voted out of office, but allows him to preserve his integrity and his honor. Voices of Hope Published in 1997. The style of this book differs from the previous ones as it encompasses not merely Captain Seafort's perspective on the events contained within, but also certain other characters. Years after retiring from politics, Captain Seafort lives in a private compound with his wife Arlene, his son Philip Tyre, his aide Adam Tenere, and Adam's son Jared. Adam's wife died when Jared was very young, and her loss has caused Adam to be very lax with disciplining his child. As a result Jared has grown up to be a rebellious teenager with a lack of respect for authority. In contrast, Nick and Arlene have raised their son to military standards of hygiene, morality, and behavior, although not encouraging him to follow them into the Navy. Philip has grown into a very intelligent adolescent, with deep respect for his parents and what they expect of him. This contrasts with Jared who spends his days resenting his father, resenting captain Seafort, and finding pride in his computer hacking abilities and idolizing those cause internet mischief. Captain Seafort regularly makes return visits to the monastery where he found necessary seclusion which enabled him to restore his soul. During the course of preparing for one of these excursions, Captain Seafort discovers Jared spying on a private conversation that a visitor is having, in the hopes of selling the information to a newspaper. The visitor in question is former Cadet Boland, now Assemblyman Boland. The conversation that was overheard was between the Assemblyman and his father, about how they could potentially discredit Captain Seafort's reputation. Neither of them enjoy the prospect, but they feel it may become a political necessity. With both his father, captain seafort, and Philip (referred to as PT) mad at him, Jared hacks his father's Bank accounts, steals money, and sneaks off to New York in the hopes of selling what information he has on the attempts of the Bolands to discredit Captain Seafort. He hopes he can use the story to make enough money, to live his own life where he can do what he pleases. Well this is going on, senator Boland is making plans to continue revamping New York city. In the process, the demolition and construction projects are destroying the territories that belong to the various tranny tribes. The most notable impact is the lack of clean water, which is being diverted from the old pipes. This is causing all the various gangs to be more on edge than normal, even attacking one anothers territory in an attempt to get better water supplies. Eddie boss, hearing about this from his former tribe mates, reaches out to Pedro Chang for help. Chang, who has recently started taking a young rebellious tranny named pook under his wing, decides to try and visit Captain Seafort to rally support. Unfortunately the captain is not there, and he is ignored. Pedro decides to attempt to visit the monastery to reach the captain. While this is going on, PT, who feels guilty over what he perceives is his own blame in causing Jared to run away, decides to run away to look for him. Jared's attempt to sell the information fails. And he is captured by trannies when he goes on the run in New York. Pedro Chang, acting as mediator, arranges for various tranny tribes to try to work together to fight the UN government from pushing them out of their territory. Before they can unite against the UN, the sub tribe makes an effort to clear out the parka tribe (located in Central Park), and pressure Captain Seafort to assist them. Captain Seafort, who had sought out the Subs needing their help to find his son, and Jared, reluctantly agrees when Pedro Chang informs him that the Parka tribe are viewed as almost sub-human by most other tranny groups, due to cannibalism. While aiding in the battle, the Subs are attacked by UN troops and local police. The attack comes about due to pressure that Arlene Seafort and Assemblyman Boland had brought to bear earlier. Using Captain Seafort's influence, they persuaded the armed forces to attack the tranny's, hoping it would allow for finding PT. Instead it has the opposite effect, causing the subs to distrust the Captain, and results in an all-out war between the tranny gangs and the UN soldiers. In the process of this war, the UN government uses poison gas, and attempts to use the space laser cannons that were put in place to destroy asteroids and fish, to destroy parts of New York to kill the gangs. While the gangs are fighting the government, Jared manages to convince them to let him help. He enlists other fellow hackers in an effort to bring down the global economy. PT somehow manages to avoid serious injury while looking for Jared, but in the attacks Jared's father Adam is killed. Captain Seafort, reunited with his son, takes a stand against the United Nations government's attempt to kill those of its own people that have used as valueless. In the process, he and his son are nearly killed when they place themselves in a spacecraft, and allow themselves to drift into the line of fire of the orbital laser batteries. Returning to earth, and realizing that he can no longer stay silent or inactive, Captain Seafort returns to political life and is elected secretary-general of the United Nations. Patriarch's Hope Published in 1999, the book is set approximate 10 years after the events of Voices of Hope Decades after what has since become known as the trans-pop rebellion, Seafort remains unhappy with his position as secretary-general of the United Nations, despite the fact that he feels he can trust no one else to do what he must. Assisted by jarence branstead, he has attempted to galvanize Earth's industries into completely restoring the Navy to its pre-fish capabilities. Also attempting to respect the rights of the trans-pop community, and also serve as a moral and religious example. Unfortunately the massive industrial boom has led to an increased erosion of the Earth's habitability. This has led to an upsurge in protests and demonstrations by eco-friendly parties, which Seafort regards with derision. His strict moralistic interpretation of the bible causes him to regard Earth as man's property. Therefore, it is their privilege to do what they will with it, as blessed by Lord God. During an inspection of naval facilities at devon, several cadets are killed in what appears to be a training accident. But an investigation reveals they have been poisoned, and an Earth first terrorist organization takes credit for the attack. This galvanizes Seafort into taking an even harder stance on any supposed weakening of his policies towards the environment. While accepting an award for his supposed moral excellence, Seafort has a bout of conscience which moves him to deny the award, citing his moral fallibility in the political revenge he has enjoyed inflicting on his enemies and adversaries. This reluctantly has the opposite effect that he intends, and instead causes the public to Revere him even more. Well accepting this award Seafort has been enjoying the company of his old friend Derek carr, now head of the government of Hope nation, who has returned to Earth to negotiate trade deals. Also he is enjoying the company of his old friend Alexi tamarov, who has now been appointed as captain of the ship Melbourne. Secretary-general Seafort, accompanied by alexi and his wife Arlene, tours the new super ship Galactic. The ship has been built as a massive undertaking, in an effort to demonstrate the power and superiority of the navy and also intended to help promote colonization efforts throughout the Galaxy. The touring of the ship demonstrates to Captain Seafort just how much the Navy has shifted from when he was a boy, with the ship's designed being much more relaxed, Including luxury cabins, and first and second class dining and accommodations. While engaged in attempting to balance production, and placate the navy, captain Seafort becomes aware of political machinations within the navy. Some are unhappy with the secretary-general's supposed lack of desire to use the Navy as a cudgel to beat the colonies into submission, which goes against Nick's conscience. At the same time, Seafort comes under pressure from the head of the Earth's religious bodies, known as the patriarchs. They feel the captain needs to crack down on the independence of the colonies, to ensure that Earth remains Paramount in the universe, and that the patriarchs do not lose any income. As he regards the patriarchs as the voice of God on Earth this troubles the captain's conscience. During a second meeting in New York with the patriarchs, Seafort is injured in a terrorist attack. A bomb explodes which causes him severe injury, and regretfully kills captain tamarov. The explosion causes paralysis and Seafort's lower body confining him to a wheelchair. Resenting his immobility, the secretary-general becomes irritable and depressed. Returning to his home compound outside dc, Seafort reluctantly accepts a cadet aide, Bevin, whom he had met earlier. Using the young cadet as a verbal punching bag for his frustration with the eco-terrorist who have claimed credit for the explosion, the captain is additionally frustrated when Alexi tamaroff's wife brings their two children to stay with him and Arlene at the compound. During this period of time, his son Philip tyre attempts to reconcile their relationship. It has been strained for years, following Phillips theft of his father's personal property. Philip has grown to manhood and is in a semi-committed relationship with Jared Tenere, who has achieved mental stability thanks to hormone treatments and the parenting of Robbie Boland. Using a combination of discipline and reward, Seafort is able to help bring Mikhail tamarov out of his shell, assisted by Derek Carr who has come to visit at Seafort's request. Derek and Nick tell stories of Alexi to mikhail, to help him understand his father better. Philip manages to persuade his father to go along with him on an unscheduled tour. Philip does not tell his father where they are going, but manages to get the father to agree to go. Taking him to various spots on the globe, Philip demonstrates to the Secretary general just how uninhabitable the Earth has gotten. It culminates in a visit to Nick's boyhood home in cardiff. Thanks to pollutants both from the local factory and from europe, his boyhood home is uninhabitable. This wake up call galvanizes Seafort into altering his political agenda, to help try and cut back on industry to save the world's ecosystems. Unfortunately, this also draws him negative feedback from the Navy who don't want the proposed construction of ships to be slowed down, and the patriarchs who want the Navy to remain powerful so they can enforce their vision of God's will. Surviving another terrorist attack at his own home, from a mole that has been planted among his security, Seafort finds that he is no longer safe even in his own house. Having earlier agreed to an experimental medical procedure, that can only take place on the moon, Seafort is smuggled out of his compound and into space. The procedure is somewhat of a success and he can begin to have feeling in his lower body and move his toes. During the recovery his home compound is bombed and he is presumed dead. Additionally the Navy announces that they have assumed control, and demand that Seafort's political agenda of eco-friendly policies be reversed. Finding himself with no other options, Seafort declares martial law. Calling the captain of the galactic, he demands his surrender. Captain stanger refuses. But insists that Seafort come to see him so that they can settle things as peaceably as possible. With the assistance of the midshipman and cadet who accompanied him into space, Mikhail tamarov who refused to be left behind, Arlene and Derek who agreed to be reenlisted as lieutenants, his son Philip and Jared who had come to visit him in hospital, Seafort smuggles his way onto the galactic. Using his authority as secretary-general, he promotes himself admiral and assigns himself command of the galactic. Unfortunately his subterfuge is discovered sooner than he anticipate, and his initial attempt to take over of the ship fails. Seafort is ultimately successful in killing Captain stanger, but the casualties include cadet Bevin, and Jared Tenere. As captain of the galactic, Seafort fuses his ship away into the outer system, coming in contact with the Melbourne who has been on a pleasure Cruise. Using the Melbourne as a smoke screen, he is able to smuggle himself into Earth's spaceport in an attempt to recapture it and persuade the men that in charge to surrender. Well this is happening, Jeffrey Thorne and Edgar tolliver have agreed to assist seaport in attempting to recapture the massive laser installation at Lunapolis. Using cadets as shock troopers, they attack the laser emplacements while Seafort is sneaking his way into the space station. When the galactic fuses back into Earth orbit in a bluff to keep the lasers from firing on the planet and to hopefully shock the commanding generals into surrendering, the general in charge of the laser emplacements orders them to fire on the galactic instead. Suffering drastic damage, the galactic is ultimately destroyed. As a result of the destruction, Derek Carr and Arlene Seafort are killed. Watching both his wife and one of his oldest and dearest friends die in front of him scars Seafort's soul. Finding himself unable to ever return to Earth again because of the Drastic damage his spine has suffered, Seafort languishes until he agrees to take command of the olympiad, galactic's sister ship. He reluctantly agrees because he realizes that even if he retires from politics, his mere existence in home system will forever place him at the forefront of every decision that is made, granting him no peace. Mikhail tamarov adopts Seafort as a surrogate father, deciding to come along on the journey. Additionally his wife Arlene had frozen eggs before she died, and Seafort intends to keep the promise he made to her he will have another child, using a host mother. With a sense of purpose as a father and a captain, Seafort says goodbye to his home planet in the knowledge that he will never return. Children of Hope The seventh book is set several years after the events of Patriarch's Hope and was the last in the series to be published before the death of author David Feintuch. Galahad's Hope (unpublished) Galahad's Hope is the working title of the eighth and final book in the Seafort Saga of science fiction novels, and the sequel to Children of Hope. The manuscript was reported to be completed before the death of author David Feintuch; however, Orbit UK has no current plans to publish this book. According to an Orbit online marketing executive, they haven't been approached by anyone connected to David Feintuch with a view to publishing the manuscript. References Further reading Zaleski, Jeff, and Peter Cannon.. "CHILDREN OF HOPE (Book Review)." Publishers Weekly 248.11 (12 Mar. 2001): 67. Green, Roland. "Adult Books: FICTION." Booklist 97.14 (15 Mar. 2001): 1360. Military science fiction novels Space navies Book series introduced in 1994
4783469	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunder%20Bay%20Flyers	Thunder Bay Flyers	The Thunder Bay Flyers were a Junior "A" ice hockey team from Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada. History On July 6, 1980, the Degagne Buccaneers and Thunder Bay North Stars were informed by the TBAHA that they would not be permitted to field teams in the 1980–81 City League. On July 10, 1980, the executive of the Thunder Bay Kings was formed and gave life to the city's premier junior squad for the next twenty years. From 1980 until 1982, the Kings played in the Thunder Bay Hockey League with the Allan Cup-contending Senior "A" Thunder Bay Twins, the Hardy Cup-contending Intermediate "A" Thunder Bay Blazers, and the Canadian Interuniversity Athletics Union's Lakehead University Nor'westers. Their first season saw them finish in second and meet the Intermediate Blazers in the league semi-final, which the Kings won 3-games-to-2. In the finals, they were swept by the Senior Twins 4-games-to-none. In the second year, the Flyers finished in third and drew the Blazers again. They defeated the Intermediates 3-games-to-1, to meet Lakehead University in the final. Lakehead upset the Twins 3-games-to-1 in the other semi-final. The Kings won the final in seven games to win the City Championship. In 1982, the Thunder Bay Hockey League was disbanded. The Blazers folded into the Twins, who joined Manitoba's Central Senior A Hockey League. The Kings, the newly formed Thunder Bay Hornets and the Schreiber North Stars Junior "B" hockey teams, formed the Thunder Bay Junior Hockey League. The Kings won the league in 1983. In the 1983-84 season, the North Stars were replaced by the Jr. B Thunder Bay Maple Leafs. The Kings celebrated an 18-game perfect season before winning the city championship for the third straight year. In 1984, the Thunder Bay Junior Hockey League folded. The Kings changed their name to the Thunder Bay Flyers and jumped to the United States Hockey League (USHL). The Hornets and Maple Leafs merged under the Thunder Bay Hornets banner and jumped to the Manitoba Junior Hockey League. The Thunder Bay Junior Hockey League folded in 1984. Many former players made the jump to the Ontario Provincial Junior A Hockey League; some went to the then existing version of the Northern Ontario Junior Hockey League; and others to the Manitoba Junior Hockey League. However, due to Thunder Bay's location, the league was closer to Minnesota than the closest franchises in the other Ontario Junior "A" Leagues, and the Thunder Bay Flyers of the defunct Thunder Bay League survived by jumping the border to play in the top tier of American junior hockey, the United States Hockey League, and with some success. 1986 to 1995 Dave Siciliano served as head coach of the Flyers from 1986 to 1993. He led the team to 35 wins and a second-place finish during the 1986–87 season. After defeating the Sioux City Musketeers in the first round of the playoffs, the Flyers lost three games to two versus the Madison Capitols in the second round. The Flyers won 40 games and placed first overall in the 1987–88 season, which gave Siciliano his first Anderson Cup as the USHL's regular season champion. Despite that his team had 13 rookies, the Flyers had the highest scoring offence in the league and the second best goals against average. The Ottawa Citizen credited the team's success to its skating ability, puck control and aggressive forechecking. The Flyers defeated the Madison Capitols by three games to one in the first round of the playoffs, then defeated the Rochester Mustangs by three games to one in the finals to win the Clark Cup as USHL playoffs champions. The Flyers then participated in the Dudley Hewitt Cup playoffs to determine the Central Canada "Junior A" champion, and lost to the Pembroke Lumber Kings in four consecutive games in the final series. Since the Lumber Kings hosted the 1988 Centennial Cup tournament to determine the Canadian Junior A champion and received an automatic berth, the Flyers advanced to the Centennial Cup tournament as the Dudley Hewitt Cup finalists. The tournament was the first appearance for the Flyers at the Centennial Cup, which saw them lose all three games played and finish in fourth place. Siciliano led the Flyers to 40 wins and placed first overall in the 1988–89 season, to win his second Anderson Cup. In the USHL playoffs, the Flyers defeated the Omaha Lancers in three games in the first round, then defeated the North Iowa Huskies in four games in the second round, then defeated the St. Paul Vulcans in five games to give Siciliano his second Clark Cup championship. The Flyers began the Canadian playoffs undefeated in eight games with series victories versus the Sudbury Cubs and the Pembroke Lumber Kings to give Siciliano his first Dudley Hewitt Cup. Siciliano recalled that the Flyers were not given respect in advance of the 1989 Centennial Cup, and said that "the host Summerside team commented at the coaches press conference that Thunder Bay couldn't be very strong since they played in an American-based league". During the round-robin stage of the tournament, the Flyers earned wins versus the Vernon Lakers and Moncton Hawks, and lost to the Summerside Western Capitals. The Flyers earned a berth in the cup finals based on goal difference among three teams tied for first place, then defeated Summerside by a 4–1 score in the final game to win the Centennial Cup. Siciliano summarized the game by saying, "our team speed and skill over powered Summerside and we were unfazed by the full house and their physical play"; and "believe[d] that team was one of the best junior teams to ever represent Thunder Bay". The Centennial Cup championship was the first for both Siciliano and for any team from Northwestern Ontario. The Flyers won 31 games and placed third overall in the 1989–90 season. They defeated the St. Paul Vulcans in three games in the first round of the playoffs then were defeated three games to two by the Rochester Mustangs in the semifinals. In the Dudley Hewitt Cup playoffs, the Flyers lost 4 games to 2 versus the Sudbury Cubs in the semifinals. Siciliano won his third Anderson Cup when the Flyers placed first overall in the 1990–91 season with 36 wins. In the playoffs, the Flyers defeated the North Iowa Huskies in three games in the quarterfinals, defeated the Dubuque Fighting Saints in three games in the semifinals, then lost by three games to one versus the Omaha Lancers in the Clark Cup finals. The Flyers reached the finals of the Dudley Hewitt Cup playoffs versus the Sudbury Cubs, which guaranteed them a berth in the 1991 Centennial Cup tournament since Sudbury was scheduled to host the upcoming national finals. Despite missing four players including their goaltender due to suspensions, the Flyers defeated Sudbury by a 5–1 score to give Siciliano his second Dudley Hewitt Cup championship. In his third appearance at the Centennial Cup tournament, the Flyers placed fifth with one win in four games. The Flyers won 36 games and placed first overall in the 1991–92 season to give Siciliano his fourth Anderson Cup. In the playoffs, the Flyers defeated the Rochester Mustangs in three consecutive games, then lost by three games to one versus the Dubuque Fighting Saints in the semifinals. The Flyers hosted the 1992 Dudley Hewitt Cup tournament in Thunder Bay. They placed second during the round-robin, defeated the Joliette Nationals by a 5–2 score in the semifinals, then defeated the Kanata Valley Lasers by a 5–1 score in the finals, which gave Siciliano his third Dudley Hewitt Cup. At the 1992 Centennial Cup, the Flyers completed the round-robin with two wins and two losses, then defeated the Halifax Mooseheads by an 8–1 score to reach the finals versus the Winkler Flyers. Siciliano recalled in a 2021 interview that, Winkler was "a bigger and more physical team and wanted to wear their black sweaters" as an intimidation tactic. As the home team with the first choice of colours, Siciliano's Flyers wore dark red jerseys and forced Winkler to change into light-coloured jerseys. Siciliano felt that worked in his team's favour as Winkler took penalties early in the game, and his team won by a 10-1 score giving Siciliano a second Centennial Cup championship. The Flyers placed fourth overall in the 1992–93 season, defeated the St. Paul Vulcans by three games to two in the first round of the playoffs, then were defeated three games to one by the Omaha Lancers in the second round. In the Dudley Hewitt Cup playoffs, the Flyers reached the semifinals but lost to the Chateauguay Elites. Siciliano resigned as coach of the Flyers after the 1992–93 season, but remained as the team's general manager for the next two seasons. The Flyers placed sixth overall in the 1993–94 season, lost in the first round of the USHL playoffs in six games to the Omaha Lancers, and were runners-up to the Chateauguay Elites in the Dudley Hewitt Cup finals. The Flyers placed fifth overall in the 1994–95 season, and lost in six games to the Sioux City Musketeers in the first round of the playoffs. After Siciliano won his fourth Dudley Hewitt Cup when the Flyers defeated the Brampton Capitals in the championship game, his team lost to the Calgary Canucks in the 1995 Centennial Cup semifinals. 1996 to 2000 The Flyers played their last game in 2000. The end of the Flyers resulted in the creation of the Superior International Junior Hockey League in 2001 to continue the tradition of the old Thunder Bay Junior Hockey League as a purely local organization. The league has been successful since its founding with its top team being the Fort William North Stars. The departure of the Flyers also sparked the creation of the very successful Lakehead University Thunderwolves men's hockey program, playing in the Ontario Universities Athletics Conference of the CIS (Canadian Interuniversity Sport). Season-by-season records Playoffs 1981 Lost final, lost Dudley Hewitt Cup semi-final Thunder Bay Kings defeated Lakehead Nor'Westers 3-games-to-none Thunder Bay Twins defeated Thunder Bay Kings 4-games-to-none Belleville Bulls (OPJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Kings 4-games-to-1 1982 Won League, lost Dudley Hewitt Cup semi-final Thunder Bay Kings defeated Thunder Bay Blazers 3-games-to-1 Thunder Bay Kings defeated Lakehead Nor'Westers 4-games-to-3 TBHL CHAMPIONS Guelph Platers (OJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Kings 3-games-to-none 1983 Won League, lost Dudley Hewitt Cup final Thunder Bay Kings defeated Thunder Bay Hornets 3-games-to-none TBJHL CHAMPIONS Thunder Bay Kings defeated Ottawa Jr. Senators (CJHL) 4-games-to-3 North York Rangers (OJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Kings 4-games-to-none 1984 Won League, lost Dudley Hewitt Cup quarter-final Thunder Bay Kings defeated Thunder Bay Hornets 4-games-to-1 with 1 tie TBJHL CHAMPIONS Pembroke Lumber Kings (CJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Kings 4-games-to-none 1985 1986 1987 1988 Won League, lost Dudley Hewitt Cup final, lost in 1988 Centennial Cup round robin Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Waterloo Black Hawks 3-games-to-none Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Madison Capitols 3-games-to-1 Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Rochester Mustangs 3-games-to-1 USHL CHAMPIONS Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Sudbury Cubs (NOJHL) 4-games-to-none Pembroke Lumber Kings (CenJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 4-games-to-none Fourth and eliminated in 1988 Centennial Cup round robin (0-3) 1989 Won League, won Dudley Hewitt Cup, won 1989 Centennial Cup Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Omaha Lancers 3-games-to-none Thunder Bay Flyers defeated North Iowa Huskies 3-games-to-1 Thunder Bay Flyers defeated St. Paul Vulcans 3-games-to-2 USHL CHAMPIONS Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Sudbury Cubs (NOJHL) 4-games-to-none Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Pembroke Lumber Kings (CJHL) 4-games-to-none DUDLEY HEWITT CUP CHAMPIONS First in 1989 Centennial Cup round robin (2-1) Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Summerside Western Capitals (IJHL) 4-1 in final CENTENNIAL CUP CHAMPIONS 1990 Lost semi-final, lost Dudley Hewitt Cup semi-final Thunder Bay Flyers defeated St. Paul Vulcans 3-games-to-none Rochester Mustangs defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 3-games-to-2 Sudbury Cubs (NOJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 4-games-to-2 1991 Lost final, won Dudley Hewitt Cup, lost in 1991 Centennial Cup round robin Thunder Bay Flyers defeated North Iowa Huskies 3-games-to-none Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Dubuque Fighting Saints 3-games-to-none Omaha Lancers defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 3-games-to-1 Second in Dudley Hewitt Cup round robin (2-2) Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Montreal Olympiques (QPJHL) 10-0 in semi-finalThunder Bay Flyers defeated Sudbury Cubs (NOJHL) 5-1 in final DUDLEY HEWITT CUP CHAMPIONS Fifth and eliminated in 1991 Centennial Cup round robin (1-3) 1992 Lost semi-final, won Dudley Hewitt Cup, won 1992 Centennial CupThunder Bay Flyers defeated Rochester Mustangs 3-games-to-noneDubuque Fighting Saints defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 3-games-to-1Second in Dudley Hewitt Cup round robin (2-1) Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Joliette Nationals (QPJHL) 5-2 in semi-final Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Kanata Valley Lasers (CJHL) in final DUDLEY HEWITT CUP CHAMPIONS Second in 1992 Centennial Cup round robin (2-2) Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Halifax Mooseheads (MJAHL) 8-1 in semi-final Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Winkler Flyers (MJHL) 10-1 in final CENTENNIAL CUP CHAMPIONS 1993 Lost semi-final, lost Dudley Hewitt Cup semi-finalThunder Bay Flyers defeated St. Paul Vulcans Omaha Lancers defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 3-games-to-1First in Dudley Hewitt Cup round robin (3-1) Chateauguay Elites (QPJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 3-1 in semi-final 1994 Lost Dudley Hewitt Cup finalFirst in Dudley Hewitt Cup round robin (3-1) Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Caledon Canadians (MetJHL) 4-3 in semi-final Chateauguay Elites (QPJHL) 9-5 in final 1995 Won Dudley Hewitt Cup, lost 1995 Centennial Cup semi-finalSecond in Dudley Hewitt Cup round robin (2-1)Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Caledon Canadians (MetJHL) 7-1 in semi-finalThunder Bay Flyers defeated Brampton Capitals (OPJHL) 6-4 in final DUDLEY HEWITT CUP CHAMPIONSFourth in 1995 Centennial Cup round robin (2-2)Calgary Canucks (AJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 5-3 in semi-final 1996 Lost Dudley Hewitt Cup semi-finalThird in Dudley Hewitt Cup round robin (2-2)Newmarket 87's (OPJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 6-3 in semi-final 1997 DNQ 1998 DNQ 1999 Lost quarter-finalGreen Bay Gamblers defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 3-games-to-none 2000 DNQ ChampionshipsThunder Bay City Champions: 1982, 1983, 1984Anderson Cup USHL Regular Season Champions: 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992Canadian National Centennial Cup Championships: 1989, 1992 Clark Cup USHL Champions: 1988, 1989Dudley Hewitt Cup Central Canadian Champions: 1989, 1991, 1992, 1995 Centennial Cups/Royal Bank Cups 1988 Round RobinPembroke Lumber Kings (CJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 7-4Notre Dame Hounds (SJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 9-7Halifax Lions (MJAHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 6-4 (OT) 1989 Round RobinThunder Bay Flyers defeated Vernon Lakers (BCJHL) 8-2Summerside Capitals (IJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 5-4Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Moncton Hawks (MJAHL) 6-2 FinalThunder Bay Flyers defeated Summerside Capitals (IJHL) 4-1 1991 Round RobinHalifax Jr. Canadians (MJAHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 5-4Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Sudbury Cubs (NOJHL) 10-4Vernon Lakers (BCJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 3-2Yorkton Terriers (SJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 5-4 1992 Round RobinThunder Bay Flyers defeated St. James Canadians (MJHL) 7-4Vernon Lakers (BCJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 5-4 (2OT)Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Winkler Flyers (MJHL) 9-2Halifax Mooseheads (MJAHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 9-3 Semi-finalThunder Bay Flyers defeated Halifax Mooseheads (MJAHL) 8-1 FinalThunder Bay Flyers defeated Winkler Flyers (MJHL) 10-1 1995 Round RobinWinnipeg South Blues (MJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 6-4Calgary Canucks (AJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 6-0Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Gloucester Rangers (CJAHL) 5-2Thunder Bay Flyers defeated Joliette National (LHJAAAQ) 5-2 Semi-finalCalgary Canucks''' (AJHL) defeated Thunder Bay Flyers 5-3 Notable alumni Rick Adduono (Coach) Peter Bakovic Jozef Balej David Bruce Ryan Caldwell Tony Hrkac Greg Johnson Ryan Johnson David Latta Aaron MacKenzie Brent Peterson Sean Pronger Patrick Sharp Richard Shulmistra Mike Tomlak See also Superior International Junior Hockey League Thunder Bay Junior Hockey League United States Hockey League Hockey Northwestern Ontario Canadian Junior A Hockey League Dudley Hewitt Cup Royal Bank Cup References Defunct ice hockey teams in Canada Ice hockey teams in Ontario Hockey Northwestern Ontario United States Hockey League teams Ice hockey clubs established in 1980 1980 establishments in Ontario 2000 disestablishments in Ontario Ice hockey clubs disestablished in 2000
4783583	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential%20state%20car%20%28United%20States%29	Presidential state car (United States)	The United States presidential state car (nicknamed "the Beast", "Cadillac One", "First Car"; code named "Stagecoach") is the official state car of the president of the United States. United States presidents embraced automotive technology in the early 20th-century with President William Howard Taft's purchase of four cars and the conversion of the White House stables into a garage. Presidents rode in stock, unmodified cars until President Franklin D. Roosevelt's administration bought the Sunshine Special, the first presidential state car to be built to United States Secret Service standards. Until the assassination of John F. Kennedy, presidential state cars frequently allowed the president to ride uncovered and exposed to the public. President Kennedy's assassination began a progression of increasingly armored and sealed cars; the 2009–2018 state car had bulletproof glass and was hermetically sealed with its own environmental system. The current model of presidential state car is a unique Cadillac that debuted on September 24, 2018. Decommissioned presidential state cars are dismantled and destroyed with the assistance of the Secret Service to prevent their secrets from being known to outside parties. Late 20th-century and 21st-century presidential motorcades have consisted of 24–45 vehicles other than the presidential state car, including vehicles for security, healthcare, the press, and route-clearing, among others. History The first serving president to ride in a car was President William McKinley, who briefly rode in a Stanley Motor Carriage Company steam car on July 13, 1901. According to the United States Secret Service, it was customary for them to follow the presidential horse-and-buggy on foot, but that with the popularization of the automobile, the Secret Service purchased a 1907 White Motor Company steam car to follow President Theodore Roosevelt's horse-drawn carriage. The president himself eschewed riding in the vehicle due to his "image as a rough-riding horseman". William H. Taft President William Howard Taft changed things at the White House, converting the stables there to a garage and purchasing a four-car fleet on a budget of : two "luxurious" Pierce-Arrow cars, a Baker Motor Vehicle electric car, and a 1911 White Motor Company steam car. President Taft became a fan of the steam car when he discovered he could conceal himself from press photographers with a "carefully timed burst of steam." Woodrow Wilson President Woodrow Wilson was such a fan of the three Pierce-Arrow cars purchased by his administration that he bought one of them from the government for when he left office in 1921. President Warren G. Harding was the first president to use a car to drive to his inauguration, and was the first qualified driver to be elected president. President Herbert Hoover had a Cadillac V-16. Franklin Roosevelt In 1936, President Franklin D. Roosevelt bought a Ford V8 Phaeton coupe and had it equipped with hand controls in direct contravention of a Secret Service directive prohibiting sitting presidents from getting behind the wheel of a car. In December 1939, President Roosevelt received a 1939 Lincoln Motor Company V12 convertible—the Sunshine Special. The Sunshine Special (so named because the top was frequently open) became the president's best-known automobile, the very first to be built to Secret Service specifications, and the first to be leased rather than bought. Built on the chassis of the Lincoln K-series, the Sunshine Special has a wheelbase, room for 10 passengers, rear doors hinged backwards, heavy-duty suspension, two side-mounted spare tires, and standing platforms attached to the exterior to accommodate Secret Service agents. The Sunshine Special underwent two sets of modifications. Firstly in 1941 the car's top was lowered out of aesthetic concerns. Then, in 1942, after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the car underwent the addition of armor, bulletproof glass, "metal-clad flat-proof inner tubes, a radio transceiver, a siren, red warning lights, and a compartment for submachine guns." After the second set of modifications, the car weighed and was longer. Truman/Eisenhower Cosmopolitans Legend has it that Harry S. Truman held a grudge against General Motors because they would not give him use of their cars during his run for the 1948 presidential election; and, so, in 1950 he chose Lincoln to make the presidential state car. The White House leased ten Lincoln Cosmopolitans. The cars were modified by coachbuilders Henney Motor Company and Hess and Eisenhardt to provide extra security features and extra headroom to accommodate the tall silk hats popular at the time, and were painted black. Nine of the automobiles had enclosed bodies, while the tenth was an armored convertible especially for President Truman. The tenth Cosmopolitan was long, wide, and weighed , heavier than a stock Cosmopolitan. All ten cars were outfitted with V8 engines "with heavy-duty Hydra-Matic transmissions." In 1954, President Dwight D. Eisenhower had the Cosmopolitan convertible fitted with a Plexiglas roof that became known as the "Bubble-top"; it remained in presidential service until 1965, and has approximately on the odometer. Kennedy Lincoln Continental President John F. Kennedy's 1961 Lincoln Continental was originally a stock car, built in Wixom, Michigan, and retailing for . The federal government leased it from the Ford Motor Company for annually, and then commissioned Hess and Eisenhardt to modify it for presidential use—with a pricetag of . The convertible was painted "Presidential Blue Metallic", with silver metal flakes embedded within it; it was given the Secret Service code names of SS-100-X and X-100. The dark-blue car included a "heavy-duty heater and air conditioner, a pair of radiotelephones, a fire extinguisher, a first-aid kit, and a siren." The car was longer than Lincoln's because Hess and Eisenhardt had added a "middle row of forward-facing jump seats that folded away when not in use." The exterior featured improved, retractable standing platforms and handles for Secret Service agents, and flashing red lights recessed into the bumper. Unique to the X-100 were three sets of removable roofs (a standard soft top, a lightweight metal one, and a transparent plastic one) and a hydraulic lift that raised the rear cushion off the floor. Both of these feature sets were designed to make the president more visible to the public, but they also increased the president's vulnerability—a factor in the 1963 assassination of John F. Kennedy). After the assassination, the "Death Car" (as named by the Associated Press), was redesigned in an operation named "The Quick Fix". Hess and Eisenhardt, the Secret Service, the United States Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center, PPG Industries, and Ford engineers all collaborated to strip the limousine and improve everything. In an effort to prevent "ghoulish collectors" from obtaining the discarded car parts, they were destroyed. For an estimated cost of $500,000, the car was painted black and featured "improved telecommunications gear, a more powerful engine and flat-proof tires made of rubber-coated aluminum." The fuel tank was protected against explosion by a "porous foam matrix" that minimized spillage in the event of a puncture. The passenger compartment was protected by of armor, and the three removable roofs were replaced by a fixed glass enclosure that cost more than $125,000. The glass enclosure was made of 13 different pieces of bulletproof glass ranging in thickness from , and was then the largest piece of curved bulletproof glass ever made. Titanium armor was added to the body of the car, the standard windows were made bullet-resistant with sandwiched layers of glass and polycarbonate vinyl, and prototype aluminum run-flat tires were added. Due to an increase of 25 percent more weight—to —the upgraded car received a hand-built V8 engine that provided a 17% increase in power, to . In 1967, the convertible was modified again with an upgraded air conditioning system, an openable rear-door window, and structural enhancement to the rear deck. Despite successive presidential state cars being built and delivered to the White House, the X-100 continued to be occasionally used by Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, and Jimmy Carter until it was retired from service in early 1977. , it was publicly exhibited at The Henry Ford museum in Dearborn, Michigan. The license plates (DC plates, "GG-300") were removed from the X-100 when the vehicle was upgraded after the Kennedy shooting; when they were auctioned in 2015, they sold for . 1967 Lincoln Continental President Johnson preferred white convertibles, but "concerns for protocol and safety" had him receiving a black 1967 Lincoln Continental as his state car. The hardtop cost the Ford Motor Company about ; they in turn leased it to the federal government for per year. With of armor, "a bubble top thicker than the protective cockpit of an F-16 fighter", and a V8 engine, the car could still reach speeds of — or with four flat tires. This car also served Presidents Nixon, Ford, and Carter, and traveled to 32 nations before it was retired in the mid-to-late 1970s. In 1996, the Ford Motor Company restored the car to its original state and donated it to the Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum; the auto manufacturer chose Nixon's library because he took the car on several of his most-significant presidential trips. 1972 Lincoln Continental A modified, , 1972 Lincoln Continental was delivered to the White House in 1974. The six-passenger limousine was leased from the Ford Motor Company for per year and featured a , V8 engine. The fully loaded automobile also had external microphones to allow occupants to hear outside noises, full armor plate, bulletproof glass, and racks for the Secret Service to store submachine guns. The car was used by Presidents Nixon, Ford, Carter, Ronald Reagan, and George H. W. Bush. It was the vehicle in which Ford was shot at by Sara Jane Moore. During the March 1981 attempted assassination of Ronald Reagan, the car was hit by the last two (of six) gunshots: the penultimate damaged the bulletproof window of the right rear passenger's door, while the last ricocheted off the back-right quarter panel and struck the president. The car then transported Reagan to George Washington University Hospital. After the 1981 shooting, the car was returned to Ford to receive a new interior, front sheet metal, and 1979 Lincoln grille. The 1972 car left service in 1992 with on its odometer. After maintenance and care in 2008, The Henry Ford measured the car at long, wide, tall, at , with a wheelbase of . 1983 Cadillac Fleetwood The next presidential state car was a 1983 Cadillac that was delivered on January 30, 1984. This Cadillac Fleetwood is longer and taller than the stock Fleetwood. It featured armor and bulletproof glass ( thick), and was described as "distinctively styled, with a raised roof and a large rear greenhouse." To deal with the added weight of the armor, the car had oversized wheels and tires, heavy-duty brakes, and an automatic leveling system. 1989 Lincoln Town Car The 1989 presidential state car that was delivered to the White House was a modified 1989 Lincoln Town Car that was long and more than tall. Clinton Cadillac Fleetwood President Bill Clinton used a 1993 Cadillac Fleetwood as his presidential state car. It is currently on display at the Clinton Presidential Center in Little Rock, Arkansas, where it sits with all its doors closed to the public. Museum curator Christine Mouw noted that they can "dust the outside of the car, but if we needed to get inside it, we would have to contact the regional Secret Service office". CNN interviewed Joe Funk, a former Secret Service agent and driver of Clinton's presidential state car during part of his tenure. Funk described a dichotomy of the car: while the president is wholly cut off from the outside world by the armor and bulletproof glass of the vehicle, he has at his fingertips communication capabilities including phones, satellite communications, and the Internet. 2001–2009 custom Cadillac In 2001, for the first inauguration of George W. Bush, Cadillac no longer produced a car suitable for conversion into a presidential limousine. Furthermore, the additional armor and amenities that were added to the state car by the Secret Service taxed previous presidential limousines beyond their limits, resulting in failing transmissions and short-lived brakes. The George W. Bush state car was instead designed from the ground-up by "an R&D arm of General Motors in Detroit" to meet Secret Service specifications. speculation" had President George W. Bush's Cadillac Deville actually based on the chassis of General Motors' line of full-size sport utility vehicles such as the "Chevrolet Suburban, GMC Yukon[,] and Cadillac Escalade." This "Deville" featured armored doors, and "bulletproof glass so thick it blocks out parts of the light spectrum." Rumored components of the car were sealed passenger compartments with their own air supply, run-flat tires, and a engine. Confirmed accessories include "an integrated 10-disc CD changer, a foldaway desktop[,] and reclining rear seats with massaging, adaptive cushions." This presidential state car was estimated to weigh approximately . Bush's presidential state car was nicknamed "The Beast", a name that persisted through the presidency of Donald Trump. When traveling, President Bush took along two of the armored limousines (flown by either C-5 or C-17), one for use and one for backup. This proved fortuitous during a 2007 trip to Rome where one of the presidential state cars stalled for five minutes on a street; the car was restarted, but was replaced with the backup limousine after President Bush reached his destination. Sometimes, President Bush would instead use vehicles already present at his destination such as embassy motor pool cars or military assets, rather than transporting the presidential state car. The president never used non-American-governmental vehicles when overseas. 2009–2018 custom Cadillac The 2009–2018 presidential state car went into service on January 20, 2009, and drove President Obama the down Pennsylvania Avenue from his inauguration to the inaugural parade. A Cadillac, the presidential state car was not based on any single model of car, though it had the "dual-textured grille and the dinner plate-sized Cadillac coat-of-arms badge" emblematic of the Cadillac CTS and the Cadillac Escalade. The headlights and taillights were identical to those used on other Cadillac production models. Anton Goodwin of CNET's Road/Show blog noted that speculation was that the presidential state car was based on the GMC Topkick platform. If that is to be the case, then Goodwin assumed the car would feature either a gasoline-powered V8 General Motors Vortec engine or a diesel-powered Duramax turbo V8 engine. Autoweek magazine asserted that the car ran on a gasoline-fueled engine. This presidential state car was speculated to be much heavier than its predecessor as it is equipped with Goodyear Regional RHS tires that are usually reserved for medium- and heavy-duty trucks; speculated weights range from . Due to the weight of the car, it could only reach about , and only achieved . The limousine was reported to cost between and (equivalent to about $– in ). The presidential state car was maintained by the United States Secret Service. The car had more bulletproof glass than the previous model. It also had run-flat tires and an interior that was completely sealed to protect the occupants in the event of a chemical attack. The 2009 presidential state car model had night vision optics, a tear gas cannon, onboard oxygen tanks, an armored fuel tank filled with foam to prevent explosion, and pump-action shotguns. Whether it was or was not armed with rocket-propelled grenades, the car featured doors. General Motors spokeswoman Joanne K. Krell said of the presidential state car, "The presidential vehicle is built to precise and special specifications, undergoes extreme testing and development, and also incorporates many of the top aspects of Cadillac's 'regular' cars—such as signature design, hand-cut-and-sewn interiors, etc." The curator of The Henry Ford told The Dallas Morning News that President Obama's state car was "a tank with a Cadillac badge." In 2013, the presidential state car was outfitted with standard Washington, D.C. license plates that read "TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION" in reference to the district's lack of representation in the United States Congress. The switch came after the D.C. city council petitioned the president to use the plates on his motorcade, which would be seen by millions of people as the president headed down Pennsylvania Avenue for his second inauguration. Current model Development When first commissioned by the Secret Service in 2014, General Motors (GM) was awarded three contracts for the new limousine. Each state car was expected to cost , and by January 2016, GM had been paid for its work on the new model. After prototypes of the new model were seen driven on public roads wrapped in monochromatic multi-scale camouflage, Cadillac confirmed to Fox News that "We've completed our task and we've handed over the vehicle to the customer". The Secret Service confirmed that the program to replace the presidential car was "on track and on schedule" and should be in service by late summer 2018. Fox News' Gary Gastelu opined that the camouflaged prototype looked similar to the Cadillac CT6. Realization Still nicknamed "the Beast" (as established with the 2001–2009 model), the current model debuted with a trip by President Trump to New York City on September 24, 2018. Road & Track reported that "the design appears to be a simple evolution of the old model with more current Cadillac design cues, like an Escalade sedan." Road & Track described the state car as "massive and tall", and weighing . NBC News reported a weight of 20,000 pounds and the capacity to seat seven, and speculated that the limousine was intended to evoke the aesthetic of the Cadillac XT6. Business Insider reported in 2019 that the Beast is actually built upon a GM truck chassis. Car and Driver said that the car was built on the GMC TopKick platform, weighs as much as 15,000 pounds, has the headlamps from the Cadillac Escalade, and the grille emblematic of the Cadillac Escala concept car. In addition to defensive measures designed to protect the president, this state car also has stores of blood in the president's type for medical emergencies. The car is hermetically sealed against chemical attacks, and features run-flat tires, night-vision devices, smoke screens, and oil slicks as defensive measures against attackers. NBC reported that the car features armor made of aluminum, ceramic, and steel; the exterior walls have a thickness of , the windows are multi-layered and thick, and each door—believed to weigh as much as those on a Boeing 757—can electrify its handles to prevent entry. , the current model was used alongside the previous model. Destruction In the late 20th-century, it was customary for the United States Secret Service to participate in the destruction of the presidential state car after it had run its course. The federal agents use bullets and explosive rounds for two purposes. The first is to demonstrate the automobile's effectiveness against such weaponry, while the second is to shred the vehicle and destroy the secrets of its manufacture, armoring, and defensive abilities. Presidential motorcades Motorcades involving the presidential state car are detailed, involved operations. Upon the assassination of John F. Kennedy, the motorcade consisted of four motorcycle escorts, three busses, and over 17 cars (including the presidential state car). Motorcades under President George W. Bush involved up to two dozen cars. Under President Obama they constituted 30 other vehicles, including police cars to lead the motorcade and clear the streets; sport utility vehicles to carry the United States Secret Service detail, electronic countermeasures, key staff, a Secret Service Counter Assault Team, "hazardous-materials-mitigation" personnel and equipment, and White House Communications Agency personnel; press vans; an ambulance; and more. The presidential state car is maintained by the United States Secret Service, while other support vehicles in the president's motorcade are maintained by the White House Military Office. Due to difficulty in organizing motorcades, helicopters (Marine One) are preferred. See also References External links Cadillac vehicles Lincoln vehicles
4783588	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcellus%20Empiricus	Marcellus Empiricus	Marcellus Empiricus, also known as Marcellus Burdigalensis (“Marcellus of Bordeaux”), was a Latin medical writer from Gaul at the turn of the 4th and 5th centuries. His only extant work is the De medicamentis, a compendium of pharmacological preparations drawing on the work of multiple medical and scientific writers as well as on folk remedies and magic. It is a significant if quirky text in the history of European medical writing, an infrequent subject of monographs, but regularly mined as a source for magic charms, Celtic herbology and lore, and the linguistic study of Gaulish and Vulgar Latin. Bonus auctor est (“he’s a good authority”) was the judgment of J.J. Scaliger, while the science historian George Sarton called the De medicamentis an “extraordinary mixture of traditional knowledge, popular (Celtic) medicine, and rank superstition.” Marcellus is usually identified with the magister officiorum of that name who held office during the reign of Theodosius I. Life and political career Little is known of the life of Marcellus. The primary sources are: Marcellus’s own preface to the De medicamentis; the Codex Theodosianus (probably referring to this Marcellus); a letter written in 399 by Symmachus to a Marcellus who is likely to have been the medical writer; a letter written by the Antiochan scholar Libanius that mentions a Marcellus; an inscription in Narbonne (his association with which would require that he not be from Bordeaux; see below); an anecdote in Orosius about an unnamed Gaul (also a highly conjectural link). The Gallic origin of Marcellus is rarely disputed, and he is traditionally identified with the toponym Burdigalensis; that is, from Bordeaux (Latin Burdigala), within the Roman province of Aquitania. In his prefatory epistle, he refers to three Bordelaise praetorian prefects as his countrymen: Siburius, Eutropius, and Julius Ausonius, the father of the poet Decimus Magnus Ausonius. He is sometimes thought to have come from Narbonne rather than Bordeaux. There has been an attempt to make a Spanish senator of him on the basis of Symmachus's reference to property he owned in Spain; but this inference ignores that Marcellus is said explicitly to have left Spain to return to living in avitis penatibus, or among the household spirits of his grandfathers — that is, at home as distinguished from Spain. He probably wrote the De medicamentis liber during his retirement there. The author of the De medicamentis is most likely the Marcellus who was appointed magister officiorum by Theodosius I. The heading of the prefatory epistle identifies him as a vir inlustris, translatable as “a distinguished man”; at the time, this phrase was a formal designation of rank, indicating that he had held imperial office. Marcellus's 16th-century editor Janus Cornarius gives the unhelpful phrase ex magno officio (something like “from high office”); coupled with two references in the Theodosian Code to a Marcellus as magister officiorum, Cornarius's phrase has been taken as a mistaken expansion of the standard abbreviation mag. off. The magister officiorum was a sort of Minister of the Interior and the identification is consistent with what is known of the author's life and with the politics of the time. His stated connection to the Ausonii makes it likely that he was among the several aristocratic Gauls who benefitted politically when the emperor Gratian appointed his Bordelaise tutor Ausonius to high office and from Theodosius's extended residence in the western empire during the latter years of his reign. Marcellus would have entered his office sometime after April 394 A.D., when his predecessor is last attested, and before the emperor's death on January 17, 395. He was replaced in late November or December of 395, as determined by the last reference to a Marcellus holding office that is dated November 24 and by the dating of a successor. The timing of his departure suggests that he had been a supporter of Rufinus, the calculating politician of Gallic origin who was assassinated November 27 of that year, having failed to resist if not facilitating the advance of Alaric and the Visigoths. Marcellus's support may have been pragmatic or superficial; a source that condemns Rufinus heartily praises Marcellus as “the very soul of excellence.” Given Rufinus's dealings with the Visigoths, however, it is conceivable that Marcellus should be identified with “a certain former high-ranking official from Narbonne” mentioned by Orosius as present in Bethlehem in 415 A.D. While visiting Jerome, Orosius says he heard this Gaul relate the declaration made by Athaulf, king of the Visigoths, at Narbonne regarding his intentions toward the Roman empire. John Matthews argued that Marcellus, who would have been about 60 at the time, is “clearly the most eligible candidate.” Since Orosius identifies the Gaul only as having served under Theodosius, and as a “devout, cautious, and serious” person, other figures have been put forth as the likely bearer of the Athaulf declaration. Medical background It is not unreasonable but also not necessary to conclude that Marcellus was a practicing physician. In his dissertation, the intellectual historian of magic and medicine Lynn Thorndike pronounced him the “court physician” of Theodosius I, but the evidence is thin: Libanius, if referring to this Marcellus, praises his ability to cure a headache. The prevailing view is that Marcellus should be categorized as a medical writer and not a physician. A translator of the medical writings of Isidore of Seville characterizes Marcellus as a “medical amateur” and dismisses the De medicamentis as “nothing more than the usual ancient home remedies,” and the historian of botany Ernst Meyer seems to have considered him a dilettante. Like Ausonius and later Sidonius Apollinaris, Marcellus is among those aristocratic Gauls of the 4th and 5th centuries who were nominally or even devoutly Christian but who fashioned themselves after the Republican ideal of the Roman noble: a career in politics balanced with country villas and informational or literary writing on a range of subjects, including philosophy, astronomy, agriculture, and the natural sciences. Although medical writing might have been regarded as a lesser achievement, it was a resource for the pater familias who traditionally took personal responsibility for the health care of his household, both family members and slaves. Prescriptions for veterinary treatments dispersed throughout the De medicamentis also suggest the interests and concerns of the author — the letter from Symmachus serves mainly to inquire whether Marcellus can provide thoroughbred horses for games to be sponsored by his son, who has been elected praetor — and of his intended audience, either the owners of estates or the literate workers who managed them. “Do-it-yourself” manuals were popular among the landowning elite because they offered, as Marcellus promises, a form of self-sufficiency and mastery. Alf Önnerfors has argued that a personal element distinguishes the De medicamentis from similar medical manuals, which are in effect if not fact anonymous. In the letter to his sons, whom he addresses as dulcissimi (“my sweetest”), Marcellus expresses the hope that they and their families will, in case of sickness, find support and remedies in their father's manual, without intervention by doctors (sine medicis intercessione). This emphasis on self-reliance, however, is not meant to exclude others, but to empower oneself to help others; appealing to divina misericordia (“godlike compassion”), Marcellus urges his sons to extend caritas (“caring” or perhaps Christian “charity”) to strangers and the poor as well as to their loved ones. The tone, Önnerfors concludes, is “humane and full of gentle humor.” Religious background Marcellus is usually regarded as a Christian, but he also embraces magico-medical practices that draw on the traditional religions of antiquity. Historian of botanical pharmacology Jerry Stannard believed that evidence in the De medicamentis could neither prove nor disprove Marcellus's religious identity, noting that the few references to Christianity are “commonplace” and that, conversely, charms with references to Hellenistic magic occur widely in medieval Christian texts. In his classic study The Cult of the Saints, Peter Brown describes and sets out to explain what he sees as “the exclusively pagan tone of a book whose author was possibly a Christian writing for a largely Christianized upper class.” Historians of ancient medicine Carmélia Opsomer and Robert Halleux note that in his preface, Marcellus infuses Christian concerns into the ancient tradition of “doctoring without doctors.” That Marcellus was at least a nominal Christian is suggested by his appointment to high office by Theodosius I, who exerted his will to Christianize the empire by ordering the Roman senate to convert en masse. The internal evidence of religion in the text is meager. The phrase divina misericordia in the preface appears also in St. Augustine’s De civitate Dei, where the reference to divine mercy follows immediately after a passage on barbarian incursions. Marcellus and Augustine are contemporaries, and the use of the phrase is less a question of influence than of the currency of a shared Christian concept. Elsewhere, passages sometimes cited as evidence of Christianity on closer inspection only display the syncretism of the Hellenistic magico-religious tradition, as Stannard noted. Christ, for instance, is invoked in an herb-gathering incantation, but the ritual makes use of magico-medical practices of pre-Christian antiquity. A Judaeo-Christian reference — nomine domini Iacob, in nomine domini Sabaoth — appears as part of a magic charm that the practitioner is instructed to inscribe on a lamella, or metal leaf. Such “magic words” often include nonsense syllables and more-or-less corrupt phrases from “exotic” languages such as Celtic, Aramaic, Coptic, and Hebrew, and are not indications of formal adherence to a religion. The first reference to any religious figure in the text is Asclepius, the premier god of healing among the Greeks. Marcellus alludes to a Roman version of the myth in which Asclepius restores the dismembered Virbius to wholeness; as a writer, Marcellus says, he follows a similar course of gathering the disiecta … membra ("scattered body parts") of his sources into one corpus (whole body). In addition to gods from the Greco-Roman pantheon, one charm deciphered as a Gaulish passage has been translated to invoke the Celtic god Aisus, or Esus as it is more commonly spelled, for his aid in dispelling throat trouble. Christian benefactor? An inscription dated 445 recognizes a Marcellus as the most important financial supporter in the rebuilding of the cathedral at Narbonne, carried out during the bishopric of St. Rusticus. John Matthews has argued that this Marcellus is likely to have been a son or near descendant of the medical writer, since the family of an inlustris is most likely to have possessed the wealth for such a generous contribution. The donor had served for two years as praetorian prefect of Gaul. Assuming that the man would have been a native, Matthews weighs this piece of evidence with the Athaulf anecdote from Orosius to situate the author of the De medicamentis in the Narbonensis, but this is a minority view. The Book of Medicaments Marcellus begins the De medicamentis liber by acknowledging his models. The texts he draws on include the so-called Medicina Plinii or “Medical Pliny,” the herbal (Herbarius) of Pseudo-Apuleius, and the pharmacological treatise of Scribonius Largus, as well as the most famous Latin encyclopedia from antiquity, the Historia naturalis of Pliny the Elder. The work is structured as follows: Epistolary dedication, addressed to Marcellus's sons, a prose preface equivalent to seven paragraphs. Index medicalium scriptorum, or table of contents for the medical topics, listing the 36 chapter headings. A short tract on metrology, with notes in Latin on units of measure and a conversion chart in Greek. Epistulae diversorum de qualitate et observatione medicinae (“Letters by various authors on ‘quality’ and ‘observation’ in medicine”), a series of seven epistles, each attributed to a different medical writer. The epistles serve as a literary device for discussing methodology, diagnosis, and the importance of ethical and accurate treatment. They are not, or not wholly, fictional; just as Marcellus's work begins with a prefatory epistle addressed to his sons, the seven letters represent prefaces to other authors’ works, some now lost. Marcellus has detached them from the works they headed and presented them collectively, translating, sometimes taking liberties, those originally in Greek, as a kind of bonus for his sons. For instance, the “Letter from Celsus”, addressed to a Callistus, deals with the physician's ethical duty in relation to the Hippocratic Oath. Thirty-six chapters on treatments, consisting mainly of recipes both pharmacological and magical, and arranged by convention anatomically a capite ad calcem (“from head to toe,” in the equivalent English expression) as were Marcellus's sources Scribonius Largus and the Medicina Plinii. The treatment chapters run to 255 pages in Niedermann's edition. Meyer lists 262 different plant names in Marcellus; allowing for synonyms, of which there are many, the number of plants mentioned would be around 131. About 25 of the botanicals most frequently prescribed are “exotica”’ such as galbanum, sagapenum, and ginger; these may have been available in Gaul as imports, but only to elite consumers. Other ingredients likely to have been rare for Marcellus’s intended audience include cinnamon, cloves, candied tragacanth, Alexandrian niter, and African snails, perhaps the Giant African land snail, which are prescribed live for pulping into a mélange. Availability is possibly a lesser criterion of selection for Marcellus than completeness and variety of interest. And last, the Carmen de speciebus (“Song of Species”), a 78-line Latin hexameter poem on pharmacology, which Marcellus contrasts to his prose assemblage of prescriptions by asserting his originality in writing it. Significance as medical writer Marcellus was a transitional figure between ancient and medieval materia medica. Although the contents of the recipes — their names, uses, and methods of treatment — derive from the medical texts of ancient Greece and Rome, the book also points forward to doctrines and approaches characteristic of medieval medicine. Marcellus is seldom cited directly, but his influence, though perhaps not wide or pervasive, can be traced in several medieval medical texts. A major change in the approach to writing about botanical pharmacology is signalled in the De Medicamentis. As texts associated with Mediterranean medicine traveled west and north with the expanding borders of the Roman empire, the plants required by drug recipes were no longer familiar, and the descriptions or illustrations provided by earlier herbals failed to correspond to indigenous flora. Marcellus's practice of offering synonyms is one attempt to bridge this gap. He often provides a string of correspondences: the Greek plant name polygonos is first glossed as sanguinaria in Latin (1.2), then as "what we [in Gaul?] call rubia" (1.44); in the same chapter polygonos is given as another name for millefolium (1.28), and identified elsewhere as equivalent to verbena (10.5). Of the dozen or so Celtic plant names, ten are provided with or as synonyms for Greek or Latin names. A preoccupation with naming rather than description is a characteristic also of medieval herbals. The problems of identifying plants may have been an intellectual attraction for Marcellus's Renaissance editor Cornarius, whose botanical work emphasized the value of words over illustration. Another medieval emphasis foreshadowed in Marcellus is a concern for locating ingredients in their native environment, replacing the exotic flora and fauna prescribed in texts from antiquity with indigenous species. Recipes in both Marcellus and the medieval writers tend toward “polypharmacy,” or the use of a great number of ingredients in a single preparation. Many recipes in De medicamentis contain at least ten ingredients, and one, the antidotus Cosmiana (29.11), is compounded of 73. Marcellus is one of the likely sources for Anglo-Saxon leechcraft, or at least drew on the shared European magico-medical tradition that also produced runic healing: a 13th-century wooden amulet from Bergen is inscribed with a charm in runes that resembles Marcellus's Aisus charm. Therapeutic system In The Cult of the Saints, Peter Brown contrasts the “horizontal” or environmental healing prescribed by Marcellus to the “vertical,” authoritarian healing of his countryman and contemporary St. Martin of Tours, known for miracle cures and especially exorcism. Since magic for medical purposes can be considered a form of faith healing, that is also not a distinction between the two; “rich layers of folklore and superstition,” writes Brown, “lie beneath the thin veneer of Hippocratic empiricism” in Marcellus. Nor does the difference lie in the social class of the intended beneficiaries, for both therapeutic systems encompassed “country folk and the common people” as well as senatorial landowners. At the Christian shrines, however, healing required submission to “socially chartered” authority; in Marcellus, the patient or practitioner, often addressed directly as “you,” becomes the agent of his own cure. While the power of a saint to offer a cure resided within a particular shrine which the patient must visit, health for Marcellus lay in the interconnectivity of the patient with his environment, the use he actively made of herbs, animals, minerals, dung, language, and transformative processes such as emulsification, calcination and fermentation. In the prefatory epistle, Marcellus insists on the efficacy of remedia fortuita atque simplicia (remedies that are readily available and act directly), despite the many recipes involving more than a dozen ingredients; in the concluding Carmen, he celebrates ingredients from the far reaches of the empire and the known world (lines 41–67), emphasizing that the Roman practitioner has access to a “global” marketplace. The text Janus Cornarius: Marcelli ... de medicamentis empiricis, physicis ac rationabilibus Liber. Froben, Basel 1536 (Digitalisat) The standard text is that of Maximillian Niedermann, Marcelli de medicamentis liber, vol. 5 of the Teubner Corpus Medicorum Latinorum (Leipzig, 1916). The previous Teubner edition had been edited by Georg Helmreich in 1889. References 4th-century Gallo-Roman people 4th-century writers in Latin 5th-century Gallo-Roman people 5th-century writers in Latin Ancient pharmacologists 5th-century Roman physicians De medicamentis liber Magistri officiorum Medical writers
4784783	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10th%20National%20Congress%20of%20the%20Communist%20Party%20of%20Vietnam	10th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam	The 10th National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam () was held in Ba Đình Hall, Hanoi from 18 to 25 April 2006. The congress occurs every five years. 1,176 delegates represented the party's 3 million members. At the 13th plenum of the Central Committee, held before the congress, it was decided that eight members of the Communist Party's 9th Politburo had to retire. While certain segments within and outside the Politburo were skeptical, the decision was implemented. Because of party rules, the congress was not empowered to elect the general secretary, and it held a survey on whom the delegates wanted to be appointed General Secretary. The first plenum of the Central Committee, held in the immediate aftermath of the congress, re-elected Nông Đức Mạnh as general secretary. The congress is noteworthy because of the extent of democratization which took place within the party. The role of the Central Committee in decision-making was strengthened, and the role of the Politburo as a supreme organ was weakened. Inner-party accountability was strengthened. The Eighth Five-Year Plan of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was approved at the congress, renewed its Marxist–Leninist credentials and emphasized the need to continue to improve the socialist-oriented market economy. Preparations Preparations for the 10th Congress were led by the Personnel Appointments subcommittee of the 9th Central Committee, probably chaired by General Secretary Nông Đức Mạnh. Mạnh worked closely with the Head of the Commission for Organization and Personnel to prepare a list of nominees for the election of the Central Committee at the upcoming congress. The 12th plenum of the 9th Central Committee, held in July 2005, laid down the principles for the Personnel Appointments subcommittee to work within: (i) quality of candidates in terms of qualifications and a "clean" CV (ii) reasonable distribution of candidates among different sectors and representations from among the population to ensure total Party leadership in all areas. After the 12th plenum, the Personnel Appointments subcommittee began discussions with important organizations and individuals within the Party, most notably with the Central Commission for Inspection (which investigates complaints against Party members), party elders Đỗ Mười, Lê Đức Anh, Võ Văn Kiệt, Võ Nguyên Giáp and Nguyễn Đức Tâm, and with the 9th Politburo. The nomination list created in these discussions had to be voted on by the 9th Central Committee. At its 13th plenum, the 9th Central Committee, several changes to the nomination list recommended by Personnel Appointments subcommittee were made; the Central Committee decided to retire 8 out of 14 Politburo members, the largest number of en masse retirements in the history of the Politburo. However, in official pronouncements, this decision was referred to as a "survey", and not an election. Even so, the majority believed the eight people mentioned would retire rather than stay for another term. The retirements of Chairman of the National Assembly Nguyễn Văn An, who was considered a strong contender for the general secretaryship at the 11th Congress, and two leading proteges of Mạnh; the unofficial deputy general secretary Phan Diễn, and the Head of the Commission for Organization and Personnel Trần Đình Hoan, were unexpected. Some party elders were seeking the removal of Mạnh as general secretary. While Đỗ Mười and Lê Đức Anh supported Mạnh's re-election, Võ Văn Kiệt and Võ Nguyên Giáp opposed him. However, all four of them agreed on retaining Nguyễn Văn An in the 10th Politburo. One point in Mạnh's favour was his lack of grave mistakes during his first tenure, and the lack of a credible opponent. Võ Văn Kiệt supported Nguyễn Minh Triết's candidacy for the general secretaryship, while the retiring prime minister Phan Văn Khải supported a possible candidacy by Nguyễn Văn An, even if the Central Committee had voted for his Politburo retirement in the "survey". Those who supported Mạnh's removal based their campaign on the fact that his son-in-law had worked at PMU 18 Department of the Ministry of Transport during the PMU 18 scandal. A more damaging rumour was that Mạnh had included Nguyễn Việt Tiến, the Deputy Minister of Transport who was implicated in the scandal, on the Central Committee nominee list.Also, Dao Đào Đình Bình, the Minister of Transport, was a close associate of Mạnh. Mạnh was accused of nepotism and of establishing a patronage system for himself within the party and state; his son Nông Quốc Tuấn was elected as Head of Youth Organizations in March 2005, and was thus entitled to attend the 10th Congress. At a meeting with some veteran politicians, Mạnh was asked by Lê Khả Phiêu and Võ Nguyên Giáp to resign from his post and not to run for a seat in the 10th Central Committee – Mạnh, however, refused to resign. In a proposal to the 11th plenum of the 9th Central Committee, Võ Văn Kiệt suggested democratizing the political system by giving the delegates to a party congress the power to elect the general secretary, the Central Committee and the Central Commission for Inspection, and giving congress delegates ultimate power on all matters put before them at the congress. He called for the reduction of the Central Committee from one-fourth to one-third, holding the elections of state leaders at the National Assembly in the immediate aftermath of a congress (and not a year later), secret ballots for elections, empowering delegates to self-nominate to the Central Committee and merging the offices of President and General Secretary into one. These suggestions, with the exception of holding the National Assembly elections earlier, were rejected at the 11th plenum of the 9th Central Committee in January 2005. At the 14th plenum of the 9th Central Committee, the Politburo proposed that Mạnh would be appointed president and resign from his post as general secretary to be succeeded by Nguyễn Văn An, while Phan Diễn would be retained for the sake of stability. The proposal was rejected in a formal vote by the 9th plenum, and the Central Committee upheld the results of the "survey". At the unplanned 15th plenum held 14–16 April, which was held due to pressure by Nguyễn Minh Triết, Nguyễn Văn An and Phan Văn Khải, it was decided that delegates at the upcoming congress had the right of self-nomination and that there would competing elections for the posts of general secretary, prime minister and chairman of the National Assembly. The loser of the contest for general secretary would be appointed president. Mạnh and Nguyễn Minh Triết were candidates for the general secretaryship, Nguyễn Tấn Dũng and Nguyễn Sinh Hùng for the prime ministership and Nguyễn Phú Trọng and Trương Tấn Sang for the National Assembly chairmanship. For the first time in the party's history, competing elections were held for offices of power. Delegates 1,176 delegates participated at the 10th Congress. These candidates were accepted on the basis of the Working Regulations of the party. 146 (12.37 percent) of the delegates were members of the 9th Central Committee. 1,025 (86.87 percent) of the delegates were elected by provincial and local subunits of the party. 9 (0.76 percent) of the delegates represented the party's overseas branches. 136 (11.56 percent) delegates were women, and 154 (13.10 percent) came from ethnic minorities. There were 18 (1.53 percent) delegates who had been awarded the Hero of the People's Armed Forces, 7 (0.60 percent) who had been awarded Hero of Labor, 4 (0.34 percent) who had been awarded the title People's Teacher, 13 (1.11 percent) who had been given the title Meritorious Teacher, 4 (0.34 percent) with the title of Meritorious Doctor, 27 (2.30 percent) with the honorary title 40 years of Party membership, 2 (0.17 percent) with the honorary title of 50 years of Party membership. 81.29 percent of the delegates had graduated from either college or university, and 16.59 percent of these had received PhD or had worked as professors or assistant professors. 96.52 percent of the delegates had received a bachelor's degree in political training courses. The average age of the delegates was 52.92 years – Dinh Huy (30 years of age) was the youngest delegate, and Do Quang Hung (77 years of age) was the oldest delegate. The Congress and the 1st plenum The elected 10th Central Committee comprised 81 (52.5 percent) members from the 9th Central Committee, and 79 (47.5 percent) new members were elected. The candidate with the highest vote received 97.88 percent, while the candidate with the lowest vote received 63.41 percent. All the provinces, with the exception of Đắk Nông Province, elected officials to the 10th Central Committee. A number of surprises occurred during the election process; six ministers were not re-elected. Another surprise was that no officials from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs were elected as full members. However, Phạm Bình Minh, the Director of the International Organizations Directorate of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, was elected as an alternate member. None of the 34 self-nominated candidates at the congress were elected to the 10th Central Committee. It is unknown whether any of the self-nominees for alternate membership in the 10th Central Committee were elected. There was an increase in Central Committee officials working in the central government, the provinces, military and defence officials, public security officials and officials from mass organizations, but there was a decrease in officials from the sectors of information, social and cultural affairs, economics, business and financial affairs, and others. As the meeting progressed, some delegates publicly demanded that the congress should be given the authority to elect the general secretary and the head of the Central Commission for Inspection. This was approved and a survey form which listed four possible candidates; Mạnh, Nguyễn Minh Triết, Nguyễn Văn An and Nguyễn Phú Trọng was created. Nguyễn Văn An withdrew his candidacy, knowing he would not be elected to the 10th Politburo because he was not elected to the 10th Central Committee. However, because of party rules which stated that the Central Committee after the congress elected the general secretary, the vote at the congress was considered a survey. Another version of the proceedings, that given by Mạnh at the press conference after the congress, was that the 1,176 congress delegates were given a list of the elected members of the 10th Central Committee, and were given a free choice of electing any of them to the general secretaryship. After the congress, on 25 April, the 1st plenum of the Central Committee convened to elect the general secretary. The two leading candidates at the congress survey, Mạnh and Nguyễn Minh Triết, stood for election at the plenum. Mạnh was elected and Nguyễn Minh Triết was appointed state president. However, rumours that Mạnh won narrowly over his rival, and that Nguyễn Minh Triết withdrew his candidature following the party tradition of appointing the general secretary, circulated after the congress. The 10th Politburo comprised 14 members. As was decided at the first plenum, the ranking given to Politburo members was to be decided by the number of approval votes the official earned during the election. Lê Hồng Anh, the Minister of Public Security, was ranked second in the Politburo because he received the second-most approval votes for his candidacy. Of the 14 members of the Politburo, five were concurrently members of the 10th Secretariat. The Secretariat comprised eight members, amongst whom the highest rank was general secretary. Policy enactments The official Congress communique set 2020 as a date on which Vietnam would reach the status of a modern, industrial society. To reach this goal, the targeted growth for gross domestic product (GDP) was set at 7.5–8 percent for 2006–2011. The congress promised to renew the socialist-oriented market economy, and step up its fight against political corruption. The communique emphasized the party's goal of a future society without exploitation, based on the ideology of Marxism–Leninism. The Political Report, the Eighth Five-Year Plan (2006–2010)officially titled the Five Year Socio-economic Development Plan, the report on Party building and the amendment and revision to the Party's charter, were approved. Mạnh said that the approval of these documents were "the results of the intellect and the will of our entire Party and people, the in-depth practical and theoretical summation of 20 years of Renovation [Đổi Mới] and the improvement and development of the policy and philosophy of renovations in the current period of our country's revolution." The Eighth Five-Year Plan is subordinate to the Ten Year Socio-economic Development Strategy (2001–2010) which aims to continue comprehensive reform and achieve fast, sustainable growth rates. The main goal of the Ten Year Plan is to lift Vietnam out of the category of underdeveloped countries and to reach the status of a modern-industrial nation by 2012. The Eighth Five-Year Plan, while approved by the Congress, had to earn the approval of the National Assembly before being implemented. The delegates approved the general secretary's Political Report, Report on Orientations and Tasks for Socio-Economic Development for the 2006–10 Period, and the Report on Party building and amendments made to the party statute. These reports' main objectives were to accelerate the reform process and strengthen the socialist-oriented market economy. The congress allowed existing party members to engage in private ownership. This was a controversial amendment and was a break with the theory of exploitation of man by man. While the amendment was approved, the third plenum of the 10th Central Committee restricted the change to party members who had worked in state-owned enterprises which have been privatized. Democratization An important characteristic of the 10th Congress was the internal democratization of the party leadership, most notably seen in the Politburo's willingness to follow the "survey" voted by the 13th plenum of the Central Committee. The top five members of the "survey" were rewarded with the five highest government positions in Vietnam. While the leadership selection process was not dramatically altered, the Central Committee as a collective unit was strengthened, and the Central Committee acquired control over personnel appointments and policy-making. In effect, these changes have reduced the roles of powerful individuals, who may be seen as taking too much control. Acknowledgement 35 foreign parties congratulated the CPV on holding its 10th Congress. Among these were ruling parties of the remaining socialist states, the Communist Party of Cuba, the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the Lao People's Revolutionary Party. Hu Jintao, the former CPC General Secretary of the Central Committee, personally congratulated Nguyen Van Son, the Chairman of the CPV Commission for External Relations, on the CPV's holding of the 10th National Congress. Not all the parties which congratulated the CPV were communists, for example the Cambodian People's Party, the Social Democratic Party of Germany, the Uri Party and the Bulgarian Socialist Party. The French Communist Party congratulated the CPV on holding its 10th National Congress, and stated that it "was a milestone and an occasion for the Party to reiterate its orientations and its determination to implement objectives as well as open new visions for the 21st century." In an official communique from the Central Committee of the Japanese Communist Party (JCP) to the CPV 10th Central Committee, the JPC Central Committee stated "The Communist Party of Viet Nam is advancing on the chosen path of building socialism through the market economy. This is a new discovery in the history of mankind." The Communist Party of India sent its "warmest fraternal greetings to the leadership and delegates to the 10th Congress of the Communist Party of Viet Nam." The Communist Party USA sent a "warm revolutionary greetings to the delegates and members of the Communist Party of Viet Nam on the occasion of your 10th National Party Congress. We wish you much success in your deliberations at this important event." The Communist Party of the Russian Federation stated, "Under the leadership of the Communist Party of Viet Nam, the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam has successfully carried out adopted policies. The industrious Vietnamese people have created favourable conditions for progress. The CPV has displayed a creative and principled approach to solving important and sophisticated problems, while remaining persistent in its socialist ideology." The Portuguese Communist Party said, "The Tenth Party Congress and the objectives your congress was striving towards, given the present international situation, constitute something significant." The Communist Party of Brazil said, "We are very impressed by the efforts exerted by the Vietnamese people and Communists in building socialism in line with national development. The renewal process in Viet Nam has helped the country attain great achievements in modernization, industrialization and international integration." Mahmoud Abbas, Chairman of the Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization extended his greetings, and said "We are proud of our friendship and relationship, and once again reaffirm our determination to strengthen ties and solidarity for the mutual benefit of both our nations". Notes References Bibliography National Congresses of the Communist Party of Vietnam 2006 in Vietnam 2006 conferences April 2006 events in Asia 2000s political conferences
4784969	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish%20education	Jewish education	Jewish education (, Chinuch) is the transmission of the tenets, principles, and religious laws of Judaism. Jews value education, and the value of education is strongly embedded in Jewish culture. Judaism places a heavy emphasis on Torah study, from the early days of studying the Tanakh. History Jewish education has been valued since the birth of Judaism. In the Hebrew Bible Abraham is lauded for instructing his offspring in God's ways. One of the basic duties of Jewish parents is to provide for the instruction of their children as set forth in the first paragraph of the Shema Yisrael prayer: “Take to heart these instructions with which I charge you this day. Impress them upon your children. Recite them when you stay at home and when you are away, when you lie down and when you get up. Bind them as sign on your hand and let them serve as a symbol on your forehead; inscribe them on the doorposts of your house and your gates” (Deut. 6:6-9). Additionally, children are advised to seek the instruction of their parents: "Remember the days of old, consider the years of many generations; ask thy father, and he will declare unto thee, thine elders, and they will tell thee" (Deut. 32:7). The Book of Proverbs also contains many verses related to education: “My son, do not forget my teaching, but let your mind retain my commandments; For they will bestow on you length of days, years of life and well-being“ (Prov. 3:1-2). Elementary school learning was considered compulsory by Simeon ben Shetah in 75 BCE and by Joshua ben Gamla in 64 CE. The education of older boys and men in a beit midrash can be traced back to the period of the Second Temple . The Talmud, states that children should begin school at six, and should not be kept from education by other tasks. According to Judah ben Tema, “At five years the age is reached for studying Mikra, at ten for studying the Mishnah, at thirteen for fulfilling the mitzvoth, at fifteen for studying Talmud” (Avot 5:21). Mikra refers to the written Torah, Mishnah refers to the complementary oral Torah (the concise and precise laws dictating how the written Torah's commandments are achieved) and Talmud refers to comprehension of the oral and written law's unity and contemplation of the laws. The term "Talmud" used here is a method of study and is not to be confused by the later compilations by the same name. In keeping with this tradition, Jews established their own schools or hired private tutors for their children until the end of the 18th century. Schools were housed in annexes or separate buildings close to the synagogue. Rabban Gamaliel, the son of Rabbi Judah Hanasi said that the study of the Torah is excellent when combined with Derech Eretz, worldly occupation, for toil in them both keeps sin out of one’s mind; But [study of the] Torah which is not combined with a worldly occupation, in the end comes to be neglected and becomes the cause of sin. Formal Jewish education Sex segregation Sex segregation in education was traditionally the norm, although many contemporary Jewish schools do not segregate students, outside of Orthodox or Ultra Orthodox communities. Historically, education for boys in yeshivas was primarily focused on the study of Jewish scriptures such as the Torah and Talmud, while girls obtained studies both in Jewish education as well as broader secular studies. Primary schooling The Talmud (Tractate Bava Bathra 21a) attributes the institution of formal Jewish education to the first century sage Joshua ben Gamla. Prior to this, parents taught their children informally. Ben Gamla instituted schools in every town and made education compulsory from the age of 6 or 7. The Talmud attaches great importance to the "Tinokot shel beth Rabban" (the children [who study] at the Rabbi's house), stating that the world continues to exist for their learning and that even for the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem, classes are not to be interrupted (Tractate Shabbat 119b). The Yeshiva History In Mishnaic and Talmudic times young men were attached to a beth din (court of Jewish law), where they sat in three rows and progressed as their fellow students were elevated to sit on the court. After the formal court system was abolished, yeshivot became the main places for Torah study. The Talmud itself was composed largely in the yeshivot of Sura and Pumbedita in Babylonia, and the leading sages of the generation taught there. Until the 19th century, young men generally studied under the local rabbi, who was allocated funds by the Jewish community to maintain a number of students. The Hasidic masters and the Lithuanian rabbi Chaim Volozhin both founded centralised yeshivot; see Yeshiva#History. Modern yeshivas Yeshivot have remained of central importance in the Orthodox community to this day. Presently, there are numerous yeshivot - particularly in the US and Israel, but, in general, wherever there is an established Orthodox community. In the 20th century, Hesder (Israeli Religious Zionist) and Modern Orthodox yeshivot were also founded. In all of these communities, yeshiva study is common, with young men (and women in a midrasha) spending several years post high school studying Torah. In the Haredi / Hasidic communities, this study often spans decades; see kollel. Non-orthodox streams have yeshivot also, although these are intended (almost entirely) for Rabbinic preparation. Their syllabi similarly depart from the traditional. Secular education emphasis In the 21st century, critics in both the United States and Israel have protested that (some) Haredi and Hasidic yeshivas are teaching religious studies to the exclusion of secular subjects such as mathematics and science. This Haredi aversion to secular studies manifests differently in Israel and outside Israel. In America, some yeshivas of Haredi (Ultra-Orthodox), but non-Hasidic (Lithuanian) identity, offer state-compliant secular education curriculums. For example, Yeshiva Torah Vodaas runs a "NYS Board of Regents certified High School" with a contemporary curriculum "in compliance with the latest Common Core standards." American Hasidic yeshivas, however, from elementary to high school levels, have a long history of shying away from all but the most rudimentary exposure to secular studies. For example, when several decades ago Rabbi Shlomo Halberstam of the Bobov Hasidic dynasty was met with intensified calls for higher-level secular education from Hasidic parents of Bobov-affiliated yeshivas, Halberstam rejected their pleas and stated that on principle he would not compromise "even if it means that I will have no more than one student." Critics such as Naftuli Moster have worked to promote the adoption of national or state standards on secular subjects by such yeshivas. A New York Times investigation into the quality of education in the more than 100 all-boys schools across Brooklyn and the lower Hudson Valley in 2022 revealed that the schools generally taught only rudimentary English and math and no science or history, while receiving more than $1 billion in government money in the previous four year period. The NYT investigation alleged that the current secular curriculum in most New York Hasidic boys' schools exists for children between the ages of 8 and 12 only and consists of reading and math, four days a week, often for 90 minutes a day, and only after a full day of religious lessons. English teachers are often not fluent in the language themselves, and there have been anecdotes of students correcting their teachers on the spelling of words such as 'math', misspelled as 'mathe'. Select schools do provide more robust syllabi which include science and social studies, and interactive learning programs such as fairs and spelling bees. Richard Bamberger, a spokesman for Hasidic schools, and J. Erik Connolly, a Chicago lawyer representing Hasidic schools, denied claims by the NYT and others that graduates of the schools were unable to speak or write in English. Echoing Hasidic leaders, they quoted data showing that Jewish schools in general perform well on standardized tests for high school students. NYT reporters countered that these results almost entirely reflect the performance of students at non-Hasidic schools; most Hasidic schools do not administer state standardized tests at all, but in 2019 some did give these exams, and 99% of the thousands of Hasidic boys who took them, failed, in contrast to 49% of all New Yorkers who passed. Additionally, accounts of almost three dozen then-current and former teachers across the state’s Hasidic yeshivas, including in those schools that do not administer standardized test, revealed that most of the thousands of boys whom they had taught had left school without learning to speak English fluently, let alone read or write at grade level; in regards to math, most could add and subtract, some could also multiply and divide, but few could do more. Following the NYT reporting, concerns were raised by some local politicians as to the standard of secular education provided. Particular criticism followed accounts of corporal punishment in the schools. The educational philosophy of Hasidic and most non-Hasidic Haredi yeshivas in Israel is largely similar to that of their American counterparts, i.e. opposed to secular studies, no path to attaining a Bagrut certificate. As of 2017, percentage of Haredi girls taking matriculation exams was 51% (up from 31% a decade prior; however, for boys it was only 14% (down from 16%), since Orthodox yeshivot mostly ignore core subjects. About 8 percent of Haredi students pass the exam. Miriam Ben-Peretz, professor emeritus of education at the University of Haifa, and winner of the 2006 Israel Prize notes: “More and more Israeli students don’t have any foundation of knowledge, any basics — not in math, not in English, not in general...things have to change." Some Israelis who have been educated in Haredi yeshivas have established Out for Change, an organization seeking to sue the government for alleged failure to enforce Israel's law for compulsory education. There is a similar organization in America called YAFFED (Young Advocates for Fair Education). Jewish schools The phenomenon of the Jewish day school is of relatively common origin. Until the 19th and 20th century, boys attended the cheder (literally "room," since it was in the synagogue, which historically was a building with a bet midrash being the only room) or talmud Torah, where they were taught by a melamed tinokos (children's teacher). The first Jewish day school developed in Germany, largely in response to the higher emphasis in general on secular studies. In the past, an apprenticeship was sufficient to learn a profession, or alternatively several years in a gymnasium could prepare one adequately for university. Rabbis who pioneered Jewish day schools included Rabbi Shimson Raphael Hirsch, whose Realschule in Frankfurt am Main served as a model for numerous similar institutions. Jews have also been disproportionately engaged in the building of academic institutions of education and in promoting teaching as a professional career. Three of the past four presidents of the American Federation of Teachers have been Jews: starting with Albert Shanker, her successor Sandra Feldman, all the way to current AFT president, Randi Weingarten. In 2007, there were over 750 day schools in the United States and 205,000 students in those schools. Beyond those students, hundreds of thousands (~250,000) of Jewish children attend supplementary religious, Hebrew, and congregational schools. Girls' education Formal Jewish girls' education is a twentieth century phenomenon. Prior to this women learned basic Jewish concepts and halakha in an informal setting with parents or other family members, apart from occasional instances where women learned Torah intensively. One of the main arguments for this educational inequality of discouraging women from learning Torah related topics is found in the Talmud. According to Rabbi Eliezer in Tractate Sotah: 'If a man teaches his daughter Torah, it's as if he's teaching her foolishness.' Traditional religious views were that women were not on the same intellectual level as men, and therefore were unable to understand the intricacies of the Torah and Talmud. This situation changed largely due to the efforts of Sara Schnirer, who founded the first Jewish girls' school Bais Yaakov in Kraków in Poland in 1918. leading to the formation of the Beth Jacob Movement. From the 19th century onwards, public education became compulsory in most of Europe, and Jewish schools were established in order to maintain educational control over Jewish children. In the Beth Jacob system, women primarily learn Torah, and also some halacha (Jewish religious law), but not the Talmud. This means that they are not only taught Torah but are also taught 'the lifestyle of being a homemaker, and supporting their husbands who want to learn in yeshiva all day.' Girls in the United States at this time were often educated at public schools together with boys, and they received their Jewish education through programs at synagogues and Sunday schools, as Jewish day schools were less common. After the end of World War II, women moved into Jewish studies research and teaching. The balance of education for women and men has made great strides in equality in Jewish schools. Informal Jewish education Youth groups Recent[when?] studies estimate a population of 650,000 Jewish middle and high school students.[dead link] Most of these attend Jewish youth groups or participate in activities funded by Jewish youth organizations Jewish youth organizations. Many of these are Zionist youth movements. The various organizations differ in political ideology, religious affiliation, and leadership structure, although they all tend to be characterized by a focus on youth leadership. The Conservative movement has USY - United Synagogue Youth. The Modern Orthodox movement has NCSY - formerly National Conference of Synagogue Youth. BBYO is a non-denominational group, though most Jews associate it with the Reform movement. The North American Federation of Temple Youth, known as NFTY, is the organized youth movement of Reform Judaism in North America. Funded and supported by the Union for Reform Judaism, NFTY exists to supplement and support Reform youth groups at the synagogue level. About 750 local youth groups affiliate themselves with the organization, comprising over 8,500 youth members. Summer camps Jewish summer camps are a tool for creating ties with a particular denomination of Judaism and/or orientation to Israel. Camps are sponsored by the Orthodox, Conservative, Reconstructionist, and Reform movement, by Jewish community centers, and by Zionist movements such as Young Judaea, Betar, Habonim Dror, Hashomer Hatzair and B'nei Akiva. Over 70,000 campers participate in over 150 non-profit Jewish summer camps, especially in the United States. In addition, the Foundation for Jewish Camp estimates that these camps are staffed by over 8,500 Jewish college-aged counselors. American-style Jewish summer camps can also be found in other countries, such as Camp Kimama in Israel. Outside the United States, similar camps are generally organized by various philanthropic organizations and local Jewish youth movements. The Camp Ramah network, affiliated with Conservative Judaism runs camps in North America where youngsters experience traditional Shabbat observance, study Hebrew and observe the laws of kashrut. The Union for Reform Judaism runs the largest Jewish camping system in the world, the URJ Camp & Israel Programs. They operate 13 summer camps across North America, including a sports specialty camp, teen leadership institute and programs for youth with special needs, as well as a number of Israel travel programs. Participants in these programs observe Shabbat, engage in programming about Jewish values and history, and partake in typical summer camp activities including athletics, creative arts and color war. Student organizations Much informal Jewish education is organized on university campuses. This is often supported by national organizations, such as Hillel (United States) or the Union of Jewish Students (United Kingdom), or by international organizations such as the World Union of Jewish Students and the European Union of Jewish Students. The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute in partnership with The Chabad on Campus International Foundation, manages the Sinai Scholars Society, an integrated fellowship program for college campus students comprising Torah study, social activities, and national networking opportunities. Drama-based education One of the earliest examples of drama-based Jewish education is the theatrical works of Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzatto (Ramchal 1707-1746, b. Italy), who wrote plays with multiple characters on Jewish themes. While the use of such plays was probably rare in traditional Jewish education, the Etz Chaim school of Jerusalem reportedly staged plays in the 1930s. From the 20th century onwards drama has been used as an educational tool. Programs such as Jewish Crossroads by Shlomo Horwitz provide educational theater in schools and synagogues in various English-speaking countries. The Lookstein Center at Bar-Ilan University, a think tank geared to Jewish educators in the Diaspora, lists many drama-related programs on their website for use of teachers in the classroom. Sports-based education Sports is another vehicle to connect Jewish youth to Judaism and Israel. Bring It In - Israel offers a sports volunteering program in Israel that cultivates a cadre of young leaders who return to their communities to promote interest in Israel and Judaism. The perceived role of sports as a historical avenue was crucial for Jewish people to overcome social, religious and cultural obstacles toward their participation in secular society (especially in Europe and the United States). References Sources The World of the Jewish Youth Movement'' by Daniel Rose - on movements and informal education External links American Jewish University NewCAJE: Re-Imaging Jewish Education for the 21st Century The Lookstein Center for Jewish Education of Bar-Ilan University whose purpose is to keep the story of Soviet Jewry alive Shalom Hartman Institute The Jewish Teacher Project The Jewish Education Project Jewish youth organizations
4785917	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anahuacalli%20Museum	Anahuacalli Museum	The Diego Rivera Anahuacalli Museum is a museum and arts center in Mexico City, located in the San Pablo de Tepetlapa neighborhood of Coyoacán, 10 minutes by car from the Frida Kahlo Museum, as well as from the tourist neighborhood of this district. The Anahuacalli (from the Nahuatl word, whose meaning is "house surrounded by water"), is a temple of the arts designed by the Mexican muralist Diego Rivera. This museum stands out for its extensive collection of pre-Columbian art, as well as for its Ecological Space that protects endemic flora and fauna. Rivera designed its architecture in order to safeguard his vast collection of pre-Hispanic pieces, while exhibiting the most beautiful works of this set in the museum's main building. Accordingly, a selection of 2,000 artworks, especially well executed and preserved, has been on display since the opening of the Anahuacalli to the public on September 18, 1964. The extravagant architecture of the building is inspired by Mesoamerican structures, with a unique style of its kind that mixes Mayan and Toltec influences mainly, although Rivera himself defined it as an amalgamation of Aztec, Mayan and "Traditional Rivera" styles. The Anahuacalli Museum building is erected with carved volcanic stone, extracted from the same place where it stands. According to the words of the Tabasco museographer and poet Carlos Pellicer, who designed the museum's permanent exhibition at the express indication of Rivera himself, the Anahuacalli responds to the following description: "It is a personal creation using pre-Hispanic elements, mainly from Toltec architecture and some of the Mayan: sloped walls, serpentine pilasters and rhomboid doors. The pyramidal crown accentuates the magnificent character of the building. The flat ceilings on the ground floor and the upper floors are decorated with original mosaics by the great painter, which are elements that are integrated into the architecture. The ground floor is occupied by Aztec and the Teotihuacan artworks. A beautiful group of stone sculptures, clay figurines -models of temples- and pottery utensils." Diego Rivera planned the Anahuacalli as a great stage for the development of diverse artistic expressions such as theater, dance, painting and music. These disciplines are immersed in an atmosphere whose architecture represents the search for the Mexican essence through its rich pre-Columbian past. At the same time, the Anahuacalli is integrated into the artistic, intellectual and educational events of contemporary times. Every year, in compliance with the will that Rivera expressed for the Anahuacalli, contemporary art exhibitions are presented on the premises. These proposals are carefully chosen, as they must alternate harmoniously with the museum's architecture, with the pre-Columbian art on display, with the nature that surrounds it, and with the foundational and evolving concept of Diego's Anahuacalli. The Anahuacalli is a testimony to Rivera's generosity; he created a prodigious architectural work to display his collection of pre-Hispanic art with the people of Mexico and the world. Thanks to this museum, today, thousands of national and foreign visitors can delve into the creative universe that the muralist left housed in this unique place. Everyone who visits the site can enjoy its natural and architectural spaces, as well as the rich collection of Mesoamerican art bequeathed to Mexico, by Master Rivera. History of the Anahuacalli In June, 1940, Diego Rivera painted the mural Pan American Unity for the "Art in Action" program of the Golden Gate International Exposition(GGIE). In this mural painting, the artist shows a clear interest in extolling the pre-Hispanic cultures. After his return to Mexico in 1941, he is willing to begin the construction of a museum that socialises the pre-Columbian aesthetics, both through its architecture and the collection on display. For these purposes, Diego chooses the land that he acquired in the Pedregal de San Ángel to plan his museum and City of the Arts. In the preparatory drafts, a plaza for art and handcart workshops was included, as well as forums dedicated to the performing arts, permanent exhibition halls and a Mexican art museum with nine venues. Rivera expended a considerable amount of his earnings in what would be one of the most ambitious projects of his life: the Anahuacalli. The Anahuacalli construction began in 1942, in the suburb and town of San Pablo Tepetlapa. A year later, the Mexican artist Frida Kahlo (1907–1954) wrote a letter to the engineer Marte R. Gómez, then Secretary of Agriculture and Development of the government of President Manuel Ávila Camacho, in which she explained her husband's need to build a space that houses his collection. In the words of Frida herself: "(…) after his painting work, what excites him most in his life are his idols (…). His idea was always to build a house for the idols." In said letter, Frida expresses her concern for the sadness of her husband, not having sufficient financial resources to complete the building. As a result, she proposes to the engineer Marte R. Gómez, that the Mexican government supports the continuation of the construction works, with the condition that the muralist donate his collection to Mexico and turn the Anahuacalli into an archaeological museum. Nevertheless, this proposal was not carried out, at least not at the time. The first museographic design was prepared by Rivera himself under the direction of the anthropologist Alfonso Caso y Andrade (1896–1970). Both Caso and his collaborators recognized Diego's ability to distinguish, in his collection, the most authentic and important components. Despite the essential collaboration of Caso, Pellicer did not organize the exhibition following historical or anthropological criteria while working under the supervision of Rivera. Differently, Pellicer prioritized the artistic quality of the pieces to organize its display, since this had been Rivera's motivation to assemble the collection in the first place. For this reason, none of the objects are shown linked to a museum card, since Rivera's intention does not respond to an archaeological classification, but to an aesthetic admiration. When master Rivera died, the Anahuacalli was still in its process of construction; hence his daughter, Ruth Rivera (1927–1969) together with the architects Juan O'Gorman (1905–1982) and Heriberto Pagelson, finished this project with the financial support of Dolores Olmedo. Thus, the construction concluded in 1963 and the museum was inaugurated on September 18, 1964. In memory of its creator, the following quote was chosen for the inscription engraved on the museum foundation stone: "I return to the people what I was able to rescue from the artistic heritage of their ancestors. Diego Rivera". Anahuacalli's architecture Main building Due to the essential participation of Juan O'Gorman in the Anahuacalli's construction, it has been wrongly assumed that the building possesses an important functionalist influence. Nonetheless, by the 1940s, when the construction of the Anahuacalli began, O'Gorman had already stopped projecting in accordance with said architectural style. Distinctively, the Anahuacalli architecture was as a response to the growing presence of the International Style; O'Gorman realized that his early buildings, influenced by Le Corbusier, were not agreeing with the Mexican landscape and therefore considered them as "invasive species". As a result of the above, O'Gorman sought to return to a Mexican aesthetic for his designs, the one that is characteristic of popular Mexican folk art. The Anahuacalli responds to the ideal of a construction that is integrated with nature, typical of organic architecture, conceptualized by Frank Lloyd Wright (1867–1959). Lloyd Wright's work influenced that of O'Gorman, as well as the design projected by Rivera for the Anahuacalli, designed to achieve a balance between the pre-Hispanic and the modern. The Mexican architect considered Wright's work as the passage from a "servile veneration of European stupidity" to a confidence in the creative capacity of the American continent. The Anahuacalli's design is inspired by a teocalli, which means " gods’ house". It is built with volcanic stone from the eruption of the Xitle volcano; these rocks were extracteded from the same land where the museum was built. Its aesthetic includes symbolic and architectural elements that were originated in Mesoamerica. Accordingly, the main building of Anahuacalli is a manifestation of a spatial architectural perception that is characteristic in pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican constructions. The corners of the edifice are dedicated to an element of nature that is represented by original sculptures of their respective deities, according to the Mexica worldview. These divinities are Chicomecóatl (earth), Ehécatl Quetzalcóatl (wind), Tláloc (water), and Huehuetéotl (fire). The building has a total of twenty-three rooms distributed over three levels. In each of the rooms, stand out specific visual motifs of the pre-Hispanic mythology that so fascinated Diego Rivera. Facade The Anahuacalli is made up entirely of carved rock that originated from the eruption of the Xitle volcano. In the lower part of the main building, a platform of this same material protrudes, configuring a kind of "shelf" where pre-Columbian sculptures are installed. On that same level, we find the access to the museum that consists of an oval arch in front of the arrangement of elongated windows. These windows are made of amber-colored onyx stone, which looks opaque from the outside and translucent from the inside. These thin windows allow the passage of dim natural light; this is a sensible feature considering that the level where these windows are located represents the Underworld. On the part that is immediately upstairs the access level, the enormous windows that illuminate the interior of the intermediate floor stand out, among which two snake heads can be seen in the lower part of them. Likewise, the trapezoid-shaped roof is observed, reminiscent of ancient Mesoamerican structures. Interior of the building The ground floor of the Anahuacalli stands out for its complexity; it is made up of walls of different thickness depending on their function. The walls that are thicker, have a load-bearing structure of reinforced concrete inside. The four vertices were preserved as "chambers", where the contemporary and museographic altars are beautifully placed, alluding to those that served to worship deities in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican contexts. Since this section represents the Underworld, it doesn't have much lighting. On the first floor that is also the middle floor, the four vertices were kept as "crypts" and there are four exhibition halls. Among these rooms, the two smaller ones face south, and the larger ones are longitudinal, one being clearly more integrated into the central space. On that same level is the space known as Diego Rivera's Studio. This section represents the earthly world, so its rooms are endowed with natural light, unlike the lower floor. After finishing the spaces mentioned above, the roof was built. The design of the second level forms a "U". In this area, the "crypts" were integrated into the longitudinal rooms, while the small rooms remained, repeating the layout of the lower ones. Although O'Gorman was determined to respect the scheme proposed by Rivera, this was not entirely possible in the case of the roof, since Diego had planned it with a singular lightness. This is demonstrated by two letters mentioned in this regard by the architect Ruth Rivera, Diego's daughter, and by Pedro Alvarado, one of the muralist's grandchildren. In these letters, Rivera highlighted: "the importance of Ajusco for the solution of his project" and how the roof should "rhyme with the nose of Pico del Águila", due to its slender design. Rivera thought of a "light crowning", since "the truncated pyramid" must have "a new body that gives the building a vertical character", which contrasts "with the horizontal character achieved by the building as well as with its surrounding landscape". For the actual technical solution, he thought of a metallic profile drowned in concrete and "the inclined-vertical plane of light sheets of thin marble or tecali, the ceiling itself of pre-cast concrete sheets…or else cast on site with the same procedure." Finally, Diego wanted the roof to end in a lightning rod. The painter also suggested placing a palapa to cover the structure of the rubble. Due to important decisions regarding costs, as well as for assuring the durability and the stability of the construction, Juan O'Gorman's final solution could not fully adhere to Diego's guidelines. Consequently, the upper part of the building turned out to be somewhat heavy, rigid and not very flexible, compared to the original idea. Mosaics Both Rivera and O'Gorman carried out technical and aesthetic experiments for the decorative endings inside the Anahuacalli, using the cast mosaic technique, which consists of: "Place some cardboard with the drawn sketches directly on the wooden formwork. On these cardboards, with a glue emulsion, the pieces of stone were adhered following the image that the painter had created. Later, it was completed with the mortar stone to fix it. When all this dried up, the formwork and the cardboard were removed, and the image was corrected". The first attempts were not satisfactory, hence when a definitive solution was reached, the first slabs were demolished. Initially, the roof of the ground floor had skylights, which had to be sealed because the artist was unable to solve the passage of light without the use of vitroblock to give firmness to the floor of the next level. The complexity of the mosaics varies depending on the museum levels. While the designs of the ground floor mosaics are monochromatic, the mosaics on the upper sections were made with stones of different colors. In the windows, stones were placed in vertical cuts that simulated a fine rhythm that closed the large windows without horizontal lintels, but rather angular ones. The decision was to use a tecali stone in slabs as thin as they are translucent and thus achieve a tie with the stone. Outdoor spaces The total extension of the land of the Anahuacalli Museum is sixty thousand square meters, in which Diego Rivera designed the museum building and conceived a City of Arts; a space for artistic creation and feedback, where architecture, painting, dance, music, sculpture, theater, crafts and ecology coexist. In the center of the place, we find a large esplanade or central square, where various artistic events are frequently held. Located to one side of the main building is the Diego Rivera gallery, a space for high-quality temporary exhibitions. Another fundamental place in this enclosure is the Sapo-Rana art library, which houses the collection of 2400 copies from the personal library of the anthropologist Eulalia Guzmán, who donated them to the Anahuacalli Museum in the 1950s. This library also has valuable art books, available to be consulted in the room. In 2021, a remodeling of this library was inaugurated, within the framework of the project "Remodeling and Construction of New Spaces of the Anahuacalli Museum". This intervention turned the Library into a multidisciplinary place, endowed with an interior architecture that enjoys a modern and functional design, which enables it to exhibit contemporary art installations and artworks of all kinds, as well as being a suitable room for conferences and talks. Ecological reserve The land where the Anahuacalli was built appeared approximately 2000 years ago with the eruption of the Xitlevolcano, which produced a lava spill that, over time, became what is now the Pedregal de San Ángel. Although the explosion devastated the landscape of the Valley of Mexico, affecting forests and lakes, a new ecosystem emerged from the volcanic rock, which has been the object of inspiration for renowned artists such as Dr. Atl and the architect Luis Barragán. Though it is believed that the main reason why Diego Rivera chose the San Pablo Tepetlapa rocky area to erect his Temple of the Arts was the availability of materials for the construction of his building there, it is not ruled out that Rivera could also have inherited the interest in Mexican flora and fauna from one of his teachers: the painter José María Velasco. Velasco's work is not only concentrated on landscape painting, but also ventured into the field of scientific illustration. In addition, it is likely that the foregoing influenced Diego's preference for using plants typical of semi-arid regions and xerophytic scrub, as opposed to the trends of the time that showed a clear preference for gardens with European aesthetics and botanical composition. In 1949, Rivera published his text "Requirements for the organization of El Pedregal" in the newspaper Novedades. In this article, he outlined the advantages of rocky terrain for building houses. In said document, he speaks of the Pedregal as a possible site for the creation of a new city, since it did not present the climate and economic complications belonging to the older regions of Mexico City, where the soil was spongier. On the other hand, one of Diego's greatest concerns was the preservation of the natural landscape; accordingly he drafted a series of specifications so as not to damage the ecosystem during the works. The artist considered that the lava had to be protected, since it endowed the territory with its unique beauty. Rivera sought to preserve this same lava attribute, in what is now the Ecological Reserve of Anahuacalli. The Anahuacalli Museum is the only museum in Mexico that has an ecological zone of 28000 square meters that remains in a wild state and has water outcrops that enrich the beauty of the landscape. This green area protects flora and fauna typical of the volcanic soil of the place, as well as orchids, edible and medicinal herbs, Begonia del Pedregal and shrubs that are not found in any other green area in Mexico. This ecological reserve can be contemplated with a panoramic view from the roof of the museum. Also, it can be visited through guided tours on Saturdays and Sundays. Pre-columbian art collection Diego Rivera (1886–1957) began collecting pre-Columbian art in his childhood. In 1906, he had to leave this first collection under the care of his mother, when he went to live and work in Europe. Upon his return in 1921, he was forced to restart his collection because his mum told him that she had to sell it due to economic problems. That same year, Rivera restarted the gradual acquisition of the pre-Columbian artworks that are currently exhibited at the Anahuacalli. Since the 1930s, Diego had the intention of depositing his collection in a specific place, designed according to his ideas. At that time, the muralist was already collaborating with the cultural authorities of the government in turn. In 1934, once the Palace of Fine Arts was completed, the Escultura Mexicana Antigua (Ancient Mexican Sculpture exhibition) was held. Maestro Rivera collaborated with this exhibition, contributing twelve pieces of the one hundred and thirty-nine works that composed this exhibition. Juan Coronel Rivera, historian, writer and grandson of the painter, declares: "When the collection was very incipient, around 1934, he actually had very selected pieces; each one of them he placed on a base. Later, when the quantity was overwhelming, when it went up to 30,000 pieces, he just placed them where they fit". By the year of his death, in 1957, master Rivera had more than 40,000 pieces collected. Dolores Olmedo (1908–2002), Rivera's former patron, counted 59,400 pieces. Diego Rivera's interest in the pre-Hispanic past coincides with the years in which nationalist thinking was formed as a result of the Mexican Revolution. Like his contemporaries, he did not only value the remains of pre-Columbian cultures, but also considered the pieces from Tlatilco, Teotihuacán and Western Mexico as foundational works of Mexican aesthetics. The painter saw in the enlargement of his collection much more than a hobby; his purpose was to rescue and preserve the pre-Columbian heritage for a better understanding of Mexican art development. His fascination with stone figures and ceramic pieces became an inspiration for his artworks. A clear example of this is the figure of Xochipilli, the Lord of the Flowers, whose image Rivera illustrated in the mural paintings located in the stairs of the Secretariat of Public Education (Secretaría de Educación Pública, SEP). This drawing, in archaeological terms, is possibly the most accurate pictorial representation of an Aztec deity. It is known that the artist's fondness for collecting instigated an economic and familiar problem at the time. Mexican novelist and model Guadalupe Marín, Diego's wife for a time, was particularly upset by her husband's insistence on buying idols, regardless of his household expenses. This is demonstrated in a narration published in 1964 in the cultural newspaper El Gallo Ilustrado: "Go away, I tell you to take your tepalcates and leave my husband alone. Just see what Rivera does to me: he buys those mannequins and then he doesn't care that we don't even have enough money to eat. Surely the few cents that were for today's expense, this chacharero takes them". Regarding the nature of his collection, Rivera did not want it to be a scientific sampler, but instead sought to return the pieces their Mana, which in the words of the anthropologist, historian and philosopher Mircea Eliade (Bucharest, 1907 –Chicago, 1986) is: "(…) the mysterious and active force possessed by certain individuals, generally the souls of the dead and all spirits (…). It is a force different from the physical forces from a qualitative point of view, that is why it is exerted in an arbitrary way. A good warrior owes that quality not to his own strength or resources, but to the strength that a dead warrior's mana gives him. That mana is found in the small stone amulet that hangs around his neck." Diego Rivera aimed to rescue the ritual character of the pieces in his collection; that divine essence that they possessed at the time they were used and that endowed them with their real value. In an interview with the painter, the American journalist Betty Ross commented that "The master affectionately touched a stone figure, which probably dated back thousands of years (…) he introduced me to Centéotl, a corn goddess, near whom Tlaloc was sitting, god of the waters (...)". The foregoing demonstrates the great veneration that Diego Rivera had towards his pre-Hispanic artworks, as well as the appropriate manner he approached them. It is worth mentioning that the painter, together with Manuel Gamio, participated in esoteric ceremonies at the top of the Pyramid of the Sun, since both of them formed part of the Rosicrucian lodge "Quetzalcóatl". Those spiritual practices could explain that the Mexican State thinkers saw in the ancient monoliths the power to reinvent the national culture. In short, these artifacts were perceived as both means of spiritual connection as well as tools for asserting high political status. In 1950, the then director of the National Museum of Anthropology, Daniel Rubín de la Borbolla Cedillo (1907–1990), carried out a project in collaboration with the Directorate of Primary Night Education. The initiative consisted of a traveling exhibition of pre-Columbian art, which should allow students to appreciate an enhanced graphic panorama of pre-Hispanic life. Pieces from the Diego Rivera's collection formed part of this educational art show. Currently, the Anahuacalli Museum houses an estimated 39,000 pre-Hispanic pieces that Master Rivera collected throughout his life. From these numerous artistic heritages, a selection of the 2000 most representative pieces is permanently on display to the public. According to Pellicer: "The extraordinary richness of the collection allowed the organizer of the museum to create scenes of the public and private life of those people. All these niches, are truly amazing". The remaining 37,000 pieces are preserved in the building called Bodega de Colecciones (Collections Storage). Diego Rivera Sketch Collection In the large central space located on the second floor of the Anahuacalli, called "Study", are exhibited 16 sketches for different murals made by Rivera in the early thirties. In them, it is to admire the mastery of classical composition learned by the muralist in his youth. Being a born draftsman, Rivera was able to exploit his skills thanks to his training at the Academy of San Carlos in Mexico (1898–1905), as well as his participation in the European avant-gardes and the knowledge he acquired about traditional art during his residence period in Europe (1907–1921). In his mural work, Diego captures his totalizing conception of history. He portrays the class struggle and its protagonists, as well as the different currents that animate them. These sketches allow us to appreciate Rivera's work of technical and aesthetic experimentation, together with the process necessary to communicate the complexity of his ideas. Among the drafts that are exhibited, stands out the one made for the mural Man at the Crossroads, painted in 1932 at the Rockefeller Center and later destroyed by the orders of magnate Nelson Rockefeller. Likewise, Historia del Estado de Morelos, part of the mural at the Palacio de Cortés in Cuernavaca, Conquest and Revolution (1933), and the sketches for The Portrait of America at the New Workers School New York, are impressive. There is a sketch of a nude made for the mural in the Chapingo Chapel and a drawing that does not belong to any mural, entitled "Diego as a child drawing", in which he conveys his early passion for figuration. Next, some of the drawings that are kept at the Anahuacalli: Murals of the Palace of Cortés (1933), Cuernavaca: Sketch for the mural "History of the State of Morelos. Conquest and Revolution". Two full-size cards; one with the portrait of Morelos and another with the images of the La Patria and Zapata, which are part of the frescos "Independence 1810" and "Revolution 1910". Sketch for the mural "Encounter of Hernán Cortés with the Tlaxcaltecas". Mural "The Portrait of America" (1930), for the New Workers School, New York: "The Conquerors", first panel of the preliminary study for the play "Class Struggle in the United States" Mural "The Man at the Crossroads", (1932), for Rockefeller Center, New York: "The death of tyranny" "The death of idolatry" "The technical man" "The man at the crossroads" (A and B) Other murals: "Meeting A", "Meeting B" (sketches for complementary panels of the mural "Nightmare of war and dream of peace") Sketch of the mural "Water, the origin of life", for the Cárcamo de Chapultepec Sketch of a nude figure inside the mural "Germination", found in Chapingo Chapel "Diego drawing as a child" New Anahuacalli Spaces The Anahuacalli Museum working team devoted to the construction of new spaces, initially due to the need for a new collection depository room, since the original one built by Juan O'Gorman and Ruth Rivera -which lasted approximately 60 years- was too small for the number of pieces in all. Later, it was decided that the project would not be limited to this storage, but was to be extended to the constructions of buildings for workshops, offices and a new square. Additionally, the maintenance warehouses of the museum were remodeled, as well as the cafeteria, the library and the store. The design of the new spaces was the work of the Mexican architect Mauricio Rocha Iturbide, who was meant to interpret Diego's initial project, achieving a dialogue between the original Anahuacalli building and the new structures. In other words, an interchange between contemporary art and pre-Hispanic art and architecture. Since the Anahuacalli style corresponds to the principles of organic architecture, it was sought that the new spaces harmonize with the natural landscape. In this regard, structural supports were used in order to raise the base of the buildings in such a way that they respect the rocky surface. The project involved the participation of the engineer Santiago Sánchez Aedo and his building company Arquitech, for the construction of the structures. Among the new spaces, the Collections Warehouse highlights, destined for the protection, conservation, restoration, study and even exhibition to researchers, of the pieces of the pre-Columbian collection bequeathed by Diego Rivera. The treasures that are not permanently exhibited in the main building are kept in this room, nevertheless, those pieces enjoy the same artistic, historical and cultural importance than the ones that are on public display. The new Anahuacalli spaces, inaugurated in September 2021, are the following: Sapo-Rana Library: part of the Rivera's original project inaugurated in 1964, a traditional and multidisciplinary space that has been beautifully remodelled. Plazuela Ruth: exterior space for cultural and social activities of various kinds. Dance and Movement: room for the development and learning of performing arts. The Mirador: an original and high place that offers a view of the main building of the Anahuacalli. Stone Forum: roofed outdoor space, in connection with volcanic stone. For activities that require reduced forum capacity. The Cube: a space with a minimalist, semi-open and multidisciplinary design, suitable for carrying out a variety of artistic activities. Creation: semi-open space for multiple uses, with a natural light entrance in a functionalist style. Experimentation: space equipped with water supply, for the development of artistic workshops and various events. Machines Forum: roofed outdoor space, in connection with the volcanic soil that is original to the place. Lola Forum: open-air space inserted in a green area, in dialogue with the vegetation that naturally emerges from the volcanic topography of El Pedregal. O’Gorman Warehouse: its modern and functional design enables it to safeguard all kinds of working materials, as well as for holding cultural and social events. Patio Las Moras: outside space. Patio Los Helechos: designed to enable the appreciation of the exuberant vegetation from the Ecological Space of the Anahuacalli Museum. Patio Palo Loco: open space, with an original, modern and poly-functional design. Located next to the visitor's entrance. Las Piedras: pre-existing exterior infrastructure that was transformed for multiple uses. Cultural activities The Anahuacalli Museum, in addition to housing the Diego Rivera's collection and sketches of his mural paintings, also offers a variety of workshops for diverse audiences. The workshops are for artistic, environmental and multidisciplinary training. The offer includes face-to-face and online courses in various disciplines, such as: · Urban photography · Watercolor and landscape · Drawing of pre-Hispanic pieces · Specialized herbalist · Traditional Mexican medicine · Urban gardens and plant care in Pedrega · Japanese flower art Kokedamas · Compost and mushroom cultivation · Etc. See also Frida Kahlo Museum Museo Mural Diego Rivera References External links Walkerphotographix.com: Photo Tour of the Anahuacalli Museum Recorridosvirtuales.com: Virtual 360° Tour of the Anahuacalli Museum Museums in Mexico City Mesoamerican art museums Coyoacán Archaeological museums in Mexico Art museums and galleries in Mexico History museums in Mexico Museums established in 1964 1964 establishments in Mexico
4786240	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%20Oldham%20riots	2001 Oldham riots	The Oldham riots were a brief period of violent rioting which occurred in Oldham, a town in Greater Manchester, England, in May 2001. They were ethnically-motivated riots and the worst riots in the United Kingdom since 1985 (the riots in 1985 were about the Poll Tax and were not ethnically motivated). The Oldham riots were the first of a series of major riots during summer 2001, which saw similar ethnic conflicts follow in Bradford, Leeds and Burnley. They followed a long period of ethnic tensions and attacks in Oldham, occurring particularly between groups of the local white and South Asian communities. The most violent rioting occurred in the Glodwick area of the town, a multi-ethnic district of Oldham and home to a large community of Pakistani people. Riots The racial riots took place throughout Oldham and a small part of neighbouring Chadderton, peaking on Saturday, 26 May 2001, and continuing on Sunday 27, and Monday, 28 May 2001. They were particularly intensive in Glodwick, an area to the south-east of Oldham town centre. They were highly violent and led to the use of petrol bombs, bricks, bottles and other such projectiles by up to five-hundred Asian youths as they battled against lines of riot police. At least 20 people were injured in the riots, including fifteen officers, and 37 people were arrested. Other parts of Oldham such as Coppice and Westwood were also involved. Asians - including those of Pakistani, Bangladeshi and Indian heritage - make up 11% of Oldham's population, but constitute around 2% of the workforce at the local council, the town's biggest employer. The rate of mixed race marriage in the town is less than 1%. Most Oldham primary schools are single race, and many secondaries are 99% white or 99% Asian. On Saturday 26 May, the Live and Let Live pub, which was occupied at the time, was pelted with bricks, stones and petrol bombs. Several cars were set ablaze including an occupied police van. Lines of riot police were drafted in to combat the spiralling violence. Several officers were injured, and 32 police vehicles were damaged, but despite the level of violence and arson, there were no fatalities. On 28 May 2001, the headquarters of the local newspaper, the Oldham Evening Chronicle, was attacked. A large group of Asian rioters threw a petrol bomb into the premises and smashed three plate-glass windows. Just weeks after the riots, the then Deputy-Mayor of Oldham, Riaz Ahmad, became a victim of arson when someone threw a petrol bomb at his house in Chadderton, setting it ablaze. Mr. Ahmad, his wife and four children were all in the house sleeping at the time, but all escaped without any injuries. The disturbances received extensive coverage from local, national and international media, including the BBC and other television networks and several tabloids and broadsheets. Causes The exact causes of the Oldham riots are widely disputed, with blame being placed and denied by various groups. What is understood is that the riots stemmed from multiple causes and incidents, both historic and short-term. Long-term causes Oldham was once a thriving town, a spearhead of the industrial revolution and was said to be the cotton spinning capital of the world, producing at its peak some 13% of the entire world's cotton. However, economically, Oldham was very much dependent on this single industry, and following a depression in the British cotton industry due to increased foreign competition and the events of the two world wars, manufacture, affluence and employment opportunities steadily declined in the town during the first half of the 20th century. As such, Oldham became a relatively impoverished town, inhabited by people with non-transferable skills outside of mill work. In an attempt to keep the industry and the town alive, cotton did however continue to be spun to compete with foreign competition right up until 1989. Although cotton was produced in lesser quantities, it was under increasingly anti-social conditions (night-shifts and harder working conditions) and requiring manpower which was not as readily available as before the Second World War. Because of this, after World War II ended, workers from the British Commonwealth were encouraged to migrate to Oldham, amongst other similarly industrialised English towns, to fill the shortfall of indigenous employees, and thus benefit from increased economic opportunity, albeit from tough unsociable employment regimes in a distinctly foreign land. These migrant groups, initially male Caribbeans and Pakistanis, but later Bangladeshi (then East Pakistani), Indian, Caribbean, and Pakistani families began to arrive in considerable numbers in the 1960s, settling throughout the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham. However, due to the comparatively poor circumstances with which they arrived in Britain, these migrants settled in concentrated neighborhoods, inhabiting the poorest of Oldham's then crumbling Victorian residential areas - most of which have since been redeveloped. As a prosperous thriving centre of the industrial revolution, Oldham had always been a town attracting migrants (from wider-England, Scotland, Ireland, and following the world wars, Poland and Ukraine). However, the South Asian communities which settled remained culturally very distinct from the local population, in dress, language, religion, customs and, pertinently, in ethnicity/colour, much more so than previous migrant groups. These factors contributed heavily to the foundations of Oldham's concentrated and sizeable Asian communities, which make up around 12% of the Borough's population, with Glodwick and more recently Clarksfield becoming a strong Pakistani community, and Westwood and Coldhurst likewise becoming home to a large Bangladeshi community. These communities became very marginalised within a town of poor education and hostile working-class ethics. Derogatory racist language was often used to describe the migrants who had arrived, who in turn kept their mother-tongue language and stayed as a close-knit cultural community. Inter-ethnic relationships, marital, friendly or otherwise, were seen as highly undesirable and very much frowned upon by both communities for several reasons, including not only ethnicity but religion. Several assumptions rose to mythical status in the town during the forty-year period between the first Asian migration and the Oldham Riots. Many Asians believed that areas such as Sholver, Abbeyhills, Limeside, and Fitton Hill were no-go areas for them in a similar way that the white community in Oldham feared attack should they be found in the vicinity of Glodwick, Clarkesfield and Westwood, and that the council was racist, holding back the socio-economic development of Asians. This was verified in the Ritchie report, where numerous instances of zones marked with whites-only graffiti were reported. The report notes, however, that no institutional decree to such an effect was issued. Many members of the white community believed that more council tax money was spent serving Asian needs, such as mosque building, in substitution for providing for white needs, although over the previous six years, the majority of regeneration grants had gone into white areas: Westwood and Glodwick received £16 million in 1995/96, whereas Hathershaw and Fitton Hill - predominantly white areas - received £53 million. This myth was tagged as wholly untrue in The Ritchie Report. Some minority sects of the Asian community believed that the police were behind the instigation of the Oldham riots, and some in the white community believed that the flag of England was being removed by councillors, in favour of celebrating Asian cultural identity. A review of the Oldham riots blamed deep-rooted segregation which authorities had failed to address for generations. Poverty and lack of opportunity was also blamed, with the Oldham wards of Alexandra, Werneth, Hollinwood and Coldhurst in the 5% most deprived in the country, in addition to a further three wards in the 10% most deprived wards overall. Mid-term causes In the year leading up to the riots, there were 572 reported ethnicity-related crimes in the Oldham area, and in 60% of these, white persons were recorded as being the victims. These figures alarmed both Asian and white communities, and led to the British National Party announcing it would contest the forthcoming general election, with its leader Nick Griffin to stand as a candidate for the constituency of Oldham West and Royton. The far-right National Front political party also announced its interest in the town, and the intent to provide its own candidates for election. According to a BBC investigation team, much of the violence seen in Oldham was caused by poverty, social disadvantage and a high percentage of young males in the Oldham area. The media, which had little interest in Oldham prior to the troubles, began a period of increased reporting from the area, with the local media such as the Oldham Evening Chronicle, and the Oldham Advertiser placing race-related stories on front page spreads. Prime Minister Tony Blair blamed the riots on the "bad and regressive motive of white extremists" and condemned the actions of the National Front and the British National Party in the Oldham area as inflammatory to the violence. Short term causes In the days and weeks before the riots, several violent and racist disturbances occurred in Oldham, which are attributed to provoking the riots. Glodwick, an area south-central to Oldham town had become increasingly ethnically polarised. The area which is predominantly home to people of Pakistani origin had been for many years a no-go area for local white people for fear of possible attacks, a problem highlighted by a Today report on BBC radio. Although this label was challenged by community leaders as a purely minority view, this negative reputation still held at least five years after the original disturbances. Similarly, areas of predominantly and polarised white inhabited areas had the same perception as no-go to members of the Asian community. This was increasing tensions, and had been covered on the BBC North West Tonight programme by social-affairs reporter Dave Guest. On 21 April 2001, a mugging and attack upon 76-year-old white World War II veteran Walter Chamberlain by three Asian youths was amongst the first major provocations which led to the riots. Chamberlain was approached as he walked to his home after watching a local amateur rugby league match. He was mugged and badly beaten, receiving fractured bones in the face amongst other injuries. His battered face appeared on the front of the Manchester Evening News, and the story spread to all the major national newspapers. In the Daily Mirror, his face appeared under the headline "Beaten for being white: OAP, 76, attacked in Asian no-go area". Media pundits began to speculate on the apparent transformation of young Asian males - from the stereotype of hard-working boys, who respected their parents, to the new stereotype of angry, violent thugs. An Asian male (a Mr. Fokrul Islam) was ultimately charged for the crime of racially aggravated grievous bodily harm on 1 October 2001, some time after the riots. Chamberlain and his family, in an attempt to try to calm tensions in the borough, stated at the time that the mugging was just that, and not at all racially motivated. "It was a violent assault on an elderly man", said Chamberlain's son Steven. "As a family we don't think it was a race issue at all." Following a long period of ethnic-tensions, and the attack upon Chamberlain, the far-right National Front political party applied to the council on 26 April for permission to march and demonstrate in Oldham on 5 May. Permission was denied, with a three-month ban on public procession in Oldham put in place, aimed at keeping order and preventing a further increase in ethnic-tensions. Several racist skirmishes occurred in the town, including visiting football supporters from Stoke City F.C., who deliberately walked through multi-racial areas of the town before and after the match. Attacks followed, initially from Stoke City fans, and then more serious retaliatory attacks and petrol bomb throwing from local male Bangladeshi groups. Following this, on 5 May 2001, there was a day of mounting tension and run-ins between racist and anti-racist groups in the town. Up to fifty National Front supporters, mainly from Birmingham and London arrived in the town, clashing with members of the Anti-Nazi League and local Asian groups. Five hundred police were deployed, and the events received extensive media coverage. In the week before the Oldham riots, a number of racist incidents occurred at Breeze Hill School near Glodwick. Several white youths, some of whom were ex-pupils, approached the school, throwing stones and projectiles at the premises, and hurling racist abuse at the majority Asian pupils. Police were called for five consecutive days from 21 May 2001 to dissipate the disturbances, which were reported by the local press. Immediate cause leading to riot One largely shared and corroborated view of the events which led up to the riots on Saturday 26 May 2001, were the following, based upon eye-witness accounts, media interviews and police evidence: At 8 p.m., a fight occurred between one Asian youth and one white youth near the Good Taste chip shop on the corner of Salford Street and Roundthorn Road in Glodwick. The fight, which was witnessed, and included racist language from both sides is said to have ended abruptly, but led to the hasty gathering of a gang of white youths assembled via mobile phone. Following this earlier fight between the two youths, further violence erupted as a gang of white men attacked an Asian business and threw a projectile through a window of a house in the Glodwick area, where a heavily pregnant Asian woman was in residence. Violence spiralled from this group as they rampaged through Glodwick attacking a number of persons and properties. Retaliatory violence soon followed, as large gangs of Asian men gathered and began to rally. Some of the earlier (but by then dissipating) group of white men were found and attacked. Further to this, a number of cars and commercial windows were also smashed in retaliation. The (white-owned) Live and Let Live pub was targeted and pelted with bricks, stones, bottles, and then petrol bombs. Cars were driven to block the fire exits, in an attempt to stop the patrons from escaping the flames, whilst vehicles in the surrounding roads were ignited, and police were called. Police officers were pelted by groups of Asian males. A night of violence began, and riot police were quickly drafted in to the Glodwick area, rife with both Pakistani and Bangladeshi rioters. It is understood that both the Asian and white communities were furious with the recent events in the town. Asians were angry with media coverage and police handling of the various incidents, and this may have intensified the riot. Ritchie Report The Ritchie Report was a major review both of the Oldham Riots and the inter-ethnic problems that had long existed in the town. It was commissioned by the government, the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham and the local police authority. It was named after David Ritchie, Chairman of the Oldham Independent Review. The report, published on 11 December 2001, was a 102-page document, addressed to the people of Oldham and was the sum total of much evidence gathering, including the interviewing of some 915 people and over 200 group meetings with local residents and governmental bodies. The Ritchie Report largely blamed deep-rooted segregation, which authorities had failed to address for generations, as the cause of the Oldham Riots and its prior and subsequent inter-ethnic problems. It warned: "Segregation, albeit self-segregation, is an unacceptable basis for a harmonious community and it will lead to more serious problems if it is not tackled". Sentencing On 12 June 2003, 10 people were all jailed for nine months each after being convicted of their part in the rioting. They were; Darren Hoy (aged 27 and from Fitton Hill district of the town), his sister Sharon Hoy (aged 38 and from the Raper Street neighbourhood), their cousin Matthew Berry (aged 25 and from the Limedale district of the town), James Clift (aged 24 and from Chadderton), Mark Priest (aged 32 and from Glossop in Derbyshire), Alan Daley (aged 38 and from Failsworth), David Bourne (aged 35 and from Limeside), Steven Rhodes (aged 30 and from the Medway Road neighbourhood), Paul Brockway (aged 39 and from Blackley) and 22-year-old Failsworth man Stephen Walsh. A 16-year-old boy and a 17-year-old girl were also convicted of involvement in the riot but avoided prison sentences, instead receiving a supervision order and conditional discharge, respectively. Judge Jonathan Geake noted that none of the defendants were responsible for the rioting, and had directed the jury to clear the defendants of the charge of riot, before all 12 pleaded guilty to either affray or common assault. The Cantle Report The Cantle Report was published coincidentally with the Ritchie Report in 2001 and was produced by an Independent Review Team appointed by the Home Secretary. The Team considered all of the disturbances in northern English towns, and created the concept of 'parallel lives' to describe the deep-seated segregation in the areas reviewed. It was not specific to Oldham and made recommendations for national and local government. Subsequently, Ted Cantle led a team from the Institute of Community Cohesion (now Foundation) to review the progress made since 2001. This 64-page Review was published on 25 May 2006, the eve of the fifth anniversary of the Oldham riots. It was commissioned by Oldham Metropolitan Borough Council to independently review the town'a progress in its efforts to achieve racial harmony and community cohesion. The report praised the council and town for its considerable progress and efforts, but said much more needed to be achieved, given Oldham's projected increase in ethnic diversity in the decades ahead. According to the report, the review teams were "struck by the extent to which divisions within and polarisation between Oldham's many communities continue to be a feature of social relations and the seeming reluctance of many sections of the community to embrace positive change". The report broadly had three messages: "few cities, towns or districts in other parts of the country have done as much as Oldham in seeking to build community cohesion. In short, Oldham has every right to be proud of its record to date." "Segregation and divisions between Oldham's communities is still deeply entrenched." "If you want to change a community, the community must want to change." In interviews with both the Oldham Evening Chronicle and BBC Radio, Cantle accused some community leaders of hindering progress because they were worried about losing their political influence. "We did find that a number of the communities, and particularly the community leaders were unwilling to get out of their comfort zones and that's a really big issue now". Legacy and impact The legacy of the riots is broad and still in motion, but has seen increased ethnic-relations and some community-amenity improvements in the town, including the creation of a new Oldham Cultural Quarter (which includes the state-of-the-art Gallery Oldham and Oldham Library), and a number of proposed improvements and investments for the community facilities of the area. The community facilities currently available in Oldham have been heavily criticised; however, as of 2016 a new ODEON cinema has been constructed in the town. Some of the bodies and reports which proposed new community and amenity improvements included, Oldham Beyond (April 2004), Forward Together (October 2004), and The Heart of Oldham (May 2004). Several men, mainly of Bangladeshi heritage were ultimately arrested and charged in connection to the riots. Immediately after the Oldham Riots, the British National Party received an increase in the share of votes in both local and general elections; however, they have not won a seat to represent any part of the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham in the House of Commons or the Oldham Metropolitan Borough Council. In the 2006 local elections, the BNP's share of votes decreased markedly, which was highlighted in The Cantle Report during the same year. See also 2001 Bradford riots British National Party Harehills Riot History of Oldham List of riots Moral panic Ethnic violence Race riot Riot control Social cohesion References Oldham race riots Oldham race riots British Pakistani history Crime in Greater Manchester History of the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham Race riots in England 2000s in Greater Manchester May 2001 events in the United Kingdom
4786345	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montevideo%20Wanderers%20F.C.	Montevideo Wanderers F.C.	Montevideo Wanderers Fútbol Club, usually known simply as Wanderers, is a Uruguayan professional football club based in Montevideo. The club are currently members of the Primera División and play at the Estadio Viera. Beside football, the club also has teams playing basketball, volleyball, athletics, futsal, pool and pelota. History Origin 1898 - 1931 The Montevideo Wanderers was founded in the end of the 19th century, made up of a group of idealistic young people who wanted to express their sporting principles in a club where they were truly the protagonists of their own decisions. Led by the Sardeson brothers, the community quickly became a well-known group in their neighborhood of origin, El Prado. Its name was born as a result of a trip by Enrique Sardeson and Juan Sardeson to England. In England at that time The Wanderers were a prominent team, although it was not the only Club with that name playing in the English tournament, since it coexisted with Wolverhampton Wanderers, an institution that currently plays in the Premier League. The local League did not yet exist, so the team's competition was summed up to simple friendly matches. Most of the members of Wanderers played at the same time for the Albión Football Club, an entity that was the founder of the current Uruguayan Football Association, participating since the first Uruguayan tournament organized by it. Differences fundamentally in the sports field led this group of young people led by the Sardeson brothers to found the Montevideo Wanderers Football Club with all the legal and administrative requirements on the afternoon of August 15, 1902 in the Almacén y Bar de la calle 19 de Abril. at the current intersection of the same street and Adolfo Berro. The representative emblems of the wanderista team were a blue and white shirt with thin vertical stripes, white pants, and black socks. Its first president was Mr Juan Sardeson. Birth of the professional era 1932 - 1951 With the advent of professionalism, a new stage was born in Uruguayan football. In 1932 the Uruguayan Championship was disputed by ten institutions, one of which was Montevideo Wanderers. In that year Wanderers obtained the fifth position losing vanguard positions in the last dates. A year later, they inaugurated the Wanderers Park, on October 15, with a victory over Bella Vista by 2-0, a match corresponding to the Uruguayan Championship, a scenario where the bohemians are currently tenants. In 1934 Wanderers is the first non-traditional club to play a final for an official tournament. They play against Nacional the final of the tournament falling defeated by 3-0. In those years the Uruguayan tournaments were played in three stages. Wanderers was a true protagonist at the dawn of professionalism in those first years of the rented era of our football, Wanderers almost always topped the table with Nacional and Peñarol in the official tournaments. They were third in the Uruguayan championships of 1934, 1935, 1937, 1939, 1940 and 1942. In 1937 Montevideo Wanderers is notable Champion of the Uruguayan Honor Tournament by defeating Nacional by 3-0, the bohemians were the third team behind albos(National) and mirasoles(Peñarol) to obtain an official First Division tournament. The great Obdulio Varela in Wanderers debuted in 1938 and played for five seasons with the albinegro where he demonstrated his category for the great events. He exhibited his great vigor in the midfield and was a specialist in the execution of penalty shots. In 1939 the Bohemians are vice champions of the Uruguayan Honor Championship. In 1942, three dates from the end of the Uruguayan Championship, disputing the title inch by inch with the two classic banners. The wanderista team finished third in the tournament. By 1943, already distant, the great captain obtained fourth place in the local tournament, an event that would be repeated a year later. In the middle of that decade, for the first time, the bohemians are located at the bottom of the table of the Uruguayan tournament. As much as the Albinegros leaders hire experienced figures from Argentina, they cannot bring the team back to the top positions of other years. In 1950 the Bohemians finished in the last positions in the table with Club Atlético Bella Vista. The Association set tiebreakers to see which team remained in the top division and who was relegated. The first final marked the papal(Bella Vista) victory by 2-1, the second resulted in a victory for Wanderers by 1-0 and the third tied at two. For the time being, and since the institutions did not agree on the setting of a fourth game, it was decided that who should determine the relegation of that season was a draw. So it was. Luck accompanied the bohemian team and Bella Vista had to descend to Second Division. The bohemians must play for the first time in the promotion division After the meager results of the Competition and the first round of the Uruguayan championship, the wanderista board decided to hire a large number of Argentine players, including their top scorer of those years, Eduardo Ricagni. Although the performance clearly improved, it could not avoid relegation by one point to the Second Division. Promotions and Relegations 1952 - 1972 Back to 1952 when Montevideo Wanderers turned fifty years old, it had to be a member of the Second Division of our football for the first time. Hard time in the life of the bohemian institution. Some players from the previous season's squad remained, others joined and certain players who had announced their retirement reconsidered their decision. The most important example was that of José María Medina, a great scorer who stayed for another year so that the team he loved would return to the top division. In addition, the return of the great goalkeeper Juan Bautista Besuzzo who had also made the decision to retire was highlighted. After a great campaign, the Bohemians obtained the title of Uruguayan Champion, immediately returning to the First Division. In 1953 the Bohemians fulfilled a commendable performance in the Uruguayan Tournament fulfilling the objective of remaining in the category, a fact that was repeated in the following campaign. In both seasons, center forward Oscar Chelle stood out, who with his goals made it possible to win points for the Albinegro team. When the middle of the decade was reached, the albinegros returned to the top positions in national football. In 1956 the club obtained the fourth place in the competition tournament and fifth in the Uruguayan tournament. The 1957 Championship Competition marked the Wanderers' return to the definition of an official tournament. In the absence of a date, the Bohemians were even with Peñarol. On the last date the wanderers faced Racing in Parque Viera. The Bohemians displayed their best football but could not break the great albiverde defense ending the match tied 0-0. Meanwhile Peñarol easily defeated his rival obtaining the title. Months later, the Bohemians took their revenge by beating Racing by 4-0 away from home, condemning them to relegation to the second category. In 1958, one of the most colorful players in all of Bohemian history, Julio Toja, began to form part of the team. In those years he was part of a great wandering front line made up of Rumbo, Nario, Guaglianone (scorer in the 1959 Uruguayan Championship), him and De León. That year Wanderers finished in fifth place in the Uruguayan table, the same position it held in the 1959 and 1960 seasons. In 1961 there were several changes in the albinegra institution. He even completely modifies his uniform. Leaving the classic dress for years of thick black and white vertical stripes, black pants and gray socks for a uniform with thin black and white vertical stripes, white pants and white socks. It was an irregular year for the bohemian. They finished at the bottom of the table, defining relegation with Centro Atlético Fénix who won the finals by 4-0 and 3-2. Triumphant return to First Division, 1962. He immediately returned Wanderers to the circle of privilege. It obtained the Championship of the Second Division in a broad and deserved way. A team with experience and youth was formed. The international Walter Taibo on goal, the Brazilian Beico and Nelson Diaz at the back, Hermin, Poy Moreira in the midfield, Castelnoble, the intercontinental champion Ledesma, Guaglianone, Ferreri and De León up front. It was a great team. Returning to division A, the performance of the first team was brilliant. Third in the 1963 and 1964 seasons, having memorable afternoons at the Centenario Stadium against the greats. The team in those two campaigns does not suffer major changes. He lined up Taibo, Beico, Diaz, Hermin, Poy, Cámera, Castelnoble, Ledesma or Bertochi, Guaglianone or Flores, Toja and Ferreri. In addition, Wandererses was the club that brought the most public to the fields after Nacional and Peñarol in those years. In 1965 the campaign in the local tournament was very poor. He finished penultimate. For 1966 a new descent system was created. For the first time the score was accumulated of the Uruguayan Tournament of the previous year. Good campaigns but without promotion 1967-1968. He fights for promotion in both Tournaments. In 1968, they remained first until the last date, but lost 1-0 with Bella Vista in a very controversial match, relegating the Bohemian team to third place. In 1969 the Albinegro team experienced its worst crisis. With great economic and therefore sports limitations, he faced the season culminating in sixth place. In 1970 he improves the position finishing fourth. In that season, one of the best goalkeepers in the history of Wanderers made his debut, Miguel Ortiz, who joined from Argentina. During those years, Mateo Giri became president of the club. With him, Wanderers recovered, local prominence and international prestige. In 1971 and 1972 Wanderers formed a strong team that made it return to the first division. The Bohemians settled in Las Piedras and in that city after beating Racing by 1-0 with a goal by Aníbal Alves, they returned to the First Division at the end of the last named season. Entertainer again in the Primera 1973 - 1991 In 1973, with the aim of remaining in the first division, a seasoned team was formed with a truly insurmountable defense. The Albinegros once again obtained points at the Centenario Stadium against Nacional, Peñarol and showed at all times the mettle necessary to achieve the objective set at the beginning of the season. Finally, he finished in an acceptable position, saving himself from any relegation commitment. In 1974-1975 Wanderers again got into the big story. Qualified for the first time to the Copa Libertadores. After an acceptable Uruguayan Championship and a great Olympic Champions Tournament, the bohemians earned the right to participate in the first edition of the Pre-Libertadores de América league. The Albinegros began their campaign with a defeat against Danubio by 2-1. Later on the second date he fell again this time against Peñarol by 2-0. He recovered on the third date beating Cerro in Belvedere by 5-3. They later beat Liverpool 3-2. That made it possible for the bohemian who, with a victory against Nacional on the last date, would enter the Copa Libertadores for the first time. On January 28, 1975 Wanderers wrote another page of glory by defeating Nacional 2-1 with a goal by Washington Olivera in the last minute of stoppage time. On March 14, 1975, Wanderers won their first victory in the Copa Libertadores by beating Unión Huaral 4-0 with two goals from Manuel Sierra and two from Héctor de los Santos. Although the Bohemians did not pass the series (a time when only the Group winners qualified), they left high the prestige of the rich history of the Prado institution. In 1976 he returned to the top places in local tournaments.He qualified third in the Major League, fifth in the Uruguayan and fourth in the Liguilla Pre Libertadores when with two dates to go he was first and undefeated. The pointers Richard Forlán and Washington Olivera stood out, considered by the press and the fans as the best of the local season in their positions.Undefeated Champion of the Capital-Interior integration. Protagonist in Uruguayan soccer. In 1977 he won the title, defeating Peñarol twice, among others, both by 2-1. He placed sixth in the Uruguayan Championship and third in the Liguilla. On the penultimate date, they drew 0-0 with Danubio where a goal against Wanderers converted by Olivera was annulled and it was never known why. He fell in the last match against Peñarol when the tie assured the bohemian the first position. In 1978 he recovered the fifth position in the Uruguayan Tournament, the center forward Alfredo Arias was a great figure. For the Major League Wanderers thrashed Peñarol at the Franzini with all their figures by 4-0 on a freezing afternoon where there was even hail. He entered fifth in the Liguilla. When 1979 arrived, there was an important replacement of payers in the first team. Jorge Walter Barrios, from Pedreña, made his debut and established himself as the starter. On October 17, 1979, in an inspired night, Wanderers overwhelmed Nacional by Uruguayan 5-1 with two goals from Yanes, one from Pizzani from a penalty, another from Krasouski and the last from Estavillo in a fierce counterattack. Uruguayan Vice Champion in 1980.With the team that was the base of the third division champion plus the players that remained from previous years, Wanderers had a brilliant season where they became Uruguayan vice-champion, being only surpassed by the National Football Club, in that season champion of America and the World. In the Liguilla he lost the classification to the Copa Libertadores in an incredible match with Bella Vista. In 1981 he finished third in the Uruguayan placement behind Peñarol and Nacional. He was fifth in the Liguilla. The following season, the bohemians managed to put together a highly balanced team and as a fair reward they won the vice championship in the Pre-Liguilla Libertadores de América after beating Defensor on penalties 5-2. In 1983, Enzo Francescoli said goodbye to the Albinegro team, emigrating to Argentina. In the Copa Libertadores Wanderers carried out a brilliant performance finishing seventh in the table, being their best participation in the history of said tournament. In 1984 the Bohemians finished sixth in the Uruguayan in an acceptable season. 1985 Uruguayan vice-champion again. For the third time in La Libertadores. Under the technical direction of Óscar Tabárez Wanderers won second place in the Uruguayan Championship behind Peñarol. The bohemians usually lined up Otero, Rebollo, Madrid, Diaz, Peña, Delgado Peletti, Sergio González, Noé, Báez, Bengoechea. It qualified for the Copa Libertadores de América for the third time. It also won the Uruguayan Third Division Championship. In a disputed final in 1986 against Central Español Wanderers, he is again Champion of an official First Division Tournament, a championship that was named after the National Commission of Physical Education. In the Copa Libertadores, they failed to get through the first phase, culminating in second place in the group behind River Plate from Argentina, who would ultimately be Champion of America that year. In one of the best seasons of its rich history in 1987, Wanderers reached the title of Champion in the Competition Championship and in the Pre-Liberator League of America, being about to obtain all the contests since in the Uruguayan with only three dates remaining, it still had the possibility of obtaining the title. In the final of the Liguilla he lined up Otero, F.González, Madrid, Sanguinetti, Peña, Delgado, Peletti, Berger, Báez, Noé and Di Pascua. In the decisive match, they defeated Nacional 1-0 with a goal by Di Pascua. He was also crowned Champion of the Uruguayan Third Division Championship. It was directed throughout the season by Gregorio Pérez. In 1988 his participation was irregular, he defeated Millonarios de Colombia and played equal matches with Nacional de Montevideo Champion of America that year. He repeated the title of Uruguayan Champion of the Third Division. In the following year the albinegros are vice-champions of the Competition Championship beating Peñarol by 2-1 in the Viera Park with notable work by Walter Pelletti. In the final round the Albinegros in 1990 one week defeated Nacional and Peñarol 3-2 and 1-0 respectively. He repeatedly formed with Sosa, F.González, Barón, Díaz, Juan Carlos Paz, Romero, Adomaitis, Daniel Fernández, Barboza, Leivas, Di Pascua. In 1991 he finished third in the Uruguayan Championship in the second round with the return of Walter Peletti and Jorge Barrios. Libertadores and Sudamericana 1992 - 2015 After a great decade such as the eighties and a great start in the nineties, Wanderers marked an acceptable performance in official competitions in the following seasons. In the last vestige of the generation of the eighties, in 1992 Wanderers lost in the last match of the Uruguayan Championship when they tied with Racing in Parque Viera for the classification to the Pre-Liguilla Libertadores de América. Both in that season and in 1993 with the return of Jorge Barrios to the institution, the Bohemians had great performances at the Centenario Stadium, preferably against Peñarol, where they won resounding victories. Wanderers about to win the 1994 Torneo Clausura title. For the first time the activity of the Uruguayan was divided into Opening-Closing Tournaments and Annual Table. With the scoring appearance of the Argentine Juan Carlos Juarez, plus the contributions of the good strikers Javier Barragán and Juan Ravera, with the value of the indefatigable Jorge Barrios and the solvency of Alejandro Barón in the rear, the albinegros with three dates left were in a hand in hand with Peñarol to define the Clausura. But a very bad ending determined that he was relegated to third place in said Championship and fifth place in the Annual table. For this reason, he had to participate in the Integration Tournament to qualify for the Pre-Liberator Liguilla, a fact that did not occur due to a bad auction of the Championship. In 1995 Wanderers returned to the Liguilla Pre Libertadores. Due to a great performance in the Opening Tournament and an acceptable Closing Tournament, the bohemians qualified after several years for the Pre Libertadores Playoffs. In the first part of the year, Pablo Correa and Juan Ravera stood out on the offensive side, Juan Amondarain and Jorge Barrios in the middle, and Carlos Martínez, a defender with a great career, at defense. In the second part of the year, Darío Delgado stood out as a polyfunctional defender and scorer. The gradual decline, 1996-1997. The appearance in Wanderers of Mauro Camoranesi. In the 1996 season the wanderers experienced hours of anguish. Until the last dates he fought to avoid relegation. He tied with nine players against Cerro, defeated Peñarol and Nacional remaining in the division. Paraguayan Duarte stood out with his important goals. In 1997, a great player appeared who would later gain world fame, being several times Champion in Italian soccer and was even World Champion with the Italy, Mauro Camonaressi. Among his great contributions we find a great goal to Rampla in the Olympic defining from area to area. The bohemians at the end of the Uruguayan Championship finished in seventh position. Descent and drama 1998. After a great Apertura where he finished fifth with River Plate, he was followed by a lousy Clausura where he finished last without any wins, three draws and eight losses. He was relegated after almost thirty years of his return to the First Division. Disappointment in Second Division 1999. The Albinegros hired a large number of experienced players in order to obtain a quick return to the highest division of our football. But these figures failed culminating the team wanderista seventh, its worst position in its history. Second Grand Champion, 2000. The retirement of Jorge Barrios. Under the direction of former bohemian player José Daniel Carreño, the Albinegros returned to the circle of privilege after a great campaign. The team preferably lined up Nanni, Claudio Dadómo, Julio Ramirez, Santiago Ostolaza, Bonilla, Ronald Ramirez, Machado, Sebastián Eguren, Larrea, Bengua, De Souza. He secured the title with a victory at Parque Viera against Salus by 2-0 with goals from Alejandro Larrea. For the second time Undefeated Champion of the Liguilla, 2001. After a great Qualifying Tournament and beating Central in a draw, Wanderers qualified for the Liguilla where they deservedly won the title after beating Fénix 4-1, drawing with Defensor one to one and overwhelming Danubio in the final. for 3-0. In the decisive match he lined up Nanni, Scotti – Julio Ramirez – Curbelo – Dadomo, Ronald Ramirez – Eguren – Machado – Sergio Blanco – Guglielmone – Julio de Souza. Again in the Copa Libertadores, 2002. For the first time in its history, the Prado club qualified for the second phase of the tournament. He was eliminated on penalties in a vibrant definition against Club Atlético Peñarol. Great performance Opening Tournament 2003. Under the technical direction of Jorge Barrios, the Prado team finished in the top positions of the 2003 Opening Tournament. It did not repeat in the Closing. In any case, he qualified for the Liguilla where he had an irregular performance. Again in the league 2004. He participated in the Liguilla without major significance. The year 2005 passes without major relevant events. In 2005, the dispute system of the Uruguayan Championships was modified, resembling the European system, that is, from June to June of each year. In the 2005/2006 Uruguayan Tournament, more precisely on June 14, 2006, Wanderers thrashed Peñarol by five to one after being at a disadvantage with three goals from Aliberti, one from Chaves and another from Dadomo. Great Uruguayan Championship 2006/2007. Once again they qualified for the Copa Libertadores. First under the technical direction of Daniel Carreño where the team was the leader of the Opening Tournament for several dates and then with the technical direction of Diego Aguirre the Albinegro team was a true protagonist of it. Year 2009-2012. Good performances in official tournaments. In recent seasons, the Bohemians have achieved a sporting regularity that places them preferentially in the advanced positions in the Uruguayan Tournaments. It is worth noting the victory over Nacional on October 17, 2009 for the Uruguayan Championship by 4-0. Today a prosperous future awaits him, waiting for the partial bohemians to live days of glory as marked by its rich history. With Alfredo Arias as Technical Director and a great performance by Maxi Rodríguez, Wanderers finished the championship 6th and qualified for the Copa Sudamericana for the first time in its history. In the first phase of the Copa Sudamericana, Bohemio faced Libertad from Paraguay. Being eliminated, after losing in the first leg in Montevideo by 1 to 2 and the second leg in Paraguay by 0-0. In 2014, Wanderers is crowned Champion of the Closing Tournament. Under the leadership of Alfredo Arias, El Bohemio achieved this historic championship on the last date, after beating El Tanque Sisley 1-0. Montevideo Wanderers win the Clausura and the Annual Table, with the goal converted in Florida by Maximiliano Olivera. After a series of matches with Danubio, the Bohemian loses the Uruguayan Championship on penalties, in the Central Park. Libertadores Cup in 2015. The role of Montevideo Wanderers in the international arena was very prominent. Qualifying for the Eighth finals of the Libertadores, after finishing second in the group stage with: Boca Juniors, Palestino and Zamora F.C. In the Round of 16, Bohemio was eliminated against Racing de Avellaneda, drawing 1-1 in the first leg in Montevideo with a goal from Matías Santos. Defining the series in Argentina, falling 2 to 1 with the local. In Wanderers, Maxi Olivera converted from a free kick. In the local tournament, the Bohemian did not have a great performance, without qualifying for international cups. Continuing international course 2016 - present In the 2015-2016 season with Gastón Machado as technical director, the team is establishing itself in the championship. Wanderers finished 5th in the Annual Table, qualifying for the Copa Sudamericana for the second time. Gastón Rodríguez finished as Top Scorer in the Clausura Tournament with 16 goals and in the Uruguayan Tournament with 19 goals. In the 2017 El Bohemio finishes the Uruguayan Championship 4th, qualifying for the first phase of the Copa Conmebol Libertadores. Wanderers again have the top scorer of the Championship. Cristian Palacios with 29 goals (19 converted with the Bohemio shirt). Sergio Blanco becomes the Club's all-time top scorer with 105 goals. Year 2018. Wanderers again participating in International Cups, faces Olimpia from Paraguay for the first Phase of the Cup. Losing 0-2 on aggregate and being eliminated. After an irregular year in the local championship, Wanderers achieved a good Closing Tournament, finishing in third place. El Bohemio made sure to qualify for an International Cup for the fifth time in a row. Copa Sudamericana 2019 – Round of 16. Wanderers is participating in the Copa Sudamericana for the third time, achieving its best classification in this international competition. For the first time the Bohemian participates in an international cup in the Parque Viera. In the first phase, Bohemio eliminated Sport Huancayo from Peru, 3-1 on aggregate. And in the second phase of the Cup, they had to face a Uruguayan rival: Cerro. In the first leg it was a 0-0 tie, winning the return leg 1-0 with a goal from Rodrigo Pastorini. The Bohemian was eliminated in the Round of 16, by the powerful Brazilian Corinthians. It was not a good year for Bohemio in the local tournament, undergoing changes in the technical direction. Part of the championship was directed by Román Cuello (training coach of the Club) and then Alfredo Arias returned for the Closing Championship. After 5 consecutive years participating in International Cups, Wanderers fails to enter the cup zone. Year 2020 – present. In a very special year due to COVID-19, the Opening Tournament was resumed in mid-August. After a promising start, Mauricio Larriera's team had a string of losing games. This caused him to return to the Club of his loves, Daniel Carreño. Stadium The club had more than four home grounds during its first 30 years, including Liverpool's current stadium, Estadio Belvedere. Its current home stadium is Estadio Viera located in the Prado neighbourhood of Montevideo. The Alfredo Víctor Viera Stadium is the stadium of the Wanderers, a Uruguayan football club that plays in the First Division. It was inaugurated on October 15, 1933 as Wanderers Park, at first it had a capacity for 9,500 spectators but after several reforms its capacity remained at 10,000 spectators. However, it does not have adequate capacity to receive international championship matches, such as the Copa Libertadores or Copa Sudamericana, so Wanderers use the Centenario Stadium, since it is municipal property. There is a curious situation in the Prado de Montevideo, since separated by a few meters there are three relevant soccer venues, almost glued to each other: Parque Saroldi (by River Plate), Parque Viera (by Wanderers) and the Estadio José Nasazzi Park (of Bella Vista). Honours Senior titles Other titles Titles won in lower divisions: Current squad Coaching staff Source: Montevideo Wanderers Managers since 1985 Updated on 22 May 2022 Óscar Tabárez (Jan 1, 1985 – Dec 31, 1985) Gregorio Pérez (Jan 1, 1987 – Dec 31, 1987) Daniel Carreño (July 1, 1999 – June 30, 2001) Santiago Ostolaza (Jan 1, 2002 – May 20, 2002) Daniel Carreño (Jan 1, 2005 – Dec 31, 2006) Diego Aguirre (Jan 1, 2007 – June 11, 2007) Jorge Miguel Goncalves (July 1, 2007 – April 15, 2008) Salvador Capitano (Jan 1, 2009 – Dec 31, 2009) José Alberto Rossi (Dec 16, 2009 – March 15, 2010) Daniel Carreño (March 3, 2010 – Dec 31, 2011) Alfredo Arias (Jan 1, 2012 – Jun 13, 2015) Gastón Machado (Jul 1, 2015 – Dec 31, 2016) Jorge Giordano (Jan 1, 2017 – Dec 31, 2017) Eduardo Espinel (Jan 1, 2018 – Dec 31, 2018) Román Cuello (Jan 1, 2019 – Sep 1, 2019) Alfredo Arias (Sep 2, 2019 – Dec 31, 2019) Mauricio Larriera (Jan 1, 2020 – Oct 12, 2020) José Daniel Carreño (Oct 12, 2020 – ) Records and statistics Updated on 22 May 2022 Player records Club personnel Updated on 22 May 2022 Board of Directors President: Gabriel Blanco Vise President: Jorge Perazzo Secretary: Jorge Cruces Pro Secretary: Santiago Cassarino, Francisco Nopitsch Treasurer: Diego Perazzo Board Member: Daniel Supervielle, Jorge Nin, Marcelo Liard, Jorge Barrios, José Nuñez Tax commission Physical: Luis Abud, Juan Pablo Paradiso, Jorge Carve Work commission Contract commission: Diego Perazzo, Sebastián García, Gabriel Blanco Formative Divisions Commission: Jorge Cruces, Francisco Terra, Rodrigo Alonso, Jorge Barrios Marketing Commission: Carlos Ham, Germán Barcala, Enzo Bossano, Francisco Nopitsch Works commission: Carlos Ham, Humberto Ceretta, Agustín Nopitsch, Jorge Barrios Social commission: Fernando González, Daniel Supervielle AUF delegates: Carlos Ham, Gastón Inda, Fernando Nopitsch Press secretary: Gonzalo Duarte Internal relationship commission: Gabriel Tapia, Alejandro Chans, Sebastián Rubino AUFI support commission: Natalia Plavan, Rodrigo Alonso, Jorge Barrios Women's Football commission: Natalia Plavan Fan liaison officer: Daniel Cabrera Security officer: Marcelo Liard, Juan Pablo Paradiso Staff General manager: Sebastián Garcia Sports Manager: Mauricio Nanni Training Divisions Coordinator: Santiago Ostolaza Accounting assistant: Diego Boggio Management: Leandro Mariño, Martina González Photography: Fernando Romero Graphic design: Ramón Davila Source: Montevideo Wanderers F.C. Notes References External links Football clubs in Uruguay Association football clubs established in 1902 1902 establishments in Uruguay Montevideo Wanderers
4786873	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatment%20of%20mental%20disorders	Treatment of mental disorders	Mental disorders are classified as a psychological condition marked primarily by sufficient disorganization of personality, mind, and emotions to seriously impair the normal psychological and often social functioning of the individual. Individuals diagnosed with certain mental disorders can be unable to function normally in society. Mental disorders may consist of several affective, behavioral, cognitive and perceptual components. The acknowledgement and understanding of mental health conditions has changed over time and across cultures. There are still variations in the definition, classification, and treatment of mental disorders. History Treatments, as well as societies attitudes towards mental illnesses have substantially changed throughout the years. Many earlier treatments for mental illness were later deemed as ineffective as well dangerous. Some of these earlier treatments included trephination and bloodletting. Trephination was when a small hole was drilled into a person's skull to let out demons, as that was an earlier belief for mental disorders. Bloodletting is when a certain amount of blood was drained out of a person, due to the belief that chemical imbalances resulted in mental disorders. A more scientific reason behind mental disorders but both treatments were dangerous and ineffective nevertheless. During the 17th century however, many people with mental disorders were just locked away in institutions due to lack of knowledgeable treatment. Mental institutions became the main treatment for a long period of time. But though years of research, studies, and medical developments, many current treatments are now effective and safe for patients. Early glimpses of treatment of mental illness included dunking in cold water by Samuel Willard (physician), who reportedly established the first American hospital for mental illness. The history of treatment of mental disorders consists in a development through years mainly in both psychotherapy (Cognitive therapy, Behavior therapy, Group Therapy, and ECT) and psychopharmacology (drugs used in mental disorders). Different perspectives on the causes of psychological disorders arose. Some believed that stated that psychological disorders are caused by specific abnormalities of the brain and nervous system and that is, in principle, they should be approached for treatments in the same way as physical illness (arose from Hippocrates's ideas). Psychotherapy is a relatively new method used in treatment of mental disorders. The practice of individual psychotherapy as a treatment of mental disorders is about 100 years old. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was the first one to introduce this concept in psychoanalysis. Cognitive behavioral therapy is a more recent therapy that was founded in the 1960s by Aaron T. Beck, an American psychiatrist. It is a more systematic and structured part of psychotherapy. It consist in helping the patient learn effective ways to overcome their problems and difficulties that causes them distress. Behavior therapy has its roots in experimental psychology. E.L. Thorndike and B.F. Skinner were among the first to work on behavior therapy. Convulsive therapy was introduced by Ladislas Meduna in 1934. He induced seizures through a series of injections, as a means to attempt to treat schizophrenia. Meanwhile, in Italy, Ugo Cerletti substituted injections with electricity. Because of this substitution the new theory was called electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Beside psychotherapy, a wide range of medication is used in the treatment of mental disorders. The first drugs used for this purpose were extracted from plants with psychoactive properties. Louis Lewin, in 1924, was the first one to introduce a classification of drugs and plants that had properties of this kind. The history of the medications used in mental disorders has developed a lot through years. The discovery of modern drugs prevailed during the 20th century. Lithium, a mood stabilizer, was discovered as a treatment of mania, by John F. Cade in 1949, "and Hammond (1871) used lithium bromide for 'acute mania with depression'". In 1937, Daniel Bovet and Anne-Marie Staub discovered the first antihistamine. In 1951 Paul Charpentier synthesized chlorpromazine an antipsychotic. Influences There are numbers of practitioners who have influenced the treatment of modern mental disorders. During the 18th century in Philippe Pinel a French physician helped/advocated for better treatment of patients with mental disorders. Similar to Pinel Benjamin Rush, a Philadelphian physician believed patients just needed time away from the stresses of modern life. Which he believed was the cause of mental disorders to develop. Benjamin Rush(1746–1813) was considered the Father of American Psychiatry for his many works and studies in the mental health field. He tried to classify different types of mental disorders, he theorized about their causes, and tried to find possible cures for them. Rush believed that mental disorders were caused by poor blood circulation, though he was wrong. He also described Savant Syndrome and had an approach to addictions. Other important early psychiatrists include George Parkman, Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., George Zeller, Carl Jung, Leo Kanner, and Peter Breggin. George Parkman (1790–1849) got his medical degree at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland. He was influenced by Benjamin Rush, who inspired him to take interest in the state asylums. He trained at the Parisian Asylum. Parkman wrote several papers on treatment for the mentally ill. Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.(1809–1894) was an American Physician who wrote many famous writings on medical treatments. George Zeller (1858–1938) was famous for his way of treating the mentally ill. He believed they should be treated like people and did so in a caring manner. He banned narcotics, mechanical restraints, and imprisonment while he was in charge at Peoria State Asylum. Peter Breggin (1939–present) disagrees with the practices of harsh psychiatry such as electroconvulsive therapy. Classification German Physician Emil Kraepelin was more interested in the causes of mental disorders and potential classifications rather than focusing on and attempting to treating symptoms of mental disorders. This led to the classification of manic depression and Schizophrenia, as well as the start of a framework for classifying other disorders. However this method of research/work was ignored until the need for a universal classification system. This need would later lead to the creation of the DSM. Which not only provided classification of mental disorders but helped to understand where to start in terms of treatment. Psychotherapy A form of treatment for many mental disorders is psychotherapy. Psychotherapy is an interpersonal intervention, usually provided by a mental health professional such as a clinical psychologist, that employs any of a range of specific psychological techniques. There are several main types. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is used for a wide variety of disorders, based on modifying the patterns of thought and behavior associated with a particular disorder. There are various kinds of CBT therapy, and offshoots such as dialectical behavior therapy. Psychoanalysis, addressing underlying psychic conflicts and defenses, has been a dominant school of psychotherapy and is still in use. Systemic therapy or family therapy is sometimes used, addressing a network of relationships as well as individuals themselves. Some psychotherapies are based on a humanistic approach. Some therapies are for a specific disorder only, for example interpersonal and social rhythm therapy. Mental health professionals often pick and choose techniques, employing an eclectic or integrative approach tailored to a particular disorder and individual. Much may depend on the therapeutic relationship, and there may be issues of trust, confidentiality and engagement. To regulate the potentially powerful influences of therapies, psychologists hold themselves to a set of ethical standers for the treatment of people with mental disorders, written by the American Psychological Association. These ethical standards include: Striving to benefit clients and taking care to do no harm; Establishing relationships of trust with clients; Promoting accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness; Seeking fairness in treatment and taking precautions to avoid biases; Respecting the dignity and worth of all people. Medication Psychiatric medication is also widely used to treat mental disorders. These are licensed psychoactive drugs usually prescribed by a psychiatrist or family doctor. There are several main groups. Antidepressants are used for the treatment of clinical depression as well as often for anxiety and other disorders. Anxiolytics are used, generally short-term, for anxiety disorders and related problems such as physical symptoms and insomnia. Mood stabilizers are used primarily in bipolar disorder, mainly targeting mania rather than depression. Antipsychotics are used for psychotic disorders, notably in schizophrenia. However, they are also often used to treat bipolar disorder in smaller doses to treat anxiety. Stimulants are commonly used, notably for ADHD. Despite the different conventional names of the drug groups, there can be considerable overlap in the kinds of disorders for which they are actually indicated. There may also be off-label use. There can be problems with adverse effects and adherence. Antipsychotics In addition of atypical antipsychotics in cases of inadequate response to antidepressant therapy is an increasingly popular strategy that is well supported in the literature, though these medications may result in greater discontinuation due to adverse events. Aripiprazole was the first drug approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for adjunctive treatment of MDD in adults with inadequate response to antidepressant therapy in the current episode. Recommended doses of aripiprazole range from 2 mg/d to 15 mg/d based on 2 large, multicenter randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies, which were later supported by a third large trial. Most conventional antipsychotics, such as the phenothiazines, work by blocking the D2 Dopamine receptors. Atypical antipsychotics, such as clozapine block both the D2 Dopamine receptors as well as 5HT2A serotonin receptors. Atypical antipsychotics are favored over conventional antipsychotics because they reduce the prevalence of pseudoparkinsonism which causes tremors and muscular rigidity similar to Parkinson's disease. The most severe side effect of antipsychotics is agranulocytosis, a depression of white blood cell count with unknown cause, and some patients may also experience photosensitivity. Atypical and conventional antipsychotics also differ in the fact that atypical medications help with both positive and negative symptoms while conventional medications only help with the positive symptoms; negative symptoms being things that are taken away from the person such as a reduction in motivation, while positive symptoms are things being added such as seeing illusions. Antidepressant Early antidepressants were discovered through research on treating tuberculosis and yielded the class of antidepressants known as monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO). Only two MAO inhibitors remain on the market in the United States because they alter the metabolism of the dietary amino acid tyramine which can lead to a hypertensive crisis. Research on improving phenothiazine antipsychotics led to the development of tricyclic antidepressants which inhibit synaptic uptake of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin. SSRIs or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are the most frequently used antidepressant. These drugs share many similarities with the tricyclic antidepressants but are more selective in their action. The greatest risk of the SSRIs is an increase in violent and suicidal behavior, particularly in children and adolescents. In 2006 antidepressant sales worldwide totaled US$15 billion and over 226 million prescriptions were given. Research on the effects of physical activity on mental illness Research completed As increasing evidence of the benefits of physical activity has become apparent, research on the mental benefits of physical activity has been examined. While it was originally believed that physical activity only slightly benefits mood and mental state, overtime positive mental effects from physical activity became more pronounced. Scientists began completing studies, which were often highly problematic due to problems such as getting patients to complete their trials, controlling for all possible variables, and finding adequate ways to test progress. Data were often collected through case and population studies, allowing for less control, but still gathering observations. More recently studies have begun to have more established methods in an attempt to start to comprehend the benefits of different levels and amounts of fitness across multiple age groups, genders, and mental illnesses. Some psychologists are recommending fitness to patients, however the majority of doctors are not prescribing patients with a full program. Results Many early studies show that physical activity has positive effects on subjects with mental illness. Most studies have shown that higher levels of exercise correlate to improvement in mental state, especially for depression. On the other hand, some studies have found that exercise can have a beneficial short-term effect at lower intensities. Demonstrating that lower intensity sessions with longer rest periods produced significantly higher positive affect and reduced anxiety when measured shortly after. Physical activity was found to be beneficial regardless of age and gender. Some studies found exercise to be more effective at treating depression than medication over long periods of time, but the most effective treatment of depression was exercise in combination with antidepressants. Exercise appeared to have the greatest effect on mental health a short period of time after exercise. Different studies have found this time to be from twenty minutes to several hours. Patients who have added exercise to other treatments tend to have more consistent long lasting relief from symptoms than those who just take medication. No single regimented workout has been agreed upon as most effective for any mental illness at this time. The exercise programs prescribed are mostly intended to get patients doing some form of physical activity, as the benefits of doing any form of exercise have been proven to be better than doing nothing at all. Other Electroconvulsive therapy (known as ECT) is when electric currents are applied to someone with a mental disorder who is not responding well to other forms of therapy. Psychosurgery, including deep brain stimulation, is another available treatment for some disorders. This form of therapy is disputed in many cases on its ethicality and effectiveness. Creative therapies are sometimes used, including music therapy, art therapy or drama therapy. Each form of these therapy involves performing, creating, listening to, observing, or being a part of the therapeutic act. Lifestyle adjustments and supportive measures are often used, including peer support, self-help and supported housing or employment. Some advocate dietary supplements. A placebo effect may play a role. Services Mental health services may be based in hospitals, clinics or the community. Often an individual may engage in different treatment modalities and use various mental health services. These may be under case management (sometimes referred to as "service coordination"), use inpatient or day treatment. Patients can utilize a psychosocial rehabilitation program or take part in an assertive community treatment program. Providing optimal treatments earlier in the course of a mental health disorder may prevent further relapses and ongoing disability. This has led to a new early intervention in psychosis service approach for psychosis Some approaches are based on a recovery model of mental disorder, and may focus on challenging stigma and social exclusion and creating empowerment and hope. In America, half of people with severe symptoms of a mental health condition were found to have received no treatment in the prior 12 months. Fear of disclosure, rejection by friends, and ultimately discrimination are a few reasons why people with mental health conditions often don't seek help. The UK is moving towards paying mental health providers by the outcome results that their services achieve. Stigmas and treatment Stigma against mental disorders can lead people with mental health conditions not to seek help. Two types of mental health stigmas include social stigma and perceived stigma. Though separated into different categories, the two can interact with each other, where prejudicial attitudes in social stigma lead to the internalization of discriminatory perceptions in perceived stigma. The stigmatization of mental illnesses can elicit stereotypes, some common ones including violence, incompetence, and blame. However, the manifestation of that stereotype into prejudice may not always occur. When it does, prejudice leads to discrimination, the behavioral reaction. Public stigmas may also harm social opportunities. Prejudice frequently disallows people with mental illnesses from finding suitable housing or procuring good jobs. Studies have shown that stereotypes and prejudice about mental illness have harmful impacts on obtaining and keeping good jobs. This, along with other negative effects of stigmatization have led researchers to conduct studies on the relationship between public stigma and care seeking. Researchers have found that an inverse relationship exists between public stigma and care seeking, as well as between stigmatizing attitudes and treatment adherence. Furthermore, specific beliefs that may influence people not to seek treatment have been identified, one of which is concern over what others might think. The internalization of stigmas may lead to self-prejudice which in turn can lead a person to experience negative emotional reactions, interfering with a person's quality of life. Research has shown a significant relationship between shame and avoiding treatment. A study measuring this relationship found that research participants who expressed shame from personal experiences with mental illnesses were less likely to participate in treatment. Additionally, family shame is also a predictor of avoiding treatment. Research showed that people with psychiatric diagnoses were more likely to avoid services if they believed family members would have a negative reaction to said services. Hence, public stigma can influence self-stigma, which has been shown to decrease treatment involvement. As such, the interaction between the two constructs impact care seeking. List of treatments Somatotherapy (type of pharmacotherapy; biology-based treatments) Psychiatric medications (psychoactive drugs used in psychiatry) Antianxiety drugs (anxiolytics) Antidepressant drugs Antipsychotic drugs Mood stabilizers Shock therapy also known as convulsive therapies Insulin shock therapy (no longer practiced) Electroconvulsive therapy Psychosurgery Leukotomy (prefrontal lobotomy; no longer practiced) Bilateral cingulotomy Deep brain stimulation Psychotherapy (psychology-based treatment) Cognitive behavioral therapy Psychoanalysis Gestalt therapy Interpersonal psychotherapy EMDR Behavior therapy References Further reading Mind, Brain, and Personality Disorders Am. J. Psychiatry 1 April 2005: 648–655. General Psychiatry JAMA 16 September 1998: 961-962 The practice of medicinal chemistry, Camille Georges Wermuth Theories of Psychotherapy & Counseling: Concepts and Cases, Richard S. Sharf Cognitive behavioural interventions in physiotherapy and occupational therapy, Marie Donaghy, Maggie Nicol, Kate M. Davidson Key concepts in psychotherapy integration, Jerold R. Gold Mental disorders
4786934	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death%20of%20Diana%2C%20Princess%20of%20Wales	Death of Diana, Princess of Wales	During the early hours of 31 August 1997, Diana, Princess of Wales, died from injuries sustained earlier that night in a car crash in the Pont de l'Alma tunnel in Paris, France. Diana's partner, Dodi Fayed, and the driver of the Mercedes-Benz W140, Henri Paul, were found dead inside the car. Dodi's bodyguard, Trevor Rees-Jones, was seriously injured, but was the only survivor of the crash. Some media claimed that the erratic behaviour of the paparazzi chasing the car, as reported by the BBC, caused the crash. In 1999, a French investigation found that Paul lost control of the vehicle at high speed while intoxicated by alcohol and under the effects of prescription drugs, and concluded that he was solely responsible for the crash. He was the deputy head of security at the Hôtel Ritz Paris and had earlier goaded paparazzi waiting for Diana and Fayed outside the hotel. Anti-depressants and traces of an anti-psychotic in his blood might have worsened Paul's inebriation. In 2008, a jury at the British inquest, Operation Paget, returned a verdict of unlawful killing through grossly negligent driving by Paul and the following paparazzi vehicles. Some media reports claimed that Rees-Jones survived because he was wearing a seat belt, but other investigations revealed that none of the occupants of the car were wearing them. Diana was 36 years old when she died. Her death sparked an outpouring of public grief in the United Kingdom and worldwide, and her televised funeral was watched by an estimated 2.5 billion people. The royal family were criticised in the press for their reaction to Diana's death. Public interest in Diana has remained high and she continues to retain regular press coverage in the decades since her death. Circumstances Events preceding the crash On Saturday, 30 August 1997, Princess Diana left the Olbia Airport, Sardinia, on a private jet and arrived at Le Bourget Airport in Paris with Egyptian film producer Dodi Fayed, son of businessman Mohamed Al-Fayed. They had stopped there en route to London, having spent the preceding nine days together on board Mohamed's yacht Jonikal on the French and Italian Riviera. They had intended to stay there for the night. Mohamed was owner of the Hôtel Ritz Paris and resided in an apartment on Rue Arsène Houssaye, a short distance from the hotel, just off the Avenue des Champs Elysées. Henri Paul, deputy head of security at the Ritz, had been instructed to drive the hired black 1994 armoured Mercedes-Benz S 280 sedan (W140 S-Class) in order to elude the paparazzi; a decoy vehicle left the Ritz first from the main entrance on Place Vendôme, attracting a throng of photographers. Diana and Fayed then departed from the hotel's rear entrance, Rue Cambon, at around 00:20 on 31 August CEST (22:20 on 30 August UTC), heading for the apartment in Rue Arsène Houssaye. They did this to avoid the nearly 30 photographers waiting in front of the hotel. Diana and Fayed were the rear passengers; Trevor Rees-Jones, a member of the Fayed family's personal protection team, was in the (right) front passenger seat. None of the occupants were wearing seat belts. After leaving the Rue Cambon and crossing the Place de la Concorde, they drove along Cours la Reine and Cours Albert 1er – the embankment road along the right bank of the River Seine – into the Place de l'Alma underpass. The crash At 00:23, Paul lost control of the car at the entrance to the Pont de l'Alma underpass. The car reportedly struck a passing white Fiat, swerved to the left of the two-lane carriageway and collided head-on with the 13th pillar that supported the roof. It was travelling at an estimated speed of more than twice the speed limit of the tunnel. It then spun, hit the stone wall of the tunnel backwards and finally came to a stop. The impact caused substantial damage, particularly to the front half of the vehicle, as there was no guard rail to prevent this. Witnesses arriving shortly after the crash reported smoke. Witnesses also reported that photographers on motorcycles "swarmed the Mercedes sedan before it entered the tunnel". Aftermath The photographers had been driving slower and were some distance behind the Mercedes. When they reached the scene, some rushed to help, trying to open the doors and help the victims, while some of them took pictures. Police arrived around ten minutes after the crash at 00:30, and an ambulance was on site five minutes later, according to witnesses. France Info radio reported that one photographer was beaten by witnesses who were horrified by the scene. Five of the photographers were arrested directly. Later, two others were detained and around 20 rolls of film were taken directly from the photographers. Police also impounded their vehicles afterwards. Firefighters also arrived at the scene to help remove the victims. Rees-Jones sustained multiple serious facial injuries and a head contusion, but he was still conscious. The front airbags had functioned normally. Diana was sitting in the right rear passenger seat and was critically injured, but still conscious. The crash mostly affected the righthand side of her body, indicating that she was sitting sideways in her seat at the time of impact. Her ribs and arm were fractured and her right collar bone was dislocated, and she suffered from swelling and bruising to the brain. She was reported to murmur repeatedly, "Oh my God", and after the photographers and other helpers were pushed away by police, "Leave me alone." In June 2007, the Channel 4 documentary Diana: The Witnesses in the Tunnel claimed that the first person to touch Diana was off-duty physician Frederic Mailliez, who chanced upon the scene. Mailliez reported that Diana had no visible injuries but was in shock. She was reported to have been extremely disturbed and removed an intravenous drip while shouting incoherently. After being sedated and removed from the car at 01:00, she went into cardiac arrest, but her heart started beating again following external cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Diana was moved to the ambulance at 01:18, left the scene at 01:41, and arrived at the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital at 02:06. Fayed was in the left rear passenger seat and was pronounced dead at the scene shortly afterwards. Paul was also pronounced dead at the scene on removal from the wreckage. Both were taken directly to the Institut Médico-Légal (IML), the Paris mortuary. Paul was later found to have a blood alcohol level of 1.75 grams per litre of blood, about 3.5 times the legal limit in France. Diana's injuries were extensive, and resuscitation attempts were unsuccessful, including internal cardiac massage. Her heart had been displaced to the right side of the chest, which tore the upper left pulmonary vein and the pericardium. Diana died at the hospital at 03:00. Anaesthetist Bruno Riou announced her death at 06:00 at a news conference held at the hospital. Later that morning, French prime minister Lionel Jospin and Interior Minister Jean-Pierre Chevènement visited the hospital. At around 17:00, Diana's former husband Charles and her two older sisters Lady Sarah McCorquodale and Lady Jane Fellowes arrived in Paris. The group visited the hospital along with French president Jacques Chirac and thanked the doctors for trying to save her life. Charles accompanied Diana's body to the UK later the same day. They departed from Vélizy – Villacoublay Air Base and landed at RAF Northolt, and a bearer party from the Queen's Colour Squadron transferred her coffin to the hearse. The coffin was draped with the royal standard with an ermine border. Her body was finally taken to the Hammersmith and Fulham mortuary in London for a post-mortem examination later that day. Initial media reports stated that Diana's car had collided with the pillar at , and that the speedometer's needle had jammed at that position. It was later announced that the car's speed upon collision was , about twice as fast as the speed limit of . In 1999, a French investigation concluded that the Mercedes had come into contact with a white Fiat Uno in the tunnel. The driver of the Fiat was never conclusively traced, although many believed that the driver was Le Van Thanh. Thanh was questioned by French detectives in 1997, who ruled him out as a suspect but friends and family members have noted inconsistences in his story. Thanh has since refused interviews or inquiries from investigators. The specific vehicle was not identified. British Foreign Secretary Robin Cook remarked that, if the crash had been caused in part by being hounded by paparazzi, it would be "doubly tragic". Diana's younger brother, the Earl Spencer, also blamed tabloid media for her death. An 18-month French judicial investigation concluded in 1999 that the crash was caused by Paul, who lost control at high speed while intoxicated. As reported by the BBC, "No charges were brought against the paparazzi who had been pursuing the princess' car." Mourning Members of the public were invited to sign a book of condolence at St James's Palace. A book of condolence was also set up by the British embassy in the US. All 11,000 light bulbs at Harrods department store, owned by Mohamed Al-Fayed, were turned off and not switched on again until after the funeral. Throughout the night, members of the Women's Royal Voluntary Service and the Salvation Army provided support for people queuing along the Mall. More than one million bouquets were left at her London residence, Kensington Palace, while at her family's estate of Althorp the public was asked to stop bringing flowers as the volume of both visitors and flowers in the surrounding roads was said to be causing a threat to public safety. By 10 September, the pile of flowers outside Kensington Gardens was deep in places and the bottom layer had started to compost. The people were quiet, queuing patiently to sign the book and leave their gifts. Fresh flowers, teddy bears, and bottles of champagne were later donated and distributed among the sick, the elderly and children. Cards, personal messages and poems were collected and given to Diana's family. Funeral and burial Early on, it was uncertain that Diana would receive a ceremonial funeral, since she had lost the status of Her Royal Highness following her divorce from Prince Charles in 1996. Diana's death was met with extraordinary public expressions of grief, and her funeral at Westminster Abbey on 6 September drew an estimated 3 million mourners and onlookers in London. Outside the Abbey and in Hyde Park crowds watched and listened to proceedings on large outdoor screens and speakers as guests filed in, including representatives of the many charities of which Diana was patron. Attendees included US First Lady Hillary Clinton and French First Lady Bernadette Chirac, as well as celebrities including Italian tenor Luciano Pavarotti and two friends of Diana, George Michael and Elton John. John performed a rewritten version of his song "Candle in the Wind" that was dedicated to her, known as "Goodbye England's Rose" or "Candle in the Wind 1997"; the single became the best-selling single since UK and US singles charts began in the 1950s, with total sales exceeding 33 million units. Protocol was disregarded when the guests applauded the speech by Earl Spencer, who strongly criticised the press and indirectly criticised the Royal Family for their treatment of her. The funeral is estimated to have been watched by 31.5 million viewers in Britain. Precise calculation of the worldwide audience is not possible, but it was estimated to be around 2.5 billion. The ceremony was broadcast in 44 languages. After the end of the ceremony, Diana's coffin was driven to Althorp in a Daimler hearse. Mourners cast flowers at the funeral procession for almost the entire length of its journey and vehicles even stopped on the opposite carriageway of the M1 motorway as the cars passed. In a private ceremony, Diana was buried on an island in the middle of a lake called The Oval, which is part of the Pleasure Garden at Althorp. The coffin bore a weight of a quarter of a tonne (250 kg / approx. 550 lb) as it was lined with lead, as is tradition with British royalty. In her coffin, she wears a black Catherine Walker dress and black tights, and is holding a rosary in her hands. The rosary had been a gift from Mother Teresa of Calcutta, a confidante of Diana, who had died the day before her funeral. A visitors' centre is open during summer months, with an exhibition about Diana and a walk around the lake. All profits were donated to the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund. Reactions Royal family Queen Elizabeth II expressed her dismay at Diana's death. Then-Prince Charles woke his sons before dawn to share the news. Upon announcement of the death, the website of the Royal Family temporarily removed all its content and replaced it with a black background, displaying a picture of Diana accompanied by her name and dates of birth and death. An online book of condolence was also made available on the website for the public to post their personal tributes. On Sunday morning after Diana's death, the Queen, Princes Charles, William and Harry all wore black to church services at Crathie Kirk near Balmoral Castle. The royal family later issued a statement, saying Charles, William and Harry were "taking strength from" and "deeply touched" by and "enormously grateful" for the public support. Princes Andrew and Edward met the mourners outside Kensington Palace as a precautionary measure to test the public mood, and Edward visited St James's Palace to sign the book of condolences. On their way from Crathie Kirk to Balmoral, the Queen, Prince Philip, Charles, William and Harry viewed the floral tributes and messages left by the public. Charles and his sons returned to London on Friday, 5 September. They made an unannounced visit to see the floral tributes left outside Kensington Palace. The Queen, who returned to London from Balmoral accompanied by Prince Philip, the Queen Mother, and Princess Margaret, agreed to a television broadcast to the nation. She viewed the floral tributes in front of Buckingham Palace and visited the Chapel Royal at St James's Palace, where Diana's body was remaining, and met crowds that were in line to sign the books of condolence. Diana's brother, Earl Spencer, and her former sister-in-law, Sarah, Duchess of York, also visited St James's Palace. The Queen and the rest of the Royal Family was criticised for a rigid adherence to protocol, and their efforts to protect the privacy of Diana's grieving sons were interpreted as a lack of compassion. In particular, the refusal of Buckingham Palace to fly the Royal Standard at half-mast provoked angry headlines in newspapers. The Palace's stance was one of royal protocol: no flag could fly over Buckingham Palace, as the Royal Standard is only flown when the monarch is in residence, and the Queen was then in Scotland. The Royal Standard never flies at half-mast as it is the Sovereign's flag and there is never an interregnum or vacancy in the monarchy, as the new monarch immediately succeeds his or her predecessor. Finally, as a compromise, the Union Flag was flown at half-mast as the Queen left for Westminster Abbey on the day of the funeral. This set a precedent, and Buckingham Palace has subsequently flown the Union Flag when the monarch is not in residence. A rift between Prince Charles and the Queen's private secretary, Sir Robert Fellowes (Diana's brother-in-law), was reported in the media over the nature of the funeral, with Charles demanding a public funeral and Fellowes supporting the Queen's idea of a private one. The Palace later issued a statement denying such rumours. Discussions were also held with the Spencer family and the British royal family as to whether Diana's HRH style needed to be restored posthumously, but Diana's family decided that it would be against Diana's wishes and no formal offer was made. The funeral committee at Buckingham Palace wanted William and Harry to have a bigger role in their mother's funeral and Downing Street officials suggested that they could walk in the funeral cortège, but faced opposition from Prince Philip, who reportedly stated "They've just lost their mother. You're talking about them as if they are commodities." Prince Harry said in 2017 that the death of his mother caused severe depression and grief. He later stated that what he experienced after his mother's death "was very much" post-traumatic stress injury (PTSI). William was 15 and Harry was 12 when Diana died. The boys received locks of their mother's hair from their aunt Lady Sarah McCorquodale once she returned from Paris according to Harry. Years later, William and Harry defended their father and grandmother's actions in the aftermath of their mother's death. Describing his father's role, Harry said: "[Our dad] was there for us — he was the one out of two left, and he tried to do his best and to make sure that we were protected and looked after." Speaking about his grandmother, William stated: "At the time, my grandmother wanted to protect her two grandsons and my father as well. Our grandmother deliberately removed the newspapers and things like that so there was nothing in the house to read." Diana's sister, Lady Sarah McCorquodale, also spoke in defence of the Queen's decision: "She did absolutely the right thing. If I'd been her, I'd have done that." Politicians British Prime Minister Tony Blair said that he was "utterly devastated by the death of the Princess". US President Bill Clinton said that he and his wife, Hillary Clinton, were "profoundly saddened" when they found out about her death. Kofi Annan, the United Nations Secretary-General said that her death "has robbed the world of a consistent and committed voice for the improvement of the lives of suffering children worldwide". In a telegram of condolences, German Chancellor Helmut Kohl expressed the view that Diana had also become the victim of an "increasingly brutal and unscrupulous competition on the part of some of the media." In Australia, the Deputy Prime Minister, Tim Fischer, condemned the paparazzi for their overzealous coverage of Diana. Russian President Boris Yeltsin praised Diana's charity work in a statement saying, "All know of Princess Diana's big contribution to charitable work, and not only in Great Britain". Among other politicians who sent messages of condolences were Australian Prime Minister John Howard, South African President Nelson Mandela, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, New Zealand Prime Minister Jim Bolger, and Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. The Australian House of Representatives and the New Zealand House of Representatives also passed parliamentary motions of condolence. The Government of Canada, as well as individual provinces in the country, set up online and in-person books of condolences in their parliament buildings and memorial services were held across the country. Following her death, delegates at an international conference in Oslo to ban landmines paid their tributes to Diana, who was an avid campaigner for banning the explosive devices. The Ottawa Treaty, which created an international ban on the use of anti-personnel landmines, was adopted in Oslo, in September 1997 and signed by 122 States in Ottawa on 3 December 1997. Diana's work on the landmines issue has been described as influential in the signing of the treaty. Public In London, thousands of people carried bouquets and stood outside Buckingham Palace after the news of her death. People started bringing flowers within an hour after the news was shared. The BBC flew its flags at half-mast. Both radio and television aired the British national anthem, "God Save the Queen", in response to Diana's death, as is precedent for the death of a member of the Royal Family. An elegy was published by Ted Hughes to mark her death. Sporting events in the UK were rearranged, with demands for Scotland's Football Association chief executive to resign due to their delayed response to reschedule Scotland's World Cup qualifier. People in the US were shocked at her death. In San Francisco, around 14,000 people marched through the city in a procession on 5 September to pay tribute to Diana, honouring her for her work on behalf of AIDS patients. In Los Angeles, more than 2,500 people transformed a baseball field into a candle-lit altar in a memorial service prepared by an AIDS organisation. In Paris, thousands of people visited the site of the crash and the hospital where Diana died, leaving bouquets, candles and messages. People brought flowers and also attempted to visit the Hotel Ritz. On the eve of the funeral, 300 members of the British community in Paris took part in a service of commemoration. Landmine victims in Angola and Bosnia also honoured Diana with separate services, pointing out how her efforts had helped raise awareness about the damage caused by landmines. In Bosnia, a landmine survivor, Jasminko Bjelic, who had met Diana only three weeks earlier, said, "She was our friend." In Egypt, the homeland of Dodi Fayed, people visited the British embassy in Cairo to pay their tributes and sign a book of condolences. Following her death many celebrities including actors and singers blamed the paparazzi and condemned their reckless behavior. Mother Teresa, who met Diana a few months before her death, expressed her sorrow and prayers were held at the Missionaries of Charity for Diana. The Bishop of Bradford David Smith and the Bradford Council of Mosques held prayers by the Christian and Muslim communities. Jonathan Sacks led prayers by the Jewish community at the Western Marble Arch Synagogue, and Cardinal Basil Hume presided over the Roman Catholic requiem mass held at Westminster Cathedral. Mother Teresa died on 5 September 1997, the day before Diana's funeral. Social and economic impact During the four weeks following her funeral, the suicide rate in England and Wales rose by 17% and cases of deliberate self-harm by 44.3% compared with the average for that period in the four previous years. Researchers suggest that this was caused by the "identification" effect, as the greatest increase in suicides was by people most similar to Diana: women aged 25 to 44, whose suicide rate increased by over 45%. Another research showed that 50% of Britons and 27% of Americans were deeply affected by her death as if someone they knew had died. It also concluded that in general women were more affected than men in both of the countries. The same research showed that Diana's "charitable endeavors" and "ability to identify with ordinary people" were among the main factors that caused her to be admired and respected by the people. In the weeks after her death counselling services reported an increase in the number of phone calls by the people who were seeking help due to grief or distress. Diana's death mostly affected people who were already vulnerable and could identify with her as "a public figure perceived as psychologically troubled but who seemed to have made a constructive adjustment". Another research described Diana's death and funeral as traumatic stressors with psychological impacts that could "be equated with traditional stressors identified in the trauma research literature". In the days after her funeral, an increase in the number of inappropriate hospital admissions was observed, whereas the number of admissions for traumatic injuries decreased for at least three months, showing a possible change in people's driving habits. Her death was also associated with "30% reduction in calls to the police and a 28% drop in public order offences", yet despite its effect on increasing depression and traumatic stress, no significant increase was observed in the number of psychiatric emergencies in Edinburgh. The national grieving for Diana had economic effects. In the short term, the Centre for Economics and Business Research (CEBR) estimated that retail sales dropped 1% that week. Traffic congestion in central London as crowds went to the palaces to pay homage likewise adversely affected productivity, and the CEBR estimated that would cost businesses £200 million, or a total loss of 0.1% of gross domestic product for the third quarter of 1997. However, in the long run the CEBR expected that to be offset by increased tourism and memorabilia sales. Reception Some criticised the reaction to Diana's death at the time as being "hysterical" and "irrational". As early as 1998, philosopher Anthony O'Hear identified the mourning as a defining point in the "sentimentalisation of Britain", a media-fuelled phenomenon where image and reality become blurred. Oasis bandleader Noel Gallagher responded to the reaction with, "The woman's dead. Shut up. Get over it". These criticisms were repeated on the tenth anniversary of the crash, when journalist Jonathan Freedland of The Guardian expressed the opinion that, "It has become an embarrassing memory, like a mawkish, self-pitying teenage entry in a diary ... we cringe to think about it." In 2010, Theodore Dalrymple suggested "sentimentality, both spontaneous and generated by the exaggerated attention of the media, that was necessary to turn the death of the princess into an event of such magnitude thus served a political purpose, one that was inherently dishonest in a way that parallels the dishonesty that lies behind much sentimentality itself". The reactions following Diana's death were subject to criticism by Christopher Hitchens. His 1998 documentary Princess Diana: The Mourning After accused the British media of playing an essential role in creating a national, unchallengeable, and at times hysterical cult of personality surrounding Diana, whereas previously they had been extremely critical of her and the monarchy after she had separated and divorced from Charles, and was having an affair with Dodi Fayed. Hitchens claimed the public were behaving irrationally and that many appeared to not even know why they were mourning. He also scrutinised the level of censorship against criticism of Diana and the monarchy but was accused, in a review by The Independent, of exaggerating on this point. Private Eyes sales dropped by one third after it ran a cover titled "Media to Blame", which attempted to criticise the instant switch in the media and the public's opinion of Diana after her death from critical to complimentary. Hitchens's views were later supported by Jonathan Freedland of The Guardian, who also questioned the reason behind the "outburst of mass hysteria" following Diana's death and described it as "an episode when the British public lost its characteristic cool and engaged in seven days of bogus sentimentality, whipped up by the media, and whose flimsiness was demonstrated when it vanished as quickly as it had appeared". Comparing Diana's funeral to that of Winston Churchill, Peter Hitchens observed the "difference in the self-discipline of the people and their attitudes" at the two historical events, with them being more restrained at Churchill's funeral but "un-English" at Diana's. Some cultural analysts disagreed. Sociologist Deborah Steinberg pointed out that many Britons associated Diana not with the Royal Family but with social change and a more liberal society: "I don't think it was hysteria, the loss of a public figure can be a touchstone for other issues." Carol Wallace of People magazine said that the fascination with Diana's death had to do with "the fairy tale failing to end happily – twice, first when she got divorced and now that she died". Reflecting back on the event in the 2021 Apple TV+ docuseries The Me You Can't See, Diana's son Prince Harry said that he was surprised by the extent to which the public reacted to his mother's death. Referring to the day of her funeral, he said: "I'm just walking along and doing what was expected of me, showing the one-tenth of the emotion that everybody else was showing. This was my mum, you never even met her." In his memoir Spare, he mentions meeting members of the public following his mother's death and "Hundreds and hundreds of hands that planted us again and again in front of our faces, with our fingers often wet. Of what? I wondered. Tears, I understood. I disliked the touch of those hands. What's more, I disliked how they made me feel guilty. Why were all of those people crying when I was neither crying nor able to cry?" Memorials In the years after her death, many memorials were commissioned and dedicated to her. As a temporary memorial, the public co-opted the Flamme de la Liberté (Flame of Liberty), a monument near the Pont de l'Alma tunnel related to the French donation of the Statue of Liberty to the US. The messages of condolence have since been removed and its use as a Diana memorial has discontinued, though visitors still leave messages in her memory. A permanent memorial, the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fountain, was opened by the Queen in Hyde Park in London on 6 July 2004, followed by a statue in the Sunken Garden of Kensington Palace, which was unveiled by her sons on 1 July 2021. Following her death, a member of the Millennium Dome's board suggested the project be refashioned and extended "to accommodate, for example, a hospital, businesses, charities, private residences, and the whole thing named 'the Princess Diana Centre. The idea was later scrapped. Inquests Under English law, an inquest is required in cases of sudden or unexplained death. A French judicial investigation had already been carried out, but the 6,000-page report was never published. On 6 January 2004, six years after Diana's death, an inquest into the crash opened in London held by Michael Burgess, the coroner of the Queen's Household. The coroner asked the Metropolitan Police commissioner, Sir John Stevens, to make inquiries in response to speculation that the deaths were not an accident. Forensic scientist Angela Gallop was commissioned to examine the forensic evidence. The police investigation reported its findings in Operation Paget in December 2006. In January 2006, Lord Stevens explained in an interview on GMTV that the case is substantially more complex than once thought. The Sunday Times wrote on 29 January 2006 that agents of the British secret service were cross-examined because they were in Paris at the time of the crash. It was suggested that these agents might have exchanged the blood test from Henri Paul with another blood sample (although no evidence for this has been forthcoming). The inquests into the deaths of Diana and Fayed opened on 8 January 2007, with Dame Elizabeth Butler-Sloss acting as Deputy Coroner of the Queen's Household for the Diana inquest and Assistant Deputy Coroner for Surrey in relation to the Fayed inquest. Butler-Sloss originally intended to sit without a jury; this decision was later overturned by the High Court of Justice, as well as the jurisdiction of the coroner of the Queen's Household. On 24 April 2007, Butler-Sloss stepped down, saying she lacked the experience required to deal with an inquest with a jury. The role of coroner for the inquests was transferred to Lord Justice Scott Baker, who formally took up the role on 13 June as Coroner for Inner West London. On 27 July 2007, Baker, following representations for the lawyers of the interested parties, issued a list of issues likely to be raised at the inquest, many of which had been dealt with in great detail by Operation Paget: The inquests officially began on 2 October 2007 with the swearing of a jury of six women and five men. Lord Justice Baker delivered a lengthy opening statement giving general instructions to the jury and introducing the evidence. The BBC reported that Mohamed Al-Fayed, having earlier reiterated his claim that his son and Diana were murdered by the Royal Family, immediately criticised the opening statement as biased. The inquest heard evidence from people connected with Diana and the events leading to her death, including Rees-Jones, Mohamed Al-Fayed, Paul Burrell, Diana's stepmother, and the former head of MI6. Lord Justice Baker began his summing up to the jury on 31 March 2008. He opened by telling the jury "no-one except you and I and, I think, the gentleman in the public gallery with Diana and Fayed painted on his forehead sat through every word of evidence" and concluded that there was "not a shred of evidence" that Diana's death had been ordered by Prince Philip or organised by the security services. He concluded his summing up on Wednesday, 2 April 2008. After summing up, the jury retired to consider five verdicts, namely unlawful killing by the negligence of either or both the following vehicles or Paul; accidental death or an open verdict. The jury decided on 7 April 2008 that Diana had been unlawfully killed by the "grossly negligent driving of the following vehicles [the paparazzi] and of the Mercedes driver Henri Paul". Princes William and Harry released a statement in which they said that they "agree with their verdicts and are both hugely grateful". Mohamed Al-Fayed also said that he would accept the verdict and "abandon his 10-year campaign to prove that Diana and Dodi were murdered in a conspiracy". The cost of the inquiry exceeded £12.5 million, the coroner's inquest cost £4.5 million; a further £8 million was spent on the Metropolitan Police investigation. It lasted 6 months and heard 250 witnesses, with the cost heavily criticised in the media. In his memoir, Diana's younger son Prince Harry mentions how the summary conclusion of investigations into his mother's death was "simplistic and absurd." He writes that even if the driver "had been drunk, he wouldn't have had any problem driving through such a short tunnel." He questions why the paparazzi that had been following her and the people who sent them were not in prison, unless it was all due to "corruption and cover-ups being the order of the day?" Harry claims that he and his brother were planning on issuing a statement to ask jointly for the investigation to be reopened but "those who decided dissuaded us." Related lawsuits Nine photographers, who had been following Diana and Dodi in 1997, were charged with manslaughter in France. France's "highest court" dropped the charges in 2002. Three photographers who took pictures of the aftermath of the crash on 31 August 1997 had their photographs confiscated and were tried for invasion of privacy for taking pictures through the open door of the crashed car. The photographers, who were part of the "paparazzi", were acquitted in 2003. Conspiracy theories Although the initial French investigation found that Diana had died as a result of an accident, several conspiracy theories have been raised. Since February 1998, Fayed's father, Mohamed Al-Fayed, has claimed that the crash was a result of a conspiracy, and later contended that the crash was orchestrated by MI6 on the instructions of the Royal Family. His claims were dismissed by a French judicial investigation and by Operation Paget. On 7 April 2008, Lord Justice Baker's inquest into the deaths of Diana and Fayed ended with the jury concluding that they were the victims of an "unlawful killing" by Henri Paul and the drivers of the following vehicles. Additional factors were "the impairment of the judgment of the driver of the Mercedes through alcohol" and "the death of the deceased was caused or contributed to by the fact that the deceased was not wearing a seat belt, the fact that the Mercedes struck the pillar in the Alma Tunnel rather than colliding with something else". On 17 August 2013, Scotland Yard revealed that they were examining the credibility of information from a source that alleged that Diana was murdered by a member of the British military. In the media Actor George Clooney was critical of several tabloids and paparazzi agencies following Diana's death. A few of the tabloids boycotted Clooney following the outburst, stating that he "owed a fair portion of his celebrity" to the tabloids and photo agencies in question. In September 1997, a number of supermarket chains in the US removed the September 9 issue of the National Enquirer, which bore the title "Di Goes Sex Mad". The paper's editor described the incident as "an unfortunate circumstance", which was not meant to coincide with her death. Another American tabloid, Globe, issued an apology for its headline "To Di For". Diana was ranked third in the 2002 Great Britons poll sponsored by the BBC and voted for by the British public, after Sir Winston Churchill (1st) (a distant cousin), and Isambard Kingdom Brunel (2nd), just above Charles Darwin (4th), William Shakespeare (5th), and Isaac Newton (6th). That same year, another British poll named Diana's death as the most important event in the country's last 100 years. Historian Nick Barrett criticised this outcome as being "a pretty shocking result". Later in 2004, the CBS programme 48 Hours broadcast photos from the crash scene which were "part of a 4,000-page French government report". They showed an intact rear side and centre section of the Mercedes, including one of an unbloodied Diana with no outward injuries crouched on the rear floor with her back to the right passenger seatthe right rear door is fully open. The release of these pictures was poorly received in the UK, where it was felt that the privacy of Diana was being infringed. Buckingham Palace, Prime Minister Tony Blair and Diana's brother condemned the action, while CBS defended its decision saying that the pictures "are placed in journalistic context – an examination of the medical treatment given to Princess Diana just after the crash". On 13 July 2006, Italian magazine Chi published photographs that showed Diana amid the wreckage of the car crash; the photos were released despite an unofficial blackout on such photographs being published. The editor of Chi defended his decision by saying he published the photographs simply because they had not been previously seen, and he felt the images were not disrespectful to the memory of Diana. British newspaper the Daily Express was criticised for continued and sustained coverage of Diana following her death. A 2006 report in The Guardian showed that the newspaper had mentioned her in numerous recent news stories, with headlines including, "Perhaps Diana should have worn seatbelt", "Diana inquiry chief's laptop secrets stolen", "£250,000 a year bill to run Diana fountain" and "Diana seatbelt sabotage probe". The events from Diana's death to her funeral became the subject of a 2006 film, The Queen, with Helen Mirren in the title role. Internet coverage Diana's death occurred at a time when Internet use in the developed world was booming, and several national newspapers and at least one British regional newspaper had already launched online news services. BBC News had set up online coverage of the general election earlier in 1997 and as a result of the widespread public and media attention surrounding Diana's death, BBC News swiftly created a website featuring news coverage of Diana's death and the events that followed it. Diana's death helped BBC News officials realise how important online news services were becoming, and a full online news service was launched on 4 November that year, alongside the launch of the BBC's rolling news channel BBC News 24 on 9 November. Television In the UK, television schedules were dominated by news coverage of the death of the Princess of Wales. On ITV, Tim Willcox announced the crash at around 1am, and then Dermot Murnaghan announced her death at around 5am. On Sky, meanwhile, Kay Burley announced her death shortly after 5am. On BBC One (BBC1 at the time) the film Borsalino was interrupted by a short bulletin by Martyn Lewis who announced the crash at 1am. Shortly after, BBC World was simulcast for the first time ever on the domestic channel, with news anchor Nik Gowing in the newsroom. Nik announced her death at approximately 5am. Martyn Lewis had also done a bulletin an hour later, at 6am. See also Concert for Diana, a 2007 rock concert to commemorate Diana Diana: Last Days of a Princess, a 2007 television docudrama List of people who died in traffic collisions The Little White Car, a 2004 novel based around the mystery Fiat Uno The Murder of Princess Diana, a 2007 book disputing the official version of events The Murder of Princess Diana, a 2007 Lifetime Movies film, a fictionalised adaptation of the book of the same name Princess Diana's Revenge, a 2006 novel that engages with conspiracy theories relating to Diana's death The Queen, a 2006 film about the Royal Family's reaction to Diana's death Unlawful Killing, a 2011 documentary film References Notes Citations Bibliography Duncan Fallowell, How To Disappear, ch.5, reportage account of Princess Diana's funeral (London, 2011) External links BBC's full coverage Diana: One year on – BBC The Washington Posts full coverage Operation Paget full report Official Website of the Inquests into the deaths of Diana, Princess of Wales, and Dodi Fayed (Archived) The life and poignant death of Diana's driver The Times online article Princess Diana Car Crash — Knott Laboratory Diana's final moments — Today (American TV program) The Paparazzi Photos — CBS News Death 1997 in international relations 1997 in Paris 1997 in the United Kingdom 1997 road incidents 1990s crimes in Paris 1990s road incidents in Europe Articles containing video clips August 1997 crimes August 1997 events in Europe Women deaths Diana France–United Kingdom relations Media coverage and representation Photojournalism controversies Diana August 1997 events in the United Kingdom
4787166	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale%20Brown%20%28basketball%29	Dale Brown (basketball)	Dale Duward Brown (born October 31, 1935) is an American former college basketball coach. He was the head coach of the LSU Tigers for 25 years, and his teams earned Final Four appearances in 1981 and 1986. Brown is also remembered as one of the most vocal critics of the NCAA, saying it "legislated against human dignity and practiced monumental hypocrisy." Early life Born and raised in Minot, North Dakota, Brown's family was of limited means; he and his two older sisters were reared by his single mother Agnes, a domestic service worker with an eighth-grade education, and all worked various jobs. He graduated from St. Leo's High School in 1953, where he starred in football, basketball, and track. During his senior year, he posted the highest scoring average in state basketball history and also set a school record in the quarter mile. Brown then went to Minot State Teacher's College (now known as Minot State University), where he was a star athlete, earning 12 varsity letters in football, basketball, and track; the only athlete to accomplish this in these three sports. He scored 1,140 points in three years of varsity basketball. In 1999, Sports Illustrated selected him as one of the top 50 athletes of the 20th century from North Dakota. Brown graduated from Minot State in 1957 and received a master's degree at the University of Oregon in 1964. He was inducted into the Minot State University Athletics Hall of Fame in 1981. Coaching career North Dakota (1957–1964) From 1957 to 1959, Brown was head coach of the basketball, wrestling, and track teams at Columbus High School in Columbus, North Dakota. In 1959, he became the head basketball coach at Bishop Ryan High School in Minot, where he stayed until 1964. In 1961, Brown was recalled to military service for one year due to the Berlin Crisis. While there, he served as head coach of the basketball and track teams in Fort Riley, Kansas; which both won championships.. He received an honorable discharge from the U.S, Army as a sergeant. Brown is a member of the North Dakota Sports Hall of Fame, National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame, and Minot State University Sports Hall of Fame. After North Dakota (1964–1972) Brown left North Dakota in 1964 for various coaching jobs around the country: 1964–1965: Garfield junior high school basketball coach-Berkeley, California. 1965–1966: Palm Springs high school head basketball coach-Palm Springs, California. 1966–1971: Assistant basketball coach, Utah State University 1971–1972: Assistant basketball coach, Washington State University LSU: Early years (1972–1978) Brown came to LSU in the spring of 1972, replacing Press Maravich as head coach. The LSU program had received great notoriety during the Press Maravich era because of his All-American son, Pete. In spite of the publicity, however, LSU was still a losing program, not making any NCAA tournaments, and only one NIT appearance during the Maravich Era. Brown took over a team that finished 10–16 in the 1971–72 season and a program which had not been to the NCAA tournament since 1954, and had only four winning seasons in 18 years prior to his arrival. Brown had a winning record in his first season at LSU and he was voted as SEC Coach of the Year. The Tigers finished 14–10, with a 9–9 record in the Southeastern Conference. In his first home game, the Tigers beat #11 Memphis State 94–81, who went on to become NCAA runner-up. The Tigers were picked to finish last in the SEC, but were a surprising fifth. The Tigers regressed during his next three years at LSU, with losing records in each season. LSU stuck with Brown, who was quickly developing a reputation for his tireless efforts to promote college basketball in the football-hungry state of Louisiana. Former Nicholls State University head basketball coach Don Landry, a colleague of Brown in Louisiana, fondly remembered Brown's early years in a 2005 newspaper article "As soon as he was hired he started traveling the state and giving out nets. Wherever there was a basketball goal, he would stop and introduce himself as the new coach at LSU and hand out nets. I had never heard of such a thing and I really looked forward to meeting him after learning how hard he worked, how aggressive he was and how conscious he was of spreading the word about basketball in this state." It was this intensity and focus that helped Brown win over LSU fans, players and recruits. He also developed a reputation for being a powerful and inspirational speaker. These traits helped Brown earn the nickname that stuck with him throughout his tenure at LSU, "The Master Motivator". Brown's hard work began paying off in the 1976–1977 season. Led by the emergence of freshman Durand "Rudy" Macklin, the Tigers finished with a 15–12 record that year. In 1977–1978, LSU was led again by Macklin, then a first-team all-conference selection. The team finished 18–9, and was 12–6 in the Southeastern Conference, including a thrilling 95–94 overtime victory over eventual national champion Kentucky, which came despite all five LSU starters fouling out of the game. Glory years: 1979–1981 In the 1978–1979 season, Brown's Tigers dramatically improved their record, in spite of losing Rudy Macklin to injury. Led by all-conference first team members DeWayne Scales and Al Green, LSU finished 23–6. The Tigers also finished 14–4 in the SEC, giving LSU its first conference championship and first NCAA tournament appearance in 25 years. LSU made it to the Sweet 16 of the 1979 NCAA tournament, but lost to Michigan State without star player DeWayne Scales who was suspended for the tournament for violating team rules. The Spartans, led by Magic Johnson, went on to win the National Championship. Macklin returned to the team for the 1979–1980 season. With Macklin and Scales, LSU had one of the best forward combinations in the country. Macklin was a first-team all-conference selection, and Scales was a second-team selection. In addition, guard Ethan Martin emerged as a second-team selection. The Tigers improved their record again, finishing 26–6. They also finished 14–4 in conference again, and won their first-ever and still only SEC men's basketball tournament. The Tigers also went one round deeper than the previous year in the 1980 NCAA tournament. This year, they lost in the Elite 8 to Louisville. Like Michigan State the year before, Louisville (led by Darrell Griffith) went on to win the National Championship. The Tigers improved again in the 1980–1981 season. In fact, it would be the winningest year in LSU history. This year, Brown took his team to the Final Four, the second in LSU history, and the first of the Brown era. The team finished 31–5 (most wins in the nation) and won the conference championship with a 17–1 record. The team also set a school record winning 26 straight games, including its first 17 conference games and the only SEC team to ever win 17 consecutive league games in the same season with only a loss to powerhouse Kentucky in Rupp Arena stopping LSU from becoming the only team to complete an 18-game SEC slate with an unblemished mark. Rudy Macklin was an All-American, as well as First Team All SEC. Ethan Martin also made First Team All SEC, and Howard Carter made the Second Team. LSU advanced to the Final Four by beating Wichita State 96–85 in the Elite 8 round of the 1981 NCAA tournament, played in front of home-state fans in the Louisiana Superdome. To reach the regional final, LSU defeated future SEC rival Arkansas, coached at the time by Eddie Sutton, who would tangle with Brown for four seasons at Kentucky. Unfortunately for Brown and the Tigers, Macklin was injured in the Wichita State game and was not 100 percent for the Final Four. The Tigers lost in the national semifinal game to Indiana. In addition, for the third year in a row, LSU was eliminated by the eventual national champion, as Indiana (led by Isiah Thomas) won it all. Brown was named College Basketball Coach of the Year for his team's performance. Disappointment and investigation: 1982–1985 Like many other teams that reach the Final Four with a senior superstar, Brown's Tigers experienced a decline in the next two years. LSU still had star players in Howard Carter and Leonard Mitchell, but the team would not make the NCAA tournament in 1982 and 1983. The Tigers finished 14–14 and 19–13 in those years, and were invited to the NIT in both seasons but lost in the first round. The team got back on track in the next two seasons, but these years proved to be even more frustrating. The next wave of star players had emerged. Among them were Jerry "Ice Man" Reynolds, Derrick Taylor, Nikita Wilson, Don Redden and John Williams (Brown's most celebrated recruit to date). The Tigers had improved regular seasons, finishing 18–11 in 1983–1984 and 19–10 in 1984–1985. The 1984–1985 team also won the Southeastern Conference championship with a 13–5 record. However, both seasons ended with tremendous disappointments. In 1984, the Tigers were upset by #10-seed Dayton. 1985 was even more embarrassing for the Tigers. LSU was a #4-seed going into the 1985 NCAA tournament, but were beaten badly by #13-seed Navy (led by a then-unknown David Robinson). It was also during this time that Brown began having some of his most notorious run-ins with the NCAA. Brown became an outspoken and relentless critic of the NCAA, calling them "hypocrites" and even "The Gestapo". He has consistently argued that the NCAA should be more compassionate when enforcing rules governing compensation for student-athletes, especially in situations involving athletes who were truly in need. The NCAA began a four-year investigation into Brown and the LSU basketball program in the early 1980s. The investigation yielded only some minor infractions. Nothing significant or shocking was uncovered, and Brown was not connected to any of the reported infractions. "The master motivator": 1986–1988 The 1985–1986 season was well on its way to being the most disastrous season yet for Brown and his Tigers. However, he rallied the team and turned the season into what is fondly known to many LSU fans as the greatest season in the school's basketball history. The Tigers overcame several obstacles to reach their third-ever Final Four, the second under Brown. Before the season began, Jerry "Ice" Reynolds went pro early. Incoming freshman Tito Horford was kicked off the team two months into the season. Starting center Zoran Jovanovich injured his knee in December. Nikita Wilson was academically ineligible after the fall semester. Brown was forced late in the season to move shooting guard Ricky Blanton to starting center. In addition to all these troubles, some LSU players contracted chicken pox during the Southeastern Conference regular season, including star player John Williams. In spite of all these troubles, LSU jumped out to a 14–0 start, and finished with a 22–11 record. LSU made it into the 1986 NCAA tournament as an 11-seed. Some people were critical of the inclusion, arguing that a slumping team with 11 losses did not deserve an at-large bid. But thanks in part to an unusual, confusing defense Brown devised, which he called the "Freak Defense", the Tigers overcame their lack of talent and depth to make an unlikely run. Also to LSU's advantage was that their 1st and 2nd-round games were played on their home floor (a practice that the NCAA no longer allows due to the significant advantage it can give). After a double-overtime upset victory over #6 seed Purdue, LSU had to beat the top three seeds in its region to reach the Final Four. The Tigers did just that, defeating #3 seed Memphis State in the second round (on a last-second shot by Anthony Wilson), #2 seed Georgia Tech in the Sweet 16, and top seed Kentucky (which had already beaten LSU three times that year) in the Elite 8. The Tigers, however, lost to #2 seed Louisville in the National Semifinals and finished with a 26–12 record. Louisville went on to win the National Championship. LSU's 1986 team is remembered as the first 11-seed to reach the Final Four, and the only team to beat the top three seeds to get there. The 1986–1987 season was almost a carbon copy of the previous season, except that Brown finished just seconds away from taking LSU to another Final Four. The Tigers lost Don Redden and Derrick Taylor to graduation, Williams went pro, and Blanton was lost for the season with knee surgery. The Tigers were forced to rely on role players and overachievers. The team lost 14 games during the season, but reached the 1987 NCAA tournament as a #10 seed. LSU won the first game of the tournament in an upset over #7 seed Georgia Tech. Next, LSU beat #3 seed Temple and #2 seed DePaul. That set up a showdown with top-seed Indiana in the Elite 8. LSU was in control for most of the game, and had a 9-point lead with five minutes remaining, but Indiana mounted a furious comeback, and defeated LSU 77–76 in the last six seconds. The Hoosiers won the National Championship; it was the fifth time in nine years that Brown's Tigers were eliminated by the eventual national champion. The 1987 season saw LSU give Kentucky its worst defeat ever in Rupp Arena, 76–41. From 1978 to 1992, the Tigers had great success against the Wildcats, defeating them 17 times in this 15-year span. LSU struggled again during the 1987–1988 regular season. The Tigers entered the 1988 NCAA tournament with a 16–13 record, barely making the field again, this time as a #9-seed. By now, many LSU fans were not concerned about the poor regular season, as they now just figured that Brown would easily engineer another Cinderella run. But the Tigers lost to Georgetown in the first round 66–63 on a last-second shot. In spite of the disappointment in 1988, Brown had already established his reputation as the "Master Motivator"; he was now considered a coach who could get the best out of his less-talented teams through inspiration, sheer will, and the "Freak Defense". Superstar era: 1989–1993 Brown reached the Final Four with a talented, veteran team in 1981. He then made it again with a team of mostly overachievers in 1986. Now, he had the opportunity to see what he could do with bona fide superstars. Unfortunately for Brown, these years arguably proved to be the most disappointing of his LSU career. It was during these years that the "Master Motivator" label backfired on him. By the end of the 1992 season, Brown was known as a coach who could get the most out of his least talented teams, but did not get the best results with NBA caliber talent. Chris Jackson, Stanley Roberts and Vernel Singleton came to LSU in 1988–1989 (Roberts was not eligible to play that season.) Shaquille O'Neal and Maurice Williamson (son of former NBA and ABA star John Williamson) came in 1989–1990. Jamie Brandon committed to LSU in 1991–1992. Future NBA first-round choice Geert Hammink was Shaq's backup at center before becoming an all-conference player in 1993. Of these recruits, Jackson, Roberts, O'Neal and Brandon were McDonald's All Americans. Jackson, a sophomore, and freshmen Roberts and O'Neal only played one year together. Jackson, who later converted to Islam and changed his name to Mahmoud Abdul-Rauf, was the first of these recruits to become a star. He exploded on the scene to become an All-American in his freshman year. He was the leading scorer in the nation and still holds the record for a freshman, averaging 30.2 points a game. Jackson and fifth-year senior Blanton led LSU to a 20-win season in 1989. The Tigers, however lost in the first round of the 1989 NCAA tournament to UTEP, led by future NBA star Tim Hardaway. In terms of player talent, the 1989–1990 team was the best Brown ever assembled. The roster included four future first-round NBA picks (Jackson, Roberts, O'Neal and Hammink), and two of them (Jackson and O'Neal) were current or future All-Americans. The team started the season ranked #2, but failed to meet those expectations by the end of the season. Jackson was named All-American for the second year in a row, and the Tigers finished a respectable 23–9. They had some big wins against UNLV 107–105, Texas 124–113, Loyola Marymount 148–141, Kentucky 94–81, and Notre Dame 87–64. However, UNLV went on to win the national championship, and Texas and Loyola Marymount each appeared in the Elite Eight. LSU lost in the second round of the 1990 NCAA tournament to Georgia Tech; 94–91. Tech, led by future NBA players Kenny Anderson, Dennis Scott, Malcolm Mackey and Brian Oliver, went on to the Final Four. After the season, Jackson went on to the NBA and Roberts left to play pro ball in Europe. Their departures allowed O'Neal to blossom into a superstar. He would be named an All-American in 1991 and 1992, and was the 1991 National Player of the Year. He also helped lead LSU to a Southeastern Conference co-championship in 1991.. The 1991 team won 20 games and the 1992 squad won 21 but both seasons ended in disappointment. LSU lost badly to Connecticut with an injured O'Neal in the first round of the 1991 NCAA Tournament. In the 1992 NCAA Tournament, LSU lost in the second round to Indiana. During O'Neal's three years at LSU, the Tigers won 72% of their SEC games, won one SEC conference title and finished second twice. O'Neal left after the 1991–1992 season, but LSU still won 22 games in 1992–1993. The Tigers were now led by Hammink and Brandon. But as had become the custom in recent years, LSU lost early in the 1993 NCAA tournament. This year, the Tigers were eliminated by California and its superstar freshman, Jason Kidd, on a last second shot, 66–64 in the first round. In spite of all the talent and five straight 20-win seasons between 1988 and 1993, Brown failed to get any of these teams to the Sweet 16. In fact, the 1993 NCAA tournament appearance would be the last post-season appearance of the Brown era, and the school's last until 2000. Mediocrity and the Lester Earl incident: 1994–1997 Brown's final four years at LSU were forgettable. All four seasons ended in losing records. Brown was still occasionally bringing talented players into the program, but the team failed to perform and did not work out due to the loss of numerous star players because of injuries, dismissal from the team, or leaving early for the NBA. In 1993–1994 Brown brought in two more McDonald's All Americans: Randy Livingston and Ronnie Henderson. Livingston's LSU career was limited to 29 games. Serious knee injuries kept him from becoming the superstar he was projected to be; he was forced to go pro early before knee problems became worse. Henderson had a good career but did not play in the NBA. Former Memphis star Sylvester Ford joined the team in 1995, but he injured his knee early and was eventually dismissed from the team. Earl lasted 11 games at LSU before he was suspended. He transferred to the University of Kansas soon afterward. While at Kansas, Earl admitted that an LSU assistant coach gave him money when he was at LSU. The NCAA quickly began an investigation. It found no evidence that Brown or his assistants paid Earl, however it did find that a former booster paid Earl about $5,000 while he was attending LSU. LSU was placed on probation in 1998. After the incident, many Brown and LSU supporters were angry with the NCAA's decision. They were convinced that the NCAA unfairly came down hard on LSU only because Brown had long been a thorn in its side. They were also angry that Earl received immunity for his testimony regarding receiving money from a booster connected to Brown, never had to repay the money, and would eventually regain the eligibility he lost when he transferred from LSU. In August 2007, Earl made comments that suggest that the witch hunt theory may have been true. Retirement from LSU: 1997 After his departure from LSU, Dale Brown kept a low profile in his involvement with LSU athletics. He stayed in Baton Rouge after his retirement and created his own business, Dale Brown Enterprises. Brown has also worked as a college basketball analyst and is a motivational speaker and author of several books. He was also the CEO of the Dale Brown Foundation established in 1986 to help those in need. The Foundation was very active after the hurricanes devastated Louisiana in 2005. In 2001, reports surfaced that Brown was considering running for the United States House of Representatives in North Dakota. Republicans in the state tried to persuade Brown to challenge incumbent Democrat Earl Pomeroy, but he decided against it. Two years later his name surfaced again, this time as a potential candidate to run for the United States Senate in 2004 against incumbent Democrat Byron Dorgan. After several trips to Washington, D.C., he decided not to run. Brown suffered a stroke on April 24, 2003, but made a strong recovery and was back at work a month later. In 2004, former LSU athletic director and basketball player Joe Dean, who announced many LSU games as a television color commentator during Brown's tenure as a coach submitted a letter to a Baton Rouge newspaper saying that he believes that the basketball floor at the Pete Maravich Assembly Center should be named after Brown. In addition, LSU honored Brown and his 1986 team in February on the 20th anniversary of their improbable run to the Final Four. In the summer of 2007, Brown appeared on the ABC show Shaq's Big Challenge to offer words of encouragement to Shaquille O'Neal about helping obese children. He also was an advisor to Matthew McConaughey, who played the role of Marshall University football coach Jack Lengyel in the movie We Are Marshall. In the August 22, 2007 Baton Rouge Advocate, Lester Earl issued an apology to Brown, then-assistant head coach Johnny Jones, and LSU in general for his role in the NCAA investigation. Earl now claims that the NCAA pressured him into making false claims against Dale Brown or else he would lose years of NCAA eligibility. "I was pressured into telling them SOMETHING. I was 19 years old at that time. The NCAA intimidated me, manipulated me into making up things, and basically encouraged me to lie, in order to be able to finish my playing career at Kansas. They told me if we don't find any dirt on Coach Brown you won't be allowed to play but one more year at Kansas. I caused great harm, heartache and difficulties for so many people. I feel sorriest for hurting Coach Brown. Coach Brown, I apologize to you for tarnishing your magnificent career at LSU." The NCAA has declined additional comment on the situation. Brown says that he has forgiven Earl: "The most interesting journey that a person can make is discovering himself. I believe Lester has done that, and I forgive him." Depictions in media In 2012, Brown was the subject of the documentary Man in the Glass: The Dale Brown Story. In 2015, ESPN produced a documentary of his time spent with Shaquille O'Neal as his star player at LSU with Shaq & Dale. Brown has written six books, The Four Hurdles OF Life, Words To Lift Your Spirits, A Collection Of Thoughts On Life, Tiger In A Lions Den and Freak Defense. . Personal life Brown married Vonnie Ness who taught international folk dancing at Minot State, Utah State and LSU. She was a cheerleader at Minot State and won the Talent and Miss Congeniality awards in the 1958 Miss North Dakota Pageant. They have one daughter, Robyn Brown Prudhomme, and three grandchildren, Christopher, Peyton, and Cameron. Brown had two older sisters: Lorraine Brown Ahmann (1923–2012) and Eleanor Brown Haider (1924–2015). Summary of Brown's 25 years at LSU: 1972–1997 Brown is the only SEC coach to have ever appeared in 15 straight national tournaments and only 11 coaches in NCAA history have made more consecutive NCAA appearances (10). Only Adolph Rupp of Kentucky has won more games in SEC history. Brown and Rupp are the only SEC coaches that had 17 consecutive non-losing seasons. Only 4 coaches in the SEC have won more conference championships, Adolph Rupp, Joe Hall, Tubby Smith, and Billy Donovan. Only seven coaches in the SEC have led their teams to two Final Fours or more while coaching SEC teams. They are Dale Brown, John Calipari, Billy Donovan, Joe B. Hall, Rick Pitino, Nolan Richardson, and Adolph Rupp. On nine occasions Brown was selected as the SEC Coach of the Year or Runner-Up. He was twice chosen as the National Coach of the Year. In a 10-year span from 1977 to 1986, LSU is the only school to finish in the first division of the SEC. He has the distinction of beating Kentucky 18 times more than any coach in the nation. 115 of 160 of his players received their college degrees. He is a member of the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame and Basketball Coaches Hall of Fame. In 2004, he was inducted as an SEC Living Legend. In 2010, the Tiger Rag, the Bible of LSU sports, ranked Brown in the top 5 of the most influential people in LSU athletics history. He was selected by Bleacher Report as one of the 50 greatest basketball coaches in college basketball history. In 1982, Brown coached the West team in the College All-Star game, defeating the Bob Knight-coached East team, 102–68. In 1990, he coached the South team in the National Olympic Festival, winning the gold medal over the Lon Kruger-coached North team, 95–94. During Brown's era,LSU set the record for the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th largest paid attendance for a regular season game in college basketball history. 1-20-90 Superdome - 68,112 - LSU 87 Notre Dame 64 1-28-89 Superdome - 66,144 - LSU 82 Georgetown 80 1-03-92 Superdome - 61,304 - LSU 84 Texas 83 Accolades Legendary coach John Wooden and Billy Packer, CBS television analyst, have paid Coach Brown wonderful tributes about his career at LSU. Wooden said, "Dale did an outstanding job in raising the level of LSU basketball to the status of equality to anyone in the country. Also, if heads of states throughout this troubled world of ours had real concern and consideration for others as Dale Brown, I doubt if our racial, religious, and political problems would be a major issue." Packer stated, "Dale Brown is one of those rare individuals who has the ability to take on the toughest of tasks regardless of the odds against success and come out a winner. He has proven to be one of college basketball's best and a fine coach and man." On January 4, 2022, LSU inaugurated "Dale Brown Court" as the home venue for the Tigers basketball team in the Pete Maravich Assembly Center. Head coaching record LSU basketball records Most overall wins: 448 Most SEC wins: 238 (second to Adolph Rupp) Most wins in a season: 31 Most consecutive wins in a season: 26 Most consecutive SEC wins in a season: 17 Most consecutive non-losing seasons: 17 (SEC record shared with Adolph Rupp) Most SEC regular season championships: 4 and 4 times runner-up. Only SEC Tournament championship: 1980 Most wins over Kentucky: 18 (of LSU's 27 total, most wins of any coach over Kentucky) Most NCAA Tournament appearances: 13 (of LSU's 22 total) Most consecutive national tournaments: 15 (of LSU's 25 total, SEC record) Most Final Four appearances: 2 (of LSU's 4 total) Most Elite Eight Appearances 4 (of LSU's 6 total) Highest finish in the polls: 2nd in 1980 and 3rd in 1981 Most points in a single game: 159 (SEC record) Played in front of the largest crowd (54,321) at that time to ever watch a regular season game on January 28, 1989, in the Superdome and defeated second- ranked Georgetown, 82–80. In 1990 the Superdome again was the site of a new NCAA regular season paid attendance record of 68,112 when LSU defeated Notre Dame, 87–64 Coaching Honors: 1. On nine occasions selected as SEC Coach of the Year or Runner-up. 2.On seven occasions voted Louisiana College Basketball Coach of the Year. 3.Two times chosen as National College Basketball Coach of the Year.. 4.Member of National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame, Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame, Louisiana Basketball Coaches Hall of Fame, LSU Sports Hall of Fame, SEC Living Legends, and Louisiana Legends. 5. Selected by the Bleacher Report as one of the 50 greatest coaches in college basketball history.. 6. On September 10, 2021, The LSU Board of Supervisors voted to name the basketball court inside the Pete Maravich Assembly Center the "Dale Brown Court". References External links LSU Tigers Athletics – Dale Brown Sports Reference – head coaching record Baton Rouge Christian Life magazine – Memories of family and faith with Coach Dale Brown 1935 births Living people American men's basketball players American men's basketball coaches Basketball coaches from North Dakota Basketball players from North Dakota College basketball announcers in the United States College men's basketball head coaches in the United States High school basketball coaches in California High school basketball coaches in North Dakota LSU Tigers men's basketball coaches Minot State Beavers football players Minot State Beavers men's basketball players Minot State University alumni National Collegiate Basketball Hall of Fame inductees Palm Springs High School people Sportspeople from Minot, North Dakota University of Oregon alumni Utah State Aggies men's basketball coaches Washington State Cougars men's basketball coaches
4787771	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartwright%20Inquiry	Cartwright Inquiry	The Cartwright Inquiry was a committee of inquiry held in New Zealand from 1987 to 1988 that was commissioned by the Minister of Health, Michael Bassett, to investigate whether, as alleged in an article in Metro magazine, there had been a failure to treat patients adequately with cervical carcinoma in situ (CIS) at National Women’s Hospital (NWH) by Herbert Green, a specialist obstetrician and gynaecologist and associate professor at the Postgraduate School of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Auckland. The inquiry was headed by District Court Judge Silvia Cartwright, later High Court Justice, Dame and Governor-General of New Zealand. The Report of the Cervical Cancer Inquiry was released on 5 August 1988. Background A 1984 medical paper published in Obstetrics and Gynecology by colposcopist Bill McIndoe, pathologist Jock McLean and gynaecologist Ron Jones, who were all employed at NWH and colleagues of Green, as well as statistician Peter Mullins, described an audit of 948 women who had been diagnosed with cervical carcinoma in situ (CIS) at New Zealand's National Women's Hospital from 1955 to 1976. The authors retrospectively divided the women with CIS into two groups: those with normal cytology follow-up at two years after initial management (817) and those who continued to have abnormal cytology (positive smears) (131). Among those who continued to have abnormal cytology, a much higher proportion developed invasive cervical or vaginal vault cancer (22% versus 1.5% over five to 28 years). The authors concluded that CIS of the cervix had significant invasive potential. Using that paper, the medical experience of one of Green's patients as a case study (under the pseudonym 'Ruth') and interviews with staff, a freelance journalist, Sandra Coney, and an academic, Phillida Bunkle, published an exposé, 'An "unfortunate experiment" at National Women’s Hospital', in Metro Magazine in June 1987. The article alleged that Green was carrying out research on his patients without their knowledge or consent and that since the mid-1960s, he had been withholding conventional treatment from some patients with CIS. Coney and Bunkle took the title of their article from a 1986 letter in the New Zealand Medical Journal by Professor David Skegg, a University of Otago cancer epidemiologist and expert in population screening in which he referred to "the unfortunate experiment at National Women's Hospital" in his reply to Green about the study. The authors claimed that no one could give them an assurance that the study had been stopped. Publication led to such enormous public outrage and concern that within ten days, the Minister of Health, Michael Bassett, established an inquiry. Green's study In June 1966, Green received permission from the NWH's Senior Medical Staff (SMS) and the Hospital Medical Committee (HMC) to undertake a study of following women with CIS (now, together with severe dysplasia, termed Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia 3, CIN3) without treatment. Green's proposal stated that all patients with a diagnosis of CIS under the age of 35, with positive smears and no colposcopic evidence of invasive cancer and without a ring or cone biopsy, would be followed. The Minutes recorded that Green stated that 'his aim was to attempt to prove that carcinoma-in-situ is not a pre-malignant disease'. He also said that if at any stage concern was felt for the safety of a patient, a cone biopsy would be performed. Green published the evolving results of his study in the natural history of CIS in a series of papers from 1966 to 1975. In 1969, he wrote about his methods more clearly than in his proposal: "In 1965 [sic] the SMS of NWH initiated a project under the supervision of the author, for patients up to 35 years of age whose only abnormal finding was positive cervical cytology.... a histological diagnosis was to be established by punch biopsy of the most colposcopically significant area. Provided the biopsy did not remove the entire significant area, or reveal invasive carcinoma, there was to be no further treatment. As of the end of 1967, 33 such patients were studied." Green reported that none of the patients had been subsequently diagnosed with invasive cancer, as of June 1968. In 1970, Green published further results and described his study: "The only way to settle finally the problem of what happens to in situ cancer is to follow indefinitely patients with diagnosed but untreated lesions. This is being attempted." Again, he recorded no patients developing invasive cancer. A further paper from 1970 provided mathematical estimates of the invasive potential of CIS by using "follow-up observations on 75 patients who were untreated or incompletely treated". No patients were reported to have developed invasive cancer. In the last paper, in 1974, Green again described his study: "This series of 750 cases of in situ cervical cancer, and the following of 96 of them with positive cytology for at least two years, represents the nearest approach yet to the classical method of deciding such an issue as the change of one disease state to another – the randomised controlled trial. It has not been randomised and it is not well controlled, but it has at least been prospective." This time, Green reported that 10 cases had apparently progressed to invasion but that only 2 had "no clinical or histologic doubt." [Only one of the patients was under age 35.] He concluded that the present series "offers little proof of the progression hypothesis." Green published nothing else. A later and separate re-evaluation of the invasive potential of CIS, based on a review of NWH patients' files, was published by McIndoe et al, with very different findings. Inquiry District Court Judge Silvia Cartwright was appointed by warrant dated 10 June 1987 as a Committee of Inquiry to inquire into the treatment of cervical cancer at the National Women's Hospital and other matters. Terms of Reference The Terms of Reference for the Inquiry were to investigate (as alleged in the Metro Article): Whether there was a failure adequately to treat cervical carcinoma in situ at the NWH, and if so, the reasons for that failure and the period for which that failure existed; Whether a research programme into the natural history of CIS of the genital tract was conducted at NWH and, if so: Whether it was approved before being instituted or while it was underway; Whether patients were aware at any stage that they were participants in a research programme; Whether any expressions of concern about the programme were considered and investigated at the time and if so, by whom. Whether there was a need to contact women involved with a view to providing further advice or treatment to them; Whether the National Women's Hospital's procedures for approval of research and/or treatment and its surveillance were adequate, in particular whether they ensure that the rights of patients are protected; What steps, if any, need to be taken to improve the protection of patients in respect of whom research and/or treatment is conducted; Whether the patients at the National Women's Hospital were properly informed of the treatment and options available to them, and, if not, the steps needed to see that they are; The training given to medical students and medical practitioners regarding the proper detection and treatment of cervical cancer and pre-cancerous conditions of the genital tract, and whether steps should be taken to improve this training or to inform previous trainees; To inquire into the relationship between the academic and clinical units at the Hospital Any other matter which is relevant. Procedure of the Inquiry The first preliminary hearing was held on 18 June 1987. Three medical advisers were appointed to assist and advise Judge Cartwright, Professor E V MacKay, Professor of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the University of Queensland, Dr Charlotte Paul, Epidemiologist, University of Otago Medical School and Dr Linda Holloway, Pathologist, University of Otago Wellington School of Medicine. Counsel assisting the Inquiry were Lowell Goddard QC and Philippa Cunningham. Public hearings commenced on 3 August 1987 and ran for seven months. Evidence was heard from 59 witnesses, including from medical experts brought from around New Zealand, as well as from Australia, United States, Japan, UK, and Norway. Twelve patients or former patients, including ‘Ruth’, and two relatives of patients gave evidence in the absence of the public and the media. Judge Cartwright heard evidence privately from a further 70 patients. The medical advisers carried out a review and analysis of patient files. Overall 1200 patient files were reviewed. Report Findings in respect of Green’s study In respect of Term of Reference One (TR1), the Report defined ‘adequate treatment’ of CIS since the 1950s as being that based on generally accepted treatment [at NWH this was cone biopsy] together with evidence of eradication of the disease, and concluded that, by that standard, there had been a failure to adequately treat a number of women with CIS at NWH, For a minority of women, their management resulted in persisting disease, the development of invasive cancer, and in some cases, death. The reasons for the failure were the implementation of the ‘1966 trial’, failure to recognise the dangers for patients, failure to evaluate the risks to patients if Green’s hypothesis was wrong, failure to note the rising incidence of invasive cancer, to stop the trial and treat the patients as soon as cogent evidence of risk began to emerge, and failure on behalf of some colleagues and the NWH administration to impinge on Green’s clinical freedom and act decisively to stop the trial in the interests of patient safety. In respect of TR2, the Report found that the 1966 trial was a research study into the natural history of CIS. The 1966 trial was approved by the NWH Hospital Medical Committee on 20 June 1966.The great majority of patients did not know, except intuitively, that they were participants in the trial. ‘Had patients been informed of their inclusion in the trial, informed of the types of treatment available to them, informed of the risks of procedures that were not conventional, definitive treatment for CIS, and given the opportunity to decide whether or not to be part of the trial, then the trial could not be so severely criticised’. Green’s published work showed evidence of scientific fraud, according to Judge Cartwright. "An analysis of Dr Green’s papers point to misinterpretation or misunderstanding of some data on his part, and on occasions, manipulation of his own data." "The inference to be drawn from Dr Green’s proposal and published papers is that CIS will progress to invasive cancer in only a very small proportion of cases if at all. This inference is incorrect and reliance on it has been dangerous to patients." The New Zealand Medical Council accepted that the 1978 protocols laid down by the Hospital Medical Committee spelt the end of the ‘trial’. The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics published statistics from the late 1970s which showed that the hospital ranked among the best institutions in the world in regard to five-year survival rates for patients with carcinoma of the cervix. The Medical Review A review of case notes by the medical advisors of women with CIS diagnosed from 1955 to 1976 identified women who might require further treatment or advice. The review also examined outcomes within 10 years of diagnosis of cervical CIS. This identified 1965 to 1974 as the time period with "a marked and statistically significant elevation in risk of developing invasion within 1-10 years", compared to time periods before and after, and within one year – the latter "suggesting that management during those years did not result in adequate exclusion of invasive cancer." This implies that new patients were not referred to Green after 1974, though existing patients remained under his care. Other related findings Other unethical practices exposed at the Inquiry were Green's 'baby smears' study, approved by the Hospital Medical Committee in 1963, in which Green proposed to take some two to three thousand cervical smears from newborn baby girls in an attempt to prove that abnormal cells, which might be the forerunner of CIS, might be present at birth in female babies. When news of the neonatal study broke during the Inquiry, there was a public furore, as no provision for parental knowledge or consent had been made. Judge Cartwright heard evidence, also, of disrespectful teaching practices, such as the insertion and removal of intrauterine devices on patients under general anaesthetic for other purposes, and vaginal examinations performed by undergraduates on anaesthetised women, in both cases without their prior knowledge or consent. The Report condemned such practices. Report Recommendations, Resulting Legal Reforms and Other Changes Recommendations in the Report of the Cervical Cancer Inquiry 1988 contributed to sweeping changes in law and practice around health and disability services’ consumers' rights in the 1990s and beyond. An independent patient advocate was to be appointed at National Women’s Hospital, whose duty was to protect the patient and ensure that she received full information and the opportunity to consent to all procedures in which she might participate. In 1989 Lynda Williams was appointed to the position, becoming New Zealand’s first patient advocate. The recommendation for patient advocacy has since been applied generally with a free nationwide health and disability advocacy service, The Cartwright Report recommended that the Human Rights Commission Act 1977 be amended to provide for a statement of patients’ rights, and the appointment of a Health Commissioner. The Code of Health and Disability Services Consumers’ Rights, stating ten rights of health and disability services consumers and correlative duties owed to them by providers, was passed into law in regulations in 1996. The first Health and Disability Commissioner was appointed in 1994. The complaints regime became operational in July 1996. The Cartwright Report recommended setting in place a system of regional ethics committees, focused on the protection of patients, independent of hospitals, of which half the members would be lay people. New Zealand now has a national system of ethics committees, to which research involving health and disability services consumers must be submitted for ethical approval before it can proceed. The Judge recommended the urgent implementation of a nationally organised population-based cervical screening programme, which became operational nationally in 1991. Legal Consequences Attempts to bring Green before medical disciplinary authorities failed because he was deemed, at 74, to be not mentally or physically fit enough to be charged. In 1990 the Medical Council of New Zealand found Professor Denis Bonham (Green's head of department and head of the Postgraduate School) guilty of disgraceful conduct, confirming the factual findings of the Inquiry. In July 1990 two members of a working party charged, in 1975, with investigating complaints about Green’s trial and which recommended continuation, Dr Bruce Faris and Dr Richard Seddon, were each found guilty of ‘conduct unbecoming a medical practitioner’ on charges brought by the Preliminary Proceedings Committee of the Medical Council of New Zealand, despite an earlier attempt to persuade a court to stay the charges failing. Valerie Smith, a friend of Green’s, and his colleague, Dr Bruce Faris filed judicial review proceedings in the High Court, seeking to challenge Judge Cartwright’s findings in the Report. Mr Justice Barber struck out the proceedings by consent. Valerie Smith said "She now realised after listening to the Solicitor General’s submissions that she was wrong in thinking Judge Cartwright had relied on a Metro magazine article in her findings" and realised that Cartwright had not misinterpreted the McIndoe paper. Eventually 19 women who took legal action received compensation in an out-of-court settlement which stated that no fault or liability was admitted by the doctors or the institutions involved. Perspectives on the Inquiry Feminist perspectives The Inquiry was widely celebrated as one of the most important leaps forward in women's rights in New Zealand. In her book, Coney says "There was a danger that this significant event would go down as something to do with doctors and lawyers and that the women who initiated it and saw it through would be, like so many of their foremothers, written out of history." The events surrounding the Committee of Inquiry have international importance as an example of a feminist challenge to patriarchal medical structures. Medical perspectives Coney and Bunkle created the popular groundswell of opinion that led to the Inquiry. The Inquiry hastened the introduction of cervical screening which was already being considered by the Health Department and Cancer Society prior to the Inquiry, following recommendations by a working party chaired by Skegg. Patient perspectives The reforms initiated changes in ethics committees recommended by the Inquiry and introduced the role of the Health and Disability Commissioner six years after the Inquiry. Interpretations of Green's study since the Inquiry Defence of Green’s practices There have been many articles over time in the lay and academic press over the last thirty years, with some believed to take a 'revisionist' view of the Unfortunate Experiment. In 2009 University of Auckland Professor of History, Professor Linda Bryder, published an account of Green’s study, arguing against almost every aspect of the Report, and defending Green's claims to the Inquiry that there was no experiment and that his ‘treatment’ was not ‘unfortunate,’ but was a cautious approach reflective of medical uncertainties relating to the significance of positive smears and concerns about over-treatment. Bryder’s account has been strongly criticised. Complaints to the University of Auckland about Bryder’s interpretation can be found here: http://www.cartwrightinquiry.com/?page_id=92 By contrast to these criticisms, historian of medicine Ilana Lowy who has written extensively on the history of cancer, including cervical cancer, in Britain and Europe, in a review in the book, wrote of Bryder’s ‘careful display of the complexities of the management of uncertainty in treatment of cervical malignancies’, and Cambridge Professor Emeritus of Haemotology Robin Carrell praised the book as ‘an outstanding example of the beneficial function of the medical historian.’ Similarly, Raffle et al support Green’s practices in a new look at the Cartwright Inquiry itself (chapter 8). Case study 8.5 within an international textbook on screening emphasises that Green's vulnerability to attack for his conservative approach stemmed from the worldwide uncertainty of evidence about cervical screening in the 1960s and the lack of agreed policy and quality standards for delivering a programme. The authors conclude that 'the practice that led subsequently to condemnation of Herbert Green was the fact that for several years during the late 1960s he conducted minimal excision by punch or wedge biopsy, with careful follow-up, for symptomless lesions detected through cytology and histology, including for some patients whose lesions were reported as showing evidence of microinvasion. This was at a time when there was ample scientific reason for concern about the damage caused by hysterectomy or cone biopsy and uncertainty about whether immediate use of these procedures was automatically the best thing to do for symptomless lesions, particularly in young women who might want children. Green's practice, although motivated by a desire to avoid unnecessary and damaging interventions in symptomless women, was easy for others to condemn due to the lack of any relevant policy, research, or ethical framework for cervical screening at that time.' The Case study authors note that the number of women managed by limited biopsy alone is shown in Appendix 3 of the Inquiry Report. There were 5 patients managed by limited biopsy only, with no evidence given as to whether any of these 5 patients suffered harm as a result. [Note this number is incorrect. it comes from a list of patients who, at the time of the Inquiry, had still had no further treatment, and were recommended for recall to check on their condition (TR3). See correct details below under "Numbers Harmed"]. Doctors in Denial Dr Ron Jones, whistle blower and an author of the 1984 McIndoe et al paper, published an insider’s account in 2017, having been on the staff of NWH as an obstetrician and gynaecologist from 1973. He notes a systematic failure by medical staff (except the whistle blowers) to address the central issue of patient safety, and records belated acknowledgement by senior medical staff that they turned a blind eye. See Doctors in Denial: The Forgotten Women in the 'Unfortunate Experiment.’ Doctors in Denial was favourably reviewed by bioethicist Carl Elliott in the Boston Review in November 2017. At the 2017 launch of the book, the New Zealand Committee of the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists apologised to Clare Matheson, who was ‘Ruth’ in the Metro article, on behalf of the women involved in the experiment. This was followed in August 2018, some 30 years later, by a written admission and apology to Matheson by the Auckland District Health Board. Matheson died less than a month later. Re-examination of patient data from NWH The New Zealand Cancer Society funded a re-examination of all the patient data, led by Australian epidemiologist Dr Margaret McCredie. This had two aims: (1) to re-examine the invasive potential of CIS of the cervix, collecting new data on invasive cancers and deaths and using censoring techniques; (2) to describe the outcomes for the women who had treatment withheld or delayed, including women with microinvasive cancer. In 2008, Natural history of cervical neoplasia and risk of invasive cancer in women with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 3: a retrospective cohort study was published in Lancet Oncology. The 1229 women whose treatment was reviewed by the judicial inquiry in 1987–88 were included. Outcomes for 1063 (86% of 1229) women diagnosed with CIN3 at the hospital in 1955–76 were identified, after exclusions. In 143 women managed only by punch or wedge biopsy, cumulative incidence of invasive cancer of the cervix or vaginal vault was 31·3% at 30 years, and 50·3% in the subset of 92 such women who had persistent disease within 24 months. However, cancer risk at 30 years was only 0·7% in 593 women whose initial treatment was deemed adequate or probably adequate, and whose treatment for recurrent disease was conventional. In 2010, Consequences in women of participating in a study of the natural history of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 3 was published. Among women diagnosed in 1965–1974, those initially managed by punch or wedge biopsy alone had a cancer risk ten times higher than women initially treated with curative intent. The authors concluded that "during the ‘clinical study’ (1965–1974), women underwent numerous interventions that were aimed to observe rather than treat their condition, and their risk of cancer was substantially increased". In 2018, Outcomes for women without conventional treatment for stage 1A (microinvasive) carcinoma of the cervix was published. The authors concluded that "Women with microinvasive carcinoma were included in a natural history study of CIN3; they underwent numerous procedures designed to observe rather than treat their condition, and had a substantial risk of invasive cancer. Numbers harmed McIndoe et al in 1984 showed that 29 women diagnosed with CIS, and with evidence of ongoing disease, developed invasive cervical cancer and there were 8 deaths. The Medical Review showed a dramatic rise in the number of invasive cancers diagnosed within 10 years in patients with an initial diagnosis of CIS during the time period that Green was recruiting patients for his study (1965-1974, 7.7%) compared to before (1955–64, 1.7%) or after (1975-76, 1.7%). It was estimated that an additional 30 women developed invasive cancer in the middle period. The subsequent re-examination of data from the same women has reaffirmed these findings: unnecessary multiple biopsies intended for diagnosis and not treatment; a total of 35 women with CIS/CIN3 developing invasive cancer who were initially managed by limited biopsy alone; 8 deaths from cervical or vaginal vault cancer among these women, and a further 6 deaths among women first diagnosed with microinvasion who received non-curative treatment. Hence the most conservative estimate of harm is 35 invasive cancers and 14 deaths. This is an underestimate because it does not include the many women who received a ring or cone biopsy or hysterectomy and yet had no treatment for persistent or recurrent disease, including those who were first diagnosed before 1965. The number harmed also does not include invasive cancers and deaths among women with CIS of the vulva. References Bibliography Time-line of events and additional links , at , at Women's rights in New Zealand Gynaecological cancer Medical controversies in New Zealand Commissions and inquiries in New Zealand
4787898	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius%20H.%20Kroehl	Julius H. Kroehl	Julius Hermann Kroehl (in German, Kröhl) (1820 – September 9, 1867) was a German American inventor and engineer. He invented and built the first submarine able to dive and resurface on its own, the Sub Marine Explorer, technically advanced for its era. His achievements in architecture, civil and mechanical engineering were also significant. Origins and personal life Early life Julius Hermann Kröhl was born 1820 in Memel, East Prussia (today Klaipėda in Lithuania). His family moved to Berlin, Kingdom of Prussia around 1828. He arrived in New York City on 29 July 1844 on board the Fairfield. While residing in New York City, he became an American citizen on October 26, 1849, formally renouncing any loyalty to the King of Prussia and taking on the duties of American citizenship. During his civilian employment with the United States Navy, he was referred to as "captain." Using the honorific title of "captain" was usually indicative of holding an officer's commission in foreign army or having served as an officer in a volunteer militia or fire company. In his letter of introduction to Brigadier General Jacob Lauman, his qualifications were described as having served "in the artillery abroad." Family His father was Jacob Kroehl. He was a merchant in Memel. From 1829 to 1833, the family residence was listed as Hausvogteiplatz 11, Berlin, suggesting that the family relocated to the Prussian capitol around that time. His mother, Johann Philipine Dorothea, later immigrated to the United States in 1848, but as the wife of a British merchant, John Heanes. His brother Henry (1819–1890) left to the U.S. in 1838. He had established himself as a merchant, with a business in New York City, and later resided in Asbury Park, New Jersey, after 1870. He was a partner with Otto Dill, until he died in 1861. Henry was married to the former Cornelia Rogers Turfler. Their bodies were buried at Green-Wood Cemetery. Passenger lists and passport records suggest that Henry made a few trips to Germany throughout his life. No other siblings have been identified to this article at this time. William John Kroehl (1816–1879) resided in England from 1836 through the remainder of his life. UK marriage records show a different father; his citizenship petition showed that he came from Memel, and is likely a cousin. He was naturalised a British citizen on 23 January 1849. Otto Sackersdorff (1820–1879) also resided in New York City. Julius Kroehl thought highly of him as evidenced by his will in bequeathing many of his papers and reference books. Otto served in the U.S. Coast Survey around 1854, was active in city politics, and served as an officer of the 5th New York State Militia in 1861 for the protection of the nation's capital during its three-month mobilization. He later served as a surveyor for New York City until the end of his life. Marriage Julius married Sophia Rosa Lueber on November 25, 1858, at Holy Trinity Church of Georgetown in Washington, DC. She was born on August 27. 1832, and was a native of Frederick, Maryland. Her father, Francis Lueber (1791–1852), emigrated from Austria, and was a well-to-do merchant; her mother, Hellen Maria Simpson (1809–1890) came from the District of Columbia and was descended from the original English settlers in Maryland. Julius and Sophia had no children. After Julius' death, his widow did not remarry, but continued to live in Georgetown with her widowed mother, sisters and brother until her death on 29 September 1916, and is buried in Holy Rood Cemetery in Washington. Sophia was the niece of the American portrait artist, James Alexander Simpson, and first cousin to another portrait artist, Charles S. Hein, and his brother, Lt. Col. Otto L. Hein. She was also a distant relative of Raphael Semmes and Mary Jenkins Surratt. Records of the Mount Morris Fire Watchtower also refer to a Nina Kroehl, of unknown relation to Julius. Political activity In late 1853, the Koszta Affair had militated many Americans to form societies supporting the U.S. government's interest against the claims of the Austrian Empire. One such committee, the Society of Universal Democratic Republicanism, grew out of a movement to present Capt. Duncan Ingraham, USN, a medal for protecting Kostza in the port of Smyrna, Turkey. Many members were Forty-Eighters as well as native-born nationalists. One of the aims of the society was to monitor political situations around Europe through committees of correspondence, and note any violation of the rights of naturalized American citizens. Kroehl brought to the attention of the society that one Henry von Rensche was arrested by Prussian authorities for crimes against the Crown despite being a naturalized citizen. The Society of Universal Democratic Republicanism included Charles F. Henningsen, Hugh Forbes and Henry H. Morange as members. Engineering and New York City Kroehl listed himself as a "submarine engineer" on Broad Street in Lower Manhattan during the 1850s. At this time, the term "submarine" referred to anything underwater, and not exclusively to diving vessels. During this time, he was involved in several engineering and technical projects. Photography An 1851 article in Scientific American magazine describes the Fair of the American Institute. One exhibit was of colored photographs by Messrs. Kroehl & Vetter, of No. 499 Broad Street. This does not necessarily mean this was Julius Kroehl. However, when Kroehl was ordered to support Union forces during the Vicksburg Campaign of 1863, he was directed to bring with him photographic equipment after spending one month being trained on their use by members of the U.S. Coast Survey in Washington, DC. His personal effects enumerated at the time of his death included photographic supplies. His proficiency in photographic uses in 1851 was possible. No works are known to have survived. New York Crystal Palace From 1852 to 1853, Kroehl was employed as an assistant engineer during the construction of the New York Crystal Palace. Several assistant engineers were employed to oversee the construction of certain parts of this exhibition hall. He was responsible for the construction of the dome, the building's central feature. For three years after, he was noted as the "engineer of the Crystal Palace." Flange forming machine Kroehl applied for a patent around March 1854 for a flange forming machine. It is described in Scientific American as an improvement in machinery for bending flanges on wrought iron beams. There is a pair of horizontal, and a pair of vertical rollers; the former pair has one roller with a face of the full depth of the beam, and the other has its face the depth of the beam minus the thickness of the flanges. The vertical rollers are both alike, and are of a width a little greater than the extreme width of the flanges. They are arranged opposite the space between the horizontal ones, and work in close contact with the sides of the roller. In order to give the flanges and their beams, a taper or an elliptic, or other curved form, the vertical rollers have flanges, whose faces bear on the edges of the flanges of the beam, and cause the said rollers to receive such a movement in the direction of their axes, and apply such a force I that direction as bends the flanges of the beam to the desired form. Kroehl secured the patent as #12,133 on January 2, 1855. Mount Morris Fire Watchtower The City of New York, in order to improve safety during its growth, laid out a series of fire watch towers. James Bogardus, an innovator of cast iron houses, introduced the first of these towers. One was needed in the Harlem district, which would be situated on an outcropping of rock. On January 14, 1856, the Commissioner of Repairs and Supplies received two bids. Bogardus submitted his usual design at a bid of $5,750, but Kroehl and his partner Peter V. Husted (H&K) won the contract with a lower bid of $2,300; H&K pointed out that the tower need not be as tall, thus saving material and labor. This tower still stands in what is now Marcus Garvey Memorial Park. Comparing the structure and techniques of this tower with those designed and constructed by Bogardus show many similarities, especially in the method of bolting joints together. In April 1857, Bogardus sued the Mayor, Aldermen and Commonalty of the City of New York, claiming a patent infringement (#7,337). He cited that he was entitled to a royalty payment of $289, plus actual damages of $20,000. The jury agreed that he was entitled to the royalty payment, but not to the damages. Bogardus appealed the ruling to the U.S. Supreme Court, but Supreme Court Chief Justice Roger B. Taney upheld the ruling on appeal. Vanderbilt Rock On 21 May 1853, Cornelius Vanderbilt's yacht, the North Star, ran aground on Corlear's Hook and had to go back to dry dock for repairs, though no material damage was sustained. The area was then called "Vanderbilt Rock" with the expectation that City and State officials would arrange its removal as a hazard to navigation. For over a year, no action was taken. Later, H&K received a contract and they promptly removed the obstruction. Diamond Reef The maritime hazard of Diamond Reef lies at the entrance to the East River between Governor's Island and Lower Manhattan. Benjamin Maillefert was favored to win the contract based on his experience with underwater demolition and salvage. He attempted in 1851 to reduce this underwater obstacle by blasting. This effort was accomplished by lowering a canister of powder onto the rock at flood tide, then backing away a safe distance, detonating it with a galvanic battery. However, this was not yet deemed sufficient, and another bid was undertaken a few years later. Kroehl & Husted was one among five bidders. The Common Council awarded the contract to H&K, but Mayor Fernando Wood vetoed the contract on August 7, 1855, citing that the Council did not have the authority to award contracts, since such authority resides with the Street Commissioner. After appeals and new bidding, H&K was awarded the contract without further dispute, and proceeded to remove the underwater hazard. Blasting operations continued every year, except during the winter months, until 1860. Merlin Rock Peter Cooper, as president of the New York and Newfoundland Telegraph Company, hired H&K to blast Merlin Rock, which lies at the western end of the narrows in St. John's Harbor, in June 1855. They were successful in accomplishing the work by August of that year, to the contracted clearance of 27 feet. Outfitting the Paraguay Expedition of 1858 During the demolition of Diamond Reef, H&K provided underwater explosives to the U.S. Navy for clearing obstructions in the Platte, Parana and Paraguay Rivers, should the ships encounter any. The items were provided to the steamer USS Memphis. Norfolk Navy Yard On 1 July 1859, F.W. Parmenter, a machinist from Troy, New York, contracted with the Navy Department to construct, erect and complete an iron roof for the victualling house at Norfolk Naval Shipyard in the amount of $18,000. Julius H. Kroehl and Sidney D. Roberts served as sureties for the contract. However, monies appropriated for the project were spent elsewhere, so worked dragged through 1861, with work being performed with the assurance that the U.S. Congress will appropriate supplemental funds. But the seizure of Norfolk by Confederate forces in April 1861 forestalled final completion of the project, with an amount owed to Parmenter. In 1874 and 1876, House Committee reports for private relief recommended that the outstanding amounts be paid. American Civil War Julius Hermann Kroehl served in the Union Navy during the American Civil War. Corps of Pontoniers In May 1861, Alexander Asboth proposed to the War Department for the formation of an all-arms brigade consisting of infantry, cavalry, artillery, engineers and pontoniers. The main portion would have consisted of d'Utassy's 39th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment – the Garibaldi Guards – and von Steinwehr's 29th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment – the Astor Rifles – along with a corps of engineers and another of pontoniers. Julius Kroehl was proposed as the captain of the corps of pontoniers. However, Asboth's proposal was not accepted and the venture went no further. Locomotive No. 160 After the Union Army occupied Alexandria, Virginia in May 1861, military authorities requested the transfer of locomotives to that town in support of the upcoming campaign in northern Virginia. The Pennsylvania Railroad contributed six locomotives. These had to be ferried on a barge from Washington, DC, to Alexandria. In June 1861, Locomotive No. 160 and its tender fell into the Potomac River near Alexandria in 40 feet of water when a sudden squall caused the barge to shift its cargo. In early July 1861, Julius Kroehl, representing his firm of H&K, successfully recovered the locomotive and its tender. New Orleans Kroehl's first service for the Union was not as a soldier, but as a civilian contractor. On February 2, 1862, he received a contract to perform minesweeping in the Lower Mississippi River. His primary task was to remove the chain barrier stretching between Fort Jackson and Fort St. Philip. This was not successful, due to trying to move the bomb-vessel upstream against a strong current. After the fall of New Orleans, his services were dismissed on May 20, 1862 He provided a report to Navy Secretary Gideon Welles on submarine operations on June 2, 1862, after his return to New York City. James River and Cape Fear His services were still in demand. First, he demonstrated the use of electric torpedoes (mines) to be used in the James River. Later, both Admirals David Dixon Porter and Samuel P. Lee requested his services. He received a commission as an Acting Volunteer Lieutenant in the United States Navy on December 12, 1862. He was first assigned to Admiral Lee's North Atlantic Blockading Squadron off Wilmington, North Carolina. Attempts to use his torpedoes either to remove obstructions near Fort Caswell or supplement the blockade were stillborn. On January 1, 1863, he received orders to report to Admiral Porter for service in the Mississippi River Squadron. Mississippi River and the Vicksburg Campaign Kroehl served as a member of Admiral Porter's personal staff aboard the USS Black Hawk. His duties appear to be varied, responding to Porter's needs at the time: First, working with the U.S. Coast Survey in developing navigation charts of the Mississippi to support naval operations. Second, developing strategies to use torpedoes to destroy enemy vessels and underwater obstructions. During the Steele's Bayou Expedition he sank a coal barge on his own initiative which allowed the Union ships to retreat from a tenuous position. Later, he was assigned to work with the U.S. Artillery of Lauman's division during the siege of Vicksburg (June 6, 1863) until the end of the siege on July 4, 1863. During this time, he contracted malaria, and was honorably discharged on August 8, 1863, after being sent back to New York City by way of Cairo, Illinois. He recuperated at his brother's home. He recovered well enough to continue his civilian occupation as a submarine engineer, but was still suffering from it when he left for Central America. Pearl fishing in Panama 1864 Kroehl became chief engineer and shareholder of the Pacific Pearl Company. He built the Sub Marine Explorer in 1865. He successfully tested his craft in May 1866 at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. Later, in March 1867, he, with his crew and submarine, shipped out to Panama. He supervised its transport by rail once at Aspinwall (now Colón), and the vessel's reassembly at the Pacific side of the country. Kroehl died on September 9, 1867, in Panama City, Panama, United States of Colombia, with death being attributed to "fever," and was buried there. It has been speculated that he died of decompression sickness, during experimental dives with the Sub Marine Explorer. However, the symptoms of decompression sickness do not match that of malaria. His widow, Sophia, argued that his death was from service-related malaria, citing witnesses who knew him during the Vicksburg campaign as well as medical statements. Kroehl's body was buried in the Cementerio de Extranjeros (Foreigners' Cemetery), located in the Chorrillo district of Panama City, Republic of Panama. These cemeteries are reserved for Protestants, and Freemasons of any religious affiliation. Thomas Kilby Smith was the United States Consul who inventoried his possessions and reported the death. On October 11, 2018, Kroehl's remains were exhumed to confirm his identity and the reason for his death. As a Civil War veteran, his remains are expected to be re-interred in the Corozal American Cemetery, near the Panama Canal. Widow's pension Sophia was in a financially desperate situation. With over $40,000 tied up in a submarine that was left on Isla San Telmo, there was essentially no income. Any royalties from patents were expiring. She wrote to Admiral Porter for assistance. He provided her a letter of introduction, which probably resulted in her employment with the U.S. Department of the Treasury. However, attempts to collect on a pension for widows were thwarted by the circumstances of Julius' death. The Pension Bureau assumed that the death was a result of the Panamanian environment. Sophia had to prove that the death was malaria, and that the malaria resulted from his military service. Attempts in 1880 and 1890 generated much paperwork, with sworn statements from neighbors attesting to their marriage and that she had not remarried, from Henry Kroehl about Julius' condition upon his discharge, a doctor's statement that he was diagnosed with malaria, and a statement from Alexander Strausz who served with him at Vicksburg. On top of that, she even had Archbishop John Ireland of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of St. Paul, Minnesota, to lobby personally with the bureau. At first, the Bureau turned down the appeals. However, a few months before she died, her pension was increased substantially, indicating that she at one time proved her case. Conclusion While researching records about Kroehl, statements about him have varied from being "a good officer, and a fine man, and under any circumstances would have sacrificed his life in the cause of his country" (Admiral Porter in widow's pension application) to being a "failure" (Admiral David Farragut). He had been cited in several Northern newspapers from the 1850s until his death. See also German inventors and discoverers References Notes Bibliography Delgado, James P. 2006. "Archaeological Reconnaissance of the 1865 American-Built Sub Marine Explorer at Isla San Telmo, Archipielago de las Perlas, Panama" International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 35 (2), 230–252. Delgado James P. 2012. Misadventures of a Civil War Submarine: Iron, Guns, and Pearls. Texas A&M University Press. 184pp. . Kahn, David. 1976. "Bogardus, Fire and the Iron Tower." Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. XXXV, No. 3, October 1976 Gayle, Margot and Gayle, Carol. 1998. Cast-Iron Architecture in America: The Significance of James Bogardus. New York: WW Norton & Company. 272 pp. Greenberg, Stephen. History of Medicine Division, National Library of Medicine, NIH. Technical Question. 22 June 2007. Email statement: "I do not see how they could have been confused. Malaria is a chronic fever, caused by a microorganism that is suppressed but not cured by quinine. Malaria attacks could easily become worse if the patient was reinfected by a trip to Panama. Even in the 1860s, malaria was easily distinguishable from yellow fever. Yellow fever is not a chronic disease. The victim has a single acute episode, with liver complications (hence the yellow skin color). If you survive the attack, you are immune to later episodes. Decompression sickness is acute, very painful, but would not show the fever or liver symptoms associated with malaria or yellow fever. The doctors at the time may not have known the precise causes of the three conditions, but it is inconceivable to me that they might confuse them." And a follow-up email from the same day: "Decompression sickness, or caisson disease, or "the bends" was first documented in the 1840s. A competent doctor could not mistake this condition for malaria or some other tropical fever. I notice the article doesn't actually say malaria - - -it says "fever." There are dozens. Don't sell the doctors of the 1860s and 70s short. They knew the difference between malaria, decompression sickness, heart attack, stroke, etc. They didn't always know causality, but they were good diagnosticians. I also note that there is no description of Kroehl's last dive. Was he found dead when the sub surfaced? Was there a coroner's inquest? How long did it take "all the other divers" to die? How big was the crew? If it was powered by human muscle (like the Hunley), one man could not have moved it very far. Did anyone else die the day that Kroehl died?" Hein, Otto L. 1925. Memories of Long Ago. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. Röbel, Sven. 2006. “The Secret of the Pearl Islands: Early Submarine Discovery”. Der Spiegel (ON LINE), 21 April 2006. Theberge, Albert E. 1997. The Coast Survey 1807-1867. 623 pp. -Includes references to Kroehl while serving in the US Navy in 1863. Cornell University’s Making of America collection: a. Scientific American - articles relating to patent and Diamond Reef b. MacLeod, Xavier Donald, 1856. Biography of Hon. Fernando Wood, Mayor of the City of New-York. 350 pp. c. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington: Government Printing Office. - Assignment with the Army during the siege of Vicksburg. d. The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies. Washington: Government Printing Office. - Service with the US Navy as both a contractor and as a commissioned officer. Kroehl-Olin Families Genealogy on Genealogy.com Court of Common Pleas (NYC), B91, R57 – US Citizenship proceedings United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) Website search United States Bureau of Pensions, Widow's Pension File for Sophia Kroehl, Certificate 5096 General sources Brooklyn Daily Eagle – various articles Chicago Tribune – various articles New York Times – various articles on Diamond Reef, New Orleans campaign and the Pacific Pearl Company. 1820 births 1867 deaths American naval architects Submarine pioneers People from Klaipėda People from East Prussia Prussian emigrants to the United States 19th-century German inventors 19th-century American inventors American marine engineers People from Georgetown (Washington, D.C.)
4788082	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roxxon%20Energy%20Corporation	Roxxon Energy Corporation	The Roxxon Energy Corporation (otherwise known as the Roxxon Oil Company, Roxxon Oil Corporation, Roxxon Corporation or simply Roxxon) is the name of a fictional massive petroleum industrial conglomerate in the Marvel Universe appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The company is depicted as having been run by various executives who are typically ready and eager to use any underhanded and illegal option to secure profits, up to and including violent crimes. As such, Roxxon is a consistent opponent of various superheroes. The company has appeared in various media adaptations as well as many television shows and films set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Publication history The Roxxon Energy Corporation first appeared in Captain America #180 (December 1974), and was created by Steve Englehart and Sal Buscema. Fictional company history Originating sometime during the early 20th century as Republic Oil & Gas Co. and having rebranded itself at various times, Roxxon has been run by various executives who are ready and eager to use underhanded and illegal option to secure profits, has its own army-like security task force, and has employed a number of special agents. Roxxon has encountered numerous superheroes, such as Captain America, Iron Man, Spider-Man, and the Black Panther. The Roxxon conglomerate's central division is Roxxon Oil. The company currently wholly owns the Kronas Corporation and the Metrobank while the Brand Corporation is another for-profit company that has specialized in creating superhumans and is usually considered a subsidiary that has sometimes made its own decisions and acted independently. Roxxon has also regularly been at odds regarding energy sources with Project Pegasus, which has been involved in alternative energy research that could hurt Roxxon's oil profitability. Roxxon is also shown to have previously had a mining operation on Mars, but (due to unexplained circumstances) halted the operation and erased all traces of everyone involved. Roxxon Energy Corporation (alongside Alchemax and Hammer Industries) was mentioned to have once tried to bid on the renovated Baxter Building only to be outbid by Parker Industries. Roxxon is revealed to be orchestrating the young superheroes being falsely outlawed by the public. Having acquired the dragons from War of the Realms event, their first step was to get rid of the high schooler Aliana Kabua. Although Kamala Khan got injured from saving Aliana, Roxxon begin to shift the blame to the Champions for the damage they never started. While forming a partnership with Senator Geoffrey Patrick and C.R.A.D.L.E., Roxxon manipulates them into unknowingly furthering their shady businesses, such as permanent imprisonment, brainwashing and unethical experimentation, as well as possibly kidnapping of the kids who oppose the unjust law. Viv Vision, who survived Roxxon's assault on Aliana, had been monitoring her fellow younger superheroes, but discovers that she is unintentionally selling her friends to C.R.A.D.L.E. and Roxxon. Once the Champions reveals Roxxon's conspiracy to Senator Patrick and the public, the senator finally begins to repeal the unjust law, ending the partnership with Roxxon, and clearing Kamala's name while re-evaluating his business dealings. Later, Miles Morales and Sam Alexander go undercover as interns, prior to being suggested to hire Kamala Kahn. While Roxxon attempts to cover up their illegal activity by releasing a social app called "Roxx-On", a Champion and a former prisoner of C.R.A.D.L.E.'s harassment, Snowguard rallies a group of mobs because they still openly do not trust Roxxon for their previous activities. Much worst, Roxxon already hired Ironheart's nemesis from Stark Unlimited, Andre Sims, in an attempt to collect data to dispose of those who are deemed threats to its business. He replaced young superheroes with his Chaperon robots to ensure the unjust Kamala's Law remains active. During Roxx-On concert, Roxxon lost its public trust thanks to Kamala's public speech about the company's ongoing shady business, thus repealing Kamala's Law and disbanding C.R.A.D.L.E.. However, Roxxon's reputation becomes worst when Andre attempts to dispose of young people like the Champions because of his personal issues, but is immediately stopped by Roxxon's higher-up Miriam Blakemoore. After that, Roxxon finally makes a public speech to apologize for their actions and takes responsibility for Andre's crime. Subsidiaries Republic Oil and Gas Company - Roxxon's predecessor. Brand Corporation - A scientific research and development firm which has conducted many projects for the federal government. The Brand Corporation also worked in robotics and interdimensional exploration. Cybertek Systems Inc. - A cybernetic research division of Roxxon that serves as its prosthetic and robotics facility. It was later enhanced to reverse-engineer the cyborg Deathlok. Kronas Corporation - A company that was founded by Aleksander Lukin. Metrobank - Members Executives Pierce Benedict - Director of seagoing operations. Douglas Bravner - Sunturion Project executive. August D'Angelo - Chairman of the board of directors. Jonas "Jonah" Hale - Director of Research, as well as the former chief operations director of Roxxon's predecessor, the Republic Oil and Natural Gas. His schemes were ruined by Iron Man, the first was mining a small island in the Atlantic Ocean with vibranium, and the second was while as a supervisor of The Star Well I (Roxxon's satellite). Hale developed a new form of vibranium called Nuform which turned out to be unstable despite being presented as a suitable substitute, resulting in the Kingpin and Ultron believing that Nuform would be stable but are repelled by Iron Man, the Black Panther and Spider-Man. Hale also conspired with Carlton Drake of the Life Foundation. Samuel Higgins - The Facility Director in Denver. He utilized James Hudson as a power source following his return from Quwrlln. Samuel later recruited Madison Jeffries to assist Windshear on a mission and also presided over the facility developing Omega-32, which was raided by the Beetle. Henry Mason - Vice-President of Roxxon. Carrington Pax - Executive in Roxxon's West Coast division. Huck Petrie - Negotiator of Roxxon. Brian Sagar - Vice-President of Roxxon. Mike Tappan - Associate director of Roxxon's Los Angeles division. Minotaur / Dario Agger - The new CEO of Roxxon. Former executives Michael Brady - Executive of Roxxon's Chemical Division. Clayton Burr - Vice President for Roxxon's international development. He supervised Cybertek. Brandon Chambers - Executive of Roxxon. He sponsored his brother Phillip's DNA experiments, not realizing that their other brother Mitchell was the subject. Mr. Clarkson - Vice President of Roxxon's Texas division. He was killed by Crossbones. Ian Forbes - Director of Roxxon's Belfast facility. Calvin Halderman - President of Roxxon. Curtis Henshaw - Executive of the R&D section at Roxxon's Bolivian facility. Jerome "Jerry" Jaxon - Associate Vice President of Special Developments. Hugh Jones - Owner, President, and CEO of Roxxon. Alexander Jones - The founder and first chairman of Roxxon's predecessor, the Republic Oil and Gas Company. The wealthy oil tycoon founded the company in 1932 as a small business selling engineered oil before being bought by other companies in 1933. Jones ordered the digging of 1,000 acres of land in southern Indiana in 1937. It discovered massive oil amounts and sold the oil to other gas stations and petroleum companies, effectively making it a powerful oil company and turning Jones into a multi-millionaire. John T. Gamelin - Director of Foreign Operations, and later the President of the Roxxon Oil Company. He has Hellrazor masquerade as the Black Panther while conspiring with Thomas Agar to discredit Wakanda and obtain vibranium, but the scheme is exposed by Spider-Man and the real Black Panther. Gamelin was also in charge of the Brand Corporation. Gamelin's early appearances never showed his face, just a silhouette of a man wearing eyeglasses and smoking a pipe. Terence Gerard - Don Kaminski - President of Roxxon. Reuben Kincaid - Executive of Roxxon. He was murdered by Michael Brady. Simon Krieger - Vice President of Roxxon's predecessor Republic Oil & Natural Gas. He had arranged the murders of Howard Stark and Maria Stark as part of an attempted takeover of Stark Industries. Krieger next impersonated Tony Stark in order to fool Happy Hogan and Pepper Potts before holding hostages on the Helicarrier but gets exposed by Iron Man, and is killed while in jail. Linden Laswell - Executive of Roxxon's Latveria project. Aleksander Lukin - Owner of Roxxon Energy Corporation via Kronas Corporation while secretly acting as the Winter Soldier's handler. Magma / Jonathan Darque - Project head of Roxxon's division in Temple Corners, VA. Staff Bill - Helicopter pilot for Roxxon's Long Island division. Carson - A security operative. Chester - A floating oil refinery worker for Roxxon Oil. Chief Compton - Supervisor of Roxxon's underground NYC facility. Larry Curtiss - A security operative. Davis - A scientist who is an assistant to Jonas Harrow. Delvecchio - Member of Roxxon's underground NYC facility. Jim Dworman - Former Cybertek programmer. He was in charge of Cybertek's shutdown. Gail - Secretary to Carrington Pax. Gordon - Member of Roxxon's underground NYC facility. Grist - Member of Roxxon's underground NYC facility security. Jake - A security guard at Roxxon's Denver division. Joe - A floating oil refinery worker. Juan - An executive assistant to Hale in Roxxon's San Francisco division. Ms. Loring - A scientist under Hale and participator in the Nuform project. Missy - A Roxxon agent. Patrick Nestor - Roxxon's company spokesman. Dr. Malachi Oz - A scientist. Riki - A boardroom chair at One Roxxon Plaza. Sepulchre / Jillian Woods - An agent for Roxxon Blackridge. Cindy Shelton - Roxxon's lead researcher. "Agger" - An assistant to Huck Petrie. Raymond Sikorski - A recruiter with Roxxon Blackridge. Miss Simpkins - A secretary at Hydropolis. Dr. Ella Sterling - A scientist contractor of Roxxon. She took part in Roxxon's archaeological expedition which resulted in her colleague turned into a Wendigo but is saved by Hulkverine. Sterling is safe thanks to Hulkverine and Doctor Strange fighting the Wendigo, eventually killing the creature. Sterling later runs into Sonia Sung while looking for Hulkverine who throws Sonia and Sterling safely away from Roxxon's capture of Hulkverine. Sterling and Sonia infiltrates Roxxon's facility to help Hulkverine escape from Dario Agger's clutches. Michael Thomas - A sleeper agent working at Stark International. Ulik - Originally hired by Dario Agger to help level Broxton, hired to be a consultant on the "Inter-Realm Investment Division". Walter - An executive assistant to President Gamelin. Alvie Walton - Member at Roxxon's Snow Valley service station. Chief Wyngard - Roxxon's underground NYC facility supervisor. Former staff Cary Albertson - A scientist on the bio-chip project at Roxxon's Sault Ste. Marie facility. Babs Bendix - A secretary. Blair - An agent of Roxxon. Kenneth H. Bradley - A covert operative and former Brand security member. Phillip Chambers - A Roxxon scientist. Danger Man / Dan Jermain - A former security inspector for Roxxon. Milica Radanovic - A Roxxon scientist specializing in isotope gas chromotography and as mentioned by Mrs. Haggert. Abner Doolittle - An Nth Command scientist. Roberta "Bobbie" Haggert - A scientist on Roxxon's Omega-32 project. She was assassinated by the Scourge. Seth Hanks - A child savant and unwilling employee of Roxxon. Paul Hazlett - A scientist. Kelly - A security guard at Roxxon's underground NYC facility. Kristy - An assistant to Mr. Clarkson. She was murdered by Sin and Crossbones. Lewis - A security guard at Roxxon's underground NYC facility. Alexander Lipton - A scientist. He was murdered. Mischa and Yuri - Roxxon's biochemists. Moyer - An agent of Roxxon. Duncan O'Neill - A mole within MI-5: British Secret Agent 003. Dr. Karl Clark - One of the lead engineers of Roxxon. Died in 1987 from lung cancer after being exposed to radiation while working in one of Roxxon's plants. Schroeder - A security guard at Roxxon's underground NYC facility. Jack Rollins - A sleeper agent for Nick Fury. Steve - A security guard at Long Island Research Complex. Super-operatives Delphine Courtney - An assistant to Jerry Jaxon. Cypress - An assassin. He targeted Mikhail and Yuri, but was opposed by Meggan and Shadowcat. Dogs of War - Agents of Simon Krieger. Afghan - Bulldog - Doberman - Greyhound - Labrador - Mastiff - Rottweiler - Shepherd - Wolfhound - Grasshopper / Douglas Taggert - Armored security. Grasshopper / Neil Shelton - Armored security. Killer Shrike / Simon Maddicks - Bodyguard of Brand's Jersey branch leader James Melvin. Manticore - A Brand Corp. criminal with a battlesuit replacing his amputated legs. Jason Quartermaster - A superhuman scientist. He worked for Rand-Meachum and was a double agent for Roxxon. He was knocked into his own universal solvent by Luke Cage. Saboteur - An armored agent. She acted as an agent of Republic Oil and Natural Gas in an attempt to sabotage Stark Industries but was defeated by Iron Man. She would later be killed by the Grim Reaper. Serpent Squad - Anaconda / Blanche "Blondie" Sitznski - Black Mamba / Tanya Sealy - Death Adder / Roland Burroughs - Sidewinder / Seth Voelker - S.H.I.E.L.D. Mandroids - Stratosfire / Sandy Vincent - Roxxon's superhuman secretary. She was empowered in a similar manner to Sunturion but acted as a hero to improve Roxxon's public image. She was killed by Sunturion activating Roxxon's Zed Control Unit within her armour. Windshear / Colin Ashworthe Hume - An enhanced mutant. Ogre, Razor Wire and Lightning Fist - Three costumed operatives protecting the company's interests on the island nation of Taino in the Caribbean Sea. They are consumed and destroyed by a mutated zombie virus, and the airborne virus reconstructs their bodies into a skeletal being, which is later destroyed by the Man-Thing. Strikeforce B.E.R.S.E.R.K.E.R. - A small platoon of Roxxon's most elite of elite special forces strictly loyal to the company and its shady designs. After hearing Loki's tale, Dario Agger had them drink blood from the heart of a burning dragon, turning them into mystical Hulk-like creatures with strength, toughness and a warrior's fury comparable to both gods and monsters. Hired agents Thomas Agar - Assault and Battery - Anton Aubuisson - A mercenary of Roxxon who massacres a tribe of Anuquit natives in order to build an oil pipeline but gets thwarted by War Machine. Coldblood-7 - Firebolt - He was hired to destroy the experiments at Project: PEGASUS. Fixer - Flag-Smasher - A mind-controlled operative. Dr. Jonas Harrow - scientist at Rye Research Facility and Roxxon's underground NYC facility. Hellrazor - Ivory - Mad Dog / Col. Buzz Baxter - Mycroft - Omega Flight - Overrider - Former S.H.I.E.L.D. agent with the ability to control machinery. Smokescream - Spymaster - He was hired by Roxxon to kill the Ghost. Was apparently killed by the Ghost, but later turned up alive. Voice - Jennifer Walters / She-Hulk - An attorney. Ghost - The Grapplers - They made an attempt to ransack Project: PEGASUS. Modular Man - A physicist at Roxxon's Brand Corporation. Nth Man - He was about to destroy what remained of the Project. He was also halted. Orka - He battled the Avengers in Jamaica, Queens. Squadron Supreme - Sunturion / Arthur Dearborn - Tarantula / Anton Miguel Rodriguez - Will o' the Wisp - He had his molecules torn apart after Brand's experiment went haywire and was put together by Spider-Man and Dr. Marla Madison. He is still seeking revenge on Brand. Other versions Amalgam Comics Roxxon exists in the Amalgam Universe and is similar to the main Roxxon. Roxxon 2099 In the Marvel 2099 future, Roxxon is still one of the major corporations alongside such as Alchemax. Transformers UK Roxxon exists in the Transformers 120185 reality. Professor Peter Anthony Morris was working for them in Oregon, where he came up with the theory that the Transformers were controlled by oil tycoon G.B. Blackrock. He accidentally kills a Roxxon security guard. Ultimate Marvel The Ultimate Marvel version of the Roxxon Corporation is responsible for various immoral activities and is led by inept heir Donald Roxxon. Elijah Stern discovered a way to use vibranium as a power source for the company, but gets fired so Roxxon could take all the credit. This led to villains Vulture, Killer Shrike and Omega Red being sent to harass Donald. Herman Schultz had gotten a hold of design weapons for Roxxon before employment was terminated. The Roxxon Corporation later got a hold to a sample of the Venom Symbiote which was targeted by the Beetle. When the original Spider-Man fought the Beetle and the vial containing the sample broke, the sample was rendered worthless. During the Ultimate Enemy storyline, Roxxon Corporation's compound was destroyed by a bio-mass that was secretly created by Reed Richards. Following the Ultimate Mystery storyline, Roxxon Corporation assembles their personal Roxxon Brain Trust consisting of Doctor Octopus, Dr. Arnim Zola III, Layla Miller, Misty Knight, Samuel Sterns and Nathaniel Essex. The Roxxon Brain Trust was charged with the duty of figuring out the attack that was done to the Baxter Building. Roxxon Corporation was then attacked by the same entity that crushed the entire building. The Roxxon Corporation secretly used guinea pigs in experiments as super-soldiers (i.e. Bombshell, Spider-Woman, and Cloak and Dagger), as well as an experiment to restore the Venom Symbiote, which gets stolen by Roxxon's biochemist Dr. Conrad Markus. When the new Spider-Man and a group of amateur superheroes all realize they're guinea pigs/super-soldiers, Donald is defeated by Spider-Man and was arrested by S.H.I.E.L.D. In other media Television Roxxon appears in Avengers Assemble, with Roxxon guards voiced by David Kaye, Fred Tatasciore and Jim Meskimen. Marvel Cinematic Universe The Roxxon Corporation appears in live-action media set within the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Video games A Roxxon building appears in the background of Spider-Man. A Roxxon building appears in Spider-Man: Web of Shadows. The Roxxon Corporation appears in the Iron Man 2. The Roxxon Corporation appears in Spider-Man: Shattered Dimensions. The Ultimate Marvel incarnation of Roxxon appears in Ultimate Spider-Man: Total Mayhem. The Roxxon Corporation appears in Lego Marvel Super Heroes, with Roxxon guards serving as playable characters. The Roxxon Corporation appears in Spider-Man: Miles Morales. Roxxon's head of R&D Simon Krieger commissioned the company's headquarters in Harlem, Roxxon Plaza, which is powered by the clean energy source Nuform. Roxxon also employs a mercenary security force and supervillains such as the Rhino and the Prowler as enforcers. Furthermore, Roxxon's corporate corruption resulted in Nuform's creator Rick Mason trying to expose its deadly properties before being killed by Krieger, who took credit for Nuform. This led to Rick's sister Phin adopting the Tinkerer alias and taking over the Underground criminal group to seek revenge on Roxxon and Krieger. A violent conflict breaks out between the two groups, which Spider-Man works to contain. Amidst this, The Tinkerer also seeks to utilize Roxxon Plaza's Nuform reactor to destroy it. However, Spider-Man foils the plot by absorbing the reactor's energy. Phin then helps Spider-Man safe releasing the energy above Harlem, sacrificing herself in the process and destroying Roxxon Plaza. Danika Hart later reports that Roxxon received several lawsuits and Krieger was arrested. See also Alchemax Corporation Cross Technological Enterprises Oscorp Parker Industries Stark Industries References External links Roxxon at Marvel.com Roxxon Energy Corporation at Marvel Wiki Cybertek Systems Inc. at Marvel Wiki Roxxon Corporation (Ultimate Marvel) at Marvel Wiki Fictional organizations in Marvel Comics
4788141	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA%20oxidation	DNA oxidation	DNA oxidation is the process of oxidative damage of deoxyribonucleic acid. As described in detail by Burrows et al., 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG) is the most common oxidative lesion observed in duplex DNA because guanine has a lower one-electron reduction potential than the other nucleosides in DNA. The one electron reduction potentials of the nucleosides (in volts versus NHE) are guanine 1.29, adenine 1.42, cytosine 1.6 and thymine 1.7. About 1 in 40,000 guanines in the genome are present as 8-oxo-dG under normal conditions. This means that >30,000 8-oxo-dGs may exist at any given time in the genome of a human cell. Another product of DNA oxidation is 8-oxo-dA. 8-oxo-dA occurs at about 1/10 the frequency of 8-oxo-dG. The reduction potential of guanine may be reduced by as much as 50%, depending on the particular neighboring nucleosides stacked next to it within DNA. Excess DNA oxidation is linked to certain diseases and cancers, while normal levels of oxidized nucleotides, due to normal levels of ROS, may be necessary for memory and learning. Oxidized bases in DNA More than 20 oxidatively damaged DNA base lesions were identified in 2003 by Cooke et al. and these overlap the 12 oxidized bases reported in 1992 by Dizdaroglu. Two of the most frequently oxidized bases found by Dizdaroglu after ionizing radiation (causing oxidative stress) were the two oxidation products of guanine shown in the figure. One of these products was 8-OH-Gua (8-hydroxyguanine). (The article 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine refers to the same damaged base since the keto form 8-oxo-Gua described there may undergo a tautomeric shift to the enol form 8-OH-Gua shown here.) The other product was FapyGua (2,6-diamino-4-hydroxy-5-formamidopyrimidine). Another frequent oxidation product was 5-OH-Hyd (5-hydroxyhydantoin) derived from cytosine. Removal of oxidized bases Most oxidized bases are removed from DNA by enzymes operating within the base excision repair pathway. Removal of oxidized bases in DNA is fairly rapid. For example, 8-oxo-dG was increased 10-fold in the livers of mice subjected to ionizing radiation, but the excess 8-oxo-dG was removed with a half-life of 11 minutes. Steady-state levels of DNA damage Steady-state levels of endogenous DNA damages represent the balance between formation and repair. Swenberg et al. measured average amounts of steady state endogenous DNA damages in mammalian cells. The seven most common damages they found are shown in Table 1. Only one directly oxidized base, 8-hydroxyguanine, at about 2,400 8-OH-G per cell, was among the most frequent DNA damages present in the steady-state. Increased 8-oxo-dG in carcinogenesis and disease As reviewed by Valavanidis et al. increased levels of 8-oxo-dG in a tissue can serve as a biomarker of oxidative stress. They also noted that increased levels of 8-oxo-dG are frequently found associated with carcinogenesis and disease. In the figure shown in this section, the colonic epithelium from a mouse on a normal diet has a low level of 8-oxo-dG in its colonic crypts (panel A). However, a mouse likely undergoing colonic tumorigenesis (due to deoxycholate added to its diet) has a high level of 8-oxo-dG in its colonic epithelium (panel B). Deoxycholate increases intracellular production of reactive oxygen resulting in increased oxidative stress, and this may contribute to tumorigenesis and carcinogenesis. Of 22 mice fed the diet supplemented with deoxycholate, 20 (91%) developed colonic tumors after 10 months on the diet, and the tumors in 10 of these mice (45% of mice) included an adenocarcinoma (cancer). Cooke et al. point out that a number of diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease and systemic lupus erythematosus, have elevated 8-oxo-dG but no increased carcinogenesis. Indirect role of oxidative damage in carcinogenesis Valavanidis et al. pointed out that oxidative DNA damage, such as 8-oxo-dG, may contribute to carcinogenesis by two mechanisms. The first mechanism involves modulation of gene expression, whereas the second is through the induction of mutations. Epigenetic alterations Epigenetic alteration, for instance by methylation of CpG islands in a promoter region of a gene, can repress expression of the gene (see DNA methylation in cancer). In general, epigenetic alteration can modulate gene expression. As reviewed by Bernstein and Bernstein, the repair of various types of DNA damages can, with low frequency, leave remnants of the different repair processes and thereby cause epigenetic alterations. 8-oxo-dG is primarily repaired by base excision repair (BER). Li et al. reviewed studies indicating that one or more BER proteins also participate(s) in epigenetic alterations involving DNA methylation, demethylation or reactions coupled to histone modification. Nishida et al. examined 8-oxo-dG levels and also evaluated promoter methylation of 11 tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) in 128 liver biopsy samples. These biopsies were taken from patients with chronic hepatitis C, a condition causing oxidative damages in the liver. Among 5 factors evaluated, only increased levels of 8-oxo-dG was highly correlated with promoter methylation of TSGs (p<0.0001). This promoter methylation could have reduced expression of these tumor suppressor genes and contributed to carcinogenesis. Mutagenesis Yasui et al. examined the fate of 8-oxo-dG when this oxidized derivative of deoxyguanosine was inserted into the thymidine kinase gene in a chromosome within human lymphoblastoid cells in culture. They inserted 8-oxo-dG into about 800 cells, and could detect the products that occurred after the insertion of this altered base, as determined from the clones produced after growth of the cells. 8-oxo-dG was restored to G in 86% of the clones, probably reflecting accurate base excision repair or translesion synthesis without mutation. G:C to T:A transversions occurred in 5.9% of the clones, single base deletions in 2.1% and G:C to C:G transversions in 1.2%. Together, these more common mutations totaled 9.2% of the 14% of mutations generated at the site of the 8-oxo-dG insertion. Among the other mutations in the 800 clones analyzed, there were also 3 larger deletions, of sizes 6, 33 and 135 base pairs. Thus 8-oxo-dG, if not repaired, can directly cause frequent mutations, some of which may contribute to carcinogenesis. Role of DNA oxidation in gene regulation As reviewed by Wang et al., oxidized guanine appears to have multiple regulatory roles in gene expression. As noted by Wang et al., genes prone to be actively transcribed are densely distributed in high GC-content regions of the genome. They then described three modes of gene regulation by DNA oxidation at guanine. In one mode, it appears that oxidative stress may produce 8-oxo-dG in a promoter of a gene. The oxidative stress may also inactivate OGG1. The inactive OGG1, which no longer excises 8-oxo-dG, nevertheless targets and complexes with 8-oxo-dG, and causes a sharp (~70o) bend in the DNA. This allows the assembly of a transcriptional initiation complex, up-regulating transcription of the associated gene. The experimental basis establishing this mode was also reviewed by Seifermann and Epe A second mode of gene regulation by DNA oxidation at a guanine, occurs when an 8-oxo-dG is formed in a guanine rich, potential G-quadruplex-forming sequence (PQS) in the coding strand of a promoter, after which active OGG1 excises the 8-oxo-dG and generates an apurinic/apyrimidinic site (AP site). The AP site enables melting of the duplex to unmask the PQS, adopting a G-quadruplex fold (G4 structure/motif) that has a regulatory role in transcription activation. A third mode of gene regulation by DNA oxidation at a guanine, occurs when 8-oxo-dG is complexed with OGG1 and then recruits chromatin remodelers to modulate gene expression. Chromodomain helicase DNA-binding protein 4 (CHD4), a component of the (NuRD) complex, is recruited by OGG1 to oxidative DNA damage sites. CHD4 then attracts DNA and histone methylating enzymes that repress transcription of associated genes. Seifermann and Epe noted that the highly selective induction of 8-oxo-dG in the promoter sequences observed in transcription induction may be difficult to explain as a consequence of general oxidative stress. However, there appears to be a mechanism for site-directed generation of oxidized bases in promoter regions. Perillo et al., showed that the lysine-specific histone demethylase LSD1 generates a local burst of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that induces oxidation of nearby nucleotides when carrying out its function. As a specific example, after treatment of cells with an estrogen, LSD1 produced H2O2 as a by-product of its enzymatic activity. The oxidation of DNA by LSD1 in the course of the demethylation of histone H3 at lysine 9 was shown to be required for the recruitment of OGG1 and also topoisomerase IIβ to the promoter region of bcl-2, an estrogen-responsive gene, and subsequent transcription initiation. 8-oxo-dG does not occur randomly in the genome. In mouse embryonic fibroblasts, a 2 to 5-fold enrichment of 8-oxo-dG was found in genetic control regions, including promoters, 5'-untranslated regions and 3'-untranslated regions compared to 8-oxo-dG levels found in gene bodies and in intergenic regions. In rat pulmonary artery endothelial cells, when 22,414 protein-coding genes were examined for locations of 8-oxo-dG, the majority of 8-oxo-dGs (when present) were found in promoter regions rather than within gene bodies. Among hundreds of genes whose expression levels were affected by hypoxia, those with newly acquired promoter 8-oxo-dGs were upregulated, and those genes whose promoters lost 8-oxo-dGs were almost all downregulated. Positive role of 8-oxo-dG in memory Oxidation of guanine, particularly within CpG sites, may be especially important in learning and memory. Methylation of cytosines occurs at 60–90% of CpG sites depending on the tissue type. In the mammalian brain, ~62% of CpGs are methylated. Methylation of CpG sites tends to stably silence genes. More than 500 of these CpG sites are de-methylated in neuron DNA during memory formation and memory consolidation in the hippocampus and cingulate cortex regions of the brain. As indicated below, the first step in de-methylation of methylated cytosine at a CpG site is oxidation of the guanine to form 8-oxo-dG. Role of oxidized guanine in DNA de-methylation The first figure in this section shows a CpG site where the cytosine is methylated to form 5-methylcytosine (5mC) and the guanine is oxidized to form 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine (in the figure this is shown in the tautomeric form 8-OHdG). When this structure is formed, the base excision repair enzyme OGG1 targets 8-OHdG and binds to the lesion without immediate excision. OGG1, present at a 5mCp-8-OHdG site recruits TET1, and TET1 oxidizes the 5mC adjacent to the 8-OHdG. This initiates de-methylation of 5mC. TET1 is a key enzyme involved in de-methylating 5mCpG. However, TET1 is only able to act on 5mCpG if the guanine was first oxidized to form 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG or its tautomer 8-oxo-dG), resulting in a 5mCp-8-OHdG dinucleotide (see first figure in this section). This initiates the de-methylation pathway on the methylated cytosine, finally resulting in an unmethylated cytosine, shown in the second figure in this section. Altered protein expression in neurons, due to changes in methylation of DNA, (likely controlled by 8-oxo-dG-dependent de-methylation of CpG sites in gene promoters within neuron DNA) has been established as central to memory formation. Neurological conditions Bipolar disorder Evidence that oxidative stress induced DNA damage plays a role in bipolar disorder has been reviewed by Raza et al. Bipolar patients have elevated levels of oxidatively induced DNA base damages even during periods of stable mental state. The level of the base excision repair enzyme OGG1 that removes certain oxidized bases from DNA is also reduced compared to healthy individuals. Depressive disorder Major depressive disorder is associated with an increase in oxidative DNA damage. Increases in oxidative modifications of purines and pyrimidines in depressive patients may be due to impaired repair of oxidative DNA damages. Schizophrenia Postmortem studies of elderly patients with chronic schizophrenia showed that oxidative DNA damage is increased in the hippocampus region of the brain. The mean proportion of neurons with the oxidized DNA base 8-oxo-dG was 10-fold higher in patients with schizophrenia than in comparison individuals. Evidence indicating a role of oxidative DNA damage in schizophrenia has been reviewed by Raza et al. and Markkanen et al. RNA Oxidation RNAs in native milieu are exposed to various insults. Among these threats, oxidative stress is one of the major causes of damage to RNAs. The level of oxidative stress that a cell endures is reflected by the quantity of reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS are generated from normal oxygen metabolism in cells and are recognized as a list of active molecules, such as O2•−, 1O2, H2O2 and, •OH . A nucleic acid can be oxidized by ROS through a Fenton reaction. To date, around 20 oxidative lesions have been discovered in DNA. RNAs are likely to be more sensitive to ROS for the following reasons: i) the basically single-stranded structure exposes more sites to ROS; ii) compared with nuclear DNA, RNAs are less compartmentalized; iii) RNAs distribute broadly in cells not only in the nucleus as DNAs do, but also in large portions in the cytoplasm. This theory has been supported by a series of discoveries from rat livers, human leukocytes, etc. Actually, monitoring a system by applying the isotopical label [18O]-H2O2 shows greater oxidation in cellular RNA than in DNA. Oxidation randomly damages RNAs, and each attack bring problems to the normal cellular metabolism. Although alteration of genetic information on mRNA is relatively rare, oxidation on mRNAs in vitro and in vivo results in low translation efficiency and aberrant protein products. Though the oxidation strikes the nucleic strands randomly, particular residues are more susceptible to ROS, such hotspot sites being hit by ROS at a high rate. Among all the lesions discovered thus far, one of the most abundant in DNA and RNA is the 8-hydroxyguanine. Moreover, 8-hydroxyguanine is the only one measurable among all the RNA lesions. Besides its abundance, 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-oxodG) and 8-hydroxyguanosine (8-oxoG) are identified as the most detrimental oxidation lesions for their mutagenic effect, in which this non-canonical counterpart can faultily pair with both adenine and cytosine at the same efficiency. This mis-pairing brings about the alteration of genetic information through the synthesis of DNA and RNA. In RNA, oxidation levels are mainly estimated through 8-oxoG-based assays. So far, approaches developed to directly measure 8-oxoG level include HPLC-based analysis and assays employing monoclonal anti-8-oxoG antibody. The HPLC-based method measures 8-oxoG with an electrochemical detector (ECD) and total G with a UV detector. The ratio that results from comparing the two numbers provides the extent that the total G is oxidized. Monoclonal anti-8-oxoG mouse antibody is broadly applied to directly detect this residue on either tissue sections or membrane, offering a more visual way to study its distribution in tissues and in discrete subsets of DNA or RNA. The established indirect techniques are mainly grounded on this lesion’s mutagenic aftermath, such as the lacZ assay. This method was first set up and described by Taddei and was a potentially powerful tool to understand the oxidation situation at both the RNA sequence level and single nucleotide level. Another source of oxidized RNAs is mis-incorporation of oxidized counterpart of single nucleotides. Indeed, the RNA precursor pool size is hundreds of sizes bigger than DNA’s. Potential factors for RNA quality control There have been furious debates on whether the issue of RNA quality control does exist. However, with the concern of various lengths of half lives of diverse RNA species ranging from several minutes to hours, degradation of defective RNA can not easily be attributed to its transient character anymore. Indeed, reaction with ROS takes only few minutes, which is even shorter than the average life-span of the most unstable RNAs. Adding the fact that stable RNA take the lion’s share of total RNA, RNA error deleting becomes hypercritical and should not be neglected anymore. This theory is upheld by the fact that level of oxidized RNA decreases after removal of the oxidative challenge. Some potential factors include ribonucleases, which are suspected to selectively degrade damaged RNAs under stresses. Also enzymes working at RNA precursor pool level, are known to control quality of RNA sequence by changing error precursor to the form that can't be included directly into nascent strand. References Organic redox reactions
4788200	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stark%20Industries	Stark Industries	Stark Industries, later also known as Stark International, Stark Innovations, Stark Enterprises and Stark Resilient, is a fictional multi-national conglomerate appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by Frans Robert Bernstein, Stan Lee, and Jack Kirby, the company first appeared in Tales of Suspense #39 (April 1962). Stark Industries is depicted as being owned and run by businessman and namesake Tony Stark, who is also known as Iron Man, and was founded by Tony's father, Howard Stark, from whom he inherited the company. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Stark Industries has a logo modeled after the defense contractor Lockheed Martin and is listed on the New York Stock Exchange as SIA. During the press conference scene, Stark is seen entering a building that resembles the entrance to Lockheed Martin's Skunk Works facility. An airplane similar to the Lockheed YF-22 stood as a statue in front of the Stark Industries facility, much like the prototypes on display at Skunk Works facility in Palmdale, California. Publication history Stark Industries first appeared in Tales of Suspense #40 (April 1963), created by Robert Bernstein, Stan Lee, and Jack Kirby. History Stark Industries was founded by Isaac Stark, Sr. in the 19th century and later taken over by Howard Stark and then by his son Tony, after his death. Over the years, through bankruptcy, Tony's "death", Tony's return and hostile takeovers, the company has gone through many name changes including Stark International (later Stane International), Stark Enterprises, Stark/Fujikawa and Stark Solutions. Stark Industries Functions Stark Industries is primarily a defense company that develops and manufactures advanced weapons and military technologies. The company manufactures the armor worn by Iron Man and War Machine. It builds the helicarriers used by S.H.I.E.L.D, and it produces the Quinjets used by the Avengers Staff Tony Stark – Chairman of Stark Industries Obadiah Stane – Executive Officer (deceased) Happy Hogan – Former head of Security Pepper Potts – CEO Dr. Gray Armond – Head Designer. Harmon Furmintz – Member of Stark Industries' biochemical division. He worked for Genetech and was born around 1918. He was a child prodigy and recruited as candidate for Super Soldier Project, but was rejected due to having hemophilia. He attempted to gain the power of Terrax, but his body and mind were destroyed by Shafear and reformed into duplicate of his own. Jacob Fury (Scorpio) – Former research scientist. Sally McIntyre Eddie March – Former part of the Iron Legion. Kevin O’Bryan Ralph Roberts Anton Vanko (Crimson Dynamo) — Former Head Scientist and Chief Developer (deceased) Arwyn Zurrow – Head of the Miami facilities. Subsidiaries Project: Caribbean (staff unknown) – Stark Industries made an effort to start a plant in Haiti, however it was destroyed by Night Phantom. Stark International Originally Stark Industries, the name was changed when the company ceased manufacturing munitions, with Tony handing over the CEO position to Pepper Potts. Eventually, the company was taken over by Obadiah Stane after a hostile takeover and he renamed it Stane International. Staff Tony Stark – Original Head James Rupert Rhodes – Pilot, later Acting CEO Bambi Arbogast – An executive assistant. Yvette Avril – Worked for the French branch of Stark International and was brought to the US to become vice president of the Long Island facility. She unsuccessfully attempted to save the company when Tony Stark went on a major drinking binge and quit after takeover by Obadiah Stane. Bethany Cabe – Dianne Carruthers – Morley Erwin – Owned Circuits Maximus as well as working Stark International. He is the brother of Clytemnestra Erwin. He also assisted Jim Rhodes in learning to use the Iron Man armor, helped form Circuits Maximus, killed when Obadiah Stane had the Circuits Maximus building bombed Abe Klein – Director of Engineering. – Tony Stark's old electrical engineering professor. Killed by Mordecai Midas. Scott Lang (Ant-Man) Kristine "Krissy" Longfellow – Secretary. She posed as Tony Stark's secretary to be close to him without involving him with a criminal. Harold Marks (Techno-Killer) – A research technician. He left to work for author James Spencer; built an armor to gain respect and vengeance from perceived lack of appreciation Vincent "Vic" Martinelli – A security guard. He was a former soldier and architect who worked for Williams Innovations before working at Stark International. He remained with Obadiah Stane after his hostile takeover due to difficulty in finding a new job. Artemus "Artie" Pithins – Director of Public Relations. He is currently a White House Press Secretary. Quit Stark International after Obadiah Stane took over. Erica Sondheim – Medical Director. Carl Walker – Cherry Wood – A scientist. She studied Doctor Octopus' Adamantium arms and dated Stark. She was taken hostage by Doctor Octopus. Stane International After driving Tony Stark back to alcoholism, Obadiah Stane wrested control of Stark International from James Rhodes after a hostile takeover and renamed the company after himself. Stane renewed the munitions manufacturing. However, after Stane was killed, the company was run by a mysterious cartel which was eventually bought out and reabsorbed by Stark Enterprises. Staff Obadiah Stane – CEO of Stane International. Joel Arons – He was involved in a project that kidnapped Myron MacLain. He stole Captain America's proto-adamantium shield Joseph "Joe" Faulkner – general manager. Dr. Edward "Edwin" Earl Hawkins – Designed the Mass Acquisition Unit. He aided Giant Man (Bill Foster) in battling Doctor Nemesis. Karaguchi Inoyawa – Sought to rebuild the Red Ronin for peaceful purposes. Joseph "Joe" Kilman – After being fired for unknown reasons, he sought revenge by trying to take control of Red Ronin Vic Martinelli Michael Craig Stockton (Dr. Nemesis) – Sought to coerce Dr. Hawkins into creating a mass acquisition warhead. Stark Enterprises After regaining his personal fortune following Obadiah Stane's death, Tony established a new company, Stark Enterprises, in Los Angeles. Staff Tony Stark – CEO and founder (deceased) James Rhodes – Former CEO (when Stark was in suspended animation following his first "death"; quit upon Stark's revival); former pilot Rothvichet Poch – Former lawyer, vice-president and CEO. Alvarez defended Tony Stark in the trial of Kathy Dare. Bambi Arbogast - receptionist and former member of the US Department of Defense. Veronica Benning/Victoria Michelle – Tony Stark's physiotherapist. Bethany Cabe – Security Chief and former bodyguard of Tony Stark. Diane Carruthers – Lee Clayton Ed Deal – Worked on the VLS-2980 Project. Phillip Grant – Computer hacker. Chester "Chet" Harrigan – Former chauffeur to Tony Stark. Bert Hindel – Former lawyer of Stark Enterprises. He was fired after he failed to clear up the Government civil suits brought on during the Armor Wars storyline. He also unsuccessfully defended Kathy Dare. Happy Hogan – Heuristically Operative-Matrix-Emulation Rostrum (H.O.M.E.R.) – Nearly intelligent computer of Tony Stark. Sarah Jennings – Accounts & Marketing Kylie Normandy – Dr. Cal Oakley – Former employee of Cordco. Oakley assisted in rebuilding Tony Stark's nervous system following his being shot by Kathy Dare. Marcia Jessica "Marcy" Pearson – Former Director of Public Relations and later Vice-President. Rhodes fired her when she resented his being named Stark's successor as CEO. Garrison Quint – Chief of security. James Simpson – Security guard. He allowed Edgar Elliot to sabotage Tony Stark's experimental rocket. Dr. Erica Fredrika Sondheim – Medical Director and former surgeon. Wayne Unnier Nick Walcek Atha Williams – Secretary Roderick Withers – Director of Public Relations Abraham Paul "Abe" Zimmer – Research director and former member of the board of directors at Acutech. He was killed by Calico. Subsidiaries Accutech – Research and Development company, based in California, that was bought out as a subsidiary. The company produced and designed a Beta Particle Generator which was sabotaged by the Ghost. Known staff members include Gilbert O’Connor and Abe Zimmer. Barstow Electronics> – Subsidiary of Stark Enterprises based in California. It employed Carl Walker after Force's faked death. Cordco – Bought out by Stark Enterprises to force Dr. Cal Oakley to implant a biochip in Tony Stark's spine after he was shot by Kathy Dare. Known staff members include Addison Drexel, Edwin Cord, Dr. Cal Oakley, and Basil Sandhurst. Stane International – It was reacquired by Stark from Justin Hammer, who owned SI following Obidiah Stane's death. The company reproduced Stark's original Guardsman armor for use at the Vault. Much of Stane's operations involved disreputable business practices, leading Stark to initiate a major clean-up effort after reacquiring the company. Hot Cup Coffee – Created by Stark using the pseudonym "The Boss". Stark/Fujikawa Created by a merger of Stark Enterprises and Fujikawa Industries following apparent death of Iron Man/Anthony Stark. Staff Kenjiro Fujikawa – CEO – founder of Fujikawa Industries, father of Rumiko Yu Kurin Tobi Kanigawa Rumiko Fujikawa – Daughter of Kenjiro. She was a skilled businesswoman. Played the role of party-girl to annoy her parents. She was slain by an Iron Man impostor named Clarence Ward. Morgan Stark – Cousin of Tony Stark. Became general manager of Stark-Fujikawa after Tony's "death". Subsidiaries Fujikawa Industries – The previous version of this company helped form Stark-Fujikawa. A Japanese firm which took over Stark Enterprises following the apparent death of Tony Stark. Known employees include Tso Fwon, Yu Kurin, Tobi Kanigawa and Wilson Fisk. Oracle Incorporated – Formed by Namor, the company was sold to Stark-Fujikawa. Formerly served as the headquarters of Heroes for Hire. After Tony's "death", Bambi Arbogast seconded here. Known employees include Caleb Alexander (who was killed), Carrie Alexander, Allison Grain, Jim Hammond (Human Torch), Robert Losey, Kent Maitland, Phoebe Marrs, Leon McKenzie, Namor McKenzie (former CEO), Rihanna O'Connor, Dr. Anita Savvy, Dr. Richard Savvy, Bambi Arbogast, Josef Went and James "Jimbob" Roberts. Parallel Conglomerate – Subsidiary of Oracle Inc. (which would make it a subsidiary of Stark-Fujikawa). Known employees are Captain Holten Gamble (who was killed on board an oil tanker owned by Parallel Conglomerate) and Oliver Russell. Rand-Meachum – A company formed by Harold Meachum and Wendell Rand, became a subsidiary of Stark-Fujikawa. Known employees include Daniel Rand (Iron Fist), Wendell Rand-K'ai, Leon McKenzie, Harold Meachum, Ward Meachum, Joy Meachum, Jason Quartermaster, Peregrin Took, Martina Tereshkova and Dr. Ilya Faro Stark Solutions The fifth company run/owned by Tony Stark and was founded after his return from another dimension. It was shut down by Tony after he was defamed by Tiberius Stone who was subliminally influencing him. Staff Tony Stark – CEO Happy Hogan Pepper Potts Svengoto Eriksson Stark Industries/International The sixth company owned/run by/founded by Tony Stark and was set up after the closure of Stark Solutions. After the events of "The Five Nightmares" and "World Most Wanted" story arcs, Stark Industries went bankrupt and eventually closed down. It was also known as Stark International, both names formerly used in previous incarnations of the company. Its logo being the same as the S.I. Logo in the Iron Man film series. Staff Tony Stark – CEO Joseph Jeremy "Joe" Arnold – One of the Security Department heads. David Beaumont – One of the Security Department heads. Arturos Benning – One of the Security Department heads F.R.I.D.A.Y. Happy Hogan – Tony Stark's bodyguard. Killed saving Stark from an assassination attempt Michael "Mike" Jochum – One of the Security Department heads. Kurt Kennison – One of the Security Department heads. Takeshis Kobayashi – Head of Research & Development. Archie Merchant – One of the Security Department heads. Pepper Potts Katherine Rennie – Tony Stark's personal secretary. James Rupert Rhodes (War Machine) Jack Rutledge – He was involved in the development of a Gamma Radiation Neutralizing Armor. He was later killed by Richard Cummings for covering up the death of Lisa Cummings. Ryan Zimm – One of the Security Department heads. Gallileo "Leo" Braithwaite Jan Kolins Svengoto Eriksson – Following closure of Stark Solution, he has been given principal data by Tony Stark and then individually reinvented the AI "Jarvis" and armoury of Iron Man suit. During establishment of Stark Industries, he given the research result to Tony. Tony admired him and said that the new suit is like giving Tony a "Regent". Martha Johns Geoff Douglat Tessa Springfield Anna Wei Dr Dave Allen Michael Cline – Supporter Horsars Marvel – Supporter Reception Accolades In 2011, Forbes ranked Stark Industries 16th in their "25 Largest Fictional Companies" list. In 2016, Time ranked Stark Industries 3rd in their "18 Most Influential Fake Companies of All Time" list. In 2018, Sideshow ranked Stark Industries 1st in their "Top 10 Superhero Corporations" list. In 2019, CBR.com ranked Stark Industries 8th in their "Top 10 Fictional Marvel Companies" list. Other versions Marvel 2099 In Marvel 2099 (an alternate future reality set in the year 2099), Stark Fujikawa is a major corporate power, alongside Roxxon. The only known staff members are Hikaru-Sama and Shudo Ultimate Marvel Stark Industries also appears in the Ultimate universe, as it keeps mostly the same origin as spawned outta Howard Stark's defense company. As well as Stark International in the Ultimate Comics as a competitor to Mandarin International. Stark Global Solutions Headquarters also appears as a separate company operated in Singapore owned by Tony Stark's older brother Dr. Gregory Stark. MC2 In the alternate future reality of MC2, the company is known as Stark Global Industries and is owned and run by Tony Stark. Earth Ultra-Vision In a What If story, the company is known as Stark Interplanetary and was the creators of the Irondroids Amalgam Comics In the world of Amalgam Comics, the company is known as Stark Aircraft (itself a merger between Stark Industries and Ferris Aircraft). The only known employees are Janice Doremus, Pepper Ferris, Happy Kalmaku, Stewart Rhodes, Hal Stark. In other media Television Stark Industries was featured in the 1990s Iron Man TV series. In this show, Julia Carpenter (the second Spider-Woman) is also depicted as the head of Stark Industries' Research and Development. A Stark Enterprises building can be seen in the X-Men: Evolution episode "On Angels' Wings". Stark International is featured in Iron Man: Armored Adventures. After Howard Stark was abducted by the Mandrarin in a plane crash and presumed dead, Obadiah Stane becomes the CEO of Stark Industries. In "Cold War," it is revealed that Blizzard used to work for Stark Industries until an accident caused by Obadiah Stane left him "deformed and destroyed." In "Designed Only for Chaos," Roberta Rhodes revealed to Tony that Stark Industries used to make weapons until Howard Stark stopped their production when Tony was born. In "Heavy Mettle," Obadiah Stane ends up fired by the chairman of the board after Tony Stark and Roberta Rhodes show the board of directors the footage of Obadiah Stane making a deal with Ghost is shown. In "Hostile Takeover," Justin Hammer ends up buying Stark International and sends Sasha to tell Tony Stark that he will no longer inherit the company when he reaches 18. After the fight with Titanium Man, Whiplash, Killer Shrike, and Unicorn, Tony Stark along with Rhodey and Pepper create a company called Stark Solutions. In "The Hammer Falls," Howard Stark returns and manages to reclaim Stark International after Justin Hammer (when soon buy the secret lair of Stark and secret Stark Solutions) is exposed and defeated by Mr. Fix. Stark Industries is featured in The Super Hero Squad Show. Stark Industries appears in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes. Stark Industries' Japanese branch appears in Marvel Anime: Iron Man. A Stark Industries lab appears in Ultimate Spider-Man episode "Flight of the Iron Spider." In the Eureka episode "Once in a Lifetime," Nathan Stark is shown in a building with the name Stark Industries. In the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode "Nothing Personal," Maria Hill is shown working for Stark Industries after the events of Captain America: The Winter Soldier. Stark Expo is featured in a titular episode of Marvel's Spider-Man. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe live-action series WandaVision, the logo for Stark Industries is seen. S.W.O.R.D. uses a Stark Industries drone to power up and reactivate Vision. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe live-action series The Falcon and The Winter Soldier, a bank teller asks Sam Wilson if Stark Industries provides financial support for him and the other Avengers, in which Wilson reveals it does not. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe live-action series Hawkeye, Clint Barton owns a briefcase of Stark Industries arrowheads. Film In the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Stark Industries is headed by Tony Stark and has a significant influence in both the films and television series. In Iron Man, Stark Industries is featured with a logo similar to those of Northrop Grumman and Lockheed Martin, and touted as developing many of the same weapons systems that Lockheed Martin is/was responsible for developing, such as the F-22 Raptor and F-16 Fighting Falcon. After Tony's father Howard died, Obadiah Stane became the CEO and later abdicated when Tony was old enough to run it. After Stark comes back from Afghanistan, he announces that he is closing the weapons division of the company. After Stane confronts Stark about what percentage the company's stocks might fall both guess about forty percent. In the next scene Jim Cramer is seen on CNBC with a NYSE ticker tape at the bottom of the screen reading Stark Industries at 82.25 per share down by 56.50, a drop of about 40.7%. In The Incredible Hulk, Stark Industries logo flashes on the screen during the opening credit sequence when General Ross request to the company the Sonic Cannon that the army use against the Hulk later in the film and it is also on the Cyrosync container containing the Super Soldier Serum. In Iron Man 2, Virginia "Pepper" Potts became the CEO of the Stark Industries. Stark Industries, for the first time since 1974, hosted the renowned Stark Expo in Flushing Meadows. As a promotion for the film, at the 2009 San Diego Comic Con, Stark Industries recruiters handed out business cards with an invitation to apply for a job at Stark Industries by visiting StarkIndustriesNow.com. In Captain America: The First Avenger, during World War II, a young Howard Stark assists the Strategic Scientific Reserve in their Super Soldier program, and provides key assistance to Steve Rogers and Agent Peggy Carter. The Stark Industries logo is modified to fit in with the 1940s time period. In The Avengers, Tony Stark opens the Stark Tower in New York City. After the Chitauri invasion, almost all the lettering forming the word 'STARK' on the side of the tower falls off, leaving only the 'A' - mirroring the logo of the Avengers that would replace the lettering later on. In Iron Man 3, Pepper is once again CEO of Stark Industries and Happy Hogan is the head of security. Happy calls out to an off-camera secretary named Bambi in reference to Bambi Arbogast. In Captain America: The Winter Soldier, Sam Wilson's winged flight gear is stated to have been designed by Stark Industries, as well as the redesigned Helicarriers' propulsion systems. When Hydra is revealed to be in control of S.H.I.E.L.D. and the new Helicarriers under Project Insight begin targeting millions, Tony Stark is one of their targets while inside the Avengers Tower. After S.H.I.E.L.D. is dissolved, Maria Hill is seen applying for a position at the Human Resources department of Stark Industries. In Avengers: Age of Ultron, Wanda and Pietro Maximoff call their childhood in the fictional nation of Sokovia, the apartment in which the Maximoff family was living was attacked with Stark Industries-manufactured mortar shells, killing their parents. This would prove to be the basis for their hatred of Stark. In Ant-Man, it is revealed that the Avengers Compound is a former Stark Industries warehouse. In Captain America: Civil War, Tony Stark makes a presentation at MIT to promote a Stark Industries program called the "September Foundation" to fund ideas for gifted and talented students. He later uses this program to lure Peter Parker to join the Avengers. In Spider-Man: Homecoming, it is revealed that the Department of Damage Control is a joint venture between Stark Industries and the U.S. government to clean up New York City in the aftermath of the invasion in 2012. In Spider-Man: Far From Home, a group of disgruntled former Stark Industries employees led by Quentin Beck create a fabricated superhero named Mysterio using Stark Industries drone and Beck's own BioAugmented Retrofitted Technology. In Spider-Man: No Way Home, it is reported that a federal investigation into stolen Stark Industries technology is underway following the Spider-Man and Mysterio controversy. The DODC subsequently investigate Stark Industries Headquarters. In Black Panther: Wakanda Forever, Shuri asks Riri Williams if she worked with Stark Industries to help her make her Ironheart armor. Video games A billboard in Spider-Man on the level "Race to the Bugle" features a Stark Solutions logo and the slogan "Consulting in the Future." It was shown on the building just before the Daily Bugle building. A Stark Enterprise building can be seen in the level where Spider-Man chases Venom through New York City. Stark Industries appears in The Punisher video game. The Eternal Sun group raid the company to steal the Iron Man armors. In The Incredible Hulk video game, it was mentioned that Stark Industries built the Hulkbuster armors. A Stark Industries sign is visible in the opening cutscene for Marvel vs. Capcom 3: Fate of Two Worlds when Iron Man is battling Morrigan Aensland. In Spider-Man Shattered Dimensions, the 2099 universe makes repeated mention of Stark-Fujikawa on signs and over intercom announcements. In Spider-Man: Edge of Time Stark-Fujikawa is mentioned by Walter Sloan as a competitor to Alchemax. In Fortnite during Chapter 2: Season 4, Stark Industries was a mythic location on the map where players could receive items by eliminating Stark-Bots and Iron Man. Theme parks Stark Industries is physically featured in Marvel Super Hero Island at the Islands of Adventure theme park, part of Universal Orlando Resort. It is also mentioned in the queue of The Amazing Adventures of Spider-Man ride in which it develops the SCOOP news-gathering vehicle for the Daily Bugle and the anti-gravity ray gun which it is stolen by the Sinister Syndicate who use the weapon to destroy parts of New York City and seize the Statue of Liberty to be held hostage as a leverage against the city. The Far East division of Stark Industries held a expo at Hong Kong Disneyland. See also Alchemax Cross Technological Enterprises Oscorp Parker Industries Roxxon Energy Corporation References External links Stark Industries at Marvel Wiki Stark Industries at Comic Vine Iron Man
4788296	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato%27s%20problem	Plato's problem	Plato's problem is the term given by Noam Chomsky to "the problem of explaining how we can know so much" given our limited experience. Chomsky believes that Plato asked (using modern terms) how we should account for the rich, intrinsic, common structure of human cognition, when it seems underdetermined by extrinsic evidence presented to a person during human development. In linguistics this is referred to as the "argument from poverty of the stimulus" (APS). Such arguments are common in the natural sciences, where a developing theory is always "underdetermined by evidence". Chomsky's approach to Plato's problem involves treating cognition as a normal research topic in the natural sciences, so cognition can be studied to elucidate intertwined genetic, developmental, and biophysical factors. Plato's problem is most clearly illustrated in the Meno dialogue, in which Socrates demonstrates that an uneducated boy nevertheless understands geometric principles. Introduction What is knowledge? What is experience? How do they interact? Is there a correlational, causal, or reciprocal relationship between knowledge and experience? These and other related questions have been at the forefront of investigation by problem-solvers, scientists, psychologists, and philosophers for centuries. These questions, but particularly the problem of how experience and knowledge interrelate, have broad theoretical and practical implications for such academic disciplines as epistemology, linguistics, and psychology (specifically the subdiscipline of thinking and problem solving). Gaining a more precise understanding of human knowledge, whether defined as innate, experiential, or both, is an important part of effective problem solving. Plato was the first philosopher who systematically inquired into issues such as those noted above. He wrote many dialogues, such as Euthyphro and the Apology, but it is from the Meno that the modern instantiation of Plato's problem is derived. In the Meno, Plato theorizes about the relationship between knowledge and experience and provides an explanation for how it is possible to know something that one has never been explicitly taught. Plato believed that we possess innate ideas that precede any knowledge that we gain through experience. As formulated by Noam Chomsky, accounting for this gap between knowledge and experience is "Plato's problem". The phrase has a specific linguistic context with regard to language acquisition but can also be used more generally. Plato (427 B.C. – 347 B.C.) Early work Plato's early philosophical endeavors involved dialogues discussing many ideas, such as the differences between knowledge and opinion, particulars and universals, and God and man. These early dialogues do not utilize conventional notions of reason. Rather, they appeal to the emotions, the allegorical, the spiritual, and the mythological interests of an ancient speculative mind. Controversy surrounds the early dialogues in how they are to be interpreted. Some claim that Plato was truly trying to discover objective reality through these mystical speculations while others maintain that the dialogues are stories to be interpreted only as parables, allegories, and emotional appeals to religious experience. Regardless, Plato would come to formulate a more rigorous and comprehensive philosophy later in his life, one that reverberates in contemporary Western thought to this day. Some of Plato's famous works are Phaedo, the Crito, and, as noted earlier, the Meno. Within these works are found a comprehensive philosophy that addresses epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, aesthetics, theology, and logic. As noted, most of the writing is in the form of dialogues and arguments to pursue answers to difficult questions and concepts. Plato's teacher and mentor, Socrates, always plays a significant and formative role in these dialogues. Socrates (470 B.C. – 399 B.C.) Most of Plato's philosophical ideas were communicated through his beloved teacher Socrates as a presence in the dialogues. Though there are no extant writings of Socrates known, it is evident through Plato's works that Socrates had an incredible ability to explore the most intense analytical discussions. However, for some there is controversy regarding how much historical fact can be derived from Plato's Socrates (Russell). Some doubt Socrates ever existed. Others are skeptical as to the accuracy of some of Plato's dialogues but nonetheless maintain that we can learn a substantial amount of historical information about Socrates from the dialogues. Still others take practically everything Plato wrote about Socrates as veridical history. Regardless, it may be safe to say that Plato never meant to record Socrates verbatim and it may plausibly be concluded that his general ideas were communicated in the dialogues. Socratic method As delineated in various writings, the meticulousness, articulation, and sophistication with which Socrates spoke supplies an outstanding problem solving technique – the Socratic Method. The Socratic method may be described as follows: it usually involves others with whom Socrates directly engages (not merely pontificating to an audience), it involves a deep philosophical or ethical question to which an answer was sought, and it usually involves Socrates asking questions either to affirm his understanding of others or to seek their understanding. If someone disagreed with him, Socrates would execute this process in order to bring about his interlocutor's reluctant admission of inconsistencies and contradictions. Either Socrates would ask his debators questions about their claims that would lead them to admit their fallacy or Socrates would answer questions by posing questions meant to lead the other to answer their own query. Meno One such dialogue of Plato's that utilized the Socratic Method was the Meno. The participants were Socrates, Meno, Anytus, and one of Meno's slave boys. The dialogue begins with Meno asking Socrates whether virtue can be taught. Socrates responds by stating that he does not know the definition of virtue. Meno replies by stating the characteristics of a virtuous man, to which Socrates responds that the characteristics of a virtuous man may be the by-products of virtuousness but they by no means define virtue. Meno is obliged to agree; to wit, he tries to modify his explanation of virtue. Socrates counters each attempt by pointing to inconsistencies and circular arguments. Meno seems to commit two fallacies when trying to define virtue. He either defines it using some form of the word itself, or he defines it using other words that call for definitions and explanations themselves. Eventually, Meno is led to confess his shortcomings as he tries to define the enigmatic term (the Socratic method is the mechanism that brings about this confession). Socrates claims that a definition of virtue must consist of common terms and concepts that are clearly understood by those in the discussion. A crucial point in the dialogue is when Socrates tells Meno that there is no such thing as teaching, only recollection of knowledge from past lives, or anamnesis. Socrates claims that he can demonstrate this by showing that one of Meno's servants, a slave boy, knows geometric principles though he is uneducated. Socrates states that he will teach the boy nothing, only ask him questions to assist the process of recollection. Socrates proceeds to ask the slave boy a series of questions about the size and length of lines and squares, using visual diagrams to aid the boy in understanding the questions. The crucial point to this part of the dialogue is that, though the boy has no training, he knows the correct answers to the questions – he intrinsically knows the Pythagorean proposition. Innate knowledge Shortly before the demonstration of Pythagoras' theorem, the dialogue takes an epistemological turn when the interlocutors begin to discuss the fundamental nature of knowledge. The general question asked is how one can claim to know something when one does not even know what knowledge is. Via the Socratic method, it is shown that the answer to the question posed is innateness – one possesses a priori knowledge. This is derived from Socrates' belief that one's soul existed in past lives and knowledge is transferred from those lives to the current one. "These [ideas] were revealed in a former state of existence, and are recovered by reminiscence (anamnesis) or association from sensible things" . The claim is that one does not need to know what knowledge is before gaining knowledge, but rather one has a wealth of knowledge before ever gaining any experience. Contemporary parallels There is contemporary work related to the questions of accounting for the gap between experience and knowledge, explaining the sources of knowledge, and how much knowledge is possessed prior to experience or without conscious awareness. In particular, many areas in contemporary linguistics and psychological research have relevance to these epistemological questions. Linguistic analysis has provided some evidence for innate cognitive capacities for language, and there are many areas of cognitive psychology that yield data from investigations into sources of knowledge. In addition, some claims in the Meno have connections to current research on perception and long-term memory (LTM). Linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Chomskyan linguistics (an inclusive, though perhaps informal, label for the theories and methodologies of linguistic study spearheaded by Noam Chomsky, meant to encompass his extensive work and influence in the field) includes everything from Chomsky's earliest work in transformational grammar to more recent work in the Minimalist Program. More exactly, it is the study of the structure of language, or grammar. Chomskyan linguistics is defined by a particular theoretical foundation and methodological approach that sets it apart from other linguistic perspectives, such as those described by functional grammar or structuralism (per Leonard Bloomfield) for example. This particular approach to the study of language is also often referred to as Generative linguistics, which is attributed to Chomsky and his early generative grammar work. Universal grammar There are several concepts important to the Chomskyan (or generativist) approach to linguistics. The most fundamental of these ideas is the theory of universal grammar (UG). Simply put, and as implied by the name, UG refers to those grammatical properties thought to be shared by all (to be universal to all) derivations of human language (anything from Amharic to Zhuang). Per this conceptualization, UG is innate to all humans – people come "pre-wired" with this universal grammatical structure. A person's individual grammar (that which is unique to the person) develops from the interaction between the innate universal grammar and input from the environment, or primary linguistic data. This "analytic triplet" (McGilvray, ed., 2005, p. 51), UG + input = grammar, is the functional core of the theory. Language acquisition Several questions (or problems) motivate linguistic theorizing and investigation. Two such taken up in Chomskyan linguistics are the process of language acquisition in children, and "Plato's problem". These subjects are interrelated and viewed as evidence in support of the theory of UG. One of the simplest ways to approach the concept of universal grammar is to pose a hypothetical question about an aspect of language acquisition in children – why does a child learn the language that it does. As a specific example, how can a child of Asian descent (say, born of Chinese parents) be set down in the middle of Topeka, Kansas and acquire "perfect English?" The answer is that the child does not start with "Chinese", or any other conventionally defined language, in its head. The child does start with general grammatical rules that determine linguistic properties. Children come equipped with universal grammar, from which any natural human language will develop – without instruction. All that is needed is passive input during the critical period—defined in linguistics as that period within which a child must have necessary and sufficient exposure to human language so that language acquisition occurs; without sufficient exposure to primary linguistic data, the UG does not have the necessary input for development of an individual grammar; this period is commonly recognized as spanning from birth to adolescence, generally up to the age of 12 years, though individual variations are possible. If what the child predominantly hears (or sees via sign) as it is maturing through this critical period is the English spoken in Topeka, Kansas, then that is what the child will acquire. This is why, regardless of a child's ethnic/racial background (or any other non-relevant factor), the child will know Cockney English, Egyptian Arabic, or isiZulu if the child's primary linguistic input is Cockney English, Egyptian Arabic, or isiZulu, respectively. The hypothetical question posed addresses a common misconception about what is instantiated in the mind/brain of an individual when it comes to language. It does not address the "logical problem" of language acquisition, i.e., how children transition from ostensibly having no knowledge of language to having full knowledge, in what may be described as a very limited time with apparently limited input. Plato's problem To address the issue of apparently limited input, one must turn to what is possibly the most quoted of all arguments in support of universal grammar and its nativist interpretation – Plato's problem. The phrase refers to the Socratic dialogue, the Meno; Noam Chomsky is often attributed with applying the term to the study of linguistics. In Chomsky's 1986 book Knowledge of Language, the author begins with informal characterization of Plato's problem as the problem of explaining how we can know so much given so little evidence, which is based on an early expression of Plato's problem by [Bertrand Russell]: "How comes it that human beings, whose contacts with the world are brief and personal and limited, are nevertheless able to know as much as they do know?" In The Cambridge Companion to Chomsky, David Lightfoot explains as follows: The problem arises in the domain of language acquisition in that children attain infinitely more than they experience. Literally so, we shall see: they attain a productive system, a grammar, on the basis of very little experience. So there is more, much more, to language acquisition than mimicking what we hear in childhood, and there is more to it than the simple transmission of a set of words and sentences from one generation of speakers to the next. There is more to it than a reproduction of experience and, in maturity, our capacity goes well beyond what we have experienced. Consider some subtleties that people are not consciously aware of. The verb is may be used in its full form or its reduced form: people say Kim is happy or Kim’s happy. However, certain instances of is never reduce, for example, the underlined items in Kim is happier than Tim is or I wonder what the problem is in Washington. Most people are not aware of this, but we all know subconsciously not to use the reduced form here. How did we come to this? The question arises because the eventual knowledge is richer than relevant experience. As children, we heard instances of the full form and the reduced form, but we were not instructed to avoid the reduced form in certain places; we had no access to "negative data," information about what does not occur. Plato's problem particularly refers to a point in the dialogue when Socrates is talking with an uneducated servant and shows, through this interaction, that the servant knows the Pythagorean Theorem though he has never been explicitly taught any geometry. How does the servant know without having ever been taught? Plato's suggestion is, essentially, that people have innate knowledge. In the field of linguistics, Plato's problem is the problem of finding an explanation for how a child acquires language though the child does not receive explicit instruction and the primary linguistic data a child does receive is limited. This PLD is the input, or stimuli, from the environment, necessary for the development of an individual's grammar – language – via input into UG. This limited environmental stimulus is referred to as poverty of the stimulus. Specifically, the stimuli to which children are exposed during the critical period do not encompass every lawful example of grammatical structure relevant to the particular language. Plato's problem describes the disparity between input (poverty of the stimulus) and output (grammar). As Plato suggests in the Meno dialogue, the bridge between input (whether limited or lacking) and output is innate knowledge. Poverty of the stimulus is crucial to the Platonic argument and it is a linchpin concept in Chomskyan linguistics. For this reason, Plato's Problem is often used synonymously to mean poverty of the stimulus. Specific to linguistics, the formulation of this problem is evidence for the existence of universal grammar. Plato's Problem, as conceived here, informs much of the theory in this branch of linguistics. Perception and attention There have been studies of perception and attention that support the idea that there is an abundance of knowledge available to an individual at any given moment (Blake & Sekuler, 2006). Visual A key ingredient to the beginning stages of perception requires the attention of the observer on some focal point or stimulus. There is a presupposition that if one visually perceives an object, one knows that one is seeing it (excluding the exception of perceptual illusions). Whatever sensory stimuli are attended to can be declared knowledge. Stimuli that are directly attended to are projected onto the fovea, the central point of the retina that corresponds to the focal point in visual space. To the immediate left and right of the focal point is the portion of visual space attributed to binocular vision. The far left and right of one's visual space is attributed to the monocular vision of the left and right eyes. In sum, one's visual space covers roughly 200° from the periphery of the left eye to the periphery of the right eye. This large visual space in human beings is a result of a fully developed and functioning anatomical visual system. In the context of Plato's problem, our visual system is an innate capacity that enables us to be aware of a considerable portion of our immediate environment which enhances our conscious experience by supplementing it with an extensive environmental awareness and predisposing us to extract meaningful perceptual information. In other words, it is our biologically produced visual system that makes our perceptual experiences meaningful. Auditory Some examples from auditory perception research will be helpful in explaining the fact that our perceptual faculties naturally enhance and supplement our conscious experience. First, there is the "cocktail party phenomenon" (Moray, 1959). When someone is engaged in conversation with a group of people in a noisy room, but then they suddenly hear something or hear their name from across the room, when they were completely inattentive to the input before, that is the cocktail party phenomenon. This phenomenon also occurs with words associated with danger and sex. Although people may be inattentive to a portion of their environment, when they hear specific "trigger" words, their auditory capacities are redirected to another dimension of perceptual awareness. This shows that we do process information outside of our immediate conscious experience. Similar to visual perception, auditory perception also enhances and supplements our experience by searching out and extracting meaningful information from our environment. The auditory findings are further concretized by research on shadowing tasks (Cherry, 1966). These tasks involve two distinct auditory messages presented simultaneously to both ears. One message in one ear is supposed to be shadowed (repeated) while the other message in the other ear is supposed to be ignored. Participants generally perform well at repeating familiar messages in the attended channel. However, when there was a significant change in frequency in the message in the unattended channel, it was detected; moreover, when their names were presented in the unattended channel, they noticed that as well. These shadowing tasks reinforce the idea that the gap between knowledge and experience is explained by our innate perceptual capacities that enhance our experience and optimize our knowledge gained from our environment. Subliminal priming There is also the subject of subliminal priming (Nisbett & Ross, 1980), in which a stimulus is perceived outside of conscious awareness. For example, in an experiment, half of a class was presented with a picture of a boy holding a birthday cake, while the other half was presented with a different picture of the same boy holding a birthday cake. The sole difference between the two was that in the first picture the boy had a mischievous facial expression, while in the second he conveyed an innocent smile. The photos were presented in a flash of 100 ms, then another picture was presented to both groups with the boy smiling. Results were that the first group described him as devilish and naughty, and the second group depicted him as angelic and kind. Due to the short presentation of the pictures, the subjects were not consciously aware of the nature of the original photos and when presented with them afterwards, participants were surprised. These studies point to the fact that even though we only attend to and process limited information, we have a vast amount of knowledge at our disposal through our highly unrestricted sensory registers. It is the selective attention, perception, and higher order cognitive processing that limits these inputs and it is precisely these processes that make up our conscious awareness. Thus, in order to formulate some explanations for Plato's problem, our conscious awareness limits our experience; nevertheless, it seems as though some stimuli that are sensed by our sensory registers, although seemingly rejected by conscious awareness, are actually retained and abstracted into our memories for further processing. All of our fully functioning perceptual faculties enhance, supplement, and optimize our experiences. Long-term memory This LTM availability/accessibility dichotomy is analogous to a more contemporary explanation of Plato's doctrine of reminiscence, which postulates that an individual hedge as a result of information carried over from past lives. While evidence for or against immortality is outside the bounds of scientific research, one can see similarities between LTM availability/accessibility and the doctrine of reminiscence. LTM availability is highly unrestricted and practically unlimited as a storage system while LTM accessibility corresponds to what we can actually recall at any given moment. Plato, through his doctrine of reminiscence, would say that knowledge available through reminiscence is practically unrestricted but we are not cognizant of many of those ideas because they have yet to be recalled. Implications Various implications arise from the research and theorizing on Plato's philosophy, linguistics, perception, and cognitive structures. Debates over epistemology have been around since antiquity. In historical philosophy, the debate has been between rationalism and empiricism. In contemporary psychology, the debate is between biology (nature) and environment (nurture). Rationalism is a philosophical and epistemological perspective on knowledge that claims, at its most extreme, that reason is the only dependable source of knowledge; moreover, rationalists assert that a priori knowledge is the most effective foundation for knowledge . Empiricism, on the other hand, argues that no knowledge exists prior to experience; therefore, all knowledge, as well as thought, comes from experience. The nature and nurture debate is not identical, and yet has parallels to the rationalism versus empiricism debate. Those who claim that thought and behavior result from nature say the cause is genetic predisposition while those who argue for environment say that thought and behavior are caused by learning, parenting, and socialization. In contemporary philosophical, linguistic, and psychological circles, it is rare to maintain an unwavering stance on either of these extremes; most fall toward the middle. The ideas of "nature and nurture" or "innateness and environmental input" are no longer perceived as mutually exclusive. Instead, researchers point to a necessarily interactive relationship in order for thought and behavior to occur. In Plato's philosophy, innate ideas are revealed through the Socratic Method of investigation. In linguistics, universal grammar must have input from the environment (primary linguistic data) in order for children to achieve an individual grammar (output). Biologically, our perceptual faculties are pre-wired, but they require environmental stimuli in order to develop correctly. The neurological structures in our brain that represent the location of LTM are also biologically pre-wired, yet environmental input is needed in order for memory to flourish. All of these ideas speak to the crux of Plato's problem, which is how to account for the gap between knowledge and limited experience. For some scientific and philosophical disciplines, the answer to this conundrum is innateness, or biological pre-wiring. Innate knowledge is what bridges the gap between the limited information one gleans from the environment (poverty of the stimulus) and one's actual knowledge. References Further reading Blake, Randolph, and Robert Sekuler. Perception. 5th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2006. Bruner, J. S., & Kenney, H. J. (1965). Representation and mathematics learning. In L. N. Morrisett and J. Vinsonhaler (Eds.), Mathematical learning. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 30 (Serial No. 99). Carnie, Andrew. Syntax. Oxford: Blackwell, 2002. Cherry, C. (1966). On human communication. (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Chomsky, Noam. Modular Approaches to the Study of the Mind. San Diego: San Diego State University Press, 1984. Dresher, Elan. Language and Mind Forum. 2000. Ahmanson Foundation. 15 Mar. 2006 <http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/linguistics/langmind.htm#dresher> Kemerling, Garth. A Dictionary of Philosophical Terms and Names. 2002. 11 Apr. 2006. <http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/index.htm> Mayer, Richard E. Thinking, Problem Solving, Cognition. 2nd ed. New York, NY: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1991. McGilvray, James, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Chomsky. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Meno:Introduction. 2004. Farlex, Inc. 15 Mar. 2006. <http://plato.thefreelibrary.com/Meno/1-1> Moray, N. (1959). Attention in dichotic listening: Affective cues and the influence of instructions. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 11, 56–60. Nisbett, R. E., & Ross, L. (1980). Human preferences: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Plato: (427 B.C. – 347 B.C.). 2004. Farlex, Inc. 15 Mar. 2006. <http://plato.thefreelibrary.com> Pojman, Louis P. Classics of Philosophy. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003. Russell, Bertrand. The History of Western Philosophy. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, 1945. Solso, Robert L., M. Kimberly MacLin, and Otto H. MacLin. Cognitive Psychology. 7th ed. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2005. External links Concepts in epistemology Language acquisition Generative linguistics Philosophical problems
4788479	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.%20R.%20M.%20Howard	T. R. M. Howard	Theodore Roosevelt Mason Howard (March 4, 1908 – May 1, 1976) was an American civil rights leader, fraternal organization leader, entrepreneur and surgeon. He was a mentor to activists such as Medgar Evers, Charles Evers, Fannie Lou Hamer, Amzie Moore, Aaron Henry, and Jesse Jackson, whose efforts gained local and national attention leading up to the civil rights movement of the 1960s. Howard founded Mississippi's leading civil rights organization in the 1950s, the Regional Council of Negro Leadership; and played a prominent role in the investigation of the kidnapping and murder of Emmett Till in the late 1950s. He was also president of the National Medical Association, chairman of the board of the National Negro Business League, and a leading national advocate of African-American businesses. His contributions were clearly not only in a clinical setting, but also in his addressing of social determinants of health that disproportionately impact the black community. Early life and education Theodore Roosevelt Howard was born in 1908 in Murray, Kentucky, to Arthur Howard, a tobacco twister, and Mary Chandler, a cook for Will Mason, a prominent local white doctor and member of the Seventh-day Adventist Church. Mason took note of the boy's work habits, talent, ambition, and charm. He put him to work in his hospital and eventually paid for much of his medical education. Howard later showed his gratitude by adding "Mason" as a second middle name. His medical career was fostered out of his relationship to Mason, as he worked closely with Mason as his protége. Howard attended three Adventist colleges: Oakwood Junior College, a historically black college in Huntsville, Alabama; the nearly all-white Union College in Lincoln, Nebraska; and the College of Medical Evangelists (now Loma Linda University) in Loma Linda, California. While at Union College, he won the Anti-Saloon League of America's national contest for best orator in 1930. During his years in medical school in California, Howard took part in civil rights and political causes and wrote a regular column for the California Eagle, the main black newspaper of Los Angeles. He was president of the California Economic, Commercial, and Political League. Through the League and his columns, he championed black business ownership, the study of black history, and opposed local efforts to introduce segregation. In 1935, he married prominent black socialite Helen Nela Boyd; they were married 41 years. After a residency at Homer G. Phillips Hospital (in St. Louis, Missouri), Howard became the medical director of the Riverside Sanitarium, the main Adventist health care institution to serve blacks. Career Mason quickly took notice of Howard's intelligence and was a supporter of his education and medical training. This led Howard to his position as the chief medical director and surgeon at an Adventist sanitarium in Nashville, Tennessee. Like countless other Black medical professionals of this time, he was met with extreme resentment and discrimination from his colleagues. The turmoil was so great that Howard transferred, in 1942, to the hospital of the International Order of Twelve Knights and Daughters of Tabor and took over as the first chief surgeon. The IOTKDT is a fraternal organization, in Mound Bayou, Mississippi, founded, occupied and governed by freedmen after the Civil War. Howard had already been an active participant in the civil rights movement, but it was here that his activist and medical philosophies began to intersect, especially in his considerations of medical inequity and social determinants of health. Howard is known for energizing the city's agricultural economy by introducing jobs, livestock, and new farming equipment to his over 1,000 acres of farmland. He also founded an insurance company, restaurant, hospital, home construction firm, and a large farm where he raised cattle, quail, hunting dogs, and cotton. He also built a small zoo and a park, as well as the first swimming pool for Black people in Mississippi. "In addition to his duties at the hospital, Howard operated a thriving private practice, where his specialties soon included the discreet provision of illegal abortions (for both black and white patients), a practice he justified as a matter of both individual rights and family planning. (He also favored legalizing prostitution, arguing that man's sinful nature made it impossible to suppress the sex trade.)" In 1947, he broke with the Knights and Daughters after backlash from the IOTKDT over his popular status. This led to his creation of a competing organization, The United Order of Friendship America (UOFA). He created the "Friendship Medical Clinics" that provided medical services for the Black community that were otherwise very difficult to attain. His patients were from all backgrounds, however, and expanded on ideals of medical equality and national health that he saw were absent. His efforts also included initiatives for education, voting rights, and employment for the black community. He was also involved in several rallies that attracted civil rights leaders from across the nation as well as politicians and celebrities. From this, Howard gained more public attention, and was even featured in an article in the Saturday Evening Post by Pulitzer Prize-winning publisher Hodding Carter II. He sought the support of political actors for his public health endeavors, most famously in his failed attempt to erect a Veteran's Hospital with the help of two white supremacist Senators. This demonstrated his desire to close the ideological divides in politics and hopefully foster relationships with his opponents. Howard rose to prominence as a civil rights leader after founding the Regional Council of Negro Leadership (RCNL) in 1951. His compatriots in the League included Medgar Evers, whom Howard had hired as an agent for his Magnolia Mutual Life Insurance Company; and Aaron Henry, a future leader in the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party. Arenia Mallory, a principal of a private black school in the county seat Lexington, Mississippi, was also on the board of directors of the RCNL. The RCNL mounted a successful boycott against service stations that denied restrooms to blacks and distributed twenty thousand bumper stickers with the slogan, "Don't Buy Gas Where You Can't Use the Restroom." The organization frequently organized popular demonstrations supporting civil rights and voter registration. The success of the RCNL threatened white citizens in Mississippi for several reasons, but especially in the organization's success in improving black voter registration. By 1954, there were more than 20,000 newly registered black voters in Mississippi. The RCNL organized yearly rallies in Mound Bayou for civil rights. Sometimes as many as ten thousand attended, including such future activists as Fannie Lou Hamer and Amzie Moore. Speakers included Rep. William L. Dawson of Chicago, Alderman Archibald J. Carey Jr. of Chicago, Rep. Charles Diggs of Michigan, and NAACP attorney Thurgood Marshall. One of the entertainers was Mahalia Jackson. In 1954, Howard hatched a plan to fight a credit squeeze by the White Citizens Councils against civil rights activists in Mississippi. At his suggestion, the NAACP under Roy Wilkins encouraged businesses, churches, and voluntary associations to transfer their accounts to the black-owned Tri-State Bank of Memphis. In turn, the bank made funds available for loans to victims of the economic squeeze in Mississippi. Emmett Till Howard moved into the national limelight after the murder of Emmett Till in August 1955 and the trial of his killers, J. W. Milam and Roy Bryant, in September. He delivered "[o]ne of the earliest and loudest denunciations of Till's murder," saying that if "the slaughtering of Negroes is allowed to continue, Mississippi will have a civil war. Negroes are only going to take so much." He was deeply involved in the search for evidence in the case. He allowed his home to be a "black command center" for witnesses and journalists, including Clotye Murdock Larsson of Ebony magazine and Rep. Charles Diggs. "Recognizing that local officials had little incentive to identify or punish every member of the conspiracy that took Till's life, he spearheaded a private investigation, personally helping to locate, interview, and protect several important witnesses." Visitors noticed the high level of security, including armed guards and a plethora of weapons. Historians David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito have written that Howard's residence "was so impregnable that journalists and politicians from a later era might have used the word 'compound' rather than 'home' to describe it." Howard evaded Mississippi's discriminatory gun control laws by hiding a pistol in a secret compartment of his car, and "slept with a Thompson submachine gun at the foot of his bed." He brought Emmett's mother Mamie to the city from Chicago at his own expense, and she stayed at his home when she came to testify at the trial. Howard "escorted [Bradley] and various others to and from the courthouse in a heavily-armed caravan." Like many black journalists and political leaders, Howard alleged that more than two people took part in the crime. After an all-white jury acquitted Milam and Bryant, Howard gave dozens of speeches around the country on the Till killing and other violence in Mississippi, typically to crowds of several thousand. One was to an overflow crowd on November 27 in Montgomery, Alabama, at the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church. His host for the event was Martin Luther King Jr., with Rosa Parks in the audience. Many years later, she singled out Howard's appearance as the "first mass meeting that we had in Montgomery" following Till's death. Four days after his speech, Parks made history by refusing to give her seat on a city bus in Montgomery to a white man, in violation of a city segregation ordinance. Howard's speaking tour culminated in a rally for twenty thousand at Madison Square Garden, where he was the featured speaker. He shared the stage with Adam Clayton Powell Jr., A. Philip Randolph, former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, and Autherine Lucy. In the final months of 1955, Howard and his family were increasingly subjected to death threats and economic pressure. He sold most of his property and moved permanently to Chicago. His national reputation as a civil rights leader still seemed secure. He accused J. Edgar Hoover, Director of the FBI, of being slow to find killers of blacks in the South. In early 1956, the Chicago Defender gave Howard the top spot on its annual national honor roll. He founded the Howard Medical Center on the South Side and served for one year as president of the National Medical Association, the black counterpart of the AMA. Howard also became medical director of S.B. Fuller Products Company. Samuel B. Fuller was likely the wealthiest black man in the United States at the time. Politics Howard was unusual among prominent civil rights leaders because he strongly opposed socialism. He consistently praised the educator Booker T. Washington, late president of the Tuskegee Institute, whom he regarded as a "towering genius" for his emphasis on self-help and entrepreneurship. He "had little patience for the utopian schemes of the far left, declaring at one point that he wished 'one bomb could be fashioned that would blow every Communist in America right back to Russia where they belong.' In a similar vein, he said, 'There is not a thing wrong with Mississippi today that real Jeffersonian democracy and the religion of Jesus Christ cannot solve'." His medical and political endeavors exposed him to the generational poverty among the black community in Mound Bayou, Mississippi, leading him to give public support for the desegregation of schools. Once the decision of Brown v. Board of Education was public, there was increasing violence aimed at members of the UOFA and Howard himself. Despite this, Howard continue to fight for educational and medical equity and, as mentioned, was integral in the investigation and trial of the murder of Emmett Till. In 1958, Howard ran for Congress as a Republican against the powerful incumbent black Democrat, Rep. William L. Dawson, a close ally of Mayor Richard J. Daley. Although he received much favorable media publicity, and support from leading black opponents of the Daley machine, Dawson overwhelmed him at the polls. Howard was unable to counter Dawson's efficient political organization, and rising voter discontent because of the economic recession and the reluctance of Republican President Dwight D. Eisenhower to back the civil rights movement in the South. Black Republicans began to believe they were not well represented by that party. Shortly before the election, Howard helped to found the Chicago League of Negro Voters. The League generally opposed the Daley organization and promoted the election of black candidates in both parties. It nurtured the black independent movement of the 1960s and 1970s, which eventually propelled four of Howard's friends to higher office: Ralph Metcalfe, Charles Hayes, and Gus Savage to Congress, and Harold Washington as mayor of Chicago. In the two decades after the 1958 election, Howard had little role as a national leader, but he remained important locally. He chaired a Chicago committee in 1965 to raise money for the children of the recently assassinated black leader, Malcolm X. Later, he was an early contributor to the Chicago chapter of the SCLC's Operation Breadbasket under Jesse Jackson. In 1971, Operation PUSH was founded in Howard's Chicago home, and he chaired the organization's finance committee. Through this period, he became well known as a leading abortion provider, although the procedure was still illegal until 1973, when the Supreme Court ruled in Roe v. Wade that women had a right to this procedure. He was arrested in 1964 and 1965 for allegedly performing abortions in Chicago but was never convicted. Howard regarded this work as complementary to his earlier civil rights activism. His medical philosophy and commitment to medical equity clearly shaped his political motivations. The challenges he faced in his career are a testament to his commitment to change and fearlessness amidst a tumultuous and divided political era. Electoral history Friendship Medical Center In 1972, Howard founded the multi-million-dollar Friendship Medical Center on the South Side, the largest privately owned black clinic in Chicago. The staff of about 160 included 27 doctors in such fields as pediatrics, dental care, a pharmacy, ENT (ear, nose, and throat) care, and psychological and drug counseling. Within an hour after the decision in Roe v. Wade was announced in 1973, FMC performed the first legal abortions in Illinois. After a spate of bad publicity, "Howard stated that the FMC had performed 1,500 legal abortions thus far, more than any other Illinois provider. Given such numbers, he concluded, six major complications were not unusual." Howard also believed the various controversies were "a smokescreen by the medical and political establishment to quash their lower-priced competitors" because "an abortion at the FMC cost about fifty dollars less than at hospitals." He also felt the push to require abortions to be performed only in hospitals would "push the already limited capacity of hospitals beyond the breaking point." One local hospital had been performing 18 abortions per week, whereas FMC had been set up to perform 60–100 abortions per day. In 1978, the Chicago Sun-Times published a 15-part series titled The Abortion Profiteers, exposing the dirty underbelly of the abortion industry in Chicago. Dr. Arnold Bickham — a doctor who worked at Howard's Friendship Medical Center performing abortions from 1973 to 1975, and who went on to run several other abortion clinics, including one he also named "Friendship Medical Center" after Howard's death — was one of several Chicago-area abortion practitioners featured in the 1978 investigative report. The reporters stated that three women died from hemorrhages in 1973 and 1974 after abortions at FMC, and several others died after abortions at Bickham's other clinics, Biogen and Water Tower. After a history of license suspensions, gross malpractice, and federal convictions for misuse of funds, in 1989 Bickham was arrested for practicing medicine without a license while trying to flee his "Friendship Medical Center" clinic. Death Howard died in Chicago on May 1, 1976, after many years of deteriorating health. The Reverend Jesse Jackson officiated at the funeral. See also List of civil rights leaders References Further reading T.R.M. Howard Facebook Page Ward, Thomas J. Black Physicians in the Jim Crow South. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2003.9 Video and audio material Audio recording of Howard's eulogy at the memorial service for Medgar Evers, June 15, 1963, Jackson, Mississippi Speech at Madison Square Garden (introduced by A. Philip Randolph, on May 24, 1956) 1908 births 1976 deaths 20th-century American physicians African-American businesspeople Activists for African-American civil rights American anti-communists African American American abortion providers American hunters American community activists Physicians from Chicago People from Murray, Kentucky Physicians from Mississippi African-American history of Mississippi Seventh-day Adventists in health science American Seventh-day Adventists Oakwood University alumni 20th-century African-American physicians American surgeons African-American activists Union College (Nebraska) alumni Illinois Republicans 20th-century American businesspeople People from Mound Bayou, Mississippi Loma Linda University alumni International Order of Twelve Knights and Daughters of Tabor Black conservatism in the United States
4789098	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20The%20Goon%20Show%20cast%20members%20and%20characters	List of The Goon Show cast members and characters	This is a list of regular cast members of the 1950s British radio programme The Goon Show and the characters they portrayed. Harry Secombe Neddie Seagoon Uncle Oscar Uncle of Henry and Min. A very old pensioner (Henry often asks, "What are you doing out of your grave?") who usually jabbers incoherently but soon collapses. When he is coherent, he can be heard enquiring as to the whereabouts of his teeth, or (as in The Call Of The West), he loses them – Henry remarks, "There go his teeth, Min – more dinner for us!" In The £50 Cure, he is the first to be turned into a chicken after drinking Minnie's laundry soup. Private Bogg One of Major Bloodnok's soldiers who is usually picked upon to do all the dangerous/scary jobs that Bloodnok himself is too afraid to do. However, Bogg does appear as a civilian in The Greatest Mountain In The World; he announces himself as 'Sex: male; name: Bogg F, Superintendent, Ministry of Works and Housing', and declares that Henry Crun's artificial mountain in Hyde Park "will have to come down", quoting Section 9 of some obscure regulation: "No mountain weighing more than 8 pounds 10 ounces and measuring more than 20 feet may be built within a radius of Nelson's Column." He then lays two lighted sticks of dynamite, which Eccles mistakes for two cigars. Nugent Dirt The first victim of The Phantom Head-Shaver of Brighton. His wife Prunella takes him to court, and after a three-week trial, Judge Schnorrer finally pronounces sentence – "Now, then, Nugent Dirt – the jury of three just men and twenty-nine criminals finds you guilty of hiding your bald nut from your wife until after you had married her.... Therefore – I sentence you to pay a fine of three shillings or do sixty years in the nick". Dirt replies: "I'll do the sixty years – I'm not throwing three bob down the drain." Izzy Based on the Jewish comic Issy Bonn. Welshmen Secombe also played various Welshmen (e.g. a lorry driver in Wings Over Dagenham, and a navvy in The Scarlet Capsule). Members of the newsgroup alt.fan.goons refer to most of these characters as "Secombe Bach." In the beginning of the episode The Thing on the Mountain, all three Goons (with Milligan as Adolphus Spriggs and one line as Singhiz Thingz) imitate Welshmen. In Wings Over Dagenham, Secombe's Welsh character is named "Dai". In The Mighty Wurlitzer, the first part of the story is set in Wales. Secombe (himself a Welshman in the role of Seagoon), Milligan (playing a cat) and Sellers (à la Mai Jones) end virtually every sentence with the Welsh word "bach" (which means 'small' – occasionally, a Welshman will refer to his 'butty bach', roughly translated 'my little friend'). Secombe dryly remarks after Milligan's lines, "That's the first time I've heard a cat bark." Yorkshiremen When there was a need, Secombe would often play the part of a Yorkshireman, usually unnamed. One example of Secombe's Yorkshire accent is in the episode Lurgi Strikes Britain, where he plays a bus conductor in Oldham (although the town is historically in Lancashire, some of the outlying villages of Oldham were situated in the West Riding of Yorkshire at the time), the first victim of the dreaded lurgi. He also uses the accent as a workman in The Last Tram (From Clapham), and as the Manager of the East Acton Labour Exchange in World War I. In The Macreekie Rising he plays a dim Yorkshireman on guard at the Tower of London, using the name "Fred Nurke". Spike Milligan Eccles Minnie Bannister Moriarty Throat Throat, Sgt Throat, Miss Throat or Gladys, with a very gravelly voice. Milligan invented this voice by belching, apparently in the middle of rehearsal, much to the producer Peter Eton's annoyance. Little Jim Little Jim, whose single line "He's fallen in the wa-ater" became a national catchphrase. According to a recent TV special about Spike Milligan, the phrase was originated by Peter Sellers' young son. In The Last Goon Show of All, it was revealed that Little Jim was Eccles' nephew, and that apart from "He's fallen in the wa-ater", only Eccles could understand Little Jim's speech, even Little Jim himself having no idea. Spriggs Adolphus (later Jim) Spriggs, aka Jim Pills, who makes frequent appearances on the show. He often repeats his lines in a high-pitched falsetto and calls everybody "Jim", pronounced "Jeeee-eeeeem!". Also known to be a singer (of sorts): in 1957's The Histories Of Pliny The Elder he serenades Julius Grytpype Caesar, whereupon the latter remarks 'Brutus Moriartus, this man is a bit of a crawler. Why does he follow such a profession?' Moriarty replies 'For money, Caesar, he tells me he wants to die rich.' Grytpype: 'And so he shall; give him this sack of gold, and then strangle him.' Notably, in a few episodes, actors other than Milligan – such as Kenneth Connor in The £50 Cure– would attempt to imitate Spriggs' habit of singing the word 'Jim' at a high pitch, resulting in a fervent contest with Milligan as to who could hold his 'Jim' longest, sometimes interspersed with the character asking 'Are you taking the mick?' Mr Banerjee One of a pair of Indian characters who carry on a lengthy conversation, sometimes about how best to carry out a given task, and using stereotypical Indian syntax. Yakamoto Japanese character who can be found as Eidelberger's sidekick (e.g. Napoleon's Piano and The Canal) or as a Japanese Army officer (e.g. The Fear of Wages). Cor blimey Unnamed character who pops up to say "Cor blimey I'm off!" whenever something dangerous is about to happen. Voice very similar (and possibly related) to Throat. Thingz Havaldar Singhiz Thingz, an Indian idiot, usually found as Bloodnok's servant. The various Indian characters in the show derived from Milligan's childhood in India, where his father had served in the British Army. Hugh Jampton Captain Hugh Jampton, an army officer who made brief appearances primarily as a means of getting an indecent British Army joke past the BBC censors. The name would scan acceptably in the script but could be said suggestively during the broadcast as "huge 'ampton". "Hampton" is cockney rhyming slang: Hampton Wick – dick (penis). The name had originally been slipped into a 1954 issue of the Radio Times, resulting in Milligan being reprimanded by Sir Ian Jacob, Director-General of the BBC and a former Army officer who understood the joke. Milligan immediately resolved to include it in the show. The first appearance was scripted but others were ad libbed by the cast. Fu Manchu Fred Fu Manchu, Chinese Bamboo Saxophonist. Appears as the eponymous villain in The Terrible Revenge of Fred Fu Manchu. Makes minor appearances in a number of other episodes China Story, "The Siege of Fort Night"(e.g. and The Lost Emperor. Peter Sellers Bloodnok Grytpype-Thynne Bluebottle Henry Crun Cynthia Cynthia, ROE (Rose of England), a breathy nymphomaniac femme fatale from Earl's Court. Neddie's occasional love interest, with a jealous lover called Raoul (played by Ray Ellington with a George Sanders patina). Jilted for an elephant in "Tales of Men's Shirts". In "The Scarlet Capsule", the local residents need to be evacuated, for fear of an unexploded bomb. Seagoon (as Ned Quatermass) knocks on Cynthia's door, and when she answers, he says "I'm terribly sorry to knock you up so late...." (pause for the double-entendre to sink in), to which she replies: "They all say that..." Willium "Mate" Cobblers Willium "Mate" Cobblers, working-class cockney idiot, who played all sorts of roles, including soldiers, policemen and various menial servants. He was often included in stories that called for a generic extra person that did not require too much character development in his own right. His catchphrase, "You can't park 'ere, mate", was a Goon in-joke that took a swipe at officious BBC commissionaires. (Sellers used a similar voice for trade union leader Fred Kite in the film I'm All Right Jack). Based on a hardware store owner known to the Goons. When asked "What kind of wood is this?" he would respond "That's solid wood, that is, mate." In the Goon Show Script books Willum is revealed to be related to Grytpype-Thynne. Mr Lalkaka One of a pair of Indian gentlemen, the other, Mr Banerjee, was played by Milligan; on occasion, however, the roles were reversed, with Sellers playing Banerjee and Milligan Lalkaka. Conversations between these Indian characters occasionally used Hindi obscenities that both Milligan and Sellers had picked up. These were usually the subject of complaints by, surprisingly, elderly ladies. Eidelberger German anti-hero. Sometime Dr. Frankenstein, who invented Eccles, aided and abetted by Yakamoto. Camp Commandant of Stalag 10, 12, and 13, and nominal Kapitan, and Seagoon's accomplice in the plot to steal Napoleon's Piano from the Louvre. His full name when he first appeared was Dr Hans Eidelburger, but he later became Justin Eidelberger, as in "Just an idle bugger". This was another way the Goons would slip words that were then banned from radio into the script. The voice that Sellers used for this character was similar to that which he later used for Dr. Strangelove. Flowerdew Camp person who makes infrequent appearances. Although one of the earliest established characters, he was absent from the show for a long period and reappeared in the middle of the show's run. Flowerdew is a dab hand with a sewing machine, especially when, as in The Nasty Affair At The Burami Oasis, Seagoon tells him to run up a flag. Also appears in The Histories Of Pliny The Elder; when he tells Seagoon to "Shut up! It was perfectly quiet till you came along!", Seagoon replies, "You're a sailor, and sailors don't care!". And in The String Robberies, Seagoon's train arrives in Scotland with a great blast of steam – Flowerdew is mortified: "There should be a law against trains letting off steam when people are wearing kilts!" Comparable with the characters Julian and Sandy from Round the Horne. Cyril A Jewish character, with an aversion to non-Kosher water. Bloodnok despises Cyril due to his anti-Semitism; when, in King Solomon's Mines, Cyril is indeed drowning in "non-Kosher water", Blooknok exclaims "Goodness! A crocodile making straight for Cyril!", fires, and then exclaims tersely. "Got him. Now to get the crocodile." Fred Nurke Fred Nurke, who, in The Affair of The Lone Banana, vanishes from right under his mother's nose. Seagoon asks: 'What was he doing there?' Headstone the butler (Sellers) replies 'It was raining at the time, I believe' (another Jewish reference – see Max 'Conks' Geldray). Gladys A strange sexless thing that continually changed its voice and responded often with the phrase 'Yes Darling!'. This part was also played by Ray Ellington (e.g., see "Rommel's Treasure"), and by Wallace Greenslade ("Personal Narrative"). Lew/Ernie Cash Another Jewish character, a nasal stereotypical voice; usually a fast-talking theatrical agent or impresario (e.g. The Greenslade Story), who cajoles actors in the wings with two broken legs to break another one. Based on a friend of the Goons. Occasionally appeared as a judge or magistrate. Sometimes called "Schnorrer". He was based on the impresario Lew Grade. Churchill Sir Winston Churchill, who makes regular appearances as the PM. Looks for bits of paper in odd locations, approves crazy projects like atomic dustbins for the Christmas Islands and is suspected of throwing batter puddings at Clement Attlee - although also happy to go to Brighton with Attlee during the terror of the Phantom Head Shaver, as in his words 'Let's go Clem, what have we got to lose?'. He once knocked off Constable Willum Mate's 'hairy police helmet' in order to borrow it for a Christmas party. Hern/Hearn Various American characters with the surname Hern or Hearn, often used for narration, outrageous announcements or parody sales pitches. The Goons referred to Americans as "herns", possibly because saying "hern hern hern...." sounded American to them, possibly because Sellers once said that a decent American accent could be developed simply by saying it in between sentences. And more... It is a measure of Peter Sellers' vocal talents that he was able to speak all Milligan's characters so accurately that Spike's absences from the show were undetected by listeners until the final credits were read. An example of this is the episode The Macreekie Rising, featuring a harrowing exchange between Henry Crun and Minnie Bannister. Sellers had to take both sides of the conversation and clearly had trouble remembering which voice to use. On the single occasion when Sellers himself was absent, in Who is Pink Oboe?, four other actors and comedians were recruited to fill in for him. He also occasionally used a Laurence Olivier voice, later employed to great comic effect in his 1960s recording of "A Hard Day's Night" as a cod-Shakespearian speech. Michael Bentine Bentine was part of the regular cast for the first two seasons. As a tribute of sorts, unheard characters called Bentine are sometimes referred to in later episodes (e.g. The Man Who Never Was) Osric Pureheart The archetypal absent minded professor. Famously eccentric and possibly mad, Pureheart, at one point, created the Suez Canal after getting the rights after Cleopatra's death (despite the fact he waited two thousand years). Hugh Jampton (Bentine's character) See Milligan's character above. Other members Andrew Timothy – the show's original announcer, who left the show after the first few episodes of season 4, claiming that he "feared for his sanity". He did however make a brief pre-recorded appearance in the 1959 episode The Scarlet Capsule ('I would like to say that, whilst I read this stuff, I don't write it – fertannngggg!') and returned in 1972 for The Last Goon Show of All (due to the death of Wallace Greenslade 11 years earlier). Wallace Greenslade – announcer, he opened and closed each show (often parodying the traditional BBC announcing style, e.g. "This is the BBC, and it's going bald!"), and occasionally played himself in an episode, most notably "The Greenslade Story", as well as other small parts (e.g., he was "The Phantom Head-Shaver of Brighton"). Greenslade was also noted for what Secombe described as 'playing the part of the French prefect of police, and playing it very badly' in "Tales of Old Dartmoor". In "Insurance, the White Man's Burden", Greenslade opened the show by introducing himself as "Wallace the Pelvis" and singing "See You Later Alligator" in a proper BBC announcer's voice, backed by the Wally Stott Orchestra, prompting Milligan to remark, "Put that pelvis back!" Ray Ellington (not related to the Duke) and his Quartet – singer, bassist and drummer. The popular Ellington Quartet acted as rhythm section for the show's orchestra. Ellington, whose father was African-American and mother Jewish, also occasionally played small roles, mostly as African or Arab characters such as Chief Ellinga, spouting much gibberish masquerading as Swahili, Sheik Rattle'n'roll ("The Nasty Affair At the Burami Oasis"), The Wad-of-Char (Shifting Sands), and Bloodnok's arch-enemy The Red Bladder, and various Scottish and Irish characters (but with no attempt to change his normal accent). Max Geldray – Dutch jazz harmonica player. Occasionally the butt of Jewish jokes, and more frequently, references to his nose – not for nothing known as 'Conks'. Like Ray Ellington, Geldray sometimes had brief speaking parts in the show, which usually consisted of short lines including, "Oh boy, my conk's still making the headlines!", "I got it bad, and that's not good", and (as a taxi driver picking up Seagoon), "Where to, darling?" Wally Stott and his Orchestra – the house band. Stott was a well-known British band leader and arranger whose other credits included numerous recordings for film and singing star Diana Dors. Stott was later known as Angela Morley, having transitioned in 1972. She also composed the music for Hancock's Half Hour. George Chisholm – one of the show's regular musicians, sometimes called upon to play Scottish characters (e.g. "The String Robberies", "Wings Over Dagenham", "The Tay Bridge Disaster", "The Macreekie Rising", "The Spon Plague"). He was invited to The Last Goon Show of All but had to decline, responding that "his trombone was stuck in his tartan down in Bournemouth". Guest appearances John Snagge – doyen of BBC newsreaders who, like Greenslade, also played himself in several episodes (usually in pre-recorded inserts), and was a great supporter of the show. Snagge had a prominent part in the 1955 episode The Greenslade Story, when he was present in the studio instead of being pre-recorded, and read his part in his best 'Here-is-the-News' voice. Valentine Dyall – radio's "Man in Black", often called upon to play sinister characters. Appeared as the Sheriff of Nottingham in Robin Hood, the Christmas special Goon Show made for the General Overseas Service in 1956. Appeared in 'The Canal'", as an amateur brain surgeon attempting to murder his children (Neddie and Eccles), as well as Lloyds insurance salesman Bluebottle, for the insurance money; appeared as Baron Seagoon in Drums Along the Mersey, with an elaborate scheme to smuggle a million pounds out of England; appeared as Dr. Longdongle in The House of Teeth, a mad medic driven to knocking out men's false teeth and painting them black to fulfil a promise of fifty pairs of castanets to his Spanish flamenco dancer girlfriend Gladys la Tigernutta; appeared as the creepy caretaker of Tintagel in The Spectre of Tintagel; appeared in a rare non-sinister role as Lord Cardigan in The Giant Bombardon, which was set during the Crimean War; deputised as Grytpype-Thynne for an indisposed Peter Sellers in Who Is Pink Oboe?; appeared as himself as a count in The Silver Dubloons. In the beginning of "The Canal", Dyall is announced in his usual manner, as the Man in Black, with a gong-beat – only to read out, "Listeners – a funny thing happened to me on my way to the Theatre tonight...a steamroller ran over my head." After a brief laugh, he mutters "So much for humour." Charlotte Mitchell – stepped into the breach on the rare occasions when the script called for an authentic female. Cecile Chevreau, another authentic female; made a cameo in African Incident''', being found in a compromising position up a tree with Major Bloodnok. Jack Train – made two appearances (in Shifting Sands and Who Is Pink Oboe?) reprising his role as Colonel Chinstrap from ITMA. Chinstrap fitted into the Goon Show framework surprisingly well, demonstrating the debt the Goons owed to ITMA. Dick Emery – stood in for Secombe as "Emery-type Seagoon" in Spon, and replaced Milligan in a few others, alternating with Graham Stark. Emery also appeared in the closest thing to a Goon Show film, The Case of the Mukkinese Battle Horn (which also featured Sellers and Milligan but not Secombe). He went on to provide voices for the Beatles' Yellow Submarine, and was popular in his own television sketch show in the 1970s. Kenneth Connor – stood in for Secombe in The £50 Cure" as well as appearing as Willium Mate in Who is Pink Oboe? in place of Peter Sellers, who was ill (the only time Sellers ever missed a Goon Show recording). A. E. Matthews – appeared (unscripted) as himself in 1958's The Evils of Bushey Spon.Dennis Price – appeared as Prince John in the Goons Christmas special broadcast of Robin Hood. Bernard Miles – appeared as approximately himself, complete with his best bucolic accent, in 1957's The Rent Collectors. On other occasions, e.g. in "The Silver Doubloons", he was himself parodied, probably by Peter Sellers. Graham Stark; A good friend of Sellers, Stark made his first known guest appearance with the Goons as Prince Charming in the show's pantomime special, Cinderella. Stark later filled in for Sellers alongside several other actors in Who is Pink Oboe?. At the time of his death in 2013, Stark was the last surviving actor to have appeared in The Goon Show during its original run. Lizbeth Webb; The first known rare female presence on The Goon Show, Webb played the title role in the show's pantomime special, Cinderella''. References The ultimate source from which almost all Goon Show character lists on the internet have been derived is Character descriptions were given in two of Milligan's books of scripts (he has written a back story to his characters which is not always consistent with the scripts) : The Goon Show
4789388	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Velvet%20Rope%20Tour	The Velvet Rope Tour	The Velvet Rope Tour was the third concert tour by American recording artist Janet Jackson. Launched in support of her sixth studio album The Velvet Rope (1997), the tour visited Europe, North America, Japan, New Zealand, Africa, and Australia. Jackson was inspired to create an autobiographical show using elements of Broadway theatre, portraying her struggle with depression and self-esteem. The tour's stage production was developed as a storybook setting, allowing spectators to cross beyond her "velvet rope" and experience her life story through the evolution of her musical career. It consists of twenty-six songs, several band interludes, and intense choreography along with nine costume changes and four sets. Jackson depicts themes such as burlesque and domestic violence among the show's complex production of pyrotechnics and theatrics. Its setlist was composed of a wide array of Jackson's discography, focusing on new material in addition to medleys of previous hits. The tour is divided into five segments, each displaying different themes and settings. In "What About", Its racy visuals and depictions of violence drew controversy. In her rendition of "Rope Burn", Jackson selects a fan from the audience, performing a lap dance and kissing them while strapped into a chair. The show's suggestive promotional ads were banned from a number of publications, the image was reported to cause traffic accidents in Europe. A number of reviews commended Jackson's stage presence as consistently exceptional, noting improvement in her vocal delivery. It broke several attendance records and is the most attended stadium concert of all time in Hawaii. A private show was held in Brunei by request of Princess Hamidah, for her twenty-first birthday. HBO broadcast the show during a special titled The Velvet Rope: Live in Madison Square Garden. It drew over 15 million viewers and was the most watched program among homes subscribed to the network. The special won an Emmy Award, and was also nominated for Image Awards and TMF Awards. It was released on DVD as The Velvet Rope Tour – Live in Concert, certified platinum in several territories. Various aspects of the tour have influenced numerous performers, including Britney Spears, Pink, Rihanna, Christina Aguilera, Panic! at the Disco, Jay-Z, and Arashi. Jackson notably selected NSYNC and Usher to open for the tour; introducing both to the public during their early careers. It has also inspired the careers of several performers, dancers, and professional choreographers. Development Jackson developed the tour as an audiovisual storybook, sharing her life experience through the evolution of her music. Catherine McHugh of Entertainment Design reports "Part of the reason Janet Jackson titled her latest record The Velvet Rope was to criticize barriers that separate different classes in society. So from the beginning of her show, Jackson strives to prove her accessibility to her audience. The spectacular opening presents Jackson's life—at least professionally—as an open book." The stage was designed by Mark Fisher, saying "She wanted to have a book opening and herself come out of it. So I finessed that book into the video screen." Fisher explained, "Each different scene in the show would be akin to turning the pages in this book, and all the albums that she'd done in the past—Control, Rhythm Nation, janet.—would be represented." Regarding its introduction, Fisher said, "The elevator deposits her gracefully, as befits a princess, on the very front of the downstage." "And of course, the entirely cool and wonderful and breaking-new-ground aspect of it is that it's all made possible by a thin LED screen." Roy Bennett stated "We talked about developing the show around the scenarios of her career. I kept that in mind while lighting each different scene, but I tried to do it in an abstract way, without jumping too far away from the overall look of the show." Jackson said, "To me, being onstage is about entertaining. I know there are people who just walk onstage and give you a show by just doing their music, but I always wanted something extra." Jackson conceptualized the tour in Paris, saying "I knew what I wanted everyone to look like, especially for the opening number. I knew what I wanted everyone to wear. I visualized the whole thing." Jackson desired to create new themes for prior hits to avoid repeating previous performances. The tour's logo is a variation of Akan symbol the Sankofa, meaning "you can't move into the future until you understand your past." Jackson tattooed the symbol onto her wrist and used the image frequently throughout the tour's promotional imagery. Controversy The tour's promotional advertisements were controversial for their provocative imagery. The image depicts Jackson in a "clingy, breast-enhancing bodysuit with what appears to be a nipple ring on the bodysuit's exterior and high-cut bikini panties." Several publications refused to publish the ad when they could not determine a way to present the image. Ken DeLisa, corporate affairs manager of The Courant, said the photo did not meet the publication's standards. Jackson's spokeswoman said the tour's producers rejected proposed alterations, adding certain publications "sent back an image that colored Janet's bosom to appear as a sports bra." A billboard of the image in England was also removed after its suggestive nature led to multiple traffic accidents. The tour drew comparisons to Madonna's 1993 Girlie Show Tour, and the UK's Q magazine commented that Jackson borrowed some elements from her pop adversary for her tour. The tour's rendition of "Rope Burn" was considered "incredibly sexy" and "what everyone was talking about", becoming its most controversial performance. During the act, Jackson "plucks a male fan out of the crowd and ties his hands to the arms of a chair on stage while she gyrates around him and eventually kisses him." The selected fan was required to be strapped into the chair due to safety concerns from Jackson's previous tour, after the participant had forcefully grabbed and fondled her while onstage. Jackson said, "Everyone thinks it's this kinky thing. But the reason he gets strapped in is on this last tour, this guy grabbed my crotch. I sat on his lap and then I stood up and he grabbed my crotch, and I was trying to move his hand and he was too strong for me and he was just rubbing on my crotch. There was nothing I could do, so I said to myself I would never let that happen again." Jackson's performance of "What About" is also infamous for its portrayal of domestic violence and abuse. The tour's "racy" costumes were designed by fashion designer David Cardona, who commented "All her life it's been about Janet being cute. Now it's about Janet being sexy." Concert synopsis The show's setlist consists of twenty-six songs, several band interludes and over twenty dance numbers, along with nine costume changes and four different sets, in addition to frequent pyrotechnics and theatrics. At the beginning of the show, burgundy curtains accented by golden tassels are drawn apart, exposing an enormous book. It is covered by an equally large quilt embossed with "The Velvet Rope." A master of ceremonies opens the book, revealed to be an LED screen. The screen shows a nighttime sky with stars and planets. The images dance across the screen, gaining in speed until pyrotechnics explode and the screen splits, revealing Jackson behind it. She is subsequently lowered by elevator onto the main stage and the book stand is removed, leaving the screen hanging in place. It then moves to the back of the stage, followed by the appearance of the band and dancers. Jackson is dressed in a top hat and velvet suit, resembling a "19th century British merchant", and along with eight dancers, performs the opening number "Velvet Rope", using a refrain of The Exorcist theme. After transitioning into "If", Jackson stares at the audience in silence for several minutes to cheering and applause before performing "You." Jackson is backed by dancers strutting alongside her wearing dual-sided masks, representing an isolated persona. Jackson then takes to a center stage stool to perform unplugged versions of "Let's Wait Awhile" and "Again" with an acoustic guitarist. A "frenzied" medley of hits from Control succeeds the ballads, including "Control", "The Pleasure Principle", "What Have You Done for Me Lately", and "Nasty", as well as janet.'s erotic house number "Throb." The red velvet curtain closes the stage while a "hidden light-and sound show" likened to extraterrestrial film Close Encounters entertains the crowd during set changes. The stage reveals the "deranged madness" of the following "hallucinatory" segment, featuring Jackson in a jester's headdress and satin bustier, with dancers dressed as "flowers, Mad Hatters, and horny gnomes" in a "Wonderland" setting. Jackson performs an upbeat medley of "Escapade", "When I Think of You", "Miss You Much", "Runaway", and "Love Will Never Do (Without You)" across a "blindingly bright, poppy-induced set design" with varied props, which include a smiling clock tower, inflatable moons, mammoth chaise, vases, and books. The set transitions into a "steamy burlesque house" with a succession of "Alright", "I Get Lonely", and instrumental interlude of "Any Time, Any Place." Jackson strips to a black bra and tight pants during "Rope Burn", selecting a participant from the crowd at random, "pointing and demanding, "You!". The chosen fan is strapped into a chair as Jackson proceeds to pole dance and perform a striptease and lap dance, planting a kiss on the fan for the finale. "Black Cat" is followed by an emotionally charged rendition of the rock-influenced "What About", one of the tour's most controversial and praised renditions. Jackson narrates as four dancers demonstrate two vignettes of domestic violence in abusive relationships, including rape and physical abuse, concluding in a gun pulled on the abusers in self-defense. Proceeding is "Rhythm Nation", in which Jackson rapidly dances using martial arts movements and nunchucks, followed by the ballad "Special." The tour's encore includes chandeliers and a final outfit change, performing "That's the Way Love Goes", "Got 'til It's Gone", and "Go Deep" before concluding with "Together Again." Piano ballad "Every Time" and "Whoops Now" were performed exclusively on selected international dates. Critical reception The tour was highly praised by critics. Sean Daly of Rolling Stone commended the show's "Vegas-style glam" and Jackson's "pure showmanship" as providing "a hellzapoppin' spectacle that featured enough over-the-top special effects to make Armageddon look like Driving Miss Daisy." The concert was considered "a lust-driven fairy tale", featuring "a giant storybook, containing a massive video screen" which opened and closed the show. Its varied themes were contrasted with psychiatric thrillers A Clockwork Orange and Solid Gold, being "as damn freaky as it sounds", using a color scheme described as "a well-lighted explosion at the Crayola factory." The show's second segment was analyzed as "deranged madness", questioning "Can this really be little Penny from Good Times?" Daly praised Jackson's "breakneck speed" and favorably considered it "summer-entertainment bliss", adding "Janet's still as nasty as she wants to be." Sean Piccoli of The Sun Sentinel applauded the tour as a "birth of a new form of entertainment", effectively taking "music-video fundamentalism to a new extreme in live performance." Jackson's "athletic, superchoreographed presentation" was considered "sheery sensory thrill", thought to have "made Spice World look like public theater." The show was analyzed to be "as much a broadcast as it was a show", transitioning through "a seamless whirl of songs, costumes and set changes." Jackson's performances were described as a "technicolor barrage", ranging from "punched-up, steely grooves" to "pillowy, whispered ballads." Piccoli declared highlights to include the opening number, "an eerie incantation on the strangeness and isolation of celebrity", and the "explosively colorful" Control medley incorporating themes of "children's theater." The tour's rendition of "Rope Burn", showcasing Jackson as she "coaxed a young man from the audience onstage for a veritable striptease routine – for which the fellow was strapped by wristbands to his seat", was also praised. However, the show's unplugged ballad segment was thought to be "the evening's most unadorned moment." Piccoli added the crowd's "animated cheering" had been the most the arena had mustered in his experience. Robert Hilburn of The Los Angeles Times favorably reviewed the tour, exclaiming "There is so much of the ambition and glamour of a Broadway musical in Janet Jackson's new Velvet Rope Tour that it's only fitting that the concert program credits her as the show's creator and director." Although "those aren't terms normally employed in the pop-rock world", Hilburn applauded Jackson's credibility in portraying "a dazzling package, complete with snappy choreography, a colorful array of costumes and often striking staging." Hilburn observed "there were several moments in the show when Jackson stepped beyond the production values and touched us in a way the best pop performers have done over the years." Emphasis was placed on the "playfulness of the fairy tale staging" of "Escapade", the "artful musical stretch" of "Got 'Til It's Gone", and the intimacy of "soul-searching" ballad "Special", adding "Jackson has put a personal stamp on this show that humanizes not only the music but also the performer too." Jackson's "radiance and warmth" was believed to be the result of "her own new-found self esteem", overcoming some of the insecurities plaguing her since childhood. Hilburn stated "the tour and album should go a long way toward helping Jackson finally get the credit she deserves as an artist." The tour's "computer design-phase" was considered "a marvel of precision" by Tom Moon of The Inquirer. Its "eerie, robotic aura of a video game" was thought to be complemented by pyrotechnics detonated "At all the right, surprising moments", a troupe of "lockstep" dancers likened to "a phalanx of marching insects", and "stylized stage sets", ranging from "a child's nursery to a swing-era street scene." The show's lengthy "high-concept medleys" and "power-as-aphrodisiac theme" where analyzed to be commanding and accentuated her physical presence, ripping off her blouse with "theatrical grandeur." Additionally, Jackson's rapid "clockwork" movement was thought to be "high price", declared as nearly mechanical in certain segments. Moon declared "The audience cheered throughout the lavish production; the glossy, every-note-in-its-place music hardly mattered: This was Janet, the noted control freak. The sexually ambiguous diva. The drill sergeant of the rhythm nation. She can do as she pleases." Paul Sexton of The Times, who reviewed the opening concert at the Rotterdam Ahoy in Rotterdam, Netherlands, compared her two-hour performance to that of Broadway theatre, calling it "an audiovisual banquet." Her vocal performance was complemented, as Let's Wait Awhile and "Again" "both showcased Janet's ability to belt out heartfelt, if slightly soppy ballads." Richard Harrington of The Washington Post commented "Jackson looked fabulous, danced fabulous, sang as close to fabulous as she ever has and in the end provided a fabulous two hours of entertainment that was equal parts rock concert, Las Vegas revue and Broadway musical." Steve Jones of USA Today remarked, "Janet Jackson had a sellout crowd for the kickoff of her first U.S. tour in four years, and she blew the fans away with imaginative staging and sheer exuberance." J. D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun noted "on albums, Jackson's sound isn't defined by her voice so much as by the way her voice is framed by the lush, propulsive production of Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis ... her singing on "Black Cat" was commanding enough to hold its own against the wailing electric guitar." Natasha Kassulke of the Wisconsin State Journal stated "The concert captured the scope of Jackson's talent from songwriter to singer, producer, actress, dancer and fashion diva." Similarly, Gemma Tarlach of the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel observed, "A tiny dynamo of constant motion, Jackson strutted, slunk and grooved her way from one end of the stage to the other ... Her voice, sometimes thin and girlish on her albums, sounded fuller and more powerful than ever." Kevin Johnson of St. Louis Post-Dispatch commended the tour as "one of the flashiest on the concert scene." Elizabeth Aird, who reviewed Jackson's concert at GM Place, wrote "If there's a show sexier and more polished than Janet Jackson's The Velvet Rope extravaganza, it's only on Broadway ... Saturday night's show at GM Place was two hours of thrills pumped out by Jackson, her never-say-die dancers and her powerful band." James Sullivan of the San Francisco Chronicle observed her concert at the new arena "offered a career retrospective, punctuated by new material, periodic video diversions and fireworks." "The show was a lot like an '80s flashback, though to its credit Jackson's eight-piece band—bass, guitar, drums and percussion, two keyboardists and two backup singers—added some inventive layering to her older hits." Charles Passy of the Palm Beach Post reported Jackson's show at the Coral Sky Amphitheatre emphasized style over substance, commenting her "two-hour set was about half hormones—and half pyrotechnics. Without much in the way of a voice, she has sold her persona throughout her career. And as that persona has evolved from girlish teenager to sexually sophisticated woman, her albums—and tours—have provided a road map." Jet Magazine reported, "With wit, sass, dance and a whole lot of sex appeal, Janet turns her song and dance fest into one of the major musical events of the year. In fact, it has become the must-see concert of the year." Jeannine Etter of Youth Outlook stated "Janet takes us from ballads to hard-core dance beats, and from sex to politics. The set changes appropriately reflect some of the stages of her musical development, from the more playful circus/funhouse vibe of light and playful songs like "Escapade" to the sexual side of Janet's music that keeps getting stronger and stronger as the years go by. During the performance, one lucky man is picked from the audience, strapped to a chair and "tortured" as Janet performs a highly erotic dance for him." The excerpt concluded "Janet is extremely beautiful, but she also demonstrates a humility obtained from pain, reflection and a sense of spirituality." Christine Robertson of Evening Post, who reviewed Jackson's concert in Wellington, New Zealand, exclaimed: "The sleek choreography and superb dance spectacle saw Jackson seldom take a breath from one set to the next—her control of the stage complete. Most of the time she plunged into two decades of hits which give her the right to stand her ground" among her contemporaries. Jane Stevenson of The Toronto Sun exclaimed "pyrotechnics, set pieces and inflatables combine with non-stop singing and dancing for two hours of exhilarating entertainment." Commercial reception The tour's premiere concert at the Joe Louis Arena sold out within three hours, prompting Jackson to add a second showing for a later date. It grossed over $33 million in the United States alone. Its European leg had completely sold out. The tour had an estimated worldwide attendance of nearly two million, reported to exceed ten million by The Honolulu Advertiser. The tour's closing date at the Aloha Stadium in Hawaii broke attendance records, exceeding its original capacity to accommodate additional ticket demands, making Jackson the only artist in the venue's history to do so. Jackson donated a portion of the tour's sales to America's Promise, an organization founded by Colin Powell to assist disenfranchised youth. Broadcast and recordings The show's concert in New York City was broadcast on the HBO special The Velvet Rope: Live in Madison Square Garden. It received over 15 million viewers and surpassed the ratings of all four major networks among viewers subscribed to the channel. It was released on DVD as The Velvet Rope Tour: Live in Concert, certified platinum in the United States and Australia. Selected performance footage was also aired on MTV. A live music video for promotional single "You" contains concert footage filmed in Glasgow and Manchester. A promotional interview disc in which Jackson answers thirty-four tour questions was released in Europe. A special edition double disc set was issued to Best Buy stores in Germany in other parts of Europe, including a seventeen-minute interview and tour photo book. Its second disc features thirteen songs selected by Jackson, mainly of the trip hop genre, including Massive Attack, Esthero, and Dario G. Legacy The tour's themes, performances and choreography, have influenced artists of various genres as well as several professional dancers and choreographers. The theme of Pink's Funhouse Tour was likened to Jackson's Velvet Rope Tour among several critics, considered to have "clearly learned her tricks" from studying Jackson's performances. In particular, Pink's rendition of the Divinyls' "I Touch Myself", depicting "a masturbatory fantasy brought to life", was considered "instantly" reminiscent of "Janet's Velvet Rope gropes." Christina Aguilera cited the tour as an inspiration, saying "I just love watching people's performance videos. And she, being an amazing performer ... I aspire to do my little shows like that one day." The "flashy Roberto Cavalli-designed costumes and preternatural interest in the risqué" of Aguilera's Back to Basics Tour were later considered "ripped right off the pages" of Jackson's Velvet Rope Tour by LA Daily News. The stage and props of Cher's Do You Believe? shows drew comparisons to Jackson's tour. MTV News likened the circus theme, costumes, and atmosphere of Panic! at the Disco's Nothing Rhymes with Circus Tour to have "most closely resembled Janet Jackson's audience-dividing, hypersexual 1998 Velvet Rope tour — all that was missing was a chair dance." The carnival theme and theatrics used in Japanese group Arashi's Arashi Marks 2008 Dream-A-Live shows were compared to Jackson's festival setting from the tour. The tour was among the first concerts attended by Britney Spears, who commented "I remember the first time I went to her show, I was just like 'Oh my God,' I wanted to be her." Spears added, "she just has this presence that you're so drawn to her, you can't keep your eyes off her." Spears' rendition of "Stronger" on the Dream Within a Dream Tour referenced Jackson's performance of "You", performing in a similar vein among masked dancers wearing one-piece attire. Several performances and themes of Spears' Onyx Hotel Tour drew comparisons for its choreography and sensuality, as well as a reworked lounge version of "Baby One More Time" sonically reminiscent of Jackson's "Rope Burn." Spears' following tour The Circus Starring Britney Spears used a circus theme, observed to be partially inspired by segments of the tour. During "Lace and Leather" on the Femme Fatale Tour, Spears performed a lap dance for a selected fan while wearing a boa after a pole dance, considered a direct reference to Jackson's performance of "Rope Burn." An analysis of Rihanna's Last Girl on Earth tour observed there was "definitely a Janet vibe", particularly comparing Jackson's performance of "Rope Burn", "in which she tied an audience member to a bed and proceeded to seduce them", to Rihanna's rendition of "Skin." The critique added, "Fast forward 13 years later, and there was Rihanna, writhing around on a lucky audience member at the conclusion of Skin off her current Loud album." New Zealand's Stuff.co.nz praised Lady Gaga's Born This Way Ball as the best "pop-star show" since Jackson's Velvet Rope Tour. In a documentary, Jay-Z revealed being inspired by a segment of Jackson's tour in which she stood in silence and stared at the crowd for several minutes to massive applause; imitating the technique during his own concerts. Beyoncé has also been reported to emulate a similar tactic during several live shows. JoJo praised the tour, tweeting "Janet Jackson Velvet Rope Tour DVD. Freaking out. Mesmerized. Living. Can't stop yelling at the tv screen. Omg." JoJo later recorded the album Agápē while The Velvet Rope Tour played on a studio television for inspiration. Canadian singer Anjulie became "obsessed with music" and "developed [my style] through watching" the tour, recalling "I remember seeing The Velvet Rope Tour and then getting the VHS of that, putting it on slow motion so that I could learn every single dance move." British artist Rowdy Superstar commended Jackson's performance of "If" and "stayed up the whole night learning all the choreography from the Velvet Rope Tour." BBC Asian Network presenter DJ Kayper called Jackson "hands down, the best female performer of all time", praising the tour's rendition of "Rhythm Nation" in which Jackson dances with nunchucks. Jackson's performance of "Rope Burn" has influenced numerous artists to incorporate a similar routine during live shows. An anecdote stated "Her performance of this song, when she brought a fan on stage for a strip tease during The Velvet Rope Tour has been co-opted by the likes of Britney Spears and Rihanna in later years." Other artists observed to be inspired by the rendition include Pink, Beyoncé, Christina Aguilera, the Sugababes, Katy Perry, Nicki Minaj, and Chris Brown. Nicole Brown of Vibe stated "Long before Rihanna and Nicki were handing out lap dances like hot cakes, Miss Jackson revolutionized dirty dancing with her "Rope Burn" routine in 1998. Janet works her way up and down a pole before laying a passionate kiss on an excited male fan." A critique of Chris Brown's Fan Appreciation Tour remarked "Brown isn't the only celeb getting freaky on stage with their fans, singer Janet Jackson was one of the first celebrities to get freaky with fans on a stage in front of thousands of on-lookers." Katy Perry was also thought to emulate the performance on the California Dreams Tour, in which she brought a male onstage and "teasingly traced a finger down his bare chest and stomach." The Guardian observed influence from Jackson in the Sugababes' performance of "Virgin Sexy" on the Angels with Dirty Faces Tour, "in which they lapdance around the sole member of the audience who is male and in his twenties", adding "It's a trick Janet Jackson did a few years ago, on her Velvet Rope tour." In 2013, Wall Street International reported the performance inspired American artist (who was exhibiting I London at the time), Alex Da Corte's painting "Velveteen (Wilson Kelvin McQuade)", offering the analogy "a lap dance performed by one artwork for another may be crass, yet too fitting to be ignored." The tour notably promoted Justin Timberlake and Usher when Jackson selected both as its opening acts during their early careers, exposing them to a wider audience. Both artists credit Jackson as a major showmanship influence from both "an entertainment and evolution perspective." While Timberlake was part of 'N Sync, Jackson personally selected them to open for the tour, helping to introduce the relatively unknown group to the public. Timberlake said "I had her poster on my wall so I'm psyched", later describing the experience as "fulfilling." Jackson performed with the group on several dates, including joining them for a live a cappella rendition of Stevie Wonder's "Overjoyed." A biography stated it was a "highlight" moment for Timberlake which "gave Justin a chance to show his family and friends how far he had come." The tour was the largest audience the group performed for at the time, with JC Chasez commenting, "That was great because we got to see how a real professional tours. And not only that she is really sweet. We really enjoyed it." Chris Kirkpatrick added, "She is very good at entertaining. We learned a lot — that if people want to hear just the music, they can buy the CD. But it's the whole live aspect of changing the songs every night or the whole theatrical performance that she puts on. She's definitely one of our mentors when it comes to touring and the stage show. Her show told a story, and that's what people like to see." Following the tour, Timberlake and Jackson became "good friends", ultimately leading to Timberlake performing alongside Jackson during a segment of Jackson's controversial Super Bowl Halftime Show performance. Usher described opening for Jackson as "the biggest event" of his career and an "honor", saying "She's a definite entertainer, works hard and sweats every night. I learned a lot about how to make an artist look like a star." Nick Lachey and group 98 Degrees opened for several dates and experienced increased commercial success following the tour. The tour was one of the first concerts to feature split-screen LED technology, among the first developed at the time. Dancer and choreographer Teresa Espinosa began her career on the tour and credits Jackson for her success, leading her to subsequently work with Britney Spears, Pink, Rihanna, Mariah Carey, and Selena Gomez. Espinosa stated "it was a great learning experience, she's the top of the top," commenting "Dance-wise, (she taught me) how to become a better dancer and performer, and that you also have your good and bad days. Most of all you can't take things personally." Backing dancer Tiana Brown was inspired to pursue a professional dancing career after watching the tour. So You Think You Can Dance finalist Jessica King included the tour among her "favorite dance moments." It was also the first concert attended by So You Think You Can Dance choreographer Travis Wall. Choreographer Shaun Evaristo cited the tour as an inspiration, saying "That show changed my life and so did the dancers." Awards and nominations The Velvet Rope Tour was nominated for 4 Emmy Awards. Set list The following set list is from the April 16, 1998, show in Rotterdam, Netherlands. It is not intended to represent all dates throughout the tour. "Velvet Rope" "If" "You" "Let's Wait Awhile" / "Again" "Control" / "The Pleasure Principle" / "What Have You Done for Me Lately" "Nasty" (contain elements of "Put Your Hands Where My Eyes Could See") "Throb" "Escapade" / "When I Think of You" / "Miss You Much" "Runaway" / "Whoops Now" "Alright" "I Get Lonely" "Any Time, Any Place" "Rope Burn" "Black Cat" "What About" "Jungle Boogie" "Rhythm Nation" "Special" Encore "That's the Way Love Goes" "Got 'til It's Gone" "Together Again" Tour dates Box office score data Personnel Band Musical Director & Keys: Rex Salas Drums: Lil John Roberts 2nd Keys: Darrel Smith Percussion: Terry Santiel Guitar: David Barry Bass: Sam Sims Main vocals: Janet Jackson Background vocals: Stacy Campbell and Rebecca Valadez Dancers Tina Landon (choreographer) Kelly Konno Gil Duldulao Michael Andrews Tyce Diorio Teresa Espinosa Shawnette Heard Nikki Pantenburg Robert Vinson Notes References External links IMDB entry Rottentomatoes entry Mark Fisher set design and images Janet Jackson concert tours 1998 concert tours 1999 concert tours
4789488	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarnation%20%28Christianity%29	Incarnation (Christianity)	In Christian theology, the doctrine of incarnation teaches that the pre-existent divine person of Jesus Christ, God the Son, the second person of the Trinity, and the eternally begotten Logos (Koine Greek for "word"), took upon human nature and "was made flesh" by being conceived in the womb of a woman, the Virgin Mary, also known as the Theotokos (Greek for "God-bearer" or "Mother of God"). The doctrine of the incarnation then entails that Jesus was at the same time both fully God and fully human. In the incarnation, as traditionally defined by those Churches that adhere to the Council of Chalcedon, the divine nature of the Son was united but not mixed with human nature in one divine person, Jesus. This is central to the traditional faith held by most Christians. Alternative views on the subject (see Ebionites and the Gospel of the Hebrews) have been proposed throughout the centuries, but all were rejected by Nicene Christianity. The incarnation is commemorated and celebrated each year at Christmas, and reference can also be made to the Feast of the Annunciation; "different aspects of the mystery of the incarnation" are celebrated at Christmas and the Annunciation. Etymology The noun incarnation derives from the ecclesiastical Latin verb incarno, itself derived from the prefix in- and caro, "flesh", meaning "to make into flesh" or, in the passive, "to be made flesh". The verb incarno does not occur in the Latin Bible but the term is drawn from the Gospel of John 1:14 (Vulgate), King James Version: . Description and development of the traditional doctrine Incarnation refers to the act of a pre-existent divine person, the Son of God, in becoming a human being. While all Christians believed that Jesus was indeed the Unigenite Son of God, "the divinity of Christ was a theologically charged topic for the Early Church." Debate on this subject occurred during the first four centuries of Christianity, involving Jewish Christians, Gnostics, followers of Arius of Alexandria, and adherents of Pope Alexander of Alexandria, among others. Ignatius of Antioch taught that "We have also as a Physician the Lord our God, Jesus the Christ, the only-begotten Son and Word, before time began, but who afterwards became also man, of Mary the virgin." Justin Martyr argued that the incarnate Word was pre-figured in Old Testament prophecies. The Catechism of the Catholic Church discusses the Incarnation in paragraphs 461463 and cites several Bible passages to assert its centrality (, , , ). Nicene Creed The Nicene Creed is a statement of belief originating in two ecumenical councils, the First Council of Nicaea in 325, and the First Council of Constantinople in 381. As such, is it still relevant to most Christian churches today. The Incarnation is always professed, though different Rites use different translations. The Roman Catholic Church's current translation is: "For us men and for our salvation, he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy Spirit, he was born of the Virgin Mary and became man." Apostles' Creed The Apostles' Creed includes the article of faith "He was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born of the Virgin Mary." According to Pope John Paul II, by his incarnation Jesus is a figure of and has united himself to every human being, including the unborn at the moment of their life at conception. Ecumenical councils Eventually, the teachings of Alexander, Athanasius, and the other Nicene Fathers that the Son was consubstantial and coeternal with the Father, were defined as orthodox dogma. All divergent beliefs were defined as heresies. This included Docetism, Arianism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism, Adoptionism, and Sabellianism. The most widely accepted definitions of the incarnation and the nature of Jesus were made by the First Council of Nicaea in 325, the Council of Ephesus in 431, and the Council of Chalcedon in 451. These councils declared that Jesus was both fully God (begotten from, but not created by, the Father) and fully man, taking his flesh and human nature from the Virgin Mary. These two natures, human and divine, were hypostatically united into the one personhood of Jesus Christ. According to the Catholic Church, an ecumenical council's declarations are infallible, making the incarnation a dogma in the Catholic Church. Effect The incarnation implies three facts: (1) The divine person of Jesus Christ; (2) The human nature of Jesus Christ; (3) The hypostatic union of the human with the divine nature in the divine person of Jesus Christ. Without diminishing his divinity, he added to it all that is involved in being human. In Christian belief it is understood that Jesus was at the same time both fully God and fully human, two natures in one person. The body of Christ was therefore subject to all the bodily weaknesses to which human nature is universally subject; such are hunger (Matthew.4:2), thirst (John 19:28), fatigue (John 4:6), pain, and death. They were the natural results of the human nature he assumed. Approaches such as Nestorianism, Ebonism, Arianism, Appoliniarianism, and Eutychianism have attempted understanding of the two natures of Christ; some of them have been condemned traditionally as heretical. In A Kryptic Model of the Incarnation, Andrew Loke evaluates many of these attempts and suggests a possible Divine Preconscious Model (DPM) that postulates that at the Incarnation, Christ's mind included the divine conscious and the divine preconscious along with a human preconscious. The incarnation of Jesus is also one of the key factors which, alongside humans made in the image and likeness of God, forms Christian Anthropology. Specifically, incarnation is vital for understanding the concept of Divinisation of the Man, most well and elaborately developed in Orthodox Christianity and most well expressed by Church Fathers, such as St. Athanasius of Alexandria ("Therefore He was not man, and then became God, but He was God, and then became man, and that to deify us"), St Cyril of Alexandria ("For we too are sons and gods by grace, and we have surely been brought to this wonderful and supernatural dignity since we have the Only Begotten Word of God dwelling within us.") and numerous others. Modern Protestantism The link between the incarnation and the atonement within systematic theology is complex. Within traditional models of the atonement, such as Substitution, Satisfaction or Christus Victor, Christ must be human in order for the sacrifice of the cross to be efficacious, for human sins to be "removed" and/or "conquered". In his work The Trinity and the Kingdom of God, Jürgen Moltmann differentiated between what he called a "fortuitous" and a "necessary" incarnation. The latter gives a soteriological emphasis to the incarnation: the Son of God became a man so that he could save us from our sins. The former, on the other hand, speaks of the incarnation as a fulfilment of the love of God, of his desire to be present and living amidst humanity, to "walk in the garden" with us. Moltmann favours "fortuitous" incarnation primarily because he feels that to speak of an incarnation of "necessity" is to do an injustice to the life of Christ. Hymns and prayers Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic The significance of the incarnation has been extensively discussed throughout Christian history, and is the subject of countless hymns and prayers. For instance, the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom (c. 400), as used by Eastern Orthodox Christians and Byzantine Catholics, includes this "Hymn to the Only Begotten Son": O only begotten Son and Word of God, Who, being immortal, Deigned for our salvation To become incarnate Of the holy Theotokos and ever-virgin Mary, And became man without change; You were also crucified, O Christ our God, And by death have trampled Death, Being one of the Holy Trinity, Glorified with the Father and the Holy Spirit— Save us! Additionally, the Divine Liturgy of Saint James includes this chant of "Let All Mortal Flesh Keep Silence" in its offertory: Let all mortal flesh be silent, and stand with fear and trembling, and meditate nothing earthly within itself:— For the King of kings and Lord of lords, Christ our God, comes forward to be sacrificed, and to be given for food to the faithful; and the bands of angels go before Him with every power and dominion, the many-eyed cherubim, and the six-winged seraphim, covering their faces, and crying aloud the hymn, Alleluia, Alleluia, Alleluia. West Syriac Churches The West Syriac Churches – Syriac Orthodox, Malankara Orthodox, Syro-Malankara Catholic, Syriac Catholic and Maronite Catholic – principally celebrating the Holy Qurbono of St. James (c. AD 60) have a similar ma‛neetho, a poetic hymn, traditionally attributed to St. Severus, the Patriarch of Antioch (c. 465–538): I exalt Thee, Lord and King, Only-begotten Son and Word of the heavenly Father, immortal by nature, Thou came down by grace for salvation and life for all human race; was incarnate of the holy glorious, pure Virgin Mary, Mother of God and became man without any change; was crucified for us. O Christ, our God, Who by Thy death trampled and slaughtered our death, Who are One of the Holy Trinity, worshipped and honored with the Father and the Holy Spirit, have mercy on us all. Alternative views Michael Servetus During the Reformation, Michael Servetus taught a theology of the incarnation that denied trinitarianism, insisting that classical trinitarians were essentially tritheists who had rejected Biblical monotheism in favor of Greek philosophy. The Son of God, Servetus asserted, is not an eternally existing being, but rather the more abstract Logos (a manifestation of the One True God, not a separate person) incarnate. For this reason, Servetus refused to call Christ the "eternal Son of God" preferring "the Son of the eternal God" instead. In describing Servetus' theology of the Logos, Andrew Dibb (2005) comments: "In Genesis God reveals Himself as the Creator. In John He reveals that He created by means of the Word, or Logos. Finally, also in John, He shows that this Logos became flesh and 'dwelt among us'. Creation took place by the spoken word, for God said 'Let there be...' The spoken word of Genesis, the Logos of John, and the Christ, are all one and the same." Condemned by both the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches on account of his heterodox Christology, Servetus was burnt at the stake for heresy in 1553, by the Reformed Protestants in Geneva, Switzerland. The French reformer John Calvin, who asserted he would ensure the death of Servetus if he set foot in Geneva because of his non-Reformed views on the Trinity and the sacrament of baptism, requested he be beheaded as a traitor rather than burned as a heretic, but the authorities insisted on executing Servetus by fire. English Arians Post-Reformation Arians such as William Whiston often held a view of the incarnation in keeping with the personal pre-existence of Christ. Whiston considered the incarnation to be of the Logos Who had pre-existed as "a Metaphysick existence, in potentia or in the like higher and sublimer Manner in the Father as His Wisdom or Word before His real Creation or Generation." Jacob Bauthumley Jacob Bauthumley rejected that God was "onely manifest in the flesh of Christ, or the man called Christ". Instead, he held that God "substantially dwells in the flesh of other men and creatures" rather than solely Christ. Socinian and Unitarian Servetus rejected Arianism because it denied Jesus' divinity so it is certain that he would have also rejected Socinianism as a form of Arianism which both rejects that Jesus is God, and, also that Jesus consciously existed before his birth, which most Arian groups accept. Fausto Sozzini and writers of the Polish Brethren such as Samuel Przypkowski, Marcin Czechowic and Johann Ludwig von Wolzogen saw the incarnation as being primarily a function of fatherhood. Namely that Christ was literally both 'Son of Man' from his maternal side, and also literally 'Son of God' on his paternal side. The concept of the incarnation —"the Word became flesh and dwelt among us"— was understood as the literal word or logos of having been made human by a virgin birth. Sozzini, Przypkowski and other Socinian writers were distinct from Servetus in stating that Jesus having "come down from heaven" was primarily in terms of Mary's miraculous conception and not in Jesus having in any literal sense been in heaven. Today the number of churches with Socinian Christology is very small, the main group known for this are the Christadelphians, other groups include CoGGC and CGAF. Modern Socinian or "Biblical Unitarian" writers generally place emphasis on "made flesh" not just meaning "made a body", but incarnation (a term these groups would avoid) requiring Jesus having the temptable and mortal nature of His mother. Oneness Pentecostalism In contrast to the traditional view of the incarnation cited above, adherents of Oneness Pentecostalism believe in the doctrine of Oneness. Although both Oneness and traditional Christianity teach that God is a singular Spirit, Oneness adherents reject the idea that God is a Trinity of persons. Oneness doctrine teaches there is one God who manifests Himself in different ways, as opposed to a Trinity, where God is seen as one being consisting of three distinct persons. To a Oneness Pentecostal, Jesus is seen as both fully divine and fully human. The term Father refers to God Himself, who caused the conception of the Son in Mary, thus becoming the father of the child she bore. The term Son refers to the fully human person, Jesus Christ; and the Holy Ghost refers to the manifestation of God's Spirit inside of and around His people. Thus the Father is not the Son – and this distinction is crucial – but is in the Son as the fullness of His divine nature. Traditional Trinitarians believe that the Son always existed as the eternal second person of the Trinity; Oneness adherents believe that the Son did not come into being until the incarnation, when the one and only true God took on human form for the first, last and only time in history. Jehovah's Witnesses The Jehovah's Witnesses believe Jesus to be the only direct creation of God through whom God created everything else. His incarnation is considered to be temporary, after which Christ, accordingly, resumed his spiritual and angelic form. Christ is not seen as divine or co-equal with God the Father. After resurrection, Jesus is seen as assuming temporary human forms, though resuming his spirit form eventually. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormonism) According to Latter-day Saint theology, two of the three divine beings of the Godhead have perfected, glorified, physical bodies, namely God the Father (Elohim) and God the Son (Jehovah). Instead of considering the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost as one in substance or essence with one another, Latter-day Saints understand the oneness of the Godhead as symbolic of Their perfectly united characteristics and purpose, while yet acknowledging that they are three separate and distinct beings. To explain this divergence from Trinitarian oneness as literal rather than symbolic, Latter-day Saints commonly cite Christ's Intercessory Prayer in John 17:20-23, which reads: "I do not ask for these [disciples] only, but also for those who will believe in me through their word, that they may all be one, just as you, Father, are in me, and I in you, that they also may be in us, so that the world may believe that you have sent me. The glory that you have given me I have given to them, that they may be one even as we are one, I in them and you in me, that they may become perfectly one, so that the world may know that you sent me and loved them even as you loved me." This conception of the Godhead differs from the Trinitarian view of the Incarnation in which only God the Son, temporarily possessed an incarnated, physical body while God the Father is and has always remained unembodied. Despite these differences, Latter-day Saint doctrine accepts a similar version of so-called ethical monotheism (which developed out of the Jewish tradition), in that Latter-day Saints believe that the Light of Christ (alternatively referred to as the Spirit of Christ) emanates from God the Son throughout the world, thereby influencing all people everywhere to do good and eschew evil. This teaching is best exemplified in the Book of Mormon in Moroni 7:13-19, which states: "Wherefore, all things which are good cometh of God; and that which is evil cometh of the devil; for the devil is an enemy unto God, and fighteth against him continually, and inviteth and enticeth to sin, and to do that which is evil continually. But behold, that which is of God inviteth and enticeth to do good continually; wherefore, every thing which inviteth and enticeth to do good, and to love God, and to serve him, is inspired of God...For behold, the Spirit of Christ is given to every man, that he may know good from evil; wherefore, I show unto you the way to judge; for every thing which inviteth to do good, and to persuade to believe in Christ, is sent forth by the power and gift of Christ; wherefore ye may know with a perfect knowledge it is of God. But whatsoever thing persuadeth men to do evil, and believe not in Christ, and deny him, and serve not God, then ye may know with a perfect knowledge it is of the devil...Wherefore, I beseech of you, brethren, that ye should search diligently in the light of Christ that ye may know good from evil; and if ye will lay hold upon every good thing, and condemn it not, ye certainly will be a child of Christ." Notes References External links 'De trinitatis erroribus', by Michael Servetus (Non-Trinitarian) On the Incarnation by Saint Athanasius of Alexandria. (Trinitarian) The Oneness of God Homepage of Dr. David K. Bernard. (Oneness) The Seven Ecumenical Councils, from the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, vols. 2-14 (Trinitarian) by Artemi Eirini Christian terminology Christology Divine apparitions Nicene Creed
4789678	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resonator%20guitar	Resonator guitar	A resonator guitar or resophonic guitar is an acoustic guitar that produces sound by conducting string vibrations through the bridge to one or more spun metal cones (resonators), instead of to the guitar's sounding board (top). Resonator guitars were originally designed to be louder than regular acoustic guitars, which were overwhelmed by horns and percussion instruments in dance orchestras. They became prized for their distinctive tone, and found life with bluegrass music and the blues well after electric amplification solved the problem of inadequate volume. Resonator guitars are of two styles: Square-necked guitars played in lap steel guitar style Round-necked guitars played in conventional guitar style or steel guitar style There are three main resonator designs: The tricone, with three metal cones, designed by the first National company The single-cone "biscuit" design of other National instruments The single inverted-cone design (also known as a spider bridge) of Dobro brand instruments and instruments that copy the Dobro design Many variations of all these styles and designs have been produced under many brand names. The body of a resonator guitar may be made of wood, metal, or occasionally other materials. Typically there are two main sound holes, positioned on either side of the fingerboard extension. In the case of single-cone models, the sound holes are either both circular or both f-shaped, and symmetrical. The older tricone design has irregularly shaped sound holes. Cutaway body styles may truncate or omit the lower f-hole. History National tricone John Dopyera, responding to a request by the steel guitar player George Beauchamp, developed the resonator guitar to produce an instrument that could produce sufficient volume to compete with brass and reed instruments. Dopyera experimented with configurations of up to four resonator cones and with cones composed of several different metals. In 1927, Dopyera and Beauchamp formed the National String Instrument Corporation to manufacture resonator guitars under the brand name "National". The first models were metal-bodied, and featured three conical aluminum resonators joined by a T-shaped aluminum bar that supported the bridge—a system called the tricone. National originally produced wooden-bodied Tricone models at their factory in Los Angeles, California. They called these models the Triolian, but made only 12 of them. They changed the body meant for tricones to single-cone models, but kept the name. Dobro In 1928, Dopyera left National to form the Dobro Manufacturing Company with his brothers Rudy, Emile, Robert, and Louis, "Dobro" being a contraction of Dopyera Brothers' and also meaning "good" in their native Slovak language. Dobro released a competing resonator guitar with a single resonator with its concave surface uppermost, often described as bowl-shaped, under a distinctive circular perforated metal cover plate with the bridge at its center resting on an eight-legged aluminum spider. This system was cheaper to produce, and produced more volume than National's tricone. Over time, the word "dobro" has become a genericized trademark used to refer to any resonator guitar. National biscuit National countered the Dobro with its own single resonator model, which Dopyera had designed before he left the company. They also continued to produce the tricone design, which many players preferred for its tone. Both National single and tricone resonators remained conical, with their convex surfaces uppermost. Single resonator models used a wooden biscuit at the cone apex to support the bridge. At this point, both companies sourced many components from Adolph Rickenbacker, including the aluminum resonators. National Dobro, Hound Dog, and Gibson After much legal action, the Dopyera brothers gained control of both National and Dobro in 1932, and subsequently merged them into the "National Dobro Corporation". However, they ceased all resonator guitars production following the U.S. entry into World War II in 1941. Emile Dopyera (also known as Ed Dopera) manufactured Dobros from 1959, before selling the company and trademark to Semie Moseley, who merged it with his Mosrite guitar company and manufactured Dobros for a time. In 1967, Rudy and Emile Dopyera formed the Original Musical Instrument Company (OMI) to manufacture resonator guitars, first branded Hound Dog. In 1970 they again acquired the Dobro trademark, Mosrite having gone into temporary liquidation. The Gibson Guitar Corporation acquired OMI in 1993, and announced it would defend its right to exclusive use of the Dobro trademark—which many people commonly used for any resonator guitar. , Gibson produces several round sound hole models under the Dobro name, and cheaper f-hole models both under the Hound Dog name and also its Epiphone brand. All have a single resonator, and many are available in either round or square neck. Other National instruments After the formation of the National Dobro Corporation, the term National was often used to refer to an instrument with a non-inverted cone, to distinguish these designs from the inverted-cone Dobro. Makers particularly used it for single-cone biscuit designs, as the relatively elaborate and expensive tricone was for some time out of production. Players and collectors also used the term for the older tricone instruments, which despite their softer volume and rarity were still preferred by some players. In 1942, the National Dobro Corporation, which no longer produced Dobros or other resonator instruments, reorganized under the name Valco. Valco produced a large volume and variety of fretted instruments under many names, with National as its premium brand. By the early 1960s, Valco again produced resonator guitars for mail order under the brand name National. These instruments had biscuit resonators and bodies of wood and fiberglass. In the late 1980s, the National brand and trademark reappeared with the formation of National Reso-Phonic Guitars. The company produces six-string resonator guitars of all three traditional resonator types, focusing on reproducing the feel and sound of old instruments. Its other resonator instruments include a 12-string guitar, ukuleles and mandolins. Non-US instruments Brazil Casa Del Vecchio Ltda. of São Paulo, Brazil, has produced a wide range of guitars and other string instruments since Angelo Del Vecchio founded the company in 1902. In the 1930s, they began producing resonator guitars, resulting in their most famous model: the Dinâmico, (their trade term for resophonic instruments). In addition to the Dinâmico guitar, which is still in production, Del Vecchio also produced Dinâmico cavaquinhos, approximately like a resonator ukulele, and resonator mandolins. They also produce standard acoustic instruments, as well as Hawaiian-style lap steel guitars. Czech Republic In the late 1990s Amistar, a Czech Republic manufacturer, began marketing tricone resonator guitars. Australia Wayne Acoustic Guitars produced a spider bridge resonator guitar in the 1940s and 1950s in Australia. They were made out of cheap Australian timber using a tone ring rather than a tone well but they had no neck reinforcement and a pressed (rather than spun) cone, often called a pillow cone due to the shapes pressed into the face to strengthen the cone. Many examples exist today. As of 2010, Don Morrison was producing resonators under the Donmo brand name. Asia Asian brands such as Regal, Johnson, Recording King, Republic Guitars, and Rogue also produce or import a wide variety of comparatively inexpensive resonator guitars. Johnson has also produced resonator ukuleles and mandolins. South Africa A company called Gallotone in South Africa produced resonator guitars in the 1950s and 1960s.. Playing Resonator guitars are popularly used in bluegrass music and in blues. Traditionally, bluegrass players used square necked Dobro-style instruments played as a steel guitar while blues players favored round-necked National-style guitars, often played with a bottleneck. Styles and positions The resonator guitar is most often played as a lap steel guitar, and the more common square-necked version is limited to this playing position. Square neck instruments are always set up with the high action favored by steel guitar players, and tuned to a suitable open tuning. The round necked version is equally capable in either lap steel or Spanish guitar position. It may be set up with a variety of action heights, ranging from the half-inch favored for steel guitar (making use of the frets almost impossible) to the small fraction of an inch used by conventional guitarists. A compromise is most common, allowing use of a bottleneck on the top strings but also use of the frets as desired, with the guitar played in the conventional position. Many different tunings are used. Some square neck tunings are not recommended for round neck resonator guitars, owing to the high string tension required, which in turn requires the stronger square neck. Slack-key guitar tunings are most suitable for bottleneck playing, and conventional E-A-D-G-B-E guitar tuning is also popular. Players In bluegrass music The resonator guitar was introduced to bluegrass music by Josh Graves, who played with Flatt and Scruggs, in the mid-1950s. Graves used the hard-driving, syncopated three-finger picking style developed by Earl Scruggs for the five-string banjo. Modern players continue to play the instrument this way, with one notable exception being the late Tut Taylor who played with a flat pick. Tuning for the resonator guitar within the bluegrass genre is most often an open G with the strings pitched to D G D G B D or G B D G B D, from the lowest to highest. Occasionally variant tunings are used, such as an open D: D A D F# A D. Other notable bluegrass players include Jerry Douglas, Mike Auldridge, Rob Ickes, Phil Leadbetter and Andy Hall. In country music The resonator guitar was used in older country music, notably by Bashful Brother Oswald of Roy Acuff's band, but was largely supplanted by the pedal steel guitar during the 1950s. Despite this, the instrument is still frequently used as an alternative to the steel guitar. James Burton and Grady Martin played flat picked dobro on many recordings. Leon McAuliffe initially played a dobro before exclusively transitioning to electric lap and console steel guitars. In blues music The resonator guitar is also significant to the world of blues music, particularly the Southern style of country blues that grew out of the Mississippi Delta and Louisiana. Unlike country and bluegrass players, most blues players play the resonator guitar in the standard guitar position, with the fretboard facing away from the player. Many use slides or bottlenecks. Many players in the 1920s and 1930s, including Bo Carter, and others like Bukka White, Son House, Tampa Red and Blind Boy Fuller, used the instruments because they were louder than standard acoustic guitars, which enabled them to play for a larger crowd in areas that did not yet have electricity for amplifiers. For the same reason street musicians like Arvella Gray used resonator guitars while busking, e.g. on Chicago's Maxwell Street. One of the few Delta Blues players to play lap style in the 1930s was Black Ace, also known as B.K. Turner. He toured and recorded with his mentor Oscar "Buddy" Woods, who also played lap style Resonator guitar and Lap Steel. Woods, who was fifteen years older than Ace, taught him his guitar playing techniques. The instrument is still used by some blues players, notably Taj Mahal, Eric Sardinas, Alvin Hart, The Deacon Brandon Reeves, Warren Haynes, Derek Trucks, Doyle Bramhall II, Roland Chadwick, John Hammond Jr., Roy Rogers, John Mooney, and Megan Lovell of Larkin Poe. Mark Knopfler has also played the guitar, and his National resonator is pictured on the cover of the Dire Straits album Brothers in Arms. Varieties Single resonator guitars with a bowl resonator and spider (Dobro style) are often heard in bluegrass music, while tricone (National style) instruments are still preferred by many blues players. Single-resonator biscuit (also sometimes called National style) instruments are also produced, and give a different sound again. Many bluegrass players prefer wooden bodies, blues players either metal or wood. The early metal-bodied instruments were generally of better quality than the earliest wooden-bodied ones, but this may not be the case with more recent instruments. Metal bodies may be brass, aluminum or steel. Fiberglass has also been used as a body material, and a marble bodied resonator guitar is commercially available. Both metal and wooden bodies are often painted, or wooden bodies may be stained or lacquered, metal bodies may be plated or plain. Bluegrass players tend to use square necks, while blues players tend to prefer round necks. Square-necked guitars give a slightly greater variety of possible tunings, while round-necked guitars give a much greater variety of playing positions. Single resonator instruments can have round sound holes with screens, or round sound holes without screens, which many players used to remove to improve the bass response. They can also have f-holes, often with gauze screens that are also sometimes removed but have an important function in strengthening the belly particularly if the body is of wood. An enormous number of combinations are possible, most can be found either on old or new instruments or both, and many styles of music can be played on any resonator guitar. Electric resonators Though the original aim of the resonator was increased volume, some modern instruments incorporate electric pickups and related technology. Many modern makers produce instruments with one of a variety of pickup types—and some players retrofit pickups to non-electric instruments. Most commonly, resonator guitars use piezoelectric pickups (contact type transducers) placed under the bridge or elsewhere on the instrument, or use specialized microphones placed inside the instrument or directly in front of the cone to preserve the resonator's distinctive tone. However, all acoustic and semi-acoustic styles are very sensitive to audio feedback, making the design and placement of these pickups extremely critical and specialized. Some modern models are manufactured with both piezoelectric and magnetic pickups. In addition, some piezoelectric styles are active pickups, in that they incorporate a preamplifier that increases the output of the pickup to match modern amplifier inputs. More recently, solid body electric resonator guitars have appeared. These instruments incorporate one or more magnetic pickups, and are played via amplification. Other resonator instruments As well as resonator guitars, resonators have been used on: Basses, available from Regal Ukuleles, (see Resonator ukulele) produced by National and Dobro 1928-1940 Banjos Tenor guitars Mandolins and mandolas Mountain/Appalachian dulcimers Viola guitars Brands Historic brands of resonator guitar still in use today include National, Dobro, and Regal. None of these brands are still owned by their original companies. Each returned after one or more long breaks in production: The National name is now used by National Reso-Phonic Guitars, a company founded in 1987 and unconnected to the original National, specializes in reproductions of historic instruments of all brands, not just National pattern instruments. The Dobro name has undergone several ownership changes throughout history, and has been owned by Gibson Guitar Corporation since 1993. Gibson manufactured Dobro branded instruments under its Epiphone division up to 2020. Since then, no Dobro branded instruments have been produced. The Regal name, similar to Dobro, has been bought and sold several times since its original owners went defunct; the name has been a brand of Saga Musical Instruments since 1987. US patents #1,741,453 covering the tricone. #1,896,484 covering the Dobro. #1,808,756 covering the biscuit single cone resonator, lodged in the name of Beauchamp. See also Brahms guitar, a classical guitar that features an external resonator. Slide guitar References External links Resonator guitars Chanticleer (UK), maker of resophonic instruments Resonators Explained by Paul Kucharski American fretted musical instrument makers (pre-Civil War to WWII) Notecannons – Vintage resonator guitars Acoustic guitars Continuous pitch instruments Resophonic instruments
4789967	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Bauerle	Jack Bauerle	Jack Bauerle (born February 7, 1952) is the former head coach of the University of Georgia (UGA) men's and women's swimming teams. At the end of his coaching career, Bauerle finished his 42nd year as a head coach for the UGA women's team and his 35th year as men's head coach. Bauerle began coaching the women's team in 1979 and later became head coach for the men's team as well in 1983. He has three children, John, Magill, and Duke, who have followed in Jack's footsteps. Swim career Bauerle began swimming in the Philadelphia area at the Germantown YMCA, the Manor Lu Swim Club, and the Philadelphia Aquatic Club. As a senior in 1970, he was a co-captain of the La Salle College High School team and also swam on four teams that won the Philadelphia Catholic League Championships. In 2010 Bauerle was inducted into the La Salle College High School Alumni Hall of Fame. As a varsity swimmer at UGA from 1971–72 to 1974–75, Bauerle swam for head coach Pete Scholle and set UGA records in the 200-yard butterfly, 1,000- and 1,650-yard freestyle events, and served as the team captain of the 1973–74 and 1974–75 squads. Career accomplishments 2020 Summer Olympics Bauerle was one of the coaches for the 2020 US Olympic Swim Team leading up to and at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan, which were held in 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Georgia Bulldogs contingent consisting of seven swimmers, Javier Acevedo, Hali Flickinger, Natalie Hinds, Chase Kalisz, Jay Litherland, Allison Schmitt, and Olivia Smoliga, representing two different countries, United States and Canada, for which Bauerle served as the head coach, was the largest group of NCAA swimmers from a single college or university in the United States to compete at the 2020 Olympic Games. His swimmers, that is, past and present swimmers he coached as Bulldogs, won five Olympic medals in just one day of competition, including Chase Kalisz who won not only the first Olympic medal in swimming, a gold medal, but the first Olympic medal in any sport at the 2020 Olympic Games for the United States. Bauerle's achievements as a coach and the accomplishments of his swimmers at the year's Olympic Games earned him a nomination from the USA Swimming Foundation for their 2021 Golden Goggle Award for "Coach of the Year". Before 2021 As of the end of the 2013–2014 season, Bauerle's teams have won six NCAA Women's national championships, and eleven SEC Women's championships and have finished second nationally seven times and in the top five 22 times. As of the end of the 2012–2013 season, he has coached 152 All-American women swimmers (including 690 First-Team and 375 Honorable Mention certificates), 92 All-American men swimmers (including 126 First-Team and 387 Honorable Mention certificates), and three Olympic gold medalists. In 2000 he was an Olympic swim coach; in 2003 and 2005, he was head coach for the Women's USA World Championship Team. Bauerle has been named NCAA coach of the year five times and SEC coach of the year 12 times. He earned a Bachelor of Arts in English from the University of Georgia in 1975. On September 8, 2006, USA Swimming announced that Bauerle would be the head coach of the United States women's swimming team at the 2008 Summer Olympics. “Jack Bauerle is the consummate team coach. What he has done at the University of Georgia represents the pinnacle of team swimming, which is what the U.S. Olympic Team is all about. He brings a fun approach to the sport, and that will be key to producing Olympic success for our women's team.” USA Swimming's Mark Schubert used those words when he announced that Bauerle had been chosen as the head coach of the United States women's swimming team for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing, China. For Bauerle, who has done it all at the collegiate level, the Olympic appointment became the crowning moment of his career. Bauerle worked tirelessly on behalf of Team USA for months, and the hard work paid off in Beijing. Under Bauerle's watch, the United States women earned a total of 14 medals (two golds, seven silvers, five bronze), the most of any nation. Two of his pupils, ex-Lady Bulldog Kara Lynn Joyce and 2008-09 freshman Allison Schmitt, were included in the medals haul as Joyce won two silvers and Schmitt secured a bronze. Bauerle's handiwork was on display as 12 athletes and coaches from his Georgia program joined him in Beijing. Now it's back to work for Bauerle with his Georgia squads. He will pilot the women for the 30th year and the men for the 26th. He ended last season as a member of the prestigious 400-wins club with 242 victories with the Lady Bulldogs and 173 with the Bulldogs. Bauerle ranks third all-time on the wins list behind North Carolina's Frank Comfort (578) and Yale's Bob Kiphuth (528), and he is the winningest active coach. Bauerle has met with unparalleled success in and out of the pool, highlighted by four team national championships with the Lady Bulldogs. Under Bauerle's watch, individual national and Southeastern Conference champions, All-Americans, record-setters, Academic All-Americans and NCAA Postgraduate Scholarship recipients have become the norm. In 2007–08, Bauerle led both Georgia teams to a seventh-place finish at the NCAA Championship. On the men's side, Sebastien Rouault earned two more national championships, giving him three for his career, and finished with a school-record nine SEC titles. Gil Stovall and Chris Colwill also claimed individual NCAA titles for the Bulldogs. For the women, the Lady Bulldogs earned the No. 1 ranking in the final College Swim Coaches Association dual-meet poll and they ran their win streak at Gabrielsen Natatorium to 62. The tradition established by the founders of the Georgia swimming and diving program have been steadfastly maintained in the Bauerle era. Not only do Bauerle and his coaching staff demand the best of their student-athletes – in the classroom, in the pool and in the community – but their efforts draw individuals who demand the best of themselves. A look into Bauerle's character reveals the guiding force behind his motivation – a dedication to both the university and its swimming and diving program. Across the nation, a rare few have accumulated 300-plus wins. Among those only a few have claimed that honor while guiding only one program, a minority that includes Bauerle. In nearly four decades overseeing Georgia's program, Bauerle has produced four team national championships and six Southeastern Conference crowns with the Lady Bulldogs. He has been chosen as the SEC Coach of the Year 13 times (11 with the women, two with the men) and the National Women's Coach of the Year five times. During the 1998–99 season, Bauerle became the SEC's winningest coach, surpassing the 252 recorded by Tennessee's Ray Bussard from 1968 to 1988. Bauerle then reached the elite 300 dual-meet-wins club in 2002. That same commitment to excellence extends into the classroom, as Georgia athletes have always ranked among the nation's best in academic honors. In 2008, Georgia placed 17 swimmers and divers on the CSCAA Academic All-America Team and 30 on the SEC Academic Honor Roll. Karen Guilkey earned NCAA and SEC postgraduate scholarships, and she and Joseph Kapurch were presented senior student-athlete awards by the UGA Athletic Association. Georgia swimming and diving can claim an achievement that only one other collegiate sports program (Arizona swimming and diving) can – three NCAA Woman of the Year Award winners in Lisa Coole (1997), Kristy Kowal (2000) and Kim Black (2001). Conference results further evidence Bauerle's success. On the women's side, Georgia has secured top-three finishes at the SEC Championship in 19 of the last 22 years under Bauerle. In dual meet competition, the Lady Bulldogs have accumulated a 242-30-1 mark and have not lost a dual- or tri-meet competition in Gabrielsen Natatorium since the 1995–96 season, a streak of 62 entering the season. Initially arriving in Athens in 1970, Bauerle himself was once a Bulldog freshman. Over the span of the next four years, Bauerle collected four letters, three school records and team co-captain honors as a junior and senior. However, Bauerle also learned how collegiate swimming extends outside the pool. After spending seven years as a Bulldog swimmer and men's assistant coach, Bauerle first assumed women's head coaching duties in 1979. In their first two years under Bauerle, the Lady Bulldogs compiled a 16–3 record and a fifth-place finish at the inaugural women's SEC Championship. In 1982, Georgia's women not only notched their third consecutive seven-plus-wins season, but they also traveled to their first national meet, a trip that landed the Lady Bulldogs a ninth-place finish and the first of 25 consecutive national meet appearances. One of the earliest strides for the Lady Bulldogs came in 1986. Led by eight-time All-American Kathy Coffin, Bauerle's squad finished second at the SECs and won two conference events. Late that season, four swimmers earned All-America accolades as the Lady Bulldogs claimed a sixth-place showing at the NCAAs. Bauerle's strides with the newly formed Lady Bulldogs of the 1980s reflect the charisma and strength of his coaching ability. It was therefore only a matter of time before this ability took effect on the men's program. After accepting the head coaching position in 1983, Bauerle quietly built up his men's team to the point that in 1988, Georgia earned its first NCAAs trip in 32 years, finishing 41st overall. Answering the call of a Georgia team that had scored at NCAAs only once before was a good first step, and the Bulldogs responded with three more finishes in the top 32 from 1989 to 1992. The Bulldogs climbed even higher the next three years with two 16th-place finishes and a 15th-place result from 1993 to 1995. In 1996, the Bulldogs took 11th overall at the NCAAs, the first of eight straight top-15 finishes. Attaining their highest finish in school history, the 1997 Bulldogs shocked the NCAA field with a third-place result. Perhaps the greatest accomplishments of Bauerle's coaching career were reached during the 1997 season. Not only did the Lady Bulldogs earn their first league title, but combining the women's fifth-place finish with the third-place mark of the men at the NCAAs, Bauerle stood as the only coach during that season to lead two teams to top-five efforts. His contributions were recognized by the league as Bauerle was named SEC Men's Coach of the Year and SEC Women's Coach of the Year. Bauerle experienced yet another banner year in 1998. The Lady Bulldogs repeated as SEC champions while the Bulldogs finished a strong second, and Bauerle collected the SEC Women's Swimming Coach of the Year honor. Both squads surfaced with unblemished dual-meet seasons for the first time in program history. Bauerle's season was capped at the NCAAs with the Lady Bulldogs placing third and he earned recognition as the CSCAA Women's Swimming Coach of the Year. Bauerle also received the 1998 National Collegiate and Scholastic Swim Trophy, presented annually by the CSCAA. That year, the Bulldogs were seventh at the NCAAs. The 1999 season brought the breakthrough Bauerle had worked years to accomplish, as the Lady Bulldogs captured the NCAA team title in front of a boisterous hometown crowd. Behind the force of a true team effort, the Lady Bulldogs garnered 24 All-America finishes, eight Honorable Mention distinctions and four individual titles. The Bulldogs added a ninth-place showing at the NCAAs. The 2000 women's squad repeated as national champions by winning nine NCAA events. Then the 2001 team won the NCAA crown by a mere 1.5 points ahead of Stanford in the closest meet in the history of the championships. The squad used depth to win the crown as the Lady Bulldogs’ 800 freestyle relay team was the only event winner. The Lady Bulldogs’ streak of three national titles ended in 2002, but Bauerle's team still put on a show, finishing second. Some 10 American records were surpassed at the 2002 NCAAs, including four by the Lady Bulldogs. In 2003, the Lady Bulldogs recorded a second-straight NCAA runner-up finish. In 2004, Georgia won six national titles en route to the program's third consecutive runner-up finish. The Lady Bulldogs were back on top of the awards stand as they won the 2005 NCAAs. Georgia swept the relays, the first team in NCAA history to accomplish that feat. In 2006, the NCAAs went down to the wire, with Auburn edging the Lady Bulldogs for the national title. Even so, Georgia recorded eight individual national champs and claimed the SEC title. On the men's side, Georgia entered the NCAAs with four all-time national champs and exited with three more – Colwill on the both springboards and Rouault in the 1,650 freestyle. The Bulldogs placed ninth at the NCAAs, their best showing since 1999, and finished third at the SECs for the fifth straight year. The 2007 campaign was more of the same for Georgia. Bauerle led the Lady Bulldogs to the SEC title and to a national runner-up finish (their eighth top-2 showing in as many years) and the Bulldogs to a ninth-place finish nationally. Georgia produced another 11 individual national championships, led by Joyce, Mary DeScenza and Colwill. For his efforts, Bauerle was chosen as both the National Women's Coach of the Year and the SEC Women's Coach of the Year. Moreover, the program boasted two athletes chosen by different outlets as the National Swimmer of the Year (Joyce and DeScenza), the National and SEC Diver of the Year (Colwill), co-winners of the SEC Swimmer of the Year honor (Joyce and DeScenza) and the SEC Freshman of the Year (Cole). The 2007 season was highlighted by Joyce's selection as the Honda Award winner for swimming as the nation's top performer and the SEC Swimmer of the Year. Under Bauerle's guidance, Joyce ended her career with 18 national titles (nine individuals, nine relays), which is the second-most in NCAA history. Bauerle guided the Lady Bulldogs to a fifth-place finish at the NCAAs. With SEC Swimmer of the Year Rouault leading the way, Bauerle's Bulldogs claimed the 13th spot at the NCAAs. When he guided the U.S. women in 2008, it was Bauerle's second Olympic appointment. He also served as a swim assistant coach for the 2000 women's team. Additionally, Bauerle served as a personal swim coach at the Athens Olympics in 2004 where four Georgia swimmers brought home medals. Bauerle has been around the world as a U.S. National Team coach at multiple international and national championships, including guiding the women at the 2005 World Championships in Canada. He also served as an assistant coach for the U.S. team at the 2001 and 2003 World Championships in Japan and Spain respectively. In 1997, Bauerle traveled to Italy, as the women's head coach for the USA World University Games Team. In 1995, Bauerle was in Atlanta as a women's assistant coach for the Pan Pacific Championships. Besides coaching, Bauerle has dedicated his athletic talents to other endeavors, ranging from marathons to a world record for the most consecutive hours of doubles tennis. In 1983, Bauerle and three partners played 125 hours of tennis at the Jennings Mill Country Club to raise more than $50,000 for the American Cancer Society. For his contributions to the university and the community, Bauerle was selected to be an honorary member of the Sphinx Club, Blue Key Society, the Gridiron Society and Phi Kappa Phi. He is the Northeast Georgia Chairman for the United Way, which raised $2.1 million. He also was the Honorary Chairman for the World of Wonder project that raised more than $500,000 for construction of playgrounds. Last year, he received the Billy Hudson Distinguished Citizen Award from the Northeast Georgia Council of the Boy Scouts of America for his community service efforts. Awards and honors Golden Goggle Award nominee, Coach of the Year: 2021 See also Georgia Bulldogs List of University of Georgia people List of Swimmers Swimming Notes References Baurle's bio from the University of Georgia Athletics website. Bauerle, Reese named 2008 head Olympic coaches. USA Swimming Press Release, 09-08-2006] 1952 births Living people Olympic coaches for the United States American swimming coaches Georgia Bulldogs men's swimmers Georgia Bulldogs swimming coaches Swimmers from Philadelphia
4790572	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greta%20Hodgkinson	Greta Hodgkinson	Greta Hodgkinson O.Ont (born August 13, 1973) is an American-Canadian ballet dancer. She was a Principal dancer with the National Ballet of Canada until she stepped down in 2020. She continues to perform freelance and is Artist-in-Residence of the National Ballet. Early life and training Hodgkinson was born in Providence, Rhode Island. She is of Armenian, English and French-Canadian descent. She took part in dancing, ice-skating and gymnastics as a child. From 1983 to 1985 she trained at Festival Ballet Providence, now Ballet RI with Winthrop Corey and Christine Hennessey. She was eleven years old when she moved to Canada to further her training at Canada's National Ballet School in Toronto, skipping seventh grade. She was mentored by ballet mistress Magdalena Popa. Continuing education She took courses at Harvard Business School Online from 2020 to 2022, acquiring certificates in Leadership Principles, Negotiation Mastery, Power and Influence for Positive Impact, and Specialization in Leadership and Management. Career National Ballet of Canada At sixteen, Greta Hodgkinson joined The National Ballet of Canada’s Corps de Ballet (1990 – 1993). She was promoted to Second Soloist (1993-1995), then First Soloist (1995-1996) and, shortly before her 17th birthday, reached the highest rank of Principal Dancer (1996-2020). During her career, she has danced virtually every role in the repertoire, such as the title role in Giselle, Sugar Plum Fairy in The Nutcracker and Juliet in Romeo and Juliet, as well as contemporary works by choreographers such as Jiří Kylián, Christopher Wheeldon, Wayne McGregor and James Kudelka. During 2019/20, her final season at the National Ballet of Canada, Greta Hodgkinson appeared in Jiry Kilian's Petite Mort and danced one of her signature roles, Giselle, whom she never portrayed as a naive, love-struck weakling, making the mad scene chilling in its intensity. Throughout her career, critics raved about her performances: “The ballerina performing the compelling title character has to go from a tremulously innocent girl, to madwoman, to unearthly spirit, and Greta Hodgkinson is among the best in the world in the role.” (Paula Citron, The Globe and Mail) "Hodgkinson joins the great Giselles of our time." (Gary Smith, The Hamilton Spectator) “In the demanding title role, Greta Hodgkinson is a wonder, both as dancer and actress.” (Bob Clark, Calgary Herald) “Her breezy jumps paint her as a confident, yet trusting woman, who initially has no reason to doubt her man. She is also a technical dynamo, nailing every slow, sustained balance and complex turning sequence.” (National Post) Scheduled a few days before the pandemic shut down theatres throughout the world, her final performance was in the role of Marguerite in Frederick Ashton's Marguerite and Armand, partnered by Guillaume Côté. The ballet was acquired in her honour by Karen Kain and the National Ballet, as Greta Hodgkinson had expressed the desire to dance a new role rather than reprise a past one. International Guest Artist As an International Guest Artist, Greta Hodgkinson performed in over 72 cities and 16 countries. She was invited to dance with the top major ballet companies, including the Mariinsky Ballet, Teatro alla Scala, The Royal Ballet, Stuttgart Ballet, The Australian Ballet, Munich Ballet and Teatro Comunale di Firenze. She has also appeared in many international galas in America, Asia and Europe including the Opening Gala of the Royal Opera House (London), the State Kremlin Palace (Moscow), Gala des Etoiles (Montreal), Stars of the 21st Century (Paris and Toronto) and the Opening Gala of Teatro alla Scala (Milan). In 2003, Ms. Hodgkinson appeared at The 10th World Ballet Festival in Tokyo, Japan, the world’s largest and most prestigious dance festival, where she performed with frequent partner Roberto Bolle, considered one of the greatest male dancers of his generation. Over their careers, they danced together in more than 26 cities worldwide and developed a much-celebrated partnership. The famed Japanese dancer from the Royal Ballet, Tetsuya Kumakawa, invited Ms. Hodgkinson to tour Japan dancing Swan Lake with him and his company, K-Ballet where they performed to critical acclaim. Apart from Mr. Bolle and Mr. Kumakawa, Ms. Hodgkinson was sought after by many renowned artists including Carlos Acosta, Marcelo Gomes, Guillaume Côté, Massimo Murru, Laurent Hilaire, Federico Bonelli, Robert Tewsley, Zdenek Konvalina, Jason Reilly, Evan McKie, Steven McRae and Matthew Golding. Muse Greta Hodgkinson has had numerous roles created for her by the most influential choreographers of the 20th and 21st century. She enjoyed a "close creative symbiosis" with choreographer and former Artistic Director of The National Ballet of Canada, James Kudelka. He created the sensuous summer section of his 1997 abstract ballet, The Four Seasons, expressly for Hodgkinson, and considered her a muse. As such, she helped create many of the lead roles in works that are now a part of The National Ballet of Canada's permanent repertoire, among them Swan Lake, The Nutcracker, and The Firebird. Hodgkinson also worked closely with such icons as William Forsythe, Jiri Kylian, Glen Tetley, John Neumeier, Wayne McGregor, Christopher Wheeldon, Crystal Pite and Alexei Ratmansky. She also collaborated with such noted Canadian choreographers as Jean-Pierre Perreault, John Alleyne, Robert Desrosiers and Jean Grand-Maitre as well as emerging young Canadian choreographers Dominique Dumais, Sabrina Matthews, Matjash Mrozewski and Guillaume Côté. Over her 30-year career, Hodgkinson developed strong chemistry with frequent partners Rex Harrington, Aleksandar Antonijevic, Roberto Bolle and Guillaume Côté, "each one being wonderful in his own way". She continues a prolific creative collaboration with dancer and choreographer Guillaume Côté as a Muse, Creative Assistant and Rehearsal Director. She created and toured in Crypto (2019-2022), a full evening multimedia work. She performed Hamlet’s mother in the Guillaume Côté-Robert Lepage adaptation of Shakespear’s play, which premiered at Festival des arts de Saint-Sauveur in July 2023 to critical acclaim. In 2019, Ballet Kelowna launched its 17th season with Guillaume Côté’s Bolero with Greta Hodgkinson as Guest Artist. The company's arftistic director, Simone Orlando, reflects on the experience: "She is really a superstar. She helped teach Bolero as well as offered so much to our dancers. She is fearless. The lifts in this piece are sort of death-defying. I’m sitting there, just holding my breath, hoping my dancers are going to catch her!” Body of work Greta Hodgkinson possesses "a rare daring and an ability to devour space with aplomb and intelligence." Known for her formidable technique, delicate physicality and articulate characterization, Greta Hodgkinson has performed every leading role in the classical repertoire as well as contemporary works, leaving a legacy of memorable performances. "Being true to herself in an art form that values conformity is what has enabled Hodgkinson to stand out from the tutu-clad pack. She is a ballerina who dances to her own beat, a maverick with a killer work ethic and a heart of gold." (Deirdre Kelly, NUVO) Lead roles: Alice (Glen Tetley) A Month in the Country (Sir Frederick Ashton) Apollo (George Balanchine) Carmen (Davide Bombana) Concerto Barocco (George Balanchine) Divertimento #15 (George Balanchine) Don Quixote (after Marius Petipa) Dream Dances (Jiří Kylían) Dying Swan (Michel Fokine) Etudes (Harald Lander) Excelsior (Luigi Manzotti) Forgotten Land (Jiří Kylían) Giselle (Sir Peter Wright) Grand Pas Classique (Victor Gsovsky) Herman Schmerman (William Forsythe) In The Middle, Somewhat Elevated (William Forsythe) In The Night (Jerome Robbins) Jewels (George Balanchine) La Bayadère (Marius Petipa) La Fille mal gardée (Sir Frederick Ashton) La Ronde (Glen Tetley) The Leaves are Fading (Antony Tudor) Manon (Kenneth MacMillan) Marguerite and Armand (Frederick Ashton) Monotones (Kenneth MacMillan) Mozartiana (George Balanchine) Musings (James Kudelka) No. 24 (Guillaume Côté) Nuages (Jiří Kylian) Onegin (John Cranko) Opus 19/The Dreamer (Jerome Robbins) Other Dances (Jerome Robbins) Pastorale (James Kudelka) Paquita (Natalia Makarova) Petite Mort (Jiří Kylían) Romeo and Juliet (John Cranko) Serenade (George Balanchine) Symphony in C (George Balanchine) Sphinx (Glen Tetley) Spring Waters (Asat Messerer) Split House Geometric (John Alleyne) Stravinsky Violin Concerto (George Balanchine) Swan Lake (Erik Bruhn) Tagore (Glen Tetley) Tchaikovsky Pas de Deux (George Balanchine) The Four Temperaments (George Balanchine) The Merry Widow (Ronald Hynd) The Nutcracker (Celia Franca/Derek Deane/James Kudelka) The Sleeping Beauty (Rudolf Nureyev) The Taming of the Shrew (John Cranko) Theme and Variations (George Balanchine) Voluntaries (Glen Tetley) Created Roles / World Premieres A Delicate Battle (Matjash Mrozewski, 2001) An Italian Straw Hat (James Kudelka, 2005) Being & Nothingness (Guillaume Côté, 2013 + 2015) Bolero (Guillaume Côté, 2012) Cinderella (James Kudelka, 2004) Crypto (Guillaume Côté, 2019) Emergence (Crystal Pite, 2009) Frames of Mind (Jean Grand-Maître, 1993) Hamlet (Guillaume Côté, 2018) Interrogating Slam (John Alleyne, 1991) Now and Then (John Neumeier, 1993) one hundred words for snow (Dominque Dumais, 1999) Oracle (Glen Tetley, 1994) Romeo and Juliet (Alexei Ratmansky, 2011) Rooster (Christopher Bruce, 2008) Septet (John Alleyne, 1999) Swan Lake (James Kudelka, 1999) The Comforts of Solitude (Jean-Pierre Perrault, 2001) The Firebird (James Kudelka, 2000) The Four Seasons (James Kudelka, 1997) The Nutcracker (James Kudelka, 1995) the weight of absence (Dominque Dumais, 1998) Tristan and Isolde (John Alleyne, 2003) Vittoria (James Kudelka, 1993) National Ballet of Canada Premieres Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (Christopher Wheeldon) Approximate Sonata 2016 (William Forsythe) Chroma (Wayne McGregor) clearing (Sabrina Matthews) Company B (Paul Taylor) Cruel World (James Kudelka) Daphnis and Chloe (Glen Tetley) Désir (James Kudelka) Episodes (George Balanchine) In The Upper Room (Twyla Tharp) Polyphonia (Christopher Wheeldon) Rooster (Christopher Bruce) Russian Seasons (Alexei Ratmansky) Tales of the Arabian Nights: The Story of Abdallah (August Bournonville) Terra Firma (James Kudelka) The Concert (Jerome Robbins) The Concert (Jerome Robbins) The Rite of Spring (Glen Tetley) The Seagull (John Neumeier) the second detail (William Forsythe) Waltz pas de deux West Side Story Suite (Jerome Robbins) Teaching and Mentoring Greta Hodgkinson has assumed the role of Artist-in-Residence with the National Ballet of Canada since the company’s 2020-21 season, teaching and coaching the company’s next generation of dancers in its extensive repertoire. In 2017, she was invited by world renowned choreographer Alexei Ratmansky to stage his version of Romeo and Juliet for the famed Bolshoi Ballet in Moscow, Russia. She was also Stager, Rehearsal Director and Creative Assistant on Frame by Frame, choreographed by Guillaume Côté, directed by Robert Lepage. Mentoring In 2021, she founded Dance Mentoring by Greta, a unique and comprehensive mentorship program for dancers that addresses the challenges and demands artists face today. Providing dancers with the tools, inspiration, opportunities and feed-back, Greta hopes to help them realize their goals and aspirations and enjoy a long and successful career. Hodgkinson is a sought-after judge for international dance competitions worldwide, such as Youth America Grand Prix (Toronto and Indianapolis, 2023). She has served as a peer assessor for Professional Grants Programs. She is a frequent guest speaker for organizations such as Canada’s National Academy of Dance Education Educator’s Conference, the Armenian Relief Society’s INSPIRE women’s event and Providence Healthcare Foundation’s Evening of Inspiration. Teaching Ms. Hodgkinson is passionate about empowering young artists and is committed to passing on her extensive knowledge and expertise. She is extensively engaged in community outreach, teaching master classes within the community at the University of Toronto and in Regent Park as well as across the country and throughout the United States. She is a member of the guest faculty at Toronto Metropolitan University. Recent engagements as guest teacher include OnDance (Milan, Italy, 2020), The School of Cadence Ballet (Toronto, Canada, 2020), Ocean State Ballet (Providence, USA, 2022), Ballet RI (Providence, USA, 2023 also: artistic coach), Ocean State Ballet (Providence, USA, 2023), The School of Cadence Ballet (Toronto, Canada, 2023), The National Ballet of Canada (Toronto, Canada, 2023). Film and television As a passionate advocate of making dance more accessible, Greta Hodgkinson continues to be involved in numerous projects designed to bring quality dance to a broader mainstream audience. In 2001, she took part in The Rings of Saturn, the first contemporary dance drama created and choreographed especially for Canadian television by Moze Mossanen. She would collaborate on many other works directed by Mossanen who made the “decision to make films, not about dance as art, but dance as storytelling." In 2003, she appeared as the Firebird in the televised adaptation of James Kudelka’s ballet based on based on the mystical Russian folk tale set to Igor Stravinsky’s score. The TV special also featured Aleksandar Antonijevic (Prince Ivan), Rebekah Rimsay (Princess Vasilisa), and Rex Harrington (Kastchei the Demon). In 2004, she was in the filmed New Year’s Concert Gala reopening of the famous La Fenice theatre in Venice, Italy dancing with Roberto Bolle. In 2009, Hodgkinson portrayed dancer Margot Fonteyn in Moze Mossanen‘s TV movie Nureyev, alongside future husband Etienne Lavigne, who portrayed dancer Eric Bruhn. She also appeared in Moze Mossanen's documentary Romeos & Juliets (2012), which follows 10 dancers from The National Ballet of Canada who prepare for main roles in Alexei Ratmansky's Romeo and Juliet, which was commissioned to celebrate the company's 60th anniversary. Ms. Hodgkinson was one of only 12 dancers from around the world to participate in Emerging Pictures' film Ballet's Greatest Hits. She performed excerpts from Giselle, with Matthew Golding as Albrecht and Stella Abrera as Myrtha. The film was presented in over 200 cinemas throughout North America. Other TV appearances include one episode of Opening Night (2001) and one in Baxter (2010), as well as the part of Roxana (2006) in a dramatic dance interpretation of Daniel Defoe's eponymous novel. She was also a guest judge on the Netflix series Blown Away (2018) during their premiere season. In 2014, Anymotion Productions released a short dance film on-line starring Ms. Hodgkinson titled Being and Nothingness. Directed by Alejandro Alvarez Cadilla, the film was produced in partnership with Crystal Ballet in the United Kingdom. In it, she performs a solo choreographed for her by Guillaume Côté, inspired by Jean-Paul Sartre’s book Being and Nothingness. In 2018, the work was expanded into a ballet for the National Ballet of Canada. In 2020, Guillaume Côté choreographed the video Portrait of Greta as part of a triptych that can be viewed on line. Fashion and Photography Greta Hodgkinson has worked with noted photographers Michael Thompson, Febrizio Ferri, Howard Schatz, Nick Krasnaii, Christopher Wahl, Max Abadian, Sian Richards and Cylla von Tiedemann, among others. Since 1990, she was the subject of over 300 features in International Dance and Fashion publications as an ambassador for Canadian dance, appearing in Vanity Fair, Lucky, W, GQ Italia, ELLE, NUVO, New York Magazine, Flare and FASHION, Canadian Living, Canadian Family and Hello! Magazine. She was also on the cover of Dance Magazine (as The National Ballet of Canada's rising star) and Dance International Magazine multiple times. She achieved international recognition through photography representing renowned fashion brands : ECCO Brand Ambassador (2017), Salvatore Ferragamo 80th Anniversary (2008) and GAP Campaign (2007). Charities and outreach events Over her 30-year career as a ballerina, Greta Hodgkinson volunteered her talents to perform in fundraising galas, charities and outreach events in Canada that include; special performances for the Winnipeg First Nations community (Winnipeg), The Dancer Transition Resource Centre, Dancers for Life (Aids Committee Fundraiser: Montreal, Toronto, Vancouver), Dreams Come True Benefit Gala, Woodbridge School of Dance 25th Anniversary Gala, benefits for The Artists' Health Centre (Toronto Western Hospital) and the National Chamber Orchestra of Armenia Gala Concert. Internationally, she has appeared at the 80th Anniversary Gala of Salvatore Ferragamo (China), Dance for Life (Belgium), Youth America Grand Prix, various Galas for UNICEF (Italy), Emergency Gala (Italy) and a performance for the International Olympic Committee for the 2006 Torino Olympics (Italy). Ms. Hodgkinson also collaborates with Dancing with Parkinson’s, a charity whose mission is to bring seniors with Parkinson's Disease out of isolation and into an artistic community where they can dance and connect with others, to lead movement workshops and artistic experiences that enriches the lives of people with Parkinson’s Disease, as well as the lives of their families, friends, and caregivers. She is a Celebrated Ambassador of Plan International since 2009, a global organization dedicated to advancing children’s rights and equality for girls. Since 2013, Ms. Hodgkinson has served on the Board of Directors and Arts Committee of Meagan’s Hug (Meagan Bebenek Foundation), a charity dedicated to raising awareness and valuable funds for paediatric brain tumour research. Personal life Through her career, Greta Hodgkinson remained totally committed to The National Ballet of Canada. She became a Canadian citizen and chose Canada as her home to develop as an artist. She is married to Etienne Lavigne, a principal character artist with the National Ballet of Canada as well as the Executive Director of Festival des arts de Saint-Sauveur and Côté Danse. They have two children. She is a dual citizen of United States and Canada. She enjoys hosting dinner parties and going to the movies, where she claims that she never walks out because she likes the entire cinema-going experience. Although she finds the task demanding, Hodgkinson attempts to answer all her fan mail. She says she is flattered when ballet fans take the time to write her. Honours and Praise Selected to represent The National Ballet of Canada at The International Competition for The Erik Bruhn Prize in 1993. With Robert Tewsley, she danced the pas de deux Vittoria, the first role created or her by James Kudelka. Winner of the Rolex Dancers’ First Award (2013) "for the breadth of her artistry revealed throughout the 2012/13 season, in such roles as the Queen of Hearts in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and the title roles in Giselle and Carmen." Nominated for a Dora Mavor Moore Award for her interpretation of Marguerite in Marguerite and Armand (2020) Twice voted "Best Performance by a Female Dancer" by Dance Europe for her interpretation of Odette/Odile in Swan Lake, and for Summer in The Four Seasons. "Hodgkinson enchanted, with all the nuances we so often see only in our imagination.” (Bruce Michelson, Dance Europe, 2005) Chosen for the cover of James Neufeld's Passion to Dance, the story of The National Ballet of Canada (Dundurn Press, 2011). Nominated for the Prix Benois de la Danse for her role as Odette/Odile in James Kudelka's Swan Lake (2000). “Miss Hodgkinson has an awesome balance, an expressive body and a steely technique…” (The Washington Times) In 2012, she received two Citations from the State of Rhode Island, in recognition of her extraordinary talents, accomplishments and outstanding contribution to arts and culture in the United States. In 2017, Hodgkinson was appointed to the Order of Ontario for exceptional achievement in dance References External links Article on Greta Hodgkinson from Dance Magazine Greta Hodgkinson page at National Ballet of Canada website Rhode Island Dance website article on Greta Hodgkinson National Ballet's Greta Hodgkinson weds fellow dancer Interview with Greta Hodgkinson by The Poetry Extension American ballerinas American female dancers Canadian ballerinas Canadian female dancers American people of Armenian descent Canadian people of Armenian descent American emigrants to Canada American expatriates in Canada 1973 births Living people People from Providence, Rhode Island National Ballet of Canada principal dancers Members of the Order of Ontario Dancers from Rhode Island Prima ballerinas 21st-century American ballet dancers 21st-century Canadian dancers 21st-century American women
4790683	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering%20ethics	Engineering ethics	Engineering ethics is the field of system of moral principles that apply to the practice of engineering. The field examines and sets the obligations by engineers to society, to their clients, and to the profession. As a scholarly discipline, it is closely related to subjects such as the philosophy of science, the philosophy of engineering, and the ethics of technology. Background and origins Up to the 19th century and growing concerns As engineering rose as a distinct profession during the 19th century, engineers saw themselves as either independent professional practitioners or technical employees of large enterprises. There was considerable tension between the two sides as large industrial employers fought to maintain control of their employees. In the United States growing professionalism gave rise to the development of four founding engineering societies: The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) (1851), the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE) (1884), the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) (1880), and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (AIME) (1871). ASCE and AIEE were more closely identified with the engineer as learned professional, where ASME, to an extent, and AIME almost entirely, identified with the view that the engineer is a technical employee. Even so, at that time ethics was viewed as a personal rather than a broad professional concern. Turn of the 20th century and turning point When the 19th century drew to a close and the 20th century began, there had been series of significant structural failures, including some spectacular bridge failures, notably the Ashtabula River Railroad Disaster (1876), Tay Bridge Disaster (1879), and the Quebec Bridge collapse (1907). These had a profound effect on engineers and forced the profession to confront shortcomings in technical and construction practice, as well as ethical standards. One response was the development of formal codes of ethics by three of the four founding engineering societies. AIEE adopted theirs in 1912. ASCE and ASME did so in 1914. AIME did not adopt a code of ethics in its history. Concerns for professional practice and protecting the public highlighted by these bridge failures, as well as the Boston molasses disaster (1919), provided impetus for another movement that had been underway for some time: to require formal credentials (Professional Engineering licensure in the US) as a requirement to practice. This involves meeting some combination of educational, experience, and testing requirements. In 1950, the Association of German Engineers developed an oath for all its members titled 'The Confession of the Engineers', directly hinting at the role of engineers in the atrocities committed during World War II. Over the following decades most American states and Canadian provinces either required engineers to be licensed, or passed special legislation reserving title rights to organization of professional engineers. The Canadian model is to require all persons working in fields of engineering that posed a risk to life, health, property, the public welfare and the environment to be licensed, and all provinces required licensing by the 1950s. The US model has generally been only to require the practicing engineers offering engineering services that impact the public welfare, safety, safeguarding of life, health, or property to be licensed, while engineers working in private industry without a direct offering of engineering services to the public or other businesses, education, and government need not be licensed. This has perpetuated the split between professional engineers and those in private industry. Professional societies have adopted generally uniform codes of ethics. Recent developments Efforts to promote ethical practice continue. In addition to the professional societies and chartering organizations efforts with their members, the Canadian Iron Ring and American Order of the Engineer trace their roots to the 1907 Quebec Bridge collapse. Both require members to swear an oath to uphold ethical practice and wear a symbolic ring as a reminder. In the United States, the National Society of Professional Engineers released in 1946 its Canons of Ethics for Engineers and Rules of Professional Conduct, which evolved to the current Code of Ethics, adopted in 1964. These requests ultimately led to the creation of the Board of Ethical Review in 1954. Ethics cases rarely have easy answers, but the BER's nearly 500 advisory opinions have helped bring clarity to the ethical issues engineers face daily. Currently, bribery and political corruption is being addressed very directly by several professional societies and business groups around the world. However, new issues have arisen, such as offshoring, sustainable development, and environmental protection, that the profession is having to consider and address. General principles Codes of engineering ethics identify a specific precedence with respect to the engineer's consideration for the public, clients, employers, and the profession. Many engineering professional societies have prepared codes of ethics. Some date to the early decades of the twentieth century. These have been incorporated to a greater or lesser degree into the regulatory laws of several jurisdictions. While these statements of general principles served as a guide, engineers still require sound judgment to interpret how the code would apply to specific circumstances. The general principles of the codes of ethics are largely similar across the various engineering societies and chartering authorities of the world, which further extend the code and publish specific guidance. The following is an example from the American Society of Civil Engineers: Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the performance of their professional duties. Engineers shall perform services only in areas of their competence. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner. Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest. Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and shall not compete unfairly with others. Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honor, integrity, and dignity of the engineering profession and shall act with zero-tolerance for bribery, fraud, and corruption. Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers, and shall provide opportunities for the professional development of those engineers under their supervision. Engineers shall, in all matters related to their profession, treat all persons fairly and encourage equitable participation without regard to gender or gender identity, race, national origin, ethnicity, religion, age, sexual orientation, disability, political affiliation, or family, marital, or economic status. In 1990, EPFL students elaborated the Archimedean Oath, which is an ethical code of practice for engineers and technicians, similar to the Hippocratic Oath used in the medical world. Obligation to society The paramount value recognized by engineers is the safety and welfare of the public. As demonstrated by the following selected excerpts, this is the case for professional engineering organizations in nearly every jurisdiction and engineering discipline: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers: "We, the members of the IEEE, … do hereby commit ourselves to the highest ethical and professional conduct and agree: 1. to accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with the safety, health and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger the public or the environment;" Institution of Civil Engineers: "Members of the ICE should always be aware of their overriding responsibility to the public good. A member’s obligations to the client can never override this, and members of the ICE should not enter undertakings which compromise this responsibility. The ‘public good’ encompasses care and respect for the environment, and for humanity's cultural, historical and archaeological heritage, as well as the primary responsibility members have to protect the health and well-being of present and future generations." Professional Engineers Ontario: "A practitioner shall, regard the practitioner's duty to public welfare as paramount." National Society of Professional Engineers: "Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall: Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public." American Society of Mechanical Engineers: "Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in the performance of their professional duties." Institute of Industrial Engineers: "Engineers uphold and advance the integrity, honor and dignity of the engineering profession by: 2. Being honest and impartial, and serving with fidelity the public, their employers and clients." American Institute of Chemical Engineers: "To achieve these goals, members shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and protect the environment in performance of their professional duties." American Nuclear Society: "ANS members uphold and advance the integrity and honor of their professions by using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of human welfare and the environment; being honest and impartial; serving with fidelity the public, their employers, and their clients; and striving to continuously improve the competence and prestige of their various professions." Society of Fire Protection Engineers: "In the practice of their profession, fire protection engineers must maintain and constantly improve their competence and perform under a standard of professional behavior which requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct with balanced regard for the interests of the public, clients, employers, colleagues, and the profession." Responsibility of engineers The engineers recognize that the greatest merit is the work and exercise their profession committed to serving society, attending to the welfare and progress of the majority. By transforming nature for the benefit of mankind, engineers must increase their awareness of the world as the abode of humanity, their interest in the universe as a guarantee of overcoming their spirit, and knowledge of reality to make the world fairer and happier. The engineer should reject any paper that is intended to harm the general interest, thus avoiding a situation that might be hazardous or threatening to the environment, life, health, or other rights of human beings. It is an inescapable duty of the engineer to uphold the prestige of the profession, to ensure its proper discharge, and to maintain a professional demeanor rooted in ability, honesty, fortitude, temperance, magnanimity, modesty, honesty, and justice; with the consciousness of individual well-being subordinate to the social good. The engineers and their employers must ensure the continuous improvement of their knowledge, particularly of their profession, disseminate their knowledge, share their experience, provide opportunities for education and training of workers, provide recognition, moral and material support to the schools where they studied, thus returning the benefits and opportunities they and their employers have received. It is the responsibility of the engineers to carry out their work efficiently and to support the law. In particular, they must ensure compliance with the standards of worker protection as provided by the law. As professionals, the engineers are expected to commit themselves to high standards of conduct (NSPE). [1] 11/27/11 Duty to Report (Whistleblowing) A basic ethical dilemma is that an engineer has the duty to report to the appropriate authority a possible risk to others from a client or employer failing to follow the engineer's directions. According to first principles, this duty overrides the duty to a client and/or employer. An engineer may be disciplined, or have their license revoked, even if the failure to report such a danger does not result in the loss of life or health. If an engineer is overruled by a non-technical authority or a technical authority they must inform the authority, in writing, the reasons for their advice and the consequences of the deviation from the advice. In many cases, this duty can be discharged by advising the client of the consequences in a forthright matter, and ensuring the client takes the engineer's advice. In very rare cases, where even a governmental authority may not take appropriate action, the engineer can only discharge the duty by making the situation public. As a result, whistleblowing by professional engineers is not an unusual event, and courts have often sided with engineers in such cases, overruling duties to employers and confidentiality considerations that otherwise would have prevented the engineer from speaking out. Conduct There are several other ethical issues that engineers may face. Some have to do with technical practice, but many others have to do with broader considerations of business conduct. These include: Relationships with clients, consultants, competitors, and contractors Ensuring legal compliance by clients, client's contractors, and others Conflict of interest Bribery and kickbacks, which also may include: Gifts, meals, services, and entertainment Treatment of confidential or proprietary information Consideration of the employer's assets Outside employment/activities (Moonlighting) Some engineering societies are addressing environmental protection as a stand-alone question of ethics. The field of business ethics often overlaps and informs ethical decision making for engineers. Case studies and key individuals Petroski notes that most engineering failures are much more involved than simple technical mis-calculations and involve the failure of the design process or management culture. However, not all engineering failures involve ethical issues. The infamous collapse of the first Tacoma Narrows Bridge, and the losses of the Mars Polar Lander and Mars Climate Orbiter were technical and design process failures. Nor are all engineering ethics issues necessary engineering failures per se - Northwestern University instructor Sheldon Epstein cited The Holocaust as an example of a breach in engineering ethics despite (and because of) the engineers' creations being successful at carrying out the Nazis' mission of genocide. These episodes of engineering failure include ethical as well as technical issues. Titan submersible implosion (2023) General Motors ignition switch recalls (2014) Deepwater Horizon oil spill (2010) Space Shuttle Columbia disaster (2003) Space Shuttle Challenger disaster (1986) Therac-25 accidents (1985 to 1987) Chernobyl disaster (1986) Bhopal disaster (1984) Kansas City Hyatt Regency walkway collapse (1981) Love Canal (1980), Lois Gibbs Three Mile Island accident (1979) Citigroup Center (1978), Ford Pinto safety problems (1970s) Minamata disease (1908–1973) Aberfan disaster (1966) Chevrolet Corvair safety problems (1960s), Ralph Nader, and Unsafe at Any Speed Boston molasses disaster (1919) Quebec Bridge collapse (1907), Theodore Cooper Johnstown Flood (1889), South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club Tay Bridge Disaster (1879), Thomas Bouch, William Henry Barlow, and William Yolland Ashtabula River Railroad Disaster (1876), Amasa Stone Notes References Further reading Alford, C.F. (2002). Whistleblowers: Broken Lives and Organizational Power, Cornell University Press. , 192 pp. Fleddermann, C.B. (2011). Engineering Ethics, Prentice Hall, 4th edition. , 192pp. Glazer, M.P. (1991).Whistleblower, New York, NY: Basic Books. , 306pp. Harris, C.E., M.S. Pritchard, and M.J. Rabins (2008).Engineering Ethics: Concept and Cases, Wadsworth Publishing, 4th edition. , 332 pp. Peterson, Martin (2020). Ethics for Engineers, Oxford University Press. , 256 pp. Huesemann, Michael H., and Joyce A. Huesemann (2011). Technofix: Why Technology Won’t Save Us or the Environment, Chapter 14, “Critical Science and Social Responsibility”, New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia, Canada, , 464 pp. Martin, M.W., and R. Schinzinger (2004). Ethics in Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 4th edition. , 432 pp. Van de Poel, I., and L. Royakkers (2011). Ethics, Technology, and Engineering: An Introduction, Wiley-Blackwell. , 376 pp. External links Australia Association of Professional Engineers, Scientists and Managers, Australia Ethical Decision Making Engineers Australia Code of Ethics Canada Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of British Columbia (APEGBC) Act, Bylaws and Code of Ethics Association of Professional Engineers, and Geoscientists of Alberta (APEGA) EGGP Code of Ethics Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of Manitoba (APEGM) Code of Ethics Professional Engineers Ontario (PEO) Code of Ethics (See link on front page.) L'Ordre des ingénieurs du Québec (OIQ) Code of Ethics of Engineers Iron Ring The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer University of Western Ontario Software Ethics - A Guide to the Ethical and Legal Use of Software for Members of the University Community of the University of Western Ontario Germany Verein Deutscher Ingenieure Ethical principles of engineering profession Ireland Engineers Ireland Code of Ethics Sri Lanka Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanka Code of Ethics Turkey Union of Chambers of Turkish Engineers and Architects Professional Behavior Principles United Kingdom Association for Consultancy and Engineering (ACE) Anti-Corruption Action Statement Engineering Professors' Council (EPC) Engineering Ethics Toolkit Ethics Explorer Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE) Royal Charter, By-laws, Regulations and Rules Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) Professional ethics and the IET Engineering Council (EC) Joint Statement of Ethical Principles United States National Academy of Engineering Online Ethics Center of the National Academy of Engineering List of links to various professional and scientific societies' codes of ethics Onlineethics.org National Institute for Engineering Ethics (NIEE) National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) Code of Ethics Board of Ethical Review and BER Cases Ethics Resources and References American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) Code of Ethics American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Code of Ethics Standards of Professional Conduct for Civil Engineers American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Code of Ethics Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Code of Ethics The Order of the Engineer The Obligation of an Engineer Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) Code of Ethics International Global Infrastructure Anti-Corruption Centre Transparency International Ethics of science and technology Philosophy of engineering Professional ethics ethics
4790944	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student%20orientation	Student orientation	Student orientation or new student orientation (often encapsulated into an orientation week, o-week, frosh week, welcome week or freshers' week) is a period before the start of an academic year at a university or tertiary institutions. A variety of events are held to orient and welcome new students during this period. The name of the event differs across institutions. Post-secondary institutions offer a variety of programs to help orient first year students. These programs can range from voluntary community building activities (frosh week) to mandatory credit-based courses designed to support students academically, socially, and emotionally. Some of these programs occur prior to the start of classes while other programs are offered throughout the school year. A number of research studies have been done to determine the factors to be considered when designing orientation/transition programs. Although usually described as a week, the length of this period varies widely from university to university and country to country, ranging from about three days to a month or even more (e.g. four or five weeks, depending on the program, at Chalmers). The length of the week is often affected by each university's tradition as well as financial and physical constraints. Additionally, institutions may include programming in the summer months before the first-year to aid in the transition. Some programs may be audience-specific, such as international orientation, transfer student orientation, graduate student orientation. Orientation programming, regardless of length or format, aims to introduce students to both the academic and social aspects of an institution as they transition from high school. For institutions that have enhanced their orientations to serve as a comprehensive transition program, learning outcomes are developed to assess success. CAS Professional Standards for Higher Education provide objectives for what Orientation programs should aim to accomplish. In North America, organizations exist to share practices that are built upon these outcomes. Two prominent organizations are NODA-Association for Orientation, Transition, and Retention in Higher Education and the Canadian Association Colleges and Universities Student Services (CACUSS), which has Orientation, Transition and Retention Community of Practice. The CACUSS community of practice specifically serves as a network for student affairs professionals to share best practices, research, and trends seen at Canadian institutions. The impact of COVID-19 will need to be addressed when considering orientation programs to support the transition for students moving from high school to post-secondary institutions. Because of the pandemic, there has been little to no opportunity for students to access the same supports they have accessed in previous years. Many of the programs to support transition to post-secondary have been cancelled or modified significantly. Terminology The week before the term starts is known as: Frosh (or frosh week) in some colleges and universities in Canada. In the US, most call it by the acronym SOAR for Student Orientation And Registration; Freshers' week in the majority of the United Kingdom and Ireland and Orientation week or O-week in countries such as Australia, South Africa and New Zealand, and also in many Canadian universities. In Sweden, it is known as (from , 'zero', in this case meaning the students have not earned any credit points yet) or (being 'kicked in' to university life). Orientation week is the common phrase in the United States. Some schools use the acronym WOW for Week of Welcome. In Canada, first-year students are called "frosh" or "first-years", although the term frosh has been phased out as orientations have become dry events. The terms freshies and freshers are also emerging. In the United States, first-year university students are typically referred to as freshmen. In Australia and New Zealand, first-year students are known simply as "first-years", although in some the colleges of the University of Melbourne and the University of Sydney they are also called "freshers". In the U.K. and Ireland, first-year students are known as freshers or first-years. Freshies is also an emerging term in New Zealand. In Sweden, the student is a (a 'zero') during the orientation period and usually upgraded to the status of an (student who is in her/his first college term) at a ceremony involving a fancy three-course dinner and much singing. History of student orientation In modern society, student orientation programs are meant to guide and assist students with their transition into post-secondary. Each institution follows different activities to welcome, transition and assist students in their transition to a new educational experience. Although it seems like every institution has some sort of student orientation they were only developed in 1888 at Boston University. They were created by faculty in an attempt to ensure that students understood the role of a student in academia. These faculty members were predominantly the driving force behind student orientation programs until the 1920s. From 1920-onwards a shift in the development of these orientation practices occurred. Administration at the institutions began to work towards the development. In Canada, this shift happened much later due to the 1960s and 1970s as orientation functions were developed and created by student governments. Specifically, between the 1960s and 1970s, deans acting in the role in loco parentis, were focused on orientation, transition and retention programs that soon became fundamental to higher education institutions. In 1948, directors, administration, and presidents met for the first time to discuss the student orientation. From this meeting the National Orientation Directors Association (NODA) was developed. In Canada, this shift happened much later due to the 1960s and 1970s, orientation functions were developed and created by student governments. In the 1980s this shift continued to orientation programming being completed by student affairs professionals as a way to eliminate risks associated with students developed practices. Like the United States, orientation programming was used by higher education institutions to focus on transition and retention. In Canada, information, research and data around orientation programming is shared at conferences such as CACUSS. Purpose of student orientation In pop culture, orientation or "Frosh" programs are often portrayed as a series of event primarily centralized around partying. However, many institutions have been trying to reframe this assumptions by creating more well rounded orientation programming for their incoming students. Many orientation programs aim to provide students with the tools that they will need to be successful within their academic, such as acquainting them with their campus and the academic supports available to them, as well as providing them with opportunities to meet their fellow students and build meaningful connections. The overall message of getting familiar with the learning environment and institution has remained the same. The goals of the orientation programs are to create student's familiarity with the institution's regulations and academic standards, acquaint the students with their classmates and to learn about the other institutional members that will help students succeed. Orientation programs also serve the purpose of introducing students to rules and policies that can help keep them safe. Legislation in different North American states and provinces has led to programming that addresses consent, gendered violence, and the introduction of the campus sexual assault policy. Around the world Australia In Australia, some universities require students to arrive at university a week before classes start in order to gain course approval. This also allows students a chance to orient themselves to student life without the pressure of lectures—hence the term Orientation week is used to describe this week of induction into university life. In Australian universities, such as the University of Melbourne, University of New South Wales and University of Sydney, the last or second last night is usually celebrated with a large-scale event such as a famous band playing at an entertainment venue on campus. This is generally followed by continued partying and drinking. The Adelaide University O-Week runs from Monday to Thursday in the week before lectures begin. During O-Week sporting clubs and societies set up a variety of tented areas where clubs display their activities. The Adelaide University Union coordinates a variety of events centering around beer, bands and barbecues on the lawns near the Union complex. A major event for the week is the O-Ball (live entertainment and licensed areas) which takes place in the Cloisters (Union House). The O-Ball attracts many thousands of revellers, not all of whom are Adelaide University students. In recent times Sports and Clubs have sought to distance themselves from the student union and student association controlled activities and have set themselves up on the Maths lawns. The Australian National University has a full week (Sunday to Sunday) of events, parties and social activities open to all students of the university, organised by the Australian National University Students Association. The residential colleges often have their own O-week activities catered primarily for residents as well as the annual Burgmann Toga Party held at Burgmann College open to students from all residential colleges. Burgmann Toga is the largest party held at a university residence in the Southern Hemisphere. Canada In Canada, there is a large variety of student orientation programming offered by Canadian institutions. Some institutions have their Orientation programming run by the student union, by student groups, by university staff, or a combination. The duration and complexity of programs to support the transition for students as they enter post-secondary institutions can vary quite drastically depending on the institution. Below are some examples of the kind of structure and programming provided by some Canadian universities: Ottawa, has two universities within its urban centre; the University of Ottawa and Carleton University, both with orientations spanning approximately seven days. At the University of Ottawa, Frosh Week is called 101 week. At Carleton University there are multiple orientations, SPROSH (Sprott Frosh), ENG Frosh, Radical Frosh, and the largest, CUSA/RRRA/SEO Frosh. In the province of Quebec, because of the CEGEP system, "froshies" are of legal drinking age and Frosh activities may include the option to drink alcohol. Moreover, the proximity of the two Ottawa universities also allows them to take advantage of the drinking age in neighbouring Gatineau, Quebec. The University of British Columbia cancels the first day of class for all students, and hosts an orientation day for new students, called Imagine Day. As of 2007, the Faculty of Science also holds an annual, day-long Science Frosh event for approximately 300 first-year students, while the commerce faculty holds a three-day-long frosh weekend before classes begin. The University of Toronto has a number of different "Frosh Weeks" organized concurrently by different student groups within the university; including college societies, professional faculties (perhaps the best known being organized by Engineering Society, Skule (engineering society), in which 'F!ROSH' and 'F!ROSH Leedurs' dye their bodies purple) and the University of Toronto Students' Union. Toronto Metropolitan University (the former Ryerson University) also has a number of "Frosh Weeks" organized by different student groups, although it also has a central frosh team known as the 'TMU Orientation Crew'. At the Friday of frosh week, the TMU Students' Union holds a concert that is free for all TMU students; the headliners for the 2015 concert included Drake and Future. McMaster University also organizes many events during what they term "Welcome Week". The week strongly encourages solidarity, first with members of one's own residence or for off-campus students, and later the members of a student's faculty. University of Guelph holds hundreds of orientation activities for its incoming students. These events are run by student clubs, academic groups, the undergraduate student union, along with university staff and faculty. Their main events include Move-In Day programming, large-scale informational events promoting campus safety, and the Pep Rally in which students from each residence perform a dance on the football field. The Guelph Engineering Society also hosts a series of special events for Engineering Frosh including frosh olympics, beach day, and a scavenger hunt. Western University hosts the largest orientation program in Canada, involving 1200 student volunteers and an entire week of activities. St Thomas University, in Fredericton, New Brunswick, hosts a week-long event including activities for each residence and activities for new students. Queen's University hosts an optional Frosh week, in which students will bond through various activities, such as chants and numerous traditions such as graduated students returning to watch, as well as consume excessive amounts of alcohol. University of Waterloo has a week-long orientation with classes incorporated. Students participate in programs run by each of the six faculties, as well as centralized events with all of the first-year students. The university also runs additional orientations for international students, transfer students, exchange students, out-of-province students and graduate orientation. The Royal Military College of Canada has a three week orientation program, called First Year Orientation Program(FYOP) for students who have completed the initial phase of the BMOQ(Basic Military Officer Qualification). During this period, first year students will undergo mentally and physically straining tasks in order to obtain their cap brass and replace the Canadian Armed Forces issued cap brass. After the three weeks, students will complete the obstacle course around campus in which students will be pushed to the limit to complete it with their flights. After this, First Year students will go on parade to receive their RMC cap brasses, as well as receive their challenge coins with their student numbers. The Royal Military College Saint-Jean goes through a similar program to RMCC. Where the core of FYOP is the same, but is reduced down from three weeks to two weeks. The same activities are conducted. Orientation programming is often available for all levels of study; it is generally thought of as something primarily for undergraduate students but many institutions will at least provide some kind of informational Orientation for their graduate level students. International students are likely to also have their own Orientation - in addition to general Orientation - where they are provided with information about life in Canada as an international student. Denmark At Roskilde University in Denmark, orientation week (in Danish ) normally lasts from one and a half weeks to two whole weeks. During the period, approximately 14 teams consisting of 10–16 tutors each take care of an individual house to which the new students have been allocated. There is normally one house of Natural Sciences, four of Social Studies and Economics, four houses of Arts and Language and two of technology and design. Each of the first three houses described has an International version as well, where the courses are taught in English instead of Danish. Each tutor group spends roughly fourteen days (and three to five days of pre-education in the spring semester) living on campus before the arrival of the new students (also called s). These periods usually involve heavy amounts of drinking, partying and sexual activity among the tutors themselves. However most festive activities including alcohol only occur after 4 p.m. due to the alcohol policies of the university. Because of this policy, most daily activity is spent planning and preparing activities for the new students. When the students arrive all tutor groups welcome the s with the infamous – usually a display of wacky sketches such as naked people playing chess, smashing rotten eggs at bystanders or themselves or men chasing midgets with a butcher's knife (to name a few examples). During the two-week period the tutor group teach and introduce the new students to life on campus, both the social and educational aspects. As it is with the preparation period, festive activities take place after 4 p.m., and educational activities are held during the day. The two-week period ends in a four-day period in which the house will leave campus to varied destinations. During these days mostly social activities are held, including the more secret hazing rituals of the university. The tutors uphold a strict set of rules to maintain a safe and pleasant tutorship to prevent harmful and humiliating hazing rituals. Examples are the presence of minimum two sober tutors at each party (in Danish ). Engaging in sexual relations with new students is also strongly discouraged. Also, it is generally not seen as appropriate to force people to drink alcohol through various games and activities. Furthermore, the university dictates that each tutor must be taught basic first aid, as well as a couple of courses in conflict management and basic education psychology. At DTU (Danish Faculty of Technology and Engineering), Copenhagen Business School and Copenhagen University, similar periods are held. They however vary, and are significantly shorter than the overall orientation period at Roskilde University. Finland In Finnish universities, the student organizations for each department independently organize orientation activities for the new students in their respective departments. New students are often assigned in groups to an upperclassman tutor and participate in many activities with their tutoring group. New students may be referred to as ('child'), ('freshman'), or other names according to their major subject. Activities for new students may include "orienteering", pub crawls, sporting events, swimming in fountains or other forms of "baptism", sitsit parties and saunas, often done wearing homemade fancy-dress costumes. It is also considered important for the new students to participate in the regular activities of the student department organizations. Indonesia In past years a typical orientation may consist of verbal harassment as well as initiation leading to humiliation. An orientation of freshers in Indonesia is usually called OSPEK () for some universities and MOS () in middle and high school. Orientations in Indonesia have event organizers consisting of seniors and the presidium of universities. The most basic form of orientation in Indonesia consists of an educational board run and introduction to campus cultural behavior. What makes orientation in Indonesia (for some universities and schools) distinctive to other countries would arguably be the freshmens' requirement to wear unusual accessories or hairstyles (i.e. freshmen were asked to wear hats made of bird's nests, neckties made of folded paper, military hairstyles for male students or intricate braids for females, and the usage of a sack instead of a rucksack). Harsh physical punishments were not uncommon during the Suharto era, and mass media continues to report inhumane activities during those orientations that led to a few cases of death. Nowadays, however, orientation is more tolerable as physical abuse is now forbidden by law; however, it is still criticized by many psychologists and people as 'too much' because of excessive verbal harassment and the use of unusual and humiliating attributes typically found in orientations in junior high and high schools. As well, it is also criticized by many parents for being economically inconvenient. The reason cited by psychologists is that orientation is often used as a tool of revenge by the board of organizers for what the seniors did to them during their freshman year. Because of this, there are many people who believe that MOS or OSPEK are useless traditions that need to be erased. The cruelty of MOS and OSPEK varies between universities and schools in Indonesia, although in (most) major universities and institutes, that kind of humiliation and harassment no longer exists, or is greatly limited to pending applicants or pledges for certain campus organizations. New Zealand As in Australia, in New Zealand students have a week to orient themselves to university life before the start of formal classes. This orientation week is a time for many social events, and is often a reason for alcohol fests. Flat warmings are often held within the time limit to couple the alcohol oriented event with the general party week. In New Zealand's main university towns such as Dunedin and Palmerston North (where students make up around one fifth of the population) orientation week leads a wide range of events. Many top overseas and local bands tour the country at this time, and the orientation tour is one of the highlights of the year's music calendar. The University of Otago in the Scottish-settled city of Dunedin traditionally holds a parody of the Highland Games called the Lowland Games, including such esoteric events as porridge wrestling. Student pranks were once common during orientation week, but have fallen out of favour in recent years. Until recent years, many halls of residence also inducted new residents with "Initiation" (a form of hazing, though considerably milder than the rituals found among American college fraternities). Although officially designated as a week, in several New Zealand universities and polytechnics orientation week stretches to over ten days. Sweden Most Swedish universities have some kind of ('zeroing') or ('kicking-in'). This is most extensive at the technical faculties and at the student nation communities of Uppsala and Lund. Since student union membership was mandatory in Sweden (until July 2010), the is usually centrally organized from the student union with support from the universities. At the old universities, these traditions have often turned civilized after a dark history of hazing. Today, many student unions have strict rules against inappropriate drunkenness, sexual harassment and other problematic behaviour. At the technical faculties, the people who organize the play roles in a theatrical manner and often wear sunglasses and some form of weird clothes. Most senior students who are mentors during the wear their student boilersuits or the b-frack (a worn tailcoat). This kind of organized developed at KTH and Chalmers and spread to the rest of the country. Thailand In Thailand, the activity is commonly called (), translated as 'welcoming of freshmen'. It takes place in the first week or month of the academic year at universities and some high schools. The purpose is to adapt new students to university culture. Activities include games, entertainment and recreation. These let the newcomers get to know other members of the university and reduce tension in the changing environment. It sometimes includes alcohol. The main object is to let juniors carry on the universities' tradition and identity and to bind together the new generation into one. Long-term activity often includes seniors taking freshman or older years to meals and meetings; usually the most senior pays for it all. Hazing is a concern in this activity, as many students have been humiliated, abused, and dehumanized by their upperclassmen. For over 50 years, SOTUS – a hazing-based system used for college initiation in Thailand – has been involved in Thai universities. It stands for Seniority, Order, Tradition, Unity, and Spirit. It is the system for freshmen to bring harmony to their friends and to show their pride through their institute. By seniors, freshmen have to do activities such as singing university songs. Moreover, freshmen are required to do a lot of things, for example, wearing a name tag and showing respect to seniors. These requirements lead seniors to try to make their juniors do what they desire and punish them if they do not follow seniors' orders. Presently, there are adolescents and adults opposing those who had committed unethical or deadly actions to juniors. This group of adolescents has formed an "Anti-SOTUS" group and it has become one of the main issues in Thailand recently. They consider the SOTUS system to be "old-fashioned and a source of brutality". Since it was established, this has become a group of people who share their opinions about the SOTUS system based on their experiences. On the other hand, some seniors who support this system resist the anti-SOTUS attitude. They tend to say that SOTUS makes them get along together and feel proud of themselves by becoming part of their institute. Some seniors, however, coerce their freshmen to attend every activity held by them as part of preparing them to be able to live happily in university. This becomes worse when some freshmen suffer from what their senior has done to them. In Thai society, news related to this system has been reported almost every year, for example, recent news about a male freshman who died in this tradition. This news has resulted in people thinking that should end or, at least, be controlled. In 2016, GMMTV made a television series based on this system, called SOTUS: The Series starring Perawat Sangpotirat and Prachaya Ruangroj. United Kingdom and Ireland As well as providing a chance to learn about the university, freshers' week allows students to become familiar with the representatives of their Student Union and to get to know the city or town which is home to the university, often through some form of pub crawl (the legal drinking age is 18 in the UK and in Ireland). Live music is also common, as are a number of organized social gatherings especially designed to allow freshers to make new friends and to get to know their course colleagues. Because of the intensity of activities, there are often many new friendships made, especially in group accommodation, some not lasting past Freshers' Week and others lasting for the whole University career and longer. Typically a freshers' fair for student clubs and societies is included as part of the activities to introduce new students to facilities on offer, typically outside their course of study, such as societies, clubs and sports. The various societies and clubs available within the university have stalls and aim to entice freshers to join. Most campuses take the opportunity to promote safe sex to their students and sometimes offer leaflets on the subject and free condoms, as well as promoting the Drinksafe campaign. The aim is to lower the rate of sexually transmitted disease and to reduce the level of intoxication commonly witnessed in freshers' week. Freshers' flu is a predominately British term which describes the increased rates of illness during the first few weeks of university. Although called freshers' flu, it is often not a flu at all. United States Freshmen is the traditional term for first-year students arriving at school in the United States, but the slang term frosh is also used. Due to the perceived gender exclusiveness of the term, some institutions including the University of North Carolina have adopted first-year student as the preferred nomenclature. Lasting between a few days and a week, the orientation is these students' informal introduction and inauguration to the institution. Typically, the first-year students are led by fellow students from upper years over the course of the week through various events ranging from campus tours, games, competitions, and field trips. At smaller liberal arts colleges, the faculty may also play a central role in orientation. In many colleges, incoming freshmen are made to perform activities such as singing of songs, engaging in group physical activities, and playing games. These activities are often done to help freshmen make friends at their new establishment, and also to bond with each other and the upperclassmen. Despite the fact that most first-year students are below the legal drinking age (currently 21 years in all states), heavy drinking and binge drinking may occur outside the orientation curriculum. Some programs require their organizers to sign waivers stating they will not be under the influence of any substances over the course of the week as they are responsible for the well-being of the students. Most programs have one final party on the final night to finish off the week of celebrating, in which the organizers join in. Although it has been officially banned at many schools, hazing is not uncommon during the week. This can be anywhere from the organizers treating the first-year students in a playfully discouraging manner to forcing them to endure rigorous trials. The attitude of the events also depends on the school. Many colleges encourage parents to come to the first day to help new students move into their dormitory, fill out paper work, and get situated. Some schools view their week as an initiation or rite of passage while others view it as a time to build school spirit and pride. In towns with more than one university, there may be a school rivalry that is reflected in the events throughout the week. At most schools, incoming freshmen arrive at the school for a couple of days during the summer and are put into orientation groups led by an upperclassman trained for the position. Their orientation leader will take them around campus, do activities with them, have discussions with them, help them register for the next semester's classes and make them feel comfortable about coming to school in the fall. Freshmen orientation is usually mandatory for all new students, especially international students, which is one way to activate the status of their visa. United States transfer student orientation After first-year students have completed some time at their university, they may find that they did not make the right choice, miss being close to home, or simply want to attend a different institution. When this occurs, they may transfer to another university, usually after their first year. Many other students transfer to four-year institutions after completing an associate degree at a community college. A smaller number of students transfer as part of a dual degree program (such as a 3-2 engineering program). Many universities will hold another student orientation similar to freshman orientation for these transfer students. Freshman orientation lasts a few days or a week; on the other hand, transfer student orientation will typically last between one and three days. Transfer orientation's purpose is to acquaint transfer students with their new university. This usually includes campus tours, introducing transfer students to their adviser or perhaps a few of their teachers, and filling out paperwork for proper enrollment. At some colleges, transfer orientation is mandatory for all transfer students. Unlike freshmen, transfer students are already familiar with the independence of college life. Therefore, their orientation focuses mostly on becoming familiar with the layout and policies of their new institution, providing information about essential campus resources, and getting acquainted with other transfer students so they may make friends at their new university. Transfer students may engage in games, conversations with University faculty, and discussions with current students to make acquaintances and learn more about the university. See also Endurance game References Further reading Academia Student culture
4791597	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan%20Muslims	Cretan Muslims	The Cretan Muslims ( or , or ; , , or ; ) or Cretan Turks were the Muslim inhabitants of the island of Crete. Their descendants settled principally in Turkey, the Dodecanese Islands under Italian administration (part of Greece since World War II), Syria (notably in the village of Al-Hamidiyah), Lebanon, Palestine, Libya, and Egypt, as well as in the larger Turkish diaspora. Cretan Muslims were descendants of ethnic Greeks who had converted to Islam after the Ottoman conquest of Crete in the seventeenth century. They identified as Greek Muslims, and were referred to as "Turks" by some Christian Greeks due to their religion; not their ethnic background. Many Cretan Greeks had converted to Islam in the wake of the Ottoman conquest of Crete. This high rate of local conversions to Islam was similar to that in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Albania, parts of western North Macedonia, and Bulgaria; perhaps even a uniquely high rate of conversions rather than immigrants. The Greek Muslims of Crete continued to speak Cretan Greek. Intermarriage and conversion to Islam produced a group of people called Turkocretans; ethnically Greek but converted (or feigning conversion) to Islam for various practical reasons. European travellers' accounts note that the 'Turks' of Crete were mostly not of Turkic origin, but were Cretan converts from Orthodoxy." Sectarian violence during the 19th century caused many Muslims to leave Crete, especially during the Cretan Revolt (1897–1898), and after Crete's unilateral declaration of union with Greece in 1908. Finally, after the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922 and the Turkish War of Independence, the remaining Muslims of Crete were compulsorily exchanged for the Greek Christians of Anatolia under the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). At all periods, most Cretan Muslims were Greek-speaking, using the Cretan Greek dialect, but the language of administration and the prestige language for the Muslim urban upper classes was Ottoman Turkish. In the folk tradition, however, Cretan Greek was used to express Muslims' "Islamic—often Bektashi—sensibility". Today, the highest number of the Turkocretan descendants can be found in Ayvalık. Those who left Crete in the late 19th and early 20th centuries settled largely along Turkey's Aegean and Mediterranean coast. Alongside Ayvalık and Cunda Island, they settled in İzmir, Çukurova, Bodrum, Side, Mudanya, Adana and Mersin. History Starting in 1645, the Ottoman Empire gradually took Crete from the Republic of Venice, which had ruled it since 1204. In the final major defeat, Candia (modern Iraklion) fell to the Ottomans in 1669 (though some offshore islands remained Venetian until 1715). Crete remained part of the Ottoman Empire until 1897. The fall of Crete was not accompanied by an influx of Muslims. At the same time, many Cretans converted to Islam – more than in any other part of the Greek world. Various explanations have been given for this, including the disruption of war, the possibility of receiving a timar (for those who went over to the Ottomans during the war), Latin-Orthodox dissension, avoidance of the head-tax (cizye) on non-Muslims, the increased social mobility of Muslims, and the opportunity that Muslims had of joining the paid militia (which the Cretans also aspired to under Venetian rule). It is difficult to estimate the proportion which became Muslim, as Ottoman cizye tax records count only Christians: estimates range from 30 to 40% By the late 18th century, as many as 30% of the islanders may have been Muslim. The Muslim population declined through the 19th century, and by the last Ottoman census, in 1881, Muslims were only 26% of the population, concentrated in the three large towns on the north coast, and in Monofatsi. People who claim descent from Cretan Muslims are still found in several Muslim countries today, and principally in Turkey. Between 1821 and 1828, during the Greek War of Independence, the island was the scene of repeated hostilities. Most Muslims were driven into the large fortified towns on the north coast and both the Muslim and Christian populations of the island suffered severe losses, due to conflicts, plague or famine. In the 1830s, Crete was an impoverished and backward island. Since the Ottoman sultan, Mahmud II, had no army of his own available, he was forced to seek the aid of his rebellious vassal and rival, Kavalalı Mehmed Ali Pasha of Egypt, who sent troops to the island. Starting in 1832, the island was administered for two decades by Mustafa Naili Pasha, whose rule attempted to create a synthesis between the Muslim landowners and the emergent Christian commercial classes. His rule was generally cautious, pro-British, and he tried harder to win the support of the Christians (having married the daughter of a priest and allowed her to remain Christian) than the Muslims. In 1834, however, a Cretan committee had already been founded in Athens to work for the union of the island with Greece. In 1840, Egypt was forced by Palmerston to return Crete to direct Ottoman rule. Mustafa Naili Pasha angled unsuccessfully to become a semi-independent prince but the Cretans rose up against him, once more driving the Muslims temporarily into siege in the towns. An Anglo-Ottoman naval operation restored control in the island and Mustafa Naili Pasha was confirmed as its governor, though under command from Istanbul. He remained in Crete until 1851 when he was summoned to the capital, where at a relatively advanced age he pursued a successful career. Religious tensions erupted on the island between Muslims and Christians and the Christian populations of Crete revolted twice against Ottoman rule (in 1866 and in 1897). In the uprising of 1866, the rebels initially managed to gain control of most of the hinterland although as always the four fortified towns of the north coast and the southern town of Ierapetra remained in Ottoman hands. The Ottoman approach to the "Cretan question" was that, if Crete was lost, the next line of defense would have to be the Dardanelles, as indeed it was the case later. The Ottoman Grand Vizier, Mehmed Emin Aali Pasha arrived in the island in October 1867 and set in progress a low profile district-by-district reconquest of the island followed by the erection of blockhouses or local fortresses across the whole of it. More importantly, he designed an Organic Law which gave the Cretan Christians equal (in practice, because of their superior numbers, majority) control of local administration. At the time of the Congress of Berlin in the summer of 1878, there was a further uprising, which was speedily halted through the adaptation of the Organic Law into a constitutional settlement known as the Pact of Halepa. Crete became a semi-independent parliamentary state within the Ottoman Empire under a Greek Orthodox Governor. A number of the senior "Christian Pashas" including Photiades Pasha and Adossides Pasha ruled the island in the 1880s, presiding over a parliament in which liberals and conservatives contended for power. Disputes between these led to a further insurgency in 1889 and the collapse of the Pact of Halepa arrangements. The international powers allowed the Ottoman authorities to send troops to the island and restore order but the Sultan Abdulhamid II used the occasion for ruling the island by martial law. This action led to international sympathy for the Cretan Christians and to a loss of any remaining acquiescence among them for continued Ottoman rule. When a small insurgency began in September 1895, it quickly spiralled out of control and by the summer of 1896, the Ottoman forces had lost military control over most of the island. A new insurrection that began in 1897 led to a war between Greece and the Ottoman Empire. The Great Powers dispatched a multinational naval force, the International Squadron, to Crete in February 1897, and by late March 1897 it brought Cretan insurgent and Greek Army operations against the Ottomans in Crete to a halt by forcing the Greek Army to abandon the island, bombarding insurgent forces, placing sailors and marines ashore, and instituting a blockade of Crete and key ports in Greece. Meanwhile, the International Squadron's senior admirals formed an "Admirals Council" that temporarily governed Crete pending a resolution of the Cretan uprising, and the Admirals Council eventually decided that Crete should become an autonomous state within the Ottoman Empire. After a violent riot by Cretan Muslims against Cretan Christians and British occupation forces on 6 September 1898 (25 August according to the Julian calendar then in use on Crete, which was 12 days behind the modern Gregorian calendar during the 19th century), the Admirals Council ordered all Ottoman forces to leave Crete, and the last of them were evacuated on 6 November 1898. The 21 December 1898 (9 December according to the Julian calendar) arrival of Prince George of Greece and Denmark as the first High commissioner of an autonomous Cretan State, although still under the suzerainty of the Sultan, effectively detached Crete from the Ottoman Empire. The island's Muslim population dropped dramatically because of these changes, with many emigrating to other parts of the Ottoman Empire. From the summer of 1896 until the end of hostilities in 1898, Cretan Muslims remained under siege in the four coastal cities, where massacres against them took place. Subsequent waves of emigration followed as the island was united by stages with Greece. In 1908, the Cretan deputies declared union with Greece, which was internationally recognized after the Balkan Wars in 1913. Under the Treaty of London, Sultan Mehmed V relinquished his formal rights to the island. The Cretan Muslims still remaining were forced to leave Crete under the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923. In Turkey, some descendants of this population continued to speak a form of Cretan Greek dialect until recently. Culture Literature Turks in Crete produced a varied literary output, leading one researcher to define a "Cretan School" which counts twenty-one poets who evolved within Ottoman Divan poetry or Turkish folk literature traditions, especially in the 18th century Personal, mystical, fantastic themes abound in the works of these men of letters, reflecting the dynamism of the cultural life in the island. A taste and echo of this tradition can be perceived in the verses below by Giritli Sırrı Pasha (1844–1895); Fidânsın nev-nihâl-i hüsn ü ânsın âfet-i cânsın Gül âşık bülbül âşıkdır sana, bir özge cânânsın which were certainly addressed to his wife, the poet-composer Leyla Saz, herself a notable figure of Turkish literature and Turkish Classical Music. Recently, a number of books written by descendants of Cretan Muslims in the form of novelized family souvenirs with scenes set in Crete and Anatolia have seen the day in Turkey's book market. Saba Altınsay's "Kritimu" and Ahmet Yorulmaz's trilogy were the first to set the example in this move. There has even been family souvenirs written by the Cretan Muslim writer Mustafa Olpak, whose biographies in retrospect from the shores of Istanbul, Crete and Kenya follow his grandfathers who were initially brought to the Ottoman Empire as slaves to Crete. (see below: Further reading). Music A study by one Greek researcher counts six Cretan Muslims who engaged themselves into music in Cretan Greek dialect. The Cretans brought the musical tradition they shared with the Cretan Christians to Turkey with them: One of the significant aspects of Giritli culture is that this Islamic—often Bektashi—sensibility is expressed through the Greek language. [There has been] some confusion about their cultural identity, and an assumption is often made that their music was somehow more "Turkish" than "Cretan". In my view this assumption is quite wrong.... But certain instruments were more often used by Christians: there are few cases of Muslim Cretan lyra-players compared to Christians: the very name for that instrument in Turkish language being Rum kemençesi – Greek kemenche. Cretan Muslim popular culture in Turkey Nuances may be observed among the waves of immigrations from Crete and the respective behavioral patterns. At the end of the 19th century Muslims fled reprisal to take refuge in the present-day territory of Turkey or beyond (see Al Hamidiyah). During the 1910s, with the termination of the Cretan State which had recognized the Muslim community of the island a proper status, many others left. The Greco-Turkish War (1919–22) and the ensuing population exchange is the final chapter among the root causes that shaped these nuances. Among contributions made by Cretan Muslims to the Turkish culture in general, the first to be mentioned should be their particular culinary traditions based on consumption at high-levels of olive oil and of a surprisingly wide array of herbs and other plant-based raw materials. While they have certainly not introduced olive oil and herbs to their compatriots, Cretan Muslims have greatly extended the knowledge and paved the way for a more varied use of these products. Their predilection for herbs, some of which could be considered as unusual ones, has also been the source of some jokes. The Giritli chain of restaurants in Istanbul, Ankara and Bodrum, and Ayşe Ün's "Girit Mutfağı" (Cretan Cuisine) eateries in İzmir are indicative references in this regard. Occasional although intrinsically inadequate care has also been demonstrated by the authorities in the first years of the Turkish Republic for settling Cretan Muslims in localities where vineyards left by the departed Greeks were found, since this capital was bound to be lost in the hands of cultivators with no prior knowledge of viniculture. In the field of maritime industries, the pioneer of gulet boats construction that became a vast industry in Bodrum in our day, Ziya Güvendiren was a Cretan Muslim, as are many of his former apprentices who themselves have become master shipbuilders and who are based in Bodrum or Güllük today. An overall pattern of investing in expertise and success remains remarkable among Cretan Muslims, as attested by the notable names below. However, with sex roles and social change starting out from different grounds for Cretan Muslims, the adaptation to the "fatherland" did not always take place without pain, including that of being subjected to slurs as in other cases involving immigration of people. According to Peter Loizos, they were often relegated to the poorest land: They were briefly feted on arrival, as 'Turks' 'returning' to the Turkish heartland... like the Asia Minor Christians seeking to settle on land in northern Greece, the Muslim refugees found that local people, sometimes government officials, had already occupied the best land and housing. The same author depicts a picture where they did not share the "Ottoman perceptions of certain crafts and trades as being of low status", so more entrepreneurial opportunities were open to them. Like others who did not speak Turkish, they suffered during the "Citizens Speak Turkish!" campaign which started in 1928. "Arabs, Circassians, Cretan Muslims, and Kurds in the country were being targeted for not speaking Turkish. In Mersin, for instance, 'Kurds, Cretans, Arabs and Syrians' were being fined for speaking languages other than Turkish.". In the summary translation of a book on Bodrum made by Loizos, it is stated that, even as late as 1967, the Cretans and the 'local Turks' did not mix in some towns; they continued to speak Greek and mostly married other Cretans. Diaspora in Lebanon and Syria there were about 7,000 Greek speakers living in Tripoli, Lebanon and about 3,000 in Al Hamidiyah, Syria, the majority of them Muslims of Cretan origin. Records suggest that the community left Crete between 1866 and 1897, on the outbreak of the last Cretan uprising against the Ottoman Empire, which ended the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. Sultan Abdul Hamid II provided Cretan Muslim families who fled the island with refuge on the Levantine coast. The new settlement was named Hamidiye after the sultan. Many Cretan Muslims of Lebanon somewhat managed to preserve their identity and language. Unlike neighboring communities, they are monogamous and consider divorce a disgrace. Their community was close-knit and entirely endogamous until the Lebanese Civil War, when many of them were forced to migrate and the community was dispersed. Cretan Muslims constitute 60% of Al Hamidiyah's population. The community is very much concerned with maintaining its culture. The knowledge of the spoken Greek language is remarkably good and their contact with their historical homeland has been possible by means of satellite television and relatives. Notable people Ahmed Resmî Efendi: 18th-century Ottoman statesman, diplomat and author (notably of two sefâretnâme). First ever Ottoman ambassador in Berlin (during Frederick the Great's reign). He was born into a Muslim family of Greek descent in the Cretan town of Rethymno in the year 1700. Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi: Turkey's third ambassador in Berlin and arguably the first Turkish author to have written in novelistic form. Al-Husayn I ibn Ali at-Turki – founder of the Husainid Dynasty, which ruled Tunisia until 1957. Salacıoğlu: (1750 Hanya – 1825 Kandiye): One of the most important 18th-century poets of Turkish folk literature. Giritli Sırrı Pasha: Ottoman administrator, Leyla Saz's husband and a notable man of letters in his own right. Vedat Tek: Representative figure of the First National Architecture Movement in Turkish architecture. Son of Leyla Saz and Giritli Sırrı Pasha. Paul Mulla (alias Mollazade Mehmed Ali): born Muslim, converted to Christianity and becoming a Roman Catholic bishop and author. Rahmizâde Bahaeddin Bediz: The first Turkish photographer by profession. The thousands of photographs he took, based as of 1895 successively in Crete, İzmir, Istanbul and Ankara (as Head of the Photography Department of Turkish Historical Society), have immense historical value. Salih Zeki: Turkish photographer in Chania Ali Nayip Zade: Associate of Eleftherios Venizelos, Prefect of Drama and Kavala, Adrianople, and Lasithi. Ismail Fazil Pasha: (1856–1921) descended from the rooted Cebecioğlu family of Söke who had settled in Crete He has been the first Minister of Public Works in the government of Grand National Assembly in 1920. He was the father of Ali Fuad and Mehmed Ali. Mehmet Atıf Ateşdağlı: (1876–1947) Turkish officer. Mustafa Ertuğrul Aker: (1892–1961) Turkish officer who sank HMS Ben-my-Chree. Writer Cevat Şakir Kabaağaçlı, alias Halikarnas Balıkçısı (The Fisherman of Halicarnassus), although born in Crete and has often let himself be cited as Cretan, descends from a family of Ottoman aristocracy with roots in Afyonkarahisar, and his father had been an Ottoman High Commissioner in Crete and later ambassador in Athens. Hüsamettin Cindoruk: Turkish politician, president of the Turkish Republic. Bülent Arınç (born 25 May 1948) is a Deputy Prime Minister of Turkey since 2009. He is of Cretan Muslim heritage with his ancestors arriving to Turkey as Cretan refugees during the time of Sultan Abdul Hamid II and is fluent in Cretan Greek. Arınç is a proponent of reconverting the Hagia Sophia into a mosque, which has caused diplomatic protestations from Greece. Halil Berktay (born 27 August 1947) Turkish historian of Cretan Muslim origin. Tuba Büyüküstün, Turkish actress Hülya Avşar, Turkish actress (maternal Cretan Muslim-Yörük and paternal Kurdish) Ferdi Özbeğen, Turkish singer Bennu Yıldırımlar, Turkish actress Necip Fazıl Kısakürek, Turkish-Islamist poet (on mother side) Mustafa Fehmi Kubilay, was a Turkish teacher and a lieutenant. He is considered a "Martyr of the Revolution" in Turkey. See also Al Hamidiyah Cretan State Emirate of Crete Greek Muslims History of Crete International Squadron (Crete intervention, 1897–1898) Massacre of Phocaea Turks in Lebanon References Notes Bibliography McTiernan, Mick, A Very Bad Place Indeed For a Soldier. The British involvement in the early stages of the European Intervention in Crete. 1897–1898, King's College, London, September 2014. Further reading İzmir Life magazine, June 2003 'Fethinden Kaybına Girit (Crete from its conquest to its loss), Babıali Kültür Yayıncılığı, 2007 Michael Herzfeld, A Place in History: Social and Monumental Time in a Cretan Town, Princeton University Press, 1991 Michael Herzfeld, "Of language and land tenure: The transmission of property and information in autonomous Crete", Social Anthropology 7:7:223-237 (1999), Richard Clogg, A Concise History of Greece, Cambridge University Press, 2002 Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911), s.v. Crete; La Grande Encyclopédie (1886), s.v. Crète Kemal Özbayri and Emmanuel Zakhos-Papazahariou, "Documents de tradition orale des Turcs d'origine crétoise: Documents relatifs à l'Islam crétois" Turcica VIII/I (5), pp. 70–86 (not seen) Molly Greene, A Shared World: Christians and Muslims in the Early Modern Mediterranean, Princeton, 2000. A. Lily Macrakis, Cretan Rebel: Eleftherios Venizelos in Ottoman Crete, PhD Dissertation, Harvard University, 1983. External links Project film: Benim Giritli limon ağacım – My Cretan lemon tree Lozan Mübadilleri: The Association of Turks exchanged under Lausanne Treaty Testimonials by Greeks from Ayvalık and Turkish Cretans from Rethymno Greek Muslims Turks in Greece Muslim communities in Europe
4791958	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guitar%20Hero%20II	Guitar Hero II	Guitar Hero II is a music rhythm video game developed by Harmonix and published by RedOctane for the PlayStation 2 and Activision for the Xbox 360. It is the second main installment in the Guitar Hero series and is the sequel to 2005's Guitar Hero. It was first released for the PlayStation 2 in November 2006, and then for the Xbox 360 in April 2007, with additional content not originally in the PlayStation 2 version. Like in the original Guitar Hero, the player uses a peripheral in the shape of a solid-body electric guitar to simulate playing rock music as notes scroll towards the player. Most of the gameplay from the original game remains intact, and provides new modes and note combinations. The game features more than 40 popular licensed songs, many of them cover versions recorded for the game, spanning five decades (from the 1960s to the 2000s). The PlayStation 2 version of Guitar Hero II can be purchased individually or in a bundle that packages the game with a cherry red Gibson SG guitar controller. The Xbox 360 version of the game is offered in a bundle that packages the game with a white Gibson Explorer guitar controller. Since its release, Guitar Hero II has been met with both critical and commercial success, helping the Guitar Hero series become a cultural phenomenon. As of December 1, 2007, the game has sold 3.1 million copies. It has spawned the "expansion" title Guitar Hero Encore: Rocks the 80s for the PlayStation 2. A sequel, Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock, was released in 2007. Development The surprise success of Guitar Hero readily led to the development of a sequel for the game. According to developer John Tam, the team felt they "hit the sweet spot" of genres and decades within the set list and wanted to maintain that for the sequel. The costs of obtaining licensing rights for music from "big bands" such as AC/DC, Led Zeppelin, Van Halen, and Metallica, in addition to the lack of understanding of how the music would be used prevented these groups from being used in Guitar Hero. However, Tam notes that with the success of Guitar Hero, "They understand that we're not going to embarrass their music, we're going to actually pay homage to their music and get it to the point where people are going to fall in love with their music and understand their music in a totally different way than they've ever experienced it before." They also had requests by artists to include master tracks within the game. In addition to working more directly with artists, RedOctane and Activision worked with various musical instrument and equipment companies to provide in-game product placement. Such vendors include BOSS Effectors, DW Drums, Eden Bass Amplification, EMG, Epiphone, Ernie Ball Strings, Gibson Guitar Corporation, Guitar Center, Hofner, Kramer, Krank, Line 6, Mesa Boogie, MusicMan Basses, Orange Amplifiers, Randall Amplifiers, Roland, Vans and the Vans Warped Tour, VHT, and Zildjian. Guitar Hero II was originally announced for the PlayStation 2 on April 17, 2006. A demo version of the PlayStation 2 version of Guitar Hero II was released with issue #110 of Official PlayStation Magazine on October 5, 2006. Features of the demo included four playable songs on four difficulty levels for single player and co-op modes. Demo releases do not feature the ability to flip the notes for left-handed players. Demo versions feature the songs "Shout at the Devil", "You Really Got Me", "Strutter" and "YYZ". The retail game was released for the PlayStation 2 on November 7, 2006, in North America, November 15, 2006 in Australia, and November 24, 2006, in Europe. It was released as both a stand-alone game, and as a bundle containing the game with a cherry Gibson SG guitar controller. Xbox 360 version When Activision purchased RedOctane in 2006, the company expressed strong interest in bringing the Guitar Hero series to "every significant new format" in order to take advantage of the next generation of consoles. The Xbox 360 version was announced on September 27, 2006, at Microsoft's X06. Dusty Welch of RedOctane stated that the Xbox 360 "provides an incredible platform for facilitating downloadable content" due to the integrated hard drive on the console. The Xbox 360 version of the game included 10 exclusive songs and additional content available for purchase through the Xbox Live Marketplace. The Xbox 360 version was released on April 3, 2007, in North America and Australia, and then on April 6, 2007, in Europe (only as a bundle containing the game and a wired Gibson X-Plorer guitar controller). It was released as a stand-alone game for the Xbox 360 in the UK on January 25, 2008. The arrangement of the songs were also altered, and the graphics were slightly improved. Gameplay Gameplay is based on the successful formula created for the first Guitar Hero game; the player may use the guitar peripheral to play scrolling notes by holding the corresponding fret button on the guitar neck and simultaneously pressing the strum bar. Alternatively, one can play with the DualShock 2 or Xbox 360 controller by using four shoulder buttons and a face button, mapped to specific fret keys. Several changes have been made to the gameplay mechanics for Guitar Hero II: hammer-on and pull-off functionality has been improved, and three note chords have been introduced, scored as triple points if played correctly. There are additional statistics available for a song upon completion, and the scores achieved in either Quick Play or Career mode are saved to the same in-game high-score list. The handedness of the guitar can now be toggled from the Pause menu when playing a song (previously, this was only available from the game's main menu). For the Xbox 360 version, scores can also be compared with other players through Xbox Live via the Leaderboard feature, and there are 50 Achievements that can be earned in the game. Career mode In Career mode, players create a band name and select a guitarist from among the available characters. Eight characters, each representing a unique genre of rock music - are available from the start of the game: Eddie Knox (rockabilly), Axel Steel (heavy metal), Casey Lynch (hard rock), Lars Ümlaüt (extreme metal), Izzy Sparks (glam), Judy Nails (alternative), Johnny Napalm (punk), and Pandora (gothic). Additional characters can also be purchased, allowing them to be used in later sessions. Only the lead guitar is available to be played in the Career mode. Over the course of the Career mode the band plays at eight available venues. The venue system from the original game has been altered slightly and has the band traveling geographically from town to town in order to play at the next arena. The venues are Nilbog High School, The Rat Cellar Pub, The Blackout Bar, The RedOctane Club, the Rock City Theater, the Vans Warped Tour, Harmonix Arena and Stonehenge. The venues feature lighting and pyrotechnics that are synchronized with the music. Not all songs in the main setlist are available from the start. Once a song is unlocked for play within Career Mode, it becomes available for play in all other modes. When working through Career Mode at a specific difficulty level, the next tier of songs is unlocked once the required number of songs on the current tier (3-5, depending on difficulty and console) are completed. Additionally, the encore song for a particular tier is only made available once its requirements are completed. On the Easy difficulty setting, there are no encores available, but the next tier will be unlocked immediately after completing the required songs in the previous tier. Successful completion of a song on Medium or higher difficulty during Career mode will earn the player in-game cash. Higher difficulty levels and better scoring performances are rewarded with more cash. In-game money can be used at The Store to buy various items. Some items are available only after completing all songs at higher difficulty levels or 5-star performances. Within The Store, the player can purchase new Gibson guitars, guitar finishes, three additional characters, alternate outfits for the eight characters available from the start, bonus songs, and videos. For unknown reasons, the bonus videos are absent from the PAL version of the game. Within the Xbox 360 version, there is also an option to access the Guitar Hero II content on the Xbox Live Marketplace. Multiplayer There are three different multiplayer modes available: Cooperative One player plays lead guitar while another plays either bass guitar or rhythm guitar, depending on the song. Both players share a score, rock meter, star power meter, and streak multiplier. Cooperative mode is the only multiplayer mode in which a song can be failed. Star power can only be activated by both players simultaneously. Face-Off This is the same multiplayer mode as featured in the original game, though in Guitar Hero II both players can select their own level of difficulty. In this mode, players alternate between playing sections of the selected song. The scores are weighted so that a player who hits fewer notes on Easy difficulty may not necessarily lose against an opponent on Expert difficulty who hits more notes. Pro Face-Off Players play the full lead guitar track on the same difficulty. For the PlayStation 2 mode, this is available upon completion of any career level, while for the Xbox 360 version, the mode is unlocked after completing the career mode at Easy level or higher. The score system is identical as the song could be played alone, but songs cannot be failed in this mode. Although, online multiplayer was not available at the release of Guitar Hero II for the Xbox 360, RedOctane has stated that they hope to be able provide this later once they are able to work out the technical issues. Practice mode Practice mode is a new addition to the game, allowing a player to practice certain sections of a song ("Verse 2," "Chorus," "Bridge 3," "Gtr Solo 4," etc.) on different difficulties and instruments. Practice mode gives the player the ability to toggle the speed of the notes (Full Speed, Slow, Slower and Slowest) and does not stop a song no matter how many mistakes are made. Players can play the bass guitar lines on most songs. On others, a rhythm guitar line is available instead. Soundtrack Both the PlayStation 2 and Xbox 360 versions of Guitar Hero II feature the same core 64 playable songs (40 licensed, 24 bonus songs). Among the featured tracks are Van Halen's version for The Kinks' "You Really Got Me", "Sweet Child O' Mine" by Guns N' Roses, "Girlfriend" by Matthew Sweet, "Woman" by Wolfmother, "War Pigs" by Black Sabbath, and "Free Bird" by Lynyrd Skynyrd. The Xbox 360 version of the game contains 10 exclusive tracks not included in the PlayStation 2 version, including "Billion Dollar Babies" by Alice Cooper, "Rock and Roll, Hoochie Koo" by Rick Derringer, and "The Trooper" by Iron Maiden. Additionally, the Xbox 360 version allows for downloadable songs to be purchased on the Xbox Live Marketplace. The Xbox 360 version also features a reorganized set list that provides a more balanced progression in difficulty. Most of the songs featured in the main set list are cover versions, with the exception of "Stop!", "Possum Kingdom", "Dead!", and "John the Fisherman"; these four are based on master recordings. The unlockable bonus songs are all master recordings, including some specifically arranged for use within Guitar Hero II. Cover songs are credited on screen with the phrase "as made famous by" (for example, "Heart-Shaped Box, as made famous by Nirvana"), while the original songs are credited with "as performed by" (for example, "John the Fisherman, as performed by Primus"). RedOctane stated that the Xbox 360 version of Guitar Hero II "planned to feature more downloadable content than any other 360 title" utilizing the Xbox Live Marketplace, including many of the songs from the original Guitar Hero a week after the release of the game. Four such packs have been released since April 11, 2007. Additionally, two packs featuring new content to the Guitar Hero series have also been released, including songs from My Chemical Romance, Protest the Hero, Trivium, and Atreyu. There have also been individual track downloads featuring songs from bands Los Rodríguez, Pleymo, and Soilwork. Featured instruments Guitar Hero II features many popular real world Gibson, Epiphone, and Kramer guitars, including the Gibson Les Paul, Gibson SG, Gibson Flying V, (these three being the only ones available from the start) Gibson Sonex 180 and Gibson Explorer. Oddities such as the double necked Gibson EDS-1275 and unusual looking Gibson Corvus also make an appearance. Several available finishes are also recognizable from popular guitarists, including Zakk Wylde's bullseye Les Paul. As play progresses, several custom shaped guitars become available, although some are notable in the real world such as the US and Battle Axe (a similar looking bass is played by Gene Simmons, and the guitar was played by John Christ of Samhain/Danzig fame). Basses, such as the Music Man StingRay, Gibson Thunderbird, and the Höfner bass (as made famous by Paul McCartney, the bassist for the Beatles) are also available for co-op play. The band itself plays with Orange amps and DW drum kits, along with more in-game endorsements. When the player passes each set of songs in career mode, his/her band is rewarded with money and equipment endorsements, including Ernie Ball strings, Boss effects, Line 6 guitar amplifiers, VHT amplifiers, Mesa Boogie amplifiers, and Roland keyboards. These products then appear on stage while the band plays the ensuing setlists. Reception The PlayStation 2 version of Guitar Hero II was critically acclaimed. It received a 10/10 review in the December 2006 issue of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine and was awarded the Game of the Month award. The game received a rating of 9.5/10 from IGN, ranking higher than the original game in the series and amongst IGN's highest rated PlayStation 2 games ever. IGN would later include it on their 2007 list of "The Top 100 Games of All Time" at #49. GameSpot reviewed the PlayStation 2 version with a rating of 8.7/10, and the Xbox 360 version 8.9, both slightly lower than its predecessor. Game Informer gave it a 9/10, while its "second opinion" rating was better, at 9.25/10. According to GameRankings, the average critic score of Guitar Hero II is 93%, making it the 9th best reviewed game of 2006. The Australian video game talk show Good Game'''s two reviewers gave the game a 9/10 and 10/10. The Xbox 360 version has earned similarly positive reviews and slightly higher scores with a 9.5/10 in the March issue of Official Xbox Magazine, a 4.75/5 from GamePro, a 9.5/10 from Play Magazine a 9.6/10 from IGN, and a perfect score of 5/5 from Got-Next. As of April 3, 2007, the Game Rankings score is 94%. The popular G4 television show X-Play gave both versions of the game a 5/5. Additionally, the Australian Xbox Magazine has also awarded the game, for the first time, an 11/10, in a reference to This Is Spinal Tap. Hyper's Daniel Wilks commends the game for its "huge number of tracks" but criticises it for "some really average covers". Common praise for the game by critics is aimed at the new multiplayer and practice modes. Common critiques concern the song list, which includes more hard rock and metal than the previous game, deeming it less accessible to casual players. Other common critiques concern the quality of the covers. The downloadable song packs for the Xbox 360 version have been criticized for being too pricey. The price was seen by many fans of the series as being far too expensive and was met with resistance and angst with a large number of people pledging to boycott the content. Microsoft's Xbox Live Director of Programming, Major Nelson, defending the pricing and release scheme, and attributed the high cost of the content to "licensing issues" on the Xbox 360 platform, as all contracts drawn up for songs from the original game had to be rewritten, since they are playable on an additional console. In 1UP.com's review for the Xbox 360 version of the game, the downloadable song packs are noted as a "mixed blessing"; praise is given for retooling the songs with better gameplay elements such as the inclusion of co-op modes, but the fact that the songs come in pricey packs of three "defeats much of the appeal". In an interview with RedOctane president Kai Huang, Huang stated that the decision to pack the songs in three was made to keep the cost of the tracks down. Though Huang felt the pricing was fair, he noted afterward "we do listen to the fans and take any feedback we receive seriously." Sales In December 2006, Guitar Hero II for PlayStation 2 was the second best-selling video game of the month, selling 805,200 units. It was outsold only by Gears of War for Xbox 360, which sold 815,700 units. It was the fifth best-selling video game of the fiscal year of 2006, with 1.3 million copies sold. It was also the third best-selling game for the PlayStation 2, behind Madden NFL 07 and Kingdom Hearts II. Total sales of the game during 2006 were $200 million. On July 12, 2007, Dusty Welch of RedOctane stated that there have been over 300,000 downloads of the music packs until that point and that the prices were "very attractive and desirable for consumers." On September 11, 2007, Activision reported that with over 650,000 downloads, the music packs qualified as "multi-platinum" under RIAA's definitions. Technical issues No official statement from RedOctane or Activision were made about the discs or the game itself having any issues, but players have reported songs freezing or skipping, causing the audio to be unsynchronized; unusually long loading screens; and menus that freeze or lock up entirely causing the game to crash. The RedOctane Support Center Answer Guide states, "We’re already in the process of looking into this and testing to replicate the experience. We’ll notify everyone with our results shortly, and will have a positive resolution if need be." Two models of the X-Plorer controller were released for the Xbox 360 version of the game: model numbers 95055 and 95065. Of the two versions, the 95055 has an RJ-11 jack for effect pedals near the controller cord and is subject to having an unresponsive whammy bar. RedOctane later responded, saying that they "isolated this issue to two model numbers that can be found on the guitar's packaging". Customers are able to exchange these models for new models. On April 13, 2007, Activision revealed that the issue was not a problem with the hardware, and that the guitars were not'' defective. The cause of the problem was anti-cheat protection software, and Activision released a patch on Xbox Live on April 14, 2007, to remedy it. However, this patch may have caused some unintended side effects. Starting on April 16, 2007, numerous users began reporting lockups and failures of their system after downloading and installing this patch. RedOctane stated, "We're aware of the problem and we're looking into it." Numerous game players have also reported problems with static shocks to the X-Plorer guitars causing various fret buttons (usually the green one) to permanently malfunction. Multiple exchanges of guitars have not solved the problem, as exchanged guitars also exhibit the problem. To date, RedOctane has not solved the problem, and has refused to extend warranties to replacement guitars, time limiting the warranty back to the original date of purchase. References External links Official website 2006 video games Activision games Cooperative video games 02 Guitar video games Music video games PlayStation 2 games Xbox 360 games Multiplayer and single-player video games Harmonix games Video games developed in the United States RedOctane games
4792156	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada%27s%20Worst%20Handyman%20%28season%201%29	Canada's Worst Handyman (season 1)	Canada's Worst Handyman 1 was the first-ever season of the Canadian reality TV show Canada's Worst Handyman, which aired on the Discovery Channel, based on the UK Channel 4 Television Corporation's Britain's Worst Driver. The show is considered to be a sister show of Canada's Worst Driver (itself an adaptation of Britain's Worst Driver), as Canada's Worst Handyman shares much of its production crew with Canada's Worst Driver. As with subsequent years, five people, nominated by their family or friends, enter the Handyman Rehabilitation Centre to improve their handyman skills, in an effort to not be named Canada's Worst Handyman. This year, the Handyman Rehabilitation Centre is located in a public housing complex building in the Regent Park neighborhood of Toronto that has since been demolished to make way for a FreshCo supermarket and new apartments. Format Unlike Canada's Worst Driver, none of the contestants are eliminated; instead, at the end of each episode, one will be named the most improved, while another will be named the worst. Also, the time frame for Canada's Worst Handyman is much shorter, lasting only two weeks, as opposed to the eight weeks for Canada's Worst Driver, with each episode being chronicled one or two days, as opposed to a week for Canada's Worst Driver. On the sixth episode, the five contestants will work together to refurbish an apartment in ten hours, with the nominee with the worst individual performance being named Canada's Worst Handyman. Like Canada's Worst Driver, the contestants are accompanied by their nominators, who are allowed to assist them in their various tasks. Each episode (except the finale, in which the nominees participate in the final exam) also features a "group challenge," which is done by the five nominees as a group. Except for the Shingling Yardwork Challenge, in which the experts saw how badly the nominees performed without an assigned leader, each subsequent group challenge has a nominee named as the project's foreman, a designation given to the most improved nominee from the previous episode; this particular twist was permanently added to the series. The nominee named the worst in each episode is obligated to "hang their head in shame" and nail a picture of themselves along a "wall of shame" to the outside of the tool shed and be personally tutored on an aspect related to the reason why they were named the worst. Experts Dr. Julie Hill is a psychologist who has taught psychology in two Ontario universities. Greg House is a general contractor with international experience, having managed both residential and commercial projects over a 40-year-plus career. Robin Lockhart is an interior designer specializing in high-end residential and commercial design and a graduate of the International Academy of Design and Technology. Contestants The five contestants for the first season are as follows: Darryl Andrews, 35, from Warkworth, Ontario (now living in Vancouver and working as a freelance entertainment photographer), is a professional bodyguard shown to be suffering from a confidence problem after being told by relatives that he was not handy. He is nominated by his wife, Sara Graziano. A recurring theme in the series is the apparent marriage breakdown that ensues whenever Darryl is working, with Sara being incredibly vocal and abrasive, although this has been shown to be only slightly exaggerated by the fact that Darryl and Sara are obviously celebrity wannabes. Merle Auger, 34, from Sucker Creek, Alberta, is a truck driver who believes that duct tape is the answer to all renovation problems. He also rarely measures or uses a level and leaves much work around the house unfinished for years, having very little motivation to complete them. He is nominated by his longtime common-law partner, Shelly Willier, who is frustrated by Merle's lack of owning a measuring tape. Keith Cole, 40, from Toronto, Ontario, is a performance artist who lacks the motivation to do renovation work and is afraid of power tools. He has a tendency to delegate work to others while doing as little work as he can. He is nominated by his friend, Now Magazine photographer David Hawe. Barry Davis, 59, from Quadra Island, British Columbia, is a substitute teacher who performs work without regards to safety, including having used a chainsaw indoors and having electrocuted himself while trying to fix a clothes dryer while standing in a puddle of water. He is nominated by his worried neighbor, Scot Hutton, who considers Barry (the oldest male nominee and second-oldest overall) a danger to himself and others when renovating. Jeannie MacCulloch, 61, from Victoria, British Columbia, is a retired retailer who purchased a house with the aim at restoring it, but as her longtime friend and nominator, Laurence Headley, notes, Jeannie (the only female nominee and the oldest overall) is unable to read and understand instructions. Synopsis CWH – The contestant is Canada's Worst Handyman. WORST – The contestant is the worst of the episode. IN – The contestant was considered for the worst for this episode. WORST - The contestant was the worst while their nominator was the most improved. IMP – The contestant is the most improved of the episode. Format Each of the first five episodes contains four or five individual challenges taken from two days of shooting, where a nominee and their nominator work together to complete a task in a given amount of time. There is also a yardwork challenge in each episode, where the nominees have to work together (but without their nominators) to decorate a shed at the front of the Handyman Rehabilitation Centre. At the end of each episode, one nominee is named the most improved (represented by a toolbelt), which allows them to be in charge of the next yardwork challenge, while another is named the worst. For the nominee named the worst, said nominee must hang their head in shame and nail their portrait to the side of the shed, then subsequently given a private lesson by Andrew relating to the reason why they were named the worst. Episode 1: Demolition Day Original Airdate: March 13, 2006 The first episode introduces the nominees and nominators as they first enter the Handyman Rehabilitation Centre. After the nominees are greeted outside by series host Andrew Younghusband, each is given a dilapidated one-bedroom apartment at the Handyman Rehabilitation Centre, where their 19 individual challenges will take place. The apartments are color-coded: Darryl in purple, Merle in green, Keith in blue, Jeannie in yellow and Barry in pink. Before entering their apartments, the nominees must break down a wall blocking the entrance as symbolism for the beginning of the rehabilitation process. Keith was picked to do the honours due to his lack of experience, but it was ultimately an impatient Merle who knocks the wall down. At the start of the first day, they are introduced to the experts-- general contractor Greg House and interior designer Robin Lockhart, who will teach the contestants the skills needed to tackle the challenges. Darryl was named the episode's most improved handyman due to his overall attitude and first impressions, while Barry was named the worst due to not listening to the instructions given by the experts-- a fact that Barry in fact admitted to and, in retrospect, was deserving of. His extra lesson: a lesson in listening skills, where Andrew asked Barry to follow one simple instruction until he got it right-- cutting a board 21 and 7/8" long. Drywall Patching The nominees must patch a hole in their ceiling. Darryl – Darryl is slow to begin (due partially to being late because of Sara's bad back and his complaints about Jeannie asking too many questions). After making his shim, he tries to hammer in his screws, but is eventually convinced by nominator Sara to use the power drill, only to operate said drill in reverse. He never managed to drill and secure the shim and his attempt to cover the hole with the piece of drywall left his piece far into the hole. His work in taping and plastering was not shown. Merle – Merle begins by measuring the hole with his hands, due to an aversion to measuring tape and also decides not to install a shim in his hole, instead choosing to jam his piece into place. He then secures his friction-fit piece with drywall tape, effectively using the mesh tape as a "safety net" of sorts. This "net" promptly falls when plaster (which was mixed too thin) is applied. Eyeing a few stray pieces of duct tape (his favorite tool of sorts), he promptly patches the hole with duct tape and plasters over it, much to Andrew's ridicule. Keith – Keith, determined to do the first task correctly, begins by using the radiator in his room as a sawhorse to cut the wooden shim. However, to make his cut drywall piece fit the hole in the ceiling, he chooses to enlarge the hole instead of cutting his piece further down. He eventually abandons the shims and forces his drywall piece into place and applies plaster liberally. Barry – Barry did not recall the instructions provided by Greg as, ironically enough for a substitute teacher, he was not listening. He first begins cutting the drywall, which he does by using a connected propane stove as a sawhorse. Then he decides not to install a shim in his hole. To hold up his piece of drywall, Barry decides to use Scot to prop up his piece while tape and plaster were being administered and when Greg comes in to check on him, he decides to use the shim to hold his piece up from below. Jeannie – Jeannie begins by cutting two shims for extra support, but decides to hammer in her screws. Being unable to secure them, she decides to remove them. She declares herself done after wedging her piece in and applying plaster liberally. Yardwork Challenge: Shingling The nominees must work together to shingle the roof of the shed right outside the Handyman Rehabilitation Centre in 90 minutes. Shingles and roofing nails are provided, and instructions are provided on the shingle packages themselves. For safety reasons, the crew insists that only two people are to be on the roof at any given time. The roof has already been tar-papered prior to the challenge. The team begins by not nominating someone to be in charge. Merle begins right away on the roof with the nails while Darryl and Barry deliver the shingles to the roof. While Merle and Barry argue on which way the shingles should be facing, Jeannie offers to read the instructions aloud to the rest, but the instructions she reads are for a flat roof and the shed is a peaked roof and the others ignore her. Merle convinces Barry that his way of aligning and nailing the shingles (in blocks rather than in rows) is correct (which it is not), but Barry continues to attach the shingles upside-down. Eventually the upside-down shingles were removed and replaced. Soon, work begins on both sides of the roof-- Merle and Jeannie together on one side (with Darryl on the roof), while Barry, Keith and Merle work on the other (with Merle on the roof). On Jeannie's end, the shingles are laid out in courses, but the shingles themselves do not overlap, prompting Merle to make a quick patchwork fix. The effect of the block-by-block shingling on the other side leads to a very bumpy roof, which, as Greg notices, would easily fall apart if a strong enough gust of wind hit the roof. The rule that two people were to be on the roof at any time was quickly broken when Barry decides to go on the roof himself ("we didn't build it so it's gotta be safe" is his rationale), leading to Keith also joining Darryl and Merle on the roof. Keith mainly went up to the roof to tell the others how to shingle a roof with a valley, which the roof of the shed has none, but which Keith insists that it had in its peak. In the end, though, the contestants together manage to completely shingle the roof, albeit poorly with low quality. Toolbox Building Prior to entering the Handyman Rehabilitation Centre, each nominee was asked to build a toolbox based on a very simple diagram to replace their existing tool storage. Jeannie had used plastic filing cabinets, Merle a cardboard box and Keith a suitcase from an old Fisher-Price record player. Darryl – Darryl makes meticulous measurements, but uses hammers to drive in his screws. No other details of construction was given, but his toolbox handle was oriented in a different direction compared to the diagram. Merle – Merle begins by cutting ad-hoc without first measuring and uses a circular saw and a chisel to cut the hole for the toolbox handle. He quickly nails the box together and declares himself finished, but the box falls apart when tools were loaded in. His quick fix was to secure the box with more duct tape. Keith – Keith was given a jigsaw to cut his wood, having no power tools of his own. He finishes his box without a hole for a handle, but includes a strap for carrying over a shoulder. Barry – Barry begins cutting his wood by using his circular saw with its blade having fully rusted over. To cut the hole for the toolbox, though, Barry first drills a small hole but discovers that the jigsaw blade doesn't fit through it. His resulting box is similar to that of the diagram, but is not square in any way. Jeannie – Jeannie's box assembly was not shown, but in trying to make a hole for the handle with a jigsaw she does not make a hole, hoping that the jigsaw blade's back-and-forth motion would simply punch a hole through the wood. She manages to finish a box with a hinged opening. Painting The nominees must paint a mural on the living room wall. The nominees may choose seven items of their choosing, but must commit to their choices before this challenge begins, as there was a strict "no return" policy. After the painting, their challenges are inspected by Greg and Robin, as well as (for this episode only) psychologist Dr. Julie V. Hill. Darryl – Darryl had chosen three colors which Sara disliked, although they spend some time planning on what they would do (in lieu of planning ahead). They eventually settle on four square blocks. Once the paint cans are opened, Sara begins painting. Sara is forced to let Darryl paint the mural alone when Andrew enters to complain. Merle – Merle packs supplies, including multiple paintbrushes, but nearly forgets to choose some paint. He did eventually manage to get one can of blue paint and created a mural with a picture of what Sara referred to as a Playboy bunny freehand with a paint roller and using drywall tape in lieu of a sponge for a paint effect. He is finished in less than 15 minutes to mild acclaim. Keith – Keith's centerpiece was an "emotion wheel," which Robin greatly disliked, saying she would "curl up in the fetal position and have herself a little cry" if she saw it in a living room. Barry – Barry had chosen a lot of paint (as well as a bottle of wood glue for no apparent reason), but did not choose a paintbrush, thus resorting to finger painting to complete a mural. In an attempt to help Barry, Scot tries to steal a paintbrush from the supply closet, but is caught red-handed. Scot begs to Andrew to allow him to bring back one paintbrush, which falls on deaf ears. Julie believes that Barry is intentionally doing a substandard mural in order to be lazy, raising Robin's concerns, as she believes that he is simply careless, but Barry's disregard for overhead safety issues infuriates Greg more than anything else. Jeannie – Jeannie had the foresight to plan ahead with a nature scene design and thus had the right tools. The colors she chose complimented the yellow base color of her apartment, creating a stunning result. Episode 2: Toilet Training Original Airdate: March 20, 2006 This episode focuses on various bathroom-related renovations. Merle was named the episode's most improved handyman, largely as he was one of two nominees to have a working toilet (Darryl being the other), while Keith was named the worst mainly due to his hostile attitude towards the experts, particularly Robin. His extra lesson was one where Andrew convinces him to stop making fun of the experts-- Robin in particular, who he called a witch and something that rhymed with a witch-- and voice his concerns with them personally. In the end, Keith decides to apologize. Replacing a Toilet The nominees are tasked with removing the existing toilet and replacing it with a new one. Darryl – Darryl starts by flushing the toilet, but without disconnecting the water supply. He does, however, manages to remove the tank and bails the water out of the bowl using a glass. Installation of the new toilet does not prove to be an issue and Darryl earns a passing grade. Merle – Merle removes the toilet without draining all the water from it, causing him to spill the remaining water all over the bathroom floor. Merle's installation also goes without any issues, although he did manage to briefly misplace two bolts and washers that were needed to hold the water in place. His work earns him a passing grade. Keith – Keith struggles with disconnecting the water and removing the toilet due to forgetting the direction in which bolts are tightened and loosened and when told by his nominator, David, it serves to confuse him further. He does eventually manage to remove and reinstall the toilet, but runs into trouble reconnecting the water lines. In the end, his tank is wobbly and the toilet does not flush properly. Barry – Barry struggles with removing the toilet due to a stubborn bolt and is forced to remove the toilet by smashing it. He also attempts to remove the flange, believing that was what he was told. In the end, his toilet flushes properly, but his work still failed because his toilet was not properly bolted down. Jeannie – Not much work was shown in Jeannie's washroom, although it was noted later that her toilet leaked because it was installed on a slight angle, which in turn prevented her from completing a later challenge. Vinyl Flooring The nominees are asked to use vinyl flooring to cover their tiled bathroom floor. Keith asks why this was not done before the toilet was replaced, as it is how it is done in new construction, to which Greg replies that the task is there to improve their overall renovating skills. Darryl – Andrew offers his assistance due to Sara's back ailment, although Sara is adamant that she help him through the challenge. However, Darryl fails to see how his vinyl flooring could fit around the toilet, so he opts to install the flooring in pieces, leaving large seams in the floor. He gives up after realizing this mistake. Merle – Merle begins on the right foot by creating a paper template, although he soon gives up and resorts to measuring the bathroom with his feet to determine the vinyl he needs. His inaccurate measurements leads to numerous patch jobs. He claims to be done just as Shelly points out that he had yet to glue his floor down. Merle almost paints himself into a corner by putting his floor pieces in the bathtub before covering his entire bathroom floor in glue. Keith – Not much work was shown in Keith's bathroom, although Keith has done more of the steps correctly. However, the end result leaves much to be desired. Barry – Barry has done this before, having done it in his own home. He begins by cutting a large piece of flooring and cutting the excess as he goes (or tucking his excess under his loose toilet). Barry claims he is finished, but Scot points out that he had yet to glue his floor down (something he did not do even at home). Jeannie – Jeannie begins by cutting a large piece of vinyl flooring in the hope of cutting the excess flooring as she goes, but her first piece is too small. Jeannie also had trouble keeping her floor dry due to the leaking toilet, but resolves to glue the floor down anyway, which would trap a layer of water under the flooring. Yardwork Challenge: Interlocking Brick After Darryl reluctantly invites the others to see his botched vinyl floor, he wants to be left alone, yet he is the foreman of the yardwork challenge, which makes his task as foreman all the more difficult. This is compounded by the fact that Barry resolves to be a pain in Darryl's face, while Merle and Jeannie resolve to blindly follow Darryl's decisions. In this challenge, the nominees must lay down a path with interlocking brick. Darryl's plan is to lay a path out from the shed door, with a flower bed and fire pit on the side. Keith gets going on the fire pit, while the rest dig a path for the brick that is mere inches deep. Because of Darryl's dislike of Jeannie, Jeannie is sent to help Keith with the fire pit. Merle is put to laying down the bricks after very little limestone pad is spread out. The bricks are put down in rows and are not interlocked (defeating the purpose of interlocking brick and create lumps in the ground because a level was not used. Worse yet, to create the impression of level, dirt is being backfilled to make the bricks level, a fact that Barry points out (by asking him what the level was for), but Darryl quickly dismisses, saying "it's too late for that." Merle eventually finishes the fire pit, which is far too shallow and surrounded by one layer of loose brick and the flower bed is quickly finished. The nominees celebrate with a fire. Tiling a Backsplash The nominees must tile the backsplash above their bathroom sink in 30 minutes. They will then have another 90 minutes to grout and paint their bathrooms, as well as finish any remaining incomplete tasks. Darryl – Darryl has had experience in tiling and grouting, having done this as part of his contestant audition. He manages to create the right mix of tiling adhesive, and tiles three courses successfully, although some distance remains between the top course and the mirror cabinet. However, with nothing to cut ceramic tile and recognizing that ceramic tiles do not cut cleanly (a fact he had learned from his earlier experience), he declares himself finished. This earned a passing grade in less than 15 minutes of work and also does the grouting correctly. Merle – Instead of tiling adhesive, Merle chooses to use construction adhesive to adhere the tiles to the wall and then putting the tiles on without measuring or leaving any gap for grout. To fill up the partial tile distance, Merle chooses to smash tiles to make them fit. Because there is no room for grout, Merle fails this challenge. When painting the bathroom, Merle resolves to be as neat as possible, taping his edges and wrapping himself in plastic. Keith – Keith chooses to be "artistic" in his tiling and uses excessive buttering to place three tiles on top of each other on the left side, right side and over the middle of the sink, creating a gap of up to six centimetres between his columns. Keith also smashes the tiles to fill the gap between his three "columns," but the smashed tiles cover very little of this gap. Because of this and the fact that his grout had the consistency of soup, Keith fails this challenge. Barry – Barry also tiles successfully (albeit using a small putty knife instead of a trowel to apply the adhesive), but smashes the tiles to fill the gap between the mirror cabinet and the top row of full tiles. Due to an acceptable coverage of the area, his work receives a passing grade. Jeannie – Jeannie, having not read the instructions on mixing the tiling adhesive, is making a mess while tiling. Jeannie fails the challenge after running out of time. After finishing the tiling in the extra time, she uses a stick instead of a grout float in order to push the grout between the tiles. Episode 3: Some Assembly Required Original Airdate: March 27, 2006 This episode focuses on installations in the bedroom. Although everyone made noticeable progress in rehabilitation, Keith was named the episode's most improved handyman due to finally admitting he needed help, while Jeannie was named the worst because of her lack of skills and refusal to ask for help. It takes Jeannie 46 tries just to put a single nail to the side of the shed and her extra lesson was more practice in the use of a power drill. Building a Shelf The nominees are given pine boards, glue and screws to build and mount three shelves onto a concrete wall in one hour. As a final test, all of the shelves are tested to see if they hold a certain amount of weight. Darryl – Darryl is shown meticulously planning the shelves and cutting the pieces of wood to his precise specifications. Despite his meticulous planning, though, he manages to complete only one shelf and even then, it did not even hold its weight. Merle – Merle eyeballs the angles he needs, using a mitre box as a sawhorse. His design has the three shelves as a single unit, unlike the others who had three separate shelves. Because of the concrete walls, he is unable to mount his shelf unit to the wall and is forced to mount it in a corner of his room. Although his shelf unit is unlevel (having measured by eye), it does manage to hold the weight of the items placed there. Keith – Keith is not confident of his skill in using a power drill, believing that he could hurt himself from screws flying everywhere if he operated the drill too fast. Andrew is forced to show him how to operate the drill at various speeds. Keith is also shown to have attempted to bore a hole while his wood is on the floor, damaging the floor below. At the end of the hour, Keith has two shelves up on the wall, with the third only half up (in his words, he needed an extra 30 seconds to screw one last screw into the wall to hold the third shelf in place). After being given the extra time to put the last shelf in place, only that last shelf could not hold the weight of the items placed there. Barry – Barry used the drill in an unsafe manner by holding the pieces of wood on his leg while screwing into them. Barry manages to finish one small shelf in an hour, which holds its weight. Jeannie – In making the shelves, Jeannie used a mitre saw and a coping saw in an attempt to cut thick boards. She also inserts the screw into her power drill chuck instead of a screwdriver bit in an attempt to screw two pieces of wood together. In the end, Jeannie manages to only mount one shelf, which held the weight of the items placed there, despite her feelings that it wouldn't. Laminate Flooring After being given a brief lesson on using a drill by Greg after seeing abysmal drilling techniques in the morning challenge, the nominees are given another lesson on using a jigsaw for their next challenge-- to lay down tongue-and-groove laminate flooring in their bedroom... or rather, the nominees will direct their nominators on how to lay down laminate flooring. This is a test of whether contestants can understand the instructions (given with the flooring) and give them out correctly, as well as their planning skills. At the end of the challenge, none of the contestants manage to finish the flooring, even with helping their nominators. Darryl – Darryl had trouble understanding the pictorial instructions, which makes Sara lay the flooring down in nonstaggered blocks instead of staggered courses, leaving a large gap between the wood in later courses. Merle – Merle is quick to "break the rules" by helping Shelly lay out duct tape to tape the foam underlay together. He also directs Shelly to lay the floor nonstaggered, although he is convinced by Shelly to stagger their joints. Merle also convinces Shelly to use the jigsaw instead of a crosscut saw to cut the boards, which Shelly does not agree to but later acquiesces. Keith – Keith directing David had no major issues when the floor was half complete, except that their floorboards were in the wrong direction. Although they do discover this error later on, both he and David agree that it was too late to redo. Barry – One of Barry's errors was to cut the boards face-up, which would ruin the appearance of the boards. Not much else was shown on Barry's work. Jeannie – In attempting to cut a board, she installs the blade on her jigsaw backwards on one occasion. However, she is the only contestant to install her floorboard in the correct orientation. Yardwork Challenge: Painting the Shed As the most improved handyman in the previous episode, Merle is tasked to lead the nominees into painting the shed with a design of his own choosing. Although Merle is up to the challenge of leadership, Darryl had plans to sabotage it to knock him down a notch. To do so, he tries to sabotage the work that Merle allotted to Jeannie (who Darryl greatly dislikes), while Merle himself was addressing the queries by the others. Merle still had other issues to deal with, as both Keith and Darryl refused to work and Merle himself was not painting as he was trying to help Jeannie. When time runs out, Merle admits that the challenge itself was a failure, with many spots left unpainted, but through no fault of his own. Building a Chair Robin teaches the nominees on building a straight-back chair, centering about three points: "Form, Function and Construction." Darryl – Darryl is clueless as to how to proceed building given the raw materials. He also uses a mitre saw, a coping saw and a hack saw to cut his thick boards, while the right saw, a crosscut saw, is hanging on the wall behind him. Despite this, he manages to finish a small chair that holds Andrew's weight. Merle – Merle quickly builds a small table to act as the base of a chair. After bracing his mini-table at Shelly's insistence, Merle decides to use a tape measure instead of body parts for measurement (in this case, Shelly's back), a first for him in the series. Merle finishes a chair with a short back large enough to seat two persons, which manages to hold both his and Andrew's weight. Keith – Keith knows exactly the design he wants, a "presbyterian chair" modeled after a church pew. However, his chair, consisting of three boards screwed together with minimal bracing, promptly falls apart. After adding minor reinforcements, his chair is completed. Barry – Barry's strategy is to quickly build something that looks like a chair and add strength later. His "do it by feel" design leads to his chairs being crooked. He later admits that no glue was used in the chair's construction, which made Greg react that his chair was better suited for a plant stand. Despite this, Barry's chair does manage to hold Andrew's weight. Jeannie – Jeannie uses a folding chair as a prototype for her straight-back chair, which Andrew claims is a mistake, as folding chairs are much more complicated than the chairs they were to build. Jeannie also decides not to ask for her nominator Laurence's help, working alone in silence. She quickly asks for Laurence's help as time runs out, but it takes her an extra 15 minutes to complete her chair... and even then, her chair falls apart from Andrew's weight. Assembling the Bed The nominees were to assemble a pre-fabricated bed and end table combination from IKEA, after which a quick evaluation of each contestant's bedroom was performed. Darryl – Darryl decides to work backwards and proceeds to assemble the bed without reading the instructions, while Sara is handling the end table. Darryl manages to build a bed, but only briefly before it falls apart. The couple decides to abandon assembling the bed and work together on the end table, but could not finish it in time. Merle – Merle and Shelly decide to work together in assembling both pieces. Although he is forced to use duct tape to repair wood that had been split through hammering parts into place, he manages to finish both pieces in time. He also manages to cut his hand in the process of repairing the wood with duct tape, for which he quickly bandages with more duct tape. Keith – Keith starts quickly on the right foot, by checking his parts list and following the instruction. However, frustration kicks in when his partially completed bed falls apart and the continued frustration brings him to the boiling point. In the end, Keith finishes with neither. Barry – No footage of Barry was shown, although Barry finished the bed but not the end table. Jeannie – Jeannie is once again off to a slow start due to refusing help from Laurence until the last moments. Despite this, she manages to finish the end table. Episode 4: Counter Revolution: The Switcheroo Original Airdate: April 3, 2006 This episode focuses on kitchen renovations. For each individual challenge in this episode, the nominees were paired with other nominators. In an interesting twist, Andrew named David the episode's most improved for assisting Darryl, Barry and Merle in completing their respective tasks, while Keith himself was named the worst, largely due to his lack of leadership in the Fencing Challenge and the fact that he had completed only one of the 19 challenges so far, building the presbyterian chair in the previous episode that led to him being named the most improved. His extra work consists of building a smaller-scale fence from popsicle sticks. The Kitchen Sink The nominees must remove the existing sink and countertop and replace it with a new sink and countertop, including disconnecting and reconnecting the plumbing, all in two hours. This is indeed the hardest challenge to date, involving many skills from previous episodes. Darryl – Darryl is paired with David, who had been annoyed with his seemingly rude behavior, particularly toward Jeannie, in previous episodes. However, the two work very well together due to Darryl believing that David is more helpful in this challenge than Sara in the previous ones. The two together finish every step correctly in 90 minutes with the challenge's only passing grade and proceed to help the other nominees together in their spare time. Merle – Merle's speed annoys Sara as she helps him through the process: after disconnecting the sink, the countertop and the sink were removed together and some of the counter's framing remain attached to the countertop after it was removed, forcing Merle to reassemble the kitchen counter itself before attempting to attach the new countertop. In the plumbing portion, Merle insists on eyeballing the lengths of the pipes needed to connect his sink. Unfortunately for him, his cuts were too short and knowing Merle would try to use duct tape, his go-to quick-fix remedy, in the challenge, the crew had intentionally removed every single strip from the premises. However, he does manage to find plumber's putty, which he uses to seal the numerous joins in his plumbing. Although Merle's "patch-up" plumbing initially holds water, it is given a failing grade as the putty merely serves to make the water leak slowly over time. Keith – Keith, paired with Shelly, begins by smashing his faucets apart using a crowbar. After a while, it became apparent that although working together, Shelly was the one doing most, if not all, of the gruntwork. Keith, however, is enjoying the experience, especially when handling power tools. However, when time runs out, he hadn't even started on the plumbing. Barry – Barry was initially disappointed that Laurence would be assisting him. When disconnecting the sink, Barry opts to smash the sink's tiedowns. After removing and replacing the countertop, Barry elects to cut the hole for the sink freehand instead of using the provided cardboard outline and it takes him numerous times to get the hole just right. He also attempts to drill the holes for the faucets with the drill in reverse with an incorrectly sized drill bit, with the intention of widening the hole using the jigsaw. Although given suggestions by Keith and Darryl on how to connect the sink, Barry concedes that between him and Laurence, it was "the blind leading the blind." Unsurprisingly, Barry fails this challenge due to his pipes leaking at the trap. Jeannie – Although Jeannie has her own ideas, Scot decides to take charge (due to Jeannie's plans, which included removing the countertop with a utility knife, making no sense) and let Jeannie (who is told repeatedly by Scot to "think the next step ahead") find the tools he needs to doing it correctly. This resulted in Scot, like Shelly, doing most, if not all, of the gruntwork, such as using the jigsaw to cut the hole in the new countertop for the new sink, while Jeannie appeared lost (which is nothing new). Jeannie and Scot do not finish in time. Vinyl Tiles The nominees have to tile their kitchen floor with stick-on vinyl tiles in a diagonal checkerboard pattern. The main skill is to determine a center point in the room and working their way out. Because of inconsistent joins and rough edgework across the board, all of the contestants fail in this challenge. Darryl – Darryl and Shelly get frustrated in the process of finding a center point to begin their tiling, although they do manage to begin. When Sara visits after being bored with Barry, she helps Darryl's edgework by forcing the tiles in place. Merle – Merle and Scot begins by simply adhereing the tiles ad-hoc without any measurement and he forces the edge tiles to fit the space needed. Keith – Keith, paired with Laurence, simply guesses where the center of his kitchen is instead of using chalk lines. Keith's edgework also ends far away from the actual edge. Barry – Sara and Barry go at quite the pace, which bores Sara. Shelly switches with Sara and Barry and Shelly quickly finish up the edgework correctly, using the tile's paper backing to create a template for the partial tiles. Jeannie – Jeannie and David proceed well together, but upon doing the edgework, Jeannie is confused by the geometry and repeatedly cuts the tiles so that the portion she needs is upside-down. Wallpapering The nominees have to apply wallpaper to a wall in their apartment. Four of the five nominees will be given regular wallpaper, but the fifth will have custom-made wallpaper with a pattern consisting of Andrew's facial expressions. Darryl – Darryl begins by applying adhesive to the wall instead of the wallpaper. Darryl and Scot, though, notice that after two pieces were applied, their wallpaper is upside-down. After getting it right-side up, though, his seams no longer match up and to do that would leave the second piece short. Pressed to move forward, Darryl and Scot overlap the next few pieces of wallpaper, something that they were told not to do. Darryl and Scot make the reluctant decision to tear the wallpaper down and start over. Still, he manages to fail to match the pattern up on his third try. Completely frustrated and finding Scot useless, Darryl gives up on the challenge. Merle – Merle is convinced by Laurence to begin by applying the adhesive to the wallpaper instead of the wall. The two finish in an hour, although minor seam inconsistency forces Laurence to admit that it was not his best work. Keith – Keith and Sara quickly get moving, only to start over when Andrew noticed that he began wallpapering in the middle of the wall and not the corner of the wall, with the wallpaper upside-down. In the end, his wallpaper is crooked, upside-down, overlapping and incomplete. Barry – Barry and David are doing well, which is not a surprise, given that anyone paired with David had been doing well (except for Jeannie). Barry and Keith (whose wallpaper had no pattern between the seams) finish in 50 minutes. Jeannie – Jeannie and Shelly begin the challenge by sanding the wall to which the wallpaper will be applied, which would take quite some time given the concrete walls. When they finally decide to stop, Jeannie discovers that she was given the wallpaper with Andrew's face all over it. Jeannie measures exactly the length she needs, but is unable to match up her seams. Worse yet is that she did her cutting over her newly placed vinyl floor. Jeannie is not finished by the time the other contestants visit her, although she had been doing the wallpapering correctly up to that point. Yardwork Challenge: Fencing Keith leads the team into building a picket fence and planting a small flower bed. He does so by first using interpretive dance, but has no plan of attack. When Jeannie offers her thoughts, Keith sends her to do the most backbreaking task: mixing the concrete for the fenceposts, while everyone else digs holes for the fenceposts at random spots without measurements and not very deep at that. This stresses Barry, Darryl and Merle, who all notice that the fence is neither straight nor level. For his part, Keith does not budge and everyone quickly becomes frustrated by Keith's lack of leadership, believing that it stifles whatever opportunity they have to improve. Keith himself is doing none of the hard work himself, despite his drive to learn. While the rest quickly get the idea of how to do it correctly (for example, putting the pickets up from one end to the other), Keith continues to get everyone to do things in his artistic manner incorrectly (his rationale for not putting the pickets up correctly: a "quantum physics" phoenomena where the pickets themselves would "establish their own order" if they were to be placed randomly). Due to the lack of leadership, Barry has taken a seat, while Merle has disappeared, taking a nap in the shed and when Andrew notices this, Merle begs him to mercifully end the challenge. Hanging a Door The nominees are to hang a door that leads into their kitchen. Merle is especially motivated in this challenge, having wanted to hang nine new doors in his house but having never gotten around to it in nine years. Darryl – Despite Laurence's assistance, Darryl is baffled by how the door is supposed to be hung: he is confused over the direction in which the door is supposed to swing, which causes him to repeatedly change the direction in which his header and one of the jambs are installed. Once again, Darryl gives up on the challenge out of frustration. Merle – Determined to see Merle succeed, David is partnered with him for the challenge. Merle starts off in the right foot, cutting the header and one of the jambs. Unfortunately, he cuts the wrong end of his other jamb so that the strike plate no longer meets the doorknob hole. Merle's solution of hanging the door so that the door swings in the opposite direction does not help. Merle later accepts David's idea of cutting the end of the jamb that he had mistakenly cut by the same amount that he had cut from the other end and putting the two pieces together to form the new jamb so that the doorknob and strike plate meet. Merle celebrates his mostly correct installation by slamming it shut repeatedly. Keith – Keith and Scot are paired together for this challenge. However, Scot quickly gets frustrated when Keith takes four minutes to put his jamb in because it takes Keith "48 attempts" to drive a nail into place. When finally done, Keith's door does not close all the way. Barry – Barry, paired with Shelly, cut his door too short, but manages to hang his door level. However, it doesn't reopen from the outside, locking Greg and Robin out when it comes to their final inspection. Jeannie – Jeannie, paired with Sara, cuts the door and doorjamb correctly, but screws the hinges on the wrong side, leading to both believing that the door is being put in upside-down. The resulting door is one that opens but doesn't shut. In the end, Jeannie cuts the door so that it is too narrow for the space provided. Episode 5: Six Degrees of Renovation Original Airdate: April 10, 2006 Despite his significant improvements in rehab, Merle, who only avoided being named the worst in the previous episode due to Keith's poor track record in rehab, was named the worst for his ignorance of safety after accidentally cutting himself with a utility knife. As he hangs his head in shame, another duct tape joke (which had been persistent throughout the episode) is cracked at his expense, this time by Jeannie. As Merle attaches his picture on the wall of shame, his prompted to add a dab of paint to his picture to denote where he had cut himself. His extra lesson is a long lecture about what is safe and what isn't when it comes to cutting, of all else, duct tape. The episode begins with Merle showing up early and completely disassembling his duct tape-patched drywall from the first episode, due to his inability to sand and apply a second coat of plaster (which was done during the events of an earlier episode). At first, he opted to chisel off the plaster (instead of sanding) and sealing off the second coat with newspaper, but the ceiling had apparently haunted him enough to do the drywall path over again. This time around, Merle does the drywall patching correctly, complete with a shim for support, all without duct tape, which he vowed to avoid for the remainder of the day. As the rest of the contestants file in, they are told to do a final coat of plaster on their drywall patches. Upholstering The first challenge of the episode has the contestants upholstering a chair, either the chair they had built in the third episode or a bar stool provided from the supplies. As an effort suggested by Dr. Hill to test Merle's will to keep his word and avoid duct tape, Robin (teaching the contestants the skills needed) specifically allows the nominees to use duct tape to upholster their chairs and provides a large number of rolls. Merle quickly caves (while the others, especially Keith, aware that the stipulation was a joke at Merle's expense, refuse) and begins the challenge with duct tape. Darryl – Darryl had minor problems with his stapler. However, when reassembling the stool, some of the screws were still loose. Merle – Merle chooses to upholster his chair with duct tape (while the rest use fabric), believing that it will get his job done faster (it certainly doesn't get the job done safer). He is also the only one to use a utility knife to cut his duct tape, while the rest use scissors to cut their fabric. When Andrew insists that duct tape is not meant for upholstering, Merle does not budge, having already completed half his chair with duct tape. However, Merle is forced to stop altogether when he cuts himself using the utility knife, which he used with the blade pointing towards himself. Despite his insistence that his chair is done and it is just a flesh wound, Andrew forces Shelly to take Merle to St. Michael's Hospital (Toronto), where he spends six hours getting five stitches. Keith – Keith makes the mistake of doing his work without laying out craft paper (or some other drop cloth) to avoid contact between his new fabric and the dirty floor. His reassembly also had issues. Barry – No footage was shown of Barry's work, although it was implied that his reassembly left the bar stool with loose legs. Jeannie – Jeannie chooses the bar stool to reupholster, but also chooses to discard the old fabric instead of using it as a template for a new one, opting instead to guess at the fabric's dimensions. The stool was rendered unusable, as the legs could not be reattached. Yardwork Challenge: Arbours In this episode's yardwork challenge, led by David, the remaining nominees build an arbour for the shed, as well as assemble a barbecue. David begins the challenge on the right foot, consulting the rest of his team on what an arbour is (explained to him by Jeannie) and how to build it. To dig the holes for the footings, an auger is used, which Barry and Darryl (the prime candidates, according to David) operate. Jeannie is put to mixing concrete, Keith assembling the barbecue, while David himself cuts the cross beams. Things go along swimmingly until Barry and Darryl are both sent flying from operating the auger too fast. Eventually, the holes are dug and everyone (except Keith) works together into installing and levelling the posts and crossbeams. The yardwork challenge (save Keith's barbecue) is somehow a resounding success, although the nominees are somewhat disappointed that Merle (still at St. Michael's Hospital) did not participate. The only resounding failure in this project is how bad all the other yardwork challenges look in comparison. Stippling The four remaining nominees are tasked to apply stipple onto their ceiling. Darryl – Darryl, having made the necessary precautions, is doing the job correctly... that is, until Sara pressures him to do otherwise. Although Andrew is sent by the producers to correct Sara, he is caught up by Merle returning from St. Michael's Hospital and Sara pressures Darryl into accepting that her way (applying stippling in both directions) is correct. Merle – As Andrew is sent by the producers to referee Darryl and Sara, Merle returns from St. Michael's Hospital in the middle of the challenge and begins his in earnest, although he is reminded by Andrew to put on his "custom-made" dropcloth that he had from Episode 2. When word gets around to Merle having returned, the other nominees go out of their way to help Merle finish his ceiling. Keith – Keith does not cover himself with plastic and rolls the stipple back and forth, resulting in getting stipple all over himself. Barry – Barry begins by not covering the room with plastic to avoid getting stipple all over the room and does not follow the instructions that state to roll the stipple in only one direction. Jeannie – No footage of Jeannie stippling her ceiling is shown. Ceiling Fan The nominees are to install a ceiling fan in two hours, which disturbs Barry, having been involved in a near-fatal electrical accident back at home while fixing his dryer. The nominees are also told that the circuit breakers controlling the fluorescent tube lighting that they will be replacing with the fan has been turned off, unaware that Andrew lied to them. No one catches this and the challenge begins on a bad note as both Greg and Andrew are forced to lecture the contestants about safety. Darryl – In the process of disassembling his fan, Darryl breaks apart his green ground wire, putting him in trouble. Although his lights and fan work, the lack of a ground wire causes him to get a failing grade. Merle – Although told to connect wires of the same color, Merle connects the black ones to the white ones, which Shelly catches. Unsure and not trusting his instructions, Merle calls his uncle back home. He eventually gets things right and gets a passing grade after 90 minutes of work. Keith – Little footage is shown of Keith's installation, although it works perfectly. Barry – Barry tests his wiring by attaching a lightbulb and one of the fan blades, then throwing the breaker back on, which led to Scot promptly telling him to turn it back off. He eventually gets the light and fan working perfectly. Jeannie – Jeannie uses duct tape to secure her bracket in place as a temporary measure, but in an attempt to screw the bracket to the ceiling, she makes the mistake of putting her drill on in reverse. But in the end, she gets her first passing grade. Hanging Mirrors The nominees are to install four IKEA KRABB mirrors on a wall, in any configuration they choose. Darryl – The ongoing arguments between Darryl and Sara persist throughout the challenge, which Andrew sees as adversely affecting Darryl's performance. Dr. Hill suggests that Sara should tackle a challenge alone if this persistent negative behaviour continues. Sara finishes the challenge without Darryl's help, but no footage of Sara's work was shown. Merle – Merle is shown levelling his mirrors as he is installing them, which, to this point, he has eyeballed. Despite his newfound meticulousness, he only manages to finish three mirrors. Keith – No footage is shown of Keith's work, but he finishes hanging all four mirrors after 75 minutes; however, he uses an extra screw to keep the mirrors in place. Barry – No footage is shown of Barry's work, but he gives up after hanging three mirrors. Jeannie – Jeannie initially misinterprets the pictorial instructions of marking the wall with a pencil with nailing the hanging bracket in place with pencils as nails. She does, however, finish two mirrors. Screwing a Hook The final challenge for the nominees is to hang a hook from their patched ceiling so that a plant can be supported on it, then spend the rest of the afternoon redoing and/or completing whatever previous tasks were unfinished (including decorating their apartment) for their final apartment inspections. Darryl – After attaching his hook, Darryl focuses on getting his newly redesigned shelves into place. Darryl's ceiling patch is the only one to fail to hold the weight of the plant. Merle – Not wanting to be named the worst after cutting himself during the Upholstery Challenge, Merle is determined to get this right. After attaching the hook, Merle proceeds to tear down and redo his leaky plumbing (during this time, the fourth mirror was also shown completed). Despite his incomplete plaster job (necessitated from having to redo his patch), the hook holds the weight of the plant. Keith – No footage of Keith's work is shown, although Keith's hook does hold the weight of the plant. Barry – Barry's mural has been completely redone, with a blue coat covering the bottom half of his wall. His hook holds the weight of the plant. Jeannie – Instead of trying to finish her challenges, Jeannie tries to hide all her incomplete work. Her hook holds the weight of the plant. In the end, of the 19 individual challenges, Jeannie finishes the fewest with only three completed, while Keith and Barry complete four. Darryl has finished five challenges, while Merle has the most with eight. Episode 6: Curtain Call Original Airdate: April 17, 2006 In the final episode, the nominees gear up for their final exam, where they have to work together to renovate a one-bedroom apartment (not unlike their own apartments) within ten hours. The tasks that must be done include the following: Tiling the bathroom wall Replacing a bathroom sink Replacing kitchen cabinets Installing vinyl tile on the kitchen floor Installing glass block in a pre-cut port between the kitchen and living room Drywalling the bedroom ceiling, which has already had strapping installed, including taping and plastering Wallpapering a single bedroom wall Building a television cabinet out of pine board Installing hardwood flooring in the living room using an adhesive (used as it is a concrete floor) The nominees may also choose to ask for assistance from Greg or Robin only once each during this challenge, for which the experts will spend an hour assisting them in whatever tasks are necessary. However, the nominators will not be helping their nominees, instead, they enjoy the action from a separate room, where their only task was to "assemble two futons." Jeannie begins the challenge by suggesting that a foreman be nominated (akin to how a foreman was nominated in all but the Shingling yardwork challenge), a motion supported by Keith, but immediately shot down by Merle as Jeannie is about to ask Andrew to be the foreman. The nominees begin on their separate tasks: Merle going to do the bathroom sink, Darryl to the kitchen cabinets, Barry and Jeannie to the hardwood flooring and Keith to the TV unit-- a disastrous start, as Andrew notes, as all of them had failed challenges relating to the tasks they would have to do (Merle with the kitchen sink, Darryl with his bed assembly and hanging doors, Barry and Jeannie with three floors and Keith with the shelves and his initial failure with his chair). Greg also believes it's a bad start, as the nominees are starting from the floor and working their way up ("Things fall down," as Robin notes, to explain Greg's rationale that the drywall should be first). Robin later on also voices her opinion on Keith's choice of doing the furniture first ("You don't put the furniture in the room before you build the room"). In the bathroom, Merle begins by ripping out the sink, exposing a hole in the drywall and attempts to mount the new pedestal sink into the old sink bracket. It works, but the pedestal is too short. Reading the mounting instructions only confused him further. After cutting one board, Keith takes a break and tries to use that break to assist Merle, but quits after reading the instructions. Needing help in trying to get the pedestal to meet the sink, Merle solicits Jeannie's help. Jeannie's advice to lower the sink elicits a round of applause from the nominators' room ("the voice of reason," as David notes). Merle would eventually manage to remove the old bracket, put the pedestal in place and balance the new sink on top of it, before measuring and installing the new brackets into place. However, Merle later found out he had measured incorrectly and the pedestal remains 2 1/2" too short. Merle then attempts to secure the pedestal in place but realizes that he does not have the drill bit needed to drill into the concrete floor. Keith's assistance proves to be useless, as his belief that it is a problem with the drill settings and not the drill bit causes the existing drill bit to break. Completely frustrated with the sink, Merle decides to solicit advice from Barry on whether to just simply take the sink down and tile the bathroom first (which is the correct procedure), to which Barry replies in the affirmative. Barry begins his flooring by applying adhesive on the floor using a small putty knife instead of a large notched trowel, which, as Scot mentions, would take him too much time to complete. Furthermore, Barry decides to kick the first course of flooring into place. As Barry and Jeannie lay their tongue-in-groove floor down in courses (which is correct), they are still using very little glue, which Jeannie thinks (despite the massive supply) that they are being liberal with. As they move along, they use even less glue. In the next room, Darryl has managed to successfully take down the existing cabinets and is trying to assemble new ones. Meanwhile, all Keith has done in his first 90 minutes with the furniture is to make two cuts on a pine board and take three breaks. At the lunchtime mark (two hours into the challenge), not a single task is completed, nor has any sort of rhythm been worked out. Barry suggests that the calls to Greg and Robin not be made until the final hours when more manpower is needed instead of earlier when a plan on completion can be devised. Keith also expresses his intention to work with Darryl on the cabinets, which, as Andrew notes, is news to Darryl, who took an early lunch so that he could work alone in silence, believing that the others were holding him back. 15 minutes later, Darryl sends Keith on a wild goose chase trying to look for screws. As the rest return to work, Barry has taken on the role of leader, laying out their plan to call Robin and Greg in with very little time remaining. Barry and Jeannie continue to work on the floor slowly-- at their pace, as Andrew notes, the floor itself would be a 15-hour job. Keith continues to assist Darryl in mounting the assembled cabinets to the walls (although one fails to mount due to mismeasurement), while Merle is tiling the bathroom wall, correctly this time around (compared to his bathroom challenge in Episode 2). For a brief moment, everyone seemed to be working at the same time... that is, until Keith uses his eighth break of the day to explain Merle's progress to the others and Jeannie manages to get a splinter in her finger while installing the floor (somewhat vindicating Merle as the deep gash he suffered when he cut himself during the previous episode's Upholstery Challenge, which led to Shelly taking him to St. Michael's Hospital to get five stitches and him being named the worst, no longer constituted the rehab centre's only injury). At the 3 1/2 hour mark, the crew has moved the shed from the front yard to the roof in preparation for the finale. At that point, still no tasks have been completed. Keith and Darryl have mounted the last of the three cabinets and are preparing to hang the six cabinet doors. However, faced with the difficulty of hanging the doors, Keith walks off. Darryl also gives up on the cabinet doors to tackle the glass blocks (it is revealed here that the contestants had also attempted a glass block challenge earlier, although no mention of the challenge itself had aired in previous episodes and that Darryl had performed poorly). Unable to form a plan on the glass block, Darryl returns to the cabinet doors. He manages to hang two, but they do not close together. At the same time, Merle, still in the bathroom, decides to go back to the plumbing as the tiling lay there incomplete, yet the pedestal has not been secured in place, forcing Merle to believe that the sink is drooping is because of an improper bracket installation. He screws a pine board into the wall in an attempt to fix this and gets the help of Keith to handle securing the pedestal and hooking up the pipes while Merle gets the sink in position. Meanwhile, Barry and Jeannie continue their work on the floor, still using very little glue and still taking three times longer than it should. After five hours of work (the halfway mark), no tasks have been completed and Jeannie is believing that everyone's on the right track (even though none of the bedroom tasks have started; as Barry notes, Jeannie's claim that everyone was halfway through was "irrelevant"). Keith and Darryl, still not having adjusted the doors, have moved on to Keith's original task of building the furniture. However, Keith's TV stand (consisting of three boards screwed to each other at this point) had the same structural integrity as the Presbyterian Chair Keith made in Episode 3 that led to him being named the most improved. Keith and Darryl expand upon that structure, although they do little to improve the piece's structural integrity. However, they can now claim that one task is complete. Merle contributes his share of the work when his plumbing is complete and his sink is tested and shown not to leak. The simple parts of his tiling is also complete, although he refuses to attempt the difficult areas (where cut tiles are necessary). This means that with 4 1/2 hours to go (just over the halfway mark), only three tasks are completed. As Keith takes his 15th break of the day, Merle begins to work on the glass block by first constructing a window frame for the port, while Barry and Jeannie continue to lay down hardwood with slothlike intensity. Darryl, in the meantime, has gotten all six doors mounted but is making a fourth attempt at making them all balanced and close together. When Keith wants to partner with Darryl again, Darryl advises him to start the wallpaper, a bad decision considering that the drywall must be done first and that Keith had failed miserably in his drywall challenge in Episode 4. Keith starts incorrectly again as he chooses to start wallpapering next to the door frame in the middle of the wall. Andrew convinces Keith that the wallpapering is incorrect, which only makes him take his 17th break of the day. As Andrew is trying to press Keith back to work, he learns that Keith has made a wager with Rob MacDonald, the show's own lighting technician, with McDonald betting ten dollars that the wallpapering would not be finished before time ran out. Andrew also accepts the bet (surprising Merle, who had also taken a break and was in on the conversation), believing that he's in for an easy $10 (he's later proven right when Keith ultimately gives up with a half-hour remaining). When Keith returns, he begins in the corner without taking down his first piece. His next piece isn't lined up at the seam, nor is his piece cut to get around the door frame. Because the wallpaper was started before the drywall, the strapping for the drywall is in the way and Keith is attempting to address this by removing the strapping, which he gives up after about a minute. His alternative method of working around the strapping is far worse, as it leaves a gap between the strips of wallpaper. Andrew convinces him that the wallpaper should be taken down and the drywall be attempted first. Meanwhile, Merle has completed the frame for the glass block window. Without the frame, the port is designed to hold five blocks per row with a reasonable gap. However, with the frame in place, only four blocks can be accommodated per row, resulting in leftover blocks. To address this, Merle accepts Barry's suggestion of making the space between the blocks wider, claiming that the frame space at the Grand Hotel, where the nominees are staying during rehab, is wide. Merle, Darryl and Keith mix the adhesive (or rather, Darryl and Keith watch as Merle does the mixing). Merle makes the perfect mix, but Darryl's laying of the adhesive between the blocks pushes the mortar underneath each block out of line. Merle is also assisting Darryl by using his finger as both a spacer and a trowel. Barry also notices that the blocks are being installed on a slight slant instead of being level. Realizing that the project has become a disaster, he relinquishes all responsibility to Darryl and goes to work on the drywall with Keith, who, at this point, has taken his 21st break of the day. Barry and Jeannie have finally finished their hardwood floor after seven hours of work, although their floor is still several centimetres away from the wall. With only three hours remaining and seven tasks still not completed, the nominees finally cash in on their opportunity to seek expert help, as Robin is given the call by Jeannie. When Robin enters, she immediately suggests taking down the wallpaper and doing the drywall, which Keith is tasked to do. Robin also suggests that the kitchen floor should also get started, as the adhesive requires an hour to get sufficiently sticky so that the tiles can adhere onto the floor. Barry begins applying the adhesive (which also forces Darryl to finish the glass block from the living room side). With two hours to go, Greg is given the call by Barry. When Greg enters, he shows Merle and Keith how to use a "deadman" to prop the drywall up so that it can be screwed into place and helps them complete the drywall. Merle then gets moving on the drywalling, while Keith takes his 24th break of the day. Merle quickly reins Keith in and manages to finish their drywalling with only 40 minutes to go. Although there is a suitable time to do some plastering, Merle declares himself finished for the day. Andrew is forced to coax Merle (and Keith, who had taken yet another break) back into work after telling him that quitting early may make them earn the title of Canada's Worst Handyman. While Merle, fearing he may be named the worst two episodes in a row (which would be another kick in the butt if that happened, considering all the work he did) after having managed to avoid the title in the four episodes that preceded it (including barely avoiding the title in Episode 4), gets back to work, Keith attempts the wallpapering one more time (this time with the drywall installed), but quickly takes yet another break and gives up. At this point, Andrew is convinced that both he and Rob have each won their $10 and Keith concedes defeat in their bet. Meanwhile, Barry and Jeannie continue with their adhesive, while Darryl, having finished the glass block, goes to work on getting the cabinet doors perfect. However, Barry's strategy of adhesive laying soon gets all three into trouble, as the three are now boxed in by the adhesive, painting themselves into a corner (for which Scot and David both make mock celebratory gestures). Undeterred by this, however, Barry begins laying down the tiles even though the adhesive has not been fully laid out or anywhere near suitably sticky enough for the tiles to adhere to the floor. In fact, his application of the adhesive concurrently with the tile gets the adhesive over his new tiles not to mention the new hardwood floor and the new cupboards. In the haste to get everything finished, Darryl channels his inner Merle and quickly puts handles on the cabinet doors without checking to see if the handles were level or aligned parallel to each other. With the final exam finally finished, Greg and Robin believe that everyone is still in the running for Canada's Worst Handyman for different reasons: Darryl for the lack of planning skills, Jeannie for doing too little overall, Barry for not following directions or listening, Keith for taking far too many breaks and not doing enough work and Merle for continuously doing things too quickly. When the final exam is evaluated, of the 11 tasks assigned, the nominees completed eight of them, but only Merle's bathroom sink installation is given a passing grade. In their final deliberations, the experts agree that, although his two floors were both awful, Barry is not Canada's Worst Handyman, as he has admitted to learning by failure. Jeannie is also free to go as well because, despite injuring herself by getting a piece of wood in her finger "the size of a piece of lumber" as Andrew states, she quickly got right back into the game. Darryl's poor carpentry skills and Keith's wallpapering meant that they could still be Canada's Worst Handyman. As for Merle, knowing how to do things right and getting the skills needed to kick his duct tape addiction, his aversion to measuring and, above all else, get his daughter Cassie's bedroom finished after nine wasted years definitely makes him not Canada's Worst Handyman. As he leaves, he gives a celebratory dance. As for Darryl and Keith, they meet Andrew on the roof, where Andrew explains that neither Keith nor Darryl were handy for different reasons: Keith never bothered to play with tools and Darryl was never allowed to. Keith made the biggest mess in the final exam, while Darryl made the single biggest blunder by installing cabinet handles without checking to see if the handles were level. In the end, though, Keith is named Canada's Worst Handyman for his overall lack of focus, having taken 34 breaks during the final exam and switching projects 14 times, with none of them earning a passing grade. With Darryl managing to avoid being named Canada's Worst Handyman, he becomes the only nominee to not be named as such in a single episode. Episode 7: Best of the Worst Original Airdate: April 24, 2006 This is a recap episode, detailing the adventures of each nominee through the rehabilitation process. The Handyman Rehabilitation Centre was demolished at the end of the episode. See also Handyman Superstar Challenge References External links Discovery Channel website Canada's Worst Handyman Homewrecker game Proper Television homepage Darryl Andrews website Season 01 2006 Canadian television seasons
4792222	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANZUS	ANZUS	The Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty (ANZUS or ANZUS Treaty) is a 1951 non-binding collective security agreement initially formed as a trilateral agreement between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States; and from 1986 an agreement between New Zealand and Australia, and separately, Australia and the United States, to co-operate on military matters in the Pacific Ocean region, although today the treaty is taken to relate to conflicts worldwide. It provides that an armed attack on any of the three parties would be dangerous to the others, and that each should act to meet the common threat. It set up a committee of foreign ministers that can meet for consultation. The treaty was one of the series that the United States formed in the 1949–1955 era as part of its collective response to the threat of communism during the Cold War. New Zealand was suspended from ANZUS in 1986 as it initiated a nuclear-free zone in its territorial waters; in late 2012, New Zealand lifted a ban on visits by United States warships leading to a thawing in tensions. New Zealand maintains a nuclear-free zone as part of its foreign policy and is partially suspended from ANZUS, as the United States maintains an ambiguous policy whether or not the warships carry nuclear weapons and operates numerous nuclear-powered aircraft carriers and submarines; however New Zealand resumed key areas of the ANZUS treaty in 2007. ANZUS was overshadowed in late 2021 by AUKUS, a trilateral security partnership between Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It involves cooperation in nuclear powered submarines that New Zealand did not support. Australia and New Zealand, "are poles apart in terms of the way they see the world....I think this alliance underlines that they’re going in very different directions,” said Geoffrey Miller, an international analyst at the Democracy Project in New Zealand. Treaty structure The treaty was previously a full three-way defence pact, but was disrupted following a dispute between New Zealand and the United States in 1984 over visiting rights for ships and submarines capable of carrying nuclear arms or nuclear-powered ships of the US Navy to New Zealand ports. The treaty became between Australia and New Zealand, and between Australia and the United States. While the treaty has lapsed between the United States and New Zealand, it remains separately in force between both of those states and Australia. In 2000, the United States opened its ports to the Royal New Zealand Navy once again, and under the presidency of Bill Clinton in the US and the government of Helen Clark in New Zealand, the countries have since reestablished bilateral cooperation on defence and security. While ANZUS is commonly recognised to have split in 1984, the Australia–US alliance remains in full force. Heads of defence of one or both states often have joined the annual ministerial meetings, which are supplemented by consultations between the US Combatant Commander Pacific and the Australian Chief of Defence Force. There are also regular civilian and military consultations between the two governments at lower levels. Annual meetings to discuss ANZUS defence matters take place between the United States Secretaries of Defense and State and the Australian Ministers of Defence and Foreign Affairs are known by the acronym AUSMIN. The AUSMIN meeting for 2011 took place in San Francisco in September. The 2012 AUSMIN meeting was in Perth, Western Australia in November. Unlike the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), ANZUS has no integrated defence structure or dedicated forces. Nevertheless, Australia and the United States conduct a variety of joint activities. These include military exercises ranging from naval and landing exercises at the task-group level to battalion-level special forces training, assigning officers to each other's armed services, and standardising equipment and operational doctrine. The two countries also operate several joint-defence facilities in Australia, mainly ground stations for spy satellite, and signals intelligence espionage in Southeast and East Asia as part of the ECHELON network. During the 2010s, New Zealand and the US resumed a close relationship, although it is unclear whether the revived partnership falls under the aegis of the 1951 trilateral treaty. The Wellington Declaration of 2010 defined a "strategic partnership" between New Zealand and the US, and New Zealand joined the biennial Rim of the Pacific military exercise off Hawaii in 2012, for the first time since 1984. The US prohibition on New Zealand ships making port at US bases was lifted after the 2012 exercise. History Origins In the years following the Second World War, Australia and New Zealand began pressing the United States for a formal security guarantee. The two governments felt threatened by the possibility of a resurgent Japan and the spread of communism to their North. Additionally, the fall of Singapore in 1942 had demonstrated that their traditional protector, the United Kingdom, no longer had power in the region. This added to their sense of vulnerability. The United States was initially reluctant, offering instead an informal guarantee of protection. But the need to strengthen the West against communism grew with the communist victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949 and the 1950-1953 Korean War. Additionally, the United States wanted to gain Australian and New Zealand approval for a 'soft peace' with Japan. The treaty allayed antipodean fears that such a peace would allow Japan to threaten them again. The resulting treaty was concluded at San Francisco on 1 September 1951, and entered into force on 29 April 1952. The treaty bound the signatories to recognise that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of them would endanger the peace and safety of the others. It stated 'The Parties will consult together whenever in the opinion of any of them the territorial integrity, political independence or security of any of the Parties is threatened in the Pacific'. The three governments also pledged to maintain and develop individual and collective capabilities to resist attack. Korea, Malaysia, Borneo, Vietnam, and the War on Terror The treaty itself was not a source of debate for over 30 years, with New Zealand participating as part of the British Commonwealth Forces in the Korean War and the Malayan Emergency, followed by the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, and directly as part of ANZUS in the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War was the first conflict New Zealand entered that did not involved the British or any other Commonwealth countries outside of Australia. As an ANZUS member New Zealand contributed military and non military assistance to the United States war effort in Vietnam from 1963 until 1975. New Zealand and Australian combat forces were withdrawn in 1972 and New Zealand non-military medical aid continued until 1975. In response to the War in Afghanistan, New Zealand sent transport aircraft, maritime patrol aircraft, and frigates to the Persian Gulf, as well as a very small number of soldiers, SAS soldiers, medical and assorted and peace-keeping forces, to Afghanistan in 2001. Despite Prime Minister Helen Clark being openly critical of American justifications for the 2003 Iraq war, New Zealand did send engineer troops to Iraq following the 2003 invasion. These troops were however officially engaged in reconstruction under UN Security Council Resolution 1483 and were non-combatant. Australian reservations about the MX missile In 1983, the Reagan Administration approached Australia with proposals for testing the new generation of American intercontinental ballistic missiles, the MX missile. American test ranges in the Pacific were insufficient for testing the new long-range missiles and the United States military wished to use the Tasman Sea as a target area. Australian Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser of the Liberal Party had agreed to provide monitoring sites near Sydney for this purpose. However, in 1985, the newly elected Prime Minister Bob Hawke, of the Labor Party, withdrew Australia from the testing programme, sparking criticism from the Reagan Administration. Hawke had been pressured into doing so by the left-wing faction of the Labor Party, which opposed the proposed MX missile test in the Tasman Sea. The Labor left-wing faction also strongly sympathized with the New Zealand Fourth Labour Government's anti-nuclear policy and supported a South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone. To preserve its joint Australian-US military communications facilities, the Reagan Administration also had to assure the Hawke Government that those installations would not be used in the Strategic Defense Initiative project, which the Australian Labor Party strongly opposed. Despite these disagreements, the Hawke Labor Government still remained supportive of the ANZUS security treaty. It also did not support its New Zealand counterpart's ban on nuclear-armed and nuclear-powered ships. Following the ANZUS Split in February 1985, the Australian government also endorsed the Reagan Administration's plans to cancel trilateral military exercises and to postpone the ANZUS foreign ministers conference. However, it still continued to maintain bilateral military ties and continued to share intelligence information with New Zealand. Unlike New Zealand, Australia continued to allow US warships to visit its ports and to participate in joint military exercises with the United States. New Zealand bans nuclear material In 1985, the nature of the ANZUS alliance changed significantly. Due to a current of anti-nuclear sentiment within New Zealand, tension had long been present between ANZUS members as the United States is a declared nuclear power. France, a naval power and a declared nuclear power, had been conducting nuclear tests on South Pacific Islands. Following the victory of the New Zealand Labour Party in election in 1984, Prime Minister David Lange barred nuclear-powered or nuclear-armed ships from using New Zealand ports or entering New Zealand waters. Reasons given were the dangers of nuclear weapons, continued French nuclear testing in the South Pacific, and opposition to US President Ronald Reagan's policy of aggressively confronting the Soviet Union. Given that the United States Navy had a policy of deliberate ambiguity during the Cold War and refused to confirm or deny the presence of nuclear weapons aboard its warships and support ships, these laws essentially refused access to New Zealand ports for all United States Navy vessels. In February 1985, a port-visit request by the United States for the guided-missile destroyer USS Buchanan was refused by New Zealand, as the Buchanan was capable of launching RUR-5 ASROC nuclear depth bombs. As this occurred after the government unofficially invited the United States to send a ship, the refusal of access was interpreted by the United States as a deliberate slight. According to opinion polls taken before the 1984 election, only 30 per cent of New Zealanders supported visits by US warships with a clear majority of 58 per cent opposed, and over 66 per cent of the population lived in locally declared nuclear-free zones. An opinion poll commissioned by the 1986 Defence Committee of Enquiry confirmed that 92 per cent now opposed nuclear weapons in New Zealand and 69 per cent opposed warship visits; 92 per cent wanted New Zealand to promote nuclear disarmament through the UN, while 88 per cent supported the promotion of nuclear-free zones. However other polls indicated that the majority of the population would support visits by American warships which might be nuclear armed or powered, if the alternative was that New Zealand would have to withdraw from ANZUS. United States suspends obligations to New Zealand After consultations with Australia and after negotiations with New Zealand broke down, the United States announced that it was suspending its treaty obligations to New Zealand until United States Navy ships were re-admitted to New Zealand ports, citing that New Zealand was "a friend, but not an ally". The crisis made front-page headlines for weeks in many American newspapers. David Lange did not withdraw New Zealand from ANZUS, although his government's policy led to the US's decision to suspend its treaty obligations to New Zealand. An opinion poll in New Zealand in 1991, showed 54% of those sampled preferred to let the treaty lapse rather than accept visits again by nuclear-armed or nuclear-powered vessels. The policy did not become law until 8 June 1987 with the passing of the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987, more than two years after the Buchanan was refused entry after the US refused to declare the presence or absence of nuclear weapons, and a year after the US suspended its treaty obligations to New Zealand. This law effectively made the entire country a nuclear-free zone. Despite the ANZUS split, US Secretary of State George P. Shultz maintained that the ANZUS structure was still in place, should NZ decide in the future to reverse its anti-nuclear policy and return to a fully operational defence relationship with the US. President Reagan also maintained in NSDD 193 (National Security Decision Directive) that New Zealand still remained a "friend, but not an ally". On 10 July 1985, agents of the French Directorate-General for External Security bombed the Greenpeace protest vessel Rainbow Warrior in Auckland, causing one death. The lack of condemnation by Western leaders to this violation of a friendly state's sovereignty caused a great deal of change in New Zealand's foreign and defence policy, and strengthened domestic opposition to the military application of nuclear technology in any form. New Zealand distanced itself from its traditional ally, the United States, and built relationships with small South Pacific countries, while retaining its good relations with Australia, and, to a lesser extent, the United Kingdom. The suspension of New Zealand in ANZUS has had significant effect on New Zealand–United States relations and on New Zealand domestic policy. The anti-nuclear policy has been a part of New Zealand political culture for years now. However, that has not stopped United States politicians from trying to change the policy. Afghanistan Australia and New Zealand both provided military units, including special forces and naval ships, in support of the US-led "Operation Enduring Freedom" for support for anti-Taliban forces in response to the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks. Providing 1,550 troops, Australia remains the largest non-NATO contributor of military personnel in Afghanistan. New Zealand committed 191 troops. East Timor Between 1999 and 2003, the armed forces of Australia and New Zealand deployed together in a large scale operation in East Timor, to prevent pro-Indonesian militia from overturning a vote for independence on the region. The United States provided only limited logistical support but the provided air defence for the initial entry operation. The operation was taken over by the United Nations. Taiwan One topic that became prominent in the 2000s was the implications in the case of a hypothetical attack by the People's Republic of China against Taiwan, who would likely receive American support. While Australia has strong cultural and economic ties with the United States, it also has an increasingly important trade relationship with mainland China. In August 2004, Foreign Minister Alexander Downer implied in Beijing that the treaty would likely not apply to that situation, but he was quickly corrected by Prime Minister John Howard. In March 2005, after an official of the People's Republic of China stated that it may be necessary for Australia to reassess the treaty and after China passed an Anti-Secession Law regarding Taiwan, Downer stated that in case of Chinese aggression on Taiwan, the treaty would come into force, but that the treaty would require only consultations with the United States and not necessarily commit Australia to war. 1985 to present Annual bilateral meetings between the US Secretary of State and the Australian Foreign Minister replaced annual meetings of the ANZUS Council of Foreign Ministers. The first bilateral meeting was held in Canberra in 1985. At the second meeting, in San Francisco in 1986, the United States announced that it was suspending its treaty security obligations to New Zealand pending the restoration of port access. Subsequent bilateral Australia–US Ministerial (AUSMIN) meetings have alternated between Australia and the United States. The alliance engenders some political controversy in Australia. Particularly after Australian involvement in the 2003 Iraq war, some quarters of Australian society have called for a re-evaluation of the relationship between the two nations. Nonetheless, the alliance enjoyed broad support during the Cold War and continues to enjoy broad support in Australia. One commentator in Australia has argued that the treaty should be re-negotiated in the context of terrorism, the modern role of the United Nations and as a purely US–Australian alliance. Australia is also a contributor to the National Missile Defense system. In May 2006, US Assistant Secretary of State for East Asia, Pacific Affairs and Northern Atlantinc Ocean Christopher Hill, described the New Zealand anti-nuclear issue as "a bit of a relic", and signalled that the US wanted a closer defence relationship with New Zealand. He also praised New Zealand's involvement in Afghanistan and reconstruction in Iraq. "Rather than trying to change each other's minds on the nuclear issue, which is a bit of a relic, I think we should focus on things we can make work" he told an Australian newspaper. While there have been signs of the nuclear dispute between the US and NZ thawing out, pressure from the United States increased in 2006 with US trade officials linking the repeal of the ban of American nuclear ships from New Zealand's ports to a potential free trade agreement between the two countries. On 4 February 2008, US Trade Representative Susan Schwab announced that the United States will join negotiations with four Asia–Pacific countries: Brunei, Chile, New Zealand and Singapore to be known as the "P-4". These countries already have a FTA called the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership and the United States will be looking to become involved in the "vitally important emerging Asia-Pacific region". A number of US-based organisations support the negotiations including, but not limited to: the United States Chamber of Commerce, National Association of Manufacturers, National Foreign Trade Council, Emergency Committee for American Trade and Coalition of Service Industries. In 2010, the United States and New Zealand signed the Wellington Declaration in Wellington, New Zealand, during a three-day visit by US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. The signing of the declaration ended the ANZUS dispute of the past 25 years, and it was later revealed the US and New Zealand had resumed military co-operation in eight areas in 2007. On 16 November 2011, US President Obama and Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard met in Canberra, Australia to announce plans for a sustained new American presence on Australian soil. 2,500 American troops are to be deployed to Darwin, Australia. New Zealand and the United States signed the Washington Declaration on 19 June 2012 "to promote and strengthen closer bilateral defense and security cooperation". On 20 September 2012, while on a visit to New Zealand, US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta announced that the United States was lifting the 26-year-old ban on visits by New Zealand warships to US Department of Defense and US Coast Guard bases around the world; US Marines had trained in New Zealand and New Zealand's navy took part in the RIMPAC maritime exercises alongside the US earlier that year. The Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) invited the United States Navy to send a vessel to participate in the RNZN's 75th Birthday Celebrations in Auckland over the weekend of 19–21 November 2016. The guided-missile destroyer became the first US warship to visit New Zealand in 33 years. New Zealand Prime Minister John Key granted approval for the ship's visit under the New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone, Disarmament, and Arms Control Act 1987, which requires that the Prime Minister has to be satisfied that any visiting ship is not nuclear armed or powered. Following the 7.8 magnitude Kaikōura earthquake on 14 November 2016 the Sampson and other naval ships from Australia, Canada, Japan and Singapore were diverted to proceed directly to Kaikōura to provide humanitarian assistance. See also Anglosphere ASEAN AUSCANNZUKUS Australian Defence Force AUKUS – 2021 Australia, United Kingdom and United States security partnership Contents of the United States diplomatic cables leak (New Zealand) Five Eyes Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA) – Defence cooperation among Australia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore and UK New Zealand Defence Force Pine Gap Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD) – Strategic dialogue among Australia, India, Japan and US Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) – 1954–1977 international collective defense organization United States Armed Forces References Further reading Brands Jr., Henry W. "From ANZUS to SEATO: United States Strategic Policy towards Australia and New Zealand, 1952-1954" International History Review 9#2 (1987), pp. 250–270 online Capie, David. "Nuclear-free New Zealand: Contingency, contestation and consensus in public policymaking." in Successful Public Policy ed by Joannah Luetjens, (2019): 379-398 online. Catalinac, Amy L. "Why New Zealand Took Itself out of ANZUS: Observing 'Opposition for Autonomy' in Asymmetric Alliances," Foreign Policy Analysis 6#3 (2010), pp. 317–338. Dorling, Philip. The Origins of the Anzus Treaty: A Reconsideration (Flinders UP, 1989) Green, Michael J., et al. The ANZUS alliance in an ascending Asia (ANU Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, 2015) online. Jennings, Peter. "The 2016 Defence White Paper and the ANZUS Alliance." Security Challenges 12.1 (2016): 53-64 online . Kelly, Andrew. ANZUS and the early cold war: strategy and diplomacy between Australia, New Zealand and the United States, 1945-1956 (2018) online free. McIntyre, William David, Background to the Anzus Pact: Policy-Making, Strategy and Diplomacy, 1945-55 (1994) McLean, David. "Anzus Origins: A Reassessment," Australian Historical Studies 24#94 (1990), pp. 64–82 Miller, Charles. "Public Support for ANZUS: Evidence of a Generational Shift?" Australian Journal of Political Science, 50#1 (2015), pp. 1–20. Robb, Thomas K., and David James Gill. "The ANZUS Treaty during the Cold War: a reinterpretation of US diplomacy in the Southwest Pacific." Journal of Cold War Studies 17.4 (2015): 109–157. online Siracusa, Joseph M and Glen St John Barclay. "Australia, the United States, and the Cold War, 1945–51: From V-J Day to ANZUS", Diplomatic History 5#1 (1981) pp 39–52 Siracusa, Joseph M., and Glen St J. Barclay. "The historical influence of the United States on Australian strategic thinking." Australian Journal of International Affairs 38.3 (1984): 153–158. Tow, William, and Henry Albinski. "ANZUS—Alive and well after fifty years." Australian Journal of Politics & History 48.2 (2002): 153–173. Tow, William. "ANZUS and alliance politics in Southeast Asia." (2019) online. External links ANZUS classroom activities (NZHistory.net.nz) Disarmament and Security Centre, New Zealand Peace Foundation Text of the ANZUS Treaty Will New Zealand ever rejoin ANZUS? ADST oral histories on Breakdown of ANZUS Treaty Cold War treaties Cold War alliances and military strategy Cold War history of Australia Military alliances involving the United States Military alliances involving Australia Military alliances involving New Zealand Treaties concluded in 1951 Treaties entered into force in 1952 Australia–New Zealand military relations New Zealand–United States military relations Australia–United States military relations 20th-century military alliances 21st-century military alliances Anglosphere
4792249	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia%20men%27s%20national%20soccer%20team	Australia men's national soccer team	The Australia men's national soccer team represents Australia in international men's soccer. Officially nicknamed the Socceroos, the team is controlled by the governing body for soccer in Australia, Football Australia, which is affiliated with the Asian Football Confederation (AFC) and the regional ASEAN Football Federation (AFF). Australia is the only national team to have been a champion of two confederations, having won the OFC Nations Cup four times between 1980 and 2004, as well as the AFC Asian Cup at the 2015 event on home soil. The team has represented Australia at the FIFA World Cup tournament on six occasions, in 1974 and from 2006 to 2022. The team also represented Australia at the FIFA Confederations Cup four times. History Early years The first Australia national team was constituted in 1922 for a tour of New Zealand, which included two defeats and a draw. For the next 36 years, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa became regular opponents in tour (exhibition) matches. During that period, Australia also competed against Canada and India during their tours of Australia in 1924 and 1938 respectively. Australia recorded their worst ever defeat on 30 June 1951 as they lost 17–0 in a match to a touring England side. Australia had a rare opportunity to compete on the world's stage during the team's first major international tournament as hosts of the 1956 Melbourne Olympics. However, an inexperienced squad proved to be reason for the team's disappointing performance. With the advent of cheap air travel, Australia began to diversify its range of opponents. However, its geographical isolation continued to play a role in its destiny for the next 30 years. Australia won the 1967 South Vietnam Independence Cup against seven other nations, but this gained little recognition domestically. After failing to qualify for the FIFA World Cup in 1966 and 1970, losing in play-offs to North Korea and Israel respectively, Australia finally appeared at their first World Cup in West Germany, 1974. After managing only a draw from Chile and losses from East Germany and West Germany, the team which was made up of mostly amateur players was eliminated at the end of the first round, finishing last in their group without scoring a goal. It would prove to be the only appearance for the Australian team until the World Cup tournament returned to Germany more than three decades later in 2006. Over a 40-year period, the Australian team was known for its near misses in its attempts to qualify for the World Cup; they lost play-offs in 1966 to North Korea, 1970 to Israel, 1986 to Scotland, 1994 to Argentina, 1998 to Iran and 2002 to Uruguay. First successes and "golden generation" The team's previously poor record in World Cup competition was not reflected in their reasonable performances against strong European and South American sides. In 1988, Australia defeated reigning world champions Argentina 4–1 in the Australian Bicentennial Gold Cup. In 1997, Australia drew with reigning world champions Brazil 0–0 in the group stage and then defeated Uruguay 1–0 in the semi-finals to reach the 1997 FIFA Confederations Cup Final. In 2001, after a victory against reigning world champions France in the group stage, Australia finished the 2001 FIFA Confederations Cup in third place after defeating Brazil 1–0 in the third-place decider. Australia defeated England 3–1 at West Ham United's Boleyn Ground in 2003 as Wayne Rooney made his international debut. In early 2005, it was reported that Football Australia had entered into discussions to join the Asian Football Confederation (AFC) and end an almost 40-year association with the Oceania Football Confederation (OFC). Many commentators and fans, most notably soccer broadcaster and former Australian captain Johnny Warren, felt that the only way for Australia to progress was to abandon Oceania. On 13 March, the AFC executive committee made a unanimous decision to invite Australia to join the AFC. After the OFC executive committee unanimously endorsed Australia's proposed move, FIFA approved the move on 30 June 2005. Australia joined Asia, with the move taking effect on 1 January 2006, though until then, Australia had to compete for a 2006 World Cup position as an OFC member country. After a successful campaign, the team took the first steps towards qualification for the 2006 World Cup. After coach Frank Farina stood down from the position after Australia's dismal performance at the 2005 Confederations Cup, Guus Hiddink was announced as the new national coach. Australia, ranked 49th, would then have to play the 18th ranked Uruguay in a rematch of the 2001 qualification play-off for a spot in the 2006 World Cup. After a 5–0 friendly win against Jamaica, the first leg of the play-off tournament was lost (1–0), with the return leg still to be played in Australia four days later in Sydney on 16 November 2005. The second leg of the qualifying play-off was played in front of a crowd of 82,698 at Stadium Australia. Australia led Uruguay 1–0 after 90 minutes following a goal by Mark Bresciano in the first half. The aggregate was tied, and extra time was played. Neither team scored after two periods of extra time, bringing the game to a penalty shootout. Australia won the penalty shootout (4–2), making Australia the first ever team to qualify for a World Cup via a penalty shootout. Australian goalkeeper Mark Schwarzer made two saves, with John Aloisi scoring the winning penalty for a place in the World Cup, Australia's first qualification in 32 years. Australia went into the 2006 World Cup as the second lowest-ranked side. Although their ranking vastly improved in subsequent months after a series of exhibition matches against high-profile teams, including a 1–1 draw against the Netherlands, and a 1–0 win at the sold-out 100,000 capacity Melbourne Cricket Ground against the then European champions Greece for the 2006 World Cup, Australia was placed into Group F, along with Japan, Croatia and defending champions Brazil. In their opening group game, Australia defeated Japan 3–1, with Tim Cahill scoring two goals (84', 89') and John Aloisi scoring one (90+2') in the last eight minutes. Their goals made history, being the first ever scored by Australia's men's soccer team in a World Cup and it was also the first victory of an Oceania team in World Cups, as well as all three goals being scored in the last seven minutes of the game, which was never before done in a World Cup match. Australia met Brazil in their second group game, which Australia lost to Brazil 2–0. Australia faced Croatia in their third match. The final score (2–2) was enough to see Australia proceed to the round of 16, where they were eliminated from the competition after a 1–0 defeat by the eventual champions Italy after conceding a controversial penalty in the 93rd minute. The loss marked the official end of Hiddink's tenure as Australia's national coach. The success achieved at the 2006 World Cup later saw the team named AFC National Team of the Year, as well as being dubbed the "golden generation" in the history of the Socceroos. Later success Led by coach Graham Arnold, Australia went to their first Asian Cup in 2007, sending a strong squad which included 15 players from the previous year's World Cup team. In Group A they played against Oman (1–1 draw), Thailand (4–0 win) and eventual champions Iraq (3–1 loss), assuring Australia's progression to the quarter-final stage of the tournament. Though after drawing 1–1 with Japan after extra time, Australia exited the tournament on penalties at the quarter-final stage. An international friendly on 11 September 2007 against Argentina (1–0 loss) was Graham Arnold's last game as head coach, with the position eventually being filled by Pim Verbeek on 6 December 2007. Australia began their 2010 World Cup campaign in the third round of qualification, drawn into a group, composed of Qatar, Iraq and China PR, in which Australia finished first. Australia eventually saw progression through to the 2010 World Cup after comfortably winning the fourth round of qualification in a group consisting of Japan, Bahrain, Qatar and Uzbekistan. Australia's qualification was already assured before the final two games, finally topping its group ahead of Japan by five points. Australia was drawn into Group D in the 2010 FIFA World Cup, which featured three-time world champion Germany, Ghana and Serbia. On 14 June 2010, Australia faced Germany. Pim Verbeek's surprising decision to play without a recognised striker saw Australia comprehensively defeated 4–0. Verbeek received heavy criticism for his tactics, with SBS (Australia's World Cup broadcaster) chief soccer analyst Craig Foster calling for his immediate sacking. Australia's second group match against Ghana resulted in a draw of 1–1, and their third and final group match against Serbia resulted in a 2–1 win. Ultimately Australia's heavy loss to Germany saw them eliminated in the group stage. Pim Verbeek completed his term as Australian coach at the end of the 2010 World Cup and was soon replaced by Holger Osieck. In 2010, Australia qualified for their second AFC Asian Cup, topping their qualification group. A successful campaign at the 2011 AFC Asian Cup saw Australia become runners-up to Japan, after losing in the Final 1–0 in extra time. In 2012, Australia agreed to compete in the East Asian Cup. Australia travelled to Hong Kong to compete in a series of qualification matches with the hopes of qualifying for the 2013 East Asian Cup. Despite handing several debuts and fielding an in-experienced squad, Australia was successful, finishing ahead of Hong Kong, North Korea, Guam and Chinese Taipei to progress to the 2013 East Asian Cup, where Australia eventually finished last behind Japan, South Korea and China PR. On 26 August 2013, Australia became full members of the ASEAN Football Federation but as part of their entrance agreement with the sub-confederation, their national team is barred from participating in the AFF Championship due to their perceived wide gap in playing standards between Australia and the rest of the region. Australia's 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification began with a series of friendlies against the United Arab Emirates (0–0), Germany (1–2 win), New Zealand (3–0 win), Serbia (0–0) and Wales (1–2 win). Australia's World Cup campaign started in the third round of qualification, with Australia topping their group to progress to the fourth round. After winning their last fourth round-game, Australia finished as runners-up in their group, qualifying for the 2014 FIFA World Cup on 18 June 2013. Shortly after achieving qualification to the World Cup, Australia played a series of friendly matches against Brazil and France, suffering consecutive 6–0 defeats. This along with previous poor performances during the 2014 World Cup qualification campaign resulted in manager Holger Osieck's sacking, bringing his four-year tenure as Australia's manager to an end. New generation: the 2015 Asian Cup triumph After a two-week search for a new manager, Ange Postecoglou was eventually appointed in the position. Postecoglou was tasked with regenerating the Australian national team, which was deemed to have been too reliant on members of their Golden Generation of 2006, subsequently leading to a stagnation of results, culminating in successive 6–0 defeats to Brazil and France. In his first game as Australia's manager, a home friendly match against Costa Rica, Australia won 1–0 courtesy of a goal from Tim Cahill. For the 2014 World Cup, Australia were drawn in Group B alongside reigning Cup holders Spain, 2010 runners-up Netherlands and Chile. Their first match was off to a lacklustre start, having conceded two goals in the opening 15 minutes from Alexis Sánchez and Jorge Valdivia. Despite a goal from Tim Cahill that inspired a late resurgence from Postecoglou's team, they ultimately lost to Chile 3–1. Their second match against the Netherlands was a close one, but their efforts ended in a 3–2 loss, thus earning their early exit along with the Spanish team. In the end, Australia finished Group B with a third, consecutive defeat to world champions Spain, 3–0. Australia's competitive World Cup performances in a difficult group lead to believe that a new Golden Generation was about to begin. In their first international match proceeding the World Cup, Australia played World Cup quarter-finalists Belgium in Liège, with Australia going down 2–0. Four days later, Australia achieved their first international win in ten months, and just their second win under Ange Postecoglou, with a 3–2 victory over Saudi Arabia in London. After drawing against the United Arab Emirates, and suffering successive losses against Qatar and Japan, combined with previous poor results earlier in the year, Australia slipped to 94 and 102 in the FIFA World Rankings, their lowest ever ranking. The new year saw Australia host the 2015 AFC Asian Cup, with the team making their third consecutive appearance in the tournament. Australia won their first two group matches against Kuwait and Oman comfortably, with scorelines of 4–1 and 4–0 respectively. This guaranteed their qualification for the knockout stage, despite losing their final group match against South Korea in Brisbane 1–0. They faced China PR in the quarter-finals and won 2–0, courtesy of a second-half brace from Tim Cahill. In the semi-finals, Australia won 2–0 over the United Arab Emirates and advanced to the final for the second time in a row. They faced South Korea in the final on 31 January at Stadium Australia, winning 2–1 after extra time to claim their first Asian title and qualify for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup. After Australia qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Ange Postecoglou resigned from his position as coach; and former manager of the Netherlands national team, Bert van Marwijk, was subsequently appointed as his replacement. On 8 March 2018, after van Marwijk's first squad announcement, the FFA announced that Graham Arnold will take the coaching role from after the 2018 FIFA World Cup until the 2022 FIFA World Cup. With van Marwijk, Australia was grouped with Denmark, France and Peru. The first match of Australia against eventual world champions France was praised by a valiant effort, in which Australia only lost 1–2 by a virtual own goal from Aziz Behich. After the defeat to France, Australia produced another outstanding performance, drawing Denmark 1–1. However, in the crucial match against already eliminated Peru, Australia lost 0–2 and crashed out from the World Cup with only a point, became the only team from the AFC to be winless in the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Subsequently, van Marwijk left his post and Arnold came to replace him as the new coach of the Socceroos. Under Graham Arnold, Australia started their 2019 AFC Asian Cup in hope of defending the title, being grouped with Jordan, Syria and Palestine, but their hope was shattered by a shocking 0–1 defeat to Jordan. Australia soon returned to the race by beating Palestine 3–0 before winning an important encounter with a hard-fought 3–2 win over Syria, eliminating both Palestine and Syria in the process. The win gave Australia to qualify for the round of sixteen, where they overcame Uzbekistan after winning on penalties 4–2, having drawn 0–0 for 120 minutes. In the quarter-finals, however, in the Hazza bin Zayed Stadium, the place where Australia had lost their opening match against Jordan, Australia once again failed to register any win in the same ground, losing to the host United Arab Emirates 0–1 due to a mistake from Miloš Degenek, eventually failing to defend the title. 2022 World Cup resurgence Australia took part in the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification, which they entered in the second round, in which they faced Kuwait, Jordan, Nepal and Chinese Taipei. Australia dominated the group with eight wins out of eight to reach the third round, where it faced Saudi Arabia, Japan, China, Oman and Vietnam. After a good start with three straight wins over China, Vietnam and Oman, Australia then won only one game, against Vietnam, in their final seven games, being held thrice and losing thrice, finishing third in the group. It then had to rely on fourth round playoffs. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, all of Australia's playoffs were centralised in Doha. The Socceroos began their quest with a 2–1 win over the United Arab Emirates, to face fifth place CONMEBOL qualification finisher Peru, a rematch of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. This time around, Australia held Peru goalless, before winning on penalties to make it to the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Australia was drawn in group D along with world champions France, Denmark and Tunisia. Australia's qualification also meant that the Asian confederation had the largest number of teams in their World Cup history, with six countries qualifying. As preparation for the World Cup, Australia played two friendlies against neighbouring New Zealand, winning both games. It began its World Cup quest on 23 November against world champions France, losing 4–1 despite initially taking the lead with goal from Craig Goodwin. Three days later Australia registered its first World Cup win since 2010, overcoming Tunisia with a header from Mitchell Duke to seal a 1–0 win, sending Australia from bottom to second place. Four days later, against UEFA Euro 2020 semi-finalists Denmark, Australia won 1–0, thanks to a Mathew Leckie goal. Australia finished the group stage in second place behind France on goal difference, making Australia the first Asian representative to reach the knockout stage in Qatar 2022. Australia's resurgence in the group stage was widely watched and followed by Australian supporters. Mass celebrations occurred after the upsets over Tunisia and Denmark, and Prime Minister Anthony Albanese called it "magnificent". In the round of 16, Australia lost 2–1 to Argentina, with Lionel Messi opening the scoring and Julián Álvarez getting the second after dispossessing Mathew Ryan. Australia pulled one back when Goodwin's shot deflected into goal off Enzo Fernández and Garang Kuol almost scored the equaliser in injury time, but his shot was smothered by Argentinian goalkeeper Emiliano Martínez. Team image Media coverage Australian matches are broadcast by Paramount+ and on free-to-air by Network 10. Previous coverage has been provided by Fox Sports (2018–2021), Ten network on its 10 Bold channel, ABC, SBS until 2016 and Nine on its 9Go! channel (2016–2017). The national team has set multiple ratings records for both subscription and free-to-air television. Australia's final 2006 World Cup qualifying match against Uruguay was the highest rating program in SBS history with an audience of 3.4 million viewers, while a 2010 World Cup qualifying match against Uzbekistan set a record for the highest subscription television audience, with an average of 431,000 viewers. The 2015 Asian Cup Final against South Korea had a total reach of 5.3 million Australians overall. Kit Australia's first kit was sky blue with a maroon hoop on the socks, the colours representing the states of New South Wales and Queensland, a look that was reminiscent of the Australian national rugby league team's strips of the period. They wore the predominantly light blue kit until 1924 when they changed to green and gold. Australia has worn a yellow jersey, usually accompanied by green shorts, and yellow socks since the 1960s. The colour of the socks altered throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s from white to the same green as the shorts to the same yellow colour as the jersey. This peculiarity of the uniform refers to exactly the combination of colours used in it: although the country's flag has the colours blue, red and white, the selection uses shades of green and yellow. That's because, unlike many national teams, who base their colours on the flag, the Australian team uses as a base the colours of a typical plant in the country, the acacia, which has green leaves and yellow flowers. Their current away kit is a turquoise shirt with a gold stripe on either side of the shirt, the coat of arms being on top of a navy background. It is accompanied by navy shorts (also containing the gold stripes) and turquoise socks. Australia's kits have been produced by manufacturers including Umbro, Adidas, KingRoo, and since 2004 by Nike. Rather than displaying the logo of Football Australia, Australia's jersey traditionally features the coat of arms of Australia over the left breast. The team first wore the traditional green and yellow colours in 1924. Australia's 1974 World Cup kits were produced by Adidas as were all other national team kits in the tournament, with Adidas sponsoring the event. The kits, however, contained Umbro branding, due to the manufacturer's Australian partnership at the time. Nike renewed the kit manufacturer deal with FFA for another 11 years in 2012, handing them the rights to make national team kits until 2022. In the lead-up to the 2014 World Cup, the new kits to be worn by the team were revealed. The design of the new kits included a plain yellow shirt with a green collar, plain dark green shorts and white socks, a tribute to the 1974 Socceroos. Inside the back of the neck also had woven the quote, "We Socceroos can do the impossible", from Peter Wilson, the captain of the 1974 Australian team. This kit was well received. In March 2016, FFA revealed the new Socceroos kit, which featured a yellow jersey, yellow shorts and green socks. This was reportedly in accordance with a FIFA directive, instructing all national teams to have matching shirts and shorts. This kit was met with wide public contention, primarily due to the colour change of the shorts from the traditional green to yellow. Kit suppliers Nickname Australia's nickname, "Socceroos", was coined in 1967 by Sydney journalist Tony Horstead in his coverage of the team on a goodwill tour to South Vietnam during the Vietnam War. It is commonly used by both the Australian people and the governing body, the FFA. The nickname represents a cultural propensity for the use of colloquialisms in the country. It also represents the Australian English use of the sport's name. The name itself is similar to most other Australian national representative sporting team nicknames; used informally when referring to the team, in the media or in conversation. Similarly, the name is derived from a well-known symbol of Australia, in this case, the kangaroo. The words soccer and kangaroo are combined into a portmanteau word as soccer-roo; such as Olyroos for the Australia Olympic soccer team or Hockeyroos for the Australian national women's hockey team. Rivalries New Zealand Australia's longtime rivals are trans-Tasman neighbours New Zealand. The two teams' history dates back to 1922, where they first met in both their international debuts. The rivalry between the Socceroos and the All Whites (New Zealand) is part of a wider friendly rivalry between the neighbours Australia and New Zealand, which applies not only to sport but to the culture of the two countries. The rivalry was intensified when Australia and New Zealand were both members of the OFC, regularly competing in OFC Nations Cup finals and in FIFA World Cup qualifications, where only one team from the OFC progressed to the World Cup. Since Australia left the OFC to join the AFC in 2006, competition between the two teams has been less frequent. However, the rivalry between the two teams is still strong, with the occasional match receiving much media and public attention. Japan After joining the AFC, Australia began to develop a fierce rivalry with fellow Asian powerhouse Japan. The rivalry began at the 2006 World Cup, where the two countries were grouped together. The rivalry continued with the two countries meeting regularly in various AFC competitions, including the 2011 Asian Cup final and qualification for the 2010, 2014, 2018 and 2022 World Cups. South Korea Another major rival within Asia is South Korea, who Australia came up against in three World Cup qualification campaigns in the 1970s and, since joining the AFC, have met regularly including the victory by Australia in the 2015 Asian Cup final. Uruguay A rivalry exists with Uruguay since their first meeting on the eve of the 1974 FIFA World Cup. Both nations have faced each other in consecutive World Cup play-offs in 2001 and 2005 with each nation winning a playoff final each to progress through to the World Cup. Australia and Uruguay also faced off in the 1997 Confederations Cup in Saudi Arabia, with Australia progressing through to the final against Brazil via a golden goal winner from Harry Kewell. Supporters The main supporter group of the Australian national team is Socceroos Active Support (SAS). SAS was founded in January 2015 as an independent group, who uses social media to organise and keep in touch. This replaced the former active support group Terrace Australis, who were founded by Football Federation Australia and fans in 2013, during Australia's 2014 World Cup qualification campaign. Its establishment came in the wake of poor off-field action and minimal community engagement. Previously, the emergence of Terrace Australis saw the Green and Gold Army relinquish its role as a hub for active support, which it had claimed since its establishment in 2001. Since the 2015 AFC Asian Cup triumph, the supporters had encouraged people in Australia to focus more on the national team, and the nation's soccer pride. Home stadium Australia does not have a dedicated national stadium, instead the team plays at different venues throughout the country for exhibition or tournament purposes. In recent years, major international matches have usually been rotated around various large grounds, including Stadium Australia in Sydney, Hunter Stadium in Newcastle and Docklands Stadium in Melbourne. International matches have also been played at the Melbourne Cricket Ground and Melbourne Rectangular Stadium in Melbourne and Canberra Stadium in Canberra. Australia has played at the Gabba in Brisbane, which hosted Australia's first international match on home soil in 1923, a 2―1 win over New Zealand. It was the fourth Australian team match overall, with the first three internationals played in New Zealand. Other venues which regularly hosted international home matches included Olympic Park Stadium in Melbourne, the Sydney Cricket Ground, Sydney Sports Ground, Sydney Showground, and Sydney Football Stadium in Sydney, and Subiaco Oval in Perth. Games in England Since the 2003 friendly against England, the Socceroos have also played a significant number of games in England, especially London, owing to the fact there is a large Australian expatriate community in West London, and that a high proportion of the senior team play in European leagues. This includes games at Craven Cottage in Fulham (Fulham Football Club's home ground), Loftus Road in Shepherd's Bush (Queens Park Rangers' home ground) and The Den in Bermondsey (Millwall Football Club's home ground). Results and fixtures The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled. 2022 2023 2024 Coaching staff Players Current squad The following 23 players were called up for a friendlies against England and New Zealand on 14 and 18 October 2023. Additionally Arnold added three "train on" players (Alexander Robertson, Mohamed Toure, and Patrick Yazbek) to join the 23 man squad. Caps and goals correct as of 18 October 2023, after the match against New Zealand. Recent call-ups The following players have been called up within the last 12 months. INJ Withdrew due to injury RET Retired Records Australia currently hold the world record for the largest win and the most goals scored by a player in an international match. Both records were achieved during the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification match against American Samoa on 11 April 2001. Australia won 31–0 with Archie Thompson scoring 13 goals and David Zdrilic scoring 8. Two days before the 31–0 win, Australia broke the record for largest win with a 22–0 win over Tonga. With 13 and 8 goals respectively, both Thompson and Zdrilic broke the previous record jointly held by another Australian, Gary Cole, who scored seven goals against Fiji in 1981, and Iranian Karim Bagheri, who also scored seven goals against Maldives in 1997. Most capped players Top goalscorers Most clean sheets Competitive record FIFA World Cup FIFA Confederations Cup AFC Asian Cup Summer Olympics OFC Nations Cup AFC–OFC Challenge Cup AFF Championship Since joining the AFF in 2013, Australia has never competed in this event. Minor tournaments All-time record FIFA Rankings Last update was on 17 February 2023 Source: Best Ranking Worst Ranking Best Mover Worst Mover Honours Major: FIFA Confederations Cup Runners-up: 1997 Third place: 2001 AFC Asian Cup Winners: 2015 Runners-up: 2011 OFC Nations Cup Winners: 1980, 1996, 2000, 2004 Runners-up: 1998, 2002 Other: AFC Men's Team of the Year: 2006, 2015 Invitational Tournaments: 1967 South Vietnam Independence Cup – Winners 1988 Australia Bicentenary Gold Cup – Runners-up See also Australia women's national soccer team Soccer in Australia List of Australian national soccer team captains Australia 31–0 American Samoa Trans-Tasman Cup Notes References External links Australia at AFC Australia at FIFA Australia men's national soccer team AFC Asian Cup-winning countries Oceanian national association football teams Asian national association football teams 1922 establishments in Australia Soccer in Australia National sports teams established in 1922
4792747	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Agriculture%2C%20Faisalabad	University of Agriculture, Faisalabad	The University of Agriculture (UAF) is a public research university in Faisalabad, Pakistan. It's the largest university of Pakistan by area with covered area of 2550 acres as compared to Punjab University's 1800 acres which is the second largest. History Origins The University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (Urdu: ), (formerly: Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute), is a university in the city of Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan. It was established in 1906 as the first major institution of higher agricultural education in the undivided Punjab. In 2009, the Vice Chancellor of the university said: "Ours is the first agriculture university of the subcontinent so we are the trendsetters in this regard and have a specialised mandate. Faisalabad was chosen by our colonial rulers to set up an agriculture university as it was sandwiched between two canals". At independence in 1947, Pakistan was a predominantly agricultural country. In spite of subsequent industrialisation and development, agriculture remains central to its economy. After independence, the Government of Pakistan appointed the National Commissions on Food and Education to reform the existing agrarian system and to formulate measures for developing better agricultural potential. The commissions made a plea for the establishment of an agricultural university for research and education. This resulted in the upgrade of the former Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute in 1961. This had been the first university established by the British Empire. Plans were approved in 1906, and the foundation stone laying ceremony was carried out by Sir Louis Dane, the then lieutenant and governor of the Punjab. The college opened in 1909. The principal between 1923 and 1931 was Thomas Brownlie. By 1989, the university was reported to have 345 academic staff, 3,400 undergraduates and 600 postgraduates, and to be the country's "largest academic institution in agriculture". The new campus is green with a conglomeration of monolithic blocks built in a modern style, and the old campus is reminiscent of traditional Muslim architecture. The main campus is situated in the centre of the city (12 km northeast of the Faisalabad International Airport), about 2 km away from the city centre and clock tower. The university has a Zoology Museum, Art Gallery and University Library. The university has hostels for men and women, including Jinnah Hostel (named after the founder of Pakistan Muhammad Ali Jinnah), Iqbal Hall, Fatima Jinnah Hostel and Hailey Hall. It accommodates over 15,000 students and approximately 12,000 day scholars. Organisation and administration Faculties and departments UAF is organised into faculties of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Food Nutrition and Home Economics, Social sciences, Animal Husbandry, Food Sciences, Biotechnology, Biochemistry, Plant and Animal Breeding, Veterinary Science, Doctor of Pharmacy, Mathematics, Statistics and Sciences. A community college is on the main campus in Faisalabad. The College of Veterinary Sciences at Lahore was affiliated and is now a separate entity known as the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore (UVAS). These units offer programmes leading to undergraduate and graduate degrees in agriculture and allied fields. HEC ranks the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad as the best in the agriculture/veterinary field in Pakistan. The University of Agriculture Faisalabad ranked number four among the top ten universities in Pakistan. Faculty of Agriculture Six departments — Agronomy, Plant Breeding and Genetics, Agricultural Entomology, Plant Pathology, Crop Physiology and Forestry, Wildlife & Range Management. Three institutes — Institute of Soil & Environmental Sciences, and Institute of Horticultural Sciences and National Institute of Food Science and Technology. Seven allied disciplines — Agricultural Economics, Marketing & Agribusiness, Agricultural Extension, Animal Sciences, Computer Science, Mathematics and Statistics. The Centre of Agricultural Biochemistry and Biotechnology (CABB). The U.S. Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Agriculture and Food Security (USPCAS). Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology The faculty includes the departments of Structural and Environmental Engineering, Energy Systems Engineering, Irrigation and Drainage, Food Engineering, Farm Machinery, and Power and Fibre Technology. Courses of study lead to the degrees of Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Engineering, Food Engineering, Textile Technology; M.Sc. in Food Technology, Fibre Technology, Agricultural Engineering; and Doctor of Philosophy in Food Technology and Agricultural Engineering. The Department of Agricultural Engineering & Technology was established in 1961. The main objective of the faculty was to train people to cater to the growing needs of mechanised farming in the Punjab. Department of Food Engineering The department admitted its first students in 2011–12. The aim of the Food Engineering Department is to educate students to design and to produce safe, high quality, and economical food products and processes, and to conduct research and development on the food industry. Department of Farm Machinery and Power This department, in collaboration with other departments, offers a baccalaureate program in Agricultural Engineering. Department of Fibre and Textile Technology The department of Fibre Technology was established in the Faculty of Agriculture Engineering & Technology in 1964. It is the only department in the country which offers a master's degree programme in Fibre Technology. The main objective of this department is to impart scientific knowledge and technological training to the students in the field of Fibre science, Textile Technology (spinning, knitting, dyeing, finishing, testing & quality control), pulp, paper and cardboard technology to meet the demands of the industry. Faculty of Veterinary Science The faculty includes the department of Anatomy, Institute of Pharmacy Physiology and Pharmacology, Pathology, Parasitology, Microbiology, Clinical Medicine and Surgery, and Theriogenology. Candidates who hold degrees in biological sciences are considered for graduate admission in non-clinical subjects. The students are enrolled after an entry test held by the university for the degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M.), Pharm.D, M.Phil. and Ph.D. degrees. Professor Dr. Zafar Iqbal Qureshi is the Dean. Faculty of Social Sciences The Faculty of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, with its constituent departments of Agricultural Economics, Farm Management, Agricultural Marketing, Cooperation and Credit and Rural Sociology, was established in 1963. The Faculty was restructured in 2012, and the name changed to Faculty of Social Sciences. The departments of Agricultural Economics, Development Economics, and Environmental & Resource Economics were merged into a new institute, Institute of Agricultural & Resource Economics (IARE). Professor Dr. Muhammad Ashfaq is the first director of IARE, having been in post since June 2012. The Faculty of Social Sciences is divided into the following institutes: Institute of Agricultural and Resource Economics. Institute of Business Management Sciences (offers courses at undergraduate and postgraduate level). Institute of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development (offers courses at undergraduate, postgraduate, and doctoral level). Department of Rural Sociology (offers courses at postgraduate level and a PhD programme). The Institute of Agricultural and Resource Economics offers the following degrees: BSc (Hons) Agricultural & Resource Economics (four years) MSc (Hons) Agricultural Economics (two years) MSc (Hons) Development Economics (two years) MSc (Hons) Environmental & Resource Economics (two years) MSc Economics (Distance Learning) (two years) M.Phil. Economics (two years) PhD Agricultural Economics PhD Environmental & Resource Economics PhD Economics Faculty of Humanities This includes the Department of Arts, Languages and Cultures, Art History, Classics and Ancient History, Linguistics, Religions and Theology and the University Language Centre. Faculty of Animal Husbandry The faculty includes the Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, the Department of Livestock Management, the Department of Animal Nutrition and the Department of Poultry Science. It offers B.Sc. (Hons.) Animal Sciences and B.Sc. (Hons) Dairy Science at the main campus and B.Sc.(Hons) Poultry Science at one of the subcampuses, Toba Tek Singh. It also offers supporting courses for students of D.V.M., B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture and Food Sciences. It provides research facilities concerning livestock, poultry and their products to departments in the university and it provides advisory services to livestock and poultry farmers. Postgraduate courses leading to M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees are offered by all four departments in the faculty. Prof. Dr. M. Sajjad Khan is the Dean. Faculty of Sciences The faculty includes the departments of Botany, Zoology and Fisheries, Chemistry and Biochemistry, Physics, Mathematics and Statistics, Business Management Sciences, Computer Science, Social Sciences and Humanities, and Islamic Studies. It offers undergraduate courses in physical, biological and social sciences and postgraduate degree programmes in Botany, Zoology and Fisheries, Chemistry, Bio-Chemistry, Physics, Statistics, Computer Science, Business Management and Commerce. Graduates of pure sciences from other institutions are eligible for admission to courses leading to M.Sc., M.Phil. and Ph.D. degrees. Graduates having a relevant bachelor's degree may also seek admission to MBA and M.Com. degree programmes. Munir Ahmad Sheikh is the Dean of the faculty. Institute of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development Most of the Division of Education & Extension is now part of the Faculty of Social Sciences. Tanvir Ali (ex-director, Graduate Studies, and ex-director, Division of Education and Extension) is now the director of the Institute of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, Faculty of Social Sciences. The institute covers disciplines including Agricultural Extension, Agricultural Education, Agricultural Information (Mass Communication), Rural Sociology, Population Science, Gender Studies, and Rural Development. Courses are at undergraduate and graduate level and include B.Sc. (Hons) Agriculture (Agri. Extension Major); M.Sc., M.Sc.(Hons), and PhD. A quarterly agricultural journal is published for farmers. On 14 August 2012, the institute started broadcasting on FM Radio 100.4 to disseminate agricultural innovations among farm communities and provide information, education, and entertainment to the public. Research The University of Agriculture Faisalabad is a major centre for research; as of 2017 it was the largest of the agricultural research universities in Pakistan. It receives billions for research and development. It has introduced modern techniques in agriculture. The university has two advanced scientific labs for research purposes. It partners with the University of California, Davis in research and exchange programmes. Research has been carried out since at least 1925, when research into cotton plants was being carried out. In 1947, the college was the only organisation of any kind in Pakistan carrying out agricultural research. University of Agriculture Press This is the university's academic publishing house. It publishes academic monographs, textbooks and journals, most of which are by university students and staff. Sub-campuses Sub-campus Burewala Vehari A sub-campus of University of Agriculture Faisalabad was established in Burewala District Vehari, to spread agriculture research across the country, especially in the south of Punjab. Sub-campus Toba Tek Singh A sub-campus of the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad was established in Toba Tek Singh on 5 June 2005 to study the poultry industry. A four-year B.Sc. Poultry Science is offered at this campus. The principal of the institute is Prof. Dr. Nisar Ahmed from the Centre of Agricultural Biochemistry and Biotechnology (CABB). Sub-campus Depalpure Okara A sub campus established at Depalpure in 2007 and then it was transferred to Okara to spread agriculture research across the country, especially in the Central Punjab. Academic programmes The following degree courses are offered: Intermediate (pre-Agriculture) This program was started in 2009. F.Sc. (Pre-Agriculture) 2-year programme at UAF Community College in PARS Campus, Jhang Road, near Faisalabad International Airport. After this 2 year degree, students can be admitted to any degree programme offered by the University of Agriculture Faisalabad. Students are selected from all across Punjab. First degree courses B.Sc.(Hons) Agriculture Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) B.Sc. (Hons) Food Science and Technology B.Sc.(Hons) Microbiology BS (Hons.) Animal Sciences BS (Hons.) Dairy Sciences B.Sc.(Hons) Agricultural Engineering B.Sc.(Hons) Environmental Engineering B.Sc.(Hons) Energy System Engineering B.Sc.(Hons) Food Engineering B.Sc.(Hons) Textile Technology B.Sc.(Hons) (Home Economics BS Information Technology BS Computer Science BS Software Engineering BS Bioinformatics BS (Chemistry) BS (Bio-Chemistry) BS (Botany) BS (Physics) BS (Zoology) Bachelor of Business administration (BBA) Doctor of Pharmacy (D.Pharma) B.Sc.(Hons) Human Nutrition and Dietetics B.Sc.(Hons) Agriculture and Resource Economics BS Agricultural Biotechnology Postgraduate degree programmes M.Sc./M.Sc. (Hons.) four semesters, offered in 35 subjects, after completing a first degree course. M.Phil. in pure science, four semesters, offered in five subjects after completing M.Sc. in the relevant subject. Ph.D., offered in 28 subjects, four semesters, after completing M.Sc. in the relevant subject. The university offers evening courses: M.B.A. (Regular and Executive), M.Com. and M.Sc. Chemistry, Bio-Chemistry, Botany, Zoology, Physics, Fibre Technology, Home Economics (Food and Nutrition), Statistics and Computer Science. Diploma and certificate courses The university provides training facilities in agriculture and allied disciplines for in-service, pre-service and self-employed personnel, farmers, and others interested in agriculture. Separate courses are provided for ladies on the subjects and skills peculiar to womenfolk. The division has 124 courses leading to diplomas and certificates. Most of these courses have a practical bias. The following diploma courses are offered: C.T. Agriculture (boys) Diploma in Rural Home Economics (girls) Diploma in Arabic Mali Class Veterinary Assistant Diploma Course Diploma in Grain Storage Management Postgraduate Diploma Course in Food Science (for Army personnel) Agricultural Business Management Computer Science Pre-release training course (for Army personnel). Ranking The university is ranked fourth in Pakistan and first in the field of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences by the Higher Education Commission (Pakistan) (HEC) Ranking in 2015. Notable former students Tariq Aziz, field hockey player Syed Hussain Jahania Gardezi, politician, Provincial Minister of Punjab for Agriculture Sajjad Haider Gujjar, politician, member of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab Iqrar Ahmad Khan, agricultural scientist and professor of horticulture Amir Ali Majid, judge, legal scholar and author Sajjad Haider Nadeem, politician, member of the Provincial Assembly of the Punjab Chaudhry Ghulam Rasool, educationist and field hockey Olympic player Mohammad Hameed Shahid, short story writer, novelist and literary critic Abid Qaiyum Suleri, social policy analyst and development practitioner See also List of Islamic educational institutions References Further reading Fifty Years of Agricultural Education and Research at the Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute, Lyallpur, West Pakistan (chapters 1–9) and Chapters 11-17, Appendix A-K, Department of Agriculture, West Pakistan, 1960 External links The Administration - Office of the Vice-Chancellor University Rankings on Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (Archived) UAF GPA and CGPA Calculator Research institutes in Pakistan Universities and colleges in Faisalabad District Faisalabad Faisalabad 1906 establishments in India Agriculture in Punjab, Pakistan Public universities and colleges in Punjab, Pakistan Universities and colleges established in 1906 Engineering universities and colleges in Pakistan
4793136	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jondalar	Jondalar	Jondalar of the Zelandonii is the male main character of Jean Auel's Earth's Children speculative historical fiction series set in the Late Stone Age of Europe. He has long pale blond hair which he usually pulls back in a ponytail (called a "club" by his people), vivid blue eyes, is six feet six inches tall, and is described as extremely handsome and skillful in many ways. Introduced early in the second novel of the series as a "co-star" of the book The Valley of Horses, he and his brother Thonolan are on a long Journey to see the end of the Great Mother River. The Journey had been Thonolan's idea, and Jondalar had come along to keep an eye on his younger brother. Their adventures run parallel to Ayla's years in her Valley. The stories alternate back and forth until the two main characters, Jondalar and Ayla, finally meet, when Jondalar and Thonolan are attacked by a cave lion. Thonolan is killed and Jondalar is seriously hurt. Ayla takes Jondalar to her cave and treats his wounds. Ranks and ties Jondalar is the son of Dalanar, leader of the First Cave of the Lanzadonii, and Marthona, former leader of the Ninth Cave of the Zelandonii. He has an older half-brother Joharran, who was born to the hearth of Marthona's first mate Joconan. After Jondalar was born, Marthona and Dalanar "severed the knot;" she then takes another mate by whom Jondalar has two younger half-siblings by Willamar: his brother Thonolan, three years his junior, and his sister Folara, who is nearly ten years younger than Jondalar. He also has a "hearth cousin," Joplaya, the daughter of Dalanar and his second mate Jerika, whom Dalanar met when her family came into Zelandonii territory (from the description of her facial features in "Plains of Passage," Jerika appears to be of Mongol or Asian descent; the territory of her people is never pinpointed in the books, making exact racial determinations impossible). The Zelandonii only consider people who share a mother as having a sibling relationship; because men are not fathers, only 'men of the hearth', children born to the same father but different mothers are considered "hearth cousins" rather than siblings. In the first five books, the belief is that the Earth Mother chooses the 'spirit of a man' to make a woman pregnant and it is not known that the act of sex or a man's semen is responsible for impregnating a woman. Jondalar has one child, Jonayla, his daughter with Ayla born at the end of The Shelters of Stone. Because of the belief that the Great Earth Mother can choose any man's spirit to join with a woman's to make a child, Jondalar at first does not entirely believe that Jonayla is truly as much a daughter of his as she is to Ayla. There is a possibility that he has fathered two other children. The first is a child with the Hadumai woman Noria, with whom he shared First Rites during the journey with his brother. This is recounted in The Valley of Horses." No details about this child are known, save that Haduma, leader of the Hadumai, believed that the child would have Jondalar's blue eyes. The other child would be that of a Shamudoi woman named Serenio, with whom he lived while he was staying with the Sharamudoi people, also on his journey with Thonolan. Before he left, she told him that she believed she was pregnant. When Jondalar returned with Ayla, he discovered that Serenio had left with a Mamutoi man with whom she fell in love, and though Roshario, another Shamudoi woman and a friend of Serenio, believed Serenio was pregnant, it was unconfirmed. Jondalar's family is considered to hold high status among the Zelandonii: his mother is the former leader of the Ninth Cave, as well as being the widow of a former leader, Joconan; his elder brother, Joharran, became leader of the Ninth Cave when Marthona stepped down; the man to whose hearth he was born (his father), Dalanar, went on to found the First Cave of the Lanzadonii with Jerika and a group of Zelandonii settlers; the man his mother mated after severing the tie with Dalanar, Willomar, is Trade Master for the Ninth Cave, and as such holds a position similar to an ambassador. Finally, the family (and Jondalar in particular) is friendly with the Zelandoni formerly known as Zolena, who has become First Among Those Who Serve the Mother (roughly a bishop to the other Zelandoni priests) by the time Jondalar returns home with Ayla. Personal history Though the child of a high-status Zelandonii family, Jondalar has managed to make quite a name for himself on a personal basis. His first whiff of reputation was his connection with Zolena. Zolena and Jondalar fell in love while Zolena was acting as his donii woman. Though customs dictated that their relationship be solely physical, the two began to discuss the idea of mating; it speaks to Jondalar's inherent charisma and handsomeness that, despite having just entered adulthood, he was able to make a strong emotional connection with a woman who was not only considered the most beautiful of all the Zelandonii, but was some years older than he was. Ladroman, a boy of the Ninth Cave who also wanted Zolena, spied on the lovers and overheard their plans. Thinking to blackmail Zolena into his furs, Ladroman threatened to expose their activities; Jondalar lost his temper and attacked Ladroman, knocking out several of his teeth. The scandal of Jondalar's and Zolena's relationship and plans for the future became public, restitution was made to Ladroman's family, and Jondalar was sent to live with Dalanar, who by that time had established the First Cave of the Lanzadonii. After several years living with Dalanar and learning to knap flint, as well as honing some of the charm and charisma which his father had passed on to him (the two are physically almost identical), Jondalar returned to the Ninth Cave. Zolena had begun training to become a member of the zelandonia; Ladroman and his family had moved to the Fifth Cave of the Zelandonii; and people had largely forgotten about his previous indiscretions. Jondalar, however, could not forget or forgive himself. Charismatic, extremely handsome, and a sensitive lover, he never lacked for women (Zolena later described him as having an aching hunger that women longed to fill), but neither did he bond with them on an emotional level. Thonolan once described him, accurately, as having never fallen in love with anyone except Zolena. He was frequently asked to participate in the ritual of First Rites. Unfortunately, this only added to his self-loathing, as he was emotionally gratified by the innocence and attachment that the girls felt, but his 'love' for them only lasted for that night. As Jondalar saw it, he had perverted sacred traditions to meet his own emotional needs many times over. Eventually, Jondalar began a relationship with Marona, a fellow member of the Ninth Cave who was considered the most beautiful woman among the Zelandonii. Though he did not love Marona or the vicious, spiteful spirit beneath her beautiful exterior, Jondalar could not find anyone else appropriate to mate (marry). It is shortly before the Summer Meeting when they had planned to tie the knot that Jondalar unexpectedly decides to accompany Thonolan on his Journey, resulting in Jondalar essentially leaving Marona at the altar. He would not return home for five years. Journey Jondalar and Thonolan made their way down the Great Mother, meeting several other peoples along the way. Thonolan, an outgoing, easy-mannered young man, made friends easily, much like the man of his hearth, Willomar. After they had traveled for some time, Thonolan was injured by a rhino and rescued by the Sharamudoi. After being transported back to the camp where they live to heal from his wounds, Thonolan falls in love with a woman named Jetamio, and soon found himself mated and cross-mated with his Shamudoi wife and a Ramudoi couple. Jondalar did not lack for company during his time among the Sharamudoi, and formed a strong attachment to a woman named Serenio; but, as with his other relationships, Jondalar was more physically invested than emotionally. Unfortunately, Jetamio died in childbirth, and Thonolan, stricken, took to his Journey again, hoping to escape grief too heavy to outrun. Jondalar abandoned his relationship with Serenio and continued to accompany him. Their travels led them all the way to the Beran Sea, the end of the Great Mother River. Lost in his grief over the loss of Jetamio, Thonolan insisted on going on, planning to travel "until the Great Mother took [him].". When a cave lioness stole a deer which Jondalar and Thonolan had just killed during a hunt, Thonolan insisted on tracking her back to her den and retrieving his kill. Inside the box canyon where the lioness and her mate lived, however, the lionesses mate attacked them. Thonolan was killed, and Jondalar almost mauled to death. In the haze of blood loss and pain, he thought a beautiful spirit woman had come for him; when he woke, he found that she was in fact a woman of extraordinary beauty and great skill, living alone in a small cave in a valley. The woman did not know how to communicate using spoken language when they met, but Jondalar taught her to speak Zelandonii and learned that her name was Ayla. Believing that she was either an acolyte of some tribe's zelandonia or a full-fledged Zelandoni on some kind of sacred retreat, Jondalar was beguiled by her beauty and intrigued by the mystery she presented. Jondalar and Ayla fall in love with one another while Jondalar recovered from his injuries and after awaking from a dream of her own mother speaking to her, Ayla, using the grammar and syntax she has been hearing from Jondalar since she found him, is able to speak Zelandonii almost fluently. As Jondalar learns more about Ayla's background and history, he realizes her only experience with sex is rape and shares First Rites with her, teaching her the Mother's Gift of Pleasure. Due to Ayla's upbringing among the Clan and the fact that she had given birth to a half-clan son, Jondalar initially believed that she would be vilified and shunned by the Zelandonii. This inner struggle was a great personal crisis for him and Ayla as it affected their relations both in "Valley of Horses" and "The Mammoth Hunters", generally interfering strongly in their relationship as a couple until Jondalar could put his natal prejudices to rest. This "problem attitude" caused serious problems for their relationship in the beginning, as he did not believe himself strong enough to stand beside Ayla in the face of such hatred as he imagined she would incite; this insecurity stemmed from both his attachment to his family and his great self-hatred over the scandals he had already caused. Through nearly losing Ayla to Ranec of the Mamutoi and then nearly to death, Jondalar has overcome his fears and is willing to stand with Ayla even if it meant being cast out of the Zelandonii; however, in The Shelters of Stone, Zelandonii reaction to Ayla's background is not nearly as vehement as Jondalar imagined and no threats to cast either he or Ayla out were even made. However, it is not common knowledge that Ayla had a son of "mixed spirits" (a Neanderthal-Cro Magnon hybrid), and Zelandoni (Zolena) advised her not to mention him to anyone. If, in the final books, the information becomes public, it may cause changes in the attitudes of the Zelandonii, especially among the zelandonia. However, Ayla has also given birth to a baby girl with no trace of "mixed spirits", which may or may not dispel the idea that she would draw 'flathead' spirits to herself because of her previous child. Even so, Jondalar has sworn not to leave Ayla, and if the Zelandonii turn against her, he is likely to leave his people with her and his daughter, Jonayla. During the final book, Jondalar, although still secure in his relationship with Ayla, starts seeing ex-girlfriend Marona on the side. This is because Ayla becomes incredibly busy and therefore also tired with her increasing training to join the ranks of the zelandonia. In this society, sex is recreational, and Jondalar's actions are not considered adulterous. However, when Ayla finds out, she is devastated, which leads to a new rift between the two. This is only overcome when Ayla nearly dies during a spiritual coma and Jondalar brings her back. Ayla's Gift of Knowledge from her spiritual Calling is that men are necessary in the conception of babies, and this leads to Ayla and Jondalar's relationship being the first monogamous pairing resembling current-day marriage. Traits, skills and powers Jondalar is an accomplished flint knapper, occasionally identified as an equal to other known master knappers such as Wymez of the Mamutoi and his father, Dalanar. He once thought to become a carver, and has some skill at that trade as well. He is an able hunter and tracker. He has participated in many of Ayla's 'miracles', such as the conscious training of the world's second domesticated horse, and was almost single-handedly responsible for the invention of the spearthrower and two-piece spear that breaks on impact leaving the shaft undamaged and reusable compared to a single piece spear that frequently breaks. Jondalar is known to be decent, stubborn, and extremely emotional; the major indiscretions in his life (the affair with Zolena, the assault on Ladroman, the emotional vampirism of First Rites) have all been precipitated by the intensity of his emotion and his lack of self-control. He supposedly gained some control during his years living with the Lanzadonii, but Ayla's brief relationship with Ranec caused an explosion of jealousy which belies this idea. He has also been endowed with a "prodigious manhood," and, as no woman has had the ability to accept his full measure save Ayla, he has been unable to find total abandon and sexual fulfillment, despite some gratification. In a bit of heavy-handed symbolism on Auel's part, his emotional intensity parallels his physical prowess; on every level he is forced to hold back, for fear that he will overwhelm and hurt his partner, and the only woman with the emotional and physical depths to fully accommodate him is the heroine, Ayla. Finally, he is a very physical creature, and has exhibited the practice of measuring distances quite accurately by judging them against his own height (6'6"), the length of his stride, and so on. While Jondalar does not have the psychic abilities Ayla seems to, he has a few prescient moments. In Ayla's valley cave, Jondalar has a strange dream about the Earth Mother giving birth, as the legends of the Zelandonii describe; he sees that Doni not only gives birth to the land and water and animals and Zelandonii, but to the Clan as well. When he wakes, he feels a strangeness in the air, and sees Ayla crying; he has an impression of the Mother crying superimposed over Ayla. It is said of Jondalar that Doni is unable to refuse him anything he asks for. During a ceremony of the Mamutoi, when Ayla and Mamut use the root which triggered her psychic visions with Creb during the Clan Gathering, she and Mamut become trapped in the void and cannot find their way out; Creb had pulled Ayla out during her visions, and neither she nor Mamut knew how he had done it. Jondalar, fearing that Ayla had died, fell to his knees beside her unconscious body and begged the Mother to bring her back. Ayla and Mamut felt themselves pulled back, and Mamut later tells Ayla that they were returned only by great strength of will but it could also be due to Jondalar's plea. He also tells Ayla that she will need the protection of such a powerful will if she ever decides to use the herbs again. When Mamut tells Jondalar that Ayla's life belongs to the Earth Mother and that whomever she mates will be tied to her purpose, it seems as though he is trying to warn Jondalar not to leave her. When Mamut tells Ranec and Vincavec the same thing, it seems that he is attempting to warn them away from Ayla, obliquely informing them that they are not suited to help Ayla in the purpose Mut has for her. Physical traits Jondalar is portrayed as masculine and virile by Auel. Relationships Dalanar Dalanar is leader of the First Cave of the Lanzadonii, a splinter colony located in western Switzerland and former spouse of Marthona, now the former leader of the Ninth Cave of the Zelandonii. Dalanar and Marthona had a complicated and deep love affair about which the singers and story tellers still speak of with reverence and perhaps a touch of envy. As revealed in The Shelters of Stone, Dalanar is so close in physical resemblance to Jondalar that Ayla found herself momentarily confused by and responding physically (sexually) to his nearness. He is still good friends with Marthona, and leads his people to camp near the Ninth Cave encampment at the Zelandonii summer meeting central to the fifth book. Like Jondalar, Dalanar is a master flint knapper, but like his ex-mate Marthona, has a strong leadership drive, and need to assert himself in such a capacity. That need to express his opinion and corollary differences of opinion with Marthona is the best and only description in his back story as to why he and Marthona split apart and he came to lead a colony group from the Ninth Cave off to the east while Jondalar was just a toddler. Why the splinter colony (from the ninth cave) he founded is named the Lanzadonii vs. Zelandonii is never adequately explained, though it is clear in several scenes of The Shelters of Stone that the Lanzadonii are still considered to belongpart of the greater peopleat least in the minds of several groups of leaders and Zeladonii shamans. Thonolan Thonolan, the younger brother of Jondalar, is handsome, dark haired and significantly shorter than his very tall brother, but ready with a laugh, frequent smiles and constantly joking. He is fifteen to Jondalar's eighteen when he decides to undertake "his journey" to the mouth of the Great Mother River, and Jondalar decides to tag along to protect his younger sibling, whom he loves dearly. The second book, The Valley of Horses introduces Jondalar and Thonolan traveling from the lands of the Lanzadonii, in today's western Switzerland, across the great glaciers capping the Alps into the upper Danube valley (Germany or Austria, given fictional license and Ice Age glacier sizes) accompanying his younger impetuous and head-strong brother Thonolan on his journey, putatively to reach the mouth of the Great Mother River (Danube). Thonolan is charismatic, good looking, engaging, likable, irreverent and hardly ever serious while being skilled at wood bending and spear straightening, his craft in the master-of-all-trades world imagined by Auel. He has a tendency to devil may care heroics: a moment of carelessness gets him mauled by a woolly rhinoceros, and another episode gets him killed by a Cave Lion. Jondalar's life is impacted as well by both episodes of his brother's behavioral carelessness. In the first case, Thonolan's mauling allows the brothers to meet with another Stone Age society, winter with them, and Thonolan marries into the group. The two renew their journey to the end of the Great Mother River when his bride dies in childbirth. Thonolan's personality changes, becoming dark and fatalisticand even more prone to taking risks. In the second case, Thonolan's death brings him together with Ayla. Zolena Zolena, now First Among Those Who Serve the Great Earth Mother (Zelandoni), was the first love of Jondalar's life. Originally his tutor in the art of sex, Zolena and Jondalar developed a strong emotional, but socially unacceptable, attachment as well as physical compatibility. Before the incident with Ladroman which resulted in Jondalar's temporary exile, Jondalar and Zolena were planning to tie the knot. After Jondalar left in exile, Zolena became an acolyte of the zelandonia, and joined the ranks of doniers during the Summer Meeting when Jondalar left on his Journey with Thonolan. Upon Jondalar's return, Zolena displays great affection for Jondalar, and, according to Ayla, still loves him. She has become 'a fat old woman'; Zolena has guessed that she was able to become First because the Great Mother knew she would grow to resemble Her. She has no children and is fiercely protective of those in her charge, especially the man she once considered breaking traditions for and mating. Joplaya During the time he lived with Dalanar and the Lanzadonii, Jondalar came to know his 'hearth cousin' Joplaya quite well. (As conjected by Ayla, Joplaya is most likely Jondalar's half-sister via Dalanar, but since it is understood that only women can make children there is no such connection aside from a cultural relationship of 'hearth' or 'close' cousins.) Joplaya fell madly in love with Jondalar, and hoped that he would come to feel the same way about her. It was obvious by the way he treated her that he only felt a kinship with her, as well as a friendly rivalry due to her own skills as a flint knapper. Even after Jondalar returned to the Zelandonii, Joplaya still held out hope that he would realize her feelings and return them. Only after Jondalar returned from his Journey with Ayla, madly in love, did Joplaya give up hope of a deeper relationship between them; she accepted the suit of Echozar, a half-Clan man who had been taken in first by Andovan of the S'Armunai and then by the Lanzadonii after Andovan's death. The two mated at the same Matrimonial as Ayla and Jondalar. Marona Considered the most beautiful woman at recent Zelandonii Summer Meetings, Jondalar began a relationship with Marona at some point between his return from the Lanzadonii cave and leaving with Thonolan on their Journey. Marona was a fellow member of the Ninth Cave and a cousin of Jondalar's, though distantly related. Known for her spiteful behavior and her skill with the Mother's Gift of Pleasure, Marona was planning to tie the knot with Jondalar at the Summer Meeting before he left unexpectedly. She was understandably vexed, but when Jondalar returned five years later he discovered that she still begrudged him their sundered engagement; she has also, by extension, shown vicious hostility towards Ayla. Though she found an acceptable substitute to mate, she and her unnamed spouse severed the knot several years later; she has no children, and characters have speculated that she is barren. During the final book, she re-kindled what she believed to be a relationship with Jondalar, but which was revealed as purely physical gratification on his part as Ayla was so often away, distracted or tired due to her spiritual training and duties. When Jondalar asserts his great love for Ayla, she leaves, dejected and embarrassed. Noria A young Hadumai woman whom Jondalar met on his Journey. When he and Thonolan were taken in by the Hadumai for a time, Haduma, the matriarch and founder of the tribe, requested that Jondalar be the man at Noria's First Rites. (The visitors had barely established a common language when this happened, a testament to Jondalar's obvious charisma.) Haduma indicated that Jondalar would impregnate Noria during First Rites, and that the child would have Jondalar's blue eyes. The truth of this claim was never proven, as Jondalar and Ayla were unable to visit Noria and/or her purported child on their return Journey. Serenio Jondalar's lover among the Sharamudoi, Serenio was an unmated woman with a young son, Darvo; Jondalar found her pleasant and companionable, but could not bring himself to love her. The brief description of their liaison seems to be highly symbolic, used by Auel as a device to illustrate Jondalar's emotional state of mind before meeting Ayla. When Jondalar and Ayla return from the valley and stop at the Sharamudoi camp where he and Thonolan had stayed previously, Serenio had left the camp to mate with a cousin of Thonolan's female cross-mate; Darvo stayed with the Shamudoi. Ayla As described above, Ayla is the second and true love of Jondalar's life. Having saved his life and healed him so well that no one would expect that he had been mauled by a cave lion, Ayla won Jondalar's heart with a potent mix of experience and innocence, strength and vulnerability. She is a mature woman who had lived a lifetime before they met, yet approached life with the innocent qualities of a young woman at First Rites. Mamut, Ayla's adoptive father and the most powerful holy man among the Mamutoi, hinted more than once that Jondalar is a necessary part of whatever fate the Great Mother has in store for Ayla. Jondalar has fathered a daughter with Ayla named Jonayla. They become the first true happily monogamous couple. Ayla loves Jondalar. In the third book of Earths Children, they have some conflict. Jondalar thinks Ayla doesn't love him because she is talking with Ranec. And Ayla thinks that Jondalar doesn't love her because he is acting jealous and mad. Notes and references "The Valley of Horses" Second book of the series "The Mammoth Hunters" Third book tying into archeological digs in the Ukraine and Poland along the margins of the ice sheet. "The Plains of Passage" A travel book detailing Ayla and Jondalar's adventures traveling up the Danube basin and recrossing the Alps. "The Shelters of Stone" Similar to "The Mammoth Hunters"'', the focus of this cultural exploration is the interactions of the paleolithic society of Jondalar's Zelan Earth's Children Fictional European people Fictional fishers Fictional hunters Fictional prehistoric characters Literary characters introduced in 1982
4793282	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failed%20back%20syndrome	Failed back syndrome	Failed back syndrome or post-laminectomy syndrome is a condition characterized by chronic pain following back surgeries. Many factors can contribute to the onset or development of FBS, including residual or recurrent spinal disc herniation, persistent post-operative pressure on a spinal nerve, altered joint mobility, joint hypermobility with instability, scar tissue (fibrosis), depression, anxiety, sleeplessness, spinal muscular deconditioning and even Cutibacterium acnes infection. An individual may be predisposed to the development of FBS due to systemic disorders such as diabetes, autoimmune disease and peripheral blood vessels (vascular) disease. Common symptoms associated with FBS include diffuse, dull and aching pain involving the back or legs. Abnormal sensibility may include sharp, pricking, and stabbing pain in the extremities. The term "post-laminectomy syndrome" is used by some doctors to indicate the same condition as failed back syndrome. The treatments of post-laminectomy syndrome include physical therapy, microcurrent electrical neuromuscular stimulator, minor nerve blocks, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), behavioral medicine, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAID) medications, membrane stabilizers, antidepressants, spinal cord stimulation, and intrathecal morphine pump. Use of epidural steroid injections may be minimally helpful in some cases. The targeted anatomic use of a potent anti-inflammatory anti-TNF therapeutics is being investigated. The number of spinal surgeries varies around the world. The United States and the Netherlands report the highest number of spinal surgeries, while the United Kingdom and Sweden report the fewest. Recently, there have been calls for more aggressive surgical treatment in Europe. Success rates of spinal surgery vary for many reasons. Signs and symptoms Cause Patients who have undergone one or more operations on the lumbar spine and continue to experience pain afterward can be divided into two groups. The first group comprise those in whom surgery was not actually indicated or the surgery performed was not likely to achieve the desired result, and those in whom surgery was indicated but which technically did not achieve the intended result. Patients whose pain complaints are of a radicular nature have a better chance for a good outcome than those whose pain complaints are limited to pain in the back. The second group includes patients who had incomplete or inadequate operations. Lumbar spinal stenosis may be overlooked, especially when it is associated with disc protrusion or herniation. Removal of a disc, while not addressing the underlying presence of stenosis, can lead to disappointing results. Occasionally operating on the wrong level occurs, as does failure to recognize an extruded or sequestered disc fragment. Inadequate or inappropriate surgical exposure can lead to other problems in not getting to the underlying pathology. Hakelius reported a 3% incidence of serious nerve root damage. In 1992, Turner et al. published a survey of 74 journal articles which reported the results after decompression for spinal stenosis. Good to excellent results were on average reported by 64% of the patients. There was, however, a wide variation in outcomes reported. There was a better result in patients who had a degenerative spondylolisthesis. A similarly designed study by Mardjekto et al. found that a concomitant spinal arthrodesis (fusion) had a greater success rate. Herron and Trippi evaluated 24 patients, all with degenerative spondylolisthesis treated with laminectomy alone. At follow-up varying between 18 and 71 months after surgery, 20 out of the 24 patients reported a good result. Epstein reported on 290 patients treated over a 25-year period. Excellent results were obtained in 69% and good results in 13%. These optimistic reports do not correlate with "return to competitive employment" rates, which for the most part are dismal in most spinal surgery series. In the past two decades there has been a dramatic increase in fusion surgery in the U.S.: in 2001 over 122,000 lumbar fusions were performed, a 22% increase from 1990 in fusions per 100,000 population, increasing to an estimate of 250,000 in 2003, and 500,000 in 2006. In 2003, the national bill for the hardware for fusion alone was estimated to have soared to $2.5 billion a year. For patients with continued pain after surgery which is not due to the above complications or conditions, interventional pain physicians speak of the need to identify the "pain generator" i.e. the anatomical structure responsible for the patient's pain. To be effective, the surgeon must operate on the correct anatomic structure, but is often not possible to determine the source of the pain. The reason for this is that many patients with chronic pain often have disc bulges at multiple spinal levels and the physical examination and imaging studies are unable to pinpoint the source of pain. In addition, spinal fusion itself, particularly if more than one spinal level is operated on, may result in "adjacent segment degeneration". This is thought to occur because the fused segments may result in increased torsional and stress forces being transmitted to the intervertebral discs located above and below the fused vertebrae. This pathology is one reason behind the development of artificial discs as a possible alternative to fusion surgery. But fusion surgeons argue that spinal fusion is more time-tested, and artificial discs contain metal hardware that is unlikely to last as long as biological material without shattering and leaving metal fragments in the spinal canal. These represent different schools of thought. (See discussion on disc replacement infra.) Another highly relevant consideration is the increasing recognition of the importance of "chemical radiculitis" in the generation of back pain. A primary focus of surgery is to remove "pressure" or reduce mechanical compression on a neural element: either the spinal cord, or a nerve root. But it is increasingly recognized that back pain, rather than being solely due to compression, may instead entirely be due to chemical inflammation of the nerve root. It has been known for several decades that disc herniations result in a massive inflammation of the associated nerve root. In the past five years increasing evidence has pointed to a specific inflammatory mediator of this pain. This inflammatory molecule, called tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF), is released not only by the herniated or protruding disc, but also in cases of disc tear (annular tear), by facet joints, and in spinal stenosis. In addition to causing pain and inflammation, TNF may also contribute to disc degeneration. If the cause of the pain is not compression, but rather is inflammation mediated by TNF, then this may well explain why surgery might not relieve the pain, and might even exacerbate it, resulting in FBSS. Role of sacroiliac joint (SIJ) in lower back pain (LBP) A 2005 review by Cohen concluded,'The SI joint is a real yet underappreciated pain generator in an estimated 15% to 25% of patients with axial LBP'. Studies by Ha, et al., show that the incidence of SI joint degeneration in post-lumbar fusion surgery is 75% at 5 years post-surgery, based on imaging. Studies by DePalma and Liliang, et al., demonstrate that 40–61% of post-lumbar fusion patients were symptomatic for SI joint dysfunction based on diagnostic blocks. Smoking Recent studies have shown that cigarette smokers will routinely fail all spinal surgery, if the goal of that surgery is the decrease of pain and impairment. Many surgeons consider smoking to be an absolute contraindication to spinal surgery. Nicotine appears to interfere with bone metabolism through induced calcitonin resistance and decreased osteoblastic function. It may also restrict small blood vessel diameter leading to increased scar formation. There is an association between cigarette smoking, back pain and chronic pain syndromes of all types. In a report of 426 spinal surgery patients in Denmark, smoking was shown to have a negative effect on fusion and overall patient satisfaction, but no measurable influence on the functional outcome. There is a validation of the hypothetical assumption that postoperative smoking cessation helps to reverse the impact of cigarette smoking on outcome after spinal fusion. If patients cease cigarette smoking in the immediate post operative period, there is a positive impact on success. Regular smoking in adolescence was associated with low back pain in young adults. Pack-years of smoking showed an exposure-response relationship among girls. A recent study suggested that cigarette smoking adversely affects serum hydrocodone levels. Prescribing physicians should be aware that in some cigarette smokers, serum hydrocodone levels might not be detectable. In a study from Denmark reviewing many reports in the literature, it was concluded that smoking should be considered a weak risk indicator and not a cause of low back pain. In a multitude of epidemiologic studies, an association between smoking and low back pain has been reported, but variations in approach and study results make this literature difficult to reconcile. In a massive study of 3482 patients undergoing lumbar spine surgery from the National Spine Network, comorbidities of (1) smoking, (2) compensation, (3) self reported poor overall health and (4) pre-existing psychological factors were predictive in a high risk of failure. Followup was carried out at 3 months and one year after surgery. Pre-operative depressive disorders tended not to do well. Smoking has been shown to increase the incidence of post operative infection as well as decrease fusion rates. One study showed 90% of post operative infections occurred in smokers, as well as myonecrosis (muscle destruction) around the wound. Pathology Before the advent of CT scanning, the pathology in failed back syndrome was difficult to understand. Computerized tomography in conjunction with metrizamide myelography in the late 1960s and 1970s allowed direct observation of the mechanisms involved in post operative failures. Six distinct pathologic conditions were identified: Recurrent or persistent disc herniation Spinal stenosis Post operative infection Epidural post-operative fibrosis Adhesive arachnoiditis Nerve Injury Recurrent or persistent disc herniation Removal of a disc at one level can lead to disc herniation at a different level at a later time. Even the most complete surgical excision of the disc still leaves 30–40% of the disc, which cannot be safely removed. This retained disc can re-herniate sometime after surgery. Virtually every major structure in the abdomen and the posterior retroperitoneal space has been injured, at some point, by removing discs using posterior laminectomy/discectomy surgical procedures. The most prominent of these is a laceration of the left internal iliac vein, which lies in close proximity to the anterior portion of the disc. In some studies, recurrent pain in the same radicular pattern or a different pattern can be as high as 50% after disc surgery. Many observers have noted that the most common cause of a failed back syndrome is caused from recurrent disc herniation at the same level originally operated. A rapid removal in a second surgery can be curative. The clinical picture of a recurrent disc herniation usually involves a significant pain-free interval. However, physical findings may be lacking, and a good history is necessary. The time period for the emergence of new symptoms can be short or long. Diagnostic signs such as the straight leg raise test may be negative even if real pathology is present. The presence of a positive myelogram may represent a new disc herniation, but can also be indicative of a post operative scarring situation simply mimicking a new disc. Newer MRI imaging techniques have clarified this dilemma somewhat. Conversely, a recurrent disc can be difficult to detect in the presence of post op scarring. Myelography is inadequate to completely evaluate the patient for recurrent disc disease, and CT or MRI scanning is necessary. Measurement of tissue density can be helpful. Even though the complications of laminectomy for disc herniation can be significant, a recent series of studies involving thousands of patients published under auspices of Dartmouth Medical School concluded at four-year follow-up that those who underwent surgery for a lumbar disc herniation achieved greater improvement than nonoperatively treated patients in all primary and secondary outcomes except work status. Spinal stenosis Spinal stenosis can be a late complication after laminectomy for disc herniation or when surgery was performed for the primary pathologic condition of spinal stenosis. In the Maine Study, among patients with lumbar spinal stenosis completing 8- to 10-year follow-up, low back pain relief, predominant symptom improvement, and satisfaction with the current state were similar in patients initially treated surgically or nonsurgically. However, leg pain relief and greater back-related functional status continued to favor those initially receiving surgical treatment. A large study of spinal stenosis from Finland found the prognostic factors for ability to work after surgery were ability to work before surgery, age under 50 years, and no prior back surgery. The very long-term outcome (mean follow-up time of 12.4 years) was excellent-to-good in 68% of patients (59% women and 73% men). Furthermore, in the longitudinal follow-up, the result improved between 1985 and 1991. No special complications were manifested during this very long-term follow-up time. The patients with total or subtotal block in preoperative myelography achieved the best result. Furthermore, patients with block stenosis improved their result significantly in the longitudinal follow-up. The postoperative stenosis seen in computed tomography (CT) scans was observed in 65% of 90 patients, and it was severe in 23 patients (25%). However, this successful or unsuccessful surgical decompression did not correlate with patients' subjective disability, walking capacity or severity of pain. Previous back surgery had a strong worsening effect on surgical results. This effect was very clear in patients with total block in the preoperative myelography. The surgical result of a patient with previous back surgery was similar to that of a patient without previous back surgery when the time interval between the last two operations was more than 18 months. Post-operative MRI findings of stenosis are probably of limited value compared to symptoms experienced by patients. Patients' perception of improvement had a much stronger correlation with long-term surgical outcome than structural findings seen on postoperation magnetic resonance imaging. Degenerative findings had a greater effect on patients' walking capacity than stenotic findings. Postoperative radiologic stenosis was very common in patients operated on for lumbar spinal stenosis, but this did not correlate with clinical outcome. The clinician must be cautious when reconciling clinical symptoms and signs with postoperative computed tomography findings in patients operated on for lumbar spinal stenosis. A study from Georgetown University reported on one-hundred patients who had undergone decompressive surgery for lumbar stenosis between 1980 and 1985. Four patients with postfusion stenosis were included. A 5-year follow-up period was achieved in 88 patients. The mean age was 67 years, and 80% were over 60 years of age. There was a high incidence of coexisting medical diseases, but the principal disability was lumbar stenosis with neurological involvement. Initially there was a high incidence of success, but recurrence of neurological involvement and persistence of low-back pain led to an increasing number of failures. By 5 years this number had reached 27% of the available population pool, suggesting that the failure rate could reach 50% within the projected life expectancies of most patients. Of the 26 failures, 16 were secondary to renewed neurological involvement, which occurred at new levels of stenosis in eight and recurrence of stenosis at operative levels in eight. Reoperation was successful in 12 of these 16 patients, but two required a third operation. The incidence of spondylolisthesis at 5 years was higher in the surgical failures (12 of 26 patients) than in the surgical successes (16 of 64). Spondylolisthetic stenosis tended to recur within a few years following decompression. Because of age and associated illnesses, fusion may be difficult to achieve in this group. Post operative infection A small minority of lumbar surgical patients will develop a post operative infection. In most cases, this is a bad complication and does not bode well for eventual improvement or future employability. Reports from the surgical literature indicate an infection rate anywhere from 0% to almost 12%. The incidence of infection tends to increase as the complexity of the procedure and operating time increase. Usage of metal implants (instrumentation) tends to increase the risk of infection. Factors associated with an increased infection include diabetes mellitus, obesity, malnutrition, smoking, previous infection, rheumatoid arthritis, and immunodeficiency. Previous wound infection should be considered as a contraindication to any further spinal surgery, since the likelihood of improving such patients with more surgery is small. Antimicrobial prophylaxis (giving antibiotics during or after surgery before an infection begins) reduces the rate of surgical site infection in lumbar spine surgery, but a great deal of variation exists regarding its use. In a Japanese study, utilizing the Centers for Disease Control recommendations for antibiotic prophylaxis, an overall rate of 0.7% infection was noted, with a single dose antibiotic group having 0.4% infection rate and multiple dosage antibiotic infection rate of 0.8%. The authors had previously used prophylactic antibiotics for 5 to 7 postoperative days. Based on the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guideline, their antibiotic prophylaxis was changed to the day of surgery only. It was concluded there was no statistical difference in the rate of infection between the two different antibiotic protocols. Based on the CDC guideline, a single dose of prophylactic antibiotic was proven to be efficacious for the prevention of infection in lumbar spine surgeries. Epidural post-operative fibrosis Epidural scarring following a laminectomy for disc excision is a common feature when re-operating for recurrent sciatica or radiculopathy. When the scarring is associated with a disc herniation and/or recurrent spinal stenosis, it is relatively common, occurring in more than 60% of cases. For a time, it was theorized that placing a fat graft over the dural could prevent post operative scarring. However, initial enthusiasm has waned in recent years. In an extensive laminectomy involving 2 or more vertebra, post operative scarring is the norm. It is most often seen around the L5 and S1 nerve roots. Adhesive arachnoiditis Fibrous scarring can also be a complication within the subarachnoid space. It is notoriously difficult to detect and evaluate. Prior to the development of magnetic resonance imaging, the only way to ascertain the presence of arachnoiditis was by opening the dura. In the days of CT scanning and Pantopaque and later, Metrizamide myelography, the presence of arachnoiditis could be speculated based on radiographic findings. Often, myelography prior to the introduction of Metrizamide was the cause of arachnoiditis. It can also be caused by the long term pressure brought about with either a severe disc herniation or spinal stenosis. The presence of both epidural scarring and arachnoiditis in the same patient are probably quite common. Arachnoiditis is a broad term denoting inflammation of the meninges and subarachnoid space. A variety of causes exist, including infectious, inflammatory, and neoplastic processes. Infectious causes include bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic agents. Noninfectious inflammatory processes include surgery, intrathecal hemorrhage, and the administration of intrathecal (inside the dural canal) agents such as myelographic contrast media, anesthetics (e.g. chloroprocaine), and steroids (e.g. Depo-Medrol, Kenalog). Lately iatrogenic arachnoiditis has been attributed to misplaced Epidural Steroid Injection therapy when accidentally administered intrathecally. The preservatives and suspension agents found in all steroid injectates, which aren't indicated for epidural administration by the U.S. Food & Drug Administration due to reports of severe adverse events including arachnoiditis, paralysis and death, have now been directly linked to the onset of the disease following the initial stage of chemical meningitis. Neoplasia includes the hematogenous spread of systemic tumors, such as breast and lung carcinoma, melanoma, and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Neoplasia also includes direct seeding of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from primary central nervous system (CNS) tumors such as glioblastoma multiforme, medulloblastoma, ependymoma, and choroid plexus carcinoma. Strictly speaking, the most common cause of arachnoiditis in failed back syndrome is not infectious or from cancer. It is due to non-specific scarring secondary to the surgery or the underlying pathology. Nerve injury Laceration of a nerve root, or damage from cautery or traction can lead to chronic pain, however this can be difficult to determine. Chronic compression of the nerve root by a persistent agent such as disc, bone (osteophyte) or scarring can also permanently damage the nerve root. Epidural scarring caused by the initial pathology or occurring after the surgery can also contribute to nerve damage. In one study of failed back patients, the presence of pathology was noted to be at the same site as the level of surgery performed in 57% of cases. The remaining cases developed pathology at a different level, or on the opposite side, but at the same level as the surgery was performed. In theory, all failed back patients have some sort of nerve injury or damage which leads to a persistence of symptoms after a reasonable healing time. Diagnosis Management Failed back syndrome (FBS) is a well-recognized complication of surgery of the lumbar spine. It can result in chronic pain and disability, often with disastrous emotional and financial consequences to the patient. Many patients have traditionally been classified as "spinal cripples" and are consigned to a life of long-term narcotic treatment with little chance of recovery. Despite extensive work in recent years, FBS remains a challenging and costly disorder. Opioids A study of chronic pain patients from the University of Wisconsin found that methadone is most widely known for its use in the treatment of opioid dependence, but methadone also provides effective analgesia. Patients who experience inadequate pain relief or intolerable side effects with other opioids or who suffer from neuropathic pain may benefit from a transition to methadone as their analgesic agent. Adverse effects, particularly respiratory depression and death, make a fundamental knowledge of methadone's pharmacological properties essential to the provider considering methadone as analgesic therapy for a patient with chronic pain. Patient selection Patients who have sciatic pain (pain in the back, radiating down the buttock to the leg) and clear clinical findings of an identifiable radicular nerve loss caused by a herniated disc will have a better post operative course than those who simply have low back pain. If a specific disc herniation causing pressure on a nerve root cannot be identified, the results of surgery are likely to be disappointing. Patients involved in worker's compensation, tort litigation or other compensation systems tend to fare more poorly after surgery. Surgery for spinal stenosis usually has a good outcome, if the surgery is done in an extensive manner, and done within the first year or so of the appearance of symptoms. Oaklander and North define the Failed Back Syndrome as a chronic pain patient after one or more surgical procedure to the spine. They delineated these characteristics of the relation between the patient and the surgeon: The patient makes increasing demands on the surgeon for pain relief. The surgeon may feel a strong responsibility to provide a remedy when the surgery has not achieved the desired goals. The patient grows increasingly angry at the failure and may become litigious. There is an escalation of narcotic pain medication which can be habituating or addictive. In the face of expensive conservative treatments which are likely to fail, the surgeon is persuaded to attempt further surgery, even though this is likely to fail as well. The probability of returning to gainful employment decreases with increasing length of disability. The financial incentives to remain disabled may be perceived as outweighing the incentive to recover. In the absence of a financial source for disability or worker's compensation, other psychological features may limit the ability of the patient to recover from surgery. Some patients are simply unfortunate, and fall into the category of "chronic pain" despite their desire to recover and the best efforts of the physicians involved in their care. Even less invasive forms of surgery are not uniformly successful; approximately 30,000–40,000 laminectomy patients obtain either no relief of symptomatology or a recurrence of symptoms. Another less invasive form of spinal surgery, percutaneous disc surgery, has reported revision rates as high as 65%. It is no surprise, therefore, that FBSS is a significant medical concern which merits further research and attention by the medical and surgical communities. Total disc replacement Lumbar total disc replacement was originally designed to be an alternative to lumbar arthrodesis (fusion). The procedure was met with great excitement and heightened expectations both in the United States and Europe. In late 2004, the first lumbar total disc replacement received approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). More experience existed in Europe. Since then, the initial excitement has given way to skepticism and concern. Various failure rates and strategies for revision of total disc replacement have been reported. The role of artificial or total disc replacement in the treatment of spinal disorders remains ill-defined and unclear. Evaluation of any new technique is difficult or impossible because physician experience may be minimal or lacking. Patient expectations may be distorted. It has been difficult to establish clear cut indications for artificial disc replacement. It may not be a replacement procedure or alternative to fusion, since recent studies have shown that 100% of fusion patients had one or more contraindications to disc replacement. The role of disc replacement must come from new indications not defined in today's literature or a relaxation of current contraindications. A study by Regan found the result of replacement was the same at L4-5 and L5-S1 with the CHARITE disc. However, the ProDisc II had more favorable results at L4-5 compared with L5-S1. A younger age was predictive of a better outcome in several studies. In others it has been found to be a negative predictor or of no predictive value. Older patients may have more complications. Prior spinal surgery has mixed effects on disc replacement. It has been reported to be negative in several studies. It has been reported to have no effect in other studies. Many studies are simply inconclusive. Existing evidence does not allow drawing definite conclusions about the status of disc replacement at present. Electrical stimulation Many failed back patients are significantly impaired by chronic pain in the back and legs. Many of these will be treated with some form of electrical stimulation. This can be either a transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation device placed on the skin over the back or a nerve stimulator implanted into the back with electrical probes which directly touch the spinal cord. Also, some chronic pain patients utilize fentanyl or narcotic patches. These patients are generally severely impaired and it is unrealistic to conclude that application of neurostimulation will reduce that impairment. For example, it is doubtful that neurostimulation will improve the patient enough to return to competitive employment. Neurostimulation is palliative. TENS units work by blocking neurotransmission as described by the pain theory of Melzack and Wall. Success rates for implanted neurostimulation has been reported to be 25% to 55%. Success is defined as a relative decrease in pain. Chiropractic Limited case series have shown improvement for patients with failed back surgery who were managed with chiropractic care. Avoiding post-laminectomy/laminotomy syndrome Smaller procedures that do not remove bone (such as Endoscopic Transforaminal Lumbar Discectomy and Reconfiguration) do not cause post laminectomy/laminotomy syndrome. Prognosis Under rules promulgated by Titles II and XVI of the United States Social Security Act, chronic radiculopathy, arachnoiditis and spinal stenosis are recognized as disabling conditions under Listing 1.04 A (radiculopathy), 1.04 B (arachnoiditis) and 1.04 C (spinal stenosis). Return to work In a groundbreaking Canadian study, Waddell et al. reported on the value of repeat surgery and the return to work in worker's compensation cases. They concluded that workers who undergo spinal surgery take longer to return to their jobs. Once two spinal surgeries are performed, few if any ever return to gainful employment of any kind. After two spinal surgeries, most people in the worker's comp system will not be made better by more surgery. Most will be worse after a third surgery. Episodes of back pain associated with on the job injuries in the worker's compensation setting are usually of short duration. About 10% of such episodes will not be simple, and will degenerate into chronic and disabling back pain conditions, even if surgery is not performed. It has been hypothesized that job dissatisfaction and individual perception of physical demands are associated with an increased time of recovery or an increased risk of no recovery at all. Individual psychological and social work factors, as well as worker-employer relations are also likely to be associated with time and rates of recovery. A Finnish study of return to work in patients with spinal stenosis treated by surgery found that: (1) none of the patients who had retired before the operation returned to work afterward. (2) The variables that predicted postoperative ability to work for women were: being fit to work at the time of operation, age < 50 years at the time of operation, and duration of lumbar spinal stenosis symptoms < 2 years. (3) For men, these variables were: being fit to work at the time of operation, age < 50 years at the time of operation, no prior surgery, and the extent of the surgical procedure equal to or less than one laminectomy. Women's and men's working capacity do not differ after lumbar spinal stenosis operation. If the aim is to maximize working capacity, then, when a lumbar spinal stenosis operation is indicated, it should be performed without delay. In lumbar spinal stenosis patients who are > 50 years old and on sick leave, it is unrealistic to expect that they will return to work. Therefore, after such an extensive surgical procedure, re-education of patients for lighter jobs could improve the chances of these patients returning to work. In a related Finnish study, a total of 439 patients operated on for lumbar spinal stenosis during the period 1974–1987 was re-examined and evaluated for working and functional capacity approximately 4 years after the decompressive surgery. The ability to work before or after the operation and a history of no prior back surgery were variables predictive of a good outcome. Before the operation 86 patients were working, 223 patients were on sick leave, and 130 patients were retired. After the operation 52 of the employed patients and 70 of the unemployed patients returned to work. None of the retired patients returned to work. Ability to work preoperatively, age under 50 years at the time of operation and the absence of prior back surgery predicted a postoperative ability to work. A report from Belgium noted that patients reportedly return to work an average of 12 to 16 weeks after surgery for lumbar disc herniation. However, there are studies that lend credence to the value of an earlier stimulation for return to work and performance of normal activities after a limited discectomy. At follow-up assessment, it was found that no patient had changed employment because of back or leg pain. The sooner the recommendation is made to return to work and perform normal activities, the more likely the patient is to comply. Patients with ongoing disabling back conditions have a low priority for return to work. The probability of return to work decreases as time off work increases. This is especially true in Belgium, where 20% of individuals did not resume work activities after surgery for a disc herniation of the lumbar spine. In Belgium, the medical advisers of sickness funds have an important role legally in the assessment of working capacity and medical rehabilitation measures for employees whose fitness for work is jeopardized or diminished for health reasons. The measures are laid down in the sickness and invalidity legislation. They are in accordance with the principle of preventing long-term disability. It is apparent from the authors' experience that these measures are not adapted consistently in medical practice. Most of the medical advisers are focusing purely on evaluation of corporal damage, leaving little or no time for rehabilitation efforts. In many other countries, the evaluation of work capacity is done by social security doctors with a comparable task. In a comprehensive set of studies carried out by the University of Washington School of Medicine, it was determined that the outcome of lumbar fusion performed on injured workers was worse than reported in most published case series. They found 68% of lumbar fusion patients still unable to return to work two years after surgery. This was in stark contrast to reports of 68% post-op satisfaction in many series. In a follow-up study it was found that the use of intervertebral fusion devices rose rapidly after their introduction in 1996. This increase in metal usage was associated with a greater risk of complication without improving disability or re-operation rates. Research The identification of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) as a central cause of inflammatory spinal pain now suggests the possibility of an entirely new approach to selected patients with FBSS. Specific and potent inhibitors of TNF became available in the U.S. in 1998, and were demonstrated to be potentially effective for treating sciatica in experimental models beginning in 2001. Targeted anatomic administration of one of these anti-TNF agents, etanercept, a patented treatment method, has been suggested in published pilot studies to be effective for treating selected patients with chronic disc-related pain and FBSS. The scientific basis for pain relief in these patients is supported by the many current review articles. In the future new imaging methods may allow non-invasive identification of sites of neuronal inflammation, thereby enabling more accurate localization of the "pain generators" responsible for symptom production. These treatments are still experimental. If chronic pain in FBSS has a chemical component producing inflammatory pain, then prior to additional surgery it may make sense to use an anti-inflammatory approach. Often this is first attempted with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications, but the long-term use of Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) for patients with persistent back pain is complicated by their possible cardiovascular and gastrointestinal toxicity; and NSAIDs have limited value to intervene in TNF-mediated processes. An alternative often employed is the injection of cortisone into the spine adjacent to the suspected pain generator, a technique known as "epidural steroid injection". Although this technique began more than a decade ago for FBSS, the efficacy of epidural steroid injections is now generally thought to be limited to short term pain relief in selected patients only. In addition, epidural steroid injections, in certain settings, may result in serious complications. Fortunately there are now emerging new methods that directly target TNF. These TNF-targeted methods represent a highly promising new approach for patients with chronic severe spinal pain, such as those with FBSS. Ancillary approaches, such as rehabilitation, physical therapy, anti-depressants, and, in particular, graduated exercise programs, may all be useful adjuncts to anti-inflammatory approaches. In addition, more invasive modalities, such as spinal cord stimulation, may offer relief for certain patients with FBSS, but these modalities, although often referred to as "minimally invasive", require additional surgery, and have complications of their own. Worldwide perspective A report from Spain noted that the investigation and development of new techniques for instrumented surgery of the spine is not free from conflicts of interest. The influence of financial forces in the development of new technologies and its immediate application to spine surgery, shows the relationship between the published results and the industry support. Authors who have developed and defended fusion techniques have also published new articles praising new spinal technologies. The author calls spinal surgery the "American Stock and Exchange" and "the bubble of spine surgery". The scientific literature doesn't show clear evidence in the cost-benefit studies of most instrumented surgical interventions of the spine compared with the conservative treatments. It has not been yet demonstrated that fusion surgery and disc replacement are better options than the conservative treatment. It's necessary to point out that at present "there are relationships between the industry and back pain, and there is also an industry of the back pain". Nonetheless, the "market of the spine surgery" is growing because patients are demanding solutions for their back problems. The tide of scientific evidence seems to go against the spinal fusions in the degenerative disc disease, discogenic pain and in specific back pain. After decades of advances in this field, the results of spinal fusions are mediocre. New epidemiological studies show that "spinal fusion must be accepted as a non proved or experimental method for the treatment of back pain". The surgical literature on spinal fusion published in the last 20 years establishes that instrumentation seems to slightly increase the fusion rate and that instrumentation doesn't improve the clinical results in general. We still are in need of randomized studies to compare the surgical results with the natural history of the disease, the placebo effect, or conservative treatment. The European Guidelines for lumbar chronic pain management show "strong evidence" indicating that complex and demanding spine surgery where different instrumentation is used, is not more effective than a simple, safer and cheaper posterolateral fusion without instrumentation. Recently, the literature published in this field is sending a message to use "minimally invasive techniques"; – the abandonment of transpedicular fusions. Surgery in general, and usage of metal fixation should be discarded in most cases. In Sweden, the national registry of lumbar spine surgery reported in the year 2000 that 15% of patients with spinal stenosis surgery underwent a concomitant fusion. Despite the traditionally conservative approach to spinal surgery in Sweden, there have been calls from that country for a more aggressive approach to lumbar procedures in recent years. Cherkin et al., evaluated worldwide surgical attitudes. There were twice the number of surgeons per capita in the United States compared to the United Kingdom. Numbers were similar to Sweden. Despite having very few spinal surgeons, the Netherlands proved to be quite aggressive in surgery. Sweden, despite having a large number of surgeons was conservative and produced relatively few surgeries. The most surgeries were done in the United States. In the UK, more than a third of non-urgent patients waited over a year to see a spinal surgeon. In Wales, more than half waited over three months for consult. Lower rates of referrals in the United Kingdom was found to discourage surgery in general. Fee for service and easy access to care was thought to encourage spinal surgery in the United States, whereas salaried position and a conservative philosophy led to less surgery in the United Kingdom. There were more spinal surgeons in Sweden than in the United States. However, it was speculated that the Swedish surgeons being limited to compensation of 40–48 hours a week might lead to a conservative philosophy. There have been calls for a more aggressive approach to lumbar surgery in both the United Kingdom and Sweden in recent years. References External links Chronic pain syndromes Neurosurgery Orthopedic problems
4793696	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasburgh	Tasburgh	Tasburgh ( ) is a civil parish and a village in the south of Norfolk, England, located approximately 8 miles south of Norwich. It lies on the A140 road, north of Long Stratton and south of Newton Flotman. The River Tas flows nearby and Tasburgh Hall lies to the west of the village. The local church is dedicated to St. Mary the Virgin. The village is made up of Upper Tasburgh and Lower Tasburgh. The majority of Lower Tasburgh contains buildings from the early days of the village whilst Upper Tasburgh is made up of more modern housing. The villages name means 'Taesa's fortification' and could also be interpreted as 'pleasant/convenient fortification'. Children of primary school age attend Henry Preston Primary School, in Upper Tasburgh, whereas secondary school students attend Long Stratton High School. The village hall and adjacent social club is used for a range of functions and is home to Tasburgh's community run post office, set up following the closure of the post office store on Church Road in 2013. A public house, The Countryman, is located in the village, by the A140. This is opposite the site of a former Little Chef restaurant, which has since become a garden building show centre. The village is well served by public transport, with frequent bus services between Norwich and Long Stratton, operated by First Norfolk & Suffolk, Konectbus and Simonds of Botesdale calling in Tasburgh. History Early and ancient history A large hill fort (Ad Taum) abuts the village at the northwest, and the village church is built within it. This may be a remnant of the Danish invasion of the ninth century. Tasburgh church is a traditional Norfolk Saxon church of flint with a round tower. The first human beings to leave their mark on Tasburgh were fur-clad Mesolithic hunter bands some time between 8500 BC and 4500 BC. Between what is now Low Road and the River Tas, behind both the old Horseshoes public house and the nearby garage workshop, a scatter of fine flint flakes has revealed where hunters trimmed their spear and arrow heads at a site where firm ground came close to the river by a ford which is still marked on maps. A second ford crossing the tributary stream from Hempnall lay a short distance to the south and remains in use, partly bridged, to this day. From their base the hunters could thus easily range through the wooded slopes on either side of the valleys of the Tas and the Hempnall stream, fishing, picking hazel nuts and berries or hunting deer, wild cattle and wild pigs. More of their flints have turned up higher on the valley slopes near the village hall and the church. Sometimes the chase must have taken them up into a dense forest of oak, elm and lime cloaking the flat clay land above the valleys, the area now called Upper Tasburgh. To obtain sufficient food the small group of hunters would need constantly to move around an area far wider than Tasburgh. Their only easy route would be along the strip of open woodland on the light soils of the valley sides, sandwiched between the river marshes and the dark forest on the higher ground. The line of Saxlingham Lane and Low Road follows this route and leads to both of the fords. By around 4000 BC the hunter bands had become merged with incoming Neolithic farmers. With flint axes and fire, patches of the valleyside woodland had been cleared for crops of primitive wheat and barley. Flint fragments from the farmer's tools have been found spread widely across the area enclosed by Grove Lane, Low Road and Church Hill where sites were likely to have been cultivated in rotation as the poorly manured soil became exhausted. Domesticated cattle, sheep and pigs would have been pastured on the marshes and in the woodland glades. Flints of these early farmers have never been found on the higher ground of Upper Tasburgh north of Church Road and east of Old Hall Farm, where the thick forest and heavy clay soil seems to have resisted clearance and cultivation. Some of these Neolithic people lived in what is now the eastern end of the churchyard where sherds of their pottery have been found together with pot boilers and considerable evidence of flint working. Their homes would have been circular thatched huts with wattle walls marking the beginning of human occupation in the area of the church. After 2500 BC came the knowledge of making tools and weapons of copper then of bronze – far more adaptable and effective materials than flint in most cases. Relics of the Bronze Age have been unearthed in Henry Preston Road where a distinctive beaker marked a probable early Bronze Age burial and behind Hall Farm in the far south of the parish where burial mounds have been traced. In both cases the burials had been made on what was then the fringe of the likely cultivated area. Their style indicates the development of an upper class. New lords arose soon after 500 BC when the warlike, artistic Celts brought access to iron, a far stronger and more accessible metal than bronze. Iron axes and iron-shod ploughs may well now have made inroads into the heavily forested claylands. Forty-three pieces of Iron Age pottery have been found close by the church, indicating that occupation continued in this area. By the first century AD the people of Norfolk and north Suffolk had become a single tribe, the Iceni, and coins of this age inscribed IC.DURO.T are reported to have been found in Tasburgh. Chapel Hill, a knoll in the water meadows west of Tasburgh Hall, has produced extensive evidence of ancient burials. Ditch digging south west of the hillock in 1923 revealed several complete and broken amphorae (large wine jars). These were of a type used to transport Mediterranean wine in the first century AD. At this time wine was a rare luxury in Britain, consumed by the nobility, who had the habit of incorporating amphorae with the grave goods of their dead chieftains. This may signify that Chapel Hill is the burial site of an Icenian noble. Roman Tasburgh After the Romans invaded Britain in AD 43 the Iceni became a client kingdom falling under full Roman rule following their revolt under Queen Boudica in AD 60. The most impressive sign of Roman times in Tasburgh was and remains the trunk road running from south to north across the parish, now the A140 which runs from Norwich to Ipswich. The road was constructed to link important Roman towns at London and Colchester with the newly established capital of the Iceni, Venta Icenorum, which stood alongside the River Tas at Caistor St Edmund. Built in a series of straight alignments thrust remorselessly across existing field patterns it stood on a thirty feet wide embankment. The roadway itself was twenty feet wide with a steeply cambered surface of hard packed gravel. With little maintenance from the end of the Roman era in AD 410 to the building of a turnpike in 1768, the embankment and road surface were worn down and the road fell away from its straight alignment on hills, including Tasburgh Hill. Where the road follows its original course in the north of the parish we can imagine couriers of the Imperial Post galloping by, smart mule carts, merchant's pack horses, lumbering farm wagons delaying other traffic and weary pedestrians; all using the road for many of the same reasons that we do today. The possible sites of Roman farmhouses are indicated by scatters of tile fragments at three locations. Excavations in the eastern end of the churchyard in 1975 and in 1979/80 produced 3421b of Roman tile pieces and two sherds of Romano-British pottery (Point X on Map). Broken roof tiles and pottery fragments have been held to indicate a farmhouse at the top of the now defunct Figgett Lane (Point Y on Map). A third farmhouse has been inferred from tiles found at Church Wood near Rainthorpe Hall (Point Z on Map). A minor Roman road to, or passing, this farmhouse is indicated by the north-western parish boundary, once a lane, which runs in a straight line toward the corner of Church Wood. Straight lengths of parish boundaries sometimes indicate the line of a lost Roman road. Two Roman coins have been found in the village, one close to the church and the other a short way uphill from the ford near the old Horseshoes public house. Pottery, held to be Roman, has been unearthed in association with burials at Chapel Hill. Five miles north along the Roman trunk road stood the tribal capital, Venta Icenorum, which translates as 'market town of the Iceni'. The Tasburgh farms were well placed to supply produce to Venta with its town hall, forum, public baths, arena and temples. A few miles south along the trunk road, a little beyond the present day Long Stratton, was a village which had grown up around a relay station for the Imperial Post. Roman rule finally disintegrated in AD 410. Anglo-Saxons, probably already here as mercenaries, were at Venta, soon to be joined by kinfolk arriving to settle. There is evidence that the better-off Britons fled leaving their villagers to be merged into an Anglo-Saxon dominated world which had become the kingdom of East Anglia by about AD 500. The only signs of early Anglo-Saxon activity in Tasburgh are pottery fragments from the churchyard excavations indicating that this site continued to be occupied. By AD 627 East Anglia had a Christian king and in time a small wooden church may well have stood on the site of the present building. One hundred and forty-four pieces of pottery from the churchyard site dating to between AD 600 and AD 900 show that settlement there continued despite the interruptions of Danish raids and invasions from AD 841. With Danes settled among the previous villagers the hamlet around the church expanded. The churchyard 'dig' revealed over 1000 pottery sherds dating to between AD 900 and AD 1100 together with strap fittings, loom weights, a knife and an arrowhead. The foundation trenches of a house of this period were also excavated. It was a wooden building thirty-six feet by seventeen feet and would have been open to the rafters with an open hearth from which smoke escaped through the thatched roof. About AD 1050 a small church of flints and mortar with a round tower was built. The tower, since heightened, still stands as part of today's church. At the place where the Roman road crossed the marshes of the Hempnall stream the embankment had worn away, leaving a miry morass aptly named Deepwade. This muddy obstacle and its name almost certainly originated in Saxon times when the local administrative area which included Tasburgh was called Depwade Hundred. In AD 1086, twenty years after the Norman conquest of England, the Domesday Book was compiled giving us the first written record of Tasburgh. The village is named Taseburc and its dimensions are given as ten by seven furlongs, there was a watermill and the land was ploughed by five, eight-ox teams. Two hundred and thirty-one acres of arable land are recorded together with eighteen acres of meadowland, but we must bear in mind that Domesday 'acres' probably represented the taxable value of land rather than precise areas. The arable land and meadow were divided into four holdings, each being part of a widespread portfolio of estates held from the king by four magnates. These absentee landlords included Roger Bigod, Sheriff of both Norfolk and Suffolk, and Alan IV, Duke of Brittany, son-in-law of the king. Two small thirty acre holdings seem to be embryo manors, but for the most part the land was farmed by twenty semi-free sub tenants, some called freemen, others known as sokemen. The size of their land varied widely, one man had thirty acres of arable and two acres of meadow while at the other end of the scale six men shared ten acres. The population can be estimated at around 125 persons, less than a third of the predominantly agricultural population of Victorian times. On the lands of Roger Bigot there were new masters on the spot in the form of Berard and Azelin, men with likely names for Norman army veterans. The archaeological evidence from the vicinity of the church shows that from around AD 1100 activity there declined until a hundred years later the church stood completely isolated. The village had transferred piecemeal to the valley below, its flimsy dwellings scattered around the edges of small greens. Tasburgh in the 19th century Before 1800 most of the houses in the village were timber framed, but a growing shortage of wood, starting in the previous century, had led to the larger houses being built in brick with tiled, rather than thatched, roofs. Examples are Tasburgh House, Watermill House and Tasburgh Hall (then called Tasburgh Lodge). From the early 19th century smaller houses followed suit and early brick buildings can be seen on Low Road between and including the Old Horseshoes public house and Forge Cottage, all built between 1818 and 1840. Other houses and farm buildings of these times were of clay lump construction, surviving specimens include Rookery Cottage and White Horse Farm in Lower Tasburgh. In the previous century the churchwardens had been able to balance their books on the income from fields given charitably, the Town Lands, but inflation during the Napoleonic Wars caused such an increase in costs that a compulsory Church Rate was necessary in order to raise money for major repairs to the church. Mail coaches, carriers carts and freight wagons passing along Ipswich Road, then a well maintained turnpike, brought trade to Upper Tasburgh. Here stood a large inn, the Bird-in-Hand (now the Countryman) and close by was a smithy. In 1817 a shop stood near the site of the present Norwich bus stop, with numerous outhouses and a large orchard, today the site of Orchard Way. The shop survived until about 1940. In Church Road stood the Cherry Tree public house (now Cherry Tree House) at that time reputed to be a den of poachers. Poverty continued to be a problem for many of the villagers, particularly during the agricultural depressions at the beginning and latter part of the century. In 1816 Thomas Clabburn left £400 invested in annuities for the relief of the parish poor, the interest to purchase bread or coal to be distributed on the first Monday of February each year. A handsome plate recording this charity can be seen on the vestry door of the church. Further relief for the needy came from the interest from £45 Consuls left by Miss Bateman in 1828. Alongside these the Meek Charity dating from 1598, was distributed. By 1840 the parish poor house, the Town House, was ninety years old and in a sad state of repair. The newly appointed rector, Henry Preston, did not hesitate to call it the 'Pest House' and donated materials for immediate repairs. At the same time he forbade the practice of forcing the old and infirm residents to work on the nearby allotments. In 1836 Pulham Workhouse, still clearly visible as Hillcrest Court on the A140, began to take over responsibility for the destitute of the area and the Town House was eventually converted into two cottages for the parish roadmen, being conveniently close to the parish gravel and marl pits in Marl Bottom. The Old Rectory standing to the west of the church was built by the Rev Henry Preston in 1840 to replace the ruinous rectory he had inherited at what is today Glebe Cottage on Low Road. His capacious and elegant Victorian building has in turn been succeeded by a new rectory built close by in 1983. The indefatigable Henry Preston brought education for all to Tasburgh when he founded a public elementary school on his rectory land alongside Church Hill (in those days, School Hill). The school was officially opened on 15 September 1844 with this prayer, 'Oh Lord my God, hearken unto the cry and to the prayer which thy servant prayeth unto Thee today, that Thine eyes may be open towards this house, night and day'. There were sixty-two children attending school that first year. Most came from Tasburgh, but some walked from Tharston and Flordon; the youngest were five years old. In 1854 the schoolmistress was Eliza Goddard. The single room of the school was enlarged in 1880 to accommodate no less than 100 pupils, and in 1899 a new classroom was added to hold thirty infants. A vast improvement in the transport of people, goods, livestock and mail came with the opening of the Eastern Union Railway through the area on 12 December 1849. Steam trains linked London, Ipswich, Diss and Norwich, five stopping daily at the local station at Flordon. At first the Norwich terminal was called Victoria Station and stood at the top of St Stephen's Street. A fine station was built at Flordon with buildings in typical Victorian style sporting large ornate chimneys, slate roofs and decorated brickwork. The first stationmaster was James Clayton. Close by stood the Railway Tavern kept by Jonathan Pawley. The coming of railways to Norfolk brought a drastic fall in the heavy traffic of stage coaches, carriers and wagons along the main road through Tasburgh. Within a year sales of hay at the Bird-in-Hand fell from 50 tons annually to around 17, and all five licensed stage coach services disappeared. In 1863 rail travel to Harleston, Bungay, Beccles and beyond became possible with the completion of the Waveney Valley Railway, which left the main line at Tivetshall Station. In 1881 a further branch line from Forncett Station to Wymondham opened up travel to many other parts of the county. All the railways in the area were absorbed into the Great Eastern Railway. By 1851 the population of 363 at the beginning of the century had grown to 475, and the village contained 113 houses. This growth reflected the boom in agriculture in the mid-19th century. At this time Tasburgh was quite self-contained, with two blacksmiths, two shopkeepers, two butchers, a shoemaker, a wheelwright, a miller and a maltster. There were eleven farmers, a cattle dealer and a pig jobber, who slaughtered the pigs that most of the villagers kept. Tasburgh Hall, still called Tasburgh Lodge, was occupied by Commander Gwyn, a one-legged veteran of the Napoleonic Wars while Tasburgh Grange was a maltings named Maltings Farm. There were five licensed premises and a windmill in addition to the watermill. Later, the uncertainties of wind and water power were overcome by the installation of a steam engine at the watermill. At this time the village comprised two separate straggles of houses, one along Saxlingham Lane and Low Road and the other clustered around Ipswich Road. The only dwellings in between were the Rectory and Old Hall Farm. Church Road was a tree-lined lane. The principal residence was Rainthorpe Hall, occupied by the Hon Frederick Walpole MP. An agricultural depression in the last part of the 19th century caused the population to fall as low as 368, when countryfolk were forced to seek work in the towns. Despite this the school had to be extended twice; the population was falling, but families were getting larger! Early 20th century In the early years of the century Tasburgh continued as a mainly agricultural community, only one villager worked in Norwich, one at Dunston Hall and two on the nearby railway; all the rest found their livelihood in the village. In addition to farmers, smallholders and farm workers, there was a rat and mole catcher and a hurdle maker. It was very much a self-contained community, with four publicans, a miller with two mill workers, two blacksmiths, a carpenter / wheelwright, two thatchers, a bricklayer, two carriers, two general dealers, two grocers, a pork butcher, a baker and three shoemakers. In the public service there was a schoolmistress, two parish roadmen and a policeman. There were also two dressmakers, two washerwomen and a lady who treated people for sores, burns and abscesses. In 1911 the population was 355. Tasburgh Lodge had been improved and renamed Tasburgh Hall by its owner P. Berney Ficklin. At Rainthorpe Hall, Sir Charles Harvey was spending considerable sums both on the hall and St Mary's Church. The rector from 1897 to 1922 was the Rev Walter Robert Hurd. Sons of these three gentlemen were to have distinguished careers. Horatio Berney Ficklin was a judge Advocate at the Nuremberg Trials of Nazi war criminals. Oliver Harvey became British Ambassador to France and was made Lord Harvey of Tasburgh. Richard Hurd was later Canon Hurd; he had a lasting love of Tasburgh and left a substantial bequest to the church on his death in 1975. Lord Harvey and Canon Hurd are both buried in the churchyard. The Cherry Tree in Church Road was a free house and the publican made horehound beer, which was reputed to be good for coughs. He also sold cider which was made from apples grown in the orchard at the back. The landlady of The Bird in Hand was appropriately named Mrs Alice Sparrow. The Quaker chapel off Fairstead Lane was active, while the primitive Methodist Chapel on what is now Church Hill and the parish church both had large congregations and thriving Sunday schools. William Moore, who spent much of his life in the village, tells us that his grandfather was estate bricklayer and chimney sweep for Rainthorpe Hall. To sweep the great chimneys at the hall, his grandfather would take one of his eight sons to climb up into the dark chimney as far as he safely could, carrying a hoe to scrape away the soot. While up the chimney, enveloped in clouds of soot, the lad would be required to help the sweeping rods on their way up the chimney and to try to rescue any brush which came adrift. The local organisation for controlling the affairs of the village had devolved from the courts of the lords of the manors to the church during and after Tudor times. Now the Local Government Act of 1894 had passed the responsibility on to elected parish councils. The first recorded meeting of Tasburgh parish council was on 18 April 1900. The council was required to meet at least once a year within seven days of 25 March and not before 6 pm. The first council comprised William Briggs, William Duffield, Arthur Fuller, Samuel Rump, John and Robert Dix, with P. Berney Ficklin as chairman and Daniel Burgess as clerk. Meetings were held in the school room on a rather irregular basis. The cost of heating the room was two shillings, and Mrs Goose was employed to clean up afterwards for one shilling. One can only suppose that they were inveterate pipe and cigar smokers! Taking over duties from a church which still retained a strong influence in the village was difficult, and many of the early meetings dealt solely with appointments to committees or as trustees to the various village charities. Local government was much more at parish level, and there were officers to appoint, such as the overseer and assistant overseer, whose duties included the collection of the parish rates. In 1914 Ernest Wright was appointed parish constable and later had an assistant in John Harrison. Until after the First World War the railway was, for most people, the only link with the outside world, provided they could afford the fare. Motor cars were unreliable and far too expensive for all but the privileged few, while horse-drawn transport and cycles were only suitable for local journeys. Something of the heavy casualties of the First World War is told by the War Memorial in the churchyard, which records the names of twelve Tasburgh men, who died at a time when the villagers fit for active service probably did not exceed forty-five. The Depwade Deanery Magazine of March 1919 tells of the passing of a wartime Tasburgh sailor, "... A hero of Zeebrugge. With deep regret we record the death of Charles T. Lyon of this parish. After twenty-one years service in the Royal Naval Reserve he rejoined in August 1914 and was commissioned to HM Trawler Aurora, being made Commodore of Group Seven in November. In the Zeebrugge Raid he showed the greatest gallantry ... after three years service in the war this hero was invalided out". The article goes on to say that Charles Lyon had been given a gold watch and chain for diving into the sea to rescue men during a storm in 1882 and that in 1916 he saved the lives of twenty-seven men from torpedoed fishing smacks. Mrs Mildred Garrett has recalled that between the wars her father, the parish clerk Albert Matthews, started a bowls club with a green on the Mill Meadows between Tasburgh and Flordon. Also on the meadows were the two grass courts of the tennis club of the day. The Mill was not then in use, and was taken over once weekly for a dancing class, the instructor and pianist cycling out from Norwich. Once a month there was a dance, grandly call a 'ball', which often lasted until 3 am. A moonlit night was chosen, so that those walking from other villages could find their way home with ease. Mrs Garrett would cycle to Norwich or Wymondham to shop and well remembers Sir Charles and Lady Harvey travelling from Rainthorpe Hall to Tasburgh church in their carriage and pair. Her mother, together with Mrs Gates, the rector's wife, founded the first Women's Institute in Tasburgh in 1922. Throughout the 1920s and 30s travel became easier, as a few people acquired motor-cycles, and cars and bus services were developed. Orange-coloured buses of United Automobile Services pioneered the route along the A140 until they were absorbed by Eastern Counties Omnibus Company in 1931. The Eastern Counties service was five buses daily, including Sundays. Lower Tasburgh was served by the buses of Mr Trudgil of Pulham St Mary. One bus ran each way on Wednesdays and Fridays, with two return journeys on Saturdays. The trip to Norwich called for either plumpness or fortitude, for the buses had wooden seats, and one was fitted with solid tyres. The return fare was nine old pence (less than four new pence). At this time the present Grove Lane was called Coal House Hill, the Coal House standing on the site of the first house below the village hall. Here coal carted from Flordon Station was stored for distribution to the poor by the local charities. These charities had, by 1928, been condensed into three, the Fuel Allotment and Meek's Charity, the Poor's Land and the Clabburn and Bateman Charity. In that year they were all amalgamated into Tasburgh United Charities. The parish council still owned the pair of cottages in Marl Bottom which had been the Town House, the parish poorhouse. Despite re-thatching in 1916 and again in 1925 they became a liability and were sold in 1928 to Dennis Cushion for seventy pounds. The beginnings of the village hall can be traced back to 1919 when the parish council resolved that 'a parish club or reading room should be erected centrally in the parish for the benefit of parishioners and for the fostering of a parochial feeling in the younger members of the parish'. In 1928 the parish subscribed to Norwich Fire Brigade the sum of four pounds yearly for their services. The brigade had stated that they were confident that they could get to Tasburgh in time, a brave statement indeed. This arrangement was made despite the fact that there was at the time a fire engine in use at Long Stratton, perhaps their charges were too high! All we currently know of sport in Tasburgh in the inter-war years is that Mr Berney Ficklin of Tasburgh Hall gave a silver cup to be played for at football between Upper and Lower Tasburgh. It is believed that the trophy was only played for on three occasions, the last being in 1968 when the score was appropriately one all after extra time. Children attended the school from the age of five and stayed until they were twelve; this was later extended to fourteen years. Bob Lammas was an exception, at the age of four he followed a flock of sheep passing his home. As they reached the school, he saw his brother and sister and went in to join them; meanwhile his distraught parents were searching the village for him. Miss Abbs, the teacher, gave Bob a halfpenny and made sure he reached home safely, but Bob was so upset at leaving the school that she allowed him to begin school one year early. Mrs Elizabeth Page recalls that she was quite overawed on her first day at school with so many children crowded into the building. The scholars were seated on long benches placed in a series of steps; as they grew older they were moved higher and higher up the steps. The school log book, kept since 1922, records all visitors, events and repairs. Many entries report the difficulty of keeping the building warm in winter, often the temperature was only , and it was not always possible to light the fire because of sulphur fumes and smoke. A regular visitor was Sir Charles Harvey of Rainthorpe Hall, but in March 1927 a far less welcome visitor paid a call. A ferocious bull took possession of the playground, and Kenneth Riches and Herbert Sayer were sent to remove it! In the same year three boys earned notoriety in a different way, for on 22 November the punishment book records that Harold Riches (12), Arthur Hurry (12), and Fred Larter (11) received 'four strokes on hands and buttocks for milking Mr Curson's cow when standing in a meadow ... and for telling lies about it'. Elizabeth Page remembers the annual school outings, paid for by Sir Charles Harvey, train journeys from Flordon to the seaside, her first sight of the sea. School concerts were held in the theatre at Rainthorpe Hall. Frances Rayner recalls starting at the school in 1939 when Mrs Cross was head teacher. All the children attended Sunday schools, the church school was taught by Alice Matthews, and all her pupils were in the choir. At the outbreak of the Second World War the school had declined to fourteen children and was the smallest in the Deanery. With the coming of evacuees billeted out in the village, the numbers of scholars swelled, and a shift system had to be introduced, the village children attending in the mornings and the evacuees in the afternoons. Later, most of the evacuees were taught at Tasburgh Hall by additional teachers. The 1939–45 World War started early in Tasburgh, for the parish council minute book records a request from Depwade Rural District Council in 1937 to appoint three air raid wardens. This done, two stirrup pumps were purchased to deal with incendiary bombs, and three more were given by the RDC. By 1939 there were five wardens. The parish council ran a competition in 1940 for those making the best use of their gardens for food production, and in 1941 a knitting group was formed to knit garments for the armed forces. As part of a national scheme, a salvage officer was appointed, and a derelict building at the bottom of Grove Lane was used to store paper, bottles, jam jars and metal; collections were made by the WVS aided by schoolchildren. In addition to finding material for the war effort, the salvage fund raised money for local charities and especially for the village hall building fund. With the fall of France, a parish invasion committee was set up in 1940, and a local unit of the Home Guard was formed under the charge of Ray Page the farmer then resident at Rookery Farm. The Home Guard post was in a building at The Bird in Hand (now the Countryman). William Moore reckons that the proximity of the public house was, on occasions, something of a temptation to the gallant patrol defending Tasburgh, as was the blazing fire in their guardroom. Tasburgh Hall became the headquarters of an army searchlight unit, with a searchlight on the lawn and another nearby at Hapton Hall. Later in the war, the army left, and the hall was used to house evacuees. Beer supplies were severely restricted, the public houses opened only at weekends, when they were swamped by soldiers stationed in the area and, later in the war, by American servicemen from nearby airfields at Hethel, Tibenham and Hardwick. It was not unknown for the week's supply of beer to be consumed in an evening. William Moore says that some of the precious beer at the Horseshoes was held back for the locals, who had to call at the back door and drink secretly in the cellar. At these times the village policeman would leave his cycle in a field and approach on foot to join the clandestine drinkers. William Moore also speaks of more direct contact with the war, of tracer bullet holes in his cycle shed and of his bed, which would jump off its blocks with the force of bomb explosions during the Norwich blitz. Late in the war, German flying bombs, nicknamed doodle-bugs, would pass over, but one day he was blown from his feet when a doodle-bug motor cut out and it exploded in a nearby field. Teacher, Miss Hewett, was once shown as absent due to 'the shock of the blitz'. The only wartime casualty known to occur in the village was of a soldier who was crushed by a tank while guiding it along Old Hall Farm Loke. Loss of life by residents on active service was much less than in the First World War; one name only is recorded on the War Memorial. To save petrol during the war, buses were powered by gas, which was produced in a coke burner towed behind the bus on a two-wheeled trailer. William Moore says that very limited power resulted, and the buses could only manage about fifteen miles per hour. On reaching Dunston Hill the passengers had perforce to alight and walk up the hill behind the struggling bus. During the war, scholars would walk to school carrying their lunch of meat paste, jam or even lard sandwiches, together with their gas mask and identity card; anyone forgetting the last two items could be sent back home to get them. Bob Lammas and William Moore both recall a wartime drama in the village when a spy was captured. He lived in a cottage on Church Hill and toured the district on a bicycle visiting the Horseshoes public house to mix with the soldiers drinking there. One night a vigilant Home Guard saw a flashing light from the cottage as enemy planes were flying over. The incident was reported, and shortly after the Tasburgh Home Guard were called out to patrol the area until a light armoured vehicle and army lorries with Military Police arrived. The spy was arrested and a radio transmitter was found in the cottage chimney. Late 20th century William Moore has given a vivid description of Tasburgh some 50 years ago, of cottages lit by paraffin lamps, tin baths by the fire, water from wells and bucket toilets at the bottom of the garden. A family of seven occupied a cottage in Saxlingham Lane which had but two rooms downstairs and two up, with an outside wash-house and toilet; it was aptly named Teapot House. An even smaller dwelling stood alongside the Old Post Office, having just one room on each storey to accommodate a family of seven. William tells of the terrible winter of 1947, when heavy snow fell in February and the freeze-up lasted until April, to be followed immediately by heavy flooding. Coal was still rationed, so stocks were low, and few people could afford to have electricity laid on; most of the villagers had to rely on such firewood as they could find. Williarn Moore's family were cut off for three weeks, by which time they were almost out of food. They had eaten all their hens apart from two left to lay eggs. They shot what game they could and eventually had to resort to trapping small birds. By digging through the snow to Manor Farm they were able to obtain milk. Help came when paths were cleared into the village, partly by Italian prisoners of war held at Long Stratton. In those days shopping was a very different activity. William explains that prepackaging was minimal in the four village shops. Sugar came in hundredweight sacks, cheeses were bound in hessian and weighed 28 lb, butter was in 14 1b blocks, and biscuits were loose in 14 1b tins. Serving a customer took some time, for the grocer had to cut, weigh, price and pack each item while waiting customers enjoyed a gossip. Milk was delivered by Mr Alford, a dairy farmer from High Road Farm on the Ipswich Road. He came round daily with a horse and trap, from which fresh milk was measured to order from a metal churn. In 1945 Tasburgh Women's Institute was relaunched. The earliest surviving minutes are those of 1947, when Mrs Rosemary Hastings of Rainthorpe Hall was president, Mrs Larner, secretary and Mrs Mann, treasurer. Meetings were held monthly at Rainthorpe Hall with talks, demonstrations, competitions, flower shows and whist drives. The quality of WI cooking was such that they were praised in the press on several occasions and in 1969 won a silver rose bowl for their preserves. They formed a choir and helped the village in many ways, providing refreshments at fetes and plays, organising the poppy day collection and operating 'meals on wheels'. The WI also raised funds to pay for tables, chairs and other items at the village hall, where a plaque acknowledges their efforts. For their own enjoyment they organised outings to, what were in those days, such far-away places as Clacton, Felixstowe and Woburn. From the wartime salvage fund and from many money raising events, including the saving of pennies by the schoolchildren £562 16s 8d had, by May 1947, been raised for a village hall. For a small, relatively poor village this was a most creditable amount, since it was worth about £16,000 at today's money values. A leading light in the efforts to provide a hall was Mr K. Riches, chairman of the village hall committee. In 1949 a public meeting was called to discuss proposals for a hall, one being to rent a building. A breakthrough came the next year with the public-spirited offer of the gift of two fields covering about four acres by John Everson of Old Hall Farm and his sons Russell and George. Thus the village gained both a playing field and a site for the village hall midway between Upper and Lower Tasburgh. The first village hall committee represented the major organisations in the village at the time and comprised: Mr B. W. Cross, Parish Council; Mrs H. M. Mann, Women's Institute; Rev R. Maudsley, Parochial Church Council; Mr R. G. Clarke, Methodist Church; Mr J. Cadman, Tasburgh United Football Club; Mrs C. E. Cross, School Manager. The hall was opened on 8 September 1953 by Mrs Rosemary Hastings. The original building was by with two small rooms at the rear intended as a kitchen and a committee room. On the death of Canon A. E. Gates in 1948 Tasburgh had been the home of only three rectors in 111 years. In the next forty-six years there were to be no less than nine rectors, the first being Rev R. Maudsley. Henceforth Tasburgh rectors were also responsible for Tharston. After the Second World War, Tasburgh Football Club played on a tiny sloping pitch in Rainthorpe Park, close to the Newton Flotman-Flordon Road. They were not popular with visiting teams, since the pitch was riddled with molehills and rabbit holes. By 1952 the football team had moved to the new playing field, but in their keenness to leave behind the obstacles of their old field they failed to observe that the playing field was littered with sharp flints. Despite compulsory flint-picking sessions for players and officials before every match, players received many nasty cuts, and the club was forced to move yet again. This time they played on a field off Old Hall Farm Loke, where the changing facility comprised an by steel wartime air raid shelter. An entry in the Eastern Daily Press of 28 August 1953 records the Annual General Meeting of Tasburgh United Football Club, where it was decided to form a combined football and cricket club under the title of Tasburgh United Sports Club. The chairman was Mr K. Riches, and the secretary Mr J. Cadman. In the meanwhile local youths had developed another form of sport. On the land where Harvey Close now stands a cycle speedway track was developed, and the team racing there in the Depwade League had the proud name of the Tasburgh Tigers. By 1954 the football pitch at the playing field had been relaid, together with a cricket pitch and practice wicket. The village cricket team played on Saturdays and Sundays for some ten years. In this period football flourished, with three teams and many supporters; it was not unknown for three coaches to be required to convey the first team and supporters to away matches. In the 1956 / 57 season Tasburgh led the Norwich and District League. Within the next twenty years the football team faded then disbanded. The infant teacher at the school after the war was Miss Hewitt, who travelled every day from St Faith's on a motor-cycle. Two senior boys were detailed to wait at the school gate every morning to grab the cycle as she arrived and hold it while she disengaged gear, switched off and dismounted. What arrangements she made at the other end of her journey we do not know! Mrs Elizabeth Page remembers that Miss Hewitt delighted in taking the children down through Bluebell Wood while William Moore recalls the outside school toilets of corrugated iron and that water had to be fetched to the school in buckets filled at the rectory. Through the 1950s life at the school changed. There was a rail outing to London in 1954, and regular bus trips were made to Wymondham swimming pool. Attendance rose to fifty-seven in 1959, when the larger schoolroorn was divided by a curtain to make two, not very soundproof, classrooms. By now there were two cloakrooms, together with a scullery to help deal with school meals, which were prepared at Newton Flotman. The age limit for scholars was reduced to eleven years in 1959, the older children attending school in Long Stratton. In 1952 Rev Maudsley moved from the parish to be replaced by Rev Percy Gresty, who set about reforming the church choir with the able assistance of the organist and village postmaster, Phillip Lammas. The choir became eighteen strong and reached such a high standard that on occasions the church was packed. For a while after the war the railway station at Flordon continued to play an important part in the life of the village as a source of mail, parcels, newspapers and coal, while farmers used the railway to transport their sugar beet, corn and cattle. As motor transport became ever more affordable its door to door convenience killed off much of the rail traffic and Flordon Station was closed in 1961 as part of the Beeching cuts after a life of 112 years. William Moore tells us that the landlord of the Railway Tavern at this time was Mr Brookes, who supplemented his income by cutting hair; boys could usually persuade him to sell them half a pint of cider while waiting for their hair to be cut. In 1961 the population of Tasburgh was 343, slightly less than the 1911 figure of 355. While some old cottages had been demolished and council houses had appeared on Grove Lane, Church Road and Ipswich Road the village remained completely rural in character. This changed dramatically after 1961 as widespread house building, mostly in Upper Tasburgh, led to a trebling of the population to reach 1117 in 1991. The first area to be developed was that now occupied by Valley Road, Willow Close and Curson Road. Mr Shepherd of Cherry Tree House applied for planning permission, but this was turned down on the grounds that Tasburgh was not designated as a development area, that housing would be intrusive on the landscape and that the land would be better used for agriculture. Mr Oliver, a Hempnall builder, appealed against the refusal pointing out that the land was light, stony and infertile and that there was a real demand for housing in the area. The tide now began to turn for neither Depwade Rural District Council nor the parish council objected to the appeal, this despite a local resident complaining that only five of the nine parish councillors had attended the relevant meeting and that the matter was not on the published agenda. Nevertheless, the appeal was dismissed, one of the grounds being that the school was due to close. Faced with a growing countywide demand for more housing the County Council relented and later in 1961 gave permission for Mr T. Riches to build fifty-six houses in the Valley Road area. This change of heart cleared the way for further successful applications. Building at Valley Road went ahead and in 1964 Mr K. Riches obtained clearance to develop Orchard Way. Planning proposals and village growth increased the workload of the parish council, who found it necessary to hold monthly meetings. The needs of the growing village led to the formation of the Playgroup by Christine Morris and Jenny Harvey in 1968 with meetings twice weekly at the village hall. By this date other organisations had arisen in addition to the Women's Institute and Football Club; Tasburgh Players had established themselves at the theatre in Rainthorpe Hall, there was a Church Youth Club, a Christian Alliance children's club, a Bingo Club and WI whist drives. A particularly lively club was the Young Women's Association with fortnightly meetings, outings and parties, among their highly varied activities was a midsummer ball, also a barbecue and swim by the River Tas at Saxlingham Thorpe. Two major annual events throughout the 60s and 70s were the church fete at Rainthorpe Hall and the village fete at the playing field. In September 1968 the low-lying parts of the village suffered from an extensive flood, water entering houses at Cat's Corner and along Low Road from Watermill House to Rookery House. A fire engine pumped three feet of water from Glebe Cottage and Mr J. Crawshay of Tasburgh Grange was able to sail a sixteen-foot dinghy from his front drive across the nearby meadows. The next area of housing growth was Woodland Rise and Everson Road, which received planning permission in 1969. From 1971 the pace of change became such that it can only be clearly recorded on a year by year basis. 1971 The population had almost doubled to 610. The Rev T. Macnaughton-Jones, who had been rector of Tasburgh and Tharston since 1958 retired, to be replaced by Rev Oswald Glass. 1972 Much concern having been expressed about overcrowding at the school, the parish council lobbied for a new school. The response of the education authority was to erect two portakabins. St Mary's Guild for women was started, led by Mrs Glass, the rector's wife. 1973 Planning permission was given for the building of Everson Close while Mr D. Addington of Old Hall Farm obtained consent for the development for housing of eleven acres behind the council houses in Church Road. Here Wilcon built the Churchfields development over the next ten years. Additionally to the major housing schemes of the 60s and 70s, individual, generally larger, dwellings were built in both Upper and Lower Tasburgh, Harvey Close having been developed in 1966. The First Tasburgh Brownies were formed in 1973 while the Youth Club, not for the first or last time, suffered from a shortage of leaders and had to resort to fortnightly meetings. Lack of support led to the closure of the Methodist Chapel. 1974 From Saxon times Tasburgh had been part of Depwade Hundred until, at the turn of this century, the larger Depwade Rural District Council was formed. Now an even larger local authority took over, South Norfolk District Council. The ancient name of Depwade continued only in the title of the church Deanery. 1975 The 130th anniversary of the school was celebrated by a Victorian Day. The headmaster, Mr Peter Ramm, teachers and scholars all wore Victorian costume and lessons were given in Victorian style. The Playgroup was now being run by Mrs Jean Campling and sessions had been increased to three mornings weekly. 1976 Negotiations began fora site fora new school; with the rapid expansion of the village the school roll stood at seventy-six, the next year it was to reach 100. 1977 This was the year of the Queen's Jubilee and Tasburgh entered into the celebrations with a will. Jubilee Day started with the church bells ringing, followed by children's sports on the playing field, after which the youngsters were presented with Jubilee crown coins. After a meal at the village hall the fun moved to Rainthorpe Hall for a children's party. Here Tasburgh Players gave a Jubilee Revue, which was followed in the evening by a bonfire and fireworks display at the playing field. The chief organiser was Mr James and the cost of £220 was met entirely by fund raising. After a short break Tasburgh Players had been reformed by a small group headed by Lynn McKinney with Mrs Rosemary Hastings as president. This year also saw the relaunch of a tennis club. They played at Tasburgh Grange by kind permission of Mr and Mrs Crawshay, later they also played at Tasburgh House. Enthusiastic fund raising enabled grass courts to be established at the playing field and the club immediately set their sights on providing hard courts. Another 'birth' in 1977 was the Babysitting Circle. 1978 A most welcome addition to the church came on 29 October when Mrs Walton of Tasburgh Hall opened the church room with its kitchen and toilet, built as an extension to the vestry. It was chiefly due to the efforts of Mr and Mrs Walton that the project was so quickly financed and completed. 1979 A new rector, Rev M. Fitzgerald arrived with responsibility for Tasburgh, Tharston, Flordon and Forncett. Work started on the long-awaited new school and the Young Women's Association was changed to the Monday Club. Last Days Of School 1980 The new school was opened on 2 June by the Bishop of Norwich. There were sixty-five pupils at the new lower age limit of eight years, older children being bussed to the Middle and High Schools at Long Stratton. Our Public spirited Victorian rector, Henry Preston, who founded our first village school would have been proud of the new school and of its subsequent achievements. It is entirely appropriate that both the present school and the road upon which it stands should bear his name. This year saw the last performance of Tasburgh Players at Rainthorpe Hall, they moved to the village hall taking the stage from Rainthorpe with them. 1980 saw the'launch'of the First Tasburgh Sea Scouts by Bernard Minns assisted by Lyndon Bringloe and Tim Braddock. 1981 The ever-growing population reached 930. The Tennis Club's hard courts were brought into use and the Old School was converted into a private house. Yet again the Youth Club was short of leaders and was only able to provide a weekly disco before ceasing altogether for a while. 1981, Norwich City FC manager, Ken Brown, hands out Royal Wedding crowns to Tasburgh scholars following postponement of sports day due to rain. 1982 The Rev R. Blakeley took over as rector. A great fillip to village activities came with the formation of the Inter-Village Sports Team to take part in competitions initiated by the Sports Council. With Pam Moore as co-ordinator a team competed in the district round at Harleston. Junior and senior sections took part in five-a-side football, netball, badminton, table tennis, a relay race and, for the seniors only, darts. Tasburgh won the district competition for small villages and continued to win at district level every year until the competition ceased. This entitled them to go forward to the county round where, as often as not, they met their constant rivals, Great and Little Massingham. This year the Badminton Club was formed as a direct outcome of the inter-village sports activities. 1983 The village hall was extended by the building of a new block across the front to provide an entrance hall, a committee room, toilets and an improved kitchen. A new rectory was completed close by the rectory built 141 years earlier. The Churchfields development was completed bringing to an end the burst of expansion in the village which had begun in 1961. The Inter-Village Sports Team beat the Massinghams in the county final and went forward to the regional competition at Shotley near Ipswich. After a dreadful start they recovered to take Tasburgh to the giddy heights of regional champions. New leaders having come forward the Youth Club restarted while the Playgroup extended its sessions from three to four weekly. 1984 Another offspring of the Inter-Village Sports Team was the Netball Club, formed this year. Tim Braddock took over as scout leader when both his founder colleagues moved away from the village. A cub scout pack was formed, but within a year its leader also moved away and the pack had to be disbanded. 1985 The Rev T. Raven took over as rector. The Monday Club ceased activities, but the Youth Club had by now been full reactivated with a wide programme of activities. 1986 The Cub Scout Pack was reformed. 1987 Maddy Munday took over the reins of Tasburgh Players, who were giving two performances a year. 1988 The membership of the WI having fallen to eleven, it was felt necessary to close down an organisation which had in the past made a major contribution to village life. Mrs Gertrude Hardingham had been president of the Women's Institute for the past twenty-four years. A new group on the scene was the Carpet Bowls Club. 1989 Cub Scout five-a-side football led to the formation of an under-12 football team playing in the Norwich Sunday Youth League, football had returned to Tasburgh. Ken Ransom, together with Roger and Helen Burnett, had the idea to link Tasburgh with a European village. So it was that Ken and Roger crossed the Channel together with Gayle Macdonald and Steve Beckett representing the parish council and the Inter-Village Sports Team. Their objective was Linden, thirty kilometres from Brussels. Their original idea that the link might be on sporting lines soon changed for one based on two-way family visits. Thus Eurolink was formed and visits have taken place every year since with ties between the two villages growing ever stronger. 1990 On the retirement of Rev Raven the new rector was Rev David Harrison. Mrs Dyan McKelvey took over as headmistress after long service with Tasburgh School. This year the school was runner-up in a national environmental competition. A current annual event which can be traced back to 1990 is the Parish Harvest Supper run jointly by the village hall committee and the church. Despite the extension made in 1983 the village hall had become ever more inadequate for the increasing demands made upon it. After a public meeting the Village Hall Improvement Steering Committee was formed, it decided that the best plan was to extend the existing building and commenced fund raising and seeking grant aid. This year saw the demise of the First Tasburgh Brownie Pack after a life of seventeen years. 1991 The population of the village topped the thousand mark at 1117. Tasburgh had changed in thirty years from not much more than a rural hamlet into a large, mainly suburban, village. On 18 August the village sign was unveiled Following a competition the design was based on the ideas of three pupils of the school, Paul Beckett, Scott Harwood and Peter Starkey. The carpet bowls team competed with great credit in the inter-village competitions winning both the junior and senior events, but this was the last year of the competition and thus the end of the line for the highly successful Tasburgh team. The trophy cabinet in the village hall bears ample testimony to all those who represented the village so valiantly over the ten years of the competition. The junior arm of scouting was further strengthened by the formation of a Beaver colony for six- to eight-year-olds. Following a stewardship campaign by church members, two weekly activities were started on Wednesday afternoons in the church room. The Coffee Pot offered a club for all villagers followed in term time by Trekkers for school age children. After a hard fought campaign, mainly by mothers led by Sue Bing, a much needed footpath was completed alongside Grove Lane between Church Hill and the village hall. 1992 Tasburgh Festival of Gardens on Sunday 21 June gave many the opportunity to visit ten gardens displaying a wide variety of styles and sizes. The joint organisers were the Village Hall Improvement Committee and the church. The school again won national honours with the presentation of a curriculum award at the Barbican Centre, London. A copy of the Tasburgh village sign was fixed to the Linden school wall in memory of Ken Ransom, a founder member of Eurolink. At the Ipswich Road bus stop the parish council erected a most welcome bus shelter. With the twin objects of providing a social centre and raising money for the village hall improvements a Social Club committee was formed, chaired by Bob Bush. 1993 To provide a clubroom for the proposed Social Club, alterations were made to the front block of the village hall and legal moves made with a view to opening the club in 1994. Extensive repairs to the church were completed including the refurbishment of the tiles and exterior walls the cost being met from church funds, grants, a loan and a general appeal to all parishioners. Following the move from the parish of Rev D. Harrison the local parish grouping was changed, Tasburgh and Tharston remaining linked as they had been since 1948, but Forncett and Flordon were detached to be replaced by Saxlingham and Shotesham. The 21st century 2010 (1 May) A group called "Recreation For All," an amalgam of village hall user groups, got together to organise Tasburgh Community Festival. The Festival was scheduled to run for the two days of the Bank Holiday. It was officially opened by ex Norwich City players, Craig Fleming and Darren Huckerby. 2011 (June) and the 2nd Tasburgh Community Festival took place in the grounds of the village hall. 2012 (23 June) The 3rd Tasburgh Community Festival attracted a crowd. This year the inside of the village hall was used to accommodate three local bands. The day had an Olympic theme to it and started with a torch parade from the village sign. Arena acts included A World of Wings, the Lowestoft Dog Agility Display Team and Dr Ken the juggler. Governance An electoral ward in the same name exists. This ward stretches north east to Shotesham with a total ward population of 2,399. Notable people Sir Malcolm Bradbury (1932–2000), author. Buried in the churchyard of St Mary's parish church. Tanya Burr (1989–present), YouTube vlogger. Grew up in the village. Major General Horatio Berney-Ficklin (1892–1961), British Army officer, served in both World War I and World War II. Neighbours Nearby villages include Flordon, Hapton, Tharston, Long Stratton, Newton Flotman and Morningthorpe. References http://kepn.nottingham.ac.uk/map/place/Norfolk/Tasburgh External links Tasburgh Village Hall Tasburgh Parish Council GENUKI entry for Tasburgh parish St Mary's on the European Round Tower Churches website South Norfolk Villages in Norfolk Civil parishes in Norfolk
4793935	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surf%27s%20Up%20%28song%29	Surf's Up (song)	"Surf's Up" is a song recorded by the American rock band the Beach Boys that was written by Brian Wilson and Van Dyke Parks. It was originally intended for Smile, an unfinished Beach Boys album that was scrapped in 1967. The song was later completed by Brian and Carl Wilson as the closing track of the band's 1971 album Surf's Up. Nothing in the song relates to surfing; the title is a play-on-words referring to the group shedding their image. The lyrics describe a man at a concert hall who experiences a spiritual awakening and resigns himself to God and the joy of enlightenment, the latter envisioned as a children's song. Musically, the song was composed as a two-movement piece that modulates key several times and avoids conventional harmonic resolution. It features a coda based on another Smile track, "Child Is Father of the Man". The only surviving full-band recording of "Surf's Up" from the 1960s is the basic backing track of the first movement. There are three known recordings of Wilson performing the full song by himself, two of which were filmed for the 1967 documentary Inside Pop: The Rock Revolution, where it was described as "too complex" to comprehend on a first listen. Several years after Smile was scrapped, the band added new vocals and synthesizer overdubs to Wilson's first piano performance as well as the original backing track. Another recording from 1967 was found decades later and released for the 2011 compilation The Smile Sessions. "Surf's Up" failed to chart when issued as a single in November 1971 with the B-side "Don't Go Near the Water". In 2004, Wilson rerecorded it for his solo version of Smile with new string orchestrations that he had originally intended to include in the piece. Pitchfork later included the song in separate rankings of the 200 finest songs of the 1960s and 1970s, and in 2011, Mojo staff members voted it the greatest Beach Boys song. , it is listed among the 800-most highly rated songs of all time on Acclaimed Music. Background and composition "Surf's Up" was the second song Brian Wilson and Van Dyke Parks wrote together. It was composed as a two-movement piece, most of it in one night while they were high on Wilson's Desbutols, and originally intended for the Beach Boys' album Smile. In a self-penned 1969 article, Wilson's former personal assistant Michael Vosse wrote that "Surf's Up" was to be the album's closing track, and that the song would have been followed by a "choral amen sort of thing." Biographer Byron Preiss wrote that the song was envisioned as part of "The Elements" and was "briefly considered" to be paired with "Love to Say Dada". According to Parks, the song did not have a title until after the touring members of the band returned from a November 1966 tour of Britain. He said he had witnessed Dennis Wilson complaining that the group's British audiences had ridiculed them for their striped-shirt stage outfits, which inspired him to write the last lines of the song and suggest to Brian that the piece be titled "Surf's Up". Brian remembered that when Parks made the suggestion, he felt it was "wild because surfing isn't related to the song at all." However, AFM track sheets indicate that the song had already received its title before the group returned from their UK tour. There is a weak sense of tonal stability throughout the piece; musicologist Philip Lambert's analysis indicates that the composition may contain up to seven key modulations. Wilson commented that the first chord was a minor seventh, "unlike most of our songs, which open on a major – and from there it just started building and rambling". The beginning of the song alternates between the chords Gm7/D and Dm7/G, followed by F/C and other chords that suggest a key of F major, but ultimately ends at D/A. Lambert was unable to determine if the section ends in the key of F, G, or D. During one bar, the horn players perform a melodic phrase that replicates the laugh of the cartoon character Woody Woodpecker. The second movement largely consists of a solo piano and vocal performance by Wilson. Its key suggests E-flat major in the beginning, then traverses to F major before returning to E-flat major and settling at C minor. This part was originally intended to feature a more elaborate arrangement. When asked what he had remembered of the song's second movement in 2003, Wilson responded that it was supposed to feature a string ensemble. In his 2016 memoir, it was written that he was unable to finish the song in the 1960s because it was "too rhapsodic" and "all over the place". Lyrics Lyrics in "Surf's Up" reference artifacts of the patrician period, such as diamond necklaces, opera glasses, and horse-drawn carriages. It quotes the titles of the short stories "The Diamond Necklace" by Guy de Maupassant and "The Pit and the Pendulum" by Edgar Allan Poe. The lyrics also espouse themes related to childhood and God, similar to other songs written for Smile ("Wonderful" and "Child Is Father of the Man"). The title is a play on words referring to the group shedding their image. In surfing, "surf's up" means that the conditions of the waves are good, but when the phrase arrives in the song, it is used to conjure an image of a tidal wave. In Jules Siegel's October 1967 memoir for Cheetah magazine, "Goodbye Surfing, Hello God", he quoted Wilson offering a lengthy explanation of the album's lyrics. Reportedly, the song is about "a man at a concert" that is overtaken by music. "Columnated ruins domino" symbolizes the collapse of "empires", "ideas", "lives", and "institutions". After the lyric "canvas the town and brush the backdrop", the song's protagonist sets "off on his vision, on a trip". He then suffers a "choke of grief" at "his own suffering and the emptiness of life". At the end, he finds hope and returns "to the tides, to the beach, to childhood" before experiencing "the joy of enlightenment, of seeing God", which manifests in a children's song. Wilson concluded his summary, "Of course that's a very intellectual explanation. But maybe sometimes you have to do an intellectual thing." Music historian Clinton Heylin suggests that Wilson had merely repeated an explanation that was originally given by Parks. Singer-songwriter Jimmy Webb interpreted the song as "a premonition of what was going to happen to our generation and... to our music—that some great tragedy that we could absolutely not imagine was about to befall our world." Academic Larry Starr wrote, "Van Dyke Parks’s poetic and allusive lyrics articulate the progression from a condition of disillusionment with a decadent and materialistic culture to the glimpse of a possibility for hope and renewal. This is all conveyed via an abundance of musical references and imagery." Lambert said that the song prophesies an optimism for those who can capture the innocence of youth. In the view of journalist Domenic Priore, the song was "a plea for the establishment to consider the wisdom coming out of youth culture in 1966." Starr further described it as "a very serious song, with an underlying somber tone for much of its duration that is leavened by wordplay... and the near-miraculous turn toward hope as it ends. Its dark atmosphere is perhaps its greatest deviation, among many, from the features typical of the Beach Boys’ work". Journalist Paul Williams interpreted the song as partly a commentary on the band's musical legacy, writing that the moment in which Wilson sings the line "surf's up" is "a pivot on which everything that's come before in the song wheels and turns, and maybe... everything the Beach Boys and Brian have sung and played and done up to this moment." Artwork Artist Frank Holmes, who designed the Smile cover artwork, created two illustrations that were inspired by the song's lyrics, "Diamond necklace play the pawn" and "Two-step to lamp's light". Along with several other drawings, they were planned to be included within a booklet packaged with the Smile LP. In 2005, Holmes shared a background summary of his design choices: "Diamond necklace play the pawn" "Two-step to lamp's light" Recording history Smile sessions Wilson held the first tracking session for "Surf's Up" at Western Studio 3, with usual engineer Chuck Britz, on November 4, 1966. It was logged with the subtitle "1st Movement". Musicians present were upright bassist Jimmy Bond, drummer Frank Capp, guitarist Al Casey, pianist Al De Lory, bassist Carol Kaye, and percussionist Nick Pellico. Wilson instructed Capp to play jewelry sounds from what was possibly a ring of car keys. Between November 7 and 8, overdubs were recorded with Capp, Pellico, and a horn ensemble consisting of Arthur Brieglab, Roy Caton, David Duke, George Hyde, and Claude Sherry. The November 7 session was dedicated to experimenting with horn effects, including an exercise in which Wilson instructed his musicians to laugh and have conversations through their instruments. The tape of this experiment was later given the label "George Fell into His French Horn". Journalist Rob Chapman compared the piece to experiments heard on the 1965 album The Heliocentric Worlds of Sun Ra, Volume One (1965). There are at least two known "Surf's Up" recordings that have been presumed missing or lost: a vocal session at Columbia Studio from December 15, 1966, and two sessions at Western from January 23, 1967. According to Badman, the December 15 session included vocal and piano overdubs onto the first movement backing track, as well as further recording on the song "Wonderful". Siegel later claimed that the session "went very badly". That evening, Wilson had been filmed at Columbia Studio singing and performing "Surf's Up" on piano for use in David Oppenheim's CBS-commissioned documentary Inside Pop: The Rock Revolution. According to Siegel, Wilson and Oppenheim were dissatisfied with what they had filmed, and decided to reshoot the sequence at Wilson's home two days later, on December 17. His performance that day, executed in one take with a candelabrum placed on his grand piano, was captured by three film cameras and deemed satisfactory for use in the documentary. The lost sessions from January 1967 reportedly involved additional instrumental tracking, including a 16-piece string and horn section that was overdubbed onto a bounced tape of the backing track from December 15. A fully-developed recording of the song's second movement has never been found. In 2004, Darian Sahanaja said that a tape for the instrumental tracking of the section was rumored to exist somewhere, while Mark Linett stated, "If it does exist, we haven't found it." Asked decades after the fact, Wilson responded that he did not think that he ever recorded it. In 2011, Linett commented, "It’s interesting because there’s a session sheet indicating that the second half of 'Surf’s Up' – the backing track was recorded. But there's never been any taped evidence of it, and obviously there was no taped evidence when the Beach Boys went to finish it in the Seventies. And nobody, including Brian, can confirm that it ever happened. So it may have been a session that was mislabeled, or a session that got canceled." Inside Pop premiere and aftermath Inside Pop: The Rock Revolution, hosted by composer Leonard Bernstein, premiered on the CBS network on April 25, 1967. Brian's segment in the documentary featured him singing "Surf's Up" at his piano without any interview footage or references to Smile. Oppenheim declared through voice-over that the song was "poetic, beautiful in its obscurity" and "one aspect of new things happening in pop music today. As such, it is a symbol of the change many of these young musicians see in our future." He further described Wilson as "one of today's most important pop musicians." According to Badman, Wilson's segment aroused "great expectations" for Smile, while journalist Nick Kent wrote that Wilson was "freaked out" and "broke down" over the praise he was afforded in the documentary. After Smile was scrapped, Wilson neglected to include the song on the replacement album Smiley Smile (1967). He said that his decision to keep "Surf's Up" unreleased was one that "nearly broke up" the band. In a review of Smiley Smile for Cheetah, a critic bemoaned the album's absence of "Surf's Up", writing that the song is "better than anything that is on the album and would have provided the same emotional catharsis as that 'A Day in the Life' provides for Sgt. Pepper." During a 1970 interview, Wilson commented that the song was "too long to make it for me as a record, unless it were an album cut, which I guess it would have to be anyway. It's so far from a singles sound. It could never be a single." "Country Air" tape In late 1967, Wilson recorded several takes of another piano-vocal performance of "Surf's Up" at his home studio, presumably during sessions for the album Wild Honey. The forgotten demo was rediscovered several decades later when archivists searched through the contents at the end of the multi-track reel for the Wild Honey track "Country Air". Mark Linett stated: "No explanation for why he [Brian] did that and it was never taken any farther. Although I don’t think the intention was to take it any farther because it's just him singing live and playing piano." Surf's Up sessions Early in 1971, the Beach Boys were recording their second album for Reprise Records, tentatively titled Landlocked. Band manager Jack Rieley had asked Brian about including "Surf's Up" on the record, and in early June, Brian suddenly gave approval for Carl and Rieley to finish the song. While on a drive to meet record company executive Mo Ostin, Brian said to Rieley: "Well, OK, if you're going to force me, I'll... put 'Surf's Up' on the album." Rieley asked, "Are you really going to do it?" to which Brian repeated, "Well, if you're going to force me." According to Rieley: "We got into Warner Brothers and, with no coaxing at all, Brian said to Mo, 'I'm going to put 'Surf's Up' on the next album. From mid-June to early July, Carl and Rieley retrieved the Smile multi-tracks from Capitol's vaults, primarily to locate the "Surf's Up" masters, and attempted to repair and splice the tapes. Brian joined them on at least two occasions. Afterward, the band set to work on recording the song at their private studio, located within Brian's home. Brian initially refused to participate in the recording of "Surf's Up" and insisted that Carl take the lead vocal. The group attempted to rerecord the song from scratch. "But we scrapped it", Rieley later said, "because it didn't quite come up to the original." An unsuccessful attempt was also made to mashup Brian's 1966 vocal to the instrumental track. According to Linett, a tape showcasing this effort still exists in the group's archives. Carl ultimately overdubbed a lead vocal onto the song's first part, the original backing track dating from November 1966, as well as backing vocals. Two organ overdubs were also recorded. The second movement was composed of the December 15, 1966 solo piano performance by Brian, augmented with vocal and Moog synthesizer overdubs. Carl reworked the refrain from another unreleased Smile song, "Child Is Father of the Man", into the coda of "Surf's Up". Bruce Johnston recalled, "We ended up doing vocals to sort of emulate ourselves without Brian Wilson, which was kind of silly." Al Jardine sang the lead vocal on this section. Rieley said, "we all got involved in [the final tag].... I'm on it [and] a guy who worked for us part-time, Bill DeSimone, is on it. He just sings 'Hey, hey.' But it is integral to the tag on the record. That was a lot of fun...". Writing in a 1996 online Q&A, he wrote that Brian had "stated clearly that it was his intent all along for Child to be the tag for Surfs Up." To the surprise and glee of his associates, Brian emerged near the end of the sessions to aid Carl and engineer Stephen Desper in the completion of the coda. As Desper recalled, "Brian didn't want to work on 'Surf's Up'. But after three days of coaxing, and of him walking in and out of the studio, he was finally convinced to do a part." A final lyric was then devised, "A children's song / Have you listened as they play? / Their song is love / And the children know the way". Desper credited Brian with the line, while Rieley credited himself. With the song completed, Landlocked was given the new title of Surf's Up. The occasion marked the last time the group reworked material that was originally written for Smile. Release On August 30, 1971, "Surf's Up" was released as the closing track on the LP of the same name. A major part of the album's success came from the inclusion of the title track, although most listeners at the time were unaware that the song derived from a lost Beach Boys album. The band had also incorporated "Surf's Up" into their live set at the time. Circus reported that, at one concert, the group performed the song as a closer "after numerous requests" from the audience. In another concert review from the NME, Tony Stewart reported that the band said "Surf's Up" was "a most apt title, implying they had deserted the surfing days". Reviewing the Surf's Up album for Melody Maker, Richard Williams wrote that the title track, "had it been released back at Pepper-time... might have kept many people from straying into the pastures of indulgence and may have forced them to focus back on truer values. I've rarely heard a more perfect, more complete piece of music. From first to last it flows and evolves from the almost lush decadence of the first verses to the childlike wonders and open-hearted joy of the final chorale." Don Heckman wrote in The New York Times that the song "bears easy comparison with the best of The Beatles' Sgt. Pepper songs". Rolling Stones Arthur Schmidt judged the song to have lived up to its legend, although its placement on the record gave "something of the effect of Brian saying: 'Oh yeah, that’s our new album, but hey, you wanna hear something we had left over around here? He added that while it "would have more than given a run to anything on Sergeant Pepper", the song was "dazzling" to a fault. Geoffrey Cannon of The Guardian opined that Parks' lyrics were "pretentious", but compared the song favorably to "You Still Believe in Me" and "I Just Wasn't Made for These Times" from Pet Sounds: "Its subtle shifts of pace and timing, and delicate harmony singing, put it in the top flight of Beach Boys' numbers." "Surf's Up" was also issued as the album's third single in the U.S., in November, and failed to chart. Record World rued that the song was "both enigma and musical masterpiece." Cash Box likewise called the single a "masterpiece." Legacy Other releases and performances In 1995, the Wondermints – a band that included Sahanaja as a member – performed a live cover of "Surf's Up" at the Morgan-Wixon Theater in Los Angeles with Wilson in the audience, who was then quoted saying "If I'd had these guys back in '66, I could've taken Smile on the road." Wilson rerecorded the song as part of his 2004 album, Brian Wilson Presents Smile, with new string orchestrations arranged by himself, Parks, Sahanaja, and Paul Mertens. For the 2011 compilation The Smile Sessions, Mark Linett created a new mix of the song that mashed up the 1966 backing track to the vocals from Brian's contemporaneous piano demo. In 2000, Radio City Music Hall held the All-Star Tribute to Brian Wilson, a concert that included a performance of "Surf's Up" by Jimmy Webb, David Crosby, and Vince Gill. Gill had accepted the invitation to perform the song without having heard it before, expecting it to be in the style of the band's uptempo hits. He remembered his reaction to hearing the song for the first time: Love & Mercy, the 2014 biopic of Wilson's life, features a recreation of the Inside Pop performance with actor Paul Dano portraying Wilson. Dano told a Rolling Stone interviewer, "My second day of filming, I had to perform 'Surf’s Up' over and over. It remains one of the best days I’ve ever had a film set.... but it's tough [to play]. I simplified a lot of the left hand work on the piano. Brian’s left-hand work is pretty complicated." Retrospective assessments Writing in his book Inside the Music of Brian Wilson (2007), Philip Lambert named the song "the soul of Smile" and the "sum total of its creators' most profound artistic visions" with its "perfect marriage of an eloquent lyric with music of commensurate power and depth." Musician Elvis Costello said that when he discovered a bootlegged tape of Wilson performing the song, "It was like hearing a tape of Mozart. It's just Brian and his piano and yet it's all there in that performance. The song already sounds complete." Record Collectors Jamie Atkins said it was "so far ahead of the work of their contemporaries that it is not entirely surprising Wilson found himself recoiling from its sophistication and majesty; the songwriting equivalent of scaling Everest, only to find yourself thinking, 'Well, what now? Critic Dave Marsh was less favorable towards the song. Writing in The Rolling Stone Record Guide (1983), he bemoaned the hype that continued to surround Wilson and the Smile project throughout the 1970s and opined that "Surf's Up" "was far less forceful and arguably less innovative than Wilson's surf-era hits." In a 1995 radio interview, Wilson referred to his singing on the recording as an "atrocious" performance. He said, "I'm embarrassed. Totally embarrassed. That was a piece of shit. Vocally it was a piece of shit. I was the wrong singer for it in the first place.... And in the second place, I don't know why I would ever let a record go out like that." A few years later, he added that his vocal "was a little bit limited. It's not my favorite vocal I ever did, but it did have heart." In a 1975 interview, Mike Love voiced appreciation of the song's musical form and content, which he believed went beyond what was normally expected of commercial pop music. Accolades and polls , "Surf's Up" is listed as the 744th highest rated song of all time on Acclaimed Music. In 2006, Pitchfork ranked Wilson's solo piano performance of the song at number 134 in its list of "The 200 Best Songs of the 1960s". In 2011, Mojo staff members voted it the greatest Beach Boys song. The song's entry stated, "Not so much timeless but a song out of time, Surf's Up is an elegy the richness and mystery of which only deepens with age." In 2016, Pitchfork ranked the Surf's Up version at number 122 on its list of "The 200 Best Songs of the 1970s". Contributor Andy Beta stated, Surf's Up' bade farewell to the Beach Boys' outdated surf-boy personas, right there in the title; it was complex, impressionistic, and the crowning achievement of Wilson and lyricist Van Dyke Parks’ collaboration. The lyrics alight on Tennyson, Maupassant, and children’s songs; the coda of 'The child is the father of the man,' easily the most effervescent chorus the Boys ever harmonized on, is also a stunning quote of a William Wordsworth poem." Personnel Per Craig Slowinski, Mark Dillon and Keith Badman. Musicians on November 1966 instrumental track Jimmy Bond – upright bass Arthur Brieglab – overdubbed French horn Roy Caton – overdubbed trumpet Frank Capp – car keys, hi-hat Al Casey – electric baritone guitar David Duke – overdubbed French horn Carol Kaye – Fender bass George Hyde – overdubbed French horn Al de Lory – upright piano Nick Pellico – glockenspiel Claude Sherry – overdubbed French horn Additional musicians on 1971 track Bill DeSimone – backing vocals (outro) Stephen W. Desper - Moog programming Mike Love – backing vocals Al Jardine – lead vocal (outro), backing vocals Bruce Johnston - backing vocals Jack Rieley – backing vocals Brian Wilson – lead vocal and piano (second-movement), backing vocals; possible Moog synthesizer Carl Wilson – lead vocal (first-movement), backing vocals, Hammond organ, shaker; possible Moog synthesizer Dennis Wilson - backing vocals Marilyn Wilson – backing vocals Notes References Bibliography Further reading External links 1967 songs 1971 singles The Beach Boys songs Brian Wilson songs Songs written by Brian Wilson Songs written by Van Dyke Parks Song recordings produced by Brian Wilson Song recordings produced by the Beach Boys Reprise Records singles Capitol Records singles Musical compositions completed by others Songs based on poems
4794482	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20neuroscience	History of neuroscience	From the ancient Egyptian mummifications to 18th-century scientific research on "globules" and neurons, there is evidence of neuroscience practice throughout the early periods of history. The early civilizations lacked adequate means to obtain knowledge about the human brain. Their assumptions about the inner workings of the mind, therefore, were not accurate. Early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a form of "cranial stuffing" of sorts. In ancient Egypt, from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, in preparation for mummification, the brain was regularly removed, for it was the heart that was assumed to be the seat of intelligence. According to Herodotus, during the first step of mummification: "The most perfect practice is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is mixed with drugs." Over the next five thousand years, this view came to be reversed; the brain is now known to be the seat of intelligence, although colloquial variations of the former remain as in "memorizing something by heart". Antiquity The earliest reference to the brain occurs in the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, written in the 17th century BC. The hieroglyph for brain, occurring eight times in this papyrus, describes the symptoms, diagnosis, and prognosis of two patients, wounded in the head, who had compound fractures of the skull. The assessments of the author (a battlefield surgeon) of the papyrus allude to ancient Egyptians having a vague recognition of the effects of head trauma. While the symptoms are well written and detailed, the absence of a medical precedent is apparent. The author of the passage notes "the pulsations of the exposed brain" and compared the surface of the brain to the rippling surface of copper slag (which indeed has a gyral-sulcal pattern). The laterality of injury was related to the laterality of symptom, and both aphasia ("he speaks not to thee") and seizures ("he shudders exceedingly") after head injury were described. Observations by ancient civilizations of the human brain suggest only a relative understanding of the basic mechanics and the importance of cranial security. Furthermore, considering the general consensus of medical practice pertaining to human anatomy was based on myths and superstition, the thoughts of the battlefield surgeon appear to be empirical and based on logical deduction and simple observation. In Ancient Greece, interest in the brain began with the work of Alcmaeon, who appeared to have dissected the eye and related the brain to vision. He also suggested that the brain, not the heart, was the organ that ruled the body (what Stoics would call the hegemonikon) and that the senses were dependent on the brain. According to ancient authorities, Alcmaeon believed the power of the brain to synthesize sensations made it also the seat of memories and thought. The author of On the Sacred Disease, part of the Hippocratic corpus, likewise believed the brain to be the seat of intelligence. The debate regarding the hegemonikon persisted among ancient Greek philosophers and physicians for a very long time. Already in the 4th century BC, Aristotle thought that the heart was the seat of intelligence, while the brain was a cooling mechanism for the blood. He reasoned that humans are more rational than the beasts because, among other reasons, they have a larger brain to cool their hot-bloodedness. On the opposite end, during the Hellenistic period, Herophilus and Erasistratus of Alexandria engaged in studies that involved dissecting human bodies, providing evidence for the primacy of the brain. They affirmed the distinction between the cerebrum and the cerebellum, and identifying the ventricles and the dura mater. Their works are now mostly lost, and we know about their achievements due mostly to secondary sources. Some of their discoveries had to be re-discovered a millennium after their death. During the Roman Empire, the Greek physician and philosopher Galen dissected the brains of oxen, Barbary apes, swine, and other non-human mammals. He concluded that, as the cerebellum was denser than the brain, it must control the muscles, while as the cerebrum was soft, it must be where the senses were processed. Galen further theorized that the brain functioned by the movement of animal spirits through the ventricles. He also noted that specific spinal nerves controlled specific muscles, and had the idea of the reciprocal action of muscles. Only in the 19th century, in the work of François Magendie and Charles Bell, would the understanding of spinal function surpass that of Galen. Medieval to early modern Islamic medicine in the middle ages was focused on how the mind and body interacted and emphasized a need to understand mental health. Circa 1000, Al-Zahrawi, living in Islamic Iberia, evaluated neurological patients and performed surgical treatments of head injuries, skull fractures, spinal injuries, hydrocephalus, subdural effusions and headache. In Persia, Avicenna (Ibn-Sina) presented detailed knowledge about skull fractures and their surgical treatments. Avicenna is regarded by some as the father of modern medicine. He wrote 40 pieces on medicine with the most notable being the Qanun, a medical encyclopedia that would become a staple at universities for nearly a hundred years. He also explained phenomena such as, insomnia, mania, hallucinations, nightmares, dementia, epilepsy, stroke, paralysis, vertigo, melancholia and tremors. He also discovered a condition similar to schizophrenia, which he called Junun Mufrit, characterized by agitation, behavioral and sleep disturbances, giving inappropriate answers to questions, and occasional inability to speak. Avicenna also discovered the cerebellar vermis, which he simply called the vermis, and the caudate nucleus. Both terms are still used in neuroanatomy today. He was also the first person to associate mental deficits with deficits in the brain's middle ventricle or frontal lobe. Abulcasis, Averroes, Avenzoar, and Maimonides, active in the Medieval Muslim world, also described a number of medical problems related to the brain. Between the 13th and 14th centuries, the first anatomy textbooks in Europe, which included a description of the brain, were written by Mondino de Luzzi and Guido da Vigevano. Renaissance Work by Andreas Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy. Vesalius noted many structural characteristics of both the brain and general nervous system during his dissections. In addition to recording many anatomical features such as the putamen and corpus callosum, Vesalius proposed that the brain was made up of seven pairs of 'brain nerves', each with a specialized function. Other scholars furthered Vesalius' work by adding their own detailed sketches of the human brain. Scientific Revolution In the 17th century, René Descartes studied the physiology of the brain, proposing the theory of dualism to tackle the issue of the brain's relation to the mind. He suggested that the pineal gland was where the mind interacted with the body after recording the brain mechanisms responsible for circulating cerebrospinal fluid. Jan Swammerdam placed severed frog thigh muscle in an airtight syringe with a small amount of water in the tip and when he caused the muscle to contract by irritating the nerve, the water level did not rise but rather was lowered by a minute amount debunking balloonist theory. The idea that nerve stimulation led to movement had important implications by putting forward the idea that behaviour is based on stimuli. Thomas Willis studied the brain, nerves, and behavior to develop neurologic treatments. He described in great detail the structure of the brainstem, the cerebellum, the ventricles, and the cerebral hemispheres. Modern period The role of electricity in nerves was first observed in dissected frogs by Luigi Galvani, Lucia Galeazzi Galvani and Giovanni Aldini in the second half of the 18th century. In 1811, César Julien Jean Legallois defined a specific function of a brain region for the first time. He studied respiration in animal dissection and lesions, and found the center of respiration in the medulla oblongata. Between 1811 and 1824, Charles Bell and François Magendie discovered through dissection and vivisection that the ventral roots in spine transmit motor impulses and the posterior roots receive sensory input (Bell–Magendie law). In the 1820s, Jean Pierre Flourens pioneered the experimental method of carrying out localized lesions of the brain in animals describing their effects on motricity, sensibility and behavior. He concluded that the ablation of the cerebellum resulted in movements that “were not regular and coordinated". In 1843, Carlo Matteucci and Emil du Bois-Reymond demonstrated that nerve fibers transmitted electrical signals. Hermann von Helmholtz measured these to travel at a rate between 24 to 38 meters per second in 1850. In 1848, John Martyn Harlow described that Phineas Gage had his frontal lobe pierced by an iron tamping rod in a blasting accident. He became a case study in the connection between the prefrontal cortex and executive functions. In 1861, Paul Broca heard of a patient at the Bicêtre Hospital who had a 21-year progressive loss of speech and paralysis but neither a loss of comprehension nor mental function. Broca performed an autopsy and determined that the patient had a lesion in the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere. Broca published his findings from the autopsies of twelve patients in 1865. His work inspired others to perform careful autopsies with the aim of linking more brain regions to sensory and motor functions. Another French neurologist, Marc Dax, made similar observations a generation earlier. Broca's hypothesis was supported by Gustav Fritsch and Eduard Hitzig who discovered in 1870 that electrical stimulation of motor cortex caused involuntary muscular contractions of specific parts of a dog's body and by observations of epileptic patients conducted by John Hughlings Jackson, who correctly deduced in the 1870s the organization of the motor cortex by watching the progression of seizures through the body. Carl Wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. Richard Caton presented his findings in 1875 about electrical phenomena of the cerebral hemispheres of rabbits and monkeys. In 1878, Hermann Munk found in dogs and monkeys that vision was localized in the occipital cortical area, David Ferrier found in 1881 that audition was localized in the superior temporal gyrus and Harvey Cushing found in 1909 that the sense of touch was localized in the postcentral gyrus. Modern research still uses the Korbinian Brodmann's cytoarchitectonic (referring to study of cell structure) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks. Studies of the brain became more sophisticated after the invention of the microscope and the development of a staining procedure by Camillo Golgi during the late 1890s that used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate structures of single neurons. His technique was used by Santiago Ramón y Cajal and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine, the hypothesis that the functional unit of the brain is the neuron. Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain. The hypotheses of the neuron doctrine were supported by experiments following Galvani's pioneering work in the electrical excitability of muscles and neurons. In 1898, British scientist John Newport Langley first coined the term "autonomic" in classifying the connections of nerve fibers to peripheral nerve cells. Langley is known as one of the fathers of the chemical receptor theory, and as the origin of the concept of "receptive substance". Towards the end of the nineteenth century Francis Gotch conducted several experiments on nervous system function. In 1899 he described the "inexcitable" or "refractory phase" that takes place between nerve impulses. His primary focus was on how nerve interaction affected the muscles and eyes. Heinrich Obersteiner in 1887 founded the ‘‘Institute for Anatomy and Physiology of the CNS’’, later called Neurological or Obersteiner Institute of the Vienna University School of Medicine. It was one of the first brain research institutions in the world. He studied the cerebellar cortex, described the Redlich–Obersteiner's zone and wrote one of the first books on neuroanatomy in 1888. Róbert Bárány, who worked on the physiology and pathology of the vestibular apparatus, attended this school, graduating in 1900. Obersteiner was later superseded by Otto Marburg. Twentieth century Neuroscience during the twentieth century began to be recognized as a distinct unified academic discipline, rather than studies of the nervous system being a factor of science belonging to a variety of disciplines. Ivan Pavlov contributed to many areas of neurophysiology. Most of his work involved research in temperament, conditioning and involuntary reflex actions. In 1891, Pavlov was invited to the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg to organize and direct the Department of Physiology. He published The Work of the Digestive Glands in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. During the same period, Vladimir Bekhterev discovered 15 new reflexes and is known for his competition with Pavlov regarding the study of conditioned reflexes. He founded the Psychoneurological Institute at the St. Petersburg State Medical Academy in 1907 where he worked with Alexandre Dogiel. In the institute, he attempted to establish a multidisciplinary approach to brain exploration. The Institute of Higher Nervous Activity in Moscow, Russia was established on July 14, 1950. Charles Scott Sherrington's work focused strongly on reflexes and his experiments led up to the discovery of motor units. His concepts centered around unitary behaviour of cells activated or inhibited at what he called synapses. Sherrington received the Nobel prize for showing that reflexes require integrated activation and demonstrated reciprocal innervation of muscles (Sherrington's law). Sherrington also worked with Thomas Graham Brown who developed one of the first ideas about central pattern generators in 1911. Brown recognized that the basic pattern of stepping can be produced by the spinal cord without the need of descending commands from the cortex. Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter to be identified. It was first identified in 1915 by Henry Hallett Dale for its actions on heart tissue. It was confirmed as a neurotransmitter in 1921 by Otto Loewi in Graz. Loewi demonstrated the ″humorale Übertragbarkeit der Herznervenwirkung″ first in amphibians. He initially gave it the name Vagusstoff because it was released from the vagus nerve and in 1936 he wrote: ″I no longer hesitate to identify the Sympathicusstoff with adrenaline.″ One major question for neuroscientists in the early twentieth century was the physiology of nerve impulses. In 1902 and again in 1912, Julius Bernstein advanced the hypothesis that the action potential resulted from a change in the permeability of the axonal membrane to ions. Bernstein was also the first to introduce the Nernst equation for resting potential across the membrane. In 1907, Louis Lapicque suggested that the action potential was generated as a threshold was crossed, what would be later shown as a product of the dynamical systems of ionic conductances. A great deal of study on sensory organs and the function of nerve cells was conducted by British physiologist Keith Lucas and his protege Edgar Adrian. Keith Lucas' experiments in the first decade of the twentieth century proved that muscles contract entirely or not at all, this was referred to as the all-or-none principle. Edgar Adrian observed nerve fibers in action during his experiments on frogs. This proved that scientists could study nervous system function directly, not just indirectly. This led to a rapid increase in the variety of experiments conducted in the field of neurophysiology and innovation in the technology necessary for these experiments. Much of Adrian's early research was inspired by studying the way vacuum tubes intercepted and enhanced coded messages. Concurrently, Josepht Erlanger and Herbert Gasser were able to modify an oscilloscope to run at low voltages and were able to observe that action potentials occurred in two phases—a spike followed by an after-spike. They discovered that nerves were found in many forms, each with their own potential for excitability. With this research, the pair discovered that the velocity of action potentials was directly proportional to the diameter of the nerve fiber and received a Nobel Prize for their work. In the process of treating epilepsy, Wilder Penfield produced maps of the location of various functions (motor, sensory, memory, vision) in the brain. He summarized his findings in a 1950 book called The Cerebral Cortex of Man. Wilder Penfield and his co-investigators Edwin Boldrey and Theodore Rasmussen are considered to be the originators of the cortical homunculus. Kenneth Cole joined Columbia University in 1937 and remained there until 1946 where he made pioneering advances modelling the electrical properties of nervous tissue. Bernstein's hypothesis about the action potential was confirmed by Cole and Howard Curtis, who showed that membrane conductance increases during an action potential. David E. Goldman worked with Cole and derived the Goldman equation in 1943 at Columbia University. Alan Lloyd Hodgkin spent a year (1937–38) at the Rockefeller Institute, during which he joined Cole to measure the D.C. resistance of the membrane of the squid giant axon in the resting state. In 1939 they began using internal electrodes inside the giant nerve fibre of the squid and Cole developed the voltage clamp technique in 1947. Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley later presented a mathematical model for transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the Hodgkin–Huxley model. In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the FitzHugh–Nagumo model. In 1962, Bernard Katz modeled neurotransmission across the space between neurons known as synapses. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in Aplysia. In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the Morris–Lecar model. Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous biological neuron models and models of neural computation. Eric Kandel and collaborators have cited David Rioch, Francis O. Schmitt, and Stephen Kuffler as having played critical roles in establishing the field. Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, starting in the 1950s. During the same period, Schmitt established a neuroscience research program within the Biology Department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, bringing together biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. The first freestanding neuroscience department (then called Psychobiology) was founded in 1964 at the University of California, Irvine by James L. McGaugh. Stephen Kuffler started the Department of Neurobiology at Harvard Medical School in 1966. The first official use of the word "Neuroscience" may be in 1962 with Francis O. Schmitt's "Neuroscience Research Program", which was hosted by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Over time, brain research has gone through philosophical, experimental, and theoretical phases, with work on brain simulation predicted to be important in the future. Institutes and organizations As a result of the increasing interest about the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience institutes and organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists. The largest professional neuroscience organization is the Society for Neuroscience (SFN), which is based in the United States but includes many members from other countries. In 2013, the BRAIN Initiative was announced in the US. An International Brain Initiative was created in 2017, currently integrated by more than seven national-level brain research initiatives (US, Europe, Allen Institute, Japan, China, Australia, Canada, Korea, Israel) spanning four continents. See also History of catecholamine research History of neuraxial anesthesia History of neurology and neurosurgery History of psychiatry History of psychology History of neuropsychology History of neurophysiology History of science List of neurologists List of neuroscientists References Further reading Rousseau, George S. (2004). Nervous Acts: Essays on Literature, Culture and Sensibility. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. (Paperback) Wickens, Andrew P. (2015) A History of the Brain: From Stone Age Surgery to Modern Neuroscience. London: Psychology Press. (Paperback), 978-84872-364-1 (Hardback), 978-1-315-79454-9 (Ebook) External links A History of the Brain ten-part series of BBC radio programmes it:Cervello#Storia
4794884	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversion%20to%20Christianity	Conversion to Christianity	Conversion to Christianity is the religious conversion of a previously non-Christian person that brings about changes in what sociologists refer to as the convert's "root reality" including their social behaviors, thinking and ethics. The sociology of religion indicates religious conversion was an important factor in the emergence of civilization and the making of the modern world. Conversion is the most studied aspect of religion by psychologists of religion, but there is still very little actual data available. Neurological studies have determined that conversion is not the result of pathology. Christianity is growing rapidly in the global South and East, primarily through conversion. Different methods of conversion have been practiced historically. There is evidence of coercion by secular leaders in the Early and Late Middle Ages, though coercion as a method has never been approved or even supported by any majority of Christian theologians. Different Christian denominations may perform various different kinds of rituals or ceremonies of initiation into their community of believers. The primary ritual of conversion is baptism, while different denominations differ with regards to confirmation. Individual conversion James P. Hanigan writes that individual conversion is the foundational experience and the central message of Christianity, adding that Christian conversion begins with an experience of being "thrown off balance" through cognitive and psychological "disequilibrium", followed by an "awakening" of consciousness and a new awareness of God. Hanigan compares it to "death and rebirth, a turning away..., a putting off of the old..., a change of mind and heart". The person responds by acknowledging and confessing personal lostness and sinfulness, and then accepting a call to holiness thus restoring balance. This initial internal conversion is followed by practices that further the process of conversion, which according to Hanigan, will include ethical changes. In examples of conversion from the New Testament, such as Peter's conversion and Paul's, Hanigan perceives this same common "death and rebirth" experience. He says these individuals did not respond out of a sense of guilt, but from awe, reverence, and holy fear of what they perceived as God's presence. Comparative studies of the early twenty-first century offer the insight that religious conversion provides a new locus of self-definition, moral authority and social identity through the acceptance of religious actions that seem more fitting and true to the recipient. Anthropologist Robert Hefner adds that "Conversion assumes a variety of forms... because it is influenced by a larger interplay of identity, politics and morality". The message of Truth, a redemptive identity, and acceptance into a social organization whose purpose is the propagation of that message has proven to be a revolutionary force in its own right. Theology According to sociologist Ines W. Jindra, there is a “theological dimension” to conversion. Avery Dulles quotes Bernard Lonergan saying "The subject of theology, then, is the person undergoing conversion to God". The conversion experience is basic and has the characteristics of being "concrete, dynamic, personal, communal, and historical." Through this focus on the individual, theology of conversion is provided with the same characteristics in its foundation. Religious historian David W. Kling's History of Christian Conversion lists nine broad themes common to conversion narratives. Jindra describes the first theme as “human cognizance of divine presence,” while Kling says, "God becomes real to people" through conversion. Conversion always has "context": humans are "socially constituted" beings and religious conversion always occurs in a social context. Jindra writes that, while all conversion accounts vary, they all show evidence of being based upon personal internal experiences of crisis expressed through the specific historical context in which the converts lived. There are aspects of both "movement and resistance" in conversion. Christianity has, from its beginnings, been an evangelical mission oriented religion which has spread through conversion. However, people naturally tend toward inertia, toward the familiar, unless otherwise motivated toward change, making conversion the exception not the rule in history. There is both "continuity and discontinuity" in the conversion process. Conversion can be disruptive and cause a rupture with the past, but rupture is rarely complete. Aspects of the past are frequently kept, resulting in a kind of "hybrid" faith. Gender also plays a direct role in how people do or do not convert. Testimonies and narratives provide the vocabulary of conversion. In the more famous conversion stories, such as Augustine's and Martin Luther's, it is apparent the conversion story was later used, not only for personal insight and transformation, but also for drawing in potential converts. Kling writes that "the influence of [such] personal testimonies on the history of conversion cannot be over-estimated." Indications from Jandra's twenty-first century research indicates this is also true for more ordinary, less famous, conversions. Conversion produced change in the lives of most converts in important and positive ways: Jindra says "they became more stable, found meaning in life, tackled their former problematic biographical trajectories, and improved their relationships (Jindra, 2014)". Conversion has historically been impacted by how personal "identity" and sense of self is defined. This can determine how much intentional action on the part of the individual convert has directed outcome, and how much outside forces may have impinged upon personal agency instead. In Christian conversion, there is nearly always a network of others who influenced the convert prior to conversion. Jindra writes that the specific context, which includes the ideology of the group being joined, the individual convert's particular crisis, "and the degree of agency vs. the influence of others" are important aspects influencing whether converts change or do not change after a conversion.. These factors overlap with research psychologist Lewis Rambo's stages of conversion. Rambo's model of conversion includes context, crisis (involving some form of searching by the prospective convert), encounter, and interaction, (with someone who believes in the new religious belief system). This is followed by commitment and its results. Social science In his book Sociology of Religion, German sociologist Max Weber writes that religious conversion begins with the prophet, as the voice of revelation and vision, calling others to break with tradition and bring their lives into conformity with his "world-building truth." Weber believed that prophetic ideals can become, through the conversion of a community of followers, "a force for world transformation as powerful as anything in human history. Calling conversion and Christianization "twin phenomena", Hefner has written that religious conversion was an important factor in the emergence of civilization and the making of the modern world. According to Hefner, the "reformulation of social relations, cultural meanings and personal experience" involved in conversion carries with it an inherent "world building aspect". In the late nineteenth century, the development of world religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Buddhism) was seen as part of the inevitable march toward human enlightenment in a linear upward evolution. Anthropology effectively demonstrated the failure of this model to provide explanation for religious variations. The world religions developed institutions capable of standardizing knowledge and some have argued that this helped them survive while "empires and economic orders have come and gone". But in fact, only a few religions have been successful in propagating themselves over the long term, and standardized doctrine does not necessarily impact individual conversion and belief. One of the most influential works in sociology of religion from the 1960s is Robert Bella's (1964) Religious Evolution, which argued that world religions all proclaim the existence of a transcendental realm that is superior to everyday reality, thereby legitimizing salvation/conversion experiences designed to link humans with that world. Bella describes the possibility of redemption/conversion under these terms as "world-shaking in its consequences". The tension between ordinary reality and the transcendent creates recognition of a need for social reform, driven by a redemptive vision, that remakes the world rather than passively accepting it. In this way, Hefner says, world religions loosened the grip of tradition and laid the foundation for human freedom. Psychology While conversion is the most studied aspect of religion by psychologists of religion, there is little empirical data on the topic, and little change in method since William James' classic Varieties of Religious Experience in 1902. James Scroggs and William Douglas have written on seven current concerns in the psychology of conversion. 1) Definition. Calling this the "oldest issue in the field", Scroggs and Douglas indicate psychologists ask whether conversion requires a sudden about-face or gradual change. There is no consensus. The word connotes a sudden about-face, but psychologists are unwilling to let go of the possibility of gradual conversion. 2) Pathology. Freud saw religion as a pathology, and those who follow his school of thought have continued to do so. Empirical studies indicate religion is associated with good mental health among women, that it aids with depression and overcoming serious problems like heroin addiction, and that generally, there are significant links between religion and spirituality and good physical and mental health. In Scroggs and Douglas's view, which view a psychologist takes depends on their training and personal commitment to faith or non-faith. 3) Type of person. Many wonder if there is one kind of person that is more likely to be converted than others. Sociologists stress the importance of such variables as social class, group expectations, and social change (as in American frontier society or contemporary China). According to Scroggs and Douglas, William "James regarded the sick soul as the most likely candidate for conversion. The sick soul lives 'close to the pain threshold.' He is generally introverted and pessimistic in outlook, taking the evil of the world profoundly to heart. The sick soul is brooding, steeped in existential angst. He is Kierkegaard's man who is in despair and knows he is in despair". Trauma and existential crisis can lead to conversion. For the already converted, trauma is also often associated with "beneficial changes in self-perception, relationships, and philosophy of life, and positive changes in the realm of existential, spiritual, or religious matters" according to a study by psychologists Rosemary de Castella and Janette Simmonds. A 2011 study indicates conversion can take either an inward form, wherein religion becomes the primary guiding principle and goal of the convert's life, or it can take an outward form where religion mostly serves other purposes, such as political or economic goals, which are more important to that individual than religion. For those who experience inward conversion, lower levels of depression, anxiety and stress are associated, while higher levels are associated with those who practice outward conversion only. 4) Age. Scroggs and Douglas say that early writers on the psychology of conversion were unanimous in regarding adolescence as the most probable age for conversion. Accordingly Ferm writes that, "It is probably fair to conclude from Erikson's theories that both the identity crisis in adolescence and the integrity crisis in the middle years constitute ripe moments for conversion". 5) Conscious or unconscious. How much of the conversion experience is brought on by conscious control, and how much by unconscious factors behind or even beyond an individual? Forces beyond conscious control are cited by the majority of converts. "Most psychologists agree the role of unconscious factors is extensive and often decisive in conversion, and that a long period of subconscious incubation precedes sudden conversions" write Scroggs and Douglas. Allport, Maslow, Rogers, and others stress the role of conscious decision. 6) Science-versus-religion. Psychologists as social scientists tend to operate according to a nothing-but reductionism. Conversion must be described as a natural process. Theologians and others who accept the possibility of the supernatural, have tended to take a something-more, hands-off-the-sacred-preserve approach to studying conversion. Different worldviews can bias interpretations. Scroggs and Douglas write that "No solution to this very difficult problem appears in the immediate purview", but they do suggest that acknowledging bias and incorporating both views in "not only interdisciplinary but interbias research is necessary". 7) Which approach? Because there are different schools of psychology with conflicting theories, determining which is most appropriate to the study of conversion is one of the issues Scroggs and Douglas perceive. "Behaviorism, operationalism, and learning theory have rarely been applied to the study of religious conversion," and the overwhelming majority of works have been written from a single perspective: "functionalism" which defines what is true as what works. Neurology Kelly Bulkeley in The Oxford Handbook of Religion Conversion has written that, as of 2014, no neuro-scientific research focused specifically on religious conversion has been done. Nor is there a single consensus on how the brain/mind system works, and researchers take many different approaches. There is controversy over the mind/body problem, as well as whether the brain is simply modular (composed of separate parts), or if that is too limited an explanation for what Bulkeley calls the complex, "global, synthetic, whole-is-greater-than-the-sum-of-its-parts aspects of brain function". There is disagreement over determinism vs. free will, the use of brain imaging, first-person reports of conversion, and the applications of quantum physics. The phenomenon of conversion is based on the belief that humans have the ability to change the way they mentally perceive and experience the world. Research on the plasticity of the brain has shown that the brain's ability to create new neural pathways remains with us throughout our lives. Bulkeley writes that "Cognitive neuroscience in relation to religious conversions, where people undergo a basic reordering of the assumptions and expectations that frame their perceptions of the world, may lead to new evidence regarding the latent potential of brain/mind development". Studies on prayer and meditation show they alter the brain's functioning in measurable, material, ways. Statistics According to a 2001 study by religion professor David B. Barrett of Columbia University and historian George Thomas Kurian, approximately 2.7 million people were converted to Christianity that year from another religion, while approximately 3.8 million people overall were converting annually. In the first decades of the twenty-first century, Pentecostalism is the largest and fastest growing form of Christianity. Professor of religion Dyron B. Daughrity quotes Paul Freston: "Within a couple of decades, half the world's Christians will be in Africa and Latin America. By 2050, on current trends, there will be as many Pentecostals in the world as there are Hindus, and twice as many Pentecostals as Buddhists". This growth is primarily due to religious conversion. Historian Philip Jenkins observes that Christianity is also growing rapidly in China and some other Asian countries. Sociologist and specialist in Chinese religion Fenggang Yang from Purdue University writes that Christianity is "spreading among the Chinese of South-East Asia", and "Evangelical and Pentecostal Christianity is growing more quickly in China". More than half of these converts have university degrees. Social Anthropologist Juliette Koning and sociologist Heidi Dahles of Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, agree there has been a "rapid expansion of charismatic Christianity from the 1980s onwards. Singapore, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Indonesia, and Malaysia are said to have the fastest-growing Christian communities and the majority of the new believers are "upwardly mobile, urban, middle-class Chinese". Allan Anderson and Edmond Tang have reported in their book Asian and Pentecostal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in Asia that "Asia has the second largest number of Pentecostals/charismatics of any continent in the world, and seems to be fast catching up with the largest, Latin America." The World Christian Encyclopedia estimated 135 million in Asia compared to 80 million in North America. It has been reported also that increasing numbers of young people are becoming Christians in several countries such as China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Singapore, and South Korea. The Council on Foreign Relations says the "number of Chinese Protestants has grown by an average of 10 percent annually since 1979". Award-winning historian of Christianity, Todd Hartch of Eastern Kentucky University, has written that by 2005, around 6 million Africans were converting annually to Christianity. According to Iranian historian Ladan Boroumand "Iran today is witnessing the highest rate of Christianization in the world". While the exact number of Dalit converts to Christianity in India is not available, religion scholar William R. Burrow of Colorado State University has estimated that about 8% of Dalits have converted to Christianity. According to a 2021 study by the Pew Research Center, Christianity has grow in India in recent years due to conversion. Most converts are former Hindus, though some are former Muslims. Since the 1960s, there has been a substantial increase in the number of conversions from Islam to Christianity, mostly to the Evangelical and Pentecostal traditions of Christianity. The 2015 study Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background: A Global Census estimated that 10.2 million Muslims converted to Christianity. Countries with the largest numbers of Muslims converted to Christianity include Indonesia (6,500,000), Nigeria (600,000), Iran (500,000 versus only 500 in 1979), the United States (450,000), Ethiopia (400,000), and Algeria (380,000). Indonesia is home to the largest Christian community of converts from Islam. Since the mid and late 1960s, between 2 and 2.5 million Muslims converted to Christianity. Methods of conversion Coercion While Christian theologians, such as the fourth century Augustine and the ninth century Alcuin, have long maintained that conversion must be voluntary, there are historical examples of coercion in conversion to Christianity. Constantine used both law and force to eradicate the practice of sacrifice and repress heresy though not specifically to promote conversion. Theodosius also wrote laws to eliminate heresies, but made no requirement for pagans or Jews to convert to Christianity. However, the sixth century Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I and the seventh century emperor Heraclius attempted to force cultural and religious uniformity by requiring baptism of the Jews. In 612, the Visigothic King Sisebut, prompted by Heraclius, declared the obligatory conversion of all Jews in Spain. In the many new nation-states being formed in Eastern Europe of the Late Middle Ages, some kings and princes pressured their people to adopt the new religion. And in the Northern crusades, the fighting princes obtained widespread conversion through political pressure or military coercion even though the theologians continued to maintain that conversion must be voluntary. Baptism In all varieties of Christianity, baptism is the initiation rite for entrance into the Christian community. Almost all baptisms share in common the use of the Trinitarian formula (in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit) by the minister while baptizing the convert. Two aspects of baptism are sources of disagreement: mode and meaning. In Understanding Four Views on Baptism editors have written that Christians disagree on the meaning of baptism and whether it is a necessary aspect of conversion or simply demonstration of a conversion that has already taken place. There are also different modes of baptism in Christianity. These include immersion (dunking), affusion (pouring), and aspersion (sprinkling). The most common practice in the ancient church was baptism by immersion of the whole head and body of an adult. It remained common into the Middle Ages and is still found in the Eastern church, the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches, and in most Protestant denominations. Historian Philip Schaff has written that sprinkling, or pouring of water on the head of a sick or dying person, where immersion was impractical, was also practiced in ancient times and up through the twelfth century, and is currently practiced in most of the West. However, according to the Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church affusion has become the most common practice of the Western churches. Infant baptism was controversial for the Protestant Reformers, and remains so for some Protestants, but according to Schaff, it was practiced by the ancients and is neither required nor forbidden in the New Testament. The mode of baptism often depends on the denomination one enters, and in some cases, personal choice. Many Anglicans and Lutherans baptize by affusion. Presbyterians and Congregationalists accept baptism by pouring or sprinkling. Steven W. Lemke writes that the Presbyterian Westminster Confession says, “Dipping of the person into the water is not necessary". Baptists disagree. Many Evangelical Protestants, such as Baptists, insist that only full immersion baptism is valid. The Second London and Philadelphia confessions of the Baptists affirm that “immersion, or dipping of the person in water, is necessary". Baptism by immersion is again affirmed in Article 7 of the BF&M [Baptist Faith and Message]". Others, like Methodists, may conduct all three forms of baptism. Denominational switching Switching from one Christian denomination, such as Presbyterianism, to another Christian denomination, such as Catholicism, has not generally been seen by researchers as conversion to Christianity. Mark C. Suchman says this is because most sociologists and other scientists have defined conversion as "radical personal change, particularly change involving a shift in one's sense of 'root reality'." However, in Suchman's view, this produces a form of 'selection bias' within the research. He writes that the study of "everyday" religious mobility is not a substitute for analyses of "true conversion," but the denominational switching that he refers to as "religious mobility" can be seen as an aspect of conversion. Suchman describes six types, or causes, of "religious mobility" as a supplement and complement to the more traditionally limited concept of conversion. He draws on theories from the sociology of deviance where there is some recognition that "a change of religious affiliation generally represents a break with previous norms and a severing of social commitments - even when it does not involve a radical personality realignment". Theories of deviance define what can be considered as the variables and determinants involved and what kind of mobility can be seen as random. "Strain theory" argues that those who are unhappy in their religious affiliation will generally "engage in deviance" from that group. Those who are not well integrated in their religious social group, those who become enmeshed in social relations outside the group with participants in deviant cultures, and those whose ethnicity and traditional background differs from their current affiliation are candidates for switching. Intermarriage, with partners of different religions and/or denominations, is also associated with religious switching. Confirmation Theologian Knut Alfsvåg writes that confirmation was first introduced by Pope Innocent I in the 5th century as part of the unified sacrament of baptism, chrismation (confirmation) and first communion that was commonly accepted by the 12th century. It was formally designated a sacrament in 1274 by the Council of Lyon. Baptism, along with the declaration and instruction involved in confirmation, and the Eucharist, have remained the essential elements of initiation in all Christian communities, however, Alfsvåg writes that confirmation has differing status in different denominations. Some see baptism, confirmation, and communion as elements of a unified sacrament through which one becomes a Christian and part of the church. Also known as Chrismation by eastern Christians, under some circumstances, confirmation may be administered immediately after baptism. When an adult decides to convert to the Catholic or Orthodox Church, they become a "catechumen" and attend classes to learn what conversion means and requires. Once classes are completed and the candidate is baptized, adults can then be confirmed immediately following baptism. A clergy member will anoint their forehead, (or in the case of Byzantine Christians, the forehead, eyes, nostrils, mouth, ears, breast, hands, and feet), with the chrisma (oil) calling upon the Holy Spirit to seal the convert with the gifts of the Spirit. In Western churches that practice infant baptism, (Catholic Church, the Church of England, Anglicans, Lutherans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Methodists, Nazarenes, Moravians, and United Protestants), infants who are baptized are not generally confirmed immediately except in cases of emergency such as illness or impending death. Otherwise, child candidates must wait till they are old enough to make a decision for themselves. Confirmation cannot occur until the candidate has participated in confirmation classes, demonstrated an adequate understanding of what they are agreeing to, and are able to profess "with their own mouth" their desire to be confirmed in their faith. In the Eastern Churches (Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, and the Church of the East), the rite is called chrismation, and is done immediately after baptism, regardless of age. To be fully in communion with the Catholic Church, (a phrase used since c. 205), the Catholic Church requires a convert to have professed faith and practice the sacraments - baptism, confirmation and the Eucharist. The Orthodox Church also maintains the tradition of baptism, chrismation and first communion as a united rite till this day, referring to chrismation as "the Pentecost of the individual" (a reference to the Holy Spirit). The practice of confirmation was criticized during the Reformation by those who do not consider confirmation a condition for conversion to Christianity or being a fully accepted member of the church. Luther saw confirmation as “a churchly rite or sacramental ceremony,” but for Luther, it was baptism that was necessary and not confirmation. John Wesley removed the rite altogether leaving Methodism with no rite of confirmation from 1785 to 1965. These see confirmation as a combination of intercessory prayer and as a graduation ceremony after the period of instruction. See also Christianization Conversion of the Jews Credo Engel Scale Forced conversion List of converts to Christianity Rite of Christian Initiation for Adults (RCIA) References Bibliography * *
4795038	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monash%20University%20Faculty%20of%20Law	Monash University Faculty of Law	Monash University Faculty of Law, or Monash Law School, is the law school of Monash University. Founded in 1963, it is based in Melbourne, Victoria and has campuses in Malaysia and Italy. It is consistently ranked as one of the top law schools in Australia and globally, and entry to its Bachelor of Laws (LLB) programme is highly competitive. The Faculty of Law offers the Bachelor of Laws (LLB), with which students may combine other degrees as part of a double degree, the Juris Doctor (JD), Master of Laws (LLM) and the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). It currently has approximately 3,914 undergraduate and postgraduate students and over 100 professors, lecturers and teaching associates. The Faculty of Law's alumni include the former Treasurer of Australia Josh Frydenberg, the current Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria Anne Ferguson, judges of the Federal Court of Australia, Supreme Court of Victoria and Supreme Court of New South Wales, the leader of the Australian Greens Adam Bandt, the current Attorney-General of Victoria Jill Hennessy, members of the Australian Parliament, legal scholars, state politicians, prominent businesspersons, artists and media personalities. The Monash University Law Review is the Faculty of Law's flagship academic journal. It is managed by students and supervised by faculty advisors. History Foundation In the 1950s, it had become clear that Melbourne's only law school at the time, Melbourne Law School, would soon be unable to meet the rising demand for legal education. Although Monash University was founded to focus primarily on science and technology, it would inevitably establish a law school. The need was not considered pressing enough to make a law school a foundation faculty of the new university; however, when Melbourne Law School imposed quotas on law school candidates due to a lack of resources, a new law school was immediately needed to cater for the extra students. The Victorian Council of Legal Education, the Chief Justice of Victoria and the Victorian Government pushed for the overnight establishment of a law school at Monash University, but this was resisted by the University's Vice-Chancellor, Sir Louis Matheson, who wanted a high quality, well-planned, original faculty of law. In the end, it was over a relatively short period of time – 5 months from October 1963 to March 1964 – that a first-year law school curriculum was established and two teaching staff were appointed. However, when students first arrived in 1964, they did so with the knowledge that the curriculum for their later years was still being written. A law library was established with impressive speed, after substantial book donations from two former justices of the Supreme Court of Victoria. Appropriately for a law school, the Faculty's establishment was delayed by a dispute over the interpretation of the Monash University Act, concerning when and how the University Council could set up new faculties. Following debate between Monash University, the Crown Solicitor and the Parliamentary Draftsmen, the Act was eventually amended. Early years David Derham was the Faculty of Law's first dean, beginning his term on 29 February 1964 after resigning his post as Professor of Jurisprudence at Melbourne Law School the day before. Derham immediately sought to depart radically from the way that law had been taught previously in Australia. His appointment was announced on a Monday, and he was reportedly outlining detailed proposals for first-year subjects by the following Friday. He drastically reworked the curriculum and teaching style which his faculty had taught at Melbourne Law School. Monash University introduced small-group teaching, interactive lectures and a curriculum which emphasised legal skills in addition to a knowledge of the law itself. Classes were taught not only by academics but also by practising members of the legal profession. According to Derham, the reason behind this approach was that the law is "not fixed and static. It moves and grows." This stood in contrast to the conventional style of teaching in other Australian law schools, in which part-time staff members would deliver lectures to a hall of students with little or no student-teacher interaction. A similar transformation later took place at the University of New South Wales in Sydney. In later years, Derham also managed to establish strong international links with law schools in North America and Europe, which continue today. The first intake of law school students began in March 1964 with an initial enrolment of 149 students, after a lengthy selection and interview process. Seventeen of the 149 students (11.4%) were women. The four subjects in the first-year curriculum were an introductory legal subject named "The Legal System", criminal law (which was designed to introduce students to the casebook method pioneered in the United States, a British history subject focused on constitutional developments, and a subject taught either in the Faculty of Arts or the Faculty of Economics and Politics. The first lecture, on "The Legal System", was held by Derham on 9 March 1964, with all staff sitting anxiously in the front row. The first professor appointed by the Faculty of Law was Louis Waller AO, who later served as Dean. According to the Faculty of Law's early staff members, the opportunity to develop a new and original law school excited all those involved in Monash Law School's early years. In addition to its teaching reforms, Monash also became the first law school in Australia to establish its own community legal centres, which were and continue to be run by students under the supervision of staff and other lawyers. In 1971, Monash set another precedent for Australian law schools when Enid Campbell became the first female Dean of any Law School in Australia's history. Recent history When Monash University expanded in the 1990s, the Faculty of Law chose not to extend itself to other campuses. Instead, it chose selectively to use Monash University's global presence to create new opportunities for international study and research. The result was the establishment and expansion of international collaboration and exchange programs with law schools around the world. Additionally, the Faculty of Law established the Malaysia Program and the Prato Program, allowing its students to complete part of their degrees at the University's campuses in Malaysia and Italy. In 2008, the Faculty of Law announced that it would begin offering a dual Master of Laws with the Washington College of Law – the first such program by an Australian law school. The Faculty of Law has made a name for itself as a dynamic and progressive law school, in a field which has been criticised for being overly traditional and out-of-touch. It hosts faculty-run Community Legal Centres, staffed by undergraduate law students who may undertake clinical work as part of their degrees. As a result, by the early 1990s, the Faculty of Law's undergraduate law program was regarded by some in the legal profession as superior to that of its traditional rival, Melbourne Law School. Today the Faculty of Law has over 3,914 undergraduate and postgraduate students, and over one hundred academic staff. Deans David Derham (1964–1968) Louis Waller (1969–1970) Enid Campbell (1971) David Allan (1971–1976) Patrick Nash (1977–1980) Bob Baxt AO (1980–1988) Charles Williams (1988–1998) Stephen Parker (1999–2003) Arie Freiberg (2004-2012) Bryan Horrigan (2013–present) Admissions Entry to the Bachelor of Laws is highly competitive, with an ATAR score of approximately 98 required for guaranteed entry in 2020. Entry to the Juris Doctor is also competitive, with a minimum undergraduate degree grade point average of 5.0 on a 7-point scale (or equivalent experience or qualifications) or 4.0 on a 7-point scale with a minimum LSAT score of 150 required for guaranteed entry in 2021. Rankings The Faculty of Law is consistently ranked as one of the top law schools in Australia and the world. In 2018, it was ranked first in Australia in the Academic Ranking of World Universities. It is also consistently ranked as one of the top 40 law schools in the world, and is currently QS World University Rankings at number 40 in 2021. Research Academic staff at Monash Law School publish books and journal articles across almost all areas of law. Part of this research is organised around specialist centres, including: The Castan Centre for Human Rights Law The Australian Centre for Justice Innovation The Centre for Commercial Law and Regulatory Studies Law, Health and Wellbeing Eleos Justice The Transnational Criminal Law Group The Feminist Legal Studies Group The Faculty's research is further supported by eight research 'clusters': commercial and private law; criminal law and justice; family law; innovation and information law; international, European and comparative law; legal philosophy and legal theory; public law, government and regulation; and the legal profession. Monash Centre for Regulatory Studies The Monash Centre for Regulatory Studies is a teaching and research centre with a multidisciplinary focus, leading studies on the regulation of areas such as business, health sciences and technology. The current Director of the Centre is Graeme Hodge. Publications The following legal journals are based at Monash Law School: Monash University Law Review Alternative Law Journal Australian Journal of Legal Philosophy Law Library The Faculty of Law's library is split over four levels in the David Derham Law School Building. Architecturally, the building reflects the post World War II popularity of modernism. Academic staff offices surround the library. The main areas of student activity are located on the ground floor basement. The Monash Law Students' Society office (colloquially 'LSS') and the adjoining room provide LSS members and LSS officials' office space and recreation area. The Monash Law building facade is currently under development, and is predicted to be completed by April 2013. This will provide an entirely renovated building face and basement foyer, to go along with the recently renovated outdoor area at the entrance of the Faculty of Law. The Library houses a major collection of printed and electronic material. In addition to the many online databases and e-books, its physical collection contains over 150, 000 items. Most Commonwealth jurisdiction law reports can be found, including non-official and official reports. These include law reports from Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, the Pacific Island regions, the United States and Europe. A relatively large staff run the library, helping students, organising books, carrying out repair work and supervision of the law library. Community Legal Services Monash was among the first law schools in Australia to incorporate Community Legal Services into its teaching programs. Currently, the Faculty of Law runs two Community Legal Services. The Monash-Oakleigh Legal Service, which includes the Family Law Assistance Program, is located just outside the western border of the University's Clayton Campus. The Springvale Monash Legal Service, including the South East Centre Against Sexual Assault, is located in the South-Eastern Melbourne suburb of Springvale. The Springvale service is now the oldest continually running community legal service in Australia. Among the students who were first to participate in the program in 1973 include the current Chief Justice of Victoria Marilyn Warren and current Chairman of the Australian Securities & Investments Commission (ASIC) Tony D'Aloisio. These centres operate to provide free legal services and education to meet the needs of the community. They are supervised by full-time and part-time qualified legal practitioners, but are essentially run by law students at the Faculty of Law. Working at one of these centres for a semester or a summer is part of the Faculty of Law's Professional Practice units, which are credited towards the Bachelor of Laws. Student volunteers undertake a range of responsibilities, including interviewing clients, negotiating with other parties, letter drafting, preparing wills and court documents, and appearing in court on their client's behalf. Although most tasks are carried out by the students, they are under the supervision of practising solicitors. The Centres provide legal advice in areas such as criminal law, employment law, debt and family law. They also produce publications on law reform. Since the establishment of Community Legal Services in the early 1970s, similar programs have been introduced at other Australian law schools. Notable alumni The Faculty of Law has produced a large number of prominent alumni across different areas of law, politics, business, academia, sport and the arts. The following is a selection of notable alumni: Federal Court of Australia judges Stewart Anderson (2019–present) Mordy Bromberg (2009–present) Jennifer Davies (2013–present) Raymond Finkelstein AO (1997–2011) Christopher Jessup (2006–2017) Shane Marshall AM (1995–2015) Debra Mortimer (2013–present) Bernard Murphy (2011–present) Tony Pagone (2013–2018) Victorian Court of Appeal judges David Beach (2008–present) Anne Ferguson, Chief Justice of Victoria (2017–present) Stephen Kaye AM (2003–present) Murray Kellam AO (1998–2009), also first President of the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal Maree Kennedy (2016–present) Cameron Macaulay (2010–present) Richard Niall (2017–present), also Solicitor-General of Victoria (2015–2017) Pamela Tate (2010–present), also first female Solicitor-General of Victoria (2003–2010) Marilyn Warren AC, first female Chief Justice of Victoria (2003–2017) and former Lieutenant-Governor of Victoria Mark Weinberg AO (2008–2018), also former Chief Justice of Norfolk Island and 2nd Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions (1988–1991) Victorian Supreme Court judges Richard Attiwill (2021–present) Kevin Bell (2005–2020), also former President of the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal Anthony Cavanough (2009–present) Matthew Connock (2019–present) Clyde Croft AM (2009–2019) Michael Croucher (2013–present) Jennifer Davies (2009–2013) Jane Dixon (2016–present) James Dudley Elliott (2013–present) James Judd (2008–2018) Andrew Keogh (2016–present) Lex Lasry AM (2007–2018) Steven Moore (2018–present) Stuart Morris (2003–2007), also former President of the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal Lisa Nichols (2019–present) Tony Pagone (2007–2013) Jack Rush (2013–2016) Kathryn Stynes (2020–present) Andrew Tinney (2018–present) Andrea Tsalamandris (2022–present) Judiciary of New South Wales Elizabeth Fullerton: Judge of the Supreme Court of New South Wales (2007–present) Simon Molesworth AO, QC: Acting Judge of the Land and Environment Court of New South Wales (2017–present), Vice Chancellor's Professorial Fellow at the Faculty of Law, Adjunct Professor of the La Trobe Institute for Social and Environmental Sustainability and chairman of the Australia Council of National Trusts High Court of Hong Kong Kevin Zervos: Judge of Court of Appeal (2013–present) Other judges Ken Barlow: Judge of the District Court of Queensland (2019–present) Anna Boymal: Judge of the Federal Circuit Court of Australia (2019–present) Diana Bryant: 3rd Chief Justice of the Family Court of Australia (2004–2017); former and first Chief Magistrate of the Federal Magistrates' Court of Australia Jennifer Coate: Judge of the Family Court of Australia (2013–2019); State Coroner of Victoria (2007–2013); first President of the Children's Court of Victoria (2000–2007) Julie Condon: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2017–2019) Paul Cronin: Judge of the Family Court of Australia (2006–2019) Ronald Curtain: Judge of the Federal Circuit Court of Australia (2012–present) Sarah Dawes: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2018–present) Kevin Doyle: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2019–present) Robert Dyer: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2014–present) Mandy Fox: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2018–present) Ian Gray: current State Coroner of Victoria (2012–current), first President of the Children's Court of Victoria and Chief Magistrate of the Magistrates' Court of Victoria (2001–2012) Felicity Hampel: Judge of the County Court of Victoria Lisa Hannan: Chief Magistrate of the Magistrates' Court of Victoria (2019–present) Justin Hannebery: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2020–present) Norah Hartnett: Judge of the Family Court of Australia (2019–present) Scott Johns: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2018–present) Sharon Johns: Judge of the Family Court of Australia (2013–present) Graeme Johnstone: State Coroner of Victoria (1994–2007) Gregory Lyon: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2016–present) Kirsty Macmillan: Judge of the Family Court of Australia (2011–present) Martine Marich: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2018–present) Patricia Matthews: Associate Judge of the Supreme Court of Victoria (2020–present) Alistair McNab: Judge of the Federal Circuit Court of Australia (2016–present) Nahum Mushin AM: Judge of the Family Court of Australia (1990–2011) Patrick O'Shannessy: Judge of the Federal Circuit Court of Australia (2020–present) David Purcell: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2020–present) Claire Quin: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2013–present) Patricia Riddell: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2017–present) Michael Rozenes AO: Chief Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2002–2015), also Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions (1992–1997) Christopher Ryan: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2018–present) David Sexton: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2018–present) Meryl Sexton: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2001–present) Richard Smith: Judge of the County Court of Victoria (2013–present) Joanne Stewart: Judge of the Federal Circuit Court of Australia (2013–present) Christine Thornton: Judge of the Family Court of Australia (2013–2018) Jack Vandersteen: Judge of the County Court of Victoria and President of the Children's Court of Victoria (2021–present) Peter C. Young: Judge of the Family Court of Australia (2002–2013) Other legal practitioners Greg Barns SC: barrister and human rights advocate Anna Brown: former director of Legal Advocacy at the Human Rights Law Centre Julian Burnside AO QC: prominent barrister, human rights advocate and author John Cain: Victorian Solicitor for Public Prosecutions and State Coroner Kristine Hanscombe QC: barrister specialising in public law Emily Madder: General Counsel and Company Secretary of Siemens Ross Ray QC: prominent barrister and former President of the Law Council of Australia Neil Rees: former Chairman of the Victorian Law Reform Commission, foundation Dean of the University of Newcastle Law Faculty Julian McMahon AC QC: prominent barrister and human rights advocate David Vadiveloo: human rights advocate and screen producer Brian Walters AM QC: prominent barrister and advocate for human rights and the environment Australian politics and government Jan Adams AO PSM: Australian Ambassador to Japan (October 2020–present) and Australian Ambassador to China (2016–2019) Richard Alston AO: President of the Liberal Party of Australia (2014–2017) and Australian High Commissioner to the United Kingdom (2005–2008) Kevin Andrews: Liberal minister and member of the Australian Parliament for Menzies (1991–present) and Father of the Australian House of Representatives (2016–present) Adam Bandt: Leader of the Australian Greens (2020–present) and member of the Australian Parliament for Melbourne Julia Banks: Liberal member of the Australian Parliament for Chisholm (2016–2019); General Counsel of Kraft Foods Australia (1992–2009), GlaxoSmithKline Australia (2009–2014) and George Weston Foods (2014–present) Mark Birrell: Liberal minister and member of the Victorian Legislative Council for the East Yarra Province (1983–2002) Peter Cleeland: Labor member of the Australian Parliament for McEwen (1984–1990) Peter Costello AC: longest-serving Treasurer of Australia (1996–2007) and former Deputy Leader of the Liberal Party of Australia Simon Crean: Leader of the Opposition and Australian Labor Party Leader (2001–2003) Will Fowles: Labor member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly for Burwood (2018–present) Josh Frydenberg: Treasurer of Australia and Deputy Leader of the Liberal Party of Australia (2018–2022) Deborah Glass: Victorian Ombudsman (2014–present) David Gray: Labor member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly for Electoral district of Syndal (1982–1985) Alan Griffiths: Labor member of the Australian Parliament for Division of Maribyrnong (1983–1996) Dianne Hadden: independent member of the Victorian Legislative Council (2004–2006) Jill Hennessy: 54th Attorney-General of Victoria (2018–present) Sarah Henderson: Liberal senator for Victoria (2019–present) Graham Ihlein: Labor member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly for Sandringham (1982–1985) Michael Kroger: President of the Victorian Liberal Party (1987–2018) Julian Hill: Labor member of the Australian Parliament for Bruce (2016–present) John Lenders: Treasurer of Victoria (2007–2010) Tony Lupton: Victorian Cabinet Secretary (2007–2010) Clem Newton-Brown: Liberal member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly for Prahran David O'Brien: National member of the Victorian Legislative Council for the Western Victoria Region (2010–2014) Brendan O'Connor: Labor minister and member of the Australian Parliament (2004–present) Clare O'Neil: Labor member of the Australian Parliament for Hotham (2013–present); also youngest female mayor of a local government area in Australia's history Martin Pakula: Labor minister and member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly (2006–present), also 53rd Attorney-General of Victoria (2014–2018) Victor Perton: Liberal member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly (1988–2006) Peter Reith: Liberal minister and member of the Australian Parliament for Flinders (1984–2001); Executive Director of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (2003–2009) Bill Shorten: Leader of the Australian Labor Party and Leader of the Opposition (2013–2019), former National Secretary, Australian Workers' Union and Victorian State ALP President Laura Smyth: Labor member of the Australian Parliament for La Trobe (2010–2013) Murray Thompson: Liberal member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly for Sandringham (1992–2018) and footballer for Richmond Football Club (1973–1976) John Thwaites: Deputy Premier of Victoria (1999–2007) Dean Wells: Attorney-General of Queensland (1989–1995) Steve Wettenhall: Labor member of the Queensland Parliament for Barron River (2006–2012) Gabrielle Williams: Labor minister and member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly (2014–present) Beth Wilson: Victorian Health Services Commissioner (1997–2012) and former President of Victoria's Mental Health Review Board Keith Wolahan: Liberal member of the Australian Parliament for Menzies Non-Australian political figures Donald Betts: Democratic member of the Kansas Senate (2004–2009) Siswo Pramono: Indonesian Ambassador to Australia (2021–present) Peter Reith: Executive Director of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (2003–2009) Ambika Satkunanathan: Commissioner of the Human Rights Commission of Sri Lanka (2015–2020) M. A. Sumanthiran: member of the Parliament of Sri Lanka (2015–present) Business Andrew Bassat: CEO and co-founder of Seek Limited Gidon Bromberg: director of EcoPeace Middle East Tony D'Aloisio: Chairman of the Australian Securities & Investments Commission (ASIC) (2007–2011) and managing director and CEO of the Australian Securities Exchange (2004–2006) Mina Guli: businesswoman and former deputy chairman of the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry in Beijing Tan Le: Technology entrepreneur, 1998 Young Australian of the Year Amanda McKenzie: CEO and co-founder of the Climate Council and environmental activist Liddy Nevile: technology pioneer and author Andrew Norton: director at the International Institute for Environment and Development Graeme Samuel AO: chairman of the Australian Competition & Consumer Commission (2003–2011) Carol Schwartz AO: Director of the Reserve Bank of Australia Jonathan Shier: managing director of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (2000–2001) Anna Skarbek: businesswoman in the areas of environment and reduction of carbon emissions Alex Waislitz: prominent businessman and member of Collingwood Football Club board of directors Academia Antony Anghie: Professor of Law at the National University of Singapore Faculty of Law and leading international law scholar Mark Aronson: Emeritus Professor at Melbourne Law School and the UNSW Faculty of Law and distinguished public law scholar Neil H. Buchanan: Professor at University of Florida Levin College of Law and tax law scholar Tim Costello AO: Director of World Vision Australia Clyde Croft AM: professor of law at the Faculty of Law Mick Dodson: 2009 Australian of the Year and Convenor of the ANU Institute for Indigenous Australia Hugh Evans: Co-Founder of The Oaktree Foundation, Author and Philanthropist, 2004 Young Australian of the Year, Arie Freiberg: Emeritus Professor and former Dean of the Faculty of Law (2004–2012) Robert Hayes: Associate Professor of Law at Western Sydney University Peter Hogg QC: leading scholar on Canadian constitutional law Sarah Joseph: human rights scholar and Director of the Castan Centre for Human Rights Law Rosemary Langford: Associate Professor of Law at Melbourne Law School Ron McCallum: Emeritus Professor at the University of Sydney and foundation Blake Dawson Waldron Professor in Industrial Law at Sydney Law School Alexandra Phelan: faculty member and researcher at the Georgetown University School of Medicine Charles Robert Williams, Emeritus Professor at the Faculty of Law and criminal law scholar Literature, media and the arts Tom Ballard: comedian and radio presenter at Triple J (2007–2013) John Burns: radio presenter and former Victorian Crown Prosecutor Elizabeth Eggleston: author, activist for Indigenous Australians and first doctoral candidate at the Faculty of Law Jon Faine AM: prominent Melbourne radio personality David Francis: award-winning novelist Vance Joy: award-winning singer and songwriter Elliot V. Kotek: award-winning producer, filmmaker, social impact entrepreneur and journalist Sarah Krasnostein: author and commentator on criminal law Gina Liano: barrister, television personality and star in The Real Housewives of Melbourne Campbell McComas: comedian and actor Charlie Pickering: comedian Elliot Perlman: writer, Three Dollars, The Reasons I Won't Be Coming), AFI Award winner Andrew Probyn: journalist at the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Aamer Rahman: comedian and member of Fear of a Brown Planet Sandra Sdraulig AM: chairman of the Adelaide Film Festival and the Adelaide Festival of Ideas Nick Russell: actor and producer John Spooner: author and journalist Matt Tilley: comedian and radio personality Jane Turner OAM: actress, comedian and Logie Award-winning comedy writer, co-star of Kath & Kim Andrew Wailes: conductor, music director and former president of the Australian Intervarsity Choral Festival Wendy Zukerman: science journalist and podcaster Sport Brendon Gale: footballer for Richmond Football Club (1990–2001); chief executive officer of Richmond Football Club (2009–present) Anna Millward (née Wilson): cyclist, two-time world champion (1999 and 2001) Dean Kino: former Cricket Australia administrator Peter Moore: footballer for Collingwood Football Club (1974–1982) and Melbourne Football Club (1983–1987), and dual Brownlow Medallist Bo Nixon: footballer for Collingwood Football Club (2004) and Hawthorn Football Club (2005) Ian Prendergast: general counsel and chief commercial officer of Carlton Football Club and footballer for the same club (2001–2006) Daniel Trenton: Australian taekwondo champion and silver medallist at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney Peter Winter: decathlete and silver medallist at the 1994 Commonwealth Games in Canada Notable academic staff Notable academic staff at the Faculty of Law, past and present, include: Jean Allain: professor of international law and expert on modern slavery Bob Baxt AO: scholar and solicitor in commercial law, former Chairman of the Trade Practices Commission (now the ACCC), former Dean of the Faculty of Law Maureen Brunt AO: distinguished economist Enid Campbell AC: scholar in constitutional law and administrative law. Stephen Charles AO: former Justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria, Adjunct Professor at the Faculty of Law Clyde Croft AM: former Justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria Sir Daryl Dawson AC KBE: former Justice of the High Court of Australia Mark Davison: intellectual property law expert Nadirsyah Hosen: internationally known as an expert on Indonesian law and Shari'a law Raymond Finkelstein AO: former Justice of the Federal Court of Australia Ian Freckelton: adjunct professor of law Robert French AC: former Chief Justice of the High Court of Australia, Adjunct Professor at the Faculty of Law Arie Freiberg AM: Emeritus Professor and former Dean of the Faculty of Law and Chairman of the Victorian Sentencing Advisory Council Jeffrey Goldsworthy AM: Emeritus Professor at the Faculty of Law, legal philosopher and constitutional law scholar Peter Gray AM: former judge of the Federal Court of Australia, Adjunct Professor at the Faculty of Law George Hampel AM QC: former Justice of the Supreme Court of Victoria; advocacy instructor Felicity Hampel: Judge of the County Court of Victoria Peter Heerey AM: former judge of the Federal Court of Australia Nadirsyah Hosen: expert on Islamic law and Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Law Christopher Jessup: former judge of the Federal Court of Australia and Adjunct Professor at the Faculty of Law Sarah Joseph: constitutional law and human rights law scholar, director of the Castan Centre for Human Rights Law Hoong Phun Lee: Sir John Latham Professor of Law and former Deputy Dean at the Faculty of Law Nahum Mushin AM: Adjunct Professor at the Faculty of Law, Judge of the Family Court of Australia (1990–2011) Marcia Neave AO: former judge of the Supreme Court of Victoria Jeremy Rapke QC: former Victorian Director of Public Prosecutions Louis Waller AO: Emeritus Professor at the Faculty of Law and criminal law scholar Wickrema Weerasooria: High Commissioner to Australia and New Zealand (1986–1990) Charles Robert Williams, Emeritus Professor at the Faculty of Law and criminal law scholar Christopher Weeramantry: Former Judge and Vice-President of the International Court of Justice References External links Monash University Law School web site Law schools in Australia Law Buildings and structures in the City of Monash 1963 establishments in Australia
4795594	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongolian%20horse	Mongolian horse	The Mongolian horse (Mongolian Адуу, aduu: "horse" or mori; or as a herd, ado) is the native horse breed of Mongolia. The breed is purported to be largely unchanged since the time of Genghis Khan. Nomads living in the traditional Mongol fashion still hold more than 3 million animals, which outnumber the country's human population. In Mongolia, the horses live outdoors all year, dealing with temperatures from in summer down to in winter, and they graze and search for food on their own. The mare's milk is processed into the national beverage airag. Some animals are slaughtered for meat. Other than that, they serve as riding and transport animals; they are used both for the daily work of the nomads and in horse racing. Mongol horses were a key factor supporting the 13th-century conquests of the Mongol Empire. History The split between Przewalski's horse and E. ferus caballus is estimated to have occurred 120,000– 240,000 years ago, long before domestication. The Mongolian horse is theorized to be the founding stock for many other horse breeds in Asia, including the Tuvinian, Akhaltekin, Yunan, Japanese and Cheju. A comparison of Mongol horses, Japanese horses, and Arab Anglo/Thoroughbred horses found that Mongol horses had the highest genetic diversity, with a heterozygosity ranging from 0.75 to 0.77. Compared to low heterozygosity values for Thoroughbreds (0.461), Arabians (0.478) and the bottlenecked Przewalski's horse (0.474), the genetic diversity of the Mongol horses is exceptional. The thirteenth-century archbishop Giovanni da Pian del Carpine was one of the first Westerners to describe Mongol horses, observing, "...[they] are not very great in stature, but exceedingly strong, and maintained with little provender". A 1918 census of Mongolian animals found 1,500,000 horses. The origins of the Mongolian breed are hard to determine. Nomads of the central Asian steppes have been documented as riding horses since 2000 BC. Tests have shown, that among all horse breeds, Mongol horses feature the largest genetic variety, followed by the Tuvan horses. This indicates that it is a very archaic breed suffering little human-induced selection. The data also indicate that many other breeds descend from the Mongol horses. Crossbreeding Recently, breeders have begun importing expensive foreign racehorse breeds like Arabians and Thoroughbreds with the goal of breeding them to native stock to produce faster horses, but these relatively fragile breeds are unable to survive on the steppe like Mongolian horses can; if left unsheltered, such horses inevitably freeze to death or starve. So, breeders have focused on created crossbreeds between foreign horses and native Mongolian stock. The ultimate goal is to produce a race horse that has one-quarter foreign blood and three-quarters Mongolian blood; this proportion is believed to create a horse hardy enough to survive in Mongolia and combine the Mongolian horse's stamina and endurance with foreign speed to produce a new breed with the best qualities of both. One of the drawbacks to breeding such crosses is that the foreign stallion is much larger than the smaller Mongolian mare. This results in large foals that can be difficult for the small mares to birth. Since Mongolian mares typically give birth on their own without human supervision—and seldom have problems doing so—breeders have little experience on how to deal with the birthing problems that result due to the size of the crossed foals. To reduce birthing problems, a foreign mare could be bred to a native stallion to avoid the large foal problem, but in practice this reduces the numbers of crossbreed foals that can be produced each year. In one breeding season, a foreign stallion can impregnate 10 native mares and produce 10 crossed foals, but a foreign mare can only be impregnated by a native stallion once and produce one crossed foal. Japan Mongol horses have been theorized to be the founding stock for Japan's native horse breeds. Breeds such as the Misaki, Taishu, Tokara, Kiso, Yonaguni, Noma, Hokkaido, and Miyako are believed to be the descendants of distant Mongolian ancestors. Northern Europe and Iceland Genetic analyses have revealed links between the Mongolian horse and breeds in Iceland, Scandinavia, Central Europe, and the British Isles. The Mongol horses are believed to have been originally imported from Russia by Swedish traders; this imported Mongol stock subsequently became the basis for the Norwegian Fjord horse and a variety of other Scandinavian breeds, including the Nordland. One of these breeds was eventually exported to Iceland by settlers, producing the modern day Icelandic horse, which bears a strong resemblance to the Mongol horse and lives in much the same way, foraging freely off the land during all seasons. The Exmoor, Scottish Highland, Shetland, and Connemara pony breeds have also been found to be related to the Icelandic horse, suggesting that all these northern European breeds had ancestors that grazed on the steppe of Mongolia. Characteristics Mongol horses are of a stocky build, with relatively short but strong legs and a large head. They weigh about 500 to 600 lbs. and range in size from high. Their cannon bone external circumference is about . They have a slight resemblance to Przewalski's horse and were once believed to have originated from that subspecies. However, that theory was disproven in 2011 by genetic testing. The question whether Przewalski's horse is an ancestor of any domestic horse is still being debated, though it can interbreed with domesticated horses to hybridize and produce fertile offspring. Of the caballine equines, E. ferus, only E. ferus ferus, also known as the European wild horse, shares ancestry with the modern domestic horse. The mane and tail of the Mongol horse are very long. Their strands are often used for braiding ropes; the tail hair can be used for violin bows. Mongolian horses have great stamina; although they have small bodies, they can gallop for 10 km without a break. When pulling a cart, a team of four Mongol horses can draw a load of 4400 lbs for 50–60 km a day. Because the horses are allowed to live much the same as wild horses, they require little in the way of hoof care. The hooves are left untrimmed and unshod, and few farriers are in the country. Mongol horses have hard, strong hooves and seldom have foot problems. Sometimes, horses will be branded. Horses from different regions of Mongolia are considered to have different traits. Desert horses are said to have larger feet than average ("like camel's feet"). Mountain horses are short and particularly strong. Steppe horses are the tallest, fastest variety of Mongol horses. Specifically, the eastern Khentii Province and Sükhbaatar Province steppe provinces are widely considered to produce the fastest horses in the country. Darkhad horses are known for their strength. A Darkhad horse weighing only 250 kg can carry a load of 300 kg—the equivalent of carrying another horse on its back. On a broader level, some Mongolian provinces are considered to be more suitable for horse rearing than others. The eastern steppe provinces are informally known as the "horse provinces" because of their suitability for horse breeding. The northern mountain provinces are considered "cow provinces", though horses are reared there, as well. A wide variety of horse colorations are seen. People in the different regions of Mongolia favor different colors of horses and breed accordingly. The Darkhad ethnic group prefers white horses, while the Nyamgavaa prefer dun, bay, or black horses and shun white-colored animals. Some horses are bred for the preferences of foreign markets. Elizabeth Kendall, travelling through southern Mongolia in 1911, wrote, "I was struck by the number of white and grey ponies, and was told that horses are bred chiefly for the market in China, and this is the Chinese preference." She also observed that the northern Mongolian herds near Tuerin seemed to consist mainly of black and chestnut horses. Herdsmen breed horses primarily for color and speed, but also for conformation, disposition, and lineage. In Mongolia, conformation is not stressed so strongly as it is in Western culture. However, a few traits are preferred in a horse. When walking, a horse should leave hind footprints that fall upon or outside the fore footprints. A desirable animal should also have a large head, thick bones, a large barrel, thick legs, be tall (but not so tall as to impede winter survival), possess a thick coat for cold resistance, have a thick mane and tail, and a Roman nose; the latter is considered important because dish-faced horses are considered to have difficulty grazing. Mongol horses are frugal, hardy, somewhat wily, and tread safely in rough terrain. In Mongolia, most animals are kept roaming free, and only a small number of riding animals are caught and tethered. A nomad's herd of horses hangs out around the family's dwelling, typically grazing several kilometres away. The herd is allowed to choose its own pasturage with little interference from the owners. They may disappear for days at a time, and eventually the owners go out to look for them. Once a horse has become familiar with carrying a rider, it will be calm, friendly, and very reliable. Because nature provides so well for Mongol horses, they cost little to nothing to raise. They are a practical necessity of everyday life, in which a substantial portion of the population still lives as nomads. Herdsmen regard their horses as both a form of wealth and a source of the daily necessities: transportation, food, and drink. The horses typically eat nothing but grass and require very little water, a trait useful for survival in environments like the Gobi desert. A horse may drink only once a day. In the winter, Mongol horses paw up the snow to eat the grass underneath. For water, they eat snow. During the winter and early spring, horses lose about 30% of their body weight. They must regain this weight during summer and fall so as to survive another year. During particularly hard winters ("zuds"), horses may starve to death en masse or die of exposure. Herdsmen can do little to save their herds in such conditions. In the bitter winter of 2009–2010, 188,270 Mongol horses perished. Despite their life in semi-feral conditions, most horses live to be 20 – 40 years old. The horse is believed to have been first domesticated somewhere in the Eurasian Steppe. Never have all the horses in Mongolia been domesticated at once; rather, wild and domesticated horses coexisted and interbred, so verifiably "true" wild blood no longer exists in the Mongol horses of today. However, although not considered true wild horses in the same sense as Przewalski's horse, some feral Mongolian horses browse the steppe alongside their semiferal domesticated kin. Unlike the mustangs that roam the West in the United States, which are categorized as a non-native species, feral Mongol horses are living in the same manner and place as where their ancestors had run and lived for hundreds of thousands of years. Occasionally, the nomads capture feral horses to add to their herds. Use Mongolian horses are valued for their milk, meat, and hair. In the summer, mares are milked six times a day, once every two hours. A mare produces an average of 0.11 lbs of milk each time, with a yearly production of 662 lbs total. The milk is used to make the ubiquitous fermented drinks of Mongolia, airag and kumis. Horse meat is considered the healthiest, most delicious kind of meat. Each 600-lb Mongol horse yields about 240 lb of meat. The horse's hair can be used for a number of products, including rope, fiddle strings, and a variety of ornaments. Horse dung is used for camp fuel. As warhorses Mongol horses are best known for their role as the war steeds of Genghis Khan. The Mongol soldier relied on his horses to provide him with food, drink, transportation, armor, shoes, ornamentation, bowstring, rope, fire, sport, music, hunting, entertainment, spiritual power, and in case of his death, a mount to ride in the afterlife. Mongol horses made excellent warhorses because of their hardiness, stamina, self-sufficiency, and ability to forage on their own. The main disadvantage of the Mongol horse as a war steed was that it was slower than some of the other breeds it faced on the battlefield. Soldiers preferred to ride lactating mares because they could use them as milk animals. In times of desperation, they would also slit a minor vein in their horse's neck and drain some blood into a cup. This they would drink either "plain" or mixed with milk or water. A Mongol warrior's horse would come at his whistle and follow him around, dog-like. Each warrior would bring a small herd of horses with him (three to five being average, but up to 20) as remounts. They alternated horses so that they always rode a fresh horse. Racing, riding, and tack Horse racing is one of the "three manly arts". Horse racing is the second-most popular event in Mongolia, after traditional wrestling. Mongolian races are long, up to 30 km, and can involve thousands of horses. The native horses have excellent endurance. Though foreign breeds are faster than Mongolian horses, they are usually exhausted by the end of the run, while the Mongolian horses still have wind. Nevertheless, horses have died of exhaustion during the Naadam race on occasion. In Mongolia, racing is a people's sport where everyone participates. Each family selects the best horse from their herd and takes it to the fair to race. However, in recent years, the introduction of fast foreign crossbreeds has changed the sport. Only the richest breeder can afford to buy and raise a Thoroughbred/Mongolian mix, and such horses tend to win races. This has led to complaints that ordinary people no longer have a chance to win, and that racing has become the province of the elite. Racing horses with a child in the saddle run in full gallop over 35 km at a time. Children are used instead of adults because they are lighter. Mongolians are not so much concerned with the skill and experience of a jockey as the ability of the horse. Mongolian nomads have long been considered to be some of the best horsemen in the world. During the time of Genghis Khan, Mongol horse archers were capable of feats such as sliding down the side of their horses to shield their bodies from enemy arrows, while simultaneously holding their bows under the horses' chins and returning fire, all at full gallop. The education of a modern Mongolian horseman begins in childhood. Parents place their children on a horse and hold them there before they can even hang on without assistance. By age 6, children can ride in races; by age 10, they are learning to make their own tack. Materials such as books on horse training or medical care are uncommon and seldom used. Information is passed down orally from parent to child. A variety of rules for how tack and horses should be handled are known. For example, it was taboo to use the whip as a prop or to touch an arrow to the whip; such crimes were punishable by death. In Genghis Khan's time, strict rules dictated the way horses were to be used on campaign. The Khan instructed his general Subutai, "See to it that your men keep their crupper hanging loose on their mounts and the bit of their bridle out of the mouth, except when you allow them to hunt. That way they won't be able to gallop off at their whim [tiring out the horses unnecessarily]. Having established these rules--see to it you seize and beat any man who breaks them. ... Any man...who ignores this decree, cut off his head where he stands." Mongolian tack differs from Western tack in being made almost completely of rawhide and using knots instead of metal connectors. Tack design follows a "one size fits all" approach, with saddles, halters, and bits all produced in a single size. Mongolian tack is very light compared to western tack. The modern Mongolian riding saddle is tall, with a wooden frame and several decorated metal disks that stand out from the sides. It has a high pommel and cantle and short stirrups. Riders frequently stand in the stirrups while riding. The Mongolian saddle, both medieval and modern, has short stirrups rather like those used on modern race horses. The design of the stirrups makes it possible for the rider to control the horse with his legs, leaving his hands free for tasks like archery or holding a catch-pole. Cultural context The Mongols have many stories and songs about horses. Legendary horses include magical flying steeds, beloved horses that visit in dreams, and a rich body of folklore about equine protagonists. The horse has long played a role as a sacred animal, and Mongols have a variety of spiritual beliefs regarding them. The mane is believed to contain a horse's spirit and strength; for this reason, the mane of stallions is always left uncut. Mare's milk has been used in ceremonies of purification, prayer, and blessing since antiquity. In modern times, it continues to be used in a variety of ceremonies associated with racing. Historically, horses were sacrificed on special occasions; 40 horses were sacrificed at the funeral of Genghis Khan. When a horse is killed, a variety of rituals may be followed to honor the remains. Horses are believed to have spirits that can help or hurt their owner after death. When a deceased horse's spirit is content, the owner's herd will flourish; if not, then the herd will fail. Of the five kinds of herd animals typically recognized in Mongolia (horses, camels, oxen/yaks, sheep, and goats), horses are seen to have the highest prestige. A nomad with many horses is considered wealthy. Mongolians do not give their horses names; rather, they identify them by their color, markings, scars, and brands. Over 500 words in the Mongolian language describe the traits of horses. See also Chinese Mongolian horse Horses in East Asian warfare Kalmyk horse Przewalski's horse Sergeant Reckless (c. 1948–1968), a Mongolian mare and decorated war horse that served with the United States Marine Corps in the Korean War. Yakutian horse References Horse breeds originating in Mongolia History of Mongolia Horse breeds
4796145	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity%20in%20Lebanon	Christianity in Lebanon	Christianity in Lebanon has a long and continuous history. Biblical Scriptures purport that Peter and Paul evangelized the Phoenicians, whom they affiliated to the ancient Patriarchate of Antioch. Christianity spread slowly in Lebanon due to pagans who resisted conversion, but it ultimately spread throughout the country. Even after centuries of Muslim rule, it remains the dominant faith of the Mount Lebanon region and has substantial communities elsewhere. A 2015 study estimated that 2,500 Lebanese Christians have Muslim ancestry, whereas the majority of Lebanese Christians are direct descendants of the original early Christians. The Maronite Catholics and the Druze founded modern Lebanon in the nineteenth century, through a governing and social system known as the "Maronite-Druze dualism" in the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate. Lebanon has the highest proportion of Christians of any Middle Eastern country, estimated to be between 34% and 40%; Egypt and Syria are next, at roughly 10%. History Before the Christian faith reached the territory of Lebanon, Jesus had traveled to its southern parts near Tyre where the scripture tells that he cured a possessed Canaanite child. Christianity in Lebanon is almost as old as gentile Christian faith itself. Early reports relate the possibility that Saint Peter himself was the one who evangelized the Phoenicians whom he affiliated to the ancient Patriarchate of Antioch. Paul also preached in Lebanon, having lingered with the early Christians in Tyre and Sidon. Even though Christianity was introduced to Lebanon after the first century AD, its spread was very slow, particularly in the mountainous areas where paganism was still unyielding. The earliest indisputable tradition of Christianity in Lebanon can be traced back to Saint Maron in the 4th century AD, being of Greek/Eastern/Antiochian Orthodox origin and the founder of national and ecclesiastical Maronitism. Saint Maron adopted an ascetic and reclusive life on the banks of the Orontes river in the vicinity of Homs–Syria and founded a community of monks which began to preach the gospel in the surrounding areas. By faith, liturgy, rite, religious books and heritage, the Maronites were of Eastern origin. The Saint Maron Monastery was too close to Antioch to grant the monks their freedom and autonomy, which prompted Saint John Maron, the first Maronite patriarch-elect, to lead his monks into the Lebanese mountains to escape emperor Justinian II's persecution, finally settling in the Qadisha valley. Nevertheless, the influence of the Maronite establishment spread throughout the Lebanese mountains and became a considerable feudal force. The existence of the Maronites was largely ignored by the western world until the Crusades. In the 16th century, the Maronite Church adopted the catechism of the Catholic Church and reaffirmed its relationship with it. Moreover, Rome dispatched Franciscan, Dominican and later Jesuit missionaries to Lebanon to Latinise the Maronites. The relationship between the Druze and Christians has been characterized by harmony and peaceful coexistence, with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with the exception of some periods, including 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war. Due to their turbulent history, the Maronites formed a secluded identity in the mountains and valleys of Lebanon, led by the Maronite patriarch who voiced his opinion on contemporary issues. They identify themselves as a unique community whose religion and culture is distinct from the predominantly Muslim Arab world. The Maronites played a major part in the definition of and the creation of the state of Lebanon. The modern state of Greater Lebanon was established by France in 1920 after the instigation of ambitious Maronite leaders headed by patriarch Elias Peter Hoayek, who presided over delegations to France following World War I and requested the re-establishment of the entity of the Principality of Lebanon (1515AD–1840AD). With the creation of the state of Lebanon, Arabism was overcome by Lebanism, which emphasizes Lebanon's Mediterranean and Phoenician heritage. In the National Pact, an unwritten gentleman's agreement between the Maronite President Bshara el-Khoury and Sunni Prime Minister Riad as-Solh, the seats of presidency were distributed between the main Lebanese religious denominations. According to the pact, the President of the Lebanese republic shall always be a Maronite. Furthermore, the pact also states that Lebanon is a state with an "Arab face" (not an Arab identity). Demographics Note that the following percentages are estimates only. As the last Lebanese census was conducted in 1932, it is difficult to have precise population estimates. Lebanon has the highest proportion of Christians of any country in the Middle East, but exact size of this population has been disputed for many years. One estimate of the Christian share of Lebanon's population, as of 2012, was 40.5%. And more recently, in 2018 the CIA World Factbook estimated that Christians constituted 33.7% of Lebanon's population. The Maronite Church, an Eastern Catholic church in full communion with the Catholic Church, is the largest and politically most active and influential denomination of Lebanon's Christians. The Catholic Church also includes other Eastern Catholic churches, such as the Melkite Catholic Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church forms the second-largest proportion of Lebanese Christians. The Armenian Apostolic Church also forms a large portion of the Christian population in Lebanon. The other six smaller Christian sects are considered ethnic Assyrians; (Syriac Orthodox, Syriac Catholics, Assyrian Church of the East and Chaldean Catholics) In the Lebanese Parliament, Christians hold 64 seats in tandem with 64 seats for Lebanese Muslims. The Maronites are allotted 34 seats, the Eastern Orthodox 14, Melkites eight, the Armenians Apostolics five, Catholic Armenians one, Protestants one, and other Christian minority groups, one. Churches and monasteries in Lebanon The head of the Maronite Church is the Maronite Patriarch of Antioch, who is elected by the bishops of the Maronite church and now resides in Bkerké, north of Beirut (but in the northern town of Dimane during the summer months). The current Patriarch (from 2011) is Mar Bechara Boutros al-Rahi. When a new patriarch is elected and enthroned, he requests ecclesiastic communion from the Pope, thus maintaining the Catholic Church communion. Patriarchs may also be accorded the status of cardinals, in the rank of cardinal-bishops. They share with other Catholics the same doctrine, but Maronites retain their liturgy and hierarchy. Strictly speaking, the Maronite church belongs to the Antiochene Tradition and is a West Syro-Antiochene Rite. Syriac is the liturgical language, instead of Latin. Nevertheless, they are considered, by the Syro-Malabar Church, to be among the most Latinized of the Eastern Catholic Churches. The Seat of the Maronite Catholic Church is in Bkerké. Monasteries in Lebanon are run by both the Maronite and Orthodox Church. The Holy Monastery of Saint George in Deir El Harf and Saint John the Baptist Monastery in Douma both date back to the 5th century. The Balamand Monastery in Tripoli is a very prominent Orthodox monastery that has a seminary and a university associated with it. Current political and religious issues As of May 2022, the Lebanese Forces is the biggest Christian political party in Lebanon. Under the terms of an agreement known as the National Pact between the various political and religious leaders of Lebanon, the president of the country must be a Maronite, the Prime Minister must be a Sunnite, and the Speaker of Parliament must be a Shiite. The Taif Agreement helped establish a power-sharing system between the Christian and Muslim Lebanese political parties. The political and economic situation in Lebanon had improved greatly. Lebanon had rebuilt its infrastructure. Historical and contemporary conflicts between Hezbollah and Israel have threatened to deteriorate Lebanon's political and economic situation, with growing tension between the 8 March and 14 March alliances and threatening Lebanon with renewed strife. The Christian community is currently divided, with some aligned with the Kataeb party, Michel Aoun's Free Patriotic Movement, the El Marada Party headed by Suleiman Frangieh, Jr., the Lebanese Forces Movement Samir Geagea, and others within the collection of various 14 March Christian leaders. Although the Taif agreement was widely considered by Christians to degrade their role in Lebanon, by removing much of the President's role (which is allocated to the Maronites), and bolstering the roles of the Prime Minister (a Sunni) and the Speaker of Parliament (Shia), the Lebanese President nevertheless still wields considerable power. The constitutional remit of the president includes the role of Commander in Chief of the armed forces, as well as the sole ability to form and dissolve governments. Many Lebanese leaders, as well as global powers, continue to lobby to roll back features of the Taif Agreement that eroded the constitutional powers of the president of the republic. The role of president of the Lebanese Central bank is also a position reserved for Lebanese Christians. This is due to the historical and contemporary influence of Lebanese Christians among the key bankers of the Middle East region. Although Lebanon is a secular country, family matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance are still handled by the religious authorities representing a person's faith. Calls for civil marriage are unanimously rejected by the religious authorities but civil marriages conducted in another country are recognized by Lebanese civil authorities. Non-religion is not recognized by the state. But the Minister of the Interior Ziad Baroud made it possible in 2009 to have religious affiliation removed from the Lebanese identity card. This does not, however, deny the religious authorities' complete control over civil family issues inside the country. Christian denominations among Lebanese people Maronite Catholic The Maronite Christians of Lebanon are the largest Christian denomination among the Lebanese people, representing 21% of the Lebanese population. The Maronite Church's full communion with the Catholic Church was reaffirmed in 1182, after hundreds of years of isolation in Mount Lebanon. By the terms of union, they retain their rites and canon law and use Arabic and Aramaic in their liturgy, as well the Karshuni script with old Syriac letters. Their origins are uncertain. One version traces them to John Maron of Antioch in the seventh century A.D.; another points to St. Maron, a monk in the late fourth and early fifth centuries (who is considered by many to be the true origin of the Maronite Church). The words "maron" or "marun" in Syriac mean "small lord." In the late seventh century, as a result of persecutions from other Christians for the heterodox views they had adopted, the Maronites withdrew from the coastal regions into the mountainous areas of Lebanon and Syria. During the Ottoman era (1516–1914) they remained isolated and relatively independent in these areas. In 1857 and 1858 the Maronites revolted against the large landowning families. The revolt was followed by a further struggle between the Druzes and Maronites over land ownership, political power, and safe passage of community members in the territory of the other. The conflict led France to send a military expedition to the area in 1860. The disagreements diminished in intensity only after the establishment of the Mandate and a political formula whereby all denominations achieved a degree of political representation. The Maronite rite has been directed and administered by the Patriarch of Antioch and the East. Bishops are generally nominated by a church synod from among the graduates of the Maronite College in Rome. In 1987, Mar Nasrallah Butrus Sufayr (also spelled Sfeir) was the Maronite Patriarch. Besides the Beirut archdiocese, nine other archdioceses and dioceses are in the Middle East: Aleppo, Damascus, Jubayl-Al Batrun, Cyprus, Baalbek, Tripoli, Tyre, Sidon, and Cairo. Parishes and independent dioceses are situated in Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela, the United States, Canada, Mexico, Côte d'Ivoire, and Senegal. There are four minor seminaries in Lebanon (Al Batrun, Ghazir, Ayn Saadah, and Trablous) and a faculty of theology at the University of the Holy Spirit at Al Kaslik, which is run by the Maronite Monastic Order. The patriarch is elected in a secret ceremony by a synod of bishops and confirmed by the Pope. Leaders of the Rite have considered Maronite Christianity as the "foundation of the Lebanese nation". The Maronites have been closely associated with the political system of independent Lebanon; it was estimated that in pre-Civil War Lebanon, members of this Rite held a large portion of the leading posts. However, roles were shifted due to the Taif Agreement's theoretical balancing of power. Eastern Orthodox Eastern Orthodox Christianity in Lebanon is the second largest Christian denomination among the Lebanese people, representing 8% of the Lebanese population. The Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch adheres to the Eastern Orthodox Church, which is actually a group of autocephalous churches using the Byzantine rite and are the second largest Christian denomination within Christianity in Lebanon. Historically, these churches grew out of the four Eastern Patriarchates (Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople) of the original five major episcopal sees (the Pentarchy) of the Roman Empire which included Rome. The final split took place in 1054. From that time, the Eastern Churches have continued to reject the claims of the Patriarchate of Rome (the Catholic Church) to universal supremacy and have rejected the concept of papal infallibility. Doctrinally, the main point at issue between the Eastern and Western Churches is that of the procession of the Holy Spirit and there are also divergences in ritual and discipline. The Eastern Orthodox Christians include many free-holders, and the community is less dominated by large landowners than other Christian denominations. In present-day Lebanon, the Eastern Orthodox Christians have become increasingly urbanized, and form a major part of the commercial and professional class of Beirut and other cities. Many are found in the Southeast (Nabatieh/Beqaa) and North, near Tripoli. They are highly educated and well-versed in finance. The church has often served as a bridge between Lebanese Christians and the Arab countries, because it exists in various parts of the Arab world. Members of the rite constitute 8% of the population. Melkite Catholic Melkite Christianity in Lebanon is the third-largest Christian denomination, representing 5% of the Lebanese population. The Melkite Catholics emerged as a distinct group from 1724 when they split from the Greek Orthodox Church over a disputed election of the Patriarch of Antioch. The elected man was considered too 'pro-Roman' and another faction, the larger, elected a rival who was supported by the Orthodox patriarch in Constantinople (the see of Antioch had ignored the split between the two which occurred in 1054 and was canonically in union with both in 1724). Although they fully accept Catholic doctrines as defined by the Holy See, they have generally remained close to the Greek Orthodox Church, retaining more of the ancient rituals and customs than have the Maronites. They employ Arabic and Greek and follow the Byzantine rite. The highest official of the church since 1930 has been the Patriarch of Antioch, who resides at Ayn Traz, about twenty-four kilometers southeast of Beirut. The patriarch is elected by bishops in a synod and confirmed by the Pope in Rome, who sends him a pallium (a circular band of white wool worn by archbishops) in recognition of their communion. Greek Catholic churches, like those of the Greek Orthodox, contain icons but no statues. The Melkite Greek Catholics live primarily in the central and eastern parts of the country, dispersed in many villages. Members of this rite are concentrated in Beirut, Zahlah, and the suburbs of Sidon. They have a relatively higher level of education than other denominations. Proud of their Arab heritage, Greek Catholics have been able to strike a balance between their openness to the Arab world and their identification with the West. Greek Catholics are estimated to constitute 5% of the population. Protestantism The Protestants of Lebanon form the fourth-largest Christian group, representing 1% of the Lebanese population. Most Protestants in Lebanon were converted by missionaries, primarily English and American, during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. They are divided into a number of denominations, including Presbyterian, Congregational, and Anglican. They are perceived by some to number disproportionately highly among the professional middle class. They constitute nearly 1 percent of the population (around 40,000) and live primarily in Beirut (Greater Beirut). Baptist The Lebanese Baptist Evangelical Convention was founded in 1955 by various churches. Christian denominations among ethnic minorities Armenian Orthodox or Apostolic The Armenians in Lebanon mostly descend from refugees who had fled Turkey during and after the Armenian genocide during World War I. The Apostolic Church was organized in the third century and became autocephalous as a national church in the fourth century. In the sixth century, it modified the formulations of the Council of Chalcedon of 451 that confirmed the dual nature of Christ in one person. Instead, the Apostolic Church adopted a form of Miaphysitism that believes in the united nature of divine and human in Christ, a belief shared by the Copts and the Syrian Orthodox Church (Oriental Orthodox Church). The Armenian Orthodox Church has two catholicoi (Sis and Etchmiadzin Cathedral) and two patriarchs (Constantinople and Jerusalem). The Armenians in Lebanon reside mostly in Beirut and its northern suburbs, as well as in Anjar. During the civil war, the main stance of the Armenians was not to pick a side between Muslims or Christians and stay exempt mostly from the fighting. The largest Armenian community in Lebanon is found in Bourj Hammoud. Armenian Catholic Church Among the Armenians in Lebanon there are some who belong to the Armenian Catholic Church. They are also refugees who had fled Turkey during and after World War I and the Armenian genocide. Latin Catholic Church The Latin Catholic Church in Lebanon consists mainly of a small group of Latin Catholics who are of at least partial French or Italian descent. Assyrian Church of the East The Assyrians in Lebanon were refugees who had fled their native lands in southeastern Turkey during and after World War I due to the Assyrian genocide. Even today, refugees continue to flee from northern Iraq into Syria, Lebanon or Jordan due to continuous unrest in Iraq. The Archdiocese of Lebanon and Syria of the Assyrian Church of the East is based in the Mar Gewargis Church of Sad El Bouchrieh, Beirut, Lebanon. After the recent passing of the archdiocese's late Archbishop Mar Narsai D'Baz, Archbishop Mar Meelis Zaia of Australia and New Zealand temporarily took over the archdiocese, handling all church related issues in Lebanon. The current bishops, the Bishop of Europe and the Bishop of Syria, oversee their individual dioceses until a new Metropolitan is appointed. Syriac Catholic Church The members of the Syriac Catholic Church are also refugees who had fled southeastern Turkey (present day Mardin region) during and after World War I due to the Assyrian/Syriac genocide. Even today, refugees continue to flee from northern Iraq and northeastern Syria into Lebanon or Jordan due to continuous unrest in Iraq and Syria. The Syriac Catholic Eparchy of Beirut is the proper archeparchy (Eastern Catholic (archdiocese) of the Syriac Catholic Church's (Antiochian Rite in Syriac language) Patriarch of Antioch in his actual seat, Beirut, Lebanon. Syriac Orthodox Church The members of the Syriac Orthodox Church are also refugees who had fled southeastern Turkey (present day Mardin region) during and after World War I due to the Assyrian/Syriac genocide. Even today, refugees continue to flee from northern Iraq and northeastern Syria into Lebanon or Jordan due to continuous unrest in Iraq and Syria. There are several archdioceses and dioceses of the Syriac Orthodox Church on the territory of Lebanon. The church follows the Syriac liturgy of St. James and has an independent hierarchy under the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch, whose seat was formerly at Mardin in Turkey and is now at Damascus, Syria. Chaldean Catholic Church The members of the Chaldean Catholic Church are also refugees who had fled southeastern Turkey (present day Mardin region) during and after World War I due to the Assyrian/Syriac genocide. Even today, refugees continue to flee from northern Iraq and northeastern Syria into Lebanon or Jordan due to continuous unrest in Iraq and Syria. The Chaldean Catholic Eparchy of Beirut is the sole eparchy (Eastern Catholic diocese) of the Chaldean Catholic Church and is immediately dependent on the Chaldean Catholic Patriarch of Babylon in Baghdad, Iraq. Coptic Orthodox Church The Copts in Lebanon were immigrants or refugees who had fled their native lands in Egypt, Libya and Sudan. According to tradition, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria was established by Saint Mark, an apostle and evangelist, in the middle of the 1st century (approximately AD 42). The ethnic Copts in Lebanon are estimated to number 3,000–4,000, and the Coptic Orthodox Church is one of the 18 religious sects recognized by the Lebanese Constitution. See also List of cathedrals in Lebanon Lebanese people (Maronite Christians) Lebanese people (Eastern Orthodox Christians) Lebanese people (Melkite Christians) Lebanese people (Protestant Christians) Christianity in the Middle East Secularism in Lebanon Religion in Lebanon Islam in Lebanon Notes References
4796261	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20%28Chamber%20of%20Deputies%20of%20Luxembourg%20constituency%29	South (Chamber of Deputies of Luxembourg constituency)	South (; ; ) is one of the four multi-member constituencies of the Chamber of Deputies, the national legislature of Luxembourg. The constituency was established in 1919 following the introduction of proportional representation for elections to the Chamber of Deputies. It consists of the cantons of Capellen and Esch-sur-Alzette. The constituency currently elects 23 of the 60 members of the Chamber of Deputies using the open party-list proportional representation electoral system. At the 2018 general election it had 103,083 registered electors. Electoral system South currently elects 23 of the 60 members of the Chamber of Deputies using the open party-list proportional representation electoral system. Electors votes for candidates rather than parties and may cast as many votes as the number of deputies to be elected from the constituency. They may vote for an entire party list or individual candidates and may cast up to two votes for an individual candidate. If the party list contains fewer candidates than the number of deputies to be elected, the elector may vote for candidates from other lists as long as their total number of votes does not exceed the number of deputies to be elected. The ballot paper is invalidated if the elector cast more votes than the number of deputies to be elected from the constituency. Split-ticket voting (panachage) is permitted. The votes received by each party's candidates are aggregated and seats are allocated to each party using the Hagenbach-Bischoff quota. Election results Summary * partial election Detailed 2010s 2018 Results of the 2018 general election held on 14 October 2018: The following candidates were elected: Jean Asselborn (LSAP), 40,283 votes; Marc Baum (DL), 10,525 votes; Dan Biancalana (LSAP), 20,601 votes; Alex Bodry (LSAP), 20,599 votes; Félix Braz (DG), 25,124 votes; Mars Di Bartolomeo (LSAP), 27,310 votes; Félix Eischen (CSV), 25,892 votes; Georges Engel (LSAP), 19,204 votes; Gaston Gibéryen (ADR), 18,370 votes; Marc Goergen (PPLU), 9,818 votes; Pierre Gramegna (DP), 18,383 votes; Max Hahn (DP), 11,228 votes; Jean-Marie Halsdorf (CSV), 23,853 votes; Fernand Kartheiser (ADR), 10,355 votes; Nancy Kemp-Arendt (CSV), 23,802 votes; Dan Kersch (LSAP), 21,441 votes; Josée Lorsché (DG), 17,323 votes; Claude Meisch (DP), 15,527 votes; Georges Mischo (CSV), 25,387 votes; Gilles Roth (CSV), 23,846 votes; Marc Spautz (CSV), 28,685 votes; Roberto Traversini (DG), 19,136 votes; and Michel Wolter (CSV), 24,068 votes. 2013 Results of the 2013 general election held on 20 October 2013: The following candidates were elected: Sylvie Andrich-Duval (CSV), 24,269 votes; Jean Asselborn (LSAP), 38,257 votes; Eugène Berger (DP), 12,549 votes; Alex Bodry (LSAP), 24,372 votes; Félix Braz (DG), 19,782 votes; Yves Cruchten (LSAP), 18,205 votes; Mars Di Bartolomeo (LSAP), 28,067 votes; Félix Eischen (CSV), 26,985 votes; Georges Engel (LSAP), 19,814 votes; Gaston Gibéryen (ADR), 16,518 votes; Gusty Graas (DP), 10,265 votes; Jean-Marie Halsdorf (CSV), 27,215 votes; Jean-Claude Juncker (CSV), 55,968 votes; Fernand Kartheiser (ADR), 8,531 votes; Nancy Kemp-Arendt (CSV), 24,594 votes; Dan Kersch (LSAP), 21,042 votes; Josée Lorsché (DG), 11,719 votes; Claude Meisch (DP), 22,300 votes; Lydia Mutsch (LSAP), 24,057 votes; Gilles Roth (CSV), 26,585 votes; Marc Spautz (CSV), 28,052 votes; Serge Urbany (DL), 8,830 votes; and Michel Wolter (CSV), 24,828 votes. 2000s 2009 Results of the 2009 general election held on 7 June 2009: The following candidates were elected: Jean Asselborn (LSAP), 42,797 votes; Eugène Berger (DP), 8,566 votes; François Biltgen (CSV), 38,963 votes; Alex Bodry (LSAP), 31,167 votes; Félix Braz (DG), 17,660 votes; Claudia Dall'Agnol (LSAP), 18,561 votes; Mars Di Bartolomeo (LSAP), 37,743 votes; Christine Doerner (CSV), 23,352 votes; Félix Eischen (CSV), 26,136 votes; Lydie Err (LSAP), 21,378 votes; Gaston Gibéryen (ADR), 17,237 votes; Tania Gibéryen (ADR), 6,759 votes; Jean-Marie Halsdorf (CSV), 32,237 votes; André Hoffmann (DL), 10,770 votes; Jean Huss (DG), 14,279 votes; Jean-Claude Juncker (CSV), 67,082 votes; Nancy Kemp-Arendt (CSV), 26,285 votes; Lucien Lux (LSAP), 22,297 votes; Claude Meisch (DP), 22,402 votes; Lydia Mutsch (LSAP), 26,549 votes; Gilles Roth (CSV), 23,636 votes; Marc Spautz (CSV), 24,465 votes; and Michel Wolter (CSV), 28,622 votes. 2004 Results of the 2004 general election held on 13 June 2004: The following candidates were elected: Jean Asselborn (LSAP), 36,443 votes; François Biltgen (CSV), 47,021 votes; Alex Bodry (LSAP), 36,030 votes; John Castegnaro (LSAP), 31,783 votes; Mars Di Bartolomeo (LSAP), 40,870 votes; Lydie Err (LSAP), 22,473 votes; Gaston Gibéryen (ADR), 16,284 votes; Marcel Glesener (CSV), 24,251 votes; Henri Grethen (DP), 15,539 votes; Jean-Marie Halsdorf (CSV), 30,378 votes; Norbert Haupert (CSV), 24,080 votes; Jean Huss (DG), 18,055 votes; Aly Jaerling (ADR), 8,039 votes; Jean-Claude Juncker (CSV), 65,378 votes; Lucien Lux (LSAP), 32,022 votes; Claude Meisch (DP), 11,993 votes; Lydia Mutsch (LSAP), 28,953 votes; Marc Spautz (CSV), 25,497 votes; Nelly Stein (CSV), 24,454 votes; Fred Sunnen (CSV), 24,725 votes; Claude Turmes (DG), 11,534 votes; Michel Wolter (CSV), 28,748 votes; and Marc Zanussi (LSAP), 28,015 votes. 1990s 1999 Results of the 1999 general election held on 13 June 1999: The following candidates were elected: Jean Asselborn (LSAP), 28,401 votes; Eugène Berger (DP), 12,763 votes; François Biltgen (CSV), 22,373 votes; Alex Bodry (LSAP), 36,357 votes; Mars Di Bartolomeo (LSAP), 32,266 votes; Lydie Err (LSAP), 21,323 votes; Robert Garcia (DG), 9,757 votes; Gaston Gibéryen (ADR), 14,605 votes; Marcel Glesener (CSV), 22,392 votes; Gusty Graas (DP), 11,454 votes; Henri Grethen (DP), 17,921 votes; Jean-Marie Halsdorf (CSV), 20,732 votes; André Hoffmann (DL), 8,099 votes; Jean Huss (DG), 12,084 votes; Aly Jaerling (ADR), 7,760 votes; Jean-Claude Juncker (CSV), 46,430 votes; Lucien Lux (LSAP), 27,329 votes; Jacques Poos (LSAP), 22,139 votes; John Schummer (DP), 12,045 votes; Jean Spautz (CSV), 30,306 votes; Nelly Stein (CSV), 20,984 votes; Michel Wolter (CSV), 23,283 votes; and Marc Zanussi (LSAP), 22,860 votes. 1994 Results of the 1994 general election held on 12 June 1994: The following candidates were elected: Jean Asselborn (LSAP), 27,483 votes; Eugène Berger (DP), 8,676 votes; Alex Bodry (LSAP), 31,201 votes; François Colling (CSV), 25,189 votes; Mars Di Bartolomeo (LSAP), 28,363 votes; Lydie Err (LSAP), 22,836 votes; Robert Garcia (GLEI-GAP), 9,235 votes; Gaston Gibéryen (ADR), 11,011 votes; Marcel Glesener (CSV), 21,484 votes; Henri Grethen (DP), 14,763 votes; Jean Huss (GLEI-GAP), 13,527 votes; Jean-Claude Juncker (CSV), 39,207 votes; Ady Jung (CSV), 20,999 votes; Johny Lahure (LSAP), 29,017 votes; Lucien Lux (LSAP), 26,184 votes; Lydia Mutsch (LSAP), 21,795 votes; Jacques Poos (LSAP), 31,970 votes; Viviane Reding (CSV), 23,459 votes; John Schummer (DP), 10,237 votes; Jean Spautz (CSV), 31,218 votes; Nelly Stein (CSV), 20,995 votes; Michel Wolter (CSV), 24,257 votes; and Marc Zanussi (LSAP), 23,241 votes. 1980s 1989 Results of the 1989 general election held on 18 June 1989: The following candidates were elected: Jean Asselborn (LSAP), 24,546 votes; Josy Barthel (DP), 12,234 votes; Alex Bodry (LSAP), 28,501 votes; Joseph Brebsom (LSAP), 23,882 votes; François Colling (CSV), 27,011 votes; Mars Di Bartolomeo (LSAP), 23,414 votes; Camille Dimmer (CSV), 22,441 votes; Lydie Err (LSAP), 24,649 votes; Gaston Gibéryen (5/6), 8,566 votes; Henri Grethen (DP), 9,350 votes; Jean Huss (GAP), 8,538 votes; Jean-Claude Juncker (CSV), 34,932 votes; Johny Lahure (LSAP), 28,863 votes; Marcelle Lentz-Cornette (CSV), 23,053 votes; Lucien Lux (LSAP), 24,714 votes; Jim Meisch (GLEI), 4,134 votes; Jacques Poos (LSAP), 37,917 votes; René Putzeys (CSV), 24,288 votes; Viviane Reding (CSV), 25,567 votes; Jean Regenwetter (LSAP), 23,289 votes; Jean Spautz (CSV), 34,637 votes; René Urbany (KPL), 13,443 votes; and Michel Wolter (CSV), 24,325 votes. 1984 Results of the 1984 general election held on 17 June 1984: The following candidates were elected: Jean Asselborn (LSAP), 28,349 votes; Josy Barthel (DP), 14,790 votes; Bernard Berg (LSAP), 30,998 votes; Nicolas Birtz (LSAP), 28,615 votes; Aloyse Bisdorff (KPL), 7,374 votes; Alex Bodry (LSAP), 29,004 votes; Joseph Brebsom (LSAP), 30,517 votes; François Colling (CSV), 27,676 votes; Camille Dimmer (CSV), 22,289 votes; Willy Dondelinger (LSAP), 28,202 votes; Nicolas Eickmann (LSAP), 28,959 votes; Lydie Err (LSAP), 29,697 votes; Jean-Pierre Glesener (CSV), 23,056 votes; Henri Grethen (DP), 10,032 votes;Jean Huss (GAP), 5,067 votes; Jean-Claude Juncker (CSV), 29,382 votes; Marcelle Lentz-Cornette (CSV), 24,193 votes; René Mart (DP), 11,323 votes; Jacques Poos (LSAP), 35,577 votes; Viviane Reding (CSV), 26,447 votes; Jean Regenwetter (LSAP), 30,265 votes; Jean Spautz (CSV), 32,561 votes; Maurice Thoss (LSAP), 29,073 votes; René Urbany (KPL), 10,257 votes; and Michel Wolter (CSV), 23,135 votes. 1970s 1979 Results of the 1979 general election held on 10 June 1979: The following candidates were elected: Josy Barthel (DP), 17,019 votes; Albert Berchem (DP), 11,967 votes; Bernard Berg (LSAP), 23,618 votes; Aloyse Bisdorff (KPL), 7,477 votes; Joseph Brebsom (LSAP), 21,365 votes; René Bürger (CSV), 22,655 votes; François Colling (CSV), 27,118 votes; Willy Dondelinger (LSAP), 20,947 votes; Joseph Eyschen (DP), 11,687 votes; Jean-Pierre Glesener (CSV), 22,723 votes; Roger Krier (LSAP), 21,318 votes; Marcelle Lentz-Cornette (CSV), 21,596 votes; Joseph Lucius (CSV), 20,931 votes; Astrid Lulling (SDP), 13,646 votes; René Mart (DP), 13,472 votes; Jacques Poos (LSAP), 25,279 votes; Viviane Reding (CSV), 22,971 votes; Jean Regenwetter (LSAP), 21,595 votes; Lydie Schmit (LSAP), 23,345 votes; Jean Spautz (CSV), 24,740 votes; Maurice Thoss (LSAP), 21,990 votes; René Urbany (KPL), 9,920 votes; Jos Weirich (EDF), 7,160 votes; and Jean Wolter (CSV), 25,018 votes. 1974 Results of the 1974 general election held on 26 May 1974: The following candidates were elected: Albert Berchem (DP), 11,535 votes; Bernard Berg (LSAP), 27,547 votes; Marthe Bigelbach-Fohrmann (LSAP), 23,331 votes; Nicolas Birtz (LSAP), 24,426 votes; Joseph Brebsom (LSAP), 24,192 votes; René Bürger (CSV), 20,389 votes; Jean Dupong (CSV), 19,934 votes; Marcel Flammang (KPL), 11,986 votes; Jean-Pierre Glesener (CSV), 19,363 votes; Joseph Grandgenet (KPL), 14,280 votes; Joseph Haupert (LSAP), 24,658 votes; Marcel Knauf (LSAP), 24,543 votes; Roger Krier (LSAP), 25,581 votes; Joseph Lucius (CSV), 19,127 votes; Astrid Lulling (SDP), 17,097 votes; Marcel Mart (DP), 19,311 votes; René Mart (DP), 12,029 votes; Dominique Meis (KPL), 11,687 votes; Jacques Poos (LSAP), 25,942 votes; Roger Schleimer (SDP), 9,581 votes; Jean Spautz (CSV), 22,881 votes; Arthur Useldinger (KPL), 16,706 votes; Raymond Vouel (LSAP), 27,072 votes; and Jean Wolter (CSV), 20,814 votes. 1960s 1968 Results of the 1968 general election held on 15 December 1968: The following candidates were elected: Albert Berchem (DP), 8,580 votes; Bernard Berg (LSAP), 21,542 votes; René Bürger (CSV), 21,432 votes; Jean Dupong (CSV), 25,188 votes; Romain Fandel (LSAP), 24,972 votes; Joseph Flammang (KPL), 13,730 votes; Jean Fohrmann (LSAP), 23,428 votes; Jean-Pierre Glesener (CSV), 21,644 votes; Joseph Grandgenet (KPL), 15,898 votes; René Hartmann (LSAP), 21,453 votes; Antoine Krier (LSAP), 23,618 votes; Roger Krier (LSAP), 21,492 votes; Joseph Lucius (CSV), 20,893 votes; Astrid Lulling (LSAP), 24,682 votes; René Mart (DP), 7,132 votes; Dominique Meis (KPL), 14,185 votes; Pierre Rumé (CSV), 20,984 votes; Roger Schleimer (LSAP), 21,648 votes; Jean Spautz (CSV), 24,846 votes; Dominique Urbany (KPL), 16,008 votes; Arthur Useldinger (KPL), 17,067 votes; Raymond Vouel (LSAP), 25,381 votes; and Jean Wolter (CSV), 20,873 votes. 1964 Results of the 1964 general election held on 7 June 1964: The following candidates were elected: Albert Berchem (DP), 5,437 votes; Nicolas Biever (LSAP), 30,407 votes; Edmond Chlecq (MIP), 5,218 votes; Émile Colling (CSV), 22,346 votes; Jean Dupong (CSV), 19,699 votes; Romain Fandel (LSAP), 28,654 votes; Jean Fohrmann (LSAP), 29,393 votes; Jean Gallion (LSAP), 27,401 votes; Pierre Gansen (LSAP), 26,778 votes; Jean-Pierre Glesener (CSV), 19,284 votes; Joseph Grandgenet (KPL), 12,049 votes; Jacques Hoffmann (KPL), 10,563 votes; Théophile Kirsch (LSAP), 25,265 votes; Marcel Knauf (LSAP), 25,763 votes; Antoine Krier (LSAP), 29,129 votes; Joseph Lucius (CSV), 19,730 votes; Pierre Schockmel (CSV), 19,672 votes; Jules Schreiner (LSAP), 25,621 votes; Jean Spautz (CSV), 22,041 votes; Dominique Steichen (LSAP), 26,904 votes; Dominique Urbany (KPL), 12,708 votes; Arthur Useldinger (KPL), 13,248 votes; and Charles Wirtgen (CSV), 19,188 votes. 1950s 1959 Results of the 1959 general election held on 1 February 1959: The following candidates were elected: Albert Berchem (DP), 8,102 votes; Nicolas Biever (LSAP), 31,781 votes; François Cigrang (DP), 8,294 votes; Émile Colling (CSV), 26,242 votes; Jean Dupong (CSV), 24,275 votes; Romain Fandel (LSAP), 27,314 votes; Jean Fohrmann (LSAP), 28,921 votes; Jean Gallion (LSAP), 25,191 votes; Pierre Gansen (LSAP), 27,431 votes; Joseph Grandgenet (KPL), 11,206 votes; Jean Kinsch (CSV), 22,050 votes; Antoine Krier (LSAP), 28,070 votes; Joseph Lommel (CSV), 21,911 votes; Joseph Lucius (CSV), 22,160 votes; Denis Netgen (LSAP), 24,717 votes; Pierre Schockmel (CSV), 22,419 votes; Dominique Steichen (LSAP), 26,633 votes; Dominique Urbany (KPL), 11,959 votes; Arthur Useldinger (KPL), 12,435 votes; and Charles Wirtgen (CSV), 21,900 votes. 1954 Results of the 1954 general election held on 30 May 1954: The following candidates were elected: Nicolas Biever (LSAP), 28,838 votes; François Cigrang (GD), 4,084 votes; Émile Colling (CSV), 25,920 votes; Jean Dupong (CSV), 25,296 votes; Romain Fandel (LSAP), 26,143 votes; Jean Fohrmann (LSAP), 27,636 votes; Pierre Gansen (LSAP), 26,644 votes; Joseph Grandgenet (KPL), 10,237 votes; Jean Kinsch (CSV), 22,808 votes; Antoine Krier (LSAP), 25,528 votes; Joseph Lommel (CSV), 23,474 votes; Nicholas Margue (CSV), 23,454 votes; Denis Netgen (LSAP), 24,481 votes; Michel Rasquin (LSAP), 26,839 votes; Jean-Baptiste Rock (CSV), 22,855 votes; Dominique Steichen (LSAP), 23,769 votes; Dominique Urbany (KPL), 10,348 votes; Arthur Useldinger (KPL), 11,090 votes; Alex Werné (CSV), 21,992 votes; and Charles Wirtgen (CSV), 22,928 votes. 1940s 1948 Results of the 1948 general election held on 6 June 1948: The following candidates were elected: Nicolas Biever (LSAP), 28,202 votes; Victor Bodson (LSAP), 27,887 votes; Mathias Clemens (LSAP), 22,512 votes; Émile Colling (CSV), 20,330 votes; Pierre Dupong (CSV), 23,373 votes; Romain Fandel (LSAP), 23,448 votes; Jean Fohrmann (LSAP), 29,088 votes; Pierre Gansen (LSAP), 26,403 votes; Joseph Grandgenet (KPL), 11,790 votes; Aloyse Hentgen (CSV), 19,205 votes; Antoine Krier (LSAP), 24,724 votes; Nicholas Margue (CSV), 18,103 votes; Nicolas Moes (KPL), 10,576 votes; Denis Netgen (LSAP), 25,223 votes; Alphonse Osch (GPD), 5,976 votes; Michel Rasquin (LSAP), 26,043 votes; Jean-Baptiste Rock (CSV), 19,731 votes; Dominique Urbany (KPL), 12,038 votes; Arthur Useldinger (KPL), 12,976 votes; and Charles Wirtgen (CSV), 18,417 votes. 1945 Results of the 1945 general election held on 21 October 1945: The following candidates were elected: Nicolas Biever (LAP), 20,342 votes; Mathias Clemens (LAP), 18,482 votes; Émile Colling (CSV), 22,625 votes; Pierre Dupong (CSV), 28,171 votes; Jean Fohrmann (LAP), 20,977 votes; Ferdinand Frieden (GPD), 7,215 votes; Pierre Gansen (LSAP), 18,196 votes; Joseph Grandgenet (KPL), 13,266 votes; Aloyse Hentgen (CSV), 22,338 votes; Léon Kinsch (CSV), 21,769 votes; Nicolas Kremer (GPD), 6,635 votes; Antoine Krier (LAP), 21,423 votes; Joseph Lommel (CSV), 19,431 votes; Nicholas Margue (CSV), 23,166 votes; Denis Netgen (LAP), 19,221 votes; Jean-Baptiste Rock (CSV), 22,386 votes; Nicolas Schumacher (KPL), 11,939 votes; Dominique Urbany (KPL), 15,649 votes; Arthur Useldinger (KPL), 14,811 votes; and Charles Wirtgen (CSV), 20,416 votes. 1930s 1934 Results of the 1934 general election held on 3 June 1934: The following candidates were elected: Jean-Pierre Bausch (LAP), 19,933 votes; Zénon Bernard (KPL), 6,057 votes; Nicolas Biever (LAP), 21,201 votes; René Blum (LAP), 24,165 votes; Victor Bodson (LAP), 19,158 votes; Hubert Clément (LAP), 20,543 votes; Pierre Dupong (RP), 22,401 votes; Pierre Hamer (LAP), 19,441 votes; Aloyse Hentgen (RP), 16,613 votes; Edouard Kirsch (RP), 16,590 votes; Léon Kinsch (RP), 16,389 votes; Adolphe Krieps (LAP), 19,025 votes; Pierre Krier (LAP), 21,031 votes; Charles Krombach (RLP), 8,618 votes; Émile Mark (RLP), 10,617 votes; Denis Netgen (LAP), 19,053 votes; Eugène Reichling (RP), 18,347 votes; Jean-Baptiste Rock (RP), 16,842 votes; Marcel Schintgen (RP), 15,854 votes; Joseph Schroeder (LAP), 18,952 votes; Guillaume Theves (RLP), 11,569 votes; Nicolas Wirtgen (RP), 17,461 votes. 1931 Results of the 1931 general election held on 7 June 1931: The following candidates were elected: Jean-Pierre Mockel (LAP), 18,814 votes; and Eugène Reichling (RP), 16,336 votes. 1920s 1928 Results of the 1928 general election held on 3 June 1928: The following candidates were elected: Jean-Pierre Bausch (LAP), 16,822 votes; Nicolas Biever (LAP), 20,189 votes; René Blum (LAP), 24,340 votes; Albert Clemang (RP), 8,040 votes; Hubert Clément (LAP), 18,460 votes; Eugène Auguste Collart (RP), 17,565 votes; Eugène Dondelinger (RP), 18,271 votes; Pierre Dupong (RP), 21,908 votes; Pierre Hamer (LAP), 16,424 votes; Edouard Kirsch (RP), 15,247 votes; Adolphe Krieps (LAP), 19,493 votes; Pierre Krier (LAP), 21,067 votes; Hubert Loutsch (OG), 8,593 votes; Émile Mark (RP), 8,721 votes; Valentin Noesen (RP), 13,851 votes; Jacques Thilmany (LAP), 19,688 votes; Albert Wagner (RP), 13,798 votes; Léon Weirich (LAP), 16,997 votes; Victor Wilhelm (LAP), 19,787 votes; and Nicolas Wirtgen (RP), 16,662 votes. 1925 Results of the 1925 general election held on 1 March 1925: The following candidates were elected: Nicolas Biever (LAP), 12,212 votes; René Blum (LAP), 16,476 votes; Albert Clemang (RL), 8,187 votes; Eugène Auguste Collart (RP), 13,320 votes; Eugène Dondelinger (RP), 13,765 votes; Pierre Dupong (RP), 13,476 votes; Aloyse Kayser (RL); 11,005 votes; Edouard Kirsch (RP), 12,264 votes; Adolphe Krieps (LAP), 11,858 votes; Pierre Krier (LAP), 14,312 votes; Hubert Loutsch (ONV), 7,295 votes; Émile Mark (RL), 12,648 votes; Jacques Thilmany (LAP), 12,214 votes; Victor Wilhelm (LAP), 14,866 votes; Albert Wagner (RP), 10,423 votes; and Nicolas Wirtgen (RP), 12,025 votes. 1910s 1919 Results of the 1919 general election held on 26 October 1919: The following candidates were elected: Alphonse Bervard (RP), 10,898 votes; René Blum (SP), 11,489 votes; Albert Clemang (RL), 8,535 votes; Eugène Dondelinger (RP), 15,753 votes; Pierre Dupong (RP), 15,051 votes; Bernard Herschbach (FV), 7,928 votes; Pierre Kappweiler (FV), 8,227 votes; Aloyse Kayser (RL); 11,505 votes; Edouard Kirsch (RP), 13,260 votes; Adolphe Krieps (SP), 11,152 votes; Pierre Krier (SP), 12,720 votes; Eugène Steichen (RP), 10,909 votes; Joseph Thorn (SP), 9,618 votes; Georges Ulveling (RL), 7,035 votes; Albert Wagner (RP), 10,792 votes; and Nicolas Wirtgen (RP), 13,209 votes. References 1919 establishments in Luxembourg Chamber of Deputies constituency Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg) constituencies Constituencies established in 1919 Chamber of Deputies constituency
4796294	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre%20%28Chamber%20of%20Deputies%20of%20Luxembourg%20constituency%29	Centre (Chamber of Deputies of Luxembourg constituency)	Centre (; ; ) is one of the four multi-member constituencies of the Chamber of Deputies, the national legislature of Luxembourg. The constituency was established in 1919 following the introduction of proportional representation for elections to the Chamber of Deputies. It consists of the cantons of Luxembourg and Mersch. The constituency currently elects 21 of the 60 members of the Chamber of Deputies using the open party-list proportional representation electoral system. At the 2018 general election it had 72,986 registered electors. Electoral system Centre currently elects 21 of the 60 members of the Chamber of Deputies using the open party-list proportional representation electoral system. Electors votes for candidates rather than parties and may cast as many votes as the number of deputies to be elected from the constituency. They may vote for an entire party list or individual candidates and may cast up to two votes for an individual candidate. If the party list contains fewer candidates than the number of deputies to be elected, the elector may vote for candidates from other lists as long as their total number of votes does not exceed the number of deputies to be elected. The ballot paper is invalidated if the elector cast more votes than the number of deputies to be elected from the constituency. Split-ticket voting (panachage) is permitted. The votes received by each party's candidates are aggregated and seats are allocated to each party using the Hagenbach-Bischoff quota. Election results Summary Detailed 2010s 2018 Results of the 2018 general election held on 14 October 2018: The following candidates were elected: Diane Adehm (CSV), 18,010 votes; Marc Angel (LSAP), 10,260 votes; Guy Arendt (DP), 13,931 votes; François Bausch (DG), 19,887 votes; Simone Beissel (DP), 14,630 votes; François Benoy (DG), 9,830 votes; Xavier Bettel (DP), 30,774 votes; Corinne Cahen (DP), 19,471 votes; Sven Clement (PPLU), 8,007 votes; Paul Galles (CSV), 16,942 votes; Marc Lies (CSV), 17,573 votes; Charles Margue (DG), 9,515 votes; Laurent Mosar (CSV), 17,210 votes; Lydie Polfer (DP), 18,934 votes; Roy Reding (ADR), 6,319 votes; Viviane Reding (CSV), 17,922 votes; Etienne Schneider (LSAP), 16,871 votes; Sam Tanson (DG), 17,290 votes; David Wagner (DL), 8,988 votes; Serge Wilmes (CSV), 20,809 votes; and Claude Wiseler (CSV), 27,388 votes. 2013 Results of the 2013 general election held on 20 October 2013: The following candidates were elected: Diane Adehm (CSV), 18,665 votes; Marc Angel (LSAP), 10,465 votes; François Bausch (DG), 11,598 votes; Simone Beissel (DP), 14,477 votes; Xavier Bettel (DP), 32,064 votes; Anne Brasseur (DP), 17,641 votes; Corinne Cahen (DP), 13,829 votes; Franz Fayot (LSAP), 8,468 votes; Luc Frieden (CSV), 29,441 votes; Alex Krieps (DP), 12,989 votes; Marc Lies (CSV), 18,167 votes; Viviane Loschetter (DG), 8,535 votes; Paul-Henri Meyers (CSV), 19,162 votes; Laurent Mosar (CSV), 21,495 votes; Marcel Oberweis (CSV), 18,400 votes; Lydie Polfer (DP), 18,637 votes; Roy Reding (ADR), 5,622 votes; Etienne Schneider (LSAP), 19,682 votes; Justin Turpel (DL), 3,737 votes; Serge Wilmes (CSV), 18,949 votes; and Claude Wiseler (CSV), 26,590 votes. 2000s 2009 Results of the 2009 general election held on 7 June 2009: The following candidates were elected: Claude Adam (DG), 9,161 votes; François Bausch (DG), 17,510 votes; Xavier Bettel (DP), 19,671 votes; Anne Brasseur (DP), 16,692 votes; Mady Delvaux-Stehres (LSAP), 14,585 votes; Ben Fayot (LSAP), 13,922 votes; Luc Frieden (CSV), 41,889 votes; Paul Helminger (DP), 16,223 votes; Jacques-Yves Henckes (ADR), 6,158 votes; Jean-Pierre Klein (LSAP), 9,820 votes; Jeannot Krecké (LSAP), 25,650 votes; Viviane Loschetter (DG), 10,097 votes; Mill Majerus (CSV), 16,620 votes; Martine Mergen (CSV), 18,454 votes; Paul-Henri Meyers (CSV), 18,146 votes; Laurent Mosar (CSV), 22,116 votes; Marcel Oberweis (CSV), 18,057 votes; Lydie Polfer (DP), 16,402 votes; Jean-Louis Schiltz (CSV), 23,927 votes; Lucien Thiel (CSV), 20,799 votes; and Claude Wiseler (CSV), 31,649 votes. 2004 Results of the 2004 general election held on 13 June 2004: The following candidates were elected: Claude Adam (DG), 7,339 votes; François Bausch (DG), 19,502 votes; Xavier Bettel (DP), 12,069 votes; Niki Bettendorf (DP), 12,332 votes; Anne Brasseur (DP), 19,355 votes; Mady Delvaux-Stehres (LSAP), 14,298 votes; Ben Fayot (LSAP), 12,531 votes; Colette Flesch (DP), 11,924 votes; Luc Frieden (CSV), 41,908 votes; Marie-Thérèse Gantenbein-Koullen (CSV), 16,428 votes; Robert Goebbels (LSAP), 14,175 votes; Jacques-Yves Henckes (ADR), 7,502 votes; Erna Hennicot-Schoepges (CSV), 17,536 votes; Jeannot Krecké (LSAP), 19,391 votes; Viviane Loschetter (DG), 10,434 votes; Paul-Henri Meyers (CSV), 17,061 votes; Laurent Mosar (CSV), 20,993 votes; Lydie Polfer (DP), 28,206 votes; Jean-Louis Schiltz (CSV), 16,357 votes; Lucien Thiel (CSV), 16,646 votes; and Claude Wiseler (CSV), 26,009 votes. 1990s 1999 Results of the 1999 general election held on 13 June 1999: The following candidates were elected: François Bausch (DG), 9,304 votes; Niki Bettendorf (DP), 18,047 votes; Willy Bourg (CSV), 15,155 votes; Anne Brasseur (DP), 19,564 votes; Mady Delvaux-Stehres (LSAP), 13,537 votes; Ben Fayot (LSAP), 10,898 votes; Colette Flesch (DP), 17,515 votes; Luc Frieden (CSV), 24,701 votes; Robert Goebbels (LSAP), 18,207 votes; Fernand Greisen (ADR), 5,524 votes; Paul Helminger (DP), 16,914 votes; Jacques-Yves Henckes (ADR), 7,961 votes; Erna Hennicot-Schoepges (CSV), 15,469 votes; Jeannot Krecké (LSAP), 15,436 votes; Alex Krieps (DP), 14,794 votes; Lydie Polfer (DP), 28,469 votes; Jean-Paul Rippinger (DP), 14,372 votes; Viviane Reding (CSV), 14,778 votes; Alphonse Theis (CSV), 15,647 votes; Renée Wagener (DG), 9,686 votes; and Claude Wiseler (CSV), 14,515 votes. 1994 Results of the 1994 general election held on 12 June 1994: The following candidates were elected: Niki Bettendorf (DP), 16,174 votes; Willy Bourg (CSV), 18,530 votes; Anne Brasseur (DP), 18,156 votes; Mady Delvaux-Stehres (LSAP), 18,641 votes; Ben Fayot (LSAP), 12,586 votes; Marc Fischbach (CSV), 17,519 votes; Colette Flesch (DP), 19,352 votes; Raymond Gibéryen (ADR), 5,718 votes; Robert Goebbels (LSAP), 16,159 votes; Paul Helminger (DP), 15,795 votes; Jacques-Yves Henckes (ADR), 5,354 votes; Erna Hennicot-Schoepges (CSV), 22,321 votes; Jeannot Krecké (LSAP), 13,694 votes; Astrid Lulling (CSV), 15,790 votes; Carlo Meintz (DP), 15,814 votes; Paul-Henri Meyers (CSV), 14,259 votes; Lydie Polfer (DP), 26,708 votes; Jacques Santer (CSV), 25,992 votes; Alphonse Theis (CSV), 16,002 votes; Renée Wagener (GLEI-GAP), 7,322 votes; and Jup Weber (GLEI-GAP), 14,247 votes. 1980s 1989 Results of the 1989 general election held on 18 June 1989: The following candidates were elected: Thers Bodé (GAP), 3,749 votes; Willy Bourg (CSV), 18,856 votes; Anne Brasseur (DP), 16,835 votes; Mady Delvaux-Stehres (LSAP), 17,245 votes; Ben Fayot (LSAP), 13,394 votes; Marc Fischbach (CSV), 21,511 votes; Colette Flesch (DP), 25,592 votes; Pierre Frieden (CSV), 17,117 votes; Robert Goebbels (LSAP), 14,944 votes; René Hengel (LSAP), 13,617 votes; Erna Hennicot-Schoepges (CSV), 19,408 votes; René Konen (DP), 13,825 votes; Émile Krieps (DP), 15,031 votes; Robert Krieps (LSAP), 13,479 votes; Carlo Meintz (DP), 14,504 votes; Lydie Polfer (DP), 26,885 votes; Fernand Rau (CSV), 19,613 votes; Jacques Santer (CSV), 30,499 votes; Josy Simon (5/6), 5,440 votes; Alphonse Theis (CSV), 18,425 votes; and Jup Weber (GLEI), 13,872 votes. 1984 Results of the 1984 general election held on 17 June 1984: The following candidates were elected: Hary Ackermann (LSAP), 14,064 votes; Léon Bollendorff (CSV), 21,819 votes; Anne Brasseur (DP), 15,475 votes; Nicolas Estgen (CSV), 19,467 votes; Marc Fischbach (CSV), 23,332 votes; Colette Flesch (DP), 29,247 votes; Robert Goebbels (LSAP), 15,973 votes; Jean Hamilius (DP), 16,442 votes; René Hengel (LSAP), 17,088 votes; Erna Hennicot-Schoepges (CSV), 20,359 votes; René Kollwelter (LSAP), 14,961 votes; René Konen (DP), 18,938 votes; Émile Krieps (DP), 19,768 votes; Robert Krieps (LSAP), 20,854 votes; Astrid Lulling (CSV), 22,675 votes; Carlo Meintz (DP), 16,474 votes; Nicolas Mosar (CSV), 19,298 votes; Ernest Mühlen (CSV), 19,739 votes; Lydie Polfer (DP), 26,368 votes; Fernand Rau (CSV), 21,790 votes; Jacques Santer (CSV), 32,241 votes; Jup Weber (GAP), 4,106 votes; and Joseph Wohlfart (LSAP), 15,961 votes. 1970s 1979 Results of the 1979 general election held on 10 June 1979: The following candidates were elected: Léon Bollendorff (CSV), 23,109 votes; Marc Fischbach (CSV), 20,955 votes; Colette Flesch (DP), 28,580 votes; Jean Gremling (SI), 10,621 votes; Jean Hamilius (DP), 19,013 votes; Camille Hellinckx (DP), 17,172 votes; René Hengel (LSAP), 12,878 votes; René Konen (DP), 18,606 votes; Émile Krieps (DP), 20,181 votes; Robert Krieps (LSAP), 13,748 votes; Georges Margue (CSV), 21,347 votes; Carlo Meintz (DP), 16,970 votes; Nicolas Mosar (CSV), 20,995 votes; Ernest Mühlen (CSV), 23,003 votes; Fernand Rau (CSV), 21,133 votes; Jacques Santer (CSV), 26,570 votes; Gaston Thorn (DP), 31,246 votes; René van den Bulcke (LSAP), 11,354 votes; Pierre Werner (CSV), 32,502 votes; and Joseph Wohlfart (LSAP), 12,954 votes. 1974 Results of the 1974 general election held on 26 May 1974: The following candidates were elected: Léon Bollendorff (CSV), 17,619 votes; Albert Bousser (SDP), 6,034 votes; Emile Burggraff (CSV), 18,458 votes; Colette Flesch (DP), 35,707 votes; Pierre Grégoire (CSV), 18,908 votes; Jean Gremling (LSAP), 14,419 votes; Camille Hellinckx (DP), 18,851 votes; René Hengel (LSAP), 16,268 votes; René Konen (DP), 20,726 votes; Émile Krieps (DP), 21,240 votes; Robert Krieps (LSAP), 15,014 votes; Georges Margue (CSV), 16,473 votes; Camille Polfer (DP), 22,689 votes; Jacques Santer (CSV), 20,123 votes; Eugène Schaus (DP), 20,691 votes; Gaston Thorn (DP), 38,218 votes; Dominique Urbany (KPL), 4,672 votes; René van den Bulcke (LSAP), 14,743 votes; Pierre Werner (CSV), 29,918 votes; and Joseph Wohlfart (LSAP), 16,271 votes. 1960s 1968 Results of the 1968 general election held on 15 December 1968: The following candidates were elected: Tony Biever (CSV), 18,693 votes; Léon Bollendorff (CSV), 19,609 votes; Paul Elvinger (DP), 15,262 votes; Madeleine Frieden-Kinnen (CSV), 22,741 votes; Pierre Grégoire (CSV), 21,886 votes; Jean Hamilius (DP), 12,769 votes; René Hengel (LSAP), 16,048 votes; Georges Margue (CSV), 18,789 votes; Nicolas Mosar (CSV), 18,387 votes; Camille Polfer (DP), 12,719 votes; Eugène Schaus (DP), 17,353 votes; Gaston Thorn (DP), 19,799 votes; Dominique Urbany (KPL), 6,879 votes; René van den Bulcke (LSAP), 15,337 votes; Antoine Wehenkel (LSAP), 15,637 votes; Pierre Werner (CSV), 25,345 votes; Paul Wilwertz (LSAP), 16,109 votes; and Joseph Wohlfart (LSAP), 17,919 votes. 1964 Results of the 1964 general election held on 7 June 1964: The following candidates were elected: Tony Biever (CSV), 18,725 votes; Albert Bousser (LSAP), 18,053 votes; Paul Elvinger (DP), 11,186 votes; Marcel Fischbach (CSV), 18,780 votes; Pierre Grégoire (CSV), 21,557 votes; René Hengel (LSAP), 17,254 votes; Alphonse Hildgen (LSAP), 18,605 votes; Nicolas Kollwelter (CSV), 17,975 votes; Georges Margue (CSV), 18,186 votes; Nicolas Mosar (CSV), 17,343 votes; Jean-Pierre Reisdoerfer (MIP), 3,904 votes; Eugène Schaus (DP), 14,002 votes; Gaston Thorn (DP), 11,301 votes; Dominique Urbany (KPL), 6,643 votes; Adrien van Kauvenbergh (LSAP), 17,958 votes; Antoine Wehenkel (LSAP), 19,473 votes; Pierre Werner (CSV), 23,208 votes; and Joseph Wohlfart (LSAP), 21,691 votes. 1950s 1959 Results of the 1959 general election held on 1 February 1959: The following candidates were elected: Tony Biever (CSV), 21,991 votes; Victor Bodson (LSAP), 17,322 votes; Albert Bousser (LSAP), 17,517 votes; Paul Elvinger (DP), 15,702 votes; Marcel Fischbach (CSV), 22,222 votes; Pierre Frieden (CSV), 26,878 votes; Pierre Grégoire (CSV), 21,403 votes; Émile Hamilius (DP), 21,669 votes; Lucien Koenig (DP), 17,576 votes; Eugène Schaus (DP), 23,218 votes; Henri Sinner (CSV), 19,245 votes; Antoine Wehenkel (LSAP), 17,707 votes; Pierre Werner (CSV), 23,773 votes; Paul Wilwertz (LSAP), 18,999 votes; Joseph Wohlfart (LSAP), 18,019 votes; and Roger Wolter (DP), 14,471 votes. 1954 Results of the 1954 general election held on 30 May 1954: The following candidates were elected: Jean-Pierre Bauer (LSAP), 16,797 votes; Tony Biever (CSV), 22,589 votes; Victor Bodson (LSAP), 20,995 votes; Albert Bousser (LSAP), 17,629 votes; Marcel Fischbach (CSV), 21,624 votes; Pierre Frieden (CSV), 25,757 votes; Pierre Grégoire (CSV), 22,065 votes; Jean Gremling (LSAP), 17,871 votes; Émile Hamilius (GD), 14,958 votes; Lucien Koenig (GD), 12,059 votes; Émile Reuter (CSV), 23,904 votes; Nicolas Rollinger (CSV), 24,925 votes; Eugène Schaus (GD), 12,362 votes; Adrien van Kauvenbergh (LSAP), 17,922 votes; Antoine Wehenkel (LSAP), 18,020 votes; and Pierre Werner (CSV), 27,008 votes. 1951 Results of the 1951 general election held on 3 June 1951: The following candidates were elected: Jean-Pierre Bauer (LSAP), 20,104 votes; Tony Biever (CSV), 18,126 votes; Victor Bodson (LSAP), 22,609 votes; Albert Bousser (LSAP), 21,115 votes; Pierre Frieden (CSV), 21,831 votes; Émile Hamilius (GD), 16,278 votes; Lucien Koenig (GD), 12,398 votes; Maurice Leick (LSAP), 19,055 votes; Fernand Loesch (CSV), 18,227 votes; Émile Reuter (CSV), 22,158 votes; Nicolas Rollinger (CSV), 19,276 votes; Eugène Schaus (GD), 13,517 votes; Adrien van Kauvenbergh (LSAP), 20,983 votes; Antoine Wehenkel (LSAP), 19,846 votes; Camille Welter (CSV), 17,668 votes; and Paul Wilwertz (LSAP), 21,283 votes. 1940s 1945 Results of the 1945 general election held on 21 October 1945: The following candidates were elected: Jean-Pierre Bauer (LAP), 12,806 votes; Tony Biever (CSV), 19,433 votes; Victor Bodson (LAP), 15,009 votes; Gaston Diderich (GPD), 16,353 votes; Pierre Frieden (CSV), 23,183 votes; Émile Hamilius (GPD), 18,074 votes; Gustave Jacquemart (GPD), 14,404 votes; Camille Kasel (CSV), 19,228 votes; Jean-Pierre Kohner (LAP), 15,843 votes; Guillaume Konsbruck (CSV), 26,316 votes; Fernand Loesch (CSV), 21,768 votes; François Neu (LAP), 12,805 votes; Eugène Schaus (GPD), 15,010 votes; Lambert Schaus (CSV), 19,627 votes; and Fritz Schneider (KPL), 5.298 votes. 1930s 1937 Results of the 1937 general election held on 6 June 1937: The following candidates were elected: Jean-Pierre Bauer (LAP), 13,154 votes; Tony Biever (RP), 14,999 votes; Victor Bodson (LAP), 16,473 votes; Marcel Cahen (RLP), 10,295 votes; Gaston Diderich (RLP), 12,608 votes; Émile Hamilius (RP), 16,980 votes; Venant Hildgen (LAP), 12,552 votes; Nicolas Jacoby (RP), 14,790 votes; Jean-Pierre Kohner (LAP), 17,293 votes; Fernand Loesch (RP), 16,444 votes; Leo Müller (DL), 13,048 votes; François Neu (LAP), 14,154 votes; Jean Origer (RP), 18,204 votes; Albert Philippe (RP), 15,913 votes; and Pierre Prüm (DL), 12,620 votes. 1931 Results of the 1931 general election held on 7 June 1931: The following candidates were elected: François Altwies (Right), 14,591 votes; René Blum (LAP), 13,793 votes; Marcel Cahen (Radical), 9,566 votes; Gaston Diderich (RSP), 11,696 votes; Nicolas Jacoby (Right), 14,973 votes; Jean-Pierre Kohner (OP), 8,790 votes; Norbert Le Gallais (RSP), 7,974 votes; Nicolaus Mackel (Right), 14,149 votes; Dominique Moes (LAP), 8,824 votes; François Neu (LAP), 10,154 votes; Jean Origer (Right), 16,879 votes; Tony Pemmers (Radical), 8,324 votes; Albert Philippe (Right), 16,110 votes; and Auguste Thorn (Right), 14,546 votes. 1920s 1925 Results of the 1925 general election held on 1 March 1925: The following candidates were elected: François Altwies (RP), 15,445 votes; Robert Brasseur (LL), 6,833 votes; Marcel Cahen (VL), 16,674 votes; Gaston Diderich (VL), 17,097 votes; Jean-Pierre Ecker (RP), 12,508 votes; Jacques Gallé (VL), 12,140 votes; Jean Hansen (LAP), 5,620 votes; Jean-Pierre Kohner (ONV), 7,764 votes; Nicolas Ludovicy (VL), 12,509 votes; Jean Origer (RP), 12,687 votes; Albert Philippe (RP), 14,043 votes; Marguerite Thomas-Clement (VL), 10,569 votes; and Auguste Thorn (RP), 13,056 votes. 1922 Results of the 1922 general election held on 28 May 1922: The following candidates were elected: François Altwies (RP), 15,040 votes; Robert Brasseur (LDL), 15,806 votes; Marcel Cahen (LDL), 15,363 votes; Gaston Diderich (LDL), 17,036 votes; Jean-Pierre Ecker (RP), 12,888 votes; Alphonse Eichhorn (RP), 13,001 votes; Jacques Gallé (LDL), 13,405 votes; Nicolas Jacoby (RP), 13,563 votes; Jean-Pierre Kohner (RP), 14,227 votes; Norbert Le Gallais (LDL), 14,348 votes; Nicolas Ludovicy (LDL), 13,918 votes; Émile Mark (SP), 5,953 votes; and Albert Philippe (RP), 15,156 votes. 1910s 1919 Results of the 1919 general election held on 26 October 1919: The following candidates were elected: François Altwies (RP), 17,376 votes; Robert Brasseur (RL), 10,325 votes; Raymond de Waha (RP), 15,211 votes; Gaston Diderich (RL), 10,615 votes; Alphonse Eichhorn (RP), 13,885 votes; Venant Hildgen (SP), 6,846 votes; Nicolas Jacoby (RP), 13,981 votes; Jean-Pierre Kohner (RP), 13,885 votes; Norbert Le Gallais (RL), 10,220 votes; Nicolas Ludovicy (RL), 12,328 votes; Albert Philippe (RP), 16,038 votes; Michel Schettlé (SP), 8,501 votes; and Marguerite Thomas-Clement (SP), 7,589 votes. References 1919 establishments in Luxembourg Chamber of Deputies (Luxembourg) constituencies Constituencies established in 1919 Chamber of Deputies constituency Chamber of Deputies constituency
4796664	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osorno%2C%20Chile	Osorno, Chile	Osorno (Mapuche: Chauracavi) is a city and commune in southern Chile and capital of Osorno Province in the Los Lagos Region. It had a population of 145,475, as of the 2002 census. It is located south of the national capital of Santiago, north of the regional capital of Puerto Montt and west of the Argentine city of San Carlos de Bariloche, connected via International Route 215 through the Cardenal Antonio Samoré Pass. It is a gateway for land access to the far south regions of Aysén and Magallanes, which would otherwise be accessible only by sea or air from the rest of the country. Located at the confluence of Rahue and Damas River, Osorno is the main service centre of agriculture and cattle farming in the northern Los Lagos Region. The city's cultural heritage is shaped by Huilliche, Spanish, and German influences. History Prehistory The city of Osorno is built upon river terraces formed during the last of Earth's geological periods —the Quaternary. 130,000 years ago, during the transition from the Santa María glaciation and the Valdivia interglacial the area of Osorno was covered by pyroclastic material derivative from large and explosive volcanic eruptions in the Andes. The substrate of Osorno is accordingly made of various combinations of volcanic ash, lapilli, sand and gravel with occasional layers of peat. The city hosts the paleontological and archaeological site of Pilauco Bajo, where human footprints and lithic artifacts dating to the Late Pleistocene have been found. There is an adjoining museum and park dedicated to the site. Old Osorno The city was originally planned to be founded in 1553, under the Government of Pedro de Valdivia by his companion of conquest, Lieutenant General Don Francisco de Villagra; with the name of Santa Marina de Gaete, on the site of a Huilliche village named Chauracavi. However, Valdivia's death prevented the realization of this plan before it could materialize. On 27 March 1558, the city was finally founded by governor García Hurtado de Mendoza, with the new name of Villa de San Mateo de Osorno, in honor of his grandfather, Count of Osorno. Osorno is a municipio in Palencia province, Castile and León, Spain. In the summer of 1567, various settlers of Osorno joined Ruiz de Gamboa's expedition to Chiloé Archipelago. On December 1575 Osorno was struck a major earthquake and the following year hostilities between Spanish and Mapuches, which had begun farther north, reached Osorno. Osorno was destroyed again by the indigenous Huilliche people in October 1602. The destruction of Osorno forced Spaniards and the remaining indigenous allies to migrate south to the vicinity of Chiloé Archipelago where Spanish rule was still upheld. Indigenous allies the followed the Spanish on their departure were declared indios reyunos and became free of encomienda and held the duty to form a militia. The indios reyunos settled chiefly in Calbuco and Abtao. Fernando de Alvarado, an exile from Osorno, led the Spanish resistance in Chiloé against Dutch invaders in 1643. During the crisis that preceded the Battle of Río Bueno Captain Ignacio Carrera Yturgoyen penetrated with an army from Carelmapu north to the vicinity of the ruins of Osorno where his expedition were approached by Huilliches who handed over three "caciques", allegedly responsible for the murders of the survivors of the wreck of San José. The plains of Osorno and the whole area between Valdivia and the settlements of Calbuco and Carelmapu remained independent indigenous territory closed to the Spanish. The Spanish had thus little information on this territory and had to rely on hearsay. This lack of concrete knowledge of the territory fueled speculations about the mythical City of the Caesars. New Osorno On 22 November 1792, Tomás de Figueroa who headed a military expedition from Valdivia took possession of the ruins. The Parliament of Las Canoas held in 1793 established anew peace between Spanish and Mapuche-Huilliche. The treaty allowed for Spanish control of a strip of land between Rahue (the known as Río de Las Canoas) and Damas rivers, which including the area of Osorno. Local chiefs Catrihuala, Iñil and Caniu from around Osorno, and other from farther away, participated in the meeting. Under the orders of Ambrosio O'Higgins, Osorno was again rebuilt by Juan Mackenna, and declared officially re-populated in 1796. O'Higgins, in turn, was awarded the title of Marquess of Osorno. The new settlers of Osorno soon begun to purchase land from the local indigenous families of Catrihuala, Caniu and Colin. These purchases were permitted by local governor Juan Mackenna, who did however claim to have prevented local Huilliche sell lands they needed for subsistence. According Mackenna local caciques sold land to purchase liquour. Osorno owes its legacy to fairly recent Chilean settlement, when the government subdued the region's indigenous Mapuche peoples in the mid-19th century and opened the land to Chilean and European immigration soon to follow. A large percentage of locals in Osorno are descendants of Spanish (the livestock grazing industry owes its foundation to the Basques) and other European immigrants. Around 1850, the government of Chile began inviting German settlers to the colony to promote growth in the region; the settlers found Osorno's climate and geography to be very similar to their own. It continues to have a thriving German secondary school. With their help, Osorno was made the home of the National Cattle ranch of Chile, boosting the regional economy significantly. Present-day Osorno has preserved 19th century architecture and urban layout, represented by six picturesque houses which have been designated national monuments. Osorno has a long history of rivalry with Valdivia, and in a 2006 referendum, the Osorno Province rejected its proposed incorporation into the new Los Ríos Region, of which Valdivia is now the capital. In 2019 the water supply system of Osorno was contaminated with 1,100 liters of petrol ushering an sanitary and environmental crisis. The crisis led to the water supply system of Osorno to be shut down from July 10 to July 21. The oil spill also effected Rahue River. ESSAL, the private company in charge of the water supply of Osorno, did not specify the reason for the shut down in the first communique. The government announced that President Sebastián Piñera had canceled a visit to the United States to instead solve the crisis in Osorno. Opposition deputy Emilia Nuyado denounced a media circus on behalf of the government after the water shortage continued following Piñera's visit to the city. Inhabitants of the city went to streets of Osorno to protest calling for the cancellation of ESSAL's water supply concession. ESSAL was to give total discount of 63,250 Chilean pesos (2019) to each of the 47,519 affected clients. In a popular consultation held in Osorno following the 2019 Chilean protests over 90% of the participants voted to end ESSAL's concession. Results are however not binding. Climate Osorno has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) with a drying trend in summer. Winters are cool but mild with a July average of . Most of the precipitation falls during this time of the year with May to July being the wettest months, averaging around to of precipitation and humidity is high, averaging around 85%. Snowfalls are rare. Summers are drier and mild with a January average of and during this time, precipitation is lower, averaging in January. In some years, many days can go without a day of precipitation such as the case in 1992 when only of precipitation was recorded in January while in other years, some summers can have several wet days in a row. Temperatures can occasionally exceed anytime from December to March. The average annual precipitation is and there are 173 days with measureable precipitation. The record high was in February 2019 and the record low was in July 1954. The city Osorno sits in sight of Volcán Osorno, an active but minor volcano. The city's most prominent geographical feature is the Rahue River that runs north–south through its center. A smaller stream breaks off as well, running east before turning south and giving the city some natural boundaries. Located near the river front on the east side is the city's heart, the Plaza de Armas, a large, one-block park with fountains, benches, and tree-lined avenues. On the park's east side is La Catedral of Saint Matthew, one of the city's major landmarks, notable for its modern architecture. The cathedral serves as mother church of the Catholic Diocese of Osorno. Along the south side is Juan Mackenna Avenue, the city's major city centre street. Other points of interest are the main campus of the Universidad de Los Lagos and the Osorno Rodeo Stadium. The recently opened casino Plaza Sol de los Lagos is a new popular attraction for tourists and locals alike. Osorno hosts a number of annual celebrations. The Festival de la Carne y la Leche (Milk and Meat Festival) is a music festival held annually in late January, features performances by national music pop singers and bands. The Festival del Folklore Campesino (Country Folk Festival) held annually in mid-January, features performances of regional music folk artists. Another celebration is the Feria Ganadera Sago Fisur (Sago-Fisur Cattle Fair) held annually in early November, hosted by the largest ranch in the area highlights the current state of agricultural activity. Fireworks displays are held every year around the city on 18 September, the Chilean national Day, commemorating independence from Spain. Osorno is also a gateway for many tourist attractions. Puyehue National Park is a major attraction, with pristine lakes, forests, and game preserves. The volcanic area provides natural hot springs, now the site of the Aguas Calientes spa. Puyehue Hot Springs is adjacent to the park. Los Lagos Region was named for the many lakes in the area, many of which have tourist-friendly yet isolated beaches; closest to Osorno are Puyehue and Rupanco. Antillanca ski resort, less than a hundred kilometers away, is one of the highest-quality resorts in Chile. Ecotourism is also encouraged by the indigenous Huilliche communities, who inhabit the Pacific coastal zone. Much of the funds brought in by tourism is being used to protect native plant and tree species, most notably the Alerce, a threatened Cypress. The thick forests open onto a number of beaches and bays, such as Maicolpué, Bahía Mansa and Pucatrihue. Sports Football and basketball are popular sports in the city. Osorno fields a football team, Provincial Osorno, in the third level national football league. Provincial Osorno plays home games at the Estadio Ruben Marcos Peralta, which has a seating capacity of 10,000. Osorno's professional basketball team in the top level National Basketball League is called Español de Osorno. Their home games are held at the Gimnasio María Gallardo, which has a seating capacity of almost 4,500. Chilean rodeo is popular in Osorno, as it is in most of the center-south zone of the country. Osorno's rodeo stadium, the Medialuna de Osorno, is considered one of the best in the country, and was the qualifying arena for the southern region of the national rodeo in 2006. Boxing is also one of the city's pastimes; Osorno produced Chile's boxing representative at the 1972 Summer Olympics, Martín Vargas. Additionally, the mountainous terrain surrounding Osorno is used for skiing and snowboarding, sports popularized by the large tide of German immigrants. It is the closest city to the Antillanca ski resort, only 98 km away. Economy Osorno is an important agricultural center, and agriculture makes up the bulk of the Osorno province's economic activity. Wheat and oats grow abundantly, but the land is also well-suited to the breeding of Chilean horses and cattle. Some of Chile's finest beef products originate in the Osorno ranches. Osorno's proximity to the Cardenal Antonio Samoré Pass makes it a key place the national economy. The mountain pass connects Osorno to the Argentine city of Bariloche, and is one of primary arteries that ties the two countries' southern regions together. The pass is particularly important due to the fact that it crosses the Andes mountains at very low altitude, allowing it to remain open even when other passes are blocked by snow. Despite all this, Osorno has seen some economic stagnation in the past several decades. Agriculture alone has not allowed it to keep pace with the booming, rapidly industrializing Chilean economy; Osorno lacks both industrial and information-services sectors. In one effort to combat this, the city has forged international business ties with several Dutch companies, after it was discovered that the local climate is ideal for the growing of tulips. Likewise, Osorno has recently entered the international meat market. Besides offering high-quality beef, the isolated region is also completely free of the recent rash of cattle plagues such as Mad Cow and foot-and-mouth disease, guaranteeing the safety of Chilean meats. Osorno is now faced with a unique opportunity: the arable land is suited for the growing of beets, soy, and corn, crops rising in popularity with the recent development of biocombustibles: fuels derived from crops, such as corn-derived ethanol. It is hoped that the Chilean government's announcement that it will not apply the same steep taxes to agricultural fuels as it does to petroleum products, as well as the increasing demand for more environment-friendly fuels, will mean that Osorno will again become a major economic hub. As Chile continues to develop as one of South America's economic leaders and one of the most stable states in the region, tourism is on the rise Transportation The city is served by Canal Bajo Carlos Hott Siebert Airport, which offers 2-hour flights to Santiago. Buses also depart for the capital daily. The Cardenal Antonio Samoré Pass also marks the city as a major gateway to and from Argentina. Education International schools Lycée Claude Gay Instituto Alemán de Osorno Religion St. Matthew's Cathedral, Osorno, located in the city of Osorno, is the mother church of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Osorno. Demographics According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Osorno spans an area of and has 145,475 inhabitants (70,743 men and 74,732 women). Of these, 132,245 (90.9%) lived in urban areas and 13,230 (9.1%) in rural areas. The population grew by 13.9% (17,706 persons) between the 1992 and 2002 censuses. Notable residents Tomás Burgos, Philanthropist Adolfo Matthei, Agricultural engineer. Founder local agricultural school. Luis "Colin" Ramirez, Singer, Musician, Actor. Eleuterio Ramírez, Chilean Army officer during de Pacific War against Perú and Bolivia. Also called Hero of Tarapacá. Martín Vargas, Olympic boxer Juan Mackenna, Governor of Osorno, hero of Chilean independence. Pablo Longueira, politician Erik Carrasco, professional basketball player Iris Sanguesa, composer Klaus von Storch, first Chilean astronaut trainee Alexis Caiguan, member of the Chilean Constitutional Convention Beatriz Hevia, public official Administration As a commune, Osorno is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2008-2012 alcalde is Jaime Alberto Bertin Valenzuela. Within the electoral divisions of Chile, Osorno is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Fidel Espinoza (PS), Javier Hernández (UDI), Harry Jürgensen (RN) and Emilia Nuyado (PS) as part of the 25th electoral district. The commune is represented in the Senate by Rabindranath Quinteros Lara (PS) and Iván Alejandro Moreira Barros (UDI) as part of the 17th senatorial constituency (Los Lagos Region). Gallery References Bibliography External links Municipality of Osorno Information and Pictures of Osorno Diario Austral de Osorno Osorno's major newspaper OsornoChile.Net - Information and Pictures of Osorno Images of Osorno Chileno's Chile Travel Blog Osorno Sports and News Portal Osorno on Google Maps Communes of Chile Capitals of Chilean provinces Populated places established in 1558 1558 establishments in the Captaincy General of Chile 1602 disestablishments in the Captaincy General of Chile Populated places established in 1796 1796 establishments in the Captaincy General of Chile Colonial fortifications in Chile Populated places in Osorno Province 1558 establishments in the Spanish Empire Former ghost towns Populated places destroyed during wars 1796 establishments in the Spanish Empire
4796743	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale%20Thomas%20%28footballer%29	Dale Thomas (footballer)	Dale Robert Jordan “Daisy” Thomas (born 21 June 1987) is a former professional Australian rules footballer who played for the Collingwood Football Club and Carlton Football Club in the Australian Football League (AFL). Thomas was a priority pick in 2005 where he then played with the Collingwood Football Club from 2006 to 2013 before transferring to the Blues in 2014. Early life Dale Thomas grew up in Drouin with his mother Kaye, father Darryl and his sister Jessica. As a child, he idolised the Geelong Cats' Gary Ablett, who also grew up in Drouin. He idolised Ablett so much that he used to repeatedly watch his grandfather's tapes of Ablett and Geelong and recreate Ablett's marks and goals. His favourite highlight was Ablett's one-handed mark over Collingwood's Gary Pert in Round 7, 1994. Thomas played his first junior football at age eight, later moving on to play with the Hallora under-12s. His mother was dedicated to her children's sporting dreams; she kicked footballs with Dale and shot netballs with sister Jessica. According to his father, during his first stint as captain of the under-14 Drouin team, he won the toss but forgot which direction he had chosen and kicked a behind for Tooradin, the opposing team. Regardless, Drouin won by ten goals and Dale's behind was Tooradin's only score. In 2003 he was selected in the Under-16 Vic Country squad playing on the wing. He was later selected in the 2005 Vic Country squad playing on the half-forward flank. He was the vice-captain of the Gippsland Power squad in 2005, scoring goals in 14 out of 18 games for the Power. He was one of four school captains at Drouin Secondary College in 2005. In the TAC Cup 2005 Grand Final, which Gippsland Power won, he won best on ground with four goals and 20 disposals. He took a high flying "specky" mark in the second quarter and kicked a dribbling goal from the boundary. He was selected in the TAC Cup Team of the Year. He was also named as an All-Australian in the 2005 Under-18 Championships as a half-forward flank, in which he represented Vic Country. Thomas was regarded by many media commentators as one of the most likely to be picked high in the AFL draft and certainly to have attracted the eye of AFL recruiters. AFL career Dale Thomas was selected by Collingwood with their first pick in the 2005 AFL Draft (the second pick overall). 2006 AFL season Thomas made his debut in the AFL in round one of the 2006 AFL Season, in Collingwood's match against the Adelaide Crows. Thomas gathered 16 disposals, kicked two goals and took a spectacular mark on an Adelaide opponent's back. In Collingwood's round two win against Hawthorn gathered twenty disposals and was nominated for the 2006 AFL Rising Star award. By round two he had become a cult figure at Collingwood. During the 2006 ANZAC Day match against Essendon Thomas was nominated for both Mark of the Year and Goal of the Year. He took a spectacular mark over Essendon player Andrew Welsh. He also kicked a memorable goal, baulking an opponent and kicking from 50 metres under pressure. Thomas' season was marred by an injury to his collarbone on 5 August. Thomas returned to play in Collingwood's defeat in the 2006 First Elimination Final to the Western Bulldogs, where he took a spectacular mark on the shoulders of an opponent. Thomas became so popular in his first season of AFL that guernseys bearing his name sold twice as many as the then captain, Nathan Buckley, at the club's merchandise shop. 2007 AFL season During 2007, Thomas was played in a variety of positions including a regular role in the midfield and the forward line, and also instances in defence. He played every game in the 2007 season. He was considered a match-winner in the Round 1 fightback against the North Melbourne Kangaroos, and was also judged one of the best afield in Round 3 against the Richmond Tigers where he collected 25 disposals. After being injured three days earlier against the Port Adelaide Power, he battled in the traditional ANZAC Day game against the Essendon Bombers. In Round 5 Thomas was reported after accidentally striking Essendon player Patrick Ryder. The AFL match review panel took 10 seconds to find Thomas not guilty. He was fined $1,500 for being involved in a melee between Collingwood and Carlton on Round 7. Highlights of the 2007 season came during a match against the Sydney Swans where Collingwood was considered underdogs with a depleted defence. Thomas recorded a career-high 4 goals, and was thus awarded three Brownlow Medal votes. He was also judged best afield by commentators against St Kilda where he recorded 18 disposals and 2 goals. Most memorably he slotted through a neat goal from the boundary line while being chased by two St Kilda players; commentators labelled it "Goal of the Year" until it was judged out-of-bounds, this incident has since been dubbed "non-goal of the year". Thomas played a vital role in the Pies' finals matches. His runs down the ground in the Semi-Final and Preliminary Final are considered some of the most important plays in the Pies' win against West Coast and close loss against Geelong. Thomas' year ended with a career-high four votes at the Brownlow count and placing sixth in the Copeland Trophy count. 2008 AFL season Thomas began his 2008 campaign with style in Round 1 of the 2008 NAB Cup in Dubai, where he took a "specky" on the shoulders of his Adelaide opponent. Three weeks later, he kicked a freakish goal against Port Adelaide during a practice match at Princes Park – as the ball was bounced in the goal square, Thomas dodged both ruckmen, jumped in the air and kicked the ball over his head through the goals, right on the siren. Thomas was named one of the best in Collingwood's opening game against Fremantle, after kicking two goals and collecting 15 disposals. Two weeks later, in Round 3 against Richmond, he kicked three goals, including a superb right-foot kick from the boundary line, dribbling through for a goal (nominated for, and winning, Goal of the Week), as well as taking a mark on the shoulders of Tiger Joel Bowden, resulting in a goal. Both pieces of play were also nominated for the collingwoodfc.com.au 'Pie Plays of the Day'. Thomas gained another nomination for Mark of the Week in the next around against Carlton, leaping very high to take a mark on the shoulders of both opponents and teammate Anthony Rocca. Thomas was named in the extended squad, but was not included in the match-day squad for the Victorian team in the AFL Hall of Fame Tribute Match which was played on 10 May. Upon being named, he said: "It would be fantastic to play in the match, because it's the first time State of Origin has been back for a while, and I remember growing up watching it on the telly so it would be great to be a part of. Hopefully I can get a kick, if I manage to get into the side. It's always good to play with great players, and in my first two years, I was lucky enough to play with Bucks (Nathan Buckley). To play on the same side as some of the greats of the game would just be a great thrill." Thomas endured a heavily-publicised "form slump", the first of his career, after poor performances against North Melbourne, Essendon and Hawthorn, and averaging only 13 disposals. He returned after the Hall of Fame break by defying his critics with a 21-disposal game, playing mostly on St Kilda's Nick Dal Santo. In Thomas' 50th AFL match, against the reigning premiers Geelong, he amassed 18 disposals, playing on the 2007 Brownlow Medallist Jimmy Bartel, in Collingwood's 86 point win, which was the Cats' first loss of the season and second loss in 28 matches. His opponent Bartel collected 20 disposals, but most of these were ineffective disposals and clanger kicks, and Bartel had the lowest disposal efficiency with 55%. Thomas kicked a goal labelled as "Daicos-like" by Channel Seven commentator Bruce McAvaney. He scooped the ball after a loose ball on the 50-metre-arc, ran in ten metres while being chased by Geelong opponent Cameron Ling, and kicked a checkside goal that dribbled through from the boundary. It was nominated for, and won, Goal of the Week. He starred in Collingwood's 100-point thrashing of West Coast Eagles with 20 disposals and three goals. His first goal was the result of a handpass from teammate Rhyce Shaw on the half-back line. He ran nearly 100 metres, taking four bounces, weaving between West Coast opponents, and slotted the goal 40 metres out, and celebrating on his knees in front of the Collingwood cheer squad. He also received a cut lip which required stitches. He was fined $900 by the AFL for wrestling with Essendon's Kyle Reimers Round 6. He played in the annual split-round game against the Sydney Swans in Sydney, and kicked three goals – two from "screamers" in the first and second quarters, and the other from an uncontested mark. Thomas was heavily tagged in the second half, but Collingwood ran away with a 29-point win, and Thomas was named as one of the best on ground, and one of his marks nominated for Mark of the Week. Thomas was also a star against St Kilda following a horror week at Collingwood, and collected 22 disposals (thirteen contested), kicked a goal, took a "screamer" and also a courageous mark running back with the flight of the ball. Thomas injured his knee against Port Adelaide in Round 20, after landing awkwardly in a marking contest during the third quarter. According to Collingwood official Greg Walsh, Thomas had developed bleeding and swelling on the back of his calf, but was in contention to play the following week. However, he missed the last two games of the home-and-away season, with the official complaint as an upper calf injury. Thomas returned from his injury to play in the First Elimination Final against the Adelaide Crows. He collected 20 disposals and kicked one goal within seconds of the three-quarter-time siren from the fifty-metre arc, which he later described as a "fluke". His goal, received from a tap from Shannon Cox, was later described by Jackie Epstein as a "team-defining moment", and by Andrew Faulkner as one of the "goals of the season" Commentator Anthony Hudson called it a "stunning accidental goal" at the time. Thomas ended the 2008 season with an average of 15.72 disposals a game and 1.04 goals a game. Thomas was selected to represent Australia in the 2008 International Rules Series, alongside teammate Scott Pendlebury and many other AFL stars. Thomas had a successful International Rules Series, gathering 19 disposals in the first test, and 16 in the second. He also saved a possible Irish goal when he chased and tackled Irish player Paddy Bradley in the goal square late in the first test. In the second he showed the Irish how he plays the game flying high for a mark but unfortunately not holding the unfamiliar round ball. 2009 AFL season 2009 was a year of learning for Dale Thomas. Coach Mick Malthouse put Thomas in a variety of positions for the season. He played as a rebounding defender, midfielder, tagger and notably as a defensive forward. These different roles led to Thomas being called a utility player for Collingwood, because of his flexibility to play all around the ground. Thomas started off the year as a rebounding defender for Collingwood in the NAB Cup. Thomas made an impact in the backline which led to suggestions of playing Thomas as a backman instead of a forward. Fans and football commentators were once again confused as Thomas started round 1 of the 2009 season as a midfielder. His round 1 performance against Adelaide was notable for two umpiring blunders that caused two crucial goals taken off him. The first was a trademark specky that Thomas took, which the umpire ruled as hands in the back. Thomas, not knowing that the umpire blew the whistle, played on and kicked what he believed to be the winning goal. The second umpiring decision came just minutes later. Thomas, under heavy pressure from the opposition, snapped a goal from the boundary. The boundary umpire ruled that the ball was out of bounds. Once a replay of the incorrect umpiring decision was shown on the screen at the MCG, Collingwood fans hurled abuse at the umpires as Collingwood lost by 4 points. Speculation about Thomas possibly being drafted to the new Gold Coast Football Club team started when Andrew Hamilton reported for the Herald Sun saying "Collingwood's Dale Thomas is the latest name to be linked to the Gold Coast." Thomas vehemently denied these rumours on his blog saying "I want to be the first to say that while the weather and lifestyle would certainly appeal to me, I don’t think that will be happening! I am happy here at Collingwood and am not looking to move." In round 2 vs Melbourne Thomas was a late exclusion from the team with gastroenteritis. After another stint in the midfield Thomas kicked his first goal for the season against Geelong in round 3. Many people were led to believe that Thomas had solidified his place in the midfield. In round 4 against Brisbane Thomas played an entirely new role. His role was to be a defensive forward and shut down Brisbane's rebounding defender Josh Drummond. Thomas completed this job successfully keeping Drummond to a below-average 15 possessions and was key to Collingwood beating Brisbane. Thomas was once again put in the midfield for the traditional ANZAC Day Clash against Essendon. Thomas was one of Collingwood's best in a close loss. Another midfield job against North Melbourne in Round 6 saw Thomas kick a goal in a big win. On May 10, 2009, Thomas signed a new 2-year contract for Collingwood After signing his new contract Thomas said "I think when you get drafted you want to stay at one team and sometimes that doesn’t eventuate, but hopefully I can still play the rest of my days here." Thomas played against St Kilda in Round 7 but came off the ground late in the last quarter with a knee injury. Thomas missed two matches and his momentum was stung when he returned to face Port Adelaide in Round 10 in a quiet match from him. A week later Thomas returned to his usual form and picked up 18 possessions against Melbourne in the Queen's Birthday clash. Thomas played in the midfield yet again in round 12 against the Sydney Swans. After losing a bit of his good form after returning from injury, Thomas tore apart the round 13 match against Fremantle. He put his quiet first half behind him and ran riot in the second half picking up 16 possessions in the last two quarters to finish with an equal season-high 21 possessions. After spending time in the midfield Thomas was once again put in the forward line to play his natural game. He kicked two goals, including a spectacular goal under intense pressure from Essendon's Dustin Fletcher. This goal was chosen as Goal of the Week. Round 15 against the Western Bulldogs was a highlight for Thomas. He played midfield and forward and kicked two goals. With one minute to go Thomas kicked the winning goal in a memorable 1 point victory for Collingwood. The next week Collingwood were thrashed by Hawthorn. While most of the team were down and out Thomas never stopped trying picking up 19 possessions. In round 17 Thomas played an outstanding 20 possession 1 goal game against Carlton. The next week he kicked a season-high 3 goals against Brisbane while once again keeping Josh Drummond quiet. Round 19 against Adelaide was one to forget for Thomas, he was quiet most of the night, but kicked one goal. In round 20 Thomas put heavy pressure onto the inexperienced Richmond. He laid a game, and season, high 6 tackles in a comfortable 93 point win for Collingwood. Round 21 against Sydney saw Thomas a trademark specky in another easy win for Collingwood. Thomas faced the Western Bulldogs in round 22 and played another great game against them. He finished the game with 2 goals 1 behind in a Collingwood loss. Thomas really switched on once the finals came around and proved that the tag "big game player" was rightfully deserved for him. While he didn't get a lot of possessions against St Kilda in the first week of the finals, his desperation and commitment to winning the game was outstanding. This was summed up in typical Dale Thomas fashion after receiving a heavy bump from Brendon Goddard he got straight back up and took a courageous mark to kick an inspiring goal. He kicked 2 goals and 2 behinds to be Collingwood's best in a loss. Thomas playing in the midfield once again was outstanding in the second week of the finals against Adelaide. Collingwood, trailing by 5 goals at halftime, came out switched on with Thomas giving all he could to get Collingwood over the line. Late into the last quarter with Collingwood trailing by a point Thomas clashed heads with an Adelaide player, he shrugged it off and got the ball out of the defensive 50 which ended up in the hands of Collingwood's Jack Anthony who kicked the winning goal. He finished the match with 19 possessions in a close win for Collingwood. The next week Thomas faced Geelong. While Collingwood were thrashed by a more experienced side Thomas showed that he can still do well even with the odds stacked against him. He finished the game 17 possessions and 4 tackles. Thomas finished his fourth season in the AFL with more experience in different position this should help him once the 2010 season starts. 2010 season In 2010, he, along with his team mates, won the AFL premiership. Collingwood defeated St Kilda by 56 points in the replay, after the first match was drawn. Thomas was described as having an "exceptional year", and played well in both Grand Finals, finishing third in the Norm Smith Medal vote count in the drawn Grand Final (the highest of any Collingwood player), and again finished third the Norm Smith vote count in the replayed Grand Final, with many commentators describing Thomas as the most consistent player over both Grand Finals. He also came up 3rd in Collingwood's best and fairest count, pulling up short of fellow stars Dane Swan (1st) and Scott Pendlebury (2nd). Move to Carlton At the conclusion of the 2013 season, Thomas was classed as a restricted free agent due to the eight seasons he served at Collingwood. He decided to test the free agency waters and agreed to a four-year deal to play with the Carlton Football Club. It was confirmed on 6 October 2013 that he was joining the Blues, saying it was "obviously really tough" to leave Collingwood but he was "looking forward to this next chapter" under former Collingwood coach Mick Malthouse. On 9 October 2013, Collingwood announced that they would not match the offer the Blues had made to Thomas, making his move to Carlton official. Thomas also played a game for the Northern Blues in the 2019 VFL season after being dropped from the Carlton side. Personal life Thomas co-owned with some friends a racehorse named Royal Riff Raff, which was sponsored by the Royal Hotel in Drouin. It also won the Drouin Cup on 26 December 2007. After selling the horse he bought another called Village Slickers. Thomas is a recreational surfer. While on a surfing trip with friends at Cape Paterson near Inverloch, Victoria, he saw a shark fin about 15 metres away from his surf board. He said "I was absolutely shitting myself." Upon seeing the shark he left the water very quickly, swimming 85 metres to the shore. Media work Thomas has become a regular guest panelist on the Nine Network's The Footy Show, after two appearances in 2007 and several more in 2008, including an appearance on the Grand Final Footy Show. In 2006 he was also in the player's revue dancing with several other Collingwood players. Thomas has made appearances on Network Ten's Before the Game. He was nominated twice in 2008 for the show's "Tool of the Week", and was voted "Tool of the Year" by viewers for his video blog filmed in his shower. Thomas has appeared in several TV commercials. He was in an ad for McDonald's McHappy Day 2007. He was in an ad for Mainland Cheese Bites with teammates Shane Wakelin, Alan Didak and Brodie Holland. He appeared in a Channel 7 promotion with Nathan Buckley. He features in a Toyota Dream Team ad alongside Leigh Matthews. He features in an ad for Footy Kickers potato chips. He also had a spot in an ad for Herald Sun AFL Footy Cards alongside other AFL players. Thomas appeared as an intruder in the sixth season of the Australian version of I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! in 2020. Statistics \|- style="background:#eaeaea;" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" \| 2006 \|style="text-align:center;"\| \| 13 \|\| 16 \|\| 10 \|\| 6 \|\| 138 \|\| 87 \|\| 225 \|\| 88 \|\| 21 \|\| 0.6 \|\| 0.4 \|\| 8.6 \|\| 5.4 \|\| 14.1 \|\| 5.5 \|\| 1.3 \|- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" \| 2007 \|style="text-align:center;"\| \| 13 \|\| 25 \|\| 19 \|\| 21 \|\| 268 \|\| 126 \|\| 394 \|\| 154 \|\| 74 \|\| 0.8 \|\| 0.8 \|\| 10.7 \|\| 5.0 \|\| 15.8 \|\| 6.2 \|\| 3.0 \|- style="background:#eaeaea;" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" \| 2008 \|style="text-align:center;"\| \| 13 \|\| 22 \|\| 23 \|\| 13 \|\| 216 \|\| 130 \|\| 346 \|\| 129 \|\| 51 \|\| 1.0 \|\| 0.6 \|\| 9.8 \|\| 5.9 \|\| 15.7 \|\| 5.9 \|\| 2.3 \|- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" \| 2009 \|style="text-align:center;"\| \| 13 \|\| 22 \|\| 16 \|\| 10 \|\| 213 \|\| 165 \|\| 378 \|\| 111 \|\| 64 \|\| 0.7 \|\| 0.5 \|\| 9.7 \|\| 7.5 \|\| 17.2 \|\| 5.0 \|\| 2.9 \|- style="background:#eaeaea;" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" \| 2010 \|style="text-align:center;"\| \| 13 \|\| 26 \|\| 18 \|\| 14 \|\| 380 \|\| 243 \|\| 623 \|\| 158 \|\| 90 \|\| 0.7 \|\| 0.5 \|\| 14.6 \|\| 9.3 \|\| 24.0 \|\| 6.1 \|\| 3.5 \|- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" \| 2011 \|style="text-align:center;"\|Collingwood \| 13 \|\| 21 \|\| 13 \|\| 14 \|\| 342 \|\| 186 \|\| 528 \|\| 127 \|\| 88 \|\| 0.6 \|\| 0.7 \|\| 16.3 \|\| 8.9 \|\| 25.1 \|\| 6.0 \|\| 4.2 \|- style="background:#eaeaea;" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" \| 2012 \|style="text-align:center;"\| \| 13 \|\| 20 \|\| 22 \|\| 12 \|\| 271 \|\| 162 \|\| 433 \|\| 121 \|\| 60 \|\| 1.1 \|\| 0.6 \|\| 13.6 \|\| 8.1 \|\| 21.7 \|\| 6.1 \|\| 3.0 \|- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" \| 2013 \|style="text-align:center;"\| \| 13 \|\| 5 \|\| 0 \|\| 2 \|\| 61 \|\| 48 \|\| 109 \|\| 24 \|\| 9 \|\| 0.0 \|\| 0.4 \|\| 12.2 \|\| 9.6 \|\| 21.8 \|\| 4.8 \|\| 1.8 \|- style="background:#eaeaea;" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" \| 2014 \|style="text-align:center;"\| \| 39 \|\| 20 \|\| 12 \|\| 8 \|\| 224 \|\| 122 \|\| 346 \|\| 113 \|\| 57 \|\| 0.6 \|\| 0.4 \|\| 11.2 \|\| 6.1 \|\| 17.3 \|\| 5.7 \|\| 2.9 \|- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" \| 2015 \|style="text-align:center;"\| \| 39 \|\| 5 \|\| 2 \|\| 2 \|\| 42 \|\| 28 \|\| 70 \|\| 20 \|\| 6 \|\| 0.4 \|\| 0.4 \|\| 8.4 \|\| 5.6 \|\| 14 \|\| 4 \|\| 1.2 \|- style="background:#eaeaea;" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" \| 2016 \|style="text-align:center;"\| \| 39 \|\| 18 \|\| 6 \|\| 5 \|\| 202 \|\| 131 \|\| 333 \|\| 77 \|\| 55 \|\| 0.3 \|\| 0.3 \|\| 11.2 \|\| 7.3 \|\| 18.5 \|\| 4.3 \|\| 3.1 \|- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" \| 2017 \|style="text-align:center;"\| \| 39 \|\| 18 \|\| 8 \|\| 7 \|\| 196 \|\| 119 \|\| 315 \|\| 103 \|\| 31 \|\| 0.4 \|\| 0.4 \|\| 10.9 \|\| 6.6 \|\| 17.5 \|\| 5.7 \|\| 1.7 \|- style="background:#eaeaea;" ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" \| 2018 \|style="text-align:center;"\| \| 39 \|\| 20 \|\| 3 \|\| 1 \|\| 270 \|\| 179 \|\| 449 \|\| 139 \|\| 39 \|\| 0.2 \|\| 0.1 \|\| 13.5 \|\| 9 \|\| 22.5 \|\| 7 \|\| 2 \|- ! scope="row" style="text-align:center" \| 2019 \|style="text-align:center;"\| \| 39 \|\| 20 \|\| 3 \|\| 3 \|\| 270 \|\| 116 \|\| 386 \|\| 105 \|\| 61 \|\| 0.2 \|\| 0.2 \|\| 13.5 \|\| 5.8 \|\| 19.3 \|\| 5.3 \|\| 3.1 \|- class="sortbottom" ! colspan=3\| Career ! 258 ! 155 ! 118 ! 3093 ! 1842 ! 4935 ! 1469 ! 706 ! 0.6 ! 0.5 ! 12.0 ! 7.1 ! 19.1 ! 5.7 ! 2.7 \|} References External links Dale Thomas's Blog Collingwood Football Club players Collingwood Football Club premiership players Carlton Football Club players 1987 births Living people Australian rules footballers from Victoria (state) Gippsland Power players Preston Football Club (VFA) players All-Australians (AFL) Australia international rules football team players VFL/AFL premiership players
4796928	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20compositions%20by%20Fanny%20Mendelssohn	List of compositions by Fanny Mendelssohn	There are 466 known musical compositions by Fanny Mendelssohn: The first section of this page lists compositions by Opus number (Op.), in order of publication (which only partially covers Fanny Mendelssohn's output). The second section lists all compositions chronologically, according to Renate Hellwig-Unruh's catalogue of compositions by Fanny Mendelssohn (published in 2000), other than those for which later research established a different date of composition (as is the case for the Easter Sonata). In contemporary publications There were some 15 years between the first publication of six works by Fanny Mendelssohn in her brother Felix's Op. 8 and 9 (under his name), and her own publications of music she composed, with her own opus numbers. Nos. 2, 3 and 12 in Felix Mendelssohn's Op. 8 Felix Mendelssohn's Op. 8, , was published in 1826 (Nos. 1–6) and 1827 (Nos. 1–12). These songs by Fanny Mendelssohn are contained in the volume: Das Heimweh. Italien. Suleika und Hatem. Nos. 7, 10 and 12 in Felix Mendelssohn's Op. 9 Felix Mendelssohn's Op. 9, , was published in 1830. These Lieder by Fanny Mendelssohn are contained in the volume: Sehnsucht (8). Verlust. Die Nonne. Op. 1 – Lieder , Op. 1, published 1846: Schwanenlied. Andante. Wanderlied (2). Allegro molto vivace. Warum sind denn die Rosen so blass. Andante. Maienlied. Allegretto. Morgenständchen. Allegro molto quasi presto. Gondellied. Allegretto. Op. 2 – Songs Without Words , Op. 2, published in 1846: Lied. Andante. Andante con moto. Villa Mills. Allegretto grazioso. Klavierstück. Allegro molto vivace. Op. 3 – Gartenlieder , Op. 3, published in 1847: Hörst du nicht die Bäume rauschen. Allegretto. Schöne Fremde. Moderato. Im Herbste (3). Allegro ma non troppo. Morgengruß (1). Allegretto grazioso. Abendlich schon rauscht der Wald. Andante. Im Wald. Allegro vivace. Op. 4 and 5 – Songs Without Words , Op. 4 and 5, published in 1847. First book (Op. 4): Allegro assai. Allegretto. Allegro molto quasi presto. Second book (Op. 5): Lento appassionato. Allegro molto vivace. Mélodie. Op. 6 – Songs Without Words , Op. 6, published in 1847: Lied. Andante espressivo. Lied. Allegro vivace. O Traum der Jugend, o goldner Stern. Andante cantabile. Il Saltarello Romano. Tarantella. Allegro molto. Op. 7 – Lieder , Op. 7, published 1847: Nachtwanderer. Andante con moto. Erwin. Allegretto con espressione. Frühling. Allegro molto. Du bist die Ruh'. Moderato assai. Bitte. Larghetto. Dein ist mein Herz. Feierlich leidenschaftlich. Op. 8 – Songs Without Words , Op. 8, published posthumously in 1850: Lied. Allegro moderato. Lied. Andante con espressione. Lied. Larghetto. Wanderlied. Presto. Op. 9 – Lieder , Op. 9, published posthumously in 1850: Die Ersehnte. Andante con moto. Ferne. Andante. Der Rosenkranz. Die frühen Gräber. Lento e largo. Der Maiabend. Allegretto. Die Mainacht. Andante. Op. 10 – Lieder , Op. 10, published posthumously in 1850: Nach Süden. Allegro molto vivace. Vorwurf. Abendbild (1). Andante con moto. Im Herbste (2). Adagio. Bergeslust. Allegro molto vivace e leggiero. Op. 11 – Piano Trio Fanny Mendelssohn's Piano trio in D minor, Op. 11, was published posthumously in 1850. Chronological Fanny Mendelssohn's compositions, sorted chronologically according to time of composition, with numbers following the Hellwig-Unruh catalogue: 1819 12 Gavotten (lost). Ihr Töne, schwingt euch fröhlich. Andante. 1820 Lied des Schäfers. Lebhaft. Klavierstück. Romance de Claudine. Allegretto. Chanson des Bergères. Con Allegrezza. Romance de Galatée. Allegretto. Romance de Célestine. Lentement, avec douceur. Isidore. Andante. Die Schönheit nicht, o Mädchen. Grazioso. Némorin (1). Allegro. Zoraide. Douleureusement. C'en est fait. Allegro molto agitato. Annette. Dolce. Sérénade de Cortez. Expression agitée. Unique objet de ma tendresse. Wenn Ich ihn nur habe. Erster Verlust (1). Füllest wieder Busch und Tal. Nicht zu schnell. Ave Maria. Andante. L'amitié. Schwarz ihre Brauen. C'est une larme. So musst' ich von dir scheiden. Der Seelen Ruhe ist es Gott. Choral; Ist uns der Sünden Last zu schwer. Rezitativ und Arioso. Wohl deinem Liebling. Arioso. 1821 Du stillst der Meere Brausen. Ob deiner Wunderzeichen Staunen. Klavierstück. Klavierstück. Andante. Némorin (2). Andante. Le rocher des deux amants. Das stille Fleh'n. La fuite inutile. Au Bord d’une Fontaine. Nähe des Geliebten (1). Sehr Sanft. Klavierstück. Allegro. Frühlingserinnerung. Andante Con Moto. Klavierstück. Klavierstück. Allegro Agitato. Klavierstück. Klavierstück. Sonate. 1822 Sonatensatz. Allegro assai moderato. Fischers Klage. Andante. Die Nonne. Andante con moto. Lauf der Welt. Allegretto. Lebewohl. Langsam und klagend. Der Blumenstrauß. Allegro. Sehnsucht nach Italien. Du hast, mein Gott. Agitato. Mon coeur soupire. Übungsstück. Allegro moderato. Im Herbste (1). Andante. Quartett. For piano, violin, viola and cello. Die Linde. Larghetto. Die Sommerrosen blühen. Allegretto. Schlaflied. Andante grazioso. 1823 Der Neugierige. Allegretto. Des Müllers Blumen. Allegretto. Das Ständchen. Die Liebe Farbe. Andante. Gebet in der Christnacht. Larghetto. Das Ruhetal. Wiegenlied (1). Die furchtsame Träne. Übungsstück. Allegro molto. Erinnerung. Andante con moto. Übungsstück. Allegro agitato. Der Abendstern. Sanft und langsam. Übungsstück. Allegro moderato. Adagio. Lied der Fee. Mäßig. Übungsstück. Larghetto. Die sanften Tage. Langsam. Der Sänger. Die Schwalbe. Allegretto. Schäfers Sonntagslied. Langsam. Übungsstück. Allegro assai moderato. Einsamkeit. Walzer für den Herzog von Rovigo. Abendreih'n. Allegretto. Seefahrers Abschied. Moderato. Übungsstück. Presto. Der Fischer. Übungsstück. Allegro ma non troppo. Die Kapelle. Übungsstück. Am Morgen nach einem Sturm. Im Molo di Gaeta. Adagio. Frühe Sorge. Wanderlied (1). Allegretto. Übungsstück. Allegro ma non troppo. Die Spinnerin. Wonne der Einsamkeit. Andante. Erster Verlust (2). Andante. Übungsstück. (Op. 9.2) Ferne. Andante. Die Liebende. Rasch und lebhaft. Klavierstück. Lento ma non troppo. Pilgerspruch. Vereinigung. Klavierstück. Andantino. Übungsstück. Allegro molto agitato. Canzonetta. An die Entfernte. Lento. Ohne sie. Agitato ma non presto. Mein Herz, das ist begraben. Largo. Übungsstück. Allegro di molto. Die glückliche Fischerin. 1824 Wo kommst du her?. Andante. Auf der Wanderung. Ruhig und heiter. Klage. Larghetto. Sonata O Capriccio. Tokkate. Allegro moderato. Abschied (1). Lento. Klavierstück. Sehnsucht (1). Frage. Herbstlied. Frühlingsnähe. Allegretto. An einen Liebenden im Frühling. Allegretto. Mailied. Allegretto. Übungsstück. Allegretto. Jägers Abendlied. Langsam und sehr ruhig. Glück. Leben. Andante. Gigue. Allegro. Sonate. Das Heimweh. Vivace et agitato. Klavierstück. Allegro di molto. Eilig zieh'n in weiter Ferne. Allegretto. Klavierstück. Nacht (1). Poco allegro. Leiden. Allegro. Verlor'nes Glück. Übungsstück. Allegro assai. Sonnenuntergang. Am stillen Hain. Klavierstück. Allegro. 32 Fugen (lost). 1825 Sehnsucht (2). Andantino. Verloren. Der einsam Wandelnde. Klavierstück. Klavierstück. Klavierstück. Andante con moto. Wandrers Nachtlied (1). An Suleika. Suleika und Hatem. Allegretto. Suleika (1). Deinem Blick mich zu bequemen. Sonett Aus Dem 13. Jahrhundert. Das holde Tal (1). Mond. Ecco quel fiero Istante. Ist es möglich, Stern der Sterne. Allegro Vivace. Italien. Allegretto. Dir zu eröffnen, mein Herz. Rezitativ und Arie. Schäfergesang. Lass dich nur nichts nicht dauern. Harfners Lied. Largo. Rezitativisch vorzutragen. Erinnerungen an die Heimat. 1826 Die Schläferin. Commodo. Capriccio. Humoristisch und etwas ironisch. Etüde. Allegro moderatissimo. Klavierstück. Allegro ma non troppo. (Op. 9.3) Der Rosenkranz. Feldlied. Der Eichwald brauset. Allegro agitato. Am Grabe. Sie liebt mich. Abendlandschaft. Erwachen. Heiter. Waldlied. Allegro vivace. Mignon. Klavierstück. Andante. Geheimnis. Larghetto. Schloss Liebeneck. Andante. Der Sprosser. Klavierstück. Andante con espressione. An einem Herbstabende. Klavierstück. Allegro di molto. Westöstlicher Redaktionswalzer. Der Frühlingsabend. Ich hab' ihn gesehen. Allegro con moto. Klavierstück (lost). Marias Klage. Moderato. Nähe des Geliebten (2). Adagio. Sehnsucht (3). Moderato. Neujahrslied. 1827 Sehnsucht (4). Largo. Fugata. Largo non troppo lento. Maigesang. Allegretto grazioso. Seufzer. Andante con espressione. (Op. 9.1) Die Ersehnte. Andante con moto. Kein Blick der Hoffnung. Allegro agitato. An den Mond. Die Schiffende. Allegretto grazioso. Klavierstück. Andante. An die Ruhe. Moderato. Klavierstück. Sehnsucht (5). Andante. Am Flusse. Andantino. Sehnsucht (6). Sehr sanft. Umsonst. Was will die einsame Träne. Andante. (Op. 9.5) Der Maiabend. Allegretto. Die Sommernacht. Largo Maestoso. Suleika (2). Adagio. Achmed an Irza. Andante. Sempre piano e soave. Am leuchtenden Sommermorgen. Verlust. Allegro con fuoco. Klavierbuch. 1828 Wenn ich mir in stiller Seele. Keyboard piece in E minor. Sehnsucht (7). Sanft und still. Abendluft. Sehnsucht (8). Andante. Allnächtlich im Traume. Andante con moto. Heut' in dieser Nacht. (Op. 9.4) Die frühen Gräber. Lento e largo. Fuge (lost). Über die Berge steigt schon die Sonne. Nacht (2). Larghetto. Aglæ. Wonne der Wehmut. Bewegt, nicht zu langsam. Ostersonate (Easter Sonata), piano sonata in A major. 1829 Gram. Allegretto. Klavierstück. Selmar und Selma. Allegro molto. Präludium (fragment). Durch zartes Mailaub blinkt die Abendröte. Schlafe du, schlafe du süß. Allegretto lusingando. Lied (lost). (see section on compositions from the year 1828 above) Liederkreis: An Felix, consisting of six Lieder: "Lebewohl" "Grüner Frühling süße Mailuft" "Nun ist's nicht öd in meiner Brust" "O sprich wo blieb dein heitrer Sinn" "Im Hochland Bruder da schweifst du umher" "Wiedersehn" Nachtreigen. Allegro Moderato. Sonata O Fantasia. Klavierstück. Presto. Liederzyklus. Schlafe, Schlaf! Andante. Präludium (wedding Processional). Präludium (wedding Recessional). Präludium (fragment). Grave. Zu deines Lagers Füßen. Sonate (fragment). Capriccio. Die Hochzeit kommt. Festspiel. 1830 Wie dunkel die Nacht. Allegro agitato. Lied. Allegro. Präludium. Genesungsfeier. Allegretto grazioso. Fantasie. Adagio. Minnelied des Grafen Peter von Provence. Allegro vivace. Frühlingslied. Allegro molto vivace. 1831 "Der Schnee, der ist geschmolzen" Lobgesang. Kantate. Nach Versen der Bibel und einem Text. Hiob. Kantate. Nach Versen der Bibel. "Nacht" (3). Allegretto. Höret zu, merket auf. Oratorium/Kantate. Nach Versen der Bibel. "O wie beseeligend gehen und kommen die Stunden". Allegro leggiermente. "Hero und Leander". Dramatische Szene. 1832 Das Nordlicht. Allegro di molto. So soll ich dich verlassen. Allegretto. Ouvertüre. Andante; Cantabile. Wiegenlied (2). Allegretto. Klavierstück. Con moto. Dem Unendlichen. Allegro moderato. Duett für Tenor und Sopran. Mit den Fingern zu singen. Andante. 1833 Gegenwart. Allegro moderato. In die Ferne. Allegretto affettuoso. Zum Fest. Nach Versen aus der Messe der Heiligen Cäcilia. 1834 Fuge. 3 Lieder nach Heine von Mary Alexander (Three poems by Heinrich Heine in the translations of Mary Alexander): "Once o'er my dark and troubled life" "I wander through the wood and weep" "What means the lonely tear" Der Pilgrim vor St. Just. Tempo giusto. Wo sich Gatten jene Schatten. Rasch und anmutig. String Quartet. Ich ging lustig durch den grünen Wald. 1835 Io d’amor, oh dio, mi moro. Konzertarie. Andante molto sostenuto. In der stillen Mitternacht. Allegro ma non troppo. An Cidli (fragments). Abschied (2). Wandl' ich in dem Wald des Abends. Andante. Ich stand gelehnet an den Mast. Über allen Gipfeln ist Ruh'. Wenn der Frühling kommt. Allegro di molto. Der Strauß. Wie Feld und Au. Allegro. 1836 Frühzeitiger Frühling. Allegro. Ein Hochzeitbitter. Allegretto. Winterseufzer. Wie dich die warme Luft umscherzt. Allegro con moto. Gleich Merlin. Tutto legato e malinconico. Klavierstück. Allegretto grazioso. März. Allegretto. April. Andante. Mai. Allegretto leggiero. Neue Liebe, neues Leben. Allegro di molto. Klavierstück. Prestissimo. Klavierstück. Allegro agitato. (Op. 2.1) Lied. Andante. Klavierstück. Allegro agitato. Klavierstück. Allegro con spirito. Klavierstück. Allegro con brio. Das Meeresleuchten. Suleika (3). Andante soave e dolce. There Be None of Beauty’s Daughters. Allegro di molto. Capriccio. Allegro ma non troppo. Die Mitternacht war kalt. Allegro agitato. 1837 Bagatelle. Allegretto. Bagatelle. Con moto. (Op. 1.3) Warum sind denn die Rosen so blass. Andante. Klavierstück. Allegro moderato. Klavierstück. Andante con espressione. Altes Lied. Con Moto. Farewell. Adagio. (Op. 1.2) Wanderlied (2). Allegro molto vivace. Bright Be the Place of Thy Soul. Adagio largamente. Komm mit. Allegretto grazioso. Sprich, o sprich, wird Liebe mahnen. Klavierstück. Allegro con brio. Klavierstück. Largo con espressione. Im wunderschönen Monat Mai. Allegro molto. So hast du ganz und gar vergessen. Ach, die Augen sind es wieder. Allegro moderato. 1838 Hör' ich das Liedchen klingen. Aus meinen Tränen sprießen. Allegretto. Fichtenbaum und Palme. Lento. Wenn ich in deine Augen sehe. Andante con moto. Klavierstück. Andante con moto. (Op. 9.6) Die Mainacht. Andante. Klavierstück. Allegro molto vivace ma con sentimento. Etüde. Allegro con brio. Ich wandelte unter den Bäumen. Andante con moto. Das Meer erglänzte weit hinaus. Andante con moto. Blumenlied. Allegro. Notturno. Andantino. Klavierstück. Allegro di molto. 1839 Klavierstück. Allegro grazioso. Sehnsucht (9). Allegro con spirito. Verschiedene Trauer. (Op. 4/5.1) Mélodie. Allegro assai. (Op. 7.4) Du bist die Ruh'. Moderato assai. Strahlende Ostsee. Gondelfahrt. Serenata. 1840 Klavierstück. Allegro moderato. Sage mir, was mein Herz begehrt. Deh Torna A Me. Cavatine. Andante cantabile. Klavierstück. Introduktion; Allegro. Klavierstück. Largo; Allegro con fuoco. Das holde Tal (2). Allegro vivace. Abschied von Rom. Ponte molle. Andante con espressione. Villa Medicis. Allegro maestoso. L’âme triste. Andante. Hausgarten. Andante con moto. (Op. 6.2) Lied. Allegro vivace. (Op. 2.3) Villa Mills. Allegretto grazioso. (Op. 1.1) Schwanenlied. Andante. Der Fürst vom Berge. Allegro con brio. Lass fahren hin. Sostenuto. Dämmernd liegt der Sommerabend. Mein Liebchen, wir saßen beisammen. Allegro. 3 Duette: "Wiederkehrt ein lichter Maie" "Winter was hat dir getan" "Zeigt mir den Weg zu meiner lieben Frauen" (Op. 4/5.3) Mélodie. Allegro molto quasi presto. (Op. 4/5.5) Mélodie. Allegro molto vivace. (Op. 4/5.6) Mélodie. Andante soave. Wandrers Nachtlied (2). 1841 Klavierstück. Allegro Molto. Klavierstück. Allegro Molto Vivace. Unter des Laubdachs hut. Allegro. Einleitung zu lebenden Bildern. (Op. 6.4) Il Saltarello Romano. Tarantella. Allegro molto. (Op. 10.1) Nach Süden. Allegro molto vivace. Von dir, mein Lieb, ich scheiden muss. Der Winterwind entflieht. Klavierstück. Allegro molto. (Op. 1.6) Gondellied. Allegretto. Anklänge. 3 Lieder: "Vöglein in den sonnigen Tagen" "Ach wie ist es doch gekommen daß die ferne Waldespracht" "Könnt' ich zu den Wäldern flüchten" Waldruhe. Andante con moto. Traurige Wege. Andante con moto. Klavierstück (fragment). Auf dem See. Von Como. Allegro molto vivace. Die Sennin. Allegretto. Totenklage. Das Jahr. 12 Charakterstücke - The Year, a collection of 13 compositions, 12 depicting a month of the year, and a postlude: Januar. Februar. März. April. Mai. Juni. Juli. August. (Op. 2.2) September. Oktober. November. Dezember. Nachspiel. Duett. 1842 (Op. 1.4) Maienlied. Allegretto. (Op. 1.5) Morgenständchen. Allegro molto quasi presto. 1843 Szene aus Faust. Der Tragödie zweiter Teil, Akt 1. Anmutige Gegend. Wer dich gesehn. Klavierstück. Allegro agitato. Dämmrung senkte sich von oben. Andante con moto. Klavierstück. Allegretto ma non troppo. (Op. 2.4) Klavierstück. Allegro molto vivace. Piano Sonata in G Minor. Klavierstück. Adagio. (Op. 7.1) Nachtwanderer. Andante con moto. Wenn wir durch die Dörfer ziehen. Marschtempo. Zauberkreis. Mutter, o sing mich zur Ruh'. 1844 Die Stille. Andante con moto. Liebe in der Fremde. Allegretto. Klavierstück. Klavierstück. Klavierstück. Allegro moderato assai. Klavierstück. Allegretto. Im Herbst. Allegro molto. Klavierstück. Allegro molto. Klavierstück. Allegretto grazioso. Klavierstück. Allegro molto. Liederzyklus. Traum. Allegretto. 1846 Klavierstück. Allegro molto. Klavierstück. Allegro molto vivace e leggiero. Das Veilchen. Allegretto. (Op. 10.4) Im Herbste (2). Adagio. Klavierstück. Andante cantabile. (Op. 3.6) Im Wald. Allegro vivace. Es rauscht das rote Laub. Moderato. (Op. 4/5.2) Mélodie. Allegretto. (Op. 3.1) Hörst du nicht die Bäume rauschen. Allegretto. (Op. 3.5) Abendlich schon rauscht der Wald. Andante. (Op. 8.1) Lied. Allegro moderato. (Op. 6.3) O Traum der Jugend, o goldner Stern. Andante cantabile. Pastorella. Klavierstück. Allegretto. Klavierstück (fragment). Waldeinsam. Allegro. Morgenwanderung. Allegro moderato. (Op. 3.3) Im Herbste (3). Allegro ma non troppo. Erwache, Knab', erwache. Allegro. (Op. 3.4) Morgengruß (1). Allegretto grazioso. Morgengruß (2). Allegro molto. (Op. 7.6) Dein ist mein Herz. Feierlich leidenschaftlich. Ariel. Abend. Adagio. (Op. 3.2) Schöne Fremde. Moderato. (Op. 4/5.4) Mélodie. Lento appassionato. Schweigend sinkt die Nacht hernieder. Andante. (Op. 7.5) Bitte. Larghetto. Lust'ge Vögel. Allegretto. Klavierstück. Allegro molto vivace. Klavierstück. Tempo di scherzo. Stimme der Glocken. Allegro moderato. Schilflied. Largo. (Op. 10.3) Abendbild (1). Andante con moto. Wer will mir wehren zu singen. O Herbst, in linden Tagen. Ruhig, wehmütig. Schon kehren die Vögel wieder ein. Allegretto grazioso. (Op. 7.2) Erwin. Allegretto con espressione. Ich kann wohl manchmal singen. Andante. Klavierstück. Andante con moto. Nacht ist wie ein stilles Meer. Allegro. (Op. 6.1) Lied. Andante espressivo. Abendbild (2). Lied. Andante espressivo; più allegro. Beharre. Andante con moto non lento. (Op. 8.4) Wanderlied. Presto. Klavierstück. Allegro vivace. Kommen und Scheiden. Allegretto. (Op. 8.3) Lied. Larghetto. (Op. 10.2) Vorwurf. (Op. 8.2) Lied. Andante con espressione. (Op. 7.3) Frühling. Allegro molto. 1847 (Op. 11) Piano Trio in D minor. (Op. 10.5) Bergeslust. Allegro molto vivace e leggiero. References External links 1805·1847 · Fanny Cäcilie Mendelssohn Hensel at database of works by women composers (hosted by University of Michigan) Mendelssohn, Fanny
4797163	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning%20of%20Smyrna	Burning of Smyrna	The burning of Smyrna (, "Smyrna Catastrophe"; , "1922 Izmir Fire"; , Zmyuṙnio Mets Hrdeh) destroyed much of the port city of Smyrna (modern İzmir, Turkey) in September 1922. Eyewitness reports state that the fire began on 13 September 1922 and lasted until it was largely extinguished on 22 September. It began four days after the Turkish military captured the city on 9 September, effectively ending the Greco-Turkish War, more than three years after the landing of Greek army troops at Smyrna on 15 May 1919. Estimated Greek and Armenian deaths resulting from the fire range from 10,000 to 125,000. Approximately 80,000 to 400,000 Greek and Armenian refugees crammed the waterfront to escape from the fire. They were forced to remain there under harsh conditions for nearly two weeks. Turkish troops and irregulars had started committing massacres and atrocities against the Greek and Armenian population in the city before the outbreak of the fire. Many women were raped. Tens of thousands of Greek and Armenian men were subsequently deported into the interior of Anatolia, where most of them died in harsh conditions. The fire completely destroyed the Greek and Armenian quarters of the city; the Muslim and Jewish quarters escaped damage. There are different accounts and eyewitness reports about who was responsible for the fire; most contemporary sources and modern scholars attribute it to Turkish soldiers setting fire to Greek and Armenian homes and businesses to eradicate the last traces of Christian presence in Anatolia, while a few, Turkish or pro-Turkish, sources hold that the Greeks and/or Armenians started the fire either to tarnish the Turks' reputation or deny them access to their former homes and businesses. Testimonies from Western eyewitnesses were printed in many Western newspapers.<ref>i.e. The Daily Telegraph 19 September 1922: The martyrdom of Smyrna and eastern Christendom; a file of overwhelming evidence, denouncing the misdeeds of the Turks in Asia Minor and showing their responsibility for the horrors of Smyrna Incendiaries at work – Destruction of christian quarters]</ref> The event is considered one of the most catastrophic urban fires in history and it is widely regarded as an act of genocide and a war crime; the event is still a source of tension between Greece and Turkey. Winston Churchill called it an "infernal orgy" and stated that: "For a deliberately planned and methodically executed atrocity, Smyrna must...find few parallels in the history of human crime". Background The ratio of the Christian population to the Muslim population remains a matter of dispute, but the city was both a multicultural and cosmopolitan center until September 1922. Different sources claim either Greeks or Turks as constituting the majority in the city. According to Katherine Elizabeth Flemming, in 1919–1922 the Greeks in Smyrna numbered 150,000, forming just under half of the population, outnumbering the Turks by a ratio of two to one. Alongside Turks and Greeks, there were sizeable Armenian, Jewish, and Levantine communities in the city. According to Trudy Ring, before World War I the Greeks alone numbered 130,000 out of a population of 250,000, excluding Armenians and other Christians. According to the Ottoman census of 1906/7, there were 341,436 Muslims, 193,280 Greek Orthodox Christians, 12,273 Armenian Gregorian Christians, 24,633 Jews, 55,952 Foreigners totalling to 630,124 people in İzmir Sanjak (13 Kazas including the central Kaza); the updated figures for 1914 gave 100,356 Muslims, 73.676 Greek Orthodox Christians, 10,061 Armenian Gregorians, 813 Armenian Catholics, 24,069 Jews for the central kaza of İzmir.Kemal Karpat (1985), Ottoman Population, 1830-1914, Demographic and Social Characteristics , The University of Wisconsin Press, p. 174-175 According to the U.S. Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire at the time, Henry Morgenthau, more than half of Smyrna's population was Greek. The American Consul General in Smyrna at the time, George Horton, wrote that before the fire there were 400,000 people living in the city of Smyrna, of whom 165,000 were Turks, 150,000 were Greeks, 25,000 were Jews, 25,000 were Armenians, and 20,000 were foreigners—10,000 Italians, 3,000 French, 2,000 British, and 300 Americans. Most of the Greeks and Armenians were Christians. Moreover, according to various scholars, prior to the war, the city was a center of more Greeks than lived in Athens, the capital of Greece. The Ottomans of that era referred to the city as Infidel Smyrna (Gavur Izmir) due to the numerous Greeks and the large non-Muslim population. Events Entry of the Turkish Army Greek troops evacuated Smyrna on the evening of Friday 8 September. The first elements of Mustafa Kemal's forces, a Turkish cavalry squadron, made its way into the city from the northern tip of the quay the following morning, establishing their headquarters at the main government building called Konak.Dobkin, Marjorie Housepian. Smyrna 1922: The Destruction of a City. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971; 2nd ed. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1988, pp. 117–121. The Greek Army was in disarray and could not evacuate the city in an orderly manner, and fighting continued to the next day. According to the General of the 5th Cavalry Sidearmy Fahrettin Altay, on the 10th of September, Turkish forces belonging to the 2nd and the 3rd Cavalry regiments captured around 3,000 Greek soldiers, 50 Greek Officers, including a Brigadier Commander in the south of the city center who were retreating from Aydın. Lieutenant Ali Rıza Akıncı, the first Turkish officer to hoist the Turkish flag in the Liberation of Izmir on the 9th of September, mentions in his memoirs that his unit of 13 cavalrymen was ambushed by a volley of fire from 30-40 rifles from the Tuzakoğlu factory after being saluted and congratulated by a French Marine platoon in the Halkapınar bridge. This volley fire killed 3 cavalrymen instantly and fatally wounded another. They were relieved by Captain Şerafettin and his 2 units which encircled the factory. Moreover, Captain Şerafettin, alongside Lieutenant Ali Rıza Akıncı were wounded by a grenade thrown by a Greek soldier in front of the Pasaport building. The Lieutenant was wounded lightly from his nose and his leg, and his horse from its belly. The grenade thrower was also mentioned by George Horton as "some fool threw a bomb", and that the commander of this unit "received bloody cuts about the head". A monument was later erected on the spot these cavalrymen had fallen. Military command was first assumed by Mürsel Pasha, and then Nureddin Pasha, General of the Turkish First Army. At the outset, the Turkish occupation of the city was orderly. Though the Armenian and Greek inhabitants viewed their entry with trepidation, they reasoned that the presence of the Allied fleet would discourage any violence against the Christian community. On the morning of 9 September, no fewer than twenty-one Allied warships lay at anchor in Smyrna's harbor, including the British flagship, the battleships HMS Iron Duke and King George V, along with their escort of cruisers and destroyers under the command of Admiral Osmond Brock; the American destroyers USS Litchfield, Simpson, and Lawrence (later joined by the Edsall); three French cruisers and two destroyers under the command of Admiral Dumesnil; and an Italian cruiser and destroyer.Milton. Paradise Lost, pp. 4–5. As a precaution, sailors and marines from the Allied fleet were landed ashore to guard their respective diplomatic compounds and institutions with strict orders of maintaining neutrality in the event that violence would break out between the Turks and the Christians. On 9 September, order and discipline began to break down among the Turkish troops, who began systematically targeting the Armenian population, pillaging their shops, looting their homes, separating the men from the women and carrying away and sexually assaulting the latter.Dobkin. Smyrna 1922, pp. 120–167. The Greek Orthodox Metropolitan bishop, Chrysostomos, was tortured and hacked to death by a Turkish mob in full view of French soldiers, who were prevented from intervening by their commanding officer, and much to Admiral Dumesnil's approval.Dobkin. Smyrna 1922, pp. 133–134. Refuge was sought wherever possible, including Paradise, where the American quarter was located, and the European quarters. Some were able to take shelter at the American Collegiate Institute and other institutions, despite strenuous efforts to turn away those seeking help by the Americans and Europeans, who were anxious not to antagonize or harm their relations with the leaders of the Turkish National movement. An officer of the Dutch steamer Siantar which was at the city's port during that period reported an incident that he has heard, according to him after the Turkish troops had entered the city a large hotel which had Greek guests was set on fire, the Turks had placed a machine gun at the opposite of the hotel's entrance and opened fire when people were trying to exit the burning building. In addition, he said that the crew were not allowed to go offshore after dusk because thugs were roaming the city's streets and it was dangerous. Victims of the massacres committed by the Turkish army and irregulars were also foreign citizens. On 9 September, Dutch merchant Oscar de Jongh and his wife were murdered by Turkish cavalrymen, while in another incident a retired British doctor was beaten to death in his home, while trying to prevent the rape of a servant girl.Papoutsy, Christos, Ships of Mercy: The True Story of the Rescue of the Greeks, Smyrna, September 1922 . Portsmouth, N.H.: Peter E. Randall, 2008, p. 36. "Doctor Murphy, a retired British army surgeon, was attacked in his home at Bournabat... but Murphy was beaten to death while trying to prevent the rape of a servant girl." Burning thumb\|upright=1.1\|The start of the fire, seen from Bella Vista. 13 September 1922The first fire broke out in the late afternoon of 13 September, four days after Turkish nationalist forces had entered the city. The blaze began in the Armenian quarter of the city (now the Basmane borough), and spread quickly due to the windy weather and the fact that no effort was made to put it out. Author Giles Milton writes: Others, such as Claflin Davis of the American Red Cross and Monsieur Joubert, director of the Credit Foncier Bank of Smyrna, also witnessed the Turks putting buildings to the torch. When the latter asked the soldiers what they were doing, "They replied impassively that they were under orders to blow up and burn all the houses of the area." The city's fire brigade did its best to combat the fires but by Wednesday 13 September so many were being set that it was unable to keep up. Two firemen from the brigade, a Sgt. Tchorbadjis and Emmanuel Katsaros, would later testify in court witnessing Turkish soldiers setting fire to the buildings. When Katsaros complained, one of them commented, "You have your orders...and we have ours. This is Armenian property. Our orders are to set fire to it." The spreading fire caused a stampede of people to flee toward the quay, which stretched from the western end of the city to its northern tip, known as the Point. Captain Arthur Japy Hepburn, chief of Staff of the American naval squadron, described the panic on the quay: The heat from the fire was so intense that Hepburn was worried that the refugees would die as a result of it. The refugees' situation on the pier on the morning of 14 September was described by the British Lieutenant A. S. Merrill, who believed that the Turks had set the fire to keep the Greeks in a state of terror so as to facilitate their departure: Turkish troops cordoned off the Quay to box the Armenians and Greeks within the fire zone and prevent them from fleeing. Eyewitness reports describe panic-stricken refugees diving into the water to escape the flames and that their terrified screaming could be heard miles away. By 15 September the fire had somewhat died down, but sporadic violence by the Turks against the Greek and Armenian refugees kept the pressure on the Western and Greek navies to remove the refugees as quickly as possible. The fire was completely extinguished by 22 September, and on 24 September the first Greek ships – part of a flotilla organized and commandeered by the American humanitarian Asa Jennings – entered the harbor to take passengers away, following Captain Hepburn's initiative and his having obtained permission and cooperation from the Turkish authorities and the British admiral in command of the destroyers in the harbor. Aftermath The entire city suffered substantial damage to its infrastructure. The core of the city literally had to be rebuilt from the ashes. Today, 40 hectares of the former fire area is a vast park named Kültürpark serving as Turkey's largest open air exhibition center, including the İzmir International Fair, among others. According to the first census in Turkey after the war, the total population of the city in 1927 was 184,254, of whom 162,144 (88%) were Muslims, the remainder numbering 22,110. The evacuation was difficult despite the efforts of British and American sailors to maintain order, as tens of thousands of refugees pushed and shoved towards the shore. Attempts to organize relief were made by the American officials from the YMCA and YWCA, who were reportedly robbed and later shot at by Turkish soldiers. On the quay, Turkish soldiers and irregulars periodically robbed Greek refugees, beating some and arresting others who resisted. Though there were several reports of well-behaved Turkish troops helping old women and trying to maintain order among the refugees, these are heavily outnumbered by those describing gratuitous cruelty, incessant robbery and violence. American and British attempts to protect the Greeks from the Turks did little good, with the fire having taken a terrible toll. Some frustrated and terrified Greeks took their own lives, plunging into the water with packs at their back, children were stampeded, and many of the elderly fainted and died. The city's Armenians also suffered grievously, and according to Captain Hepburn, "every able-bodied Armenian man was hunted down and killed wherever found, with even boys aged 12 to 15 taking part in the hunt." The fire completely destroyed the Greek, Armenian, and Levantine quarters of the city, with only the Turkish and Jewish quarters surviving. The thriving port of Smyrna, one of the most commercially active in the region, was burned to the ground. Some 150,000–200,000 Greek refugees were evacuated, while approximately 30,000 able-bodied Greek and Armenian men were deported to the interior, many of them dying under the harsh conditions or executed along the way. The 3,000-year Greek presence on Anatolia's Aegean shore was brought to an abrupt end, along with the Megali Idea. The Greek writer Dimitris Pentzopoulos wrote, "It is no exaggeration to call the year '1922' the most calamitous in modern Hellenic history." Casualties and refugees The number of casualties from the fire is not precisely known, with estimates of up to 125,000 Greeks and Armenians killed. American historian Norman Naimark gives a figure of 10,000–15,000 dead, while historian Richard Clogg gives a figure of 30,000. Larger estimates include that of John Freely at 50,000 and Rudolf Rummel at 100,000. Help to the city's population by ships of the Hellenic Navy was limited, as the 11 September 1922 Revolution had broken out, and the most of the Greek army was concentrated at the islands of Chios and Lesbos, planning to overthrow the royalist government of Athens. Although there were numerous ships from various Allied powers in the harbor of Smyrna, the vast majority of them cited neutrality and did not pick up Greeks and Armenians who were forced to flee from the fire and the Turkish troops retaking the city after the Greek army's defeat. Military bands played loud music to drown out the screams of those who were drowning in the harbor and who were forcefully prevented from boarding Allied ships. A Japanese freighter dumped all of its cargo and took on as many refugees as possible, taking them to the Greek port of Piraeus.Stavridis, Stavros. "The Japanese Hero ," The National Herald. 19 February 2010. Many refugees were rescued via an impromptu relief flotilla organized by American missionary Asa Jennings. Other scholars give a different account of the events; they argue that the Turks first forbade foreign ships in the harbor to pick up the survivors, but, under pressure especially from Britain, France, and the United States, they allowed the rescue of all the Christians except males 17 to 45 years old. They intended to deport the latter into the interior, which "was regarded as a short life sentence to slavery under brutal masters, ended by mysterious death". The number of refugees changes according to the source. Some contemporary newspapers claim that there were 400,000 Greek and Armenian refugees from Smyrna and the surrounding area who received Red Cross aid immediately after the destruction of the city. Stewart Matthew states that there were 250,000 refugees who were all non-Turks. Naimark gives a figure of 150,000–200,000 Greek refugees evacuated. Edward Hale Bierstadt and Helen Davidson Creighton say that there were at least 50,000 Greek and Armenian refugees. Some contemporary accounts also suggest the same number. The number of Greek and Armenian men deported to the interior of Anatolia and the number of consequent deaths varies across sources. Naimark writes that 30,000 Greek and Armenian men were deported there, where most of them died under brutal conditions. Dimitrije Đorđević puts the number of deportees at 25,000 and the number of deaths at labour battalions at 10,000. David Abulafia states that at least 100,000 Greeks were forcibly sent to the interior of Anatolia, where most of them died. Aristotle Onassis, who was born in Smyrna and who later became one of the richest men in the world, was one of the Greek survivors. The various biographies of his life document aspects of his experiences during the Smyrna catastrophe. His life experiences were featured in the TV movie called Onassis, The Richest Man in the World. During the Smyrna catastrophe, the Onassis family lost substantial property holdings, which were either taken or given to Turks as bribes to secure their safety and freedom. They became refugees, fleeing to Greece after the fire. However, Aristotle Onassis stayed behind to save his father, who had been placed in a Turkish concentration camp. He was successful in saving his father's life. During this period three of his uncles died. He also lost an aunt, her husband Chrysostomos Konialidis, and their daughter, who were burned to death when Turkish soldiers set fire to a church in Thyatira, where 500 Christians had found shelter to avoid Turkish soldiers and the burning of Smyrna. Responsibility The question of who was responsible for starting the burning of Smyrna continues to be debated, with Turkish sources mostly attributing responsibility to Greeks or Armenians, and vice versa.Martoyan, Tehmine. "The Destruction of Smyrna in 1922: An Armenian and Greek Shared Tragedy," in Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks, 1913-1923, ed. George N. Shirinian. New York: Berghahn Books, 2017, pp. 227–252. Other sources, on the other hand, suggest that at the very least, Turkish inactivity played a significant part on the event. A number of studies have been published on the Smyrna fire. Professor of literature Marjorie Housepian Dobkin's 1971 study Smyrna 1922 concluded that the Turkish army systematically burned the city and killed Christian Greek and Armenian inhabitants. Her work is based on extensive eyewitness testimony from survivors, Allied troops sent to Smyrna during the evacuation, foreign diplomats, relief workers, and Turkish eyewitnesses. A study by historian Niall Ferguson comes to the same conclusion. Historian Richard Clogg categorically states that the fire was started by the Turks following their capture of the city. In his book Paradise Lost: Smyrna 1922, Giles Milton addresses the issue of the Smyrna Fire through original material (interviews, unpublished letters, and diaries) from the Levantine families of Smyrna, who were mainly of British origin. The conclusion of the author is that it was Turkish soldiers and officers who set the fire, most probably acting under direct orders. British scholar Michael Llewellyn-Smith, writing on the Greek administration in Asia Minor, also concluded that the fire was "probably lit" by the Turks as indicated by what he called "what evidence there is." Stanford historian Norman Naimark has evaluated the evidence regarding the responsibility of the fire. He agrees with the view of American Lieutenant Merrill that it was in Turkish interests to terrorize Greeks into leaving Smyrna with the fire, and points out to the "odd" fact that the Turkish quarter was spared from the fire as a factor suggesting Turkish responsibility. He also points out that arguments can be made that burning the city was against Turkish interests and was unnecessary and that responsibility may lie with Greeks and/or Armenians as they "had own their good reasons", pointing out to the "Greek history of retreating" and "Armenian attack in the first day of the occupation". However, the Greek army departed from Smyrna on 9 September 1922, when Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his army entered the city, while the fire began four days later, on 13 September 1922. Nevertheless, Naimark concludes that "the fire almost assuredly was purposely set by the Turkish troops". Horton and Housepian are criticized by Heath Lowry and Justin McCarthy, who argue that Horton was highly prejudiced and Housepian makes an extremely selective use of sources. Lowry and McCarthy were both members of the now defunct Institute of Turkish Studies and have in turn been strongly criticized by other scholars for their denial of the Armenian GenocideCharny, Israel W. Encyclopedia of Genocide, Vol. 2. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1999, p. 163.Hovannisian, Richard G. "Denial of the Armenian Genocide in Comparison with Holocaust Denial" in Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide. Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.) Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999, p. 210. and McCarthy has been described by Michael Mann as being on "the Turkish side of the debate." Turkish author and journalist Falih Rıfkı Atay, who was in Smyrna at the time, and the Turkish professor Biray Kolluoğlu Kırlı agreed that Turkish nationalist forces were responsible for the destruction of Smyrna in 1922. More recently, a number of non-contemporary scholars, historians, and politicians have added to the history of the events by revisiting contemporary communications and histories. Leyla Neyzi, in her work on the oral history regarding the fire, makes a distinction between Turkish nationalist discourse and local narratives. In the local narratives, she points out to the Turkish forces being held responsible for at least not attempting to extinguish the fire effectively, or, at times, being held responsible for the fire itself. Legacy and remembrance Robert Byron's travelogue Europe in the Looking Glass (1926) contains an eyewitness report, placing the blame for the fire upon the Turks. "On the Quai at Smyrna" (1930), a short story published as part of In Our Time, by Ernest Hemingway, alludes to the fire of Smyrna: Eric Ambler's novel The Mask of Dimitrios (1939) details the events at Smyrna at the opening of chapter 3. The closing section of Edward Whittemore's Sinai Tapestry (1977) takes place during the burning of Smyrna. The Greek film 1922 (1978) portrays the suffering of ethnic Greeks held as prisoners following the Turkish army entering the city. Part of the novel The Titan (1985) by Fred Mustard Stewart takes place during the burning of Smyrna. Susanna de Vries Blue Ribbons Bitter Bread (2000) is an account of Smyrna and the Greek refugees who landed at Thessaloniki. The novel Middlesex (2002) by American Jeffrey Eugenides opens with the burning of Smyrna. Mehmet Coral's İzmir: 13 Eylül 1922 ("Izmir: 13 September 1922") (2003?) addressed this topic; it was also published in the Greek language by Kedros of Athens/Greece under the title: Πολλές ζωές στη Σμύρνη (Many lives in Izmir). Greek-American singer-songwriter Diamanda Galas's album Defixiones: Will and Testament (2003) is directly inspired by the Turkish atrocities committed against the Greek population at Smyrna. Galas is descended from a family who originated from Smyrna. Part of the novel Birds Without Wings (2004) by Louis De Bernieres takes place during the burning of Smyrna and its aftermath. Panos Karnezis's 2004 novel The Maze deals with historical events involving and related to the fire at Smyrna. "Smyrna: The Destruction of a Cosmopolitan City – 1900–1922", a 2012 documentary film by Maria Ilioú. Deli Sarkis Sarkisian's personal account of the fire of Smyrna is related in Ellen Sarkisian Chesnut's The Scars He Carried, A Daughter Confronts The Armenian Genocide and Tells Her Father's Story (2014). Smyrna in Flames (2021) by Homero Aridjis, is a historical novel inspired by the written recollections and memories of the author's father, Nicias Aridjis; a captain in the Greek army during the Smyrna Catastrophe. The Greek film Smyrna, my Beloved (2021) follows the lives of a wealthy Greek family in Smyrna and their suffering and exodus after the Smyrna catastrophe. Fuar: a Counter-Memory, a 2022 short animation by Ezgi Özbakkaloğlu, juxtaposes drawn black and white images of the ruins of Smyrna with colorful animated impressions of the urban park that was later built on the site. Smyrna: Paradise is Burning, The Asa K. Jennings Story, a 2022 documentary produced by Mike Damergis; won the Best Historical Film award in the Cannes World Film Festival (May 2022). The Illinois Holocaust Museum and the Asia Minor and Pontos Hellenic Research Center hosted a 100th anniversary educational event on September 18, 2022 remembering the Fire of Smyrna and the Greek genocide. See also Outline and timeline of the Greek genocide Great Thessaloniki Fire of 1917 Fire of Manisa Scorched Earth Notes Further reading Personal Accounts Der-Sarkissian, Jack. "Two Armenian Physicians in Smyrna: Case Studies in Survival ," in Armenian Smyrna/Izmir: The Aegean Communities, ed. Richard G. Hovannisian. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 2012. Calonne, David Stephen. "Ernest Hemingway, Henry Miller, and Smyrna 1922," in Armenian Smyrna/Izmir: The Aegean Communities. Ilias Chrissochoidis, "The Burning of Smyrna: H. C. Jaquith's Report to Admiral Bristol," American Journal of Contemporary Hellenic Issues 14 (Summer 2023). History of Smyrna and the Fire Dobkin, Marjorie Housepian. Smyrna 1922: The Destruction of a City. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1971; 2nd ed. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1988. Georgelin, Hervé. La Fin de Smyrne: Du cosmopolitisme aux nationalismes. Paris: CNRS Editions, 2005. Karagianis, Lydia, Smoldering Smyrna, Carlton Press, 1996; . Llewellyn Smith, Michael. Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor, 1919–1922. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1973. Mansel, Philip. Levant: Splendour and Catastrophe on the Mediterranean, London, John Murray, 2010; New Haven, Yale University Press, 2011. Milton, Giles. Paradise Lost: Smyrna, 1922. New York: Basic Books, 2008. Humanitarianism Papoutsy, Christos. Ships of Mercy: The True Story of the Rescue of the Greeks, Smyrna, September 1922. Portsmouth, N.H.: Peter E. Randall, 2008. Tusan, Michelle. Smyrna's Ashes: Humanitarianism, Genocide, and the Birth of the Middle East. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012. Ureneck, Lou. The Great Fire: One American's Mission to Rescue Victims of the 20th Century's First Genocide. New York: Ecco Press, 2015. Memory and Remembering Kolluoğlu-Kırlı, Biray. "The Play of Memory, Counter-Memory: Building Izmir on Smyrna’s Ashes," New Perspectives on Turkey 26 (2002): 1–28. Morack, Ellinor. "Fear and Loathing in 'Gavur' Izmir: Emotions in Early Republican Memories of the Greek Occupation (1919–22)," International Journal of Middle East Studies 49 (2017): 71–89. Neyzi, Leyla. "Remembering Smyrna/Izmir: Shared History, Shared Trauma," History and Memory'' 20 (2008):106–27. External links Film: The Great Fire of Smyrna: Greek & Armenian pogroms, Turkey, 13-17 Sep 1922 Association of Smyrneans Remembering Smyrna/Izmir: Shared History, Shared Trauma, Levantine Heritage Smyrna 1922, a rare film, on Vimeo – shows before and after the fire Occupation of Smyrna Fires in Turkey Greek genocide Aftermath of the Armenian genocide 1920s fires in Europe 1922 fires 1922 in the Ottoman Empire 20th-century controversies Mass murder in 1922 September 1922 events Massacres in Turkey Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922) Urban fires in Asia 1920s murders in Turkey 1922 crimes in the Ottoman Empire Events in İzmir 1922 disasters in Asia 20th-century disasters in the Ottoman Empire
4797328	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC%20News%20%28Australia%29	ABC News (Australia)	ABC News, also known as ABC News and Current Affairs and overseas as ABC Australia, is a public news service produced by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Broadcasting within Australia and the rest of the world, the service covers both local and world affairs. The division of the organisation, which is called ABC News, Analysis and Investigations. is responsible for all news-gathering and coverage across the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's various television, radio, and online platforms. Some of the services included under the auspices of the division are its 24-hour news channel, called ABC News (formerly ABC News 24). The long-running radio news programs, AM, The World Today, and PM; ABC NewsRadio, a 24-hour continuous news radio channel; and radio news bulletins and programs on ABC Local Radio, ABC Radio National, ABC Classic FM, and Triple J. ABC News Online has an extensive online presence which includes many written news reports and videos available via ABC Online, an ABC News mobile app (ABC Listen), podcasts, and in addition, all of the ABC news television programs available via the video-on-demand platform, ABC iview. the ABC News website includes ABC Sport, ABC Health, ABC Science, ABC Arts & Culture, ABC Fact Check, ABC Environment, and news in other languages. Justin Stevens was appointed director of the division on 31 March 2022. History ABC News, from its inception in 1932, with ABC radio sourced its news from multiple sources, including cable news from London, its own bureaus in Europe, the Middle East, Greece and the Asia-Pacific, and in a fashion similar to commercial radio stations from local newspapers around Australia. Censorship was rife during the war, particularly after the U.S. entered the conflict on 7 December 1941. After General Douglas MacArthur set up his headquarters in Australia, he wielded enormous power, including on matters of censorship. Inter alia, he declared that every Australian radio station would only broadcast three news bulletins per day and that these would be simultaneous on all stations (ABC and commercial) at 7.45 a.m., midday, and 7.00 p.m. Weather forecasts were banned because it was felt that these may assist the enemy. The 7:45 a.m. bulletin was the only one that did not commence on the hour or the half-hour. Incredibly, this 7.45 bulletin continued to be heard on ABC Local Radio stations until as late as 19 September 2020. Therefore, it would not be unreasonable to suggest that the effects of war-time censorship were still felt in Australia until 2020. Notices were issued banning radio stations from broadcasting some major wartime events, but as the federal government did not have the same power over the printed press as it did over the radio, newspapers usually reported events that radio was not permitted to mention. The ABC launched its first independent news bulletin on 1 June 1947 after years of negotiations with the Australian Government. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act 1983 mandates that the ABC "shall develop and maintain an independent service for the broadcasting of news and information" both within Australia on a daily basis, and also to countries outside Australia. The name of the division and director responsible has changed over the years. In 2004 it was the News and Current Affairs Division when John Cameron took over as Director from Max Uechtritz as Director. The financial year 2008–2009 saw a lot of changes, both in the way that television content was produced as well as an "expansion of international news programming and continuous news across platforms, new programs and a range of appointments to senior positions". Kate Torney became director of the News Division in April 2009. In November 2014, a cut of to funding over the following five years meant that the ABC would have to shed about 10% of its total staff, around 400 people. There were several programming changes, with regional and local programming losing out to national programs, and the Adelaide TV production studio had to close apart from the news and current affairs section. In late 2015 Gaven Morris was appointed Director of the News Division. 24 Hour News Channels The ABC announced in November 2016 that their 24-hour news service ABC News 24 and ABC NewsRadio would be rebranded under the ABC News division with an updated logo, commencing on 10 April 2017. The ABC announced on that day that ABC News 24 and ABC NewsRadio were both called ABC NEWS, with a new logo and visual branding. They would be distinguished by context or by descriptors, such as "the ABC News channel" for TV and "ABC News on radio" for radio. Social media accounts would be merged. The Director's role changed its name to Director, News, Analysis & Investigations in 2017–2018, and Morris is still in the role. During the 2017 to 2018 financial year, the ABC launched "Regional Connecting Communities" program, which provided funding for increased jobs in the regions, as well as more resources for local news, weather and live reporting. Justin Stevens was appointed director of the division of ABC News, Analysis and Investigations on 31 March 2022. Functions The division is responsible for all news-gathering and production of news output for ABC television, the ABC network of radio stations, and for its online services. In 2018 it was estimated that online ABC news and current affairs reached about 4.8 million users in Australia each month. , the ABC News website includes ABC Sport, ABC Health, ABC Science, ABC Arts & Culture, ABC Fact Check, ABC Environment and news in other languages. Theme music The news theme used from the first days of ABC television from November 1956 to 1985 was "Majestic Fanfare", composed by Charles Williams. From 1956 until the early 1980s the version used was the abridged version performed by the Queen's Hall Light Orchestra, from a recording made in 1943. Each bulletin opened with a clip from the top story of the day, with the title "ABC News" superimposed over the footage. Later, this on-screen approach was replaced by a generic graphic title sequence. In 1982, to celebrate the ABC's 50th anniversary, a new version of the theme was commissioned, which incorporated both orchestral and new electronic elements. With the exception of a period in the mid-1980s, during which a synthesised theme ("Best Endeavours", written by Alan Hawkshaw, which was the theme for Channel 4 News in the UK) was used for around a year, this was used on radio until August 1988, and on television until early 1985. A reworking of "Majestic Fanfare" (essentially the original orchestration up one tone) was arranged by Richard Mills and recorded in 1988 by the Sydney Symphony Orchestra. From 1985, a theme composed by Tony Ansell and Peter Wall was used for 20 years, even after the 1998 brand refresh. In 2010, it was sampled and remixed by the group Pendulum and this revised work went on to be placed #11 on the Triple J Hottest 100 chart on Australia Day 2011. The theme for ABC News changed on Australia Day (26 January) 2005, to a piece written by Martin Armiger and John Gray, and for a couple of years it bore a resemblance to the original Peter Wall / Tony Ansell work in the opening signature notes. Wall challenged the ABC and was successful in reaching an agreement. The opening notes were removed and the work was re-arranged in 2010. The theme music from the 2005–2010 era was remixed by Armiger, giving it a more upbeat, synthesised feel. Television History In 1985, the ABC refreshed its structure and look, when the 7 o'clock news and the following current affairs program (at that time, Nationwide) were combined to form The National, and moved to 6:30pm. After The National was deemed unsuccessful, that same year the news was refreshed again with a new set, graphics, and theme. In 1998, the set was updated, a new opener featuring a light blue globe and the ABC logo was introduced, and the theme remained the same but was tweaked. The graphics also changed to match the new look. In 2005, a new look (along with theme music) was introduced. The new look made use of an orange and blue globe motif. At the same time the set and graphics received a major overhaul to fit in with this look. This package was used until 21 July 2010, a day before the launch of ABC News. In January 2010, the ABC announced that a dedicated 24-hour digital television news channel, named ABC News would be launched during the year. The new channel commenced preliminary broadcasting with a promo loop in early July 2010, with the ABC re-numbering ABC HD channel 20 to logical channel number 24. The channel was officially launched as ABC News 24 at 7:30pm Australian Eastern Standard Time on 22 July 2010, and simulcast its first hour of transmission on ABC TV. With the launch of ABC News on 22 July 2010, all 7pm bulletins across Australia had a graphics overhaul to match the look of the new channel. The blue/orange globe style opener was replaced with a series of sliding panels, featuring images specific to each state. New sets were built in each capital city studio to match the ABC News 24 set and graphics were changed to match. ABC News channel The news bulletins such as ABC News Mornings, ABC News Afternoons, The World, and Weekend Breakfast are aired on ABC News along with its own 30- and 15-minute hourly bulletins. National bulletins and programs National news updates are presented on ABC TV throughout the day, with evening updates at 7pm presented live in most states by the respective state news presenters. Bulletins focus strongly on issues of state relevance, with a greater inclusion of national and international news items than are found in the news bulletins of commercial broadcasters. A national financial bulletin is presented on weeknights by Alan Kohler in Melbourne. The ABC's Ultimo studios produces the 8:30pm weeknight update presented by Karina Carvalho. News Breakfast is broadcast on weekdays from 6am – 9am on ABC TV and the ABC News channel from ABC's Melbourne studio and is presented by Michael Rowland and Lisa Millar, news presenter Bridget Brennan, sport presenter Tony Armstrong and weather presenter Nate Byrne. The program is also shown online and on ABC Australia in the Asia Pacific region. Weekend Breakfast is broadcast on weekends from 7am – 11am on ABC TV and the ABC News channel from ABC's main national news studio in Sydney at Ultimo and is presented by Johanna Nicholson and Fauziah Ibrahim. ABC News Mornings is presented by Karina Carvalho from the ABC's main national news studio in Sydney at Ultimo, and airs weekdays at 9am on ABC TV and on the ABC News channel. Sport is presented by Tony Armstrong and weather is presented by Nate Byrne, both from the Melbourne studios. ABC News at Noon (launched in February 2005 to replace the less successful Midday News and Business, preceded in turn by the long-running World at Noon) is presented by Ros Childs (weekdays) and Miriam Corowa (weekends) from the ABC's main national news studio in the Sydney suburb of Ultimo, and airs on ABC TV and ABC News channel in each Australian state and territory at midday Australian Eastern Standard/Daylight Time. A separate edition of the bulletin is produced for Western Australia two to three hours after the original broadcast, as the time delay was deemed too long to remain up-to-date. 7.30 is presented by Sarah Ferguson from the ABC's main national news studio in Ultimo, Sydney on ABC TV at 7:30pm, weeknights. However, when a big state political event happens, the national program can be pre-empted by the local edition. ABC Late News is presented by Michael Tetlow from the ABC's Perth news studio on ABC TV at 10:30pm (eastern time), weeknights. A separate edition is presented from Perth for Western Australia also by Michael Tetlow on ABC at 10:30pm (western time) and then ABC News channel at 11pm (eastern time) and 12:30am. Later, he also hosts 15-minute News Overnight bulletins. Other news and current affairs programs broadcast nationally include Afternoon Briefing, ABC News at Five, 7.30, Insiders, Four Corners, Behind the News, Q&A, Landline, Offsiders, One Plus One, The Business, The Drum, The World, Australian Story, Foreign Correspondent, Media Watch and Australia Wide. State bulletins ABC News Canberra is presented from the ABC's Dickson studio by Adrienne Francis on Monday and Tuesday and James Glenday from Wednesday to Sunday. ABC News New South Wales is presented from the ABC's Ultimo, New South Wales studio (ABN) by Jeremy Fernandez from Sunday to Thursday and Nakari Thorpe or Lydia Feng on Friday and Saturday. Weather is presented by Tom Saunders on weeknights. ABC News Northern Territory is presented from the ABC's Darwin studio (ABD) by Jessica Randell from Sunday to Thursday and Melissa Mackay on Friday and Saturday. ABC News Queensland is presented from the ABC's Queensland headquarters (ABQ) on Brisbane's South Bank by Jessica van Vonderen from Monday to Thursday and Ellen Fanning from Friday to Sunday. Weather is presented by Jenny Woodward from Sunday to Thursday. ABC News South Australia is presented from the ABC's Collinswood studio (ABS) by Jessica Harmsen from Monday to Thursday and Richard Davies or Candice Prosser from Friday to Sunday. ABC News Tasmania is presented from the ABC's Hobart studio (ABT) by Guy Stayner on weeknights and Alexandra Alvaro on weekends. ABC News Victoria is presented from ABC Victoria's Southbank studio (ABV) by Tamara Oudyn from Sunday to Thursday and Iskhandar Razak on Friday and Saturday. Weather is presented by Paul Higgins on weeknights. ABC News Western Australia is presented from ABC WA's East Perth studio by Pamela Medlen from Monday to Thursday and Charlotte Hamlyn from Friday to Sunday. ABC Australia News and current affairs programs are also broadcast on ABC Australia, a channel broadcast to the region outside Australia. These include Four Corners, 7:30, Q+A and The Drum. Online ABC news television programs are available via the video-on-demand platform, ABC iview. Radio ABC NewsRadio is a radio station dedicated to news and current affairs. ABC Radio Australia, which covers the Asia-Pacific region, broadcasts regular bulletins produced in Melbourne, featuring reports from foreign correspondents in the region. National bulletins ABC Classic FM broadcasts state bulletins every hour from 6am until noon and then every 2 hours on the hour. Non-local streams of ABC Radio National broadcast national bulletins every hour, 24 hours a day. National youth radio station triple j broadcasts its own bulletins between 6:00am and 6:00pm on weekdays, and between 7:00am and noon on weekends. State bulletins State bulletins are produced by the ABC Local Radio station from the capital city of each state and mainland territory. They are broadcast to all ABC Local Radio and ABC Radio National stations in each state, and focus strongly on issues of state relevance, but also feature national and international stories. National bulletins air when state bulletins are not produced. ABC Local Radio stations broadcast a flagship 15-minute state bulletin at 7:45am, the only bulletin still introduced by the 18-second version of Majestic Fanfare. All other bulletins are introduced by a 9-second version of Majestic Fanfare. ABC Radio National and ABC Classic FM stations do not broadcast the 7:45am bulletin, instead broadcasting an ordinary 8:00am state bulletin and a 10-minute 7am bulletin respectively, and continue to broadcast bulletins every hour when Local Radio stations broadcast bulletins every 30 minutes in the early morning. ABC News ACT is broadcast at 5:30am and on the hour between 6am and 10pm each day from the studios of ABC Radio Canberra. ABC News New South Wales is broadcast at 5:30am and on the hour between 6am and 10pm each day from the studios of ABC Radio Sydney. ABC News Northern Territory is broadcast at 5:30am and on the hour between 6am and 10pm each day from the studios of ABC Radio Darwin. ABC News Queensland is broadcast at 5:30am and on the hour between 6am and 7pm on weekdays from the studios of ABC Radio Brisbane. Weekend bulletins are broadcast on the hour between 6am and midday. ABC News South Australia is broadcast at 5:30am and on the hour between 6am and 10pm on weekdays from the studios of ABC Radio Adelaide. Weekend bulletins are broadcast on the hour between 6am and midday. ABC News Tasmania is broadcast at 5:30am and on the hour between 6am and 9pm on weekdays from the studios of ABC Radio Hobart. Weekend bulletins are broadcast on the hour between 6am and midday. ABC News Victoria is broadcast at 5:30am and on the hour between 6am and 10pm on weekdays from the studios of ABC Radio Melbourne. Weekend bulletins are broadcast on the hour between 6am and midday. ABC News Western Australia is produced by ABC Radio Perth. Weekday bulletins are broadcast every 30 minutes between 5:00am and 7:00am, then at 7:45am, then at 9:00am, then every hour until 10:00pm. Weekend bulletins are broadcast every 30 minutes between 6:00am and 7:00am, then at 7:45am, then at 9:00am, then every hour until 1:00pm. Current affairs ABC News produces several current affairs programs for radio. All share a quasi-magazine format, and investigate stories in greater depth compared to news bulletins. AM is broadcast in three editions – a 10-minute edition at 6:05am on ABC Local Radio, a 20-minute edition at 7:10am on ABC Radio National, and a flagship 30 minute edition at 8:00am on ABC Local Radio. The World Today is broadcast in one edition – a 30-minute edition at 12:10pm on ABC Local Radio and ABC Radio National. PM is broadcast in two editions – a 30-minute edition at 5:00pm on ABC Radio National, and a flagship 30 minute edition at 6:30pm on ABC Local Radio. Programs Other news-related, factual and current affairs programs broadcast by the various radio stations of the ABC Radio network include: Sunday Extra, incorporating Background Briefing and Ockham's Razor, hosted by Julian Morrow (replacing Correspondents Report), RN Breakfast Late Night Live Hack Nightlife Awaye! Country Breakfast Online All ABC radio stations are available via an ABC News mobile app, ABC Listen, from which podcasts are also available. Notes References Further reading ABC Bureaux and Foreign Correspondents 50 Years of ABC TV News and Current Affairs External links ABC News and Current Affairs Australian Broadcasting Corporation divisions Television news in Australia Australian television news shows Australian news websites Articles containing video clips 1947 establishments in Australia
4797426	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judd%20Trump	Judd Trump	Judd Trump (born 20 August 1989) is an English professional snooker player who is a former world champion and former world number one. Widely regarded as one of the sport's most talented players, he is currently fifth on the list of all-time ranking event winners with 26 ranking titles. He has also won four Triple Crown titles. After a junior career that included winning the English Under-13 and Under-15 titles, and reaching the World Under-21 Championship semi-finals aged 14, Trump turned professional in 2005. He won his maiden ranking title at the 2011 China Open, was runner-up to John Higgins at the 2011 World Snooker Championship, and captured his first Triple Crown title at the 2011 UK Championship. By the end of the 2017–18 season, he had won eight ranking titles, but was facing persistent criticism that he was underachieving in the sport, given his talent. In the 2018–19 season, he completed his Triple Crown by winning both the Masters and World Championship, won two other ranking events, and became the first player to win over £1 million in prize money in a single season. In the 2019–20 season, he won six ranking events, setting a new record for the most ranking titles in a single season. He added a further five ranking titles during the 2020–21 season. Voted the World Snooker Tour's Player of the Year for three consecutive years from 2019 to 2021, he was inducted into the Snooker Hall of Fame in 2021. He was World Championship runner-up for a second time in 2022 to Ronnie O'Sullivan, and was awarded an MBE in the same year. He won his second Masters title in 2023, making him the 11th player to win the tournament more than once. Trump has compiled more than 900 century breaks in professional competition, making him the third player, after O'Sullivan and Higgins, to reach this milestone. In the 2019–20 season, he became the second player, after Neil Robertson, to achieve 100 century breaks in a single season. He has made eight maximum breaks in his career. In 2022, he became the second player, after Shaun Murphy, to compile three maximums in a single calendar year, having made 147s at the 2022 Turkish Masters, the 2022 Champion of Champions and the 2022 Scottish Open. Career Turning professional (2005–2010) Trump was English Under-13 and Under-15 champion, and reached the World Under-21 Championship semi-finals at the age of 14. Trump joined the professional tour in the 2005–06 season, and at the Welsh Open he became the youngest player ever to qualify for the final stages of a ranking tournament. He also reached the last-48 stage at the China Open, losing 4–5 to Michael Holt, although this was designated the final qualifying round and was actually played in Prestatyn, Wales. He defeated James Wattana 10–5 in the final round of qualifying at the 2007 World Championship, to become the third-youngest player ever at the time to reach the main stage of the tournament, after champions Stephen Hendry and Ronnie O'Sullivan, who had both been younger when they made their Crucible debuts. Trump is one of only five players to make their first appearance at Sheffield's Crucible Theatre at the age of 17, along with Hendry, O'Sullivan, China's Liu Chuang and Belgium's Luca Brecel. He played the 2005 champion and sixth seed Shaun Murphy in the first round, but lost 6–10 despite having led 6–5. He did not build on this form in the 2007–08 season, only reaching the last 32 of the Welsh Open by beating Joe Swail 5–2 in the first round. He also missed out on the 2008 World Championship after a 9–10 loss to Swail in the final round of qualifying, despite having led 9–7. Trump's fortunes changed for the 2008–09 season when he reached the venue stages of the first four events. At the Grand Prix, he benefited from Graeme Dott's withdrawal before defeating Joe Perry 5–2 in the last 16, despite Perry feeling that he had outplayed Trump, who himself admitted to not having played well. Then came the biggest win of his career so far, when he defeated Ronnie O'Sullivan 5–4 to reach the semi-final, in which he was defeated 4–6 by John Higgins. After that, Trump beat two-time world champion Mark Williams to qualify for the 2008 Bahrain Championship. He won a qualifying event in 2008 to gain entry into the 2009 Masters as the only qualifier, but was defeated by Mark Allen in the first round. At the end of the snooker year, Trump failed again to reach the main stage of the World Championship, losing 8–10 to Stephen Lee in the final qualifying round, having led 6–3. Lee noted that Trump had not followed the custom of apologising for fluked shots during the match, and concluded "all I've heard about for the last five years in my area is how good he is, and he is good... but he's blown a 6–3 lead today and hopefully that will stick with him for a while yet." Trump ended the season in the top 32 of the rankings for the first time. He was coached for a short time by Tony Chappel. Trump won the 2009 Championship League in the previous season to qualify for the Premier League event later in the year, in which he won four of his six matches including a 4–2 win over Ronnie O'Sullivan. He finished second in the League table but lost 1–5 to O'Sullivan in his semi-final. The 2009–10 season was less successful for Trump as he failed to progress beyond the last 32 in any of the ranking tournaments. In January 2010, he joined Romford-based snooker agency Grove Leisure. 2010/2011 Trump defeated former world champions Peter Ebdon and Shaun Murphy at the 2011 China Open, to reach his first professional ranking event final. He then triumphed over last year's Masters champion Mark Selby 10–8 to win his first major title. He won £60,000 in prize money and provisionally climbed into the top 16 of the world rankings. On his way to winning the final, Trump made his 100th competitive century break. Trump had already qualified for the 2011 World Championship when he won the China Open, and was drawn against reigning champion Neil Robertson in the first round, whom he defeated 10–8. In subsequent rounds, he knocked out Martin Gould 13–6, Graeme Dott 13–5 and Ding Junhui 17–15 to qualify for his first World Championship final. He lost 15–18 to John Higgins. 2011/2012 Trump started the season with a 3–5 loss to Mark Davis in the first round of the 2011 Australian Goldfields Open. This disappointment did not last long as he won the second PTC event of the season, beating Ding Junhui 4–0 in the final at a virtual home venue of the South West Snooker Academy. Trump then lost 1–5 to Stuart Bingham in the Shanghai Masters first round. Trump finished runner-up to Neil Robertson in the eighth PTC event of the season, but he immediately rediscovered his winning touch by capturing Event 9, overcoming Ronnie O'Sullivan 4–3 in the final in Antwerp, Belgium, in just over an hour's worth of play. He would later top the Order of Merit after all twelve PTC events had been played, thus qualifying for the 2012 Finals. He suffered a shock in the last 16 as world number 51 Xiao Guodong beat him 4–2, despite playing with a broken bone in his hand. On 11 December 2011, Trump won his second ranking event tournament, the 2011 UK Championship at the Barbican Centre in York. He defeated Dominic Dale 6–4 in the last 32, then won the final two frames of the second round to edge out Ronnie O'Sullivan, 6–5. After the match, Trump said that he had been "outplayed" and was "lucky" to have got through. Next he dispatched Stephen Maguire 6–3, and faced Neil Robertson in the semi-finals. The semi-final match was a tight and nervy affair, with Trump stating afterwards that he believed Robertson was trying to stifle his natural game by "slowing it down" and "making things awkward", but nevertheless the Bristolian triumphed 9–7 to reach his first UK final. There he played Mark Allen, and trailed 1–3 early on in the best-of-19-frames match. Trump then produced a match-defining run of seven straight frames to take an 8–3 lead. Despite a strong fightback from Allen, who won five of the next six frames to trail just 8–9, Trump clinched the 18th frame with a break of 91, and won the final 10–8. The victory took him up to a career-high world ranking of 5. Six-time winner of the event, Steve Davis, said that Trump's performances during the championship had shown that he was "spearheading his generation" of snooker players. Trump continued his fine form by reaching the semi-finals of the Masters in January. He defeated Stuart Bingham in the first round, and O'Sullivan once more in the quarter-finals 6–2, to make his record against the four-time World Champion five wins and two defeats, from their seven meetings in tournament play. Trump met Robertson in the semi-finals for the second successive major event, and it was the Australian who exacted his revenge for the defeat suffered in York a month earlier, as he triumphed 6–3. Trump reached three quarter-finals in his next four ranking events to become the world number 2 in April, behind Mark Selby, meaning that he had risen seven places in the rankings this season. At the 2012 World Championship, Trump defeated Dominic Dale in their first round match by a 10–7 scoreline, despite suffering from food poisoning. He was knocked out in the second round by Ali Carter 12–13, letting a 12–9 lead slip, thus ending his chances of becoming world number 1 in the season. 2012/2013 Trump's first tournament this year was the Wuxi Classic in China, where he lost to Robert Milkins 3–5 in the second round, having beaten Dominic Dale 5–1 in the opener. At the Shanghai Masters he saw off Barry Hawkins, Mark Allen, Graeme Dott and Mark Williams to reach the final where he faced John Higgins. Trump surged into a 5–0 lead and, despite Higgins making a 147 break in the next frame, claimed a 7–2 advantage after the first session. Upon the resumption of play, Higgins won six frames in a row, with the match eventually going into a deciding frame, in which Trump made a break of 35 but ran out of position, allowing Higgins to secure the title with a 10–9 victory. Trump bounced back at the next ranking event, the inaugural International Championship, by claiming his third ranking event title. He eliminated Fergal O'Brien 6–3, Aditya Mehta 6–0 and then edged past Mark Allen 6–5 in the quarter-finals. Trump thrashed Peter Ebdon 9–1 in the semi-finals to become snooker's tenth world number one, and recovered from 6–8 down in the final against Neil Robertson to triumph 10–8. Trump met John Higgins in back to back Players Tour Championship finals, losing the first 2–4, but gaining revenge in the second, the Bulgarian Open by whitewashing Higgins 4–0. Trump reached the final of the Premier League, having beaten Neil Robertson in the semi-finals, but he lost 2–7 to Stuart Bingham. In the defence of his 2011 UK Championship title, Trump played Mark Joyce in the first round. Despite leading 3–0 and 5–2, Trump lost the last four frames of the match to suffer a major shock exit against the world number 50. The disappointment was compounded when Mark Selby went on to win the title, reclaiming the top ranking in the process. Trump was defeated 1–6 by Graeme Dott at the Masters, and 4–5 by Anthony Hamilton in the first round of the German Masters. He regained his form and the world number one ranking at the Welsh Open. He came back from 1–3 down to beat Dominic Dale 4–3 in the first round, after which he asserted that "players are changing their game to play slower against me. Dominic was too slow for himself and it caught him out towards the end". More comfortable victories ensued over Andrew Higginson and Pankaj Advani to set up a semi-final meeting with Stephen Maguire. Trump initially raced into a 2–0 lead only to lose five frames in succession to the rejuvenated Maguire. Trump pulled back two more frames and looked set to force a decider after a 50 break in the tenth frame, but Maguire ground out the frame and won the match 6–4. At the World Open, Trump gained revenge over Joyce by dispatching him 5–0, and he beat Nigel Bond 5–1, before Matthew Stevens won their quarter-final match 5–3. Trump qualified for the PTC Finals by finishing second on the Order of Merit, but lost to Alfie Burden 3–4 in the first round. He also lost in the first round of the China Open to good friend Jack Lisowski 3–5, surrendering his world number one ranking to Mark Selby again in the process. Trump headed into the 2013 World Championship in less than auspicious form, though he himself said that he had prepared better than ever for the event. He beat Dominic Dale in the first round for the second year in a row, this time by 10–5. At 8–7 ahead in the last 16 against Marco Fu, Trump raced away with five consecutive frames to triumph 13–7 and set up a quarter-final clash with Shaun Murphy. Trump came from 3–8 down to level at 8–8 at the conclusion of the second session. The deciding frame lasted 53 minutes with Trump winning it on the yellow to seal a 13–12 victory. He met Ronnie O'Sullivan in the semi-finals, but was unable to capitalise on the chances that came his way: though he potted a ball in 24 of the 28 frames played, he could only make four breaks above 50 in an 11–17 defeat. Trump said afterwards "It's probably the worst I've played all tournament. I would've probably expected to lose to anyone the way I played." 2013/2014 At the start of the season Trump was ranked third in the world rankings. He began the season poorly as he lost in the first rounds of the Wuxi Classic, the Shanghai Masters and the International Championship, as well as failing to qualify for the Indian Open. In November, he reached the final of the minor-ranking Kay Suzanne Memorial Cup but lost 1–4 to Mark Allen. Later that month, he made the first official maximum break of his career in the Antwerp Open during a last-32 defeat against Mark Selby. He reached the fourth round of the UK Championship, where Mark Allen defeated him 6–4, and he lost 5–6 to Marco Fu in the opening round of the Masters. In the German Masters, he dropped just four frames in winning five matches to reach his first ranking final of the season, where he played Ding Junhui. Trump was two frames ahead twice in the first session, but it ended level at 4–4; he then lost five of the next six frames upon resumption of play to be defeated 5–9. At the Welsh Open, he was defeated 3–4 by John Higgins in the last 16. Higgins was again the victor when the two met in the last 16 of the World Open, winning 5–4 after Trump had taken a 4–0 lead. Trump won the non-ranking Championship League title during the season by beating Martin Gould 3–1. Trump defeated Tom Ford and Ryan Day to reach the quarter-finals of the 2014 World Championship, where he played Neil Robertson. Trump led 6–2, 9–6 and 11–8, before Robertson launched a bold counterattack to take the last five frames and win the match 13–11. Trump received criticism for not acknowledging the fact that during the match, Robertson had become the first player to make 100 centuries in a single season, choosing to walk out of the arena instead. He later said that Robertson's achievement meant nothing to him and he chose to congratulate his opponent after the match. 2014/2015 Trump was thrashed 0–5 by Stephen Maguire in the third round of the Wuxi Classic, but responded a week later by claiming his fourth ranking title, and his first for 20 months, at the Australian Goldfields Open, by defeating home favourite Neil Robertson 9–5 in the final. He reached the final of the Paul Hunter Classic but lost 2–4 to Mark Allen. He then suffered first and second round exits to Dominic Dale and Jamie Burnett respectively in the next two ranking events. He advanced to the final of the Champion of Champions but fell 3–8 down to Ronnie O'Sullivan, before reducing his deficit to a single frame by taking four successive frames with the help of two centuries. O'Sullivan won the two frames he needed to triumph 10–7, with Trump claiming his opponent's standard of play throughout the match was the best he had ever encountered. The pair also met in the final of the UK Championship in which Trump was 4–9 behind with a highest break of just 56. He won the 14th frame and then made back-to-back centuries and a break of 86 to only trail 8–9. He was 0–59 down in the next frame, but cleared the table with a 67 break to send the match into an unlikely decider; O'Sullivan then made a title-winning break after Trump had failed to escape from a snooker. O'Sullivan afterwards described the match as the hardest of his career. At the Masters, Trump lost 4–6 against Stephen Maguire in the first round. He made the second 147 of his career in the quarter-finals of the German Masters, but was knocked out 4–5 by Mark Selby. At the inaugural World Grand Prix, Trump eliminated Mark Williams 4–3 on the final black, but then fell 1–5 behind against Martin Gould in the semi-finals. He then took five successive frames, outscoring Gould by 395 points to 37, to win the match 6–5. He played O'Sullivan for the third time in a final this season and was 4–7 behind, but then won six frames in a row, which included a 142 break (the highest of the tournament), to finish 10–7 and claim his second title of the season. He also reached the semi-finals of the PTC Grand Final, where he lost 2–4 to Williams. At the 2015 World Championship, Trump produced his best snooker in the quarter-finals where he knocked in four centuries during a 13–4 thrashing of Ding Junhui. He stated afterwards that if he could play to the same standard in the rest of the event he would secure his first world title. After holding an early 2–1 lead over Stuart Bingham in the semi-finals, Trump could not hold onto his advantage and fell 16–14 behind. He then made successive centuries to force a deciding frame in which he missed a red to the middle pocket due to a kick, and Bingham took the match 17–16. 2015/2016 In the defence of his Australian Goldfields Open title, Trump was knocked out in the quarter-finals 1–5 by Stephen Maguire. He reached the final of the Shanghai Masters, but a slow start from Trump saw him trail world number 54 Kyren Wilson 3–6 after the first session. Wilson also had leads of 8–4 and 9–7, before Trump sent the match into a deciding frame which Wilson won. Trump scored 278 points to nil in taking the first three frames of his third round UK Championship match with Liang Wenbo, but eventually lost 4–6. Trump branded the collapse an embarrassment and said it was the worst he had felt as a professional. In the new year, Trump and Neil Robertson set a record of six centuries in a best-of-11-frame match (four from Trump and two from Robertson). Trump closed it out with a sublime 129 break to win 6–5, with Robertson describing it as "the greatest Masters match ever". He was knocked out 4–6 in the semi-finals by Barry Hawkins. His first title of the season came at the Championship League where he defeated Ronnie O'Sullivan 3–2 in the final. Soon afterwards he won his fifth ranking title and first for almost two years by beating Ricky Walden 10–4 in the China Open final. After trailing Liang Wenbo 3–7 in the first round of the 2016 World Championship, Trump tweeted that the drinks would be on him if he could turn it around. He duly did by winning 10–8 and put a few hundred pounds behind the local bar. Trump could not escape from a similar position against Ding Junhui in the second round and was beaten 10–13. 2016/2017 Trump thrashed John Higgins 4–0 in the quarter-finals of the 2016 European Masters and then overcame Mark Selby 6–2 to play Ronnie O'Sullivan in the final. Trump was down 6–8, but took each of the remaining three frames to triumph 9–8 and win his sixth ranking title. In his next event, the English Open, he comfortably beat Higgins again in the quarter-finals, this time 5–1, and then defeated Barry Hawkins 6–2 to make it 14 wins in a row. He lost 6–9 to Liang Wenbo in the final after having missed a good chance to make it 7–7. Trump edged past Shaun Murphy 6–5 on the final black to reach the semi-finals of the International Championship where he was knocked out 4–9 by Ding Junhui. He had a surprise 2–6 defeat to Oliver Lines in the second round of the UK Championship. He was 5–1 up on Higgins in the semi-finals of the Scottish Open as he made three centuries and a 99 break, but Higgins recovered to win 6–5. In an extremely high quality first round match at the Masters, Trump made two centuries and Marco Fu three, followed by nine further breaks above 50 as Fu edged through 6–5. Hawkins missed a match-ball yellow in their quarter-final clash at the Welsh Open, and Trump cleared the colours to win the match 5–4. He then defeated Scott Donaldson 6–3 to play Stuart Bingham in the final; he was 0–4 down, before recovering to lead 8–7, but lost the last two frames and the match. Another final followed at the Gibraltar Open as he come back from 0–2 down in the semi-finals against Ryan Day, but he lost the final 2–4 to Murphy. He reached his third ranking event final inside a month at the Players Championship where he reeled off a match-defining six frames in a row from 2–5 down to Fu, and went on to win his seventh ranking title 10–8. In the third round of the China Open, Trump made his first televised 147 as he defeated Tian Pengfei 5–3, but he suffered a surprise 3–5 loss to Hossein Vafaei in the quarter-finals. Trump went into the 2017 World Championship declaring: "I honestly believe I can play to a standard which is very rare nowadays," and that he was "the best" in the world. He won the first four frames in his opening match, before Rory McLeod responded to lead 5–4. Trump appeared to be struggling with a shoulder injury and eventually lost the match 8–10 to a player ranked 52 places below him in the rankings. 2017/2018 Trump was third in the world rankings at the start of the season. He successfully defended his European Masters title in October, defeating Stuart Bingham 9–7 in the final. The following month, he reached the quarter-finals of the International Championship where he was edged out 5–6 by Mark Allen. He then reached the final of the Shanghai Masters for the second time, but was heavily defeated 3–10 by Ronnie O'Sullivan. He made semi-final appearances at three other ranking events this season: at the Scottish Open, he lost 4–6 to Cao Yupeng whom he had defeated two months earlier in the semi-finals of the European Masters; at the German Masters, he was beaten 1–6 by Mark Williams, after making the highest break of the tournament (140) in his quarter-final clash with Ding Junhui; and in defending his title at the Players Championship, he was narrowly defeated by Ronnie O'Sullivan 5–6. In January, he reached the semi-finals of the 2018 Masters where, despite leads of 3–1 and 5–2 earlier in the match, he was eliminated 5–6 by Kyren Wilson. At the 2018 World Championship, Trump came close to suffering a first round defeat by Crucible debutant Chris Wakelin who took the match to a deciding frame. After beating Ricky Walden 13–9 in the second round, he was narrowly defeated in the quarter-finals by John Higgins in another final frame decider, the first time they had met in a World Championship match since the 2011 final. 2018/2019 Trump began the 2018–19 season fifth in the world rankings. His defence of the European Masters ended with a surprise 2–4 defeat against Tian Pengfei in the second round. He won his first ranking title of the season at the Northern Ireland Open, beating Ronnie O'Sullivan 9–7 in the final. At the UK Championship, he suffered a 4–6 fourth round loss to Joe Perry. He then reached the semi-finals of the Scottish Open for the third time in a row, but was defeated 3–6 by Shaun Murphy. In January, Trump won his first Masters title, beating Kyren Wilson, Mark Selby and Neil Robertson en route to the final, where his opponent was Ronnie O'Sullivan. Trump dominated the match, taking a 7–1 lead, and eventually won it 10–4. A month later, he won his second ranking event of the season, the World Grand Prix, beating Ali Carter 10–6 in the final. Two more semi-final appearances in March 2019, at the Players Championship and the Tour Championship, were followed by the biggest success of Trump's career so far, when he won the 2019 World Championship. He defeated Thepchaiya Un-Nooh 10–9 in the first round, having trailed 3–6 after the first session. In the second round against Ding Junhui, he led 5–1 and trailed 7–9, then won six consecutive frames to clinch a 13–9 victory. A comfortable 13–6 quarter-final win over Stephen Maguire took him to the semi-finals, where he beat Gary Wilson 17–11 to secure his second appearance in a world final. His opponent was John Higgins, in a repeat of the 2011 final. Trailing 4–5 in the early stages, Trump dominated the second session, winning eight consecutive frames to lead 12–5 overnight, a display which Steve Davis described as the "controlled annihilation of a great player". Trump led 16–9 going into the final session, and won the opening two frames of the evening to seal an 18–9 win, and with it his first world title. The two players scored eleven centuries between them, a record for a professional match. Trump's seven centuries in the final equalled Ding Junhui's record for the most by one player in a World Championship match. Winning the world title also made Trump the 11th player to complete snooker's Triple Crown. 2019/2020 Trump's first appearance as reigning world champion was at the International Championship in August 2019. He won the tournament by defeating Shaun Murphy 10–3 in the final, regaining the number one position in the snooker world rankings ahead of Ronnie O'Sullivan. He also won the World Open, besting Thepchaiya Un-Nooh 10–5. At the next event, the Champion of Champions, Trump once again reached the final, where his opponent was Neil Robertson. Leading 9–8 in a best-of-19 frames match, Trump appeared to be on the verge of claiming the title as Robertson required snookers to win the 18th frame, which the Australian player got, winning 9–10 in the end. The following week, at the Northern Ireland Open, Trump won his third ranking tournament of the season, beating Ronnie O'Sullivan 9–7, the same scoreline Trump had won the title by the previous year. He failed to earn a place in the European Masters though, losing 3–5 to Ian Burns in the first qualifying round. Early in the second half of the season, Trump defeated Neil Robertson 9–6 in the final of the German Masters, a match that featured a lot of "high-class safety", to claim his fourth ranking title of the season, then on 1 March 2020, he claimed a record-equalling fifth ranking title of the season when he defeated Yan Bingtao 10–4 in the final of the Players Championship. With this victory, he became the fifth player to win five ranking events in a single season, after Stephen Hendry, Ding Junhui, Mark Selby and Ronnie O'Sullivan. Two weeks later, on 15 March, he became the first player ever to win six ranking titles in a single season, defeating Kyren Wilson 4–3 at the Gibraltar Open. Trump qualified for the 2020 Tour championship as the leader of the one-season ranking list. He played John Higgins in the quarter-finals round. Trump took a 5–3 lead after the first session and finally prevailed 9–4 to progress to the semi-finals, where he played Stephen Maguire. The score was tied at 4–4 after the first session, but Trump struggled in the evening session and eventually lost 6–9. Defending his world title at the 2020 World Snooker Championship, he fell prey to the "Crucible curse", losing 9–13 to Kyren Wilson in the quarter-finals. In his first-round match against Tom Ford, he made his 100th century break of the season, becoming only the second player, after Neil Robertson, to achieve that feat. 2020/2021 In the first ranking tournament of the season, the European Masters, Trump lost 3–6 to Martin Gould in the semi-finals. At the English Open, he defeated Gary Wilson, Kyren Wilson and John Higgins to set up a final with Neil Robertson. The match went to a deciding frame, which Trump won with a century break, becoming the first player to win three Home Nations Series titles. In the same month, he reached the Championship League final after topping all three group stages. He faced Kyren Wilson, who won the match 3–1, ending Trump's run of 10 consecutive ranking final victories. In November, Trump won his third consecutive Northern Ireland Open, beating Ronnie O'Sullivan 9–7 in the final once again. The win made him the first to win four Home Nations Series events, and the second, after Mark Selby, to win two Home Nations tournaments in a single season. In December, he reached the UK Championship final for the third time, but lost 9–10 to Neil Robertson, after missing a final pink in the hour-long deciding frame. At the final ranking event of 2020, the World Grand Prix, he defeated both Gould and O'Sullivan to reach the final, where he met Jack Lisowski. Trump led 6–2 after the first session. Even though Lisowski recovered to win four frames in a row, Trump won the title 10–7. In January, Trump was forced to withdraw from the 2021 Masters after testing positive for COVID-19. He returned to competition at the German Masters, where he trailed Barry Hawkins 1–5 in the semi-final, but recovered to win five consecutive frames, making three consecutive centuries while doing so, to win the match 6–5. He went on to win the event with another victory over Jack Lisowski, by the scoreline of 9–2. He then successfully defended his Gibraltar Open title, defeating Lisowski once more in the final by 4–0, and winning 28 of the 31 frames he played in the tournament overall to claim his fifth ranking title of the season. He also secured the £150,000 European Series bonus, awarded to the player who wins the most prize money across the series, for a second consecutive season. Trump ended the snooker year with two more quarter-final appearances, at the Tour Championship, and, like last year, at the World Championship. 2021/2022 At the British Open in August 2021, Trump lost 2–3 in the third round to Elliot Slessor. This loss meant that Mark Selby became world number one, with Trump dropping to second in the rankings. Trump took advantage of a break in the snooker calendar to enter his first nine-ball pool tournament, the 2021 U.S. Open Pool Championship, staged in Atlantic City. Although he easily won his three opening matches, he lost 1–11 to Jayson Shaw to move to the losers' side of the bracket, and then lost 10–11 to Jason Theron to exit the tournament. Trump stated his intention to continue competing in nine-ball pool, saying that "I had a lot more support from fans than I was expecting, and there were enough positives to make me do it again." In November, Trump defeated Higgins 10–4 in the 2021 Champion of Champions final, winning the invitational tournament for the first time. He also reached the semi-finals of the invitational 2022 Masters, but lost in a deciding frame to Barry Hawkins. After this, his performance in ranking events was less impressive than in the previous two seasons, which had seen him win a combined 11 ranking titles. He reached the quarter-finals of the 2021 Northern Ireland Open, the 2021 English Open and the 2022 German Masters, but did not feature in any ranking semi-finals or finals until the 12th ranking event of the season, the 2022 Welsh Open, where he reached his first ranking final since the 2021 Gibraltar Open a year earlier. He lost 5–9 to Joe Perry though. The following week, he won his first ranking title of the season and the 23rd of his career at the 2022 Turkish Masters in Antalya, defeating Matthew Selt 10–4 in the final. In the 10th frame of the match, he made his sixth maximum break. Reaching the final of the Welsh Open and winning the Turkish Masters meant that Trump moved from 17th to fourth place on the season's money list, guaranteeing his place in the 2022 Tour Championship, though, like in the previous edition of the tournament, he exited after his first match, as Luca Brecel defeated him 10–6. Trump reached his third world final at the 2022 World Snooker Championship, but lost 13–18 to Ronnie O'Sullivan. He finished the season regaining his number two spot in the world rankings, having dropped to fourth place beforehand. Trump was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the 2022 Birthday Honours for services to snooker and charity. 2022/2023 Trump had a somewhat disappointing season start, suffering many early round exits. He did play in the quarter-finals of the 2022 Hong Kong Masters and the 2022 European Masters though, and was a finalist in the 2022 Champion of Champions, although he did not manage to defend his title, as he lost 6–10 to Ronnie O'Sullivan. During the final of the tournament, Trump made his seventh maximum break, then within less than a month he completed his eighth in the second round of the 2022 Scottish Open, against Mitchell Mann. He exited the event at the quarter-final stage, however, losing 4–5 to Thepchaiya Un-Nooh on a respotted black in the decider. His result was the same at the next Home Nations event, the English Open, being defeated 1–5 by Luca Brecel. The second half of the season started off much better for Trump, as he won his second Masters title in the 2023 edition of the event, defeating Mark Williams 10–8. At the next event, the 2023 World Grand Prix, he lost 9–10 to Mark Allen in the final, despite forcing a decider after being 2–7 down. He was a finalist of the 2023 Championship League too, there he was beaten 1–3 by defending champion John Higgins. In the next tournament, the 2023 Six-red World Championship, Trump made it to the quarter-finals before losing 5–6 in another decider against Hossein Vafaei. His season ended as he exited the 2023 World Championship in the first round, being defeated 10–6 by Anthony McGill. 2023/2024 At the start of the season, after winning the Chinese Billiards and Snooker Association's Huangguoshu Open 5–1 against John Higgins, Trump was a finalist of the 2023 European Masters, losing 9–6 to Barry Hawkins, and a quarter-finalist of the 2023 Shanghai Masters, suffering a 1–6 defeat by Mark Selby. In October, by beating first-time ranking finalist Zhang Anda 9–7, he won the English Open for a second time, becoming the second player after Mark Selby to do so, and the first player to win five Home Nations Series titles. Throughout both the final and the semi-final he won 6–5 against John Higgins the day before, Trump made several comebacks, being 5–1 and 7–3 down in the former, and 4–1 and 5–2 behind in the latter match. Then next week he went on and won the inaugural Wuhan Open too, winning back-to-back ranking events for the fourth time in his career, being one of only 13 players to win successive tournaments, and being only the third, after Stephen Hendry and Mark Williams, to win consecutive events held in following weeks in different countries. He played Ali Carter in the final and defeated him 10–7. Trump's winning streak continued at the 2023 Northern Ireland Open, claiming his fourth Northern Ireland Open and sixth Home Nations title by besting Chris Wakelin 9–3, winning two Home Nations events in a single season for the second time, and becoming only the fifth player—after Ray Reardon, Steve Davis, Stephen Hendry and Ding Junhui—to win three ranking tournaments in a row. The final was his 20th consecutive match won, and throughout the event, he once again made a number of recoveries, from 1–3 to 5–4 in his quarter-final match against Stephen Maguire, and from 1–4 to 6–4 against Barry Hawkins in their semi-final meeting. Performance and rankings timeline Career finals Ranking finals: 41 (26 titles) Minor-ranking finals: 8 (4 titles) Non-ranking finals: 15 (9 titles) Team finals: 1 Pro-am finals: 8 (5 titles) Amateur finals: 10 (7 titles) Maximum and century breaks Trump has completed eight maximum breaks, recording his first at the 2013 Antwerp Open against Mark Selby. He has compiled more than 900 century breaks in professional competition. He made his 900th century on 17 March 2023, in his first round match at the WST Classic against David Lilley. See also References External links Global Snooker profile English snooker players Sportspeople from Bristol 1989 births Living people World number one snooker players UK champions (snooker) Masters (snooker) champions Winners of the professional snooker world championship
4797449	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean%20fertilization	Ocean fertilization	Ocean fertilization or ocean nourishment is a type of technology for carbon dioxide removal from the ocean based on the purposeful introduction of plant nutrients to the upper ocean to increase marine food production and to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Ocean nutrient fertilization, for example iron fertilization, could stimulate photosynthesis in phytoplankton. The phytoplankton would convert the ocean's dissolved carbon dioxide into carbohydrate, some of which would sink into the deeper ocean before oxidizing. More than a dozen open-sea experiments confirmed that adding iron to the ocean increases photosynthesis in phytoplankton by up to 30 times. This is one of the more well-researched carbon dioxide removal (CDR) approaches, however this approach would only sequester carbon on a timescale of 10-100 years dependent on ocean mixing times. While surface ocean acidity may decrease as a result of nutrient fertilization, when the sinking organic matter remineralizes, deep ocean acidity will increase. A 2021 report on CDR indicates that there is medium-high confidence that the technique could be efficient and scalable at low cost, with medium environmental risks. One of the key risks of nutrient fertilization is nutrient robbing, a process by which excess nutrients used in one location for enhanced primary productivity, as in a fertilization context, are then unavailable for normal productivity downstream. This could result in ecosystem impacts far outside the original site of fertilization. A number of techniques, including fertilization by the micronutrient iron (called iron fertilization) or with nitrogen and phosphorus (both macronutrients), have been proposed. But research in the early 2020s suggested that it could only permanently sequester a small amount of carbon. Therefore, there is no major future in its role to sequester carbon. Rationale The marine food chain is based on photosynthesis by marine phytoplankton that combine carbon with inorganic nutrients to produce organic matter. Production is limited by the availability of nutrients, most commonly nitrogen or iron. Numerous experiments have demonstrated how iron fertilization can increase phytoplankton productivity. Nitrogen is a limiting nutrient over much of the ocean and can be supplied from various sources, including fixation by cyanobacteria. Carbon-to-iron ratios in phytoplankton are much larger than carbon-to-nitrogen or carbon-to-phosphorus ratios, so iron has the highest potential for sequestration per unit mass added. Oceanic carbon naturally cycles between the surface and the deep via two "pumps" of similar scale. The "solubility" pump is driven by ocean circulation and the solubility of CO2 in seawater. The "biological" pump is driven by phytoplankton and subsequent settling of detrital particles or dispersion of dissolved organic carbon. The former has increased as a result of increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration. This CO2 sink is estimated to be approximately 2 GtC yr−1. The global phytoplankton population fell about 40 percent between 1950 and 2008 or about 1 percent per year. The most notable declines took place in polar waters and in the tropics. The decline is attributed to sea surface temperature increases. A separate study found that diatoms, the largest type of phytoplankton, declined more than 1 percent per year from 1998 to 2012, particularly in the North Pacific, North Indian and Equatorial Indian oceans. The decline appears to reduce pytoplankton's ability to sequester carbon in the deep ocean. Fertilization offers the prospect of both reducing the concentration of atmospheric greenhouse gases with the aim of slowing climate change and at the same time increasing fish stocks via increasing primary production. The reduction reduces the ocean's rate of carbon sequestration in the deep ocean. Each area of the ocean has a base sequestration rate on some timescale, e.g., annual. Fertilization must increase that rate, but must do so on a scale beyond the natural scale. Otherwise, fertilization changes the timing, but not the total amount sequestered. However, accelerated timing may have beneficial effects for primary production separate from those from sequestration. Biomass production inherently depletes all resources (save for sun and water). Either they must all be subject to fertilization or sequestration will eventually be limited by the one mostly slowly replenished (after some number of cycles) unless the ultimate limiting resource is sunlight and/or surface area. Generally, phosphate is the ultimate limiting nutrient. As oceanic phosphorus is depleted (via sequestration) it would have to be included in the fertilization cocktail supplied from terrestrial sources. Approaches "Ocean fertilisation options are only worthwhile if sustained on a millennial timescale and phosphorus addition may have greater long-term potential than iron or nitrogen fertilisation." Phytoplankton require a variety of nutrients. These include macronutrients such as nitrate and phosphate (in relatively high concentrations) and micronutrients such as iron and zinc (in much smaller quantities). Nutrient requirements vary across phylogenetic groups (e.g., diatoms require silicon) but may not individually limit total biomass production. Co-limitation (among multiple nutrients) may also mean that one nutrient can partially compensate for a shortage of another. Silicon does not affect total production, but can change the timing and community structure with follow-on effects on remineralization times and subsequent mesopelagic nutrient vertical distribution. High-nutrient, low-chlorophyll (HNLC) waters occupy the oceans' subtropical gyre systems, approximately 40 per cent of the surface, where wind-driven downwelling and a strong thermocline impede nutrient resupply from deeper water. Nitrogen fixation by cyanobacteria provides a major source of N. In effect, it ultimately prevents the ocean from losing the N required for photosynthesis. Phosphorus has no substantial supply route, making it the ultimate limiting macronutrient. The sources that fuel primary production are deep water stocks and runoff or dust-based. Iron Phosphorus In the very long term, phosphorus "is often considered to be the ultimate limiting macronutrient in marine ecosystems" and has a slow natural cycle. Where phosphate is the limiting nutrient in the photic zone, addition of phosphate is expected to increase primary phytoplankton production. This technique can give 0.83W/m2 of globally averaged negative forcing, which is sufficient to reverse the warming effect of about half the current levels of anthropogenic emissions. One water-soluble fertilizer is diammonium phosphate (DAP), , that as of 2008 had a market price of 1700/tonne−1 of phosphorus. Using that price and the C : P Redfield ratio of 106 : 1 produces a sequestration cost (excluding preparation and injection costs) of some $45 /tonne of carbon (2008), substantially less than the trading price for carbon emissions. Nitrogen (urea) This technique proposes to fertilize the ocean with urea, a nitrogen rich substance, to encourage phytoplankton growth. Concentrations of macronutrients per area of ocean surface would be similar to large natural upwellings. Once exported from the surface, the carbon remains sequestered for a long time. An Australian company, Ocean Nourishment Corporation (ONC), planned to inject hundreds of tonnes of urea into the ocean, in order to boost the growth of -absorbing phytoplankton, as a way to combat climate change. In 2007, Sydney-based ONC completed an experiment involving one tonne of nitrogen in the Sulu Sea off the Philippines. This project was criticized by many institutions, including the European Commission, due to lack of knowledge of side effects on the marine ecosystem. Macronutrient nourishment can give 0.38W/m2 of globally averaged negative forcing, which is sufficient to reverse the warming effect of current levels of around a quarter of anthropogenic emissions. The two dominant costs are manufacturing the nitrogen and nutrient delivery. In waters with sufficient iron micro nutrients, but a deficit of nitrogen, urea fertilization is the better choice for algae growth. Urea is the most used fertilizer in the world, due to its high content of nitrogen, low cost and high reactivity towards water. When exposed to ocean waters, urea is metabolized by phytoplankton via urease enzymes to produce ammonia. CO(NH_2)_2 + H_2O ->[urease] NH_3 + NH_2COOH NH_2COOH + H_2O -> NH_3 + H_2CO_3 The intermediate product carbamate also reacts with water to produce a total of two ammonia molecules. Another cause of concern is the sheer amount of urea needed to capture the same amount of carbon as eq. iron fertilization. The nitrogen to iron ratio in a typical algae cell is 16:0.0001, meaning that for every iron atom added to the ocean a substantial larger amount of carbon is captured compared to adding one atom of nitrogen. Scientists also emphasize that adding urea to ocean waters could reduce oxygen content and result in a rise of toxic marine algae. This could potentially have devastating effects on fish populations, which others argue would be benefiting from the urea fertilization (the argument being that fish populations would feed on healthy phytoplankton). Pelagic pumping Local wave power could be used to pump nutrient-rich water from hundred- metre-plus depths to the euphotic zone. However, deep water concentrations of dissolved CO2 could be returned to the atmosphere. The supply of DIC in upwelled water is generally sufficient for photosynthesis permitted by upwelled nutrients, without requiring atmospheric CO2. Second-order effects include how the composition of upwelled water differs from that of settling particles. More nitrogen than carbon is remineralized from sinking organic material. Upwelling of this water allows more carbon to sink than that in the upwelled water, which would make room for at least some atmospheric CO2 to be absorbed. the magnitude of this difference is unclear. No comprehensive studies have yet resolved this question. Preliminary calculations using upper limit assumptions indicate a low value. 1,000 square kilometres (390 sq mi) could sequester 1 gigatonne/year. Sequestration thus depends on the upward flux and the rate of lateral surface mixing of the surface water with denser pumped water. Volcanic ash Volcanic ash adds nutrients to the surface ocean. This is most apparent in nutrient-limited areas. Research on the effects of anthropogenic and aeolian iron addition to the ocean surface suggests that nutrient-limited areas benefit most from a combination of nutrients provided by anthropogenic, eolian and volcanic deposition. Some oceanic areas are comparably limited in more than one nutrient, so fertilization regimes that includes all limited nutrients is more likely to succeed. Volcanic ash supplies multiple nutrients to the system, but excess metal ions can be harmful. The positive impacts of volcanic ash deposition are potentially outweighed by their potential to do harm. Clear evidence documents that ash can be as much as 45 percent by weight in some deep marine sediments. In the Pacific Ocean estimates claim that (on a millennial-scale) the atmospheric deposition of air-fall volcanic ash was as high as the deposition of desert dust. This indicates the potential of volcanic ash as a significant iron source. In August 2008 the Kasatochi volcanic eruption in the Aleutian Islands, Alaska, deposited ash in the nutrient-limited northeast Pacific. This ash (including iron) resulted in one of the largest phytoplankton blooms observed in the subarctic. Fisheries scientists in Canada linked increased oceanic productivity from the volcanic iron to subsequent record returns of salmon in the Fraser River two years later Monitored nutrients The approach advocated by Ocean Nutrition Corporation is to limit the distribution of added nutrients to allow phytoplankton concentrations to rise only to the values seen in upwelling regions (5–10 mg Chl /m3). Maintaining healthy phytoplankton levels is claimed to avoid harmful algal blooms and oxygen depletion. Chlorophyll concentration is an easily measured proxy for phytoplankton concentration. The company stated that values of approximately 4 mg Chl/m3 meet this requirement. SS Complications While manipulation of the land ecosystem in support of agriculture for the benefit of humans has long been accepted (despite its side effects), directly enhancing ocean productivity has not. Among the reasons are: Outright opposition According to Lisa Speer of the Natural Resources Defense Council, "There is a limited amount of money, of time, that we have to deal with this problem....The worst possible thing we could do for climate change technologies would be to invest in something that doesn't work and that has big impacts that we don't anticipate." In 2009 Aaron Strong, Sallie Chisholm, Charles Miller and John Cullen opined in Nature "...fertilizing the oceans with iron to stimulate phytoplankton blooms, absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and export carbon to the deep sea – should be abandoned." In Science, Warren Cornwall mentions "Wil Burns, an ocean law expert at Northwestern University" who declares that "...making iron fertilization a research priority is "barking mad" since "...a recent survey of 13 past fertilization experiments found only one that increased carbon levels deep in the ocean." Efficiency Algal cell chemical composition is often assumed to respect a ratio where atoms are 106 carbon: 16 nitrogen: 1 phosphorus (Redfield ratio): 0.0001 iron. In other words, each atom of iron helps capture 1,060,000 atoms of carbon, while one nitrogen atom only 6. In large areas of the ocean, such organic growth (and hence nitrogen fixation) is thought to be limited by the lack of iron rather than nitrogen, although direct measures are hard. On the other hand, experimental iron fertilisation in HNLC regions has been supplied with excess iron which cannot be utilized before it is scavenged. Thus the organic material produced was much less than if the ratio of nutrients above were achieved. Only a fraction of the available nitrogen (because of iron scavenging) is drawn down. In culture bottle studies of oligotrophic water, adding nitrogen and phosphorus can draw down considerably more nitrogen per dosing. The export production is only a small percentage of the new primary production and in the case of iron fertilization, iron scavenging means that regenerative production is small. With macronutrient fertilisation, regenerative production is expected to be large and supportive of larger total export. Other losses can also reduce efficiency. In addition, the efficiency of carbon sequestration through ocean fertilisation is heavily influenced by factors such as changes in stoichiometric ratios and gas exchange make accurately predicting the effectiveness of ocean feralization projects. Side effects Beyond biological impacts, evidences suggests that plankton blooms can affect the physical properties of surface waters simply by absorbing light and heat from the sun. Watson added that if fertilization is done in shallow coastal waters, a dense layer of phytoplankton clouding the top 30 metres or so of the ocean could hinder corals, kelps or other deeper sea life from carrying out photosynthesis (Watson et al. 2008). In addition, as the bloom declines, nitrous oxide is released, potentially counteracting the effects from the sequestering of carbon. Algal blooms Toxic algal blooms are common in coastal areas. Fertilization could trigger such blooms. Chronic fertilization could risk the creation of dead zones, such as the one in the Gulf of Mexico. Impact on fisheries Adding urea to the ocean can cause phytoplankton blooms that serve as a food source for zooplankton and in turn feed for fish. This may increase fish catches. However, if cyanobacteria and dinoflagellates dominate phytoplankton assemblages that are considered poor quality food for fish then the increase in fish quantity may not be large. Some evidence links iron fertilization from volcanic eruptions to increased fisheries production. Other nutrients would be metabolized along with the added nutrient(s), reducing their presence in fertilized waters. Krill populations have declined dramatically since whaling began. Sperm whales transport iron from the deep ocean to the surface during prey consumption and defecation. Sperm whales have been shown to increase the levels of primary production and carbon export to the deep ocean by depositing iron-rich faeces into surface waters of the Southern Ocean. The faeces causes phytoplankton to grow and take up carbon. The phytoplankton nourish krill. Reducing the abundance of sperm whales in the Southern Ocean, whaling resulted in an extra 2 million tonnes of carbon remaining in the atmosphere each year. Ecosystem disruption Many locations, such as the Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea, support high marine biodiversity. Nitrogen or other nutrient loading in coral reef areas can lead to community shifts towards algal overgrowth of corals and ecosystem disruption, implying that fertilization must be restricted to areas in which vulnerable populations are not put at risk. As the phytoplankton descend the water column, they decay, consuming oxygen and producing greenhouse gases methane and nitrous oxide. Plankton-rich surface waters could warm the surface layer, affecting circulation patterns. Cloud formation Many phytoplankton species release dimethyl sulfide (DMS), which escapes into the atmosphere where it forms sulfate aerosols and encourages cloud formation, which could reduce warming. However, substantial increases in DMS could reduce global rainfall, according to global climate model simulations, while halving temperature increases as of 2100. Reactions In 2007 Working Group III of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change examined ocean fertilization methods in its fourth assessment report and noted that the field-study estimates of the amount of carbon removed per ton of iron was probably over-estimated and that potential adverse effects had not been fully studied. In June 2007 the London Dumping Convention issued a statement of concern noting 'the potential for large scale ocean iron fertilization to have negative impacts on the marine environment and human health', but did not define 'large scale'. It is believed that the definition would include operations. In 2008, the London Convention/London Protocol noted in resolution LC-LP.1 that knowledge on the effectiveness and potential environmental impacts of ocean fertilization was insufficient to justify activities other than research. This non-binding resolution stated that fertilization, other than research, "should be considered as contrary to the aims of the Convention and Protocol and do not currently qualify for any exemption from the definition of dumping". In May 2008, at the Convention on Biological Diversity, 191 nations called for a ban on ocean fertilization until scientists better understand the implications. In August 2018, Germany banned the sale of ocean seeding as carbon sequestration system while the matter was under discussion at EU and EASAC levels. International Law International law presents some dilemmas for ocean fertilization. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC 1992) has accepted mitigation actions. Law of the sea According to United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC 1982), all states are obliged to take all measures necessary to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the marine environment, to prohibit the transfer of damage or hazards from one area to another and to prohibit the transformation of one type pollution to another. How this relates to fertilization is undetermined. Solar radiation management Fertilization may create sulfate aerosols that reflect sunlight, modifying the Earth's albedo, creating a cooling effect that reduces some of the effects of climate change. Enhancing the natural sulfur cycle in the Southern Ocean by fertilizing with iron in order to enhance dimethyl sulfide production and cloud reflectivity may achieve this. See also Carbon dioxide sink Climate engineering Effects of climate change on oceans Iron fertilization Planetary engineering Soil fertilization References External links Aquatic ecology Fisheries science Planetary engineering Articles containing video clips Oceanographical terminology Climate engineering Carbon dioxide removal de:Eisendüngung
4798258	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What%20We%20Do%20Is%20Secret%20%28film%29	What We Do Is Secret (film)	What We Do Is Secret is a 2007 American biographical film about Darby Crash, singer of the late-1970s Los Angeles punk rock band the Germs. It was directed by Rodger Grossman, who wrote the screenplay based on a story he had written with Michelle Baer Ghaffari, a friend of Crash's and co-producer of the film. Shane West stars as Crash, while Rick Gonzalez, Bijou Phillips, and Noah Segan respectively portray Germs members Pat Smear, Lorna Doom, and Don Bolles. The film follows the formation and career of the Germs, focusing on Crash's mysterious "five-year plan", his homosexual relationship with Rob Henley (played by Ashton Holmes), and his experimentation with heroin, culminating in his December 1980 suicide. It is titled after the first track on the Germs' 1979 album (GI). The film was in development for almost nine years due to changes in production staff and adjustments in casting. Grossman conducted numerous interviews as research, and cast West, who he felt "did a masterful job capturing Crash on film." What We Do Is Secret was independently produced and financed, and premiered at the Los Angeles Film Festival on June 23, 2007. It was distributed theatrically and on video by Peace Arch Entertainment beginning in August 2008. It was not financially successful and received mixed reviews, though West received praise for his performance and ability to emulate Crash's behavior and mannerisms. Production of the film led Smear, Doom, and Bolles to reunite as the Germs with West on vocals; this lineup performed sporadically for several years and appears on the film's soundtrack. Plot Jan Paul Beahm grows up in Los Angeles through a troubled childhood: He does not know his biological father, his mother is an alcoholic, and his older brother dies from a heroin overdose. An avid reader, he develops into a "frighteningly intelligent" student at University High School, where his antisocial behavior leads the administration to give him straight A's if he agrees not to return. In December 1975, at age 17, he proposes to his friend Georg Ruthenberg that they start a band, showing him potential lyrics and claiming to have a "five-year plan" inspired by the David Bowie song "Five Years". They con money for instruments, and a lineup coalesces with Jan Paul on vocals, Georg on guitar, Terri Ryan on bass guitar, and Becky Barton on drums. Jan Paul comes up with the band name Germs, representing the germination of an idea. The Germs play their first gig in April 1977: As they are heckling the Damned outside the Whisky a Go Go, Claude "Kickboy Face" Bessy of Slash magazine suggests that they perform at an open mic across the street. They give an impromptu performance of their song "Sex Boy", but do not know how to play their instruments and are heckled by the audience. Jan Paul responds by throwing flour at them and dipping the microphone in peanut butter; the band is thrown out but excited by the experience. Jan Paul comes up with pseudonyms for the members: Georg becomes Pat Smear, Terri becomes Lorna Doom, and Becky becomes Donna Rhia. Jan Paul renames himself Bobby Pyn, but soon changes this to Darby Crash. Becky is soon kicked out and the band goes through a series of replacements. Chris Ashford becomes their manager and presses their "Forming" single, the first punk rock single from Los Angeles. At the Masque the Germs meet Don Bolles, who becomes their new drummer. Darby also meets Rob Henley, and the two begin a homosexual relationship. Darby comes up with the Germs' logo, a blue circle, as well as the "Germs burn", a symbolic circular cigarette burn on the wrist. The Germs build an audience at the Masque and advance to larger venues, playing a chaotic show at the Roosevelt Hotel on Halloween 1978. Rob vies with Don for Darby's approval, and he and Darby begin experimenting with heroin. The Germs appear on Rodney Bingenheimer's radio program and convince Slash to fund their album, (GI). Tensions rise as Rob convinces Darby that Don's drumming is not fast enough, and when a woman named Amber begins doting on Darby and declares herself his manager. Darby's heroin use increases, as does violence at the Germs' shows, and they are banned from most clubs in Los Angeles. Darby is upset to learn that Don has started a side project. Penelope Spheeris features the Germs in her film The Decline of Western Civilization. The band plays at the Whisky a Go Go in December 1979 under the name GI, for "Germs Incognito", and when Don is late Darby replaces him with Rob. Rob does not know how to play, however, and the show is aborted when the crowd riots. Finding Rob having sex with a female fan, Darby effectively breaks up the Germs by taking off with Amber to London for several months. Darby returns to Los Angeles with an Adam Ant-inspired fashion and a tall mohawk. He enlists Pat for his Darby Crash Band, then organizes a Germs "farewell show" at the Starwood in December 1980 with Pat, Lorna, and Don. The show goes well, with Darby telling the crowd "This is for the people who wanted to know what it was like when we were around. But this is the only one; you're not gonna see this again". Alone and despondent after the show, he enters into a suicide pact with friend Casey Cola: The two intentionally overdose on heroin; Casey survives, Darby does not. Pat receives the news as he is watching reports of the assassination of John Lennon. Darby's funeral is sparsely attended, with Pat reading a poem titled "Astrid" that Darby had written near the band's outset. Cast Shane West as Darby Crash (Jan Paul Beahm), leader and singer of the Germs. Jonathan Milliken plays the young Beahm in the film's opening scenes. Bijou Phillips as Germs bassist Lorna Doom Rick Gonzalez as Pat Smear, guitarist in the Germs and the Darby Crash Band Noah Segan as Don Bolles, the Germs' most consistent drummer Ashton Holmes as Rob Henley, Darby's homosexual partner Tina Majorino as Michelle Baer Ghaffari, a close friend of Darby and the band. Baer Ghaffari was briefly the Germs' drummer, and co-wrote the story for What We Do Is Secret with director Rodger Grossman. Lauren German as Belinda Carlisle, briefly a formative member of the Germs. In reality Carlisle was briefly instated as the Germs' drummer, using the pseudonym Dottie Danger, but never actually played with the band due to a bout of mononucleosis. She was replaced by Becky Barton and went on to front the Go-Go's and become a solo artist. German had previously worked with West in the 2002 film A Walk to Remember. Keir O'Donnell as Chris Ashford, the Germs' manager Sebastian Roché as Claude "Kickboy Face" Bessy, a music journalist for Slash magazine who becomes an avid supporter of the Germs Azura Skye as Casey Cola, who takes Darby in after his return from London and enters into a suicide pact with him, though she survives the attempt Ozzy Benn as Captain Sensible, bassist in the Damned Christopher Boyd as Dave Vanian, singer in the Damned Amy Halloran as Becky Barton/Donna Rhia, the Germs' original drummer. In reality Barton replaced the ill Belinda Carlisle, played three shows with the Germs, and played on the "Forming" single. Michele Hicks as film director Penelope Spheeris, who features the Germs in her documentary The Decline of Western Civilization J. P. Manoux as Rodney Bingenheimer, a disc jockey on KROQ-FM who features the Germs on his program "Rodney on the ROQ" Ray Park as Brendan Mullen, manager of the Masque Additional minor roles are played by Kylan James as the Damned's drummer Rat Scabies, Chris Pontius as L.A. musician Black Randy, Randi Newton as Germs fan Gerber, Anna Waronker as (GI) producer Joan Jett, Giddle Partridge as 45 Grave singer Dinah Cancer, John Westernoff as brief Germs drummer Nickey Beat, and Missy Doty as Crash's manager Amber. Two Los Angeles punk rock bands of the 2000s perform in the film as bands of the late 1970s. The Mae Shi perform as the Screamers in the Masque scene, playing a cover version of the Germs' "Sex Boy" with actor Rich Moreno in the role of singer Tomata du Plenty. The Bronx perform as Black Flag, opening for the Darby Crash Band by performing "Police Story"; members Matt Caughthran, Joby J. Ford, James Tweedy, and Jorma Vik respectively play the roles of Black Flag members Dez Cadena, Greg Ginn, Chuck Dukowski, and Robo. Development and production Inspired by Penelope Spheeris' The Decline of Western Civilization and the punk rock scene of Los Angeles, AFI Film School graduate and LA native Rodger Grossman, set out to create an authentic story about the formative years of the Germs. Although the Germs project experienced several setbacks and false starts over a nine-year period, Grossman stayed committed to the film. Pat Smear (the original guitar player in the band), who ultimately became a member of Nirvana, Foo Fighters and many other bands, was the music producer for the film. With the exception of Phillips, who played guitar (but not bass guitar), and West, who had experience as a singer, none of the other cast members had ever played musical instruments. Intent on making the music in his film sound authentic, Grossman asked Smear to help his actors learn to play their instruments. Smear rehearsed with the band and produced all the pre-recordings that were used in the movie, utilizing the other original members of the Germs; Bolles and Doom. The new band of actors slowly came together. Pat Smear said: "These kids will be as good as we were when we were bad… which is good enough". Smear went on to affectionately refer to the cast as the "Baby Germs". The music in the film was recorded during pre-production, used by the cast as synch tracks during production, and finally married with West's live vocals, which were recorded on-set. Pat Smear also produced the recordings of the other bands that perform in the movie—the Mae Shi performed as The Screamers, and The Bronx performed as Black Flag. The financing of the film came from personal investments, including Shane West himself. After a stressful false start in production, the cast and crew held a wrap party to celebrate the un-shot film. At the party the actors who portrayed the band (Baby Germs) entertained the crew by playing a few Germs tracks on stage. Then the original Germs, who were in attendance, joined the Baby Germs on stage. The Baby Germs handed their instruments over to the original Germs, who continued to jam with West on vocals. The result was an unexpected Germs reunion with Shane West as front man. Casting David Arquette was initially considered for the role of Darby Crash, but he moved on to other projects. Shane West, who auditioned with his own pop-punk band Jonny Was, was ultimately chosen as Darby Crash. West's strong connection to the material, along with his own experience as the lead singer of a pop-punk band, convinced Grossman to choose West over many other contenders. West had tooth veneers applied in order to make his teeth look like Crash's. During the hiatus between seasons of ER, West worked on the film and on getting more financing for it. Grossman cast Bjiou Phillips, who was seventeen years old at the time, to play Lorna Doom. Phillips stayed committed to the project for the entire time it took to bring the film into production. West and the other actors who portrayed the Germs' members trained for three months for the concert scenes with the help of the Germs' real members. Heather Mallow, a personal friend of Grossman, was chosen and played the role of Darby's mother who was briefly discussed during one of the more documentary sequences during the start of the movie. Filming Filming began in 2005. The film was shot on location in Silver Lake, Los Angeles, California, primarily at Occidental Studios, where Charlie Chaplin and Mary Pickford once made movies. The film was shot guerrilla-style in a total of twenty-one days and in three production periods over a two-year period. Grossman used multiple camera positions to convey the significance of the band in relation to the audience. For example, in a scene depicting one of the band's first shows, the camera looks down on Darby, suggesting the lackluster effect that the band had on the audience. As the film progresses, Grossman changes the camera's position to make the stage higher relative to the audience, illustrating the control Darby had over his audience. All wardrobe and makeup was supervised by Michelle Baer-Ghaffari, a friend of Darby's, to ensure authenticity. Release Critical response What We Do is Secret received mixed reviews. Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 45% of critics gave the film a positive review based on 47 reviews, with an average score of 5.24 out of 10. The website's critical consensus states: "Despite its dynamic subject and reckless anti-glamor, this biopic about the legendary punk rocker Darby Crash fails to translate the excitement its subject generated." On Metacritic it has a weighted score of 54 out of 100, based on 18 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Although the film received mixed critical reviews, many critics praised Shane West's performance as Darby Crash, often noting that West bears a strong physical resemblance to Crash. David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle spoke highly of West, writing that even though some of the supporting performances such as those of Bijou Phillips and Rick Gonzalez are very strong, it is Shane West "who lifts the film to a whole other level" as he brings "multiple layers of insight and nuance". Carrie Rickey of the Philadelphia Inquirer wrote that West had a "terrific performance" and noted he also "bears an uncanny resemblance to Darby Crash." Nora Lee Mandel of Film-Forward.com wrote that "West is magnetic trying to fill the gaps in the pop psychology insight into how the Germs' brief candle burned out so fast." John Hartl of the Seattle Times wrote that "While What We Do Is Secret may not be remembered for much more than West's performance, it's an impersonation worth saluting." Phil Gallo of Variety praised both West and Grossman writing they both "have a clear, unwavering perspective on Crash that should entice curiosity seekers and old punks." Pauline Pechin of Premiere thought that West played Darby Crash to a tee and kept on writing in fact, his performance was so believable that he's currently on tour with the reformed Germs as the lead singer. Ken Fink of TV Guide wrote "Shane West does a pretty impressive impersonation of the on-stage antics of Darby Crash". Some critics also praised some of the supporting actors' performances as well as the cast performances as a whole. This was seen with Jim Emerson of the Chicago Sun-Times review with him writing "Where What We Do Is Secret succeeds is in the performances which sometimes expose a stilted, amateurish strain that's oddly in tune with the characters' D.I.Y. aesthetic." Sara Cardance of New York wrote "The amateur vibe suits the subject matter, and the young cast rises to the challenge." Eric Campos of Film Threat wrote that "These actors and many more make What We Do Is Secret an absolute blast to watch and they do an undeniably perfect job of recreating this notorious scene." Home media What We Do Is Secret was released on DVD on November 4, 2008. Music Soundtrack album In addition to "Forming", which appears on the soundtrack album, the team of Shane West, Bijou Phillips, Lukas Haas, and Michael LeBlanc also perform the Germs songs "Circle One", "Lexicon Devil", "Richie Dagger's Crime", "Shut Down (Annihilation Man)", and "Lion's Share" in the film. The Bronx also performs the Black Flag song "Police Story". Additional songs used in the film that do not appear on the soundtrack album include: "We Must Bleed" and "What We Do Is Secret" by the Germs, written by Darby Crash and Pat Smear "Queen Bitch", written and performed by David Bowie "Neat Neat Neat" by the Damned, written by Brian James "Taliban", written and performed by Paul Roessler "Gidget Goes to Hell" by Suburban Lawns, written by William Ranson and Richard Whitney "Adult Books" by X, written by John Doe and Exene Cervenka "Righteous Dub" by Mad Professor, written by Neil Fraser "Just Like You" by Vox Pop, written by Don Bolles "New Dawn Fades" by Joy Division, written by Ian Curtis, Peter Hook, Stephen Morris, and Bernard Sumner "Bloodstains" by Agent Orange, written by Mike Palm References External links Articles Lipton, Shana Ting (August 23, 2005). "Rekindling the Punk Flame" (page 1/2). Los Angeles Times. Reviews FilmJerk.com Review Film Threat Review Photo gallery from the movie Gay Punk-Rocker Tragedy - The Bay Area Reporter Germ Warfare - Easy Bay Express Databases 2007 films Punk films American LGBT-related films Musical films based on actual events Rhino Films films Biographical films about singers 2000s English-language films 2000s American films
4799438	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20D%C3%BCrenstein	Battle of Dürenstein	The Battle of Dürenstein (; also known as Dürrenstein, Dürnstein and Diernstein) or the Battle of Krems (), on 11 November 1805, was an engagement in the Napoleonic Wars during the War of the Third Coalition. Dürenstein (modern Dürnstein), Austria, is located in the Wachau valley, on the river Danube, upstream from Vienna, Austria. The river makes a crescent-shaped curve between Dürnstein and nearby Krems an der Donau, and the battle was fought in the flood plain between the river and the mountains. At Dürenstein, a combined force of Russian and Austrian troops trapped a French division commanded by Théodore Maxime Gazan. The French division was part of the newly created VIII Corps, the so-called Corps Mortier, under command of Édouard Mortier. In pursuing the Austrian retreat from Bavaria, Mortier had over-extended his three divisions along the north bank of the Danube. Mikhail Kutuzov, commander of the Coalition force, enticed Mortier to send Gazan's division into a trap and French troops were caught in a valley between two Russian columns. They were rescued by the timely arrival of a second division, under command of Pierre Dupont de l'Étang. The battle extended well into the night, after which both sides claimed victory. The French lost more than a third of their participants, and Gazan's division experienced over 40 percent losses. The Austrians and Russians also had heavy losses—close to 16 percent—but perhaps the most significant was the death in action of Johann Heinrich von Schmitt, one of Austria's most capable chiefs of staff. The battle was fought three weeks after the surrender of one Austrian army at the Battle of Ulm and three weeks before the Russo-Austrian defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz. After Austerlitz, Austria withdrew from the war. The French demanded a high indemnity, and Francis II abdicated as Holy Roman Emperor, releasing the German states from their allegiance to the Holy Roman Empire. Background In a series of conflicts in 1803–15 known as the Napoleonic Wars, various European powers formed five coalitions against the First French Empire. Like the wars sparked by the French Revolution (1789), these further revolutionized the formation, organization and training of European armies and led to an unprecedented militarization, mainly due to mass conscription. Under the leadership of Napoleon, French power rose quickly as the Grande Armée conquered most of Europe, and collapsed rapidly after the disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812. Napoleon's empire ultimately suffered complete military defeat in the 1813–14 campaigns, resulting in the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France. Although Napoleon made a spectacular return in 1815, known as the Hundred Days, his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, the pursuit of his army and himself, his abdication and banishment to the Island of Saint Helena concluded the Napoleonic Wars. Danube campaign During 1803–06 the Third Coalition fought the First French Empire and its client states (see table at right). Although several naval battles determined control of the seas, the outcome of the war was decided on the continent, predominantly in two major land operations in the Danube valley: the Ulm campaign in the upper Danube and the Vienna campaign, in the middle Danube valley. Political conflicts in Vienna delayed Austria's entry into the Third Coalition until 1805. After hostilities of the War of the Second Coalition ended in 1801, Archduke Charles—the emperor's brother—took advantage of the subsequent years of peace to develop a military restructuring plan. He carefully put this plan into effect beginning in 1803–04, but implementation was incomplete in 1805 when Karl Mack, Lieutenant Field Marshal and Quartermaster-General of the Army, implemented his own restructuring. Mack bypassed Charles' methodical approach. Occurring in the field, Mack's plan also undermined the overall command and organizational structure. Regardless, Mack sent an enthusiastic report to Vienna on the military's readiness. Furthermore, after misreading Napoleon's maneuvers in Württemberg, Mack reported to Vienna on the weakness of French dispositions. His reports convinced the war party advising the emperor, Francis II, to enter the conflict against France, despite Charles' own advice to the contrary. Responding to the report and rampant anti-French fever in Vienna, Francis dismissed Charles from his post as generalissimo and appointed his Francophobic brother-in-law, Archduke Ferdinand, as commander. The inexperienced Ferdinand was a poor choice of replacement for the capable Charles, having neither maturity nor aptitude for the assignment. Although Ferdinand retained nominal command, day-to-day decisions were placed in the hands of Mack, equally ill-suited for such an important assignment. When Mack was wounded early in the campaign, he was unable to take full charge of the army. Consequently, command further devolved to Lieutenant Field Marshal Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg, an able cavalry officer but inexperienced in the command of such a large army. Road to Ulm The campaign in the upper Danube valley began in October, with several clashes in Swabia. Near the Bavarian town of Wertingen, northwest of Augsburg, on 8 October the 1st Regiment of dragoons, part of Murat's Reserve Cavalry Corps, and grenadiers of Lannes' V Corps surprised an Austrian force half its size. The Austrians were arrayed in a line and unable to form their defensive squares quickly enough to protect themselves from the 4,000 dragoons and 8,000 grenadiers. Nearly 3,000 Austrians were captured and over 400 were killed or wounded. A day later, at another small town, Günzburg—immediately south of the Danube river—the French 59th Regiment of the Line stormed a bridge over the Danube and, humiliatingly, chased two large Austrian columns toward Ulm. The campaign was not entirely bad news for Vienna. At Haslach, Johann von Klenau arranged his 25,000 infantry and cavalry in a prime defensive position and, on 11 October, the overly confident General of Division Pierre Dupont de l'Étang attacked Klenau's force with fewer than 8,000 men. The French lost 1,500 men killed and wounded. Aside from taking the Imperial Eagles and guidons of the 15th and 17th Dragoons, Klenau's force also captured 900 men, 11 guns and 18 ammunition wagons. Klenau's victory was the singular success. On 14 October Mack sent two columns out of Ulm in preparation for a breakout to the north: one under Johann Sigismund Riesch headed toward Elchingen to secure the bridge there, and the other under Franz von Werneck went north with most of the heavy artillery. Recognizing the opportunity, Marshal Michel Ney hurried the rest of his VI Corps forward to re-establish contact with Dupont, who was still north of the Danube. In a two-pronged attack Ney sent one division to the south of Elchingen on the right bank of the Danube. This division began the assault at Elchingen. At the same time another division crossed the river to the east and moved west against Riesch's position. After clearing Austrian pickets from a bridge, the French attacked and captured a strategically located abbey at the top of the hill at bayonet point. The Austrian cavalry unsuccessfully tried to fend off the French, but the Austrian infantry broke and ran. In this engagement alone, the Austrians lost more than half their reserve artillery park, 6,000 (out of 8,000 total participants) dead, wounded or captured and four colors. Reisch's column also failed to destroy the bridges across the Danube. Napoleon's lightning campaign exposed the Austrian indecisive command structure and poor supply apparatus. Mack completely misread the French dispositions and scattered his forces; as the French defeated each unit separately, the surviving Austrians withdrew toward the Ulm fortifications. Napoleon arrived to take personal command of close to 80,000 men. At Ulm on 16 October Karl Mack surrendered his encircled army of 20,000 infantry and 3,273 cavalry. The officers were released on the condition that they not serve against France until formally exchanged for French officers captured by the Austrians, an agreement to which they held. Prelude to battle The few Austrian corps not trapped at Ulm withdrew toward Vienna, with the French in close pursuit. A Russian army under Gen. Mikhail Kutuzov also maneuvered away from the French, withdrawing to the east. At the Ill river on 22 October it joined with the retreating Austrian corps commanded by Michael von Kienmayer. On 5 November the Coalition forces held a successful rearguard action in Amstetten. On 7 November the Russians arrived in St. Pölten and crossed the Danube river the next day. Late on 9 November they destroyed the bridges across the Danube, holding the last one at the hamlet of Stein, near the village of Krems, until the late afternoon. Battlefield To the east of Stein, down an old road, lay Krems, with its small population of a few hundred, at the confluence of the stream of that name and the Danube. To the west of Stein the Danube made a large curve, creating a crescent-shaped floodplain between it and the mountains. At the far western end of the floodplain, where the mountains came down almost to the river's edge, was Dürenstein with its castle, known as Schloss Dürenstein. The castle had served as a prison for Richard I of England in 1193. In 1645–46, during the Thirty Years' War, the Swedes had fortified the castle and then demolished it when they withdrew. It stands at , on the highest ridge of a mountain fissured with clefts and pinnacles of granite. Because the mountain was sparsely vegetated, it was difficult to distinguish the ruins from the rocks. Narrow canyons cut through the mountain, and widen into the plain below. Between Dürenstein and Stein, on the flood plain, lay the hamlets of Oberloiben and Unterloiben. Near the hamlets, the Loiben flood plain was at its widest, extending at the most from the base of the Loibenberg mountain to the bank of the river. The region was known for its wine. Since the 15th century the local inhabitants practiced viticulture and the wine producers formed St. Paul Vintners' Guild in 1447, the oldest such guild in the German-speaking world. Terraced vineyards extended up the sides of the Krems River until it became a mountain stream and terrain was unsuitable for cultivation. The Loiben plain supported both viticulture and agriculture. As the terrain became steeper, the vines grew in terraces built from the dark Urgestein, primordial rock. From Dürenstein to Krems the river makes its wide curve; the mountains and the steeply terraced slopes prevent clear line-of-sight between the two towns. Dispositions Napoleon had calculated that Kutuzov, expecting reinforcements from Russia to defend its political allies, would withdraw toward Vienna; he envisioned that his and Kutuzov's armies would engage in a great battle at Vienna, and that this battle would decide the war. Consequently, Napoleon drew divisions from four of the other seven corps of the Grande Armée to create a new VIII Corps. This corps was to secure the north shore of the Danube, block any of the Austrian or Russian groups from reinforcing one another and, more importantly, prevent Kutuzov from crossing the river and escaping to Russia. The new VIII Corps, under the overall command of Édouard Mortier, included three infantry divisions and a division of cavalry (see Order of Battle below). Corps Mortier, as it was known, crossed the Danube at Linz and Passau in early November 1805 and marched east, on the north bank of the Danube. Operating independently, the corp's cavalry conducted reconnaissance ahead of them and on the flanks. Gen. Gazan's division (about 6,000 men) took the lead; Mortier was with them. They were followed by Dupont's division (another 4,000) about one day's march behind. Jean-Baptiste Dumonceau's division (another 4,000), marching another day behind Dupont, brought up the rear. A flotilla of 50 boats acquired at Passau provided communications across the Danube. Before sending Mortier on his mission, Napoleon instructed him to protect his north flank at all times against possible Russian reinforcements, advice he reiterated in subsequent written orders. Napoleon also advised Mortier to secure all crossings of the Danube between Linz and Vienna. On 9 November Gazan's division reached Marbach an der Donau and covered the to Dürenstein by early on the following afternoon. Here it skirmished with some Russian patrols to the east of the town and expelled them. Feeling confident, the French established a forward post just upstream from Stein. In Dürenstein itself, Mortier established his command post and directed the construction of a small field hospital. Although the position seemed secure, Mortier ignored Napoleon's strict instructions and neglected to protect his left (north) flank. This failure was an important factor when Mortier lost his corps' so-called "eyes": after he and Gazan had crossed the Danube, the French dragoons had veered to the northwest, leaving only three squadrons of the 4th Dragoons available for reconnaissance. These had left the division and were operating independently of Gazan's command. Consequently, Mortier and Gazan marched blindly through the narrow canyon west of Dürenstein, not knowing what lay ahead of them. Kutuzov had led the Coalition army across the Danube at Krems, a short distance past Stein, and destroyed the bridge behind him. His actions deprived the France commanders of a possible route across the Danube, putting the deployment of the entire French division at further risk in the case of retreat. In this decision Kutuzov abandoned Vienna to the French, who were converging on the Austrian capital from the north, west and southwest, for the security of uniting with reinforcements from Galicia. Contrary to Napoleon's expectation, Kutuzov chose a military solution over a political one. Unknown to either Gazan or Mortier, the Coalition had concentrated a force of approximately 24,000 men (mostly Russians and a few Austrians) within a few kilometers of the French position at Dürenstein. In comparison, Gazan's division had only 6,000 men. The Austro-Russian force was a mixture of infantry, Jägers (frequently deployed as skirmishers), Russian musketeers and Russian and Austrian cavalry, accompanied by more than 68 artillery pieces. The Russian cavalry, units of the greatly feared Cossacks, were well-suited for patrolling the river bank; indeed, on 9 November they had taken 40 French soldiers as prisoners. Furthermore, reinforcements stood in Moravia, less than two weeks' march away. If the main body of the French army crossed the river, they would require time to prepare. Kutuzov, who had learned the military arts under the tutelage of the legendary Russian Generalissimo Suvorov, had overall command and would have ample warning of any large-scale French movement. After the afternoon's initial skirmishing with the French, Kutuzov held a council of war on the evening of 10 November at Melk, at the great abbey there. He knew several things. First, he knew the positions of the French from prisoners his Cossacks had captured. He also knew that Gazan had crossed at Linz and was well ahead of any French reinforcements: Dupont had crossed at Passau and, by 10 November, stood at Marbach, upstream, and Dumonceau was another further behind Dupont. Kutuzov knew the size of the French force—its division strength—and its positions, and he knew that most of the dragoons were not covering the French flank but had turned north. He also knew, or had made a good supposition, about Napoleon's orders, so he knew what to offer Mortier and Gazan as bait. Battle plan In addition to the Russian generals, the council included Austrian commanders Lieutenant Field Marshal Johann Heinrich von Schmitt and Friedrich Karl Wilhelm, Fürst zu Hohenlohe. Although retired since 1800, Schmitt had been recalled after the Ulm debacle and had come to Kutuzov highly recommended by the Emperor. He was an experienced tactician and strategist and had served in a variety of posts in the Habsburg military; he had been Archduke Charles' trusted adviser during the campaigns from 1796 to 1800 and had assisted in planning several of Charles' victories. Upon his recall, Schmitt was appointed Chief of the Quartermaster General Staff of the Coalition Army. The generals also had found among the Austrian force one Capt. Christoph Freiherr von Stiebar (1753–1824), who had knowledge of the local geography. Together, Schmitt, Kutuzov and the other generals, with von Stiebar's advice on the local terrain, concocted a plan to encircle the French at Dürenstein. Russian commander Mikhail Miloradovich would approach Gazan's division from the east, supported by Pyotr Bagration's corps, and pin the French in place. Three additional columns, commanded by Dmitry Dokhturov (Doctorov), Maj. Gen. Strik and Schmitt, would outflank the French from the west and the north. They would offer, as bait, a rumor: the Russian army was retreating into Moravia and only a rearguard would be left at Krems. Battle On the night of 10–11 November a Russian column under Strik's command began its passage through the narrow canyons, intent on arriving at Dürenstein by noon; two more columns, under Dokhtorov and Schmitt, moved in wider semicircles, planning to pass through the mountains and attack the French, who were extended along the river bank. According to the plan, in late morning Strik's column would emerge from the mountains first and launch a flanking assault on the French right. This flanking attack, combined with Miloradovich's frontal assault from Stein, would force the French into a vise; encircled, they would have no option but to surrender—or die. To ensure the success of the plan, the second and third columns, under Dokhtorov and Schmitt, would arrive in early and mid-afternoon and support the earlier assaults. In this way, even if the French tried to retreat west to Marbach, they would not escape the vise-like grip of the Coalition army. Mortier accepted the bait of a rumored Russian retreat. In the early morning of 11 November he and Gazan departed from Dürenstein to seize Stein and Krems, presuming the Russians had either abandoned the settlements or left only a small rear-guard behind. As they approached Stein, a column of Miloradovich's troops attacked the French forward positions. Thinking this force was the rumored Russian rear guard, Mortier ordered Gen. Gazan to counterattack and push east towards the town of Stein. Fighting spread through the villages of Oberloiben, Unterloiben and the farm at Rothenhof. Instead of withdrawing, as a rear guard would, more and more Russian troops appeared and engaged the French column. Initially Gazan made rapid progress, but he quickly recognized that the opposing force was much stronger than the typical rearguard of a retreating army. Realizing he had been duped and that Gazan's troops were tiring rapidly, Mortier sent orders to Dupont's division to hurry forward. By mid-morning the French momentum had stalled; Mortier committed most of his remaining forces to driving Miloradovich back, leaving a single battalion—perhaps 300 troops—to cover his northern flank, and sent the rest to attack the Russian right. Within 30 minutes he achieved the superiority of numbers he sought. His 4,500 French opposed 2,600 Russians and forced them back toward Stein while pressing an attack along the river. Miloradovich had no option, for neither Strik's nor Dokhtorov's flanking columns were to be seen. Fighting paused. Mortier and Gazan waited for Dupont's arrival while Kutuzov and Miloradovich waited for Strik's and Dokhturov's. Schmitt's column was expected to be the last to join the fight because it had to march the greatest distance. The timing of the respite—12:00 or 14:00—varies, depending on whose reports are consulted. Strik arrived first and immediately assaulted Gazan's line with three battalions, pushing the French out of Dürenstein. Caught between two strong forces, Gazan attempted to push his way back through Dürenstein, to reach the river where the flotilla could evacuate his exhausted troops. Withdrawing through the narrow Danube canyon and fighting off the Russian force at their rear, Gazan and his division were trapped when more of Strik's Russians appeared to block their retreat. The narrow defiles hampered the Russians; Strik's men had to march out of the canyons, form ranks and attack in waves. Despite Strik's continuous assault in the next two to three hours, Mortier and Gazan pushed the Russians back up the narrow fissure in the hillside. At this point, Dokhturov's column appeared behind the French line and joined the battle. The French were outnumbered more than three to one, assaulted in the front by Miloradovich's column, in the middle by Strik's and in the rear by Dokhturov. Earlier in the morning Dupont had proceeded with his column south and east along the river, from Marbach, according to instructions. Even before the arrival of Mortier's courier, he heard the sound of artillery in the distance and sent riders ahead to discover the cause. They came back to report that a Russian column (Dokhturov's) was descending from the mountains to take the road to Dürenstein. Realizing this would separate him from the forward division, Dupont hustled his troops toward the sound of battle and deployed them to take the Russians in the flank. The French assault, heralded by cannon fire, caused Dokhturov's troops to turn their attention from Gazan's beleaguered force to face these new assailants. Although superior in numbers, Dokhturov's column had no supporting artillery, and the narrow space prevented them from taking advantage of their size. It was Dokhturov's turn to face attackers at his front and rear, until the arrival of Schmitt's column, which wended its way through the mountains in the west. Schmitt arrived at dusk, and the action continued well after dark; in mid-November night falls at close to 17:00 in the upper Danube climes. Despite the darkness, Schmitt descended out of the defiles and deployed his troops to assail Dupont's flank. As his Russians entered the fray, they came between a battalion of French and another of Russians. With the additional force, the French were overwhelmed, but most of the shooting subsided when the combatants could not tell apart friend from foe in the dark. Under the cover of darkness, aided by a waning moon, Mortier used the French flotilla to evacuate his exhausted troops to the south bank. The French and Russians continued to skirmish fitfully into the night as sentries encountered one another in the dark. Portions of Gazan's force provided any necessary rear guard action, and the following morning the remaining men were evacuated from the north shore of the Danube, while they maintained possession of only Spitz and Weissenkirchen on the north bank. Losses The losses were staggering: Gazan lost close to 40 percent of his division to death and wounds. Aside from losing five guns, 47 officers and 895 men under his command were captured, bringing the loss of effectives closer to 60 percent; furthermore, he lost the eagles of the 4th Infantry Regiment (France) and the eagle and guidon of the 4th Dragoons. The Russians lost around 4,000, about 16 percent of their force, and two regimental colors. The Austrian Lieutenant Field Marshal Schmitt was killed as the battle concluded, probably by Russian musketry in the confused melee. The vineyards and the villages of Ober- and Unterloiben were destroyed, as was most of Dürenstein and Stein. Krems was heavily damaged; the French plundered the town at least twice, and "barbarously handled" its inhabitants. Aftermath Both sides claimed victory. Although losses were fairly equal in terms of numbers—4,000 wounded or dead on each side—the Coalition forces went into battle with 24,000 men while the French started with Gazan's division of about 6,000, which grew close to 8,000 when Dupont's men joined the fighting in the afternoon. Regardless, Gazan's division was nearly destroyed; the 30 percent losses experienced by the French fell predominantly on his division. Clearly for both sides, the fighting was hard. The weather had been cold; an early storm had left slick icy mud in the roadways, and icicles "like chandeliers" hung from the trees. For the Coalition, the Russians were secure on the north bank of the Danube, awaiting reinforcements from Galicia; the bridges between Linz and Vienna had been destroyed, making French access to the Austrian capital more difficult, but not impossible. After six months of fighting in which the Austrians had enjoyed little good news, the Coalition could claim a difficult and timely victory. The French had retreated from the field with a badly mauled division and Kutuzov had secured the right flank. Indeed, Francis was so pleased with the outcome at Dürenstein that he awarded Kutuzov the Military Order of Maria Theresa. For the French, the survival of the Corps Mortier seemed nothing short of a miracle. The remainder of Gazan's division crossed the river the next morning and eventually recuperated in Vienna, which the French acquired by deception later in the month. More importantly for them, the French force had performed well over difficult terrain and under terrible combat conditions. Initially there had been some panic and parts of at least one French battalion had tried to escape on the flotilla craft. They had lost control of the boats in the current and smashed into the pillars of the burned bridge at Krems, overturning their boats. Tossed into the icy river, most had drowned. Despite this initial panic, Gazan's column retained its cohesion, and responded well to various difficult demands. Dupont had demonstrated his tactical acumen: when he heard cannon fire, he directed his troops toward it to support the French division. In terms of French staffing, Mortier's failure to guard his flank, especially in the face of Napoleon's direct advice, adversely influenced his relationship with his commander. However, in the immediate weeks ahead, the flamboyant Murat did more to annoy Napoleon than Mortier had. In assessing the battle and its aftermath, historians have laid the blame and credit for its outcome not only on Mortier and Gazan: "Napoleon, aware of Mortier's danger and his own culpability for it, vented his frustration on Murat, whom he unjustly accused of abandoning Mortier for the empty glory of riding through Vienna." After the victory at Austerlitz, Napoleon dispersed the VIII Corps and reassigned Mortier. However disappointed he may have been with Mortier, Napoleon was pleased with Gazan's performance. As recognition of his conduct in what the French called "the immortal Battle of Dürenstein", Gazan received the Officer's Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. The loss of Schmitt was a significant blow to the Austrian military organization. Called out of retirement for this specific task, he was the most experienced Habsburg general staff officer, second only to the Archduke Charles. From mid-1796 until his retirement in 1800 he had been Chief of the Quartermaster General Staff of the Army, the Lower Rhine, the Rhine and the Army of Germany. Furthermore, he was a trusted member of Archduke Charles' staff. He had helped to design several of Charles' more important victories at Emmendingen, Schliengen, the sieges at Kehl and Hünigen, the battles at Ostrach and Stockach, and the northern Swiss Campaign of 1799 that included battles at Winterthur and Zürich. An experienced officer and excellent tactician, he might well have made a more effective Chief of the Quartermaster General Staff of the Coalition Army at the Battle of Austerlitz than his eventual replacement, Franz von Weyrother. In Schmitt's absence, Weyrother, the architect of the Austrian catastrophe at Hohenlinden in 1800, was chosen to develop the general battle plan of Coalition action at Austerlitz. Schmitt, undoubtedly a far better tactician than Weyrother, and possessor of superior training and mapping skills, would have developed a more realistic Coalition plan for Austerlitz. Schmitt's presence would probably not have been enough to turn that defeat into a victory, but it would have mitigated the magnitude of the Coalition's losses; Austerlitz was considered one of Napoleon's finest triumphs. In the broader picture, despite the important major naval engagements, the outcome of the War of the Third Coalition was determined on the Continent, predominantly in the two major land operations. In the first, the Ulm campaign, the Habsburgs achieved such minor victories as Klenau's at Haslach-Jungingen and, after the capitulation at Ulm, isolated portions of the Austrian military evaded capture and joined with their Russian allies; Michael von Kienmayer's corps slipped out of the French encirclement and joined Kutuzov's force. A few other small forces refused to capitulate and seemingly melted into the Bavarian mountains and the Thuringian forests, to reappear in Bohemia in time for Austerlitz. Sixteen hundred cavalry, including Archduke Ferdinand and Prince Schwarzenberg, broke out of Ulm before its capitulation. Maximilian, Count of Merveldt, led his column back through the mountains into Austria, fighting rear guard actions against pursuing French forces at Steyer (Steyr) and Mariazell and a successful skirmish between the cavalry that escaped from Ulm and the French near the town of Nördlingen. These elusive units were insufficient to balance heavy losses at key battles in which the Austrians could not hold their own against the French. Between the Ulm capitulation and the Austrian and Russian defeat at Austerlitz, the contested victory at Dürenstein and another within days at Schöngrabern were the only bright spots in an otherwise dismal Austrian autumn of campaigning. Ultimately, the Austrians lost an entire army and an officer corps, which could not resume arms against France until formally exchanged. This condition crippled the Austrian military leadership and forced the recall of such pensioners as Schmitt out of retirement. The second determining event, the decisive French victory at the Battle of Austerlitz over the combined Russian and Austrian armies, forced the Austrian withdrawal from the Coalition. The subsequent Peace of Pressburg, signed on 26 December 1805, reinforced the earlier treaties of Campo Formio and Lunéville. Furthermore, Austria ceded land to Napoleon's German allies, and paid an indemnity of 40 million francs. Victory at Austerlitz also gave Napoleon the latitude to create a buffer zone of German states between France and the states of Prussia, Russia, and Austria. These measures did not establish a lasting peace on the continent. Prussian worries about growing French influence in Central Europe sparked the War of the Fourth Coalition in 1806, in which Austria did not participate. Battlefield commemorations Until 1805, Dürenstein was probably best known as the village in which crusader Richard the Lionheart was held by Leopold V, Duke of Austria. In 1741, during the War of the Austrian Succession, several hundred local villagers had held off the French and Bavarian armies, intent on capturing Vienna, by painting drain pipes to look like cannons, and beating on drums, thus suggesting the presence of a large force. After 1805, the exploits of 40,000 French, Russian, and Austrian soldiers excited the European imagination. General Schmitt's grave has never been found, but in 1811 a monument for him was erected at the Stein Tor, the gate leading from the old village of Krems to the hamlet of Stein. The house in which Captain von Stiebar lived was marked with a bronze plate commemorating his contribution to the battle. In 1840, a Spanish lithographer created an image of the battle, which was later expanded by English lithographer John Outhwaite. The image depicts the evacuation of French troops via the Danube flotilla (see Infobox image) on a moonlit night. In fact, the moon was in its last quarter phase 48 hours later, and on 11 November probably did not provide as much light as depicted in the image. In 1836, Jean-Antoine-Siméon Fort, a historical painter, created a watercolor of the battle, Combat de Dürnstein le 11 novembre 1805 ( Battle of Dürenstein of 11 November 1805), which is in the Trianon collection at Versailles. In the Russian novel War and Peace, Leo Tolstoy devoted several pages to the battle, its prelude, and its aftermath, and the delivery of its news to Francis II (Holy Roman Emperor) by Prince Andrew. Between Dürenstein and Rossatz, at the edge of the Loiben plain, stands the "Little Frenchman" memorial (see image) erected in 1905 to commemorate the battle; it bears the names of Mortier, Gazan, Kutuzov, Schmitt, and others on a copper-engraved plate. Orders of battle French VIII. Corps (Corps Mortier) On 6 November, Édouard Adolphe Mortier commanded the following forces: 1st Division under command of Pierre Dupont de l'Étang (formerly 1st Division of VI. Corps), six battalions, three squadrons, and three guns, most of which were involved in the fighting after mid-day. 2nd Division under command of Honoré Théodore Maxime Gazan de la Peyrière (formerly 2nd Division of the V. Corps), nine battalions, three squadrons, three guns. 3rd Division under command of Jean-Baptiste Dumonceau (Batavian Division, formerly 3rd Division of the II. Corps). The 3rd Division was not involved in the fighting. Dragoon Division under command of Louis Klein. Klein's division included the 1st, 2nd, 4th, and 14th Regiments of Dragoons. They were not involved in the fighting. Danube fleet of fifty boats, under the command of Frigate Captain Lostange. Total: fifteen battalions, six squadrons, six guns, approximately 12,000 men, not all of which were involved in the fighting. Coalition columns First Column, commanded by General of Brigade Prince Pyotr Ivanovich Bagration, included three battalions of infantry, three grenadier battalions, and three Jäger battalions, ten squadrons of Hussars. Second Column, Lieutenant General Essen, included six battalions of infantry, three battalions of grenadiers, and five squadrons of Hussars. Third Column, commanded by Lieutenant General Dokhturov, including six battalions of infantry, one battalion from the 8th Jäger regiment, and ten squadrons of the Hussar Regiment Mariupol. Fourth Column, commanded by Lieutenant General Schepelev, nine battalions of infantry. Fifth Column, Lieutenant General Freiherr von Maltitz, nine battalions of infantry. Sixth Column, Lieutenant General Freiherr von Rosen, with six battalions of Infantry and ten squadrons of cavalry. The Sixth Column did not take part in the fighting. Austrian Infantry Brigade, Major General Johann Nepomuk von Nostitz-Rieneck, four battalions of Border Infantry, including the highly decorated 9th Regiment Peterwardeiner. Austrian Cavalry Division, Lieutenant Field Marshal Friedrich Karl Wilhelm, Fürst zu Hohenlohe, twenty-two squadrons of cavalry. Total: fifty-eight battalions, sixty-two squadrons, fourteen artillery batteries, approximately 24,000 men and 168 guns. References Further reading Alison, Archibald (Sir). History of Europe, from the Commencement of the French Revolution in MDCCLXXXIX [i.e. 1789] to the Restoration of the Bourbons in MDCCCXV [i.e. 1815]. Edinburgh: Blackwood, 1847–48. Alombert-Goget, Paul Claude; Colin, Jean-Lambert-Alphonse. La Campagne de 1805 en Allemagne: Saint Poelten et Krems. Paris: Librairie militaire R. Chapelot, 1902–1908, v. 4. Blanning, Timothy. The French Revolutionary Wars. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, . Bodart, Gaston. Militär-historisches Kriegs-Lexikon (1618–1905). Wien: Stern, 1908. Bowden, Scott, "Napoleon and Austerlitz" 1997, The Emperor's Press, Chicago, Duernstein Official Website. Maps of towns. Accessed 7 March 2010. Duffy, Christopher, "Austerlitz 1805" 1977, Seeley Service & Co, London, Ebert, Jens-Florian. "Heinrich von Schmitt". Die Österreichischen Generäle 1792–1815. Napoleon Online: Portal zu Epoch. Markus Stein, editor. Mannheim, Germany. 14 February 2010 version. Accessed 5 February 2010. Egger, Rainer. Das Gefecht bei Dürnstein-Loiben 1805. Wien: Bundesverlag, 1986. Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. The Napoleonic Wars: the Rise and Fall of an Empire. Oxford: Osprey, 2004, . Gates, David. The Napoleonic Wars 1803–1815. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997, . Goetz, Robert. 1805: Austerlitz, the Destruction of the Third Coalition. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2005, . Kagan, Frederick W. The End of the Old Order. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press 2006, . Kerschbaumer, Anton. Geschichte der Stadt Krems. Krems: Österreicher Verlag, 1885, Mullié, Charles. "Honoré Théodore Maxime Gazan", Biographie des Célébrités Militaires des Armées de Terre et de Mer de 1789 à 1850, 1852. Murray (John) Company. Handbook for travellers in southern Germany. London: J. Murray, 1873. Musée National des châteaux de Versailles et de Trianon, Combat de Dürnstein le 11 novembre 1805. Inventory 26557. Ministry of Culture. Accessed 3 March 2010. National Aerodynamics and Space Administration. Phases of the Moon: 1801–1900. NASA. Accessed 6 February 2010. Parker, Robert M. Parker's Wine Buyer's Guide, 7th Edition: The Complete, Easy-to-Use. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008. . Porter, Darwin; Prince, Danforth. Frommer's Austria. "Krems and Dürenstein". Hoboken, N.J. : Frommer's, 2009. Smith, Digby. Napoleonic Wars Databook: 1805, London: Greenhill Publishing Co., 1998, . Smith, Digby. Heinrich von Schmitt, Mack and Weyrother. Leopold Kudrna and Digby Smith (compilers). Charles Burnham (editor in chief). A Biographical Dictionary of all Austrian Generals in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, 1792–1815. Napoleon Series. 1995–2010. Accessed 26 February 2010. Smith, Digby. Napoleon's Regiments. PA: Stackpole, 2001. . Stadt Krems an der Donau. Chronik. English version: Chronicle. Accessed 8 March 2010. Thiers, Adolphe, "History of the Consulate and the Empire of France" 1876, William Nimmo, London Tolstoy, Leo. War and Peace. Chapter 8. Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions, 1995, . External links Obscure Battles: Battle of Durnstein 1805 Conflicts in 1805 Durenstein 1805 Durenstein 1805 Durenstein 1805 1805 in the Austrian Empire 1805 in France War of the Third Coalition Battles involving France Battles of the War of the Third Coalition November 1805 events Battles inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe
4799454	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam%20and%20gender%20segregation	Islam and gender segregation	Gender segregation in Islamic law, custom, law and traditions refers to the practices and requirements in Islamic countries and communities for the separation of men and boys from women and girls in social and other settings. Views There have been fatwas which forbid free mixing between men and women (known as Ikhtilat), when alone. The objective of the restrictions is to keep such interaction at a modest level. According to some, men are not permitted to touch any part of the body of the women, whether she is Muslim or non-Muslim. Others have ruled that Muslim men and women who are not immediate relatives may not, for instance, socialize in order to know each other with a handshake and any form of contact which involves physical contact. A number of Muslim intellectuals and Muslim scholars have challenged this view and claim that certain physical contact is permissible as long as there is no obscenity, inappropriate touching (other than a simple handshake), secret meetings or flirting, according to the general rules of interaction between the genders. In some parts of the Muslim world, preventing women from being seen by men is closely linked to the concept of Namus. Namus is an ethical category, a virtue, in Middle Eastern Muslim patriarchal character. It is a strongly gender-specific category of relations within a family described in terms of honor, attention, respect/respectability, and modesty. The term is often translated as "honor". Sources The Qur'anic verses which address the interaction of men and women in the social context include: However he forbade men from stopping their wives from going to the Mosque: Early Islam Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates The roots of gender segregation in Islam have been investigated by many historians. Leila Ahmed explained that the harem arose in the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. It was not an institution from the time and place of Prophet Muhammad. Leor Halevi wrote in an article about women and mourning laments that a ″novel and unprecedented concern with the segregation of the sexes″ took place in Kufa, Iraq, in the eighth century. In time, this became normative. Everett K. Rowson discovered that gender nonconforming men in eighth century Medina could move freely between the sexes. Known as Mukhannath, these men were freely able to move between men and women due to beliefs that they were not sexually attracted to women. This changed during the times of the Early Caliphs in order to further keep women in private. Ottoman Empire The Harem The Ottoman Empire kept genders segregated in the harems and concubines were not allowed to leave the harem. Men, aside from the male head of the household, were forbidden to enter the harem. However, eunuchs were allowed to move freely inside and outside the harem and acted as protectors of the women. This position gave eunuchs the ability to have access to the ruler's living quarters. A common consequence of this segregation of the ruler from the rest of the house, while in the harem, gave eunuchs the role of message bearers. During the course of the Harem racial segregation became common between eunuchs. Slave traders of white circassian slaves enjoyed more business clout due to the inflated value of whiteness that existed during the Ottoman Empire. Bathhouses Segregation between men and women was strictly enforced in 18th-century Ottoman bathhouses. The rules on bathhouse segregation also restricted Muslim women from sharing a bathhouse with non-Muslim women, while Muslim men could share bathhouses with non-Muslim men. Shari'a courts held this up to preserve Muslim women's sanctity and prevent their violation. In Islamic countries Afghanistan Afghanistan, under Taliban religious leadership, was characterized by feminist groups and others as a "gender apartheid" system where women are segregated from men in public and do not enjoy legal equality or equal access to employment or education. In Islam women have the right to equal access to employment and education, although their first priority should be that of the family. Men too are said to be actively involved in the child rearing and household chores. Muhammad helped his wives in the house. During Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2004-2021), a huge number of Afghan men didn't have any contact with females other than their own family until going to university. This caused men to not see women as their colleagues thus usually tended to show impolite behaviour from themselves. So that each day thousands of women suffered from insults in streets all over Afghanistan. During this period, gender segregation in Afghanistan's schools forced the strained Ministry of Education, which was already short on supplies, funding, and teachers, to recreate the system for each gender. Baghe-Sharara (Persian: باغ شهرآرا) was a women-only park in Kabul during Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. It is the ancient garden constructed by Babur. No men was allowed to enter because it was a women-only space. This garden was reconstructed by financial supports from US, Italy and Switzerland and yearly, on March 8, programs specific to women were held there. As well as, women specific markets were held inside the garden. There were English and sewing classes. The shops selling products, the counselling center, the classes etc. were all run by women. Immediately after 2021 Taliban offensive all universities became sex-segregated all over the country. Since March 2022, Taliban started to segregate all amusement parks and resorts by sex. Ministry for the Propagation of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Afghanistan) stated that in Kabul males can go to amusement parks on Wednesdays, Thursdays, Fridays and Saturdays while females can go to amusement parks on Sundays, Mondays and Tuesdays. This ministry added no one is allowed to complain emphasizing that men are not allowed to enter parks on women's days. Egypt During the mid 20th century movements in Egypt implemented laws regarding the public sex segregation. This included the segregation of women on trains, organized by the Muslim Brotherhood. Before this new era, gender segregation was only applied to areas of religious ceremony. The idea of a “Pink taxi” in Egypt emerged after numerous women demanded women-only cabs. Advocates of the idea claimed that the taxis would help shield women against possible harassment and sexual assault. Iran When Ruhollah Khomeini called for women to attend public demonstrations and ignore the night curfew, millions of women who would otherwise not have left their homes without their husbands' and fathers' permission or presence, took to the streets. After the Islamic revolution, however, Khomeini publicly announced his disapproval of mixing between the sexes. During Khomeini's rule limits would be placed on what jobs a woman could possess, these laws would also uphold gender segregation in the workplace. Many women would not be given access into positions of political power without ties to male political elites or have ties with religious leaders, movements, or activism. Prevention of women candidates is upheld by male-dominated political parties who have rejected women from being represented as their possible recommended candidates. All women who have run as candidates for president have been rejected with no reason given. Critics have argued that the restriction of women's rights under Islamic law has led to the segregation of public and private spaces, which they must then attempt to resolve through politics and creating their own spaces. Gender segregation also impacts the company that people keep, as researcher Ziba Mir-Hosseini noted that during her field work she spent most of her time around women and that in some instances she never met the male relatives of some of these women due to the strict regulation of gender segregation. These restrictions may also impact travel, as some rules state that married women are forbidden from traveling without their husband's permission and in some cases women must be segregated from male passengers. Since 2005 access to higher education has been put off by the Iranian government. In pre-college level education gender segregation has conflicted with religious laws. Article 13 of the Islamic Republic of Iran allows Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians to educate their followers however their religion instructs them to. Regardless of this law boys and girls have been segregated from being in the same class room. Boys and girls would also get different textbooks. These regulations on gender have moved the ceremonies and events of religious minorities, such as funerals and weddings, out of view from the public due to laws against the public mixture of sexes. Iraq Gender-isolated education is conducted through higher-education, due to religious ideas of sex segregation. Hotels and motels all have strict rules for sex segregation. Saudi Arabia In Saudi Arabia, male doctors were previously not allowed to treat female patients, unless there were no female specialists available; and it was also not permissible for women to treat men. This has changed, however, and it is not uncommon for men and women to visit doctors of the opposite sex. Critics have argued that the restriction of women's rights under Saudi Arabia law, which is based on sharia law, has led to the separation of gender as women and men are separated in almost all areas, from women-only fast food lines to women-only offices. These laws and policies are enforced by the Islamic religious police, which has prompted some to find ways to evade policing. Gender segregation also impacts the Saudi education system, as there are more opportunities for men to graduate with a career and find employment. Women do not share in these opportunities and have a more difficult time finding employment as there are only a small number of locations that permit men and women to mix. Gender segregation also impacts the participation of women in religion by encouraging women to pray at home and not in the mosque. Scholars have stated that despite these restrictions, changes brought about with the new generations have allowed women more freedom to choose whether they pray at the mosque or in their homes. Mandate Palestine Of the late 19th and early 20th century European Jewish immigration to Palestine, Norman Rose writes that secular "Zionist mores" were "often at odds with Arab convention, threatening the customs and moral assumptions that lent cohesion to a socially conservative, traditional Palestinian society." The active political role of the women of the Yishuv and their lack of segregation was judged as particularly offensive. United States In the United States, Muslim couples may opt for gender-separate wedding celebrations so that men and women sit separately during the ceremony and celebrate in different rooms. Men and women, who are guests, do not sit together at the wedding ceremony, because it is seen as a ‘time out’ from the usual mixing of the sexes. In mosques Some schools of thought say that women should be encouraged to pray at home rather than in a mosque. However, other schools prefer to look at the context of the sayings, which they suggest were given at a time when women were in danger when leaving their homes, and consider mosques as welcome for women as their homes. Muhammad did not forbid women from entering his mosque in Medina. In fact, he told Muslims "not to prevent their women from going to mosque when they ask for permission". Prophet Muhammad specifically admonished the men not to keep their wives from going to the mosques: Segregation of sexes in mosques and prayer spaces is reported in a hadith in Sahih Muslim, one of the two most authentic Hadith books in Islam. It says that the best rows for men are the first rows, and the worst ones the last ones, and the best rows for women are the last ones and the worst ones for them are the first ones. It is also recorded that Muhammad ordered that mosques have separate doors for women and men so that men and women would not be obliged to go and come through the same door. He also commanded that after the Isha' evening prayer, women be allowed to leave the mosque first so that they would not have to mix with men. After Muhammad's death, many of his followers began to forbid women under their control from going to the mosque. Aisha bint Abi Bakr, a wife of Muhammad, once said, "If the Prophet had lived now and if he saw what we see of women today, he would have forbidden women to go to the mosque even as the Children of Israel forbade their women." The second caliph Umar also prohibited women from attending mosques especially at night because he feared they may be occasions of teasing by men so he asked them to pray at home. As Islam spread, it became unusual for women to worship in mosques because of male fear of immorality between sexes. Sometimes a special part of the mosque was railed off for women. For example, the governor of Mecca in 870 had ropes tied between the columns to make a separate place for women. Many mosques today put the women behind a barrier or partition or in another room. Mosques in South and Southeast Asia put men and women in separate rooms, as the divisions were built into them centuries ago. In nearly two-thirds of American mosques, women pray behind partitions or in separate areas, not in the main prayer hall; some mosques do not admit women at all due to the "lack of space" and the fact that some prayers, such as the Friday Jumuʻah, are mandatory for men but optional for women. Although there are sections exclusively for women and children, the Grand Mosque in Mecca is desegregated. There is a growing women's movement led by figures such as Asra Nomani who protest against what they regard as their second-class status and facilities. Justifications for segregation include the need to avoid distraction during prayer, although the primary reason cited is that this was the tradition (sunnah) of worshipers in the time of Muhammad. Criticism British-born Muslim author Ed Husain argues that rather than keeping sexual desires under check, gender segregation creates "pent-up sexual frustration which expressed itself in the unhealthiest ways," and leads young people to "see the opposite gender only as sex objects." While working in Saudi Arabia for seven months as an English teacher, the Arabic-speaking Husain was surprised to find that despite compulsory gender segregation and full hijab, Saudi men were much less modest and more predatory towards women than men in other countries he had lived. Despite the modest dress of his wifewho "out of respect for local custom, ... wore the long black abaya and covered her hair in a black scarf"she was on two occasions "accosted by passing Saudi youths from their cars. ... In supermarkets I only had to be away from [my wife] for five minutes and Saudi men would hiss or whisper obscenities as they walked past." Discussions with local women at the British Council indicated that her experience was far from unique. There is also a strong viewpoint growing among Muslims arguing against gender segregation. In Saudi Arabia which is known to be among the most gender segregated countries in the world there are occasional signs that gender segregation laws are becoming less strict. Some Muslims argue that women served food for the prophet Muhammad and his companions arguing that this is evidence that gender segregation did not exist during the earlier times of Islam. See also Gender separation in Judaism Harem Women-only park Islamic Bill of Rights for Women in the Mosque Marriage in Islam Namus, virtue, used in a gender-specific way Purdah, a physically separate area for women Women's mosques Negiah Case studies: Sultana's Dream, a 1905 Bengali story of reversed sex segregation Golden Needle Sewing School Islamofascism Mechitza, barrier that separates men and women in Jewish synagogues References External links Rasoulallah.netentries about Women in Islam Sultan.orgIslamic portal dealing with many points related to women in Islam Women in the Qur’an, hadith, and fiqh/jurisprudence Behind Closed Doors with a GirlShia Perspective on being alone with a member of the opposite gender Shia perspective on shaking hands with opposite gender and exceptions Gender and Islam Islam-related controversies Islamism Modesty in Islam Sex segregation Sex segregation and Islam Sexuality and society Sharia
4799689	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/56th%20%28West%20Essex%29%20Regiment%20of%20Foot	56th (West Essex) Regiment of Foot	The 56th (West Essex) Regiment of Foot was an infantry regiment in the British Army, active from 1755 to 1881. It was originally raised in Northumbria as the 58th Regiment, and renumbered the 56th the following year when two senior regiments were disbanded. It saw service in Cuba at the capture of Havana in the Seven Years' War, and was later part of the garrison during the Great Siege of Gibraltar in the American Revolutionary War. During the French Revolutionary Wars it fought in the Caribbean and then in Holland. On the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars the 56th raised a second battalion in 1804 as part of the anti-invasion preparations; both saw service in India and in the Indian Ocean, with the first capturing Réunion and Mauritius. A third battalion was formed in the later years of the war, but was disbanded after a brief period of service in the Netherlands. The regiment spent much of the following period on foreign garrison duties, and saw service in the later stages of the Crimean War, at the Siege of Sevastopol. It was despatched to India during the Indian Mutiny, but did not see active service. The regiment was amalgamated with the 44th (East Essex) Regiment of Foot to form the 2nd Battalion of the Essex Regiment in 1881, as part of the Childers Reforms; the Essex Regiment's lineage is currently maintained by the 1st Battalion, Royal Anglian Regiment, a mechanised infantry unit. History Formation and early service Following the rise of tensions in North America in 1755, the British government decided to raise ten regiments of infantry in preparation for an expected war with France. Orders for the raising of the 52nd to 61st Regiments of Foot were issued in December of that year. One of these regiments, the 58th Regiment of Foot, was raised at Newcastle and Gateshead on 28 December 1755, under the colonelcy of Lord Charles Manners, whose commission was dated 26 December. Throughout 1756 it recruited heavily to come to its authorised establishment of ten companies, each of 78 men. On 25 December 1756, the 50th and 51st Regiments were disbanded, and all higher-numbered units redesignated, with the 58th becoming the 56th Regiment of Foot. In April 1757 it moved to Berwick, and thence into Scotland, where it would take up garrison duties; it occupied quarters at Aberdeen in 1758 and Edinburgh in 1759. In July 1760 it returned to England, sailing from Leith to Portsmouth, and was stationed at Hilsea through 1761. On 17 December of that year, Lord Charles Manners was succeeded in the colonelcy by Colonel William Keppel. West Indies campaign On 4 January 1762, Britain declared war on Spain in the Seven Years' War, and began preparing for an expedition against Spanish possessions in the Caribbean. The 56th was assigned as part of the expeditionary force, and sailed from Portsmouth on 5 March, arriving off Havana on 6 June and landing the following day. The regiment numbered a total of 933 officers and men, and was brigaded with four companies of the 1st Foot and a battalion of the 60th Foot. The main object of the force was to besiege Morro Castle, which guarded the harbour. After a long reduction, a storming party was organised and attacked on 30 July, and took the fort after a brief but violent action, in which 150 of the garrison were killed and 400 taken prisoner, with the remaining 200 dying in an attempt to escape in small boats. The regiment was granted the battle honour "The Moro" for this action. The city surrendered on 13 August. The regiment suffered twelve deaths, with one officer and 23 men wounded, during the campaign. The 56th remained as part of the Havana garrison for the following year, until Cuba was returned to Spain by the Treaty of Paris, when it was transported to Ireland, arriving in Limerick in October 1763. The regiment moved to Dublin in May 1765, and in June 1765 the colonelcy was assigned to Lieutenant-General James Durand. He died in 1766, and was succeeded by Colonel Hunt Walsh. Gibraltar In 1770 the regiment was despatched to Gibraltar, sailing from Cork in May. The regiment was augmented by a light infantry company of seventy men in December 1770, and the ten line companies had their authorised establishment raised by twenty-one men. The regiment remained in the Gibraltar garrison for several years, and was present when Spain declared war on the United Kingdom in June 1779 and the Great Siege of Gibraltar began. At this point, the effective regimental strength was 560 men and 27 officers, around a tenth of the garrison. A relief convoy arrived early in 1780, and a second in April 1781, but supplies remained limited. The commander of the garrison decided late in 1781 to attempt a sortie, and this was launched on the night of 26 November; the flank companies of the 56th were part of the raiding force, and successfully destroyed several batteries of artillery. The siege was finally lifted in February 1783 – after three years and seven months – when the Treaty of Paris ended hostilities, and confirmed British possession of Gibraltar. The 56th received the battle honour "Gibraltar" for its service in the siege, with the right to bear the castle-and-key insignia on its colours. It was relieved in October 1783, and returned to England. Shortly thereafter the regiment was given a county affiliation, part of a move to increase recruiting by linking regiments to local areas, and became the 56th (West Essex) Regiment of Foot. In the spring of 1784 it moved to garrison duty in Scotland, serving at various stations there until January 1788, when it embarked for Ireland with a reduced establishment of ten companies. From 1788 to 1793 it was stationed in Ireland. French Revolutionary Wars With the French Revolution of 1792 the army was expanded in preparation for war; the authorised establishment of the 56th was brought up to twelve companies, and it was ordered to prepare for overseas service. Before hostilities broke out, however, the regiment was involved in suppressing a riot near Wexford in June 1793. Major Valloton, a company commander, was killed along with several local men. The regiment embarked for the West Indies in November 1793, arriving at Barbados in January 1794, and fought at the capture of Martinique in February. The line companies being left there as a garrison, the light and grenadier companies fought at the capture of St. Lucia in April, and the whole regiment saw service fighting at the capture of Guadeloupe in September. It remained as a garrison in the West Indies for the remainder of 1794, but took great losses from disease. In October, the men still fit for service were transferred to the 6th, 9th and 15th regiments, and the remaining cadre of officers and men embarked to return to England on 3 January 1795. Arriving in England in February, they were stationed at Chatham to recruit and retrain. The regiment sailed to Cork in September, and after a brief period in Ireland was deemed to have attained "so perfect a state of discipline and efficiency" that it was considered fit for overseas service once more, and despatched to Barbados. It was sent to St. Domingo, and remained there through 1797. On the death of General Walsh, the colonelcy had passed to Major-General Samuel Hulse on 7 March 1795; he did not retain it long, and it was conferred on Major-General Chapple Norton on 24 January 1797. After a period stationed in Jamaica, the regiment returned to England at the end of 1798, again to recruit and rebuild its strength. In 1799 the regiment was part of the force sent to the Netherlands in the ill-fated Helder Campaign, arriving in Holland in September in time for the Battle of Schoorl-Oudkarspel on the 19th, where it suffered sixty-three officers and men killed or wounded, plus another fifty-nine missing. It fought at Bergen and Egmont-op-Zee on 2 October, before withdrawing from the Netherlands on 18 November. During 1800 the regiment was stationed in Ireland, and increased its establishment by a further two companies of a hundred men each. The new recruits, since returning from the West Indies in 1799, had been enlisted for service only within Europe; on hearing the announcement of the major victories in the Egyptian campaign in 1801, they promptly offered their services for general service throughout the world. This offer was, however, quickly followed by the Peace of Amiens in 1802, and the regiment remained in Ireland. Napoleonic Wars On the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars, a major expansion of the land forces was put in place to deter an invasion; on 25 December 1804, some four hundred men raised in Surrey were placed on the Army establishment as the 2nd Battalion, 56th Regiment, shortly thereafter expanded to 656 men. The existing battalion of the regiment was, accordingly, redesignated as the 1st Battalion, 56th Regiment. Noting the great success the two existing battalions had had with recruiting, a third was later authorised, and raised in 1813 at Horsham as the 3rd Battalion, 56th Regiment. A detachment of the regiment served on board the frigates Psyche and Piedmontaise as marines in 1809–1810, and fought in a brief war with the Indian kingdom of Travancore in 1809. 1st Battalion The first battalion moved from Ireland to the Isle of Wight in January 1805, where it was brought to a full strength of a thousand men, and shortly thereafter embarked for Bombay, where it remained as a garrison for several years. In 1808, its strength was augmented to 1300 men. A force of 200 men were detached for service in the Indian Ocean in January 1809, successfully raiding the Île Bourbon in September, capturing a large amount of shipping at anchor. During this time, in August 1809, the remaining companies of the battalion were shipped from Bombay to Madras at short notice and under great secrecy, in an attempt to make a show of force to avert a possible mutiny of the Indian regiments. This was successful, with any violence being averted, and the regiment received the thanks of the Governor in Council. In 1810 a second expedition was mounted into the Indian Ocean, with a strong detachment of the first battalion as well as various other units, and the Île Bourbon was taken on 10 July. The same detachment then saw action at the capture of Mauritius in December, the last French territory remaining in the Indian Ocean. A force of militia volunteers sent as recruits to the 56th arrived as a garrison in Goa in mid-1810. It joined the first battalion in 1811, and the Indian Ocean detachment returned later that year. To mark the regiment's services in India, it received a new pair of colours as a gift from the Honourable East India Company. With the return of Napoleon to France in 1815, the battalion was again despatched to Mauritius to reinforce the garrison there against the possibility of a revolt by the French population, where it remained. 2nd Battalion The second battalion moved between various stations in southern England through 1805, being presented with its colours on 28 November at the Isle of Wight. In December it was brought up to an establishment of 866 men, raised to a thousand early in 1806. In March 1806 it moved to Guernsey for garrison duties, returning to the Isle of Wight in early 1807, and embarked for India in June. The two portions of the battalion were split up in a gale, one group putting in at the Cape of Good Hope to refit before continuing to Madras in convoy with HMS Greyhound, arriving in December. The battalion proceeded to Bombay, where it encountered the 1st Battalion for the first time, and moved to Surat in January 1809. At Surat, four companies were detached to aid in the capture of a bandit fort at Mallia in Baroda, returning to the battalion in December. The battalion expanded its establishment in 1810, rising to an authorised strength of 1,306 men. It suffered greatly from disease during garrison operations in Gujarat in 1813, and again in camp in 1814, losing some three hundred and thirty men between March 1813 and December 1814. However, by January 1815 it had moved to more salubrious climes at Assaye and was able to muster nine hundred men fit for service. The battalion was ordered to be disbanded as part of the reduction in the army after Waterloo, and marched to Bombay in November 1816. There, four hundred men who volunteered to continue in India were transferred to the 65th Regiment, and the bulk of the regiment sailed for England in January. The line companies were disbanded at Rochester on 25 June, and the flank companies (which had left India in July) at Chatham on 29 December. 3rd Battalion The third battalion was raised at Horsham in November 1813, and was recruited very rapidly; within a month of its formation, it was reported as ready for service with an establishment of 650 men. It embarked for Holland on 9 December, and fought at the Battle of Merxem on 30 January 1814. After service in the siege of Antwerp, the battalion returned to England after Napoleon's abdication, and was disbanded at Sheerness on 24 October. The men still fit for service were drafted to the first and second battalions, and sent to India. Peacetime service At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the remaining battalion of the regiment was stationed in Mauritius, where it undertook routine garrison duties and helped suppress the slave trade in the newly acquired colony. A major fire in September 1817 destroyed more than half of Port Louis, the island's capital; the regiment was employed in attempting to fight the fire, and two men were killed. In 1818 General Norton died, and was succeeded in the colonelcy by Lieutenant-General Sir John Murray. The regiment finally returned to England in 1826, after twenty years overseas. In 1827 it moved to Ireland from Hull, and after General Murray's death, the colonelcy was conferred upon Lieutenant-General Lord Aylmer. The regiment received new colours on 4 April 1828, with the honours "Moro" and "Havannah", as well as the Gibraltar crest and motto. On 23 July 1831 Lieutenant-General Sir Hudson Lowe was appointed to the colonelcy. Under the 1825 army reforms, six companies would be sent for overseas service at any one time, whilst four remained in the United Kingdom as a depot. Accordingly, when the regiment was ordered to embark for Jamaica in 1831 it took six of its ten companies. Other than a brief epidemic of yellow fever in 1837, claiming sixty men, the time in Jamaica was uneventful. In July 1838, the Sheerness depot provided the guard of honour for the visit of Marshal Soult. In March 1840 the main body of the regiment sailed aboard for Canada, to reinforce the garrison there during the Northeastern Boundary Dispute. It returned to England in July 1842, aboard HMS Resistance, where it rejoined its depot companies and moved to Ireland. On 17 November 1842, the Earl of Westmorland was appointed to the colonelcy of the regiment. The regiment remained at various stations in Ireland, serving to assist in keeping the peace during the widespread repeal movement demonstrations, until it moved to England in 1844. A reserve battalion was formed this year, by organising the existing depot companies, and forming a new depot force. The main force of the regiment moved to Gibraltar in 1847. The reserve battalion was transported to join them in February 1847, aboard the Birkenhead; it later disbanded, with the men transferred to rejoin the main force. The regiment left Gibraltar in May 1851 aboard the Resistance, for service in Bermuda. In September 1853, an outbreak of yellow fever aboard the convict hulk Thames in Bermuda harbour spread to the barracks; more than two hundred men died. The regiment was ordered home in December 1853. Crimean War Whilst the regiment had been ordered home from Bermuda in 1853, it did not sail until late 1854; in the interim, the Crimean War had broken out, and the regiment was put under orders to recruit in Ireland over the winter to full strength, and then sail for Turkey. In December, the first detachment of the regiment sailed for Constantinople. The second section of the regiment arrived in Dublin from Bermuda in January 1855, where it remained as a depot. Detachments from the depot provided support to the police during unrest at the 1855 by-election in Cavan. The remaining elements of the regiment returned from Bermuda as late as May. The main force of the regiment was ordered to the Crimea in July. It was originally planned for the regiment to be landed in Kerch to relieve the 71st Foot, but when it arrived it was ordered to land at Sevastopol to reinforce the Allied forces besieging the city. It landed on 25 August, moved into the front lines the next day, and were attached to the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division. The regiment supported the failed attack on the Redan on 8 September; it was not heavily involved, and only one man was wounded. Sevastopol fell on the 11th, and the regiment was awarded the battle honour "Sevastopol" for its involvement in the attack. Five men of the regiment were awarded the French Military War Medal for "fearless and steady conduct". The regiment left the Crimea on 12 July 1856, part of the final rearguard to depart. It had served overseas for almost a year, with five men killed in action and thirty deaths due to disease. Postwar service On the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny, the regiment was stationed in Ireland; it sailed for India in late August 1857. Whilst it remained in Bombay through the Mutiny, it did not see active service. The Earl of Westmoreland died in October 1859, and was succeeded as colonel by Lieutenant-General John Home Home on the 17th. He, however, died shortly afterwards, and was succeeded by the regiment's twelfth – and final – colonel, Major-General Henry William Breton. The regiment boarded ships to return from Bombay in March 1866; they arrived at Portsmouth, and took up residence in barracks there, in March 1866. After a spell in England, the regiment moved to Ireland in early 1868, and then embarked for India in February 1871. By late 1877 the regiment had moved to Aden, and was ordered home in early 1878. Amalgamation and successors As part of the Cardwell Reforms of the 1870s, where single-battalion regiments were linked together to share a single depot and recruiting district in the United Kingdom, the 56th was linked with the 44th (East Essex) Regiment of Foot, and assigned to district no. 44 at Warley Barracks near Brentwood. On 1 July 1881 the Childers Reforms came into effect and the regiment amalgamated with the 44th (East Essex) Regiment of Foot to form the Essex Regiment. The 56th (as the junior of the two regiments) became the 2nd Battalion, the Essex Regiment. Whilst the 56th had formally ceased to exist, a degree of individual continuity remained; the 2nd Battalion of the Essex Regiment remained in an independent existence until 1948, when the 2nd Battalion was dissolved and the regiment was amalgamated into a single regular battalion. The Essex Regiment was itself amalgamated into the single-battalion 3rd East Anglian Regiment (16th/44th Foot) in 1958; in 1964, this became the 3rd Battalion, the Royal Anglian Regiment. The 3rd Battalion Royal Anglians was finally disbanded in 1992, with its personnel absorbed by the 1st Battalion. Traditions The regiment was originally uniformed with a deep crimson facing colour, which in 1764 was changed to purple. During the 18th century the fugitive nature of the dye required to produce this unusual military colour produced varying shades. The colour was often called "pompadour", from which the regiment's nickname of "The Pompadours" came. The reasons for the name of the colour are unclear; it is often said that the shade was Madame de Pompadour's favourite colour. Some soldiers of the regiment preferred to claim that it was the colour of her underwear. The regimental march, "Rule, Britannia!", commemorated the regiment's past service as marines. Battle honours The regiment carried on its colours the battle honours "Moro" and "Sevastopol", as well the Gibraltar castle and key device superscribed "Gibraltar" and subscribed with the motto Montis Insignia Calpe. The battle honour "Havannah" was also granted to the 56th, but not until 1909; as such, it was only ever borne by its successor, the Essex Regiment. Colonels of the Regiment Colonels of the Regiment were: 58th Regiment of Foot 1755–1761: Maj-Gen. Lord Charles Manners 56th Regiment of Foot - (1756) 1761–1765: Lt-Gen. Hon. William Keppel 1765–1766: Lt-Gen. James Durand 1766–1795: Gen. Hunt Walsh 56th (the West Essex) Regiment of Foot - (1782) 1795–1797: F.M. Sir Samuel Hulse, GCH 1797–1818: Gen. Hon. Chapple Norton 1818–1827: Gen. Sir John Murray, 8th Baronet, GCH 1827–1832: Gen. Matthew Aylmer, 5th Lord Aylmer, GCB 1832–1842: Lt-Gen. Sir Hudson Lowe, KCB, GCMG 1842–1859: Gen. John Fane, 11th Earl of Westmorland, GCB, GCH 1859–1860: Lt-Gen. John Home Home 1860–1881: Gen. Henry William Breton Notes References Digitised copy External links Personnel lists of the 56th Regiment of Foot Infantry regiments of the British Army Military units and formations established in 1755 Military units and formations in Essex Regiments of the British Army in the Crimean War Military units and formations disestablished in 1881
4799746	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban%20history	Urban history	Urban history is a field of history that examines the historical nature of cities and towns, and the process of urbanization. The approach is often multidisciplinary, crossing boundaries into fields like social history, architectural history, urban sociology, urban geography, business history, and archaeology. Urbanization and industrialization were popular themes for 20th-century historians, often tied to an implicit model of modernization, or the transformation of rural traditional societies. The history of urbanization focuses on the processes of by which existing populations concentrate in urban localities over time, and on the social, political, cultural and economic contexts of cities. Most urban scholars focus on the "metropolis," a large or especially important city. There is much less attention to small cities, towns or (until recently) suburbs. However social historians find small cities much easier to handle because they can use census data to cover or sample the entire population. In the United States from the 1920s to the 1990s many of the most influential monographs began as one of the 140 PhD dissertations at Harvard University directed by Arthur Schlesinger, Sr. (1888-1965) or Oscar Handlin (1915-2011). The field grew rapidly after 1970, leading one prominent scholar, Stephan Thernstrom, to note that urban history apparently deals with cities, or with city-dwellers, or with events that transpired in cities, with attitudes toward cities – which makes one wonder what is not urban history. Comparative studies Only a handful of studies attempt a global history of cities, notably Lewis Mumford, The City in History (1961). Representative comparative studies include Leonardo Benevolo, The European City (1993); Christopher R. Friedrichs, The Early Modern City, 1450-1750 (1995), and James L. McClain, John M. Merriman, and Ugawa Kaoru. eds. Edo and Paris (1994) (Edo was the old name for Tokyo). Architectural history is its own field but occasionally overlaps with urban history. The political role of cities in helping state formation—and in staying independent—is the theme of Charles Tilly and W. P. Blockmans, eds., Cities and the Rise of States in Europe, A.D. 1000 to 1800 (1994). Comparative elite studies—who was in power—are typified by Luisa Passerini, Dawn Lyon, Enrica Capussotti and Ioanna Laliotou, eds. Who Ran the Cities? City Elites and Urban Power Structures in Europe and North America, 1750-1940 (2008) . Labor activists and socialists often had national or international networks that circulated ideas and tactics. Great Britain In the 1960s, the historiography of Victorian towns and cities began to flourish in Britain. Much attention focused first on the Victorian city, with topics ranging from demography, public health, the working-class, and local culture. In recent decades, topics regarding class, capitalism, and social structure gave way to studies of the cultural history of urban life, as well as the study of groups such as women, prostitutes, migrants from rural areas, and immigrants from the Continent and from the British Empire. The urban environment itself became a major topic, as studies of the material fabric of the city, and the structure of urban space, became more prominent. Historians have almost always focused on London, but they have also studied small towns and cities from the medieval period, as well as the urbanization that attended the industrial revolution. In the second half of the 19th century, provincial centres such as Birmingham, Glasgow, Leeds, Liverpool, and Manchester doubled in size and became regional capitals. They were all conurbations that included smaller cities and suburbs in their catchment area. Available scholarly materials have become quite comprehensive today. United States Urban biography Urban biography is the narrative history of a city and often reaches a general audience. Urban biographies cover the interrelationships among various dimensions, such as politics, demography, business, high culture, popular culture, housing, neighbourhoods, and ethnic groups. It covers municipal government as well as physical expansion, growth and decline. Historians often focus on the largest and most dominant city—usually the national capital—which geographers call a "primate city." Some representative urban biographies are: Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace. Gotham: a history of New York City to 1898 (2000) S. G. Checkland, The Upas Tree: Glasgow, 1875-1975 (1981) Geoffrey Cotterell, Amsterdam, The Life of a City (1972) Janet Abu-Lughod, Cairo; 1001 Years of City Victorious (1971) Diane E. Davis, Urban Leviathan: Mexico City in the Twentieth Century (1994) Constance McLaughlin Green, Washington, Village and Capital, 1800-1878 (1962) Christopher Hibbert, London, the Biography of a City (1969) Robert Hughes, Barcelona (1992) Colin Jones. Paris: Biography of a City (2004) Blake McKelvey. Rochester (4 vol, 1961), Rochester NY Simon Sebag Montefiore, Jerusalem: The Biography (2012) Bessie Louise Pierce, A History of Chicago (3 vol 1957), to 1893. Roy Porter, London: A Social History (1998) Alexandra Ritchie, Faust's Metropolis: A History of Berlin (1998) James Scobie, Buenos Aires: Plaza to Suburb (1974) Ronald Taylor, Berlin and its Culture: A Historical Portrait (1997), considers literature, music, theater, painting, and decorative arts. Historians have developed typologies of cities, emphasizing their geographic location and economic specialization. In the United States Carl Bridenbaugh was a pioneer in historiography. He emphasized the major port cities on the East Coast, the largest of which were Boston and Philadelphia, each with fewer than 40,000 people at the time of the American Revolution. Other historians have covered the port cities up and down the East Coast, the Gulf Coast, and the West Coast, along with the river ports along the Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri rivers. Industrialization began in New England, and several small cities have scholarly histories. The railroad cities of the West, stretching from Chicago to Kansas City to Wichita to Denver have been well treated. Blake McKelvey provides an encyclopedic overview of the functions of major cities in The Urbanization of America, 1860-1915 (1963), and The Emergence of Metropolitan America, 1915-1966 (1968) Large-scale reference books Peter Clark of the Urban History Center of the University of Leicester was the general editor (and Cambridge University Press the publisher) of a massive history of British cities and towns, running 2800 pages in 75 chapters by 90 scholars. The chapters deal not with biographies of individual cities, but with economic, social or political themes that cities had in common. Two highly influential, authoritative and comprehensive compendia of European urban history were also compiled by Barry Haynes of the Centre for Urban History at Leicester University in 1990 and 1991, published by Leicester University. These books made a significant contribution to the bibliographic review of urban history research and literature in both Eastern and Western Europe. In the United States a very different approach was sponsored by the National Endowment for the Humanities has sponsored large historical encyclopedias for many states and several cities, most notably the Encyclopedia of Chicago (2004; also online edition) and The Encyclopedia of New York City (1995, 2nd ed. 2010) They followed the model of an earlier encyclopedia of Cleveland and relished the details about neighbourhoods, people, organizations and events, without imposing any overall theme. Suburbs A new subgenre is the history of specific suburbs. Historians have concentrated on specific places, typically focusing on the origins of the suburb in relation to the central city, the pattern of growth, different functions (such as residential or industrial), local politics, as well as racial exclusion and gender roles. The main overview is Kenneth T. Jackson's Crabgrass Frontier (1987). Many people have assumed that early-20th-century suburbs were enclaves for middle-class whites, a concept that carries tremendous cultural influence yet is actually stereotypical. Many suburbs are based on a heterogeneous society of working-class and minority residents, many of whom share the American Dream of upward social status via home ownership. Sies (2001) argues that it is necessary to examine how "suburb" is defined as well as the distinction made between cities and suburbs, geography, economic circumstances, and the interaction of numerous factors that move research beyond acceptance of stereotyping and its influence on scholarly assumptions. New urban history The "new urban history" emerged in the 1960s as a branch of Social history seeking to understand the "city as process" and, through quantitative methods, to learn more about the inarticulate masses in the cities, as opposed to the mayors and elites. Much of the attention is devoted to individual behaviour, and how the intermingling of classes and ethnic groups operated inside a particular city. Smaller cities are much easier to handle when it comes to tracking a sample of individuals over ten or 20 years. Common themes include social and political changes, examinations of class formation, and racial/ethnic tensions. A major early study was Stephan Thernstrom's Poverty and Progress: Social Mobility in a Nineteenth Century City (1964), which used census records to study Newburyport, Massachusetts, 1850–1880. A seminal, landmark book, it sparked interest in the 1960s and 1970s in quantitative methods, census sources, "bottom-up" history, and the measurement of upward social mobility by different ethnic groups. Other exemplars of the new urban history included Kathleen Conzen, Immigrant Milwaukee, 1836-1860 (1976) David F. Crew. Town in the Ruhr: A Social History of Bochum, 1860-1914 (1986) Alan Dawley, Class and Community: The Industrial Revolution in Lynn (1975; 2nd ed. 2000) Michael B. Katz, The People of Hamilton, Canada West (1976) Eric H. Monkkonen, The Dangerous Class: Crime and Poverty in Columbus Ohio 1860-1865 (1975) There were no overarching social history theories that emerged developed to explain urban development. Inspiration from urban geography and sociology, as well as a concern with workers (as opposed to labour union leaders), families, ethnic groups, racial segregation, and women's roles, have proven useful. Historians now view the contending groups within the city as "agents" who shape the direction of urbanization. The sub-field has flourished in Australia—where most people live in cities. Demographic perspectives make use of the large volume of census data from the mid-19th century. Rather than being strictly areas of geographical segmentation, spatial patterns and concepts of place reveal the struggles for power of various social groups, including gender, class, race, and ethnic identity. The spatial patterns of residential and business areas give individual cities their distinct identities and, considering the social aspects attendant to the patterns, create a more complete picture of how those cities evolved, shaping the lives of their citizens. New techniques include the use of historical GIS data. Non-Western cities Since the 1980s extensive research has been done on the cities of the Ottoman Empire, where standardized record-keeping and centralized archives have facilitated work on Aleppo, Damascus, Byblos, Sidon, Jericho, Hama, Nablus and Jerusalem. Historians have explored the social bases of political factionalism, histories of elites and commoners, different family structures and gender roles, marginalized groups such as prostitutes and slaves, and relationships between Muslims and Christians and Jews. Increasingly work is underway on African cities, as well as South Asia. In China, the Maoist ideology privileged the uprising of the peasants as the central force in Chinese history, which led to a neglect of urban history until the 1980s. Academics were then allowed to assert that peasant rebellions were often reactionary rather than revolutionary and that China's modernizers of the 1870s made significant advances, even if they were capitalists. For over a century—since Heinrich Schliemann searched for and found ancient Troy—archaeologists and ancient historians have studied the cities of the ancient world. Images and cultural role The study of the culture of specific cities and the role of cities in shaping national culture is a more recent development which provides nontraditional ways of "reading" cities. A representative class is Carl E. Schorske, Fin-De-Siecle Vienna: Politics and Culture (1980). The basis for some of this approach stems from a post-modern theory including the cultural anthropology of Clifford Geertz. One example is Alan Mayne's The Imagined Slum: Newspaper Representation in Three Cities, 1870-1914(1993), a study of how slums were represented in the newspapers in Sydney, San Francisco, and Birmingham. The accounts provided dramatic life stories but failed to integrate the agendas and animosities of city officials, property owners, residents, and local businessmen. As a result, they did not reveal the true inner-city social structures. Nevertheless, the middle class accepted the image of and decided to act on the social constructions, leading to the reformers' demands for slum clearance and urban renewal. As Rosen and Tarr point out, environmental history has made great strides since the 1970s, but its focus is primarily on rural areas, leading to a neglect of urban issues such as air pollution, sewage, clean water—and the concentration of large numbers of horses. Historians are beginning to integrate urban history and environmental history. Thus far most of the attention concerns the negative impact on the environment, rather than how the environment shaped the urbanization process. Literature and philosophy In literature, the city has long stood as one of the most potent symbols of human capacities and nature. As the largest and most enduring creation of human imagination and hands, and as the largest and most sustained site of human association and interaction, the city has been seen as a marker of what humans are and of what they do. This signification has almost always been shaded with ambivalence. In old legends, epics, and utopias, cities (both actual and symbolic) appeared as places of exceptional but also contradictory meaning. The histories of Troy, Babel, Sodom, Babylon, and Rome were viewed, in Western cultures, as standing for human power, wisdom, creativity, and vision, but also for human presumption, perversion, and fated destruction. Images of the modern city restated this ambivalence with fresh intensity. Great modern cities like London, Paris, Berlin, and New York, have repeatedly been portrayed as sites of opportunity and peril, power and helplessness, vitality and decadence, creativity and perplexity. This contradictory face of the city has appeared so often in Western thought as to suggest an essential psychological and cultural anxiety about human civilization, an anxiety about humanity's relation to their created world and about "humanity" itself. This is especially true of the “modern” city, filled with human artifice and moral contradiction. Scholarship The Journal of Urban History has been a leading quarterly journal with articles and reviews since 1975. The Urban History Association was founded in 1988 with 284 members; it now has over 400. It sponsored the "Sixth Biennial Urban History Association Conference" in New York, October 25–28, 2012. It awards prizes for the best book prize, best article, and best PhD dissertation. H.J. Dyos (1921-1978) at the University of Leicester was the leading promoter of urban history in Britain, leading the way, especially into the study of Victorian cities. He formed the Urban History Study Group in 1962; its newsletter became the Urban History Yearbook (1974-1991) and then the journal Urban History (1992–present). His edited volume on The Study of Urban History (1968) opened up the methodology and stimulated young scholars, as did the conferences he organized and the book series he edited. Dyos rejected the quantitative methods of the New Urban History because he was not interested in the individual people in the city, but in the larger social structure, such as the slum or the entire city. Since 1993, the daily email discussion list H-Urban has enabled historians, graduate students and others interested in urban history and urban studies to communicate current research and research interests easily; to query and discuss new approaches, sources, methods, and tools of analysis; and to comment on contemporary historiography. The logs are open to searches, and membership is free. H-Urban seeks to inform historians on such matters as announcements, calls for papers, conferences, awards, fellowships, availability of new sources and archives, reports on new research, and teaching tools, including books, articles, works-in-progress, research reports, primary historical documents (for example, model ordinances, federal/state/local reports, addresses of city officials), syllabi, bibliographies, software, datasets, and multimedia publications or projects. It commissions its own book reviews. H-Urban has 2,856 subscribers (as of 2012) and is the oldest of the H-Net network of discussion lists. The history of European urbanism in the 20th century is the focus of , a current Horizon 2020 European Joint Doctorate programme. It is based on the inherent multidisciplinary approach of the research field and the goal of gaining a pan-European perspective on planning history. See also American urban history Center for Urban History of East Central Europe Cities in the Great Depression, (1929-1939), worldwide Gilded Age Plains City, online resources for American Midwest Danish Center of Urban History History of cities in Canada Social history Suburb History of urban planning Town and Country Planning Association Urban planning Urban economics Urban studies Index of urban studies articles Urbanization Cities List of oldest continuously inhabited cities Cities of East Asia History of Beijing History of Berlin History of Chicago History of London History of Manila History of Mexico City History of Naples History of New York City History of Paris History of Philadelphia History of Rome History of Vienna Notes Further reading Abbott, Carl. "Urban History for Planners," Journal of Planning History, Nov 2006, Vol. 5 Issue 4, pp 301–313 Armus, Diego and John Lear. "The trajectory of Latin American urban history," Journal of Urban History (1998) 24#3 pp 291–301 Beachy, Robert and Ralf Roth, eds. Who Ran the Cities?: City Elites and Urban Power Structures in Europe and North America, 1750-1940 (2007) Bennett, Larry. The Third City: Chicago and American Urbanism. (U of Chicago Press, 2015), 241 pp Borsay, Peter. The eighteenth-century town: a reader in English urban history 1688-1820 (Routledge, 2014) Clark, Peter, and Paul Slack. English Towns in Transition 1500-1700 (1976) Davies, Gary W. "The rise of urban history in Britain c. 1960-1978" (PhD dissertation, University of Leicester, 2014) online, With detailed bibliography pp 205-40 Denecke, Dietrich, and Gareth Shaw, eds. Urban historical geography: recent progress in Britain and Germany (Cambridge UP, 1988). Emmen, Edith. The Medieval Town (1979) Emerson, Charles. 1913: In Search of the World Before the Great War (2013) 526pp short essays on 21 major world cities in 1913, including London, Washington, Winnipeg, and Constantinople etc. Engeli, Christian, and Horst Matzerath. Modern urban history research in Europe, USA, and Japan: a handbook (1989) in GoogleBooks Epstein, S. E. ed. Town and Country in Europe, 1300-1800 (2001), a major anthology of scholarly articles Frost, Lionel, and Seamus O'Hanlon. "Urban history and the future of Australian cities." Australian Economic History Review (2009) 49#1 pp: 1-18. Gillette Jr., Howard, and Zane L. Miller, eds. American Urbanism: A Historiographical Review (1987) online Goldfield, David. ed. Encyclopedia of American Urban History (2 vol 2006); 1056pp; excerpt and text search Harvey, David, Consciousness and the Urban Experience: Studies in the History and Theory of Capitalist Urbanization (1985), a Marxist approach Handlin, Oscar, and John Burchard, eds. The Historian and the City (Harvard U.P., 1963) Haynes, Barry. Register of European Urban History (Leicester University, 1991) Haynes, Douglas E., and Nikhil Rao. "Beyond the Colonial City: Re-Evaluating the Urban History of India, ca. 1920–1970." South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies (2013) 36#3 pp: 317–335. Online Hays, Samuel P. "From the History of the City to the History of the Urbanized Society," Journal of Urban History, (1993) 19#1 pp 3–25. Isin, Engin F. "Historical sociology of the city' in Gerard Delanty & Engin F. Isin, eds. Handbook of historical sociology (2003). pp. 312–325. online Lees, Andrew. "Historical perspectives on cities in modern Germany: recent literature." Journal of Urban History 5.4 (1979): 411–446. Lees, Andrew. "Cities, Society, and Culture in Modern Germany: Recent Writings by Americans on the Großstadt." Journal of Urban History 25.5 (1999): 734–744. Lees, Lynn Hollen. "The Challenge of Political Change: Urban History in the 1990s," Urban History, (1994), 21#1 pp. 7–19. McKay, John P. Tramways and Trolleys: The Rise of Urban Mass Transport in Europe (1976) McManus, Ruth, and Philip J. Ethington, "Suburbs in transition: new approaches to suburban history," Urban History, Aug 2007, Vol. 34 Issue 2, pp 317–337 McShane, Clay. "The State of the Art in North American Urban History," Journal of Urban History (2006) 32#4 pp 582–597, identifies a loss of influence by such writers as Lewis Mumford, Robert Caro, and Sam Warner, a continuation of the emphasis on narrow, modern time periods, and a general decline in the importance of the field. Comments by Timothy Gilfoyle and Carl Abbott contest the latter conclusion. Miller, Jaroslav. "‘In each town I find a triple harmony’: idealizing the city and the language of community in early modern (East) Central European urban historiography." Urban History (2012) 39#1 pp: 3-19. Piker, Burton, The Image of the City in Modern Literature (1981) Mohl, Raymond. "Urban History," in D. R. Woolf, ed. A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing (1988) pp 907–14 Nicholas, David M. The growth of the medieval city: from late antiquity to the early fourteenth century (Routledge, 2014); The later medieval city: 1300-1500 (Routledge, 2014) Platt, Harold L. Building the Urban Environment: Visions of the Organic City in the United States, Europe, and Latin America (Temple University Press, 2015). 301 pp. Reulecke, Jürgen; Huck, Gerhard; Sutcliffe, Anthony. "Urban History Research in Germany: Its Development and Present Condition," Urban History Yearbook (1981) pp 39–54 Rodger, Richard. "Taking Stock: Perspectives on British Urban History," Urban History Review (2003) 32#1 online Roth, Ralf, and Marie-Noëlle Polino, eds. The City and the Railway in Europe (Ashgate, 2003), 287 pages Ruiz, Teofilo. "Urban Historical Geography and the Writing of Late Medieval Urban History," in Carol Lansing and Edward D. English, eds., A Companion to the Medieval World (2010) pp 397–412 Wang, Q. Edward. "Urban History in China: Editor's Introduction." Chinese Studies in History (2014) 47#3 pp: 3–6. Special issue on Chinese cities Online External links International Planning History Society The International Planning History Society International Conference - 2012 website The International Planning History Society International Conference - 2014 website H-URBAN, daily email discussion group on urban history Gilbert A. Stelter, "Introduction to the Study of Urban History" (1996) The Urban History Association Centre for Urban History, University of Leicester, U.K. Centre for Urban History, University of Antwerp, Belgium Center for Urban History of East Central Europe, Lviv, Ukraine Historical Research into Urban Transformation Processes, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (Brussels, Belgium) Fields of history Urban planning Local history
4799798	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essex%20Yeomanry	Essex Yeomanry	The Essex Yeomanry was a Reserve unit of the British Army that originated in 1797 as local Yeomanry Cavalry Troops in Essex. Reformed after the experience gained in the Second Boer War, it saw active service as cavalry in World War I and as artillery in World War II. Its lineage is maintained by 36 (Essex Yeomanry) Signal Squadron, part of 71 (Yeomanry) Signal Regiment, Royal Corps of Signals. History French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars After Britain was drawn into the French Revolutionary Wars, the government of prime minister William Pitt the Younger proposed on 14 March 1794 that the counties should form Corps of Yeomanry Cavalry that could be called on by the King to defend the country against invasion or by the Lord Lieutenant to subdue any civil disorder within the county. Prominent landowners came forward to recruit the new force. The first Troop of Yeomanry in Essex was formed in 1797 by John Conyers of Copped Hall near Epping. The 2nd Troop was recruited in the Chelmsford district in February 1798 by William Tufnell of Langleys at Great Waltham, and the 3rd Troop was raised in March by John Archer-Houblon of Great Hallingbury. By the end of May that year there were 15 Troops across Essex, with an establishment of 640 men. In 1803, when the shortlived Peace of Amiens broke down and the Napoleonic Wars began, there was a resurgence in recruiting for the Yeomanry, and by December that year there were 23 Troops in Essex, with a strength of 1251 men. The largest was the 5th Troop raised at Harlow by Montagu Burgoyne, which had 160 men. By 1813 the threat from France had disappeared and the Yeomanry were in decline: the number of Troops in Essex had fallen to 12. The government suggested that the independent Troops should be regimented, and in February seven of the Essex Troops became the 1st Essex Yeomanry Cavalry under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Archer-Houblon. The remaining Troops continued as parts of independent units: 1st Squadron of Essex Yeomanry Cavalry (Captain Conyers) Essex Union Legion Cavalry (Lt-Col Burgoyne) Havering Yeomanry Cavalry (Major Crosse) 1st East Essex Cavalry (Capt Bawtree) 19th Century After the Battle of Waterloo the Yeomanry were kept in being in case of civil disorder, but there was little unrest in Essex and by 1827 only four Troops remained in the county, with a strength of just 120. When Government support for the Yeomanry was withdrawn in 1828 the Tufnell Troop was the last to be disbanded. However, just two years later a wave of unrest swept the country and the government restored Yeomanry pay for drills and periods of service in aid of the civil power. George Palmer of Nazeing Park raised a new Troop known as the West Essex Corps of Yeomanry Cavalry, whose primary purpose was to protect the Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills and the Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield Lock. From 1838 to 1843 Lt-Col Palmer had to bear the costs of the unit himself. It eventually grew to five Troops as the West Essex Regiment of Yeomanry Cavalry: A Troop (Capt Jessopp) at Waltham Abbey B Troop (Maj J.W.P. Watlington) at Harlow C Troop (Capt the Hon Francis Petre) from the estates of Lord Petre D Troop (Light Artillery) (Capt S. Bolton Edenborough of Thrift Hall) at Waltham Abbey E Troop (Light Artillery) Lieutenant-Col Palmer retired from the command in 1868 and was followed by a series of commanding officers (COs) in quick succession. In 1871 the declining unit reverted to its old title of Essex Yeomanry Cavalry. The government ordered the disbandment of the artillery troops in 1876, and when there were only 46 men on parade in September that year it ordered the CO, Lt-Col T. Duff Cater, to wind up the whole unit. It was disbanded on 31 March 1877. Yeomanry activity in the county did not entirely disappear: Captain Richard Colvin raised an Essex Troop of the Loyal Suffolk Hussars in 1889. Imperial Yeomanry Following a string of defeats during Black Week in early December 1899, the British government realised that it would need more troops than just the regular army to fight the Second Boer War. On 13 December, the decision to allow volunteer forces to serve in South Africa was made, and a Royal Warrant was issued on 24 December. This officially created the Imperial Yeomanry (IY). The force was organised as county service companies of approximately 115 men signed up for one year, and volunteers from the Yeomanry and civilians (usually middle and upper class) quickly filled the new force, which was equipped to operate as Mounted infantry. The Loyal Suffolk Hussars raised the 43rd and 44th (Suffolk) Companies, including volunteers from the Essex Troop. These two companies, which landed in South Africa on 23 February and 28 March respectively, served in 12th Battalion, IY. In addition, Capt (now Lt-Col) Colvin of the Essex Troop commanded the 20th (Rough Riders) Battalion IY, which was raised on 17 March 1900 in the City of London and landed in South Africa on 3 May. The First Contingent of the Imperial Yeomanry completed their year's term of service in 1901, and Lt-Col Colvin was Mentioned in dispatches and awarded a Companionship of the Bath (CB) The Imperial Yeomanry concept was considered a success and before the war ended the existing Yeomanry regiments at home were converted into Imperial Yeomanry, and new regiments raised, including the Essex Imperial Yeomanry. The Lord Lieutenant of Essex, the Earl of Warwick (who became the unit's Honorary Colonel), appointed Lt-Col Colvin to raise and command the new regiment. Colvin arranged the squadrons on the basis of fox hunts in the county, giving the following organisation: Regimental Headquarters (RHQ) (Maj John Patterson, DSO, former captain in the IY, as adjutant) at 17 Sir Isaac's Walk, Colchester A Squadron (Maj Henry Lermitte, retired captain in the Royal Scots Fusiliers) at Colchester, with detachments at High Street, Harwich, Marine Hall, Old Pier Street, Walton-on-the-Naze, Ardleigh and Clacton-on-Sea (No 4 Trp HQ at Warwick Castle Hotel, drill hall at Osborne Hotel) – from the Essex and Suffolk Hunt B Squadron (Maj Edmund Deacon, retired lieutenant in the King's Dragoon Guards (KDG)) at Drill Hall, Victoria Street, Braintree, with detachments at Queen's Hall, 47 New Street, Halstead, Chelmsford and Tiptree – from the East Essex Hunt C Squadron (Maj Leonard Pelly, former lieutenant in the 20th (Rough Riders) Bn, IY) at Honey Lane, Waltham Abbey, with detachments at Forest Road, Loughton, Bishop's Stortford (Hertfordshire) and Great Dunmow – from the Essex Hunt D Squadron (Maj Francis Whitmore of Orsett Hall, formerly of the 1st Essex Artillery Volunteers) at Drill Hall, East Street, Southend-on-Sea, with detachments at Drill Hall, Ongar Road, Brentwood, Artillery Drill Hall, Brook Road, Grays, Stratford and Orsett – from the Essex Union Hunt Machine Gun Section Honorary Chaplain: Henry Johnson, Bishop of Colchester (former Cornet in the 1st Royal Dragoons) The Boer War was still going on, and further volunteers went out to South Africa with the second contingent of the IY. Major J.H. Patterson, DSO, of the Essex IY, was appointed Temporary Lt-Col to command the 33rd Battalion on 17 January 1902. Territorial Force The Imperial Yeomanry were subsumed into the new Territorial Force (TF) under the Haldane Reforms of 1908. The regiment simply dropped 'Imperial' from the title and was designated as Dragoons. Lieutenant-Col Colvin handed over command of the regiment to Lt-Col 'Ned' Deacon in February 1911. World War I In accordance with the Territorial and Reserve Forces Act 1907 (7 Edw. 7, c.9), which brought the Territorial Force into being, the TF was intended to be a home defence force for service during wartime and members could not be compelled to serve outside the country. However, on the outbreak of war on 4 August 1914, many members volunteered for Imperial Service. Therefore, TF units were split in August and September 1914 into 1st Line (liable for overseas service) and 2nd Line (home service for those unable or unwilling to serve overseas) units. Later, a 3rd Line was formed to act as a reserve, providing trained replacements for the 1st and 2nd Line regiments. 1/1st Essex Yeomanry Mobilisation The 1st Line regiment was mobilized at Colchester on the outbreak of war and, with the Eastern Mounted Brigade, joined the 1st Mounted Division in the Ipswich area. By the end of August 1914 it was in the Woodbridge area. After mobilisation the Essex Yeomanry reorganised on a three-squadron basis: RHQ: 6 officers and 34 men, commanded by Lt-Col Deacon A Sqn: Colchester, Ardleigh Harwich, Clacton and Walton-on-the-Naze Trps, with the Southend Trp from D Sqn – 6 officers and 136 men commanded by Maj Eustace Hill B Sqn: Braintree and Finchingfield, Tiptree and Maldon, Halstead and Chelmsford Trps, with the Orsett Trp from D Sqn – 6 officers and 138 men commanded by Maj Guy Gold C Sqn: Waltham Abbey, Epping, Dunmow and Bishop's Stortford Trps, with the Brentwood and Stratford Trp from D Sqn – 6 officers and 135 men commanded by Maj Andrew Roddick Machine Gun Section – 25 men commanded by Lt Tom Buxton The CO reported that the men were all medically fit, fully trained, and aged 19 years or older, and the regiment was accepted for overseas service. However, delays in obtaining replacement kit and new saddles delayed the regiment's departure for the Western Front until late November, and it just missed being eligible for the 'Mons Star' issued to the 'Old Contemptibles'. The regiment landed at Le Havre on 1 December and joined the Royal Horse Guards (RHG) and the 10th Royal Hussars in France on 12 December 1914 as part of 8th Cavalry Brigade, 3rd Cavalry Division near Hazebrouck. It remained on the Western Front for the rest of the war. Frezenberg Ridge The regiment saw its first action at the Battle of Frezenberg Ridge on 13 May, when in pouring rain it made a dismounted bayonet charge that recaptured the disputed German front line trench. But having suffered substantial casualties from artillery fire, it was ordered to withdraw with the rest of the brigade. All told it suffered 51 killed, 91 wounded and 19 missing: a total of 161out of 302 who went into action. Among the dead were the CO, Lt-Col Deacon, and his acting second-in-command, Maj Roddick. Most of the dead, including Lt-Col Deacon, were buried in unmarked graves and are now commemorated on the Menin Gate Memorial to the Missing at Ypres. The regiment later chose Ypres 1915 and Frezenberg as the first two Battle Honours to be emblazoned on its guidon. The surviving 149 Yeoman under the command of Maj Tony Buxton went into reserve at Hooge. A Regular Army officer, Lt-Col Wickham of the KDG, was brought in as CO to train and integrate the replacement drafts into the regiment. Major Whitmore, who had been wounded on the morning of 13 May and thus missed the afternoon assault on Frezenberg Ridge, returned in September and took command with the rank of Lt-Col. Popularly known as 'Brasso' he remained in command until 1918. The regiment was present with the rest of 3rd Cavalry Division defending Loos during the Battle of Loos (26–8 September 1915), but did not see serious action again until 1917. The regimental machine gun section was combined with those of the other regiments to form the 8th Brigade Machine Gun Squadron, Machine Gun Corps (MGC), on 29 February 1916. Monchy-le-Preux On 11 April, the second day of the Battle of the Scarpe that launched the Arras Offensive, 8th Cavalry Bde was ordered to advance mounted, over open country, to occupy high ground east and northeast of Monchy-le-Preux, a key position between the rivers Scarpe and Sensée. The Essex Yeomanry led the movement, with the 10th Hussars on its left and the RHG in reserve. C Squadron, leading, came under heavy machine gun fire while crossing a bridge and the Stortford and Dunmow Trps were almost annihilated. The Yeomanry and Hussars pressed on and occupied Monchy, where they dug in. The CO of the 10th Hussars having become a casualty, Lt-Col Whitmore commanded all the troops in Monchy. The two regiments and machine gun sqn held their positions in and around the town against determined German attacks for 18 hours before being relieved by infantry. The Essex Yeomanry suffered 135 casualties ad almost all their horses were killed. Lance-Corporal Mugford of the MG Sqn won a Victoria Cross in this action. On 14 March 1918, the 1/1st Essex Yeomanry left the brigade to become a cyclist unit, then to form a machine gun battalion with the Bedfordshire Yeomanry. The German spring offensive forestalled this plan, and the regiment was remounted on 28 March and sent to the 1st Cavalry Division. From 4 April, it was split up with a squadron joining each regiment in 1st Cavalry Brigade (2nd Dragoon Guards, 5th Dragoon Guards and 11th Hussars). The squadrons' contributions were credited towards the regiment's battle honours. After the regiment was broken up, Lt-Col Whitmore commanded the 10th Hussars until 1919, the only TF officer without previous regular service to command a regular cavalry regiment during the war. 2/1st Essex Yeomanry The 2nd Line regiment was formed at Colchester in 1914. In October, it moved to Wickham Market and by January 1915 it was in the 2/1st Eastern Mounted Brigade at Huntingdon. From June 1915 to March 1916, it was at Hounslow. On 31 March 1916, the remaining Mounted Brigades were ordered to be numbered in a single sequence; the brigade was numbered as 13th Mounted Brigade and joined 4th Mounted Division at Great Bentley. In July 1916, there was a major reorganization of 2nd Line yeomanry units in the United Kingdom. All but 12 regiments were converted to cyclists; the 2/1st Essex Yeomanry remained mounted and transferred to the 3rd Mounted Brigade in the new 1st Mounted Division (3rd Mounted Division redesignated) at Leybourne Park, Kent. It moved to Brasted near Sevenoaks in March 1917. In September 1917, the 1st Mounted Division was converted to The Cyclist Division and the regiment became a cyclist unit in 13th Cyclist Brigade of the division at Sevenoaks. In December 1917, the 13th Cyclist Brigade was broken up and the regiment was posted to the 6th Cyclist Brigade in Ireland in January 1918. It remained with the 6th Cyclist Brigade until the end of the war, stationed at The Curragh. 3/1st Essex Yeomanry The 3rd Line regiment was formed in 1915 and in the summer it was affiliated to a Reserve Cavalry Regiment in Eastern Command. In April 1916 it was affiliated to the 2nd Reserve Cavalry Regiment at Aldershot. Early in 1917 it was absorbed into the 4th Reserve Cavalry Regiment, also at Aldershot. Victoria Cross One Essex Yeoman was awarded the Victoria Cross (VC) during World War I. Harold Sandford Mugford, a shipping clerk born in Bermondsey in 1894 and brought up in East Ham, had joined the Essex Yeomanry in 1912. Mobilised in August 1914, he had served with the regiment at Frezenberg Ridge and Loos. In March 1916, as a member of the regiment's machine gun section he was transferred to the 8th Squadron, MGC, which supported 8th Cavalry Brigade. After the brigade had taken Monchy on 11 April 1917, L/Cpl Mugford placed his machine gun in an exposed forward position and drove off the enemy who were massing for a counter-attack. His No 2 was killed almost immediately and Mugford was severely wounded, but he refused to go to the dressing-station and continued to operate his gun, inflicting further losses on the enemy. A short time later a shell broke both his legs, but he remained at his gun, urging his comrades to take cover. He was then removed to the dressing-station, where he was also wounded in the arm. Mugford survived, despite the los of both legs, and was awarded the VC for his conspicuous bravery. Between the wars The regiment was reconstituted in 1920 as part of the Territorial Army with regimental headquarters at Colchester. In 1921, the regiment was converted from cavalry to artillery and became the 104th (Essex Yeomanry) Brigade, Royal Field Artillery. Regimental Headquarters was at Colchester 413 (Essex Yeomanry) Battery was based at Colchester 414 (Essex Yeomanry) Battery was based at Harlow In 1932, with regimental headquarters and 413 Battery transferred to Chelmsford, the regiment gained 339 (Essex Royal Horse Artillery) Battery based at Colchester, transferred from 85th (East Anglian) Field Brigade. In 1938, the regiment was renamed 104th (Essex Yeomanry) Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery (RHA). World War II At the outbreak of the World War II in 1939, the "104th (Essex Yeomanry) Regiment, RHA" formed a duplicate regiment as part of the increase in British military manpower. The second Essex Yeomanry regiment was designated 147 Regiment RHA (Essex Yeomanry), and reclassified as a field regiment in 1941. In 1942 both 147th (Essex Yeomanry) and 86th (East Anglian) (Herts Yeomanry) Field Regiments supplied cadres to help form 191st (Hertfordshire and Essex Yeomanry) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery. 104th (Essex Yeomanry) Regiment, RHA The first line regiment went to the Middle East in 1940 and served in most of the Western Desert battles, notably the Battle of El Alamein and the Siege of Tobruk. It went on to fight in the Italian Campaign and was stood-down in Austria in 1946. 147th (Essex Yeomanry) Field Regiment, RA The new regiment landed on the beaches of Normandy on D-Day, 1944. It was equipped with Sexton Self Propelled 25 Pounder guns and fought with the British 8th Armoured Brigade as a spearhead unit through France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and into Germany. 14th Regiment, RHA Another regiment, 14th RHA, was formed in India on 1 September 1942. It commanded 414th (Essex Yeomanry) Battery from 104th RHA, 524th Battery (formerly independent) and the newly formed 525th Battery. The Regimental Headquarters, 524th and 525th Batteries were disbanded on 27 April 1946 and 414th Battery was placed in suspended animation in Middle East Land Forces on the same date. 414th Battery was reconstituted in 304th (Essex Yeomanry) Field Regiment, Royal Artillery on 1 January 1947. Postwar The regiment was re-raised on 1 June 1947 as 304th (Essex Yeomanry) Field Regiment RA with headquarters at Chelmsford and batteries at Colchester (P), Southend (Q), and Harlow (R). The Royal Horse Artillery designation was restored in February 1955. Following the defence cuts of 1967, the unit was reduced to squadron status as 70 (Essex Yeomanry) Signal Squadron, part of 71 Yeomanry Signal Regiment, Royal Corps of Signals. On 25 April 2009, 70 (Essex Yeomanry) Signal Squadron was awarded the freedom of Harlow. Following the reorganisation of the Royal Signals Reserves in 2009, 68 (Inns of Court & City Yeomanry) Signal Squadron merged with 70 (Essex Yeomanry) Signal Squadron to form 68 (Inns of Court & City and Essex Yeomanry) Signal Squadron. Under Strategic Defence and Security Review in 2014, 907 Signal Troop was subordinated to 36 Signal Squadron, which then became 36 (Essex Yeomanry) Signal Squadron, part of 71 (Yeomanry) Signal Regiment. Heritage and ceremonial Uniforms and insignia The Essex Imperial Yeomanry adopted the same colours for its full dress uniform as the neighbouring Loyal Sussex Hussars: green with scarlet facings. The Khaki service dress had green facings from 1901 to 1905, the red facings until 1908. Slouch hats with the left side turned up were worn in both orders of dress. In the TF, brass dragoon helmets with scarlet plumes, worn with white gauntlet gloves, were introduced in full dress for the 1911 Coronation. On becoming Royal Artillery the regiment retained its Yeomanry cap and collar badges and buttons, which were worn by all ranks until 1975. When the Essex RHA joined in 1933, the whole regiment adopted RHA-style ball buttons, but they bore the Yeomanry badge. In 1943, 147th Field Rgt adopted an embroidered regimental badge worn on both arms, consisting of three seaxes with green blades and yellow hilts on a red diamond. This was adopted by the whole regiment from 1947 to 1965. While attached to 8th Armoured Brigade, 1944–46, 147th Field Rgt wore a black Royal Armoured Corps beret. Post World War II, all ranks wore Rifle green berets with the Yeomanry badge in brass (embroidered gold wire for officers). The No 1 dress was rifle green with two scarlet stripes down the overalls. Cavalry shoulder chains were added to the green No 1 dress in 1955 when the RHA title was restored to the regiment. 70 (Essex Yeomanry) Signal Squadron wore Royal Corps of Signals cap badges on the green beret of the Essex Yeomanry. Essex Yeomanry Band The Essex Yeomanry Band is one of the oldest established Military bands in the East of England, being originally formed in 1809. In 1830, the Commanding Officer of the West Essex Yeomanry was financially supporting the Band out of his own pocket. An 1846 engraving shows a black drummer mounted on a white horse, sporting a plumed turban. The other mounted bandsmen wore the Yeomanry uniform of the period. In 1877, the West Essex Yeomanry was disbanded, but later reformed to become the Waltham Abbey Town Band. However, this newly formed band proudly continued to wear the Yeomanry uniform. The Essex Yeomanry became gunners in 1921, but still retained the Band. By 1937, the band was in the full dress uniform of the Regiment, complete with plumed brass helmets. During the Second World War, the Essex Yeomanry Band was disbanded, but reformed in 1947. This was a difficult time for the players, as all the uniforms had been destroyed with the bombing of Chelmsford in 1943. In 1952, official recognition of the band was given by the War Office, but like the Regiment, it was withdrawn in 1968. Regimental marches The regimental march before World War I was Hoch Habsburg ('Hail Habsburg'), which was probably discontinued as inappropriate once war broke out with Austria-Hungary. In 1962 the CO, Col Hugh Hunter Jones, introduced The Coggeshall Man's Wedding as the regimental march. The regimental slow march is the Slow March of the Royal Artillery, but Duke of York may have been used ca 1959. Battle honours The Essex Yeomanry was awarded the following battle honours: First World War Ypres 1915, St. Julien, Frezenberg, Loos, Arras 1917, Scarpe 1917, Somme 1918, Amiens, Albert 1918, Hindenburg Line, St. Quentin Canal, Beaurevoir, Cambrai 1918, Pursuit to Mons, France and Flanders 1914–18 Second World War The Royal Artillery was present in nearly all battles and would have earned most of the honours awarded to cavalry and infantry regiments. In 1833, William IV awarded the motto Ubique (meaning "everywhere") in place of all battle honours. Memorials The regimental war memorials to the Essex Yeomen who died in the two world wars are in St Peter's Chapel in Chelmsford Cathedral, together with individual memorials to L/Cpl Harold Mugford, VC, (unveiled in June 2006) to Brig-Gen Sir Richard Colvin and to Col Sir Francis Whitmore. There is also a memorial window to Sir Richard Colvin in the Lady Chapel of Waltham Abbey Church. A memorial to the men of 3 Troop, D Sqn, Essex Yeomanry, and other local Territorials who died in World War I was at the Army Reserve Centre at Romford. In May 2009 a memorial was dedicated in Saint George's Memorial Church, Ypres, to commemorate Essex Yeomen who died in the Ypres Salient, most of whom have no known grave and are listed on the Menin Gate Memorial to the Missing. The regimental memorial in Normandy is at Asnelles on Gold Beach. Honorary colonels The following served as honorary colonel of the unit: Francis Greville, 5th Earl of Warwick, appointed 16 November 1901 Brig-Gen Sir Richard Colvin, former CO, 1922 to 1935 Col Sir Francis Whitmore, 1st Baronet, former CO, 1936 to 1950 Maj-Gen Reginald Hobbs, CB, DSO, OBE, former CO, appointed 1961 Col G.R. Judd, TD, former CO, from ? to ?; reappointed to the Essex Yeomanry (RHA), 1 April 1967 See also Imperial Yeomanry List of Yeomanry Regiments 1908 Yeomanry Yeomanry order of precedence British yeomanry during the First World War Second line yeomanry regiments of the British Army List of British Army Yeomanry Regiments converted to Royal Artillery Notes References Bibliography Anon, Regimental Badges and Service Caps, London: George Philip & Sons, 1941. Maj R. Money Barnes, The Soldiers of London, London: Seeley Service, 1963. Maj A.F. Becke,History of the Great War: Order of Battle of Divisions, Part 1: The Regular British Divisions, London: HM Stationery Office, 1934/Uckfield: Naval & Military Press, 2007, . Col John K. Dunlop, The Development of the British Army 1899–1914, London: Methuen, 1938. Norman E.H. Litchfield, The Territorial Artillery 1908–1988 (Their Lineage, Uniforms and Badges), Nottingham: Sherwood Press, 1992, . Col H.C.B. Rogers, The Mounted Troops of the British Army 1066–1945, London: Seeley Service, 1959. Edward M. Spiers, The Army and Society 1815–1914, London: Longmans, 1980, . External links Anglo Boer War The Drill Hall Project 907 (Essex Yeomanary) Signal Troop Imperial War Museum, War Memorials Register The Long, Long Trail Land Forces of Britain, the Empire and Commonwealth – Regiments.org (archive site) Roll of Honour Western Front Association. Yeomanry regiments of the British Army Yeomanry regiments of the British Army in World War I Military units and formations established in 1797 Military units and formations in Essex History of Colchester Regiments of the British Army in World War II
4799962	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20Beetle%20%28Jaime%20Reyes%29	Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes)	Jaime Reyes is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by Keith Giffen, John Rogers, and Cully Hamner, the character made his first appearance in Infinite Crisis #3 (February 2006). Jaime Reyes is the third character to assume the mantle of Blue Beetle, but is substantially different from his predecessors. Introduced in 1939, the original Blue Beetle, Dan Garret, was a Fox Comics police officer who fought crime with superpowers gained by ingesting Vitamin 2X. A revamped version of this character, archaeologist Dan Garrett, introduced in 1964 by Charlton Comics drew mystical abilities from an ancient Egyptian scarab. Published by Charlton Comics and later DC, 1966 creation Ted Kord was Garret's student who continued his legacy of costumed crime-fighting, although he had no superpowers. DC's introduction of Jaime Reyes in 2006 retconned and expanded upon the Blue Beetle mythos. Revealed to be alien in origin, the scarab bonds with Reyes and provides him with a suit of extraterrestrial armor shortly after Kord's death. Though only a teenager, Reyes quickly forms a working relationship with Kord's former teammate and best friend Booster Gold and is inducted into the Teen Titans and the Justice League. Xolo Maridueña portrayed the character in the 2023 live-action film Blue Beetle, set in the DC Extended Universe, and will continue to play the character in the rebooted DC Universe (DCU) franchise. Publication history In Infinite Crisis #5 (March 2006), Reyes became Blue Beetle's third incarnation. His own monthly series debuted two months later with Blue Beetle vol. 7 #1 (May 2006); it was initially written by Keith Giffen and John Rogers, with artist Cully Hamner. Giffen left before issue #10 and Rogers took over full writing duties, joined by new artist Rafael Albuquerque. Rogers left in issue #25 to concentrate on his television series Leverage. After a couple of fill-in issues, Lilah Sturges became the main writer in issue #29 but the series was canceled with last issue #36 in February 2009. Editor Dan DiDio put the cancellation down to poor sales and said that Blue Beetle was "a book that we started with very high expectations, but it lost its audience along the way". The character returned in June 2009 as a "co-feature" of the more popular Booster Gold comic. Character biography Jaime lives in El Paso, Texas, US as the son of Alberto Reyes and Bianca Reyes and the brother of Milagro Reyes. Jaime has an acute sense of responsibility for his immediate family and various friends, though he complains about having to sort out their various problems. He derives strength and courage from his family's support, wanting what's best for them. Infinite Crisis The mystical Scarab that had given Dan Garrett his powers had been thought destroyed. When it was found intact, it was given to Ted Kord, who was never able to use it. After an attack by Brother Eye, the Scarab appeared energized and Ted brought it to the wizard Shazam, who took it and sent Ted away. Shortly after, in the Day of Vengeance storyline, Shazam was killed and the Scarab was blasted across the globe along with shards from The Rock of Eternity. The Scarab came to Earth in El Paso, Texas, where Jaime picked it up. Not long after, Booster Gold appeared at Jaime's house to retrieve it, but it had fused itself to Jaime's spine while he was sleeping. Booster recruited Jaime for Batman's assault on the Brother Eye satellite, since the Scarab was the only thing that could see the satellite. Using the Scarab's powers, Jaime was able to reveal the satellite to Batman's group, and enabled them to defeat it in their spaceship. Once Brother Eye was sent plummeting Earthward, Jaime disappeared from the ship, teleported away by the scarab, which sought to escape the Green Lanterns on board. Ongoing series Jaime was next seen in his own monthly series, fighting off Green Lantern Guy Gardner, who had been driven to rage by his ring's reaction to the scarab. A flashback expanded on Jaime's discovery of the scarab, revealing how the scarab bonded itself to Jaime and showing his first encounter with a metahuman. After that fight with Guy Gardner, Jaime found himself alone and naked in the desert and had to hitchhike home. Upon his return, Jaime discovered he had been missing for a whole year because the scarab used a dimensional mode of transport to get back to Earth. Unlike most superheroes, Jaime shared his identity with family and friends. He began a career as a superhero, meeting Oracle, the Phantom Stranger and the current Peacemaker during his early adventures and ends up in conflict with supervillains like the ones that work for the crime boss La Dama. He often associates himself with a street gang of local superhumans known as the Posse. His support team agreed to help Jaime track crime and natural disasters in the Midwest via the Internet. Contrary to Jaime's initial belief, the scarab is revealed to be extraterrestrial technology. However, magical influences involving the first contact with Earthmen left the scarab "corrupted" and uncontrollable by the Reach of Space Sector 2. Gardner returns and reveals how the Reach and the Green Lantern Corps had battled in the past, forcing the Reach into a truce. The Reach continued pursuing their invasion plans, offering the scarab as a "protector" and then forcibly turning his host into their vanguard. The scarab's fully functional A.I. acts as an agent for the Reach. As Jaime's scarab has only a partly functioning A.I., falling more and more into his control and forming an alliance with him, the Reach changed their agenda into feigning friendship with Jaime and the Earth, attacking him in a more subversive manner. The Reach The Reach are ancient enemies of the Guardians of the Universe, though their pact with the Guardians forbids them from invading new cultures, including Earth. Jaime has recently sought help from S.T.A.R. Labs to discover the scarab's full power. The Reach appear to be enemies of the Controllers; Jaime's scarab suit reacts violently to a Darkstars uniform worn by the current Manhunter Kate Spencer. In a Countdown to Final Crisis tie-in, Jaime assists Traci Thirteen (former) in foiling Eclipso's attempt to kidnap a baby with great magical potential and use it as a new, uncorrupted host. In the aftermath, Jaime and Traci kiss, hinting at a relationship starting. Jaime takes the fight to the Reach, using the time-warping qualities of the Bleed to attack three of their machines at once. When this fails, Jaime attacks the Reach's flagship, but the Reach use their weapons to attack his home. Jaime's emotional outburst at this attack allows the Reach to shut down the scarab and remove it from Jaime, who is thrown into a holding cell while the scarab is taken for examination, but the scarab transfers its knowledge into Jaime before removal, allowing the young hero to break free. Meanwhile, Jaime's family, having escaped the attack, are protected from further Reach assault by Peacemaker, the Posse, Traci Thirteen, La Dama and later Guy Gardner, Fire and Ice. Attacking several guards and taking their armor, Jaime heads for the engine, forcing the Reach to shut it down which reveals their ship. Once captured and brought to the bridge, Jaime shouts "Khaji Da!". He then reveals that, during the time spent with him, the scarab has gained a personality of its own and fully detached itself from the Reach hive-mind. Claiming Khaji Da (the combined utterance of Khaji, the codeword for Infiltrator and Da, its own serial number) as its name, the scarab sides with Reyes against the Reach. As the battle continues the Reach Negotiator unleashes a doomsday device on Earth in retaliation for his defeat. Jaime and the scarab agree to sacrifice themselves to stop the superweapon. At the last moment, Booster Gold appears and saves them both. The bond with the scarab stronger than ever, Jaime wonders if other scarabs will gain a personality due to Khaji Da talking to them about individuality. Teen Titans Jaime first teams up with the Titans in Teen Titans vol. 3 #50 and Blue Beetle vol. 7 #18, fighting Lobo, along with the group to ensure the launch of a satellite armed with anti-Reach technology. The Reach themselves apparently hire Lobo to keep their facade as benevolent protectors; at the last moment, Batman and the Teen Titans believe Jaime. Although criticizing Jaime for his lack of formal training, the Titans extend an invitation to visit and perhaps join the team. The Reach later attempt to remove Jaime from the equation, combining the missing A.I. of Jaime's scarab, a new scarab and a Sinestro Corps power ring into the Peacemaker, forcing him to cut the scarab from his spine to ensure that his scarab could not be used as a weapon again. Jaime comes face to face with the Spectre, along with Luis, the man who had been responsible for crippling Jaime's father. After a visit from his quasi-girlfriend Traci Thirteen (former), Jaime realizes that he cannot stop the Spectre from executing the inmates. Jaime is forced to forgive Luis and reason with the Spectre. Partially successful, the Spectre warns Jaime that if he ever lets the scarab kill, the Spectre will come for him. During the "Titans of Tomorrow, Today!" arc, Jaime takes the Titans up on their offer to visit, only to find that an alternate future version of the Titans have attacked the Tower and managed to kidnap key members of the Justice League. He later proves instrumental in the younger Titans' victory against their future selves and proves himself to be a competent hero by incapacitating the Future Flash and freeing the Justice League. He also aids the Titans in defeating Starro. During the conflict with the future Titans, Jaime is actively attacked by the adult version of Kid Devil, Red Devil, who claims that Jaime cannot be trusted. On the other hand, Lex Luthor describes Blue Beetle as an "unremitting nuisance" who holds on to his view of right and wrong no matter how much the world changes around him. Jaime is recruited by Black Beetle (who originally identifies himself as a Blue Beetle from the future) and Garrett to go into the past with Booster Gold to prevent Kord's death. After saving Kord, Jaime and Garrett return, and the future is revealed to be a dystopia ruled by Maxwell Lord, who now was never exposed and defeated. Black Beetle is also revealed to be a future enemy of Jaime's, who tries to create this future so he will never have to deal with Jaime and so he "would not lose her". In Booster Gold vol. 2 #10, seeing the damage done by their actions, Ted decides to accept his death and returns to the past, seemingly to the exact moment where he was murdered by Lord, returning the timeline to equilibrium and thus preventing the dystopia. However, in the epilogue for Booster Gold vol. 2 #1.000.000, a figure with a scarab enters a Kord Industries building that contains a Bug and a picture of Kord's enemy Overthrow among other things. His trademark laugh hints that it is actually Ted, who somehow escaped death but managed to fix the timestream. The villain Shockwave revealed during his battle with Jaime that Kord Industries is now owned by the 100. He again came into conflict with Kid Devil, who still harbored a grudge against him because of both the future Titans incident and his status with Ravager. Jaime tries to mend fences with Kid Devil, but their squabbling allows Shockwave to escape. During their second battle with him, Kid Devil managed to tap into his demonic powers and partially melts Shockwave's armor, enabling the two boys to defeat him. This seems to squelch the ill feelings between them. Kid Devil asks Jaime if he's heard from Ravager and Jaime replies that he's faced down an entire alien race, but Ravager scares him. Kid Devil finally realizes that Jaime is being sincere and they shake hands and tell each other their real names. Later at Titans Tower Robin offers Jaime full-membership, which Jaime finally feels ready to accept. In the aftermath of the massive Final Crisis crossover event, Kid Eternity, Static and Aquagirl join the team after their rescue from the Dark Side Club. Aquagirl begins hitting on Jaime despite knowing of his relationship with Traci, often speaking to him in Spanish to hide her intentions from the team. Despite feeling attracted, he chooses to remain loyal to Traci. After Wonder Girl is kidnapped by the Fearsome Five, Beetle reluctantly allows Traci to assist the team in rescuing her. In the aftermath, Red Devil is killed saving the city. When Beast Boy arrives at Titans Tower to lead the team, Jaime distrusts him and accuses him of caring more about winning Raven's love than helping the team. Series finale A group of Reach infiltrators and a negotiator invade Jaime's school's dance. Having been inspired by the scarab to rebel, the "Kahji Dha Revolutionary Army", sets out to make Earth safe by destroying those that could pose any threat. They see Jaime as a threat and attack. During the fight, Nadia, part of Jaime's tech support, is killed. Taking the fight into orbit, Jaime has the scarab hack into and deactivate the KDRA, but deactivating itself for 27 days in the process. The negotiator quickly recovers and Jaime is forced to take him on a kamikaze dive to the Earth's surface. The impact kills the negotiator and badly hurts Jaime, although the scarab put up a shield that protected him from the brunt of the impact. Over a period of weeks, Jaime and the scarab slowly recover. The scarab of the negotiator had, unbeknownst to Jaime, been recovered by Hector, Jaime's other tech support, who, as he left the country, used the negotiator's name "Djo Zha" which a flight attendant confuses with "Joshua", indicating that he had bonded with it. Further adventures Starting in Booster Gold vol. 2 #21, Blue Beetle was featured as a 10-page ongoing co-feature. The stories focused on a smaller cast than before, focusing on Jaime, Paco and Brenda while Jaime's family occasionally appears. The rebooted scarab is shown to be more bloodthirsty than in the past, constantly urging Jaime to use more lethal weaponry. In the first serial, Jaime faces the android daughter of an old supervillain. The Black Beetle attacks during a family hike. During the battle, Black Beetle claims to be Hector's future incarnation, wanting revenge for Nadia's death. He retracts his statement, claiming to have killed Hector and taken his scarab. When Milagro was injured by Black Beetle, Jaime loses his temper, finally giving in to the scarab's suggestions to use lethal force. Jaime eventually manages to use tachyon beams to paralyze Black Beetle, only for the villain to claim that he was Jaime from the future and that he would don the black scarab after Milagro (who would suffer brain damage from the injury she had just received in the present) destroyed the scarab. Jaime, deciding to get Milagro medical attention as quickly as possible, was forced to let Black Beetle escape. Before he departed, Black Beetle tells Jaime: "When you see Ted Kord, tell him I said 'drop dead'". When Jaime states that Ted was already dead, Black Beetle replies "Yeah. I know". A few days later, Milagro is shown recovering in the hospital and Jaime is left deeply disturbed by his encounter. Blue Beetle also teams with egotistical superhero Hardware to bring down a group of criminals using tech stolen from the late Edwin Alva by the second Gizmo. Despite finding Hardware extremely difficult to work with, the two take down the criminals and depart on friendly terms. Not much later, he is visited by Skeets, Booster Gold's robotic partner, who warned him of his disappearance. Deciding to team up with the small machine to find Booster to pay respect to him for introducing him to the superhero world, he reaches the house of Rose Levin and Daniel Carter, Booster's 21st-century ancestors. Soon after he arrives, the Black Lantern Ted Kord crashes his ship into Daniel's house and Jaime proceeds to battle Kord. Although outmatched and insulted by the Black Lantern, Jaime continues to fight until Booster enters the scene. Later, both team up to destroy the Black Lantern, succeeding by blasting him with a special light gun designed by Ted Kord and separating him from the ring. Then, they move the remains into the Time Sphere and take the lifeless corpse to Vanishing Point Fortress, in the last second of the universe. There, Jaime promises to eventually live up to the legacy of the Blue Beetle and reestablish the Blue & Gold Team. Justice League: Generation Lost Following Blackest Night, Jaime and the other Titans travel to the city of Dakota to rescue Static after he is kidnapped by a metahuman gangster named Holocaust. Jaime uses the scarab to help locate Static, but he and his teammates are easily defeated during a battle by Holocaust, who is able to block a blast from Jaime's cannon and then strike him with a fireball. The Titans are ultimately rescued when Cyborg arrives with Kid Flash and Superboy. During the start of the Brightest Day event, Deadman has a vision of Jaime shaking hands with Maxwell Lord, who is holding a gun behind his back. Shaken by his near-death in Dakota, Jaime informs Static that he plans to briefly leave to visit his family, fearing what would happen if he were to die without saying goodbye. Shortly after arriving home, Jaime and his family are attacked by a squad of OMACs. With help from Booster Gold, Ice and Captain Atom, Jaime is able to repel the OMACs, but is accidentally sucked into a teleportation rift they create. The heroes end up in Russia, where Jaime learns of Max Lord and his attempt to make the world forget he ever existed. He agrees to help the former Justice League members bring Lord to justice. After a battle with members of the Rocket Red Brigade, the heroes learn that Max Lord has been manipulating the team in hopes that they would reform Justice League International, with Jaime taking the role held years earlier by Ted Kord. Before they can figure out their next move, the base is attacked by the Creature Commandos. During the battle Max reveals himself while posing as one of the Creature Commandos. Blue Beetle ends up unconscious and Max captures him, heading to the teleporter and leaving the JLI behind. When Blue Beetle is in captivity, Max injects him with an unknown substance. Tortured, he remembers Max's existence as the man who killed Ted Kord and destroyed his legacy. Jaime eventually manages to send a signal to the rest of the JLI to lead them to Max's headquarters. He breaks out of the laboratory and attacks Max, who, having discovered the weaknesses of the Blue Scarab, zaps Jaime with a special beam and, just as the JLI arrives, shoots him in the head with a blaster, apparently killing him in the same manner as his predecessor. Max escapes from the JLI using an escape pod. Failing to capture Max, the JLI carried Jaime on the land surface where paramedics Rocket Red and Skeets try to resuscitate him. Their efforts fail as Jaime had already died. As the team deals with his loss, suddenly he sits up, healed, declaring he knows Max's ultimate plans and that they can stop him. Jaime reveals to them that his healing scarab armor is what protected him from the blaster. When the battle against the OMAC Prime goes nowhere, Blue Beetle attacks and OMAC Prime appears to take his power, but Blue Beetle mentions that it cannot take control with the Scarab's power. Blue Beetle attacks and blasts OMAC Prime. The New 52 In September 2011 after the conclusion of the "Flashpoint" storyline event, DC Comics cancelled all of its monthly books and relaunched 52 new monthly titles with a new continuity, in what was called The New 52. One of the new series as a Blue Beetle series written by Tony Bedard and drawn by Ig Guara and cancelled in February 2013. Reyes and his friend Paco are driving to a party when a fight over a backpack between some men and the Brotherhood of Evil members Phobia, Plasmus and Warp erupts from a nearby building. To protect Paco, Jaime grabs the backpack. When La Dama's agents Brutale, Bone-Crusher and a new villain called Coyote join the fight, Brutale throws a knife at the backpack. The scarab inside is set off and Jaime is transformed into Blue Beetle. In Green Lantern: New Guardians, other representatives of the Reach attack Odym, homeworld of the Blue Lantern Corps, where it is revealed that their armours have taken control of them; Jaime speculates, during a confrontation with Kyle Rayner, that his armour is damaged, explaining why he is in control of himself where other Reach soldiers are enslaved to their armour. After being captured by Lady Styx's henchmen in Blue Beetle vol. 8 #16, Jaimie is forced to take part in the bounty hunter game The Haunted on the planet called Tolerance. After losing control over the Scarab armor and regaining control back, he teams up with a New God named Lonar, to kill the creator of the game Adonis and escape the planet. Lonar kills Adonis, takes his pocket dimension, and disappears. In Threshold #8 the producer of the show The Hunted, reveals that the show has been cancelled and sends Jaimie back to Earth. In Futures End #0 Blue Beetle is seen working together with the resistance against Brother Eye and all the other dead superheroes. He dies and mutates into a robot controlled by Brother Eye. DC Rebirth In the 2016 relaunch of the DC Universe, DC Rebirth, Jaime is working with Ted Kord to study the beetle attached to Jaime's back and remove it. Once again, the beetle's origin is retconned, as revealed by Doctor Fate, who tells Kord that the beetle is not alien, but magical, similar to the original continuity pre-Infinite Crisis. Graduation Day In the Blue Beetle: Graduation Day miniseries, Jamie is still continuing his superhero duties as Blue Beetle while also finally graduating from High School. However, during the ceremony, he gets a transmission from the scarab indicating that the Reach are planning something. Afterwards, following a party to celebrate Jaime graduating, Superman and Jaime share a heart to heart about Jamie's unsureness for his future and what he wants for himself. Superman then informs Jaime that, until they get a better understanding of the Reach broadcast, Jamie is "grounded" from being Blue Beetle and should spend time with his family. Jaime then find out from his parents that, because he's not attending college, he'll be heading to Palmera City to work at the family diner for the summer. Then, Paco shows everyone a video of a mysterious Yellow Beetle arriving in Sensuntepeque, El Salvador. Powers and abilities The Blue Beetle scarab is grafted onto Jaime Reyes's spine and can manifest a number of powers of its own volition, an act usually accompanied by blue energy emitted by the scarab's "antennae". Over the course of the first year of his ongoing series, Jaime had little, if any, control over those powers, but slowly asserts himself. When Jaime is in danger, the scarab activates, crawling out on to Jaime's back and generating a high-tech suit of powered armor around his body. The armor is resilient enough that it can protect him against re-entry from Earth's orbit. When the danger passes, the scarab deactivates, dissolving the costume and retracting back onto Jaime's spine, causing intense pain. When in use, the suit can reconfigure itself to produce a wide array of armaments. Common functions include an energy cannon, a sword and shield, a grappling hook, a device resembling a communications satellite, and a set of foot-long powered blades that can shear through tree trunks. In addition, the suit can produce a set of wings for flight that can also act as shields. Jaime alludes to weapons that may be powerful enough to harm even the Spectre, one of DC's most powerful characters, claiming that some of the weapons are of mass-destruction caliber, but refuses to use lethal force. The suit can adapt to different situations, including producing energy discharges from the hands that can neutralize magic, discharging Kryptonite radiation and tuning "vibrational frequencies" of extra-dimensional objects to make them visible. The suit can create armaments of different composition and style. The wings, for example, were initially composed of the same blue opaque armor as the rest of the suit, but beginning with Blue Beetle vol. 7 #12 (April 2007), began manifesting themselves in the form of a colorless, translucent material. The scarab has at least one power it can manifest whether dormant or active; it can give Jaime a peculiar form of "sight" to perceive extra-dimensional objects, which gather information on the scarab user's adversaries. The scarab is able to communicate with him in a more comprehensible fashion if need be. The scarab's language slowly morphs into a format resembling English, claiming Khaji Da as its own name and Jaime as its first real friend. However, it has occasional language relapses. The suit is capable of compensating for Jaime's digestive system, so that he does not need to expel waste materials when using the suit, and can even make paper out of dead skin cells the suit collects. The scarab exhibits a reluctance to harm nature, as evidenced in Blue Beetle vol. 7 #4, in which Jaime is attacked by a pair of anthropomorphized trees, and the suit declines to use great force against them, until Jaime convinces the scarab that his life is in danger and wrests control over the suit to destroy the trees, much to the scarab's displeasure. When necessary, Jaime can have the Scarab take over in Infiltrator Mode. When this happens, the suit becomes taller, more muscular and grows spikes and allows the scarab to fight without Jaime's conscience as a restriction. This lets it fight more brutally, but Jaime and the scarab do not like this and only resort to it in desperate situations. Other versions An alternate version of Jaime appears in Justice Society of America vol. 3 #37-38 as part of the "Fatherland" storyline. Set twenty years in the future, Jaime has lost his powers after Captain Nazi and his fellow white supremacist villains activate their Great Darkness Engine, a device which neutralizes most of the world's metahumans and allows a Neo-Nazi regime known as the Fourth Reich to take over America. Held prisoner alongside the world's few surviving superheroes, Jaime is ultimately killed by security guards after attacking Mr. Terrific as a distraction for the other heroes to further their escape plans during the execution ceremony for Batman and the Joker. In the alternate future called of the book Titans Tomorrow, Red Devil killed this timeline's Blue Beetle. In the alternate timeline of the 2011 Flashpoint storyline, Jaime was a part of a team called the Ambush Bugs led by the Canterbury Cricket. They did an attack on the Amazons which ended in failure with the demise of every bug hero except the Canterbury Cricket. Collected editions The Blue Beetle series has been collected into a number of trade paperbacks: {\| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" \|- ! Vol. # ! Title ! Collected material ! Pages ! Year ! ISBN \|- \|1 \| Shellshocked \|Blue Beetle vol. 7, #1–6 \| rowspan="2" \|144 \| 2006 \| \|- \|2 \| Road Trip \|Blue Beetle vol. 7, #7–12 \| 2007 \| \|- \|3 \| Reach for the Stars \|Blue Beetle vol. 7, #13–19 \|168 \| 2008 \| \|- \|4 \| End Game \|Blue Beetle vol. 7, #20–26 \|176 \| 2008 \| \|- \|5 \| Boundaries \|Blue Beetle vol. 7, #29–34 \|144 \| \| \|- \|6 \| Black and Blue\|Blue Beetle vol. 7, #27–28, #35–36Booster Gold vol. 2, #21–25, #28–29 \|168 \| \| \|- ! colspan="6" \|The New 52 \|- \|1 \|Metamorphosis \|Blue Beetle vol. 8, #1–6 \|144 \| \| \|- \|2 \|Blue Diamond \|Blue Beetle vol. 8, #0, 7–16Green Lantern: New Guardians #9 \|240 \| \| \|- ! colspan="6" \|DC Rebirth \|- \|1 \|The More Things Change \|Blue Beetle: Rebirth #1Blue Beetle vol. 9 #1–5 \|144 \| \| \|- \|2 \|Hard Choices \|Blue Beetle vol. 9 #6–12 \|168 \| \| \|- \|3 \|Road to Nowhere \|Blue Beetle vol. 9 #13–18 \|144 \| \| \|- \|} In other media Television Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle appears in the Smallville episode "Booster", portrayed by Jaren Brandt Bartlett. This version is a shy and clumsy teenager from Metropolis who was bullied until he bonded to the Blue Beetle scarab following a traffic accident near Kord Industries. Seeking to find the scarab, Ted Kord hires Booster Gold to help him, leading to the latter fighting Reyes before ultimately convincing him to stand up for himself. Kord offers to remove the scarab, but Reyes chooses to keep it and become a hero with his and Booster's help. Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle appears in Batman: The Brave and the Bold, voiced by Will Friedle. This version is a fan of Batman and best friends with Paco Testas. In his most notable appearance in the episode "Revenge of the Reach!", Reyes falls under the Reach's control and is forced to attack the Green Lantern Corps, but eventually regains control and frees the rest of the Reach's thralls via the Green Lanterns' energy. Additionally, an evil alternate universe incarnation of Reyes called the Scarlet Scarab (also voiced by Friedle) appears in the episode "Deep Cover for Batman!" as a member of the Injustice Syndicate. In 2010, Geoff Johns announced a TV series featuring Jamie Reyes / Blue Beetle, with a test trailer starring Garrett Plotkin as Reyes being released. Scenes of this trailer were shown as part of the DC Nation block of programming in 2012 on Cartoon Network during the premiere of Green Lantern: The Animated Series. However, no further announcements have been made. Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle appears in Young Justice, voiced by Eric Lopez. This version is initially a member of the Team who became attached to the Blue Beetle scarab while passing by Kord Industries after Ted Kord sacrificed himself to stop the Light from obtaining the device. Additionally, Reyes does not experience pain while transforming into the Blue Beetle. Moreover, the Scarab (also voiced by Lopez) can speak in English, finds lethal courses of action preferable to capture and restraint, and was severed from the Reach's control after it landed on Earth centuries prior and came into contact with ancient Bialyan mystics. After being misled by the Reach's Green Martian thrall, B'arzz O'oomm / Green Beetle, Reyes and the Scarab fall under the Reach's control until the Team use the ancient mystics' magic to free them along with Green Beetle. Reyes would go on to help thwart the Reach's invasion of Earth and, in the third season, join Beast Boy's Outsiders and enter a relationship with Traci Thurston. Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle appears in Justice League Action, voiced by Jake T. Austin. Film Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle appears in films set in DC Animated Movie Universe (DCAMU), voiced again by Jake T. Austin. This version is a member of the Teen Titans. He first appears in Justice League vs. Teen Titans. In Teen Titans: The Judas Contract, his troubled family life is explored as he takes up work in a soup kitchen and eventually reconciles with his family. Reyes makes a non-speaking appearance in a flashback in Justice League Dark: Apokolips War. He joined the Titans in defending Earth from Darkseid's forces, only to be killed by Darkseid's Paradooms. An older Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle appears in a self-titled film, portrayed by Xolo Maridueña. This version is a recent college graduate from the fictional Palmera City instead of El Paso, Texas who was personally entrusted with the Scarab by Ted Kord's daughter, Jenny Kord, to keep it away from Ted's villainous sister, Victoria. Reyes will return in films set in the DC Universe (DCU) franchise. Video games Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle appears as a playable character in Batman: The Brave and the Bold – The Videogame, voiced again by Will Friedle. Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle appears as a DLC character in Young Justice: Legacy, voiced again by Eric Lopez. Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle appears as a playable character in Infinite Crisis, voiced again by Eric Lopez. Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle appears as a character summon in Scribblenauts Unmasked: A DC Comics Adventure. Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle appears as a playable character in Lego Batman 3: Beyond Gotham, voiced by Dee Bradley Baker. Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle appears as a playable character in Injustice 2, voiced by Antony Del Rio. This version is a member of Batman's Insurgency. Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle appears as a playable character in Lego DC Super-Villains voiced by Josh Keaton. Miscellaneous Jaime Reyes appears in DC Universe Online: Legends as one of several metahumans gathered by Lex Luthor. Jaime Reyes appears in Smallville: Titans as a member of Jay Garrick's Teen Titans. The Injustice incarnation of Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle appears in the Injustice 2 prequel comic as a protege of Ted Kord. Jaime Reyes / Blue Beetle makes background appearances in DC Super Hero Girls'' as a student of Super Hero High. See also List of Blue Beetle enemies References External links DC Comics.com: Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes) DC Database Project: Blue Beetle (Jaime Reyes) Fictional characters from Chicago Characters created by Keith Giffen Characters created by John Rogers Comics characters introduced in 2006 DC Comics characters who are shapeshifters DC Comics characters with accelerated healing DC Comics characters with superhuman strength DC Comics characters who have mental powers Fictional characters from Texas Fictional Mexican-American people Mexican superheroes Fictional technopaths Fictional characters with anti-magic or power negation abilities Fictional characters who can manipulate sound Fictional characters with fire or heat abilities Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities Fighting game characters Teenage superheroes Reyes, Jaime
4800442	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20Pakistani%20history	Timeline of Pakistani history	This is a timeline of Pakistani history, comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in the region of modern-day's Pakistan. To read about the background of these events, see History of Pakistan and History of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Lower Paleolithic Middle Paleolithic Upper Paleolithic 35th century BCE 27th century BCE 25th century BCE 19th century BCE 13th century BCE 10th century BCE 7th century BCE 6th century BCE 5th century BCE 4th century BCE 2nd century BCE 1st century BCE 1st century 2nd century 3rd century 4th century 5th century 6th century 7th century 8th century 9th century 10th century 11th century 12th century 13th century 14th century CE 1351: Samma Dynasty assumed rule over Sindh 1398: Tamerlane plunders Lahore 1472: Sher Shah Suri (original name Farid Khan born in Multan) 1526 – 1857: Mughal ascendancy (1526–1707), nominal rule by Mughals (1707–1857) 1541 – 1545: Sher Shah Suri built the Rohtas Fort 1586: Yusufzais defeat Akbar in the Karakar pass 1701: Kalhoro Dynasty establishes its rule over Sindh 1739: Nadir Shah of Persia invades Mughal Empire 1751–52: Ahmed Shah Abdali annexes Punjab to his kingdom 1758–59: Maratha conquest of North-west India 1782: The Baloch tribe of Talpur defeats the last Kalhora ruler Mian Abdul Nabi in the battle of Halani 12 April 1801— 27 June 1839: Sikhs become dominant force in Punjab, Ranjit Singh rules (1799–1839), 1843: British defeat Talpurs in the battle of Miani and annex Sindh 29 March 1849: British defeat Sikhs and annex Punjab 1 November 1857 The British control most present-day Pakistan region and incorporate it as part of the British Indian Empire. 30 December 1906: A new political party All-India Muslim League formed to protect rights of Muslims in British Indian Empire. 1909: Muhammad Ali Jinnah was elected to the Legislative Council in 1909 1913: Prominent Muslim leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah, acknowledging that Hindu dominant Indian Congress failing to protect Indian Muslim rights, joined the All India Muslim League (AIML). Now he was member of both the political parties, later became leader of the All-India Muslim League and instrumental in the creation of Pakistan. 1920: Having disagreement with Gandhi on the issue of Swaraj (self-rule), complete freedom from the British and on using extra-constitutional means, Jinnah resigned from the Congress in 1920 1921: MAO College Aligarh upgraded to Aligrah Muslim University 29 December 1930: Dr. Muhammad Allama Iqbal, a great Muslim philosopher and poet suggested creation of separate Muslim state in Indian sub-continent to protect Muslim population dominated by Hindu majority. 31 May 1935: A strong earthquake with a magnitude of 7.7 jolted Quetta killing over 50,000 people 14 August 1947: Pakistan is created. Post-Independence 1940s 3 June 1947: British Government decides to separate British India, into two sovereign Dominions of India and Pakistan. 8 July Constituent Assembly of Pakistan approves the design of Pakistan. 26 July: The Gazette of India publishes that the first Constituent Assembly of Pakistan was given shape with 69 members (later on the membership was increased to 79), including one female member. 14 August: Pakistan became independent. Quaid-a-Azam took oath as the first Governor General of Pakistan. Liaqat Ali Khan took oath as the first Prime minister of Pakistan. 30 September: Pakistan becomes a member of the UN by a unanimous vote of the Security Council. 27 October: Indian Air troops land in Kashmir as the Maharajah declares accession of Kashmir to India. 1 January: UNO cease-fire orders to operate in Kashmir. War stops accordingly. 1 May: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947, Pakistan enters war on behalf of Kashmir against India. 1 July: Quaid-e-Azam inaugurated the State Bank of Pakistan. 11 September 1948: Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the first governor general of Pakistan, passes away. 1 January: United Nations Cease-fire Line established between Pakistan Administered Kashmir (GB & AJ&K) and Indian-held Kashmir 8 February: Azad Kashmir Government shifts its capital to Muzaffarabad. 12 March 1949 : Objectives Resolution passed by Liaquat Ali Khan. 14 September: Khwaja Nazimuddin becomes 2nd Governor-General of Pakistan. 1950s 11 July 1950 Pakistan joins the International Monetary Fund and World Bank. 16 October 1951: First Prime Minister Liaqat Ali Khan assassinated in Liaqat National Bagh, Rawalpindi. 17 October 1951: Finance Minister Malik Ghulam Mohammad (1895–1956) of Muslim League becomes the third Governor General. Governor-General Khawaja Nazimuddin of Muslim League becomes the second Prime Minister. 21 August 1951: Pakistan and India agree on the boundary pact between East Bengal and West Bengal. 22 August 1951: A 24-hour telegraph telephone service is established between East Pakistan and West Pakistan. 24 December 1951: UN Security Council adopts the Anglo-American Resolution on Kashmir urging immediate demilitarization talks between India, Pakistan. 17 April 1953: Muhammad Ali Bogra is sworn as prime minister. 7 August 1954: Government of Pakistan approves the National Anthem, written by Abu Al-Asar Hafeez Jalandhari and composed by Ahmed G. Chagla. 21 September 1954: Constituent Assembly unanimously passes the resolution in favour of Urdu and Bengali as national languages. 24 October: 1954 Malik Ghulam Muhammad dissolved first constitutional assembly. 1955: Constitutional crisis, Mohammad Ali Bogra removed, new assembly, new cabinet. 7 August 1955: PM Mohammad Ali Bogra resigns after the election of Chaudhri Mohammad Ali. 6 October 1955: Governor-General Ghulam Mohammad's resignation is succeeded by Iskander Mirza. 1956: The Constituent Assembly promulgates first indigenous constitution 1956: Constituent Assembly decides the country shall be a Federal Republic known as Islamic Republic of Pakistan 16 December 1957: Malik Firoz Khan Noon is sworn in as seventh Prime Minister of Pakistan. 7 October 1958: After a military coup dictorial Ayub Khan takes over. 18 April 1959: The government takes over dailies The Pakistan Times, Imroze and weekly Lail-o-Nihar. 1960s 1960: Ayub Khan becomes first elected president 1 August 1960: Islamabad is declared as the principal seat of the Government of Pakistan. 8 June 1962: 1962 Constitution is promulgated. National Assembly elected. Ayub Khan takes oath of first President of Pakistan under new constitution. 2 January 1964: Fatima Jinnah lost the presidential elections, Ayub completes the second term. 6 September 1965: Second war between Pakistan and India over Kashmir. 10 January 1966: Pakistan and Republic of India sign the Tashkent Declaration to end hostilities. 30 November 1967: Pakistan Peoples Party founded by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in Lahore. 25 March 1969: Ayub Khan resigns; Yahya Khan declares martial law and assumes presidency. 1970s 7 December 1970: 1970 Pakistani general election were held on 7 December 1970, although the polls in East Pakistan, originally scheduled for October, were delayed by disastrous floods and rescheduled for later in December and January 1971. 1971: East Pakistan attempts to secede, leading to civil war; India intervenes in support of East Pakistanis; Pakistan fights another war with India; East Pakistan breaks away to become Bangladesh; 20 December 1971: Yahya Khan resigns. 1972: Karachi labour unrest of 1972 and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto becomes president. 14 March 1972: New education policy enforced. Free education in all private and public schools. 21 April 1972: Martial Law lifted; constitutional rule is restored in the country. Hamoodur Rahman is sworn in as Chief Justice of Pakistan. 10 April 1973: 1973 Constitution of Pakistan enacted by the National Assembly. 11 August 1973: Chaudhry Fazal Ilahi is elected as president. 14 August 1973: Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto becomes prime minister. Constitution of Pakistan 1973 promulgated. 7 March 1977: 1977 Pakistani general election 5 July 1977: General Muhammad Zia ul-Haq overthrows prime minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and declares martial law. 11 June 1978: Altaf Hussain founded the All Pakistan Muhajir Student Organization (APMSO) in Karachi University. 16 September 1978: General Muhammad Zia ul-Haq becomes Pakistan's sixth president. 1979: The military ruler Zia Ul-Haq enacts the Hudood Ordinances. 4 April 1979: Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto hanged. 1980s 26 May 1980: Establishment of Federal Shariat Court is announced. 23 March 1981: Provisional constitutional order enforced, replacing the 1973 constitution. 18 March 1984: Azeem Ahmed Tariq & Altaf Hussain founded the MQM (Muhajir Qaumi Movement) in Karachi and Hyderabad. 28 February 1985: General elections held; Muhammad Khan Junejo becomes prime minister. 31 December 1985: Martial Law is lifted, amended 1973 Constitution revived. 20 January 1988: Prominent Pashtun leader Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan dies in Peshawar. 10 April 1988: Army ammunition blown up in Ojheri camp, Rawalpindi; more than 100 people die. 29 May 1988: Zia dismisses Junejo's government; 17 August 1988: General Zia-ul-Haq is killed in a plane crash near Bahawalpur. 16 November 1988: New elections held; Benazir Bhutto becomes prime minister 30 September 1988: 1988 Hyderabad massacre 16 November 1988: 1988 Pakistani general election 1990s 6 August 1990: President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dismisses Benazir Bhutto government; Mian Nawaz Sharif becomes the next prime minister 24 October 1990: 1990 Pakistani general election 1991: Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif begins economic liberalisation programme. 16 May 1991: Islamic Shariah law formally incorporated into legal code. 19 June 1992: Pakistan Army started Operation Clean-up 18 July 1993: President Ghulam Ishaq Khan and Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif both resign under pressure from military. Benazir Bhutto becomes prime minister for the second time. 5 November 1996: President Farooq Leghari dismisses Bhutto government. 3 February 1997: 1997 Pakistani general election, Nawaz Sharif becomes prime minister for the second time. 28 May 1998: Pakistan conducts nuclear tests. 26 July 1999: Kargil War ends between Pakistan and India. 12 October 1999: Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif overthrown in military coup led by General Pervez Musharraf. 2000s 6 April 2000: Supreme Court validated the October 1999 coup and granted General Pervez Musharraf executive and legislative authority for three years. 2001 20 June: General Pervez Musharraf dismissed the president and named himself to the post. 15 July: Agra Summit starts. President Pervez Musharraf and Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee holds talks over long-standing issues. 14 August: New Local Government system installed, after holding of elections in three phases. 16 September: US Secretary of State Powell told that Pakistan's President Musharraf had agreed to support the U.S. anti-terrorist campaign. 10 November: US President Bush meets President Musharraf in New York and assures additional aid of one billion dollars. 2002 5 January: Musharraf stunned Vajpayee by a hand-shake at the last 11th SAARC summit in Kathmandu. 1 February: Wall Street Journal reporter, Daniel Pearl killed in Karachi. 16 March: War in North-West Pakistan begins. 30 April: General Pervez Musharraf wins a referendum thus ensures 5 more years in office. 8 May: 2002 Karachi bus bombing, 15 killed. 24 August: President General Musharraf issues the Legal Framework Order 2002. 10 October: 2002 Pakistani general election, First general elections since the 1999 military coup held. 23 November: Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali sworn in as Prime Minister. 2003 24 February: Senate elections: Ruling party wins most seats in voting to the upper house. 23 March: AAJ TV, Pakistan's premier channel inaugurated. 24 June: President Pervez Musharraf meets US President G.W. Bush in Camp David. US announces $3-billion five-year economic assistance package for Pakistan. 4 July: 2003 Quetta mosque bombing, 44 killed. 11 July: Lahore-Delhi bus service resumed after suspension of 18 months. 14 December: General Musharraf survived an assassination attempt in Rawalpindi. 2004 1 January: General Musharraf won a vote of confidence in the Senate, National Assembly, and provincial assemblies. 5 January: Musharraf meets Vajpayee in Islamabad, discusses Kashmir dispute. 22 May: Pakistan readmitted to Commonwealth. 26 June: Prime Minister Zafarullah Khan Jamali steps down and nominates Ch. Shujaat Hussain as his interim successor. 28 August: Shaukat Aziz becomes Prime Minister. 2005 2007 3–11 July: Siege of Lal Masjid 19 October: 2007 Karsaz bombing, 180 killed. 4 September: September 2007 bombings in Rawalpindi, 25 killed. 3 November: Pervez Musharraf imposed emergency, most of the senior judges of Supreme Court ousted. 27 December: Benazir Bhutto assassinated, aged 54. (b. 1953) 2008 9 February: 2008 Charsadda bombing, 27 killed. 6 July: 2008 Lal Masjid bombing, 18 policeman killed and 1 civilian. 18 August: Pervez Musharraf resigns. 21 August: 2008 Wah bombing, 70 killed. 16 September Hibba Sohail, was Born At Gujjar Youth Form Chairman Chaudhry Sohail Mehdi house 2009 16 February: Pakistan government announces a truce with Taliban, accepting a system of Islamic law in the Swat valley, conceding the area as a Taliban sanctuary. 9 March: Militants attack bus with the touring Sri Lankan cricket team. All international cricket matches in Pakistan are suspended. Pakistan also loses its status as hosts for the 2011 Cricket World Cup. 16 March: As the result of long march Lawyers' Movement succeeded. Iftikhar Mohammed Chaudhry was restored as Chief Justice of Pakistan and other judges dismissed by Musharraf. 27 March: 2009 Jamrud mosque bombing, 48–70 killed. 23 May: Pakistan Army launched Operation Rah-e-Rast and cleared Swat valley of all Taliban elements. It is regarded as one of the most successful counter-insurgency operations in modern age (to 15 July) 4 April: 2009 Islamabad Frontier Corps post bombing, 5 killed. 5 April: 2009 Chakwal mosque bombing, more than 30 killed. 9 June: Pearl Continental hotel bombing, 17 killed. 20 October: 2009 International Islamic University bombing, 4 killed. 2 November: November 2009 Rawalpindi bombing, 35 killed. 4 December: December 2009 Rawalpindi attack, 40 killed. 2010s 2010 10 January: January 2010 Bajaur bombing, 16 killed. 3 February: February 2010 Lower Dir bombing, 8 killed. 5 February: February 2010 Karachi bombings, 25 killed. 18 February: February 2010 Khyber mosque bombing, 30 killed. 12 March: Lahore church bombings, more than 72 killed. 5 April: April 2010 U.S consulate and ANP attack, 50 killed. 5 April: 2010 Timergarah bombings, 46 killed. 10 April: Pakistan adopts the 18th amendment to the Constitution, stripping President Asif Ali Zardari of key powers. 17 April: April 2010 Kohat bombings, 58 killed. 19 April: 19 April 2010 Peshawar bombing. 25 killed. 28 May: 2010 Ahmadiyya mosques massacre, 87 killed. 1 July: July 2010 Lahore bombings, 50 killed. 9 July: Mohmand Agency bombing, 104 killed. 1 September: September 2010 Lahore bombings, 38 killed. 3 September: September 2010 Quetta bombing, 73 killed. 5 November: 2010 Darra Adam Khel mosque bombing, 66 killed. 25 December: December 2010 Bajaur bombing, 47 killed. 2011 3 April: 2011 Dera Ghazi Khan bombings, more than 50 killed. 2 May: The US Navy Seals killed Osama bin Laden in the city of Abbottabad. 12 June: June 2011 Peshawar bombings, more than 34 were killed. July – August: Mass target killing occurred killing ~344 people throughout Karachi. 19 August: 2011 Khyber Agency bombing, more than 48 killed. 2012 26 February: Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy won her first Academy Award for Best Documentary Short Subject for Saving Face, becoming the very first Pakistani Oscar winner . 22 June: Raja Pervaiz Ashraf is elected as Prime Minister of Pakistan, following the disqualification of Yousaf Raza Gillani over a contempt of court conviction by the Supreme Court of Pakistan. 2013 10 January: January 2013 Pakistan bombings, 130 killed. 7 May: 7 May 2013 Syed Janan election rally bombing, 18–25 killed. 11 May: 2013 Pakistani general election held 5 June: Nawaz Sharif is elected Prime Minister of Pakistan, following the Pakistan Muslim League (N)'s victory in the 2013 general elections for the 3rd time. 15 June: June 2013 Quetta attacks, 26 killed. 18 June: 2013 Mardan funeral bombing, 28 killed. 21 June: 2013 Peshawar mosque bombing, 15 killed. 30 July: Mamnoon Hussain is elected as the 12th President of Pakistan in 2013 Presidential elections. 8 August: August 2013 Quetta bombing, 31 killed. 22 September: Peshawar church bombing, 127 killed. 29 September: Qissa Khawani Bazaar bombing, 41 killed. 2014 7 January: Aitzaz Hasan died between Preventing suicide bomber attack at his school in Hangu District, sacrificed his own life to save the lives of hundreds of his mates. 19 January: 2014 Bannu bombing, 26 killed. 19 January: 2014 Rawalpindi suicide bombing, 14 killed. 2–11 February: 2014 Peshawar cinema bombings, 13 killed. 3 March: Islamabad court attack, 11 killed. 10 October: October 10: Activist Malala Yousafzai becomes the first Pakistani to win the Nobel Peace Prize for her struggle to voice girls' right to education. 2 November: 2014 Wagah border suicide attack, 60 killed. 16 December: 2014 Peshawar school massacre, 148 killed. 2015 13 February: 2015 Peshawar mosque attack, 19 killed. 15 March: Lahore church bombings, 19 killed. 23 October: 2015 Jacobabad bombing, 22 killed. 2016 20 January: Bacha Khan University attack, 20 killed. 28 February: Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy won her second Academy Award for Best Documentary Short Subject for A Girl in the River: The Price of Forgiveness 16 March: 2016 Peshawar bus bombing, 15 killed 27 March: 2016 Lahore suicide bombing, 75 killed. 16 September: 2016 September Pakistan mosque bombing, 36 killed. 24 October: 2016 Peshawar bus bombing, 62 killed. 12 November: 2016 Khuzdar bombing, 47 killed. 2017 21 January: A bombing at a vegetable market in Parachinar, Pakistan leads to the death of 25 people. 9 February: 2017 Pakistan Super League began. 2018 24-27 May: The twenty-fifth amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan was approved by the Parliament of Pakistan and the Provincial Assembly of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), giving way to the merger of the Federally Administered Tribal Areas into the Province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. 25 July: 2018 Pakistani general election are held. 2019 26 February: Officially spurns Indian claims of Balakot airstrike 27 February: Pakistan Air Force shoots down two Indian warplanes in a skirmish and captured Indian pilot wing commander Abhinandan Varthaman 2 March: Pakistan released Abhinandan Varthaman and returned him to India in a simple ceremony via Wagha border. 5 August: India revoked article 370 of the constitution and partitioned the state of Jammu and Kashmir. 14 December: Named the top holiday destination for travelers for the year 2020 by the United States-based luxury and lifestyle publication Conde Nast Traveler. See also Pakistan History of Pakistan Timeline of Karachi Timeline of Lahore Timeline of Peshawar References Bibliography External links National Fund For Cultural Heritage History Of Pakistan 01 Pakistan 01
4800502	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Stryker	William Stryker	The Reverend William Stryker is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. A minister and former sergeant with a strong hatred for mutants, he is usually depicted as an enemy of the X-Men. He is also the father of Jason Stryker. The character has appeared in the X-Men film series, portrayed by Brian Cox in X2 (2003), Danny Huston in X-Men Origins: Wolverine (2009), and Josh Helman in X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014) and X-Men: Apocalypse (2016). In 2009, William Stryker was ranked by IGN’s as the 70th-greatest comic book villain of all time. Publication history Created by writer Chris Claremont and artist Brent Anderson, William Stryker first appeared in the 1982 graphic novel X-Men: God Loves, Man Kills. His character was modeled after Jerry Falwell. Fictional character biography God Loves, Man Kills The Reverend William Stryker is a religious fanatic with a military history. Characterized by his unequivocal hatred of mutants, Stryker's hatred goes so far as to kill his own wife Marcy Stryker and their mutant son immediately after birth in Nevada. Crazed and outraged, Stryker then makes a suicide attempt. As time passes, he is convinced that Satan has a plot to destroy humankind by corrupting prenatal souls, the result of this corruption being mutants. Additionally, Stryker eventually comes to see his mutant son's birth as a sign from God, directing him to his true calling: ensuring the eradication of all mutants. Driven by this conviction, Stryker then becomes a popular but controversial preacher and televangelist. While his followers, including a secret paramilitary Purifiers group, commit hate crimes against mutants, Stryker arranges to have Professor Xavier kidnapped, brainwashed, and attached to a brainpower machine that will kill all living mutants. In order to stop this scheme, the X-Men are forced to join forces with Magneto. His bigotry's extent becomes obvious when he attempts to kill Kitty Pryde in front of a television audience resulting in a NYPD officer shooting him. God Loves, Man Kills II Stryker appeared in the X-Treme X-Men storyline (as he was assumed forgotten in-universe). This time, it was revealed that Stryker had been serving a prison sentence as a result of the events of his previous actions. Lady Deathstrike makes way onto the airplane where Stryker was being transferred. Once there, his ally kills his guards and rescues him, then it is revealed that the two are lovers, and he immediately begins a crusade against the X-Men, focusing on Wolverine, Cannonball, the X-Treme X-Men team and Shadowcat against whom he apparently keeps a grudge. Stryker sent a group of his followers against several of the X-Men, and kidnapped Pryde. Along the way, Kitty convinced Stryker that mutants were not an abomination, and he seemed to turn over a new leaf as he merged with the sentient artificial intelligence calling itself Reverend Paul and put inside a containment tube. "Decimation" However, Stryker returns as a major player at the start of the 2005 "Decimation" storyline, following the "House of M" storyline, in which he deemed the mutant population's sudden massive reduction in numbers as a sign of God, saying "[God] made the first step and now we have to take the next", basically rallying for genocide on TV. He was featured mostly in New X-Men as the main villain, but also appeared in other comics set during this time frame. With the Xavier Institute's student Icarus's help, he caused a bus to explode, killing about one quarter of the academy's de-powered students. Then he planned Wallflower's assassination, ordering one of his snipers to shoot Wallflower in the head. He next tried to kill Dust, though it was actually X-23. The deaths of Wallflower and Dust were Stryker's prime objectives, as he had been informed by Nimrod that both females would destroy his army. Stryker finally attacked the institute with the Purifiers, killing Quill, leaving Onyxx and Cannonball critically wounded, and hurting Bishop, Emma Frost and other students. After the Purifiers were defeated, Stryker was killed by Elixir, Wallflower's enraged boyfriend who causes catastrophic damage to Stryker's brain via a tumor's rapid growth. Bastion resurrected Stryker with a Technarch to join Bastion's new Purifiers. Bastion revealed Stryker has the second highest number of mutant kills as the Purifiers' founder, and is surpassed only by the Sentinels' creator Bolivar Trask. Bastion charges Stryker to locate Hope Summers and Cable, following the two's return from the future in the "Second Coming" event. His Purifiers, in conjunction with Cameron Hodge's Right footsoldiers, engage the X-Men and New Mutants. The Purifiers take out Magik with a weaponized ritual, Illyana Rasputin is abducted by demons. They also disrupt Nightcrawler's teleportation with a sonic attack, leading to disorientation. The battle culminates when Wolverine orders Archangel to take out Stryker, shifting into the Death persona and slices Stryker in half at the waist via wings. It is later revealed that Stryker did not actually murder his son Jason Stryker, and had in fact raised the boy in secret, alleviating his son's apparently debilitating mutation with the help of A.I.M. After Stryker's death, Jason continues his father's work by joining the Purifiers. Behind the Weapon X Project During the "Weapons of Mutant Destruction" storyline, Stryker made his presence known (after being restored to life as a cyborg) and has formed the Weapon X Project's latest incarnation with some humans' help that he swayed to his side like Dr. Aliana Alba. He sets his sights on having his scientists work on Adamantium cyborgs to eradicate mankind. In order to refine these Adamantium cyborgs, Stryker has the Weapon X Project target Old Man Logan, Sabretooth, Warpath, Domino and Lady Deathstrike because these mutants have special abilities within Weapon X's interest. After the Adamantium cyborgs apprehend Lady Deathstrike to harvest genetic material for the Weapon X Project to use for their Adamantium Cyborgs, Old Man Logan and Sabretooth evade the Adamantium cyborgs as Stryker and the Weapon X Project were able to get their tissue samples. In addition, Stryker also has the Adamantium cyborgs target Amadeus Cho's Hulk form for a blood sample. When the Hulk and the mutants on Old Man Logan's side raid the Weapon X Project's base and frees Lady Deathstrike and Warpath, Stryker sets the base to self-destruct where its employees were killed in the process. It was also shown that Stryker was starting a project that involves the Hulk's blood that is part of ingredients for Mutant/Hulk hybrids. Following some further investigations, Old Man Logan's group and the Hulk raided the Weapon X Project's central command. The Hulk did not want Old Man Logan, Sabretooth and Lady Deathstrike to kill him. As Old Man Logan, Sabretooth, and Lady Deathstrike disputed with the Hulk, Stryker took the opportunity to get away as the group soon join the fight against Bobby Andrews's mutated H-Beta form. As the Hulk fights H-Beta and then the H-Alpha after it killed H-Beta, Stryker and Dr. Alba escaped in their helicopter upon them losing control of H-Alpha. Reception In 2017, WhatCulture ranked William Stryker 5th in their "10 Most Evil X-Men Villains" list. Other versions Age of Apocalypse In the alternate timeline seen in the 2005 Age of Apocalypse storyline, William Stryker was raised by a preacher father who cared for him and other children from their town after most were slaughtered by mutants. However, in a horrible stroke of irony his father was later killed by other surviving humans. As such he had to live in hiding, learning to depend on the kindness of both humans and mutants, making this version a far more tolerant person than his 616 universe counterpart. He takes the Prophet guise and begins to avenge humanity along with X-Terminated. He breaks into the apartment of Krakken, an engineer who built ovens to incinerate humans, and murders him but not his family. Before killing Krakken, Prophet reveals he previously destroyed one of Krakken's eyes and then finished the job by cutting off his head. William studies the Sentinels and mutants hunt of humans in order to refine his skills in taking them down. He says he has learned their weaknesses and despite their powers, his will and skill is more powerful. With ease, Prophet makes his way up an attacking Sentinel, cuts into its head and flips away as the robot is destroyed from the damage. He says his talents were obtained by watching the slaughter of thousands and his victories honor them. As Weapon X leads his final attack on the last surviving City of Men, Prophet allows them to escape by throwing an explosive at Weapon X. He then leads his team out of the city. Once clear the city is destroyed by Weapon X. Ultimate Marvel The Ultimate Marvel iteration is an Admiral named William Stryker Sr., the leader of the anti-mutant conspiracy within the U.S. Government, and also linked to the Legacy Virus's creation before presumably killing himself. Stryker's views on mutants were also passed onto his son. The Ultimate version of William Stryker Jr. was a reverend. Living in Manhattan with his wife Kate Stryker and son John Stryker, he suffered a great tragedy when his family was killed when the "Ultimatum Wave" struck New York. William miraculously survived, but could not come to grips with his grief. He attempted to lead a spiritual congregation of survivors at a special tent set up in Central Park, but was unable to successfully conduct his service. Stryker met a group of men who knew that the mutant Magneto was responsible for the Ultimatum Wave and encouraged his rapidly-growing hatred of all mutants. They provided him with armaments and weaponry acquired from a cache of destroyed Sentinels and Stryker became the leader of an anti-mutant militia. Stryker led the Purifier forces in an attack on the Xavier Mansion during the Ultimatum Wave and emerged as the only survivor after the reformed Weapon X Team led by Rogue managed to slaughter all the Purifiers present except himself. Stryker escaped and began hallucinating visions of his deceased abusive father who egged on his hatred of mutants and religious fervor until he was ready to once again strike back against the mutants. After the reveal that mutants were the creation of human experimentation, Stryker orchestrated a massive attack in Times Square and began rounding up mutants to force them to repent under punishment of death. The X-Men appeared but were betrayed by Rogue who had made a deal with Stryker to make her normal beforehand in exchange for her services. During the struggle, the Shroud killed him by phasing an arm through his abdomen. With his last breath, he manipulated a wave of Nimrod Sentinels to kill every mutant in the country. While the numerous waves of Nimrods started hunting mutants around the whole country, others had the command to build a giant Sentinel, where Stryker's mind was transferred. With his new body, Stryker led an assault against Kitty Pryde's team of mutants before Pryde managed to damage Stryker's machine body enough to destroy him permanently. In other media Films Scottish actor Brian Cox portrayed Colonel William Stryker in the 2003 film X2. Brad Loree also briefly plays the character in flashbacks. This version is a U.S. Army Colonel with a fervent desire to harvest mutants for weapons to take down potential mutant threats, and is a military scientist who has gone into defense contracting to eradicate mutant threats. His son Jason Stryker tortured Stryker and his wife by planting telepathic illusions in their minds until Jason's mother committed suicide by drilling into her own brain after Stryker sent Jason to Professor X's school in the hopes of having his son cured, as Stryker regarded his son's mutation as a disease. Previously, Xavier's position that mutation was not a disease to be cured angered Stryker. Stryker then gave his son a lobotomy to make him more docile, and derived a substance from Jason's living body that can be used to control mutants such as his aide, Yuriko/Lady Deathstrike. After Stryker uses Nightcrawler brainwashed to make an assassination attempt on the President of the United States, the President authorizes Stryker to attack the X-Mansion. He kidnaps some of the school's students, and elsewhere kidnaps Cyclops and Professor X, whom he has Jason brainwash into using a reproduction of Cerebro to kill all mutants, though this plan is foiled when the X-Men and Magneto's mutants attack Stryker's Alkali Lake compound and rescue their kidnapped students. He attempts to have Wolverine killed by unleashing Deathstrike on him. When this fails and Wolverine confronts him, he reveals that Wolverine had actually in fact volunteered for the experiment in which Stryker bonded adamantium to his skeleton. Magneto also turned Stryker's makeshift Cerebro against him and the human race, to which Stryker is horrified. Stryker is left chained up while Magneto, Mystique and Pyro steal his helicopter. He tries to get Wolverine to rejoin him as he can reveal the man's past. After Wolverine chooses to stay with the X-Men, Stryker bellows that one day someone else will finish his work. After he leaves, the nearby dam bursts from the resulting battle and the huge wall of rushing water drowns Stryker for good. The X-Men later give the President evidence of Stryker's crimes. Danny Huston portrays William Stryker in the 2009 prequel film X-Men Origins: Wolverine. The character is a Major and the leader of the Weapon X project and thus Team X. Stryker recruits James "Logan" Howlett and Victor Creed to join the Weapon X program, though Howlett eventually leaves the team. Stryker manipulates Logan into returning and undergoing the adamantium procedure under the false belief that Kayla Silverfox was murdered by Creed. After the successful adamantium bonding process, Logan learns the truth and defeats his "mutant killer" Weapon XI with aide from Creed at Stryker's Three Mile Island lab. Stryker shoots adamantium bullets in Logan's head, causing long-term amnesia, Stryker attempts to shoot Kayla but the mutant's telepathic abilities force Stryker to "walk until [his] feet bleed—and keep walking", which Stryker does. He is eventually picked up by the military police to bring him in for questioning about his connection with General Munson who tried to shut Weapon X down after learning about his son's mutant status and whom Stryker murdered. Don Creech portrays the character's father (credited as Agent Stryker) in the 2011 film X-Men: First Class, set in the 1960s. He appears as a CIA agent discussing the existence of mutants with Charles Xavier. Like his son, he has anti-mutant beliefs. Xavier reads his mind and mentions that he was thinking of his son to prove he was a mutant. Stryker works out a deal with the Soviet forces off Cuba's coast to join U.S. naval forces in attacking the X-Men at the film's climax, which disastrously fails due to Magneto's incredible mutant command over electromagnetism. Though Stryker's intentions are to protect the human race from mutant threats, his own actions effectively serve as part of the catalyst of Magneto's animosity towards humans and the foundation of both the X-Men and the Brotherhood of Mutants, which will eventually clash with his son more than once. Josh Helman portrays Major Bill Stryker in the 2014 film X-Men: Days of Future Past (while archive footage and audio of Cox is also used). As Bolivar Trask's right-hand man in 1973, Major Stryker witnesses Wolverine in action when Logan (projected back from the future), Beast, Eric Lensherr and Xavier attempt to prevent Mystique's assassination of Trask; Stryker's presence causes Wolverine's intense flashbacks of Stryker's future actions, causing a brief but crucial distraction that allows Lensherr to try to kill Mystique to change the future. Stryker is also present with Trask during the Sentinels' demonstration at Washington before Magneto launches a counterattack. Helman reprised his role in the 2016 film X-Men: Apocalypse. Set in 1983, it is revealed that X-Men: Days of Future Past had only altered his future's course slightly. After Xavier is used by Apocalypse to trigger the world's nuclear missiles into space, Colonel Stryker comes to the X-Mansion to investigate the events, abducting Mystique, Beast, Quicksilver and Moira MacTaggert to investigate the telepathic broadcast, unaware that his helicopter is infiltrated by Scott Summers, Jean Grey and Kurt Wagner; Kurt had teleported the three into the helicopter while Jean telepathically convinces the guards not to see the three. At some point in the past decade, Stryker was able to capture and mentally program Logan after infusing the adamantium to Logan's skeleton. When Jean is able to find and release Logan, Stryker is forced to flee his base as Logan tears through his soldiers before Jean restores a few of Logan's memories. In a deleted scene, Moira has Stryker arrested for kidnapping a federal officer and his wrongdoings on minors. Before being taken away, Stryker warns Moira about mutants being untrustworthy. Video games The game-exclusive villain General William Kincaid (voiced by John DiMaggio) in X-Men Legends is largely based on the X-Men film series incarnation of William Stryker and similar human villains Bolivar Trask and Steven Lang. Under his campaign "Operation Vigilance", General Kincaid planned to use the Graviton metal to crash Asteroid M into New York in order to blame the deaths and destruction on mutants for revenge. He was later arrested after a fight in his "Master Mold Armor" hidden inside Asteroid M. William Stryker is referenced several times in X-Men: The Official Game. It is revealed that Jason Stryker uses his father's secret program to kill the X-Men with HYDRA and Kenuichio Harada funding this program with him, and gave the apprentice Yuriko Oyama to him as a "gift". William Stryker appears in the video game adaptation of X-Men Origins: Wolverine, voiced by David Florek. William Stryker appears as a villain in Marvel Heroes, voiced by Jim Conner. He paid MODOK to create weapons for the Purifiers to use in their war against mutants and gave mutant genetic material to Mister Sinister to use in experiments. References External links William Stryker at Marvel.com Characters created by Chris Claremont Comics characters introduced in 1982 Fictional attempted suicides Fictional aviators Fictional Christians Fictional clergy Fictional colonels Fictional cult leaders Fictional filicides Fictional generals Fictional kidnappers Fictional majors Fictional mass murderers Fictional murderers of children Fictional priests and priestesses Fictional private military members Fictional uxoricides Marvel Comics film characters Marvel Comics male supervillains Marvel Comics military personnel Wolverine (comics) characters X-Men supporting characters
4800706	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beating%20of%20Frank%20Jude%20Jr.	Beating of Frank Jude Jr.	Frank Jude Jr., a.k.a. Frankie Lee Jude Jr., (born August 14, 1978) is a Wisconsin man who was severely beaten by off-duty Milwaukee police officers in the early-morning hours of October 24, 2004. Following a state trial that ended with the jury acquitting the three police officers charged, a federal investigation led to plea agreements with three police officers and the indictment of five police officers, including the three who were acquitted in state court. Before trial, one of these five pleaded guilty. The federal jury acquitted one of the remaining police officers and the three police officers who were acquitted in state court were convicted in federal court. The case was the biggest against the Milwaukee Police Department in 25 years. The events of October 24, 2004 On the evening of October 23, 2004, Frank Jude and his friend, Lovell Harris, who is black, were invited by Kirsten Antonissen and Katie Brown to a housewarming party being hosted by police officer Andrew Spengler at his Bay View, Milwaukee home. Many of the persons at the party were off-duty Milwaukee police officers. Upon arriving at Andrew Spengler's home, Jude and Harris told Antonissen that they felt uncomfortable and therefore wanted to leave. The group quickly left and shortly after doing so, Andrew Spengler reported that his wallet, which contained his police badge, was missing. At least ten men who were at Spengler's home went outside and confronted Jude, Harris, Antonissen, and Brown. Among the off-duty officers who confronted the group were Andrew Spengler, Jon Bartlett, Daniel Masarik, Ryan Packard, Ryan Lemke, Jon Clausing, and Joseph Stromei. The off-duty officers identified themselves as police officers and focused their attention upon Jude and Harris, demanding to know where the badge was. Both men denied taking the badge. When Jude and the others stayed inside Antonissen's truck, the mob threatened them, saying "Nigger, we can kill you." During this confrontation, Ryan Packard took Jude to the ground, where other off-duty officers held him down and searched him for the badge. The off-duty officers demanded that Jude tell them where the badge was and while doing so repeatedly punched and kicked him. Another officer, Jon Clausing, cut Harris's face with a knife; Harris freed himself and ran away. Kirsten Antonissen called 9-1-1 and reported that people who were claiming to be police officers were beating up her friend. While talking to the 9-1-1 dispatcher, Antonissen reported that a uniformed officer had responded to the scene and that he too began beating Frank Jude. This on-duty officer, Joseph Schabel, arrived at the scene and upon learning that Jude was suspected of stealing a police badge, repeatedly stomped on the suspect's head until others could hear bones breaking, while his partner, Nicole Martinez, watched. Other officers grabbed the phone from Antonissen and threw her against the truck, denting it. Brown also made two phone calls to 9-1-1 before her phone was seized. Apologizing to Martinez, Masarik lifted Jude off the ground and kicked him in the crotch. Then Bartlett took Schabel's pen and shoved it into both of Jude's ear canals, causing Jude to scream and squirm in extreme pain and resulting in significant injury. The mob broke two of Jude's fingers by bending them back until they snapped. Spengler put a gun to Jude's head and threatened to kill him. Additionally, during this incident, Bartlett used a knife to cut off Jude's leather jacket and pants, leaving him naked in the street. Frank Jude was initially arrested on suspicion of theft and quickly loaded into a police van and transported to the hospital for treatment of his numerous injuries. The admitting physician took photographs because there were so many injuries to document. The injury to Jude's ears was so severe that emergency room physicians could not diagnose it immediately because they could not control the bleeding. No one was ever charged with the theft of the badge and the badge was never found. The investigation The investigation that followed was met with a code of silence on the part of the police officers involved. An internal police investigation resulted in the termination of nine officers, suspension of three, and the demotion of one. The district attorney's office faced mounting criticism at the pace of the investigation, led in large part by Alderman Michael McGee Jr., who, at a rally calling for criminal charges, referred to the suspected officers as "hate mongers and KKK killers," and said, "Any man that would pull another man's pants down is a straight-up sick faggot." Following a secret John Doe proceeding, on February 28, 2005, District Attorney E. Michael McCann filed felony charges against Daniel Masarik, Andrew Spengler, and Jon Bartlett. Bartlett and Masarik both faced charges of second-degree recklessly endangering safety and substantial battery. Spengler was charged only with substantial battery. Masarik also faced an additional charge of perjury for testifying during the John Doe hearing that he never had any contact with Frank Jude. This perjury charge was handled separately from all others and eventually dropped. The state trial On March 27, 2006, a joint jury trial commenced before Judge David Hansher, which was covered by Court TV. The prosecutors took the unusual step of challenging the racial composition of the jury when an all-white jury was selected. The court rejected the prosecutors' challenge and permitted the case to proceed with an all-white jury, laying the groundwork for much community outrage. The prosecution's task was made particularly difficult by the fact that nearly all of the eyewitnesses to the crime admitted drinking that evening, some heavily. Further, it was later revealed that one of the state's key witnesses, Joseph Schabel, the first on-duty Milwaukee Police Officer to arrive at the scene, lied in his testimony. Also, the state was presented with credibility problems with respect to its two victims. Frank Jude had previously been convicted of the felonies of selling marijuana and bribing a police officer in 1996 and was convicted of the misdemeanors of battery and disorderly conduct in 2000. Lovell Harris was previously convicted of being a felon in possession of a firearm and with first degree intentional homicide. Shortly after 11 PM on April 14, 2006, after deliberating for roughly 27 hours, the jury returned its verdict, acquitting Andrew Spengler and Daniel Masarik. Jon Bartlett was acquitted of second-degree recklessly endangering safety but the jury deadlocked on the charge of substantial battery. It was the only felony jury trial that D.A. McCann ever lost in his 38 years as a prosecutor. Community outrage The acquittal drew prompt community outrage. Despite the late hour, a small group of protesters, led by Alderman Michael McGee Jr., marched through the streets surrounding the county courthouse. There were prompt calls for federal charges. On April 18, 2006, a crowd of 3,000 to 5,000 people marched from the Milwaukee County Courthouse to the Federal Courthouse demanding a federal investigation. On May 15, 2006, a motorcade of more than 300 cars delivered a petition to United States Attorney Steven Biskupic demanding a federal investigation. In response to these demonstrations Biskupic promised a full investigation. The federal trial On October 19, 2006, the grand jury returned a two count indictment charging Jon Bartlett, Andrew Spengler, Daniel Masarik, Ryan Lemke, and Ryan Packard each with violating the civil rights of Frank Jude and Lovell Harris under color of state law and assaulting Frank Jude while acting as police officers. Three other officers, Joseph Stromei, Jon Clausing, and Joseph Schabel agreed to plead guilty to crimes related to Jude's beating. On July 5, 2007, Ryan Lemke agreed to plead guilty to a lesser crime and on July 9, 2007, the jury trial commenced against the four other officers. Unlike the state trial, the federal trial included one black man on the jury. Additionally, Charles N. Clevert Jr., the only black judge serving on the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Wisconsin, presided over the trial. However, the most notable change came in testimony from Joseph Schabel, the first on-duty officer to arrive at the scene, who testified in state court that he never kicked Frank Jude but did observe others do so. In federal court, after pleading guilty pursuant to a plea agreement that included a grant of immunity from perjury charges for his state testimony, Joseph Schabel testified that he "stomped" on Frank Jude's head two or three times. After nearly three weeks of testimony and roughly 30 hours of deliberation, shortly after 2 PM on July 26, 2007, the jury of eight women and four men returned its verdicts finding Jon Bartlett, Daniel Masarik, and Andrew Spengler guilty of both counts. The jury acquitted Ryan Packard of both counts; Packard's defense was that he acted as a reasonable police officer when he took Frank Jude to the ground and left the scene in search of Lovell Harris before other officers began to beat Jude. The jury rejected Daniel Masarik's defense, which was that eyewitnesses were confusing him with Ryan Lemke, another off-duty officer at the party who pleaded guilty pursuant to a plea agreement shortly before the federal trial began. At the time, both defendants had roughly the same builds, same hair color, and hair styles. Further supporting Daniel Masarik's defense of mistaken identification is the fact that some witnesses did not identify Daniel Masarik as a person involved in the beating of Frank Jude until after the photographs of Daniel Masarik, Andrew Spengler, Jon Bartlett, and Ryan Packard were widely publicized in the media. At that time, Ryan Lemke's photograph was not publicized. Daniel Masarik and Andrew Spengler, both of whom had been free on bond, were promptly taken into custody to await sentencing. Jon Bartlett was already in state custody, having been convicted and sentenced to 4 ½ years in prison for making a bomb threat to his former police station during a night of drinking on December 1, 2005, while he was suspended from the police force during the investigation into this matter. Also while this matter was pending, Jon Bartlett was charged in federal court with falsely stating that he was not currently facing felony charges in an effort to obtain a submachine gun, a handgun, and hundreds of rounds of ammunition. On March 30, 2007, Bartlett pleaded guilty to this charge and on August 3, 2007, Chief Judge Rudolph T. Randa sentenced Jon Bartlett to 18 months in prison, to be followed by 3 years of supervised release. Sentencing On November 29, 2007, Jon Bartlett, Daniel Masarik, and Andrew Spengler were sentenced by Judge Clevert. Jon Bartlett was sentenced to a total of 208 months in federal prison to be served consecutively to his other sentences. In a letter read by his attorney, Frank Jude called Bartlett a "disgrace" and a "terrorist," and referred to him as "Mr. Punisher," a reference to Bartlett's tattoo of the logo for the vigilante comic book character The Punisher. Bartlett read a prepared statement wherein he apologized to Frank Jude and Lovell Harris and asked for forgiveness. He discussed how incarceration had changed him, allowing him to recognize his prior problems and bringing him closer to his family and God. Daniel Masarik was sentenced to 188 months in prison for his actions, the precise sentence the government argued for. Although he had no criminal record Judge Clevert felt this sentence, which was the top of the range suggested by the sentencing guidelines, was warranted because of what he regarded as Masarik's repeated untruthful testimony that he never approached Jude during the incident, in addition to the factors regarding the impact that this crime had upon the community. In a brief prepared statement, Masarik apologized to Frank Jude and Lovell Harris for what happened to them but did not admit his involvement in the crime. Andrew Spengler received the same sentence as Masarik, 188 months in prison. Spengler, like Masarik, apologized to Frank Jude but did not admit involvement in the assault. Spengler was the most emotional of the three defendants, repeatedly having to stop while speaking in court to blot his eyes and choke back tears. Spengler had previously notably broken down in tears during his attorney's closing argument during the state court trial. Each defendant will also be required to complete three years of supervised release following his release from prison and pay, along with the other police officers convicted in this case, more than sixteen-thousand dollars in restitution for Frank Jude's medical bills. Bartlett, Masarik, and Spengler all indicated they would appeal. Related sentencing On November 3, 2006, Joseph Schabel pleaded guilty to assaulting Frank Jude under color of state law, thereby violating Frank Jude's right to be free from unreasonable seizure, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 242, and obstructing the federal investigation by lying about his actions, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1512(b)(3). In his plea agreement, Joseph Schabel admitted he kicked Frank Jude in the head and that he witnessed off-duty officers continue to assault Frank Jude even after Frank Jude was handcuffed. On December 6, 2007, Joseph Schabel was sentenced to 32 months in prison. Jon Clausing was an off-duty police officer at Andrew Spengler's housewarming party. According to his plea agreement, Jon Clausing admitted that he and another off-duty officer threatened Lovell Harris at knifepoint. After Harris fled, Jon Clausing returned to the group around Frank Jude and witnessed the assault of Frank Jude. On November 3, 2006, Jon Clausing pleaded guilty to conspiring to violate the civil rights of Frank Jude and Lovell Harris, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 241. On December 6, 2007, Jon Clausing was sentenced to 28 months in prison. On December 7, 2006, Joseph Stromei, an off-duty police officer who was a guest at Andrew Spengler's housewarming party, pleaded guilty to obstructing the federal investigation by lying about his knowledge regarding the beating of Frank Jude, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1512(b)(3). According to his plea agreement, Joseph Stromei previously stated that he never saw anyone assault Frank Jude or brandish a knife during the incident when, in fact, he did see such things. On September 11, 2007, Judge Clevert sentenced Stromei to 24 months in prison to be followed by 3 years of supervised release. Stromei was allowed to remain free following sentencing in order to finish college classes and to begin serving his prison sentence at the end of the semester. On July 6, 2007, Ryan Lemke pleaded guilty to assaulting Frank Jude under color of state law, in violation of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2 and 242. According to his plea agreement, Ryan Lemke participated in helping hold down Frank Jude's legs and as on-duty police officers began to arrive, continued to attempt to restrain Frank Jude by delivering two kicks to Frank Jude's thigh. On November 2, 2007, Ryan Lemke was sentenced to one year in prison, the maximum he could have received. Lemke must also serve one year of supervised release, perform 100 hours of community service, and pay a $3,000 fine. Lemke was allowed to remain free on bail and to report to prison upon the completion of his current semester in college. Appellate review of sentencing The United States Court of Appeals for the 7th Circuit reviewed the sentences of Bartlett, Spengler and Masarik. Argument was held before a three judge panel consisting of Chief Judge Easterbrook and Circuit Judges Bauer and Rovner on May 15, 2009, and the court issued its ruling June 8, 2009. The court affirmed all three convictions and the sentences given to Spengler, Masarik, and Bartlett. The civil lawsuit The two women who accompanied Frank Jude to Andrew Spengler's party on October 24, 2004, have filed federal civil rights lawsuits against all of the police officers who were charged in federal court, except for Joseph Stromei, as well as Jon Bartlett's wife, a former Milwaukee police officer, and the City of Milwaukee. This lawsuit is currently pending before judge Lynn Adelman. References External links Frank Jude Jr. case - Proof and Hearsay United States v. Bartlett oral argument CourtTV Coverage Milwaukee Journal Sentinel Coverage 1978 births Law enforcement in Wisconsin People from Milwaukee History of racism in Wisconsin Living people Police brutality in the United States Crimes in Wisconsin Victims of police brutality in the United States Milwaukee Police Department
4801279	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demoulas%20family	Demoulas family	The Demoulas family is a Greek-American family that controls DeMoulas Super Markets, Inc., the company that operates the Market Basket chain of supermarkets. Beginning in 1990, two sides of the Demoulas family fought for control of DeMoulas Super Markets. The dispute ended in 2014, when the family of George Demoulas sold their shares to Frances Demoulas, Glorianne Demoulas, Arthur T. Demoulas and Caren Demoulas after protests by employees and customers. Athanasios and Efrosine Demoulas Athanasios "Arthur" Demoulas was born in 1883. He was orphaned during the Greco-Turkish War of 1897. On March 17, 1906, he arrived at Ellis Island. He settled in the Acre neighborhood of Lowell, Massachusetts. In 1914 he married Efrosene Soulis (born 1892), a girl he knew from his native village of Kalabaka. In 1917 they left their factory jobs and opened DeMoulas Market. By 1921, they had enough money to purchase a home in Dracut, Massachusetts, with a slaughterhouse out back. They hoped their store would become known for its fresh lamb. During the Great Depression, Demoulas would give families who were struggling financially a free piece of bread with ham or allow them to purchase groceries on credit. The Demoulases had six children; John (1915–2000), George (1919–1971), an unnamed baby girl (1919–1919), Telemachus "Mike" (1920–2003), Ann (1922–2022), and Evangelos (1925–1930). In 1954, Athanasios and Efrosine Demoulas sold the market to Mike and George for $15,000. Arthur Demoulas died in 1958. Efrosene died in 1964. John Demoulas John Demoulas was born on March 22, 1915. During his youth, he worked in his family's market. As an adult he ran a chain of liquor stores, a bar in Lowell (the Golden Nugget), and Marion's Cafe, also in Lowell. John Demoulas died on March 8, 2000. Demoulas had four children (John, Arthur, Pamela, and Kathleen) with his wife Marion and five illegitimate children with his mistress Dorothy Bedard (Melveen, Mike, Dorothy, George, and Patricia). In 1999, one of his illegitimate sons had his name legally changed from George Bedard to George DeMoulas. George Demoulas George A. Demoulas was born in 1919 in Dracut, Massachusetts. He graduated from the Hellenic American Academy and Dracut High School. He served in the United States Army during World War II and was stationed at Guadalcanal. After the war, Demoulas joined the family business. In 1953, he married Evanthea Koukias. After he and his brother Mike purchased their parents' market, Demoulas served as executive vice president and treasurer of DeMoulas Super Markets, Inc. Demoulas, who was described as affable and gregarious, dealt with outside parties, including vendors. He brought in many friends from the Greek community, including many people from the Acre, to do accounting, banking, and buying for the company. Within 15 years, the two brothers had transformed their parents' "mom and pop"-style store into a modern supermarket chain consisting of 15 stores. Demoulas was a member of the Holy Trinity Greek Orthodox Church served as its president. He received the title of Archon Depoutatos from Patriarch Athenagoras I of Constantinople, the highest honor that can be bestowed upon a layman by the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Outside of DeMoulas Super Markets, Demoulas was a trustee of the Lowell Technological Institute, Hellenic College Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology, and St. John's Hospital in Lowell. Demoulas died of a heart attack on June 27, 1971, while vacationing with his family in Athens, Greece. Children George and Evanthea Demoulas had five children; Fotene (1954–), Angelo "Evan" (1955–1993), Diana (1956–), and Arthur S. (1958–). Evanthea Demoulas died on February 8, 2008, in Westwood, Massachusetts. Evan Demoulas Angelo "Evan" George Demoulas was born on April 17, 1955. He graduated from Dracut High School and attended Bridgton Academy and Bentley College. At Dracut High, Demoulas was a standout running back on the school's football team. Demoulas attended meat cutting school and was given a job in DeMoulas' meat department. He was also appointed to the company's board of directors. He eventually left the supermarket business to become a racecar driver. In 1988 he raced for Pacific Racing in British Formula 3. On June 13, 1993, Demoulas was in Quebec to watch the Canadian Grand Prix. After the race, he and his friend and former Pacific teammate JJ Lehto were driving from the Circuit Île Notre-Dame to downtown Montreal when Demoulas' car was hit by a driver who had run a red light. Lehto survived, but Demoulas died at the scene. He was survived by his wife, Rafaele Evans Demoulas, who was pregnant with their daughter at the time. Arthur S. Demoulas Arthur Stephen Demoulas was born in 1958. During his youth, he worked for the family business. He attended the University of Maine, where he was a defenseman for the Maine Black Bears hockey team. He later transferred to Babson College, where he graduated in 1984. He continued to work for DeMoulas Super Markets while in college and eventually rose to the position of assistant produce director. He left the company in 1990, as litigation between him and company president Mike Demoulas led a judge to rule that it would be best for Arthur S. to be put on paid leave. Following his family's legal victory over Mike Demoulas, Arthur S. was given a seat on the Board of Directors, but never returned to the chain's daily operations. Outside of Market Basket, Demoulas is a member of the board of the Boston Police Foundation. Telemachus "Mike" Demoulas Telemachus "Mike" Demoulas was born in 1920. During his youth he was the child most involved with his parents' business. In 1938, Demoulas either dropped out or was expelled from high school and went to work for DeMoulas Market full-time. In 1954, he and his brother George purchased the business from their parents. Demoulas ran the day-to-day operations of the business and found locations for new stores. Within 15 years, the two brothers had transformed their parents' "mom and pop"-style store into a modern supermarket chain consisting of 15 stores. After his brother George's death in 1971 he expanded the Demoulas chain. He also began opening stores under different names, including Market Basket. By 1998, there were 57 Demoulas and Market Basket stores. He remained President of DeMoulas Super Markets, Inc. until 1999, when he resigned as result of a court order. Outside of Market Basket, Demoulas was known for his philanthropy. He gave millions of dollars to many causes, including programs for the blind and college scholarships. He was credited with helping revitalize the Acre by building a new supermarket and providing money for new infrastructure. Demoulas died on May 24, 2003, at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston. Children In 1948, Demoulas married Irene Psoinos (1925–2020). Mike and Irene Demoulas had four children; Frances (1950–), Glorianne (1952–), Arthur T. (1955–), and Caren (1959–). Glorianne is the mother of National Hockey League forward Bobby Farnham. Arthur T. Demoulas Arthur Telemachus Demoulas was born in 1955. He spent his youth working in the family business. He lived in Lowell until his adolescence, when his family moved to Andover, Massachusetts. He attended Andover High School (where he played running back on the school's football team) and Bentley College. In 1974, one year after he graduated from high school, he joined DeMoulas Super Markets Board of Directors. He eventually worked his way up to the position of Vice President. In 1989, after the DeMoulas Super Markets Board of Directors rejected his proposal to start a pharmacy division, Demoulas founded Lee Drug. In 1990, he sold the chain of nine stores to Walgreens. In 1999 he resigned as vice president as result of a court order, but remained on the board of directors. By 2002, Rafaele Evans, the widow of Evan Demoulas, was voting with Arthur T. Demoulas due to her displeasure with her brother-in-law, Arthur S. Demoulas, after he attempted to gain control of the trust that controlled her daughter's shares. This gave Demoulas a majority vote on the board of directors. In 2008, Demoulas was named president and CEO of DeMoulas Super Markets, Inc. During his tenure as CEO, sales grew from $3 billion a year to $4 billion, the number of employees grew from 14,000 to 25,000. During the same time, competitors Stop & Shop and Shaw's closed many of their stores due to financial troubles. Market Basket also faced new competition from discount-grocer Wegmans Arthur T. was known for his ability to remember his employees names, birthdays, and milestones, attending many of their weddings and funerals, checking in on ill workers, and asking about the spouses and children of his employees. He was seen as a father figure by a number of his employees and compared to It's a Wonderful Life protagonist George Bailey for his willingness to put people over profit. However, Demoulas' opponents criticized him for being "openly defiant" of the board of directors and having a "dictatorial" management style. He was fired by the board of directors in June 2014, but returned to the company in August after months of protests by Market Basket employees and customers led the family of George Demoulas to sell their shares to Arthur T. and his sisters, Demoulas resides in Lowell. He and his wife Maureen have three daughters; Madeline, Irene, Mary and; one son Telemachus Arthur Legal disputes In October 1989, Evan Demoulas was notified that the Commonwealth of Massachusetts was seeking back taxes on $1 million worth of stock he had sold three years earlier. Demoulas was confused by the call, as he had never sold any stock. He investigated and found that his uncle, Mike Demoulas, had purchased much of his and his family's shares in Demoulas Super Markets without their knowledge. In 1990, the widow and children of George Demoulas sued Mike Demoulas, alleging that they had been defrauded out of their shares in the company. They claimed they had trusted Mike to take care of the family after George's death and that he exploited this trust in order to have them sell all of George's real estate and 84% of his shares in DeMoulas Super Markets to members of his own family pennies on the dollar. Mike Demoulas contended that his brother's heirs had willingly sold their shares in the company because they wanted money and their stock in DeMoulas did not pay dividends. According to Mike Demoulas, Evanthea, asked him to sell her shares so she could have money to raise her children, Evan sold his shares so he could begin his auto racing career, and Diana and Fotene sold their shares after the saw how much money their brother received. However, once the company began paying dividends in 1988, the family saw how much money they could have made if they had kept their shares and sought to "rewrite history" in order to regain what they had sold. George's children acknowledged that they had signed many of the documents authorizing the sales and transfers, but stated they were not aware of what they were signing because they were too young to understand and trusted their uncle to take care of them. A jury found in favor of George's family. A few weeks after the decision, George's son Arthur S. Demoulas filed a second suit, this time alleging that Mike Demoulas had diverted assets from the jointly-owned family company, Demoulas Super Markets, to ones controlled by him and his children, including Market Basket. After an eighty-four-day bench trial, judge Maria Lopez found in favor of the plaintiffs. Lopez awarded George's family about $206 million for dividends on stock that had been improperly diverted and 50.5% of the company. She also ordered that all of the assets of Market Basket and the other companies controlled by Mike Demoulas and his family be transferred to Demoulas Super Markets and that Mike Demoulas be removed as president of the company. In early September 1990, six bugs were found at the headquarters of DeMoulas Super Markets. It was alleged that Arthur S. Demoulas had planted the bugs in order to listen to the legal strategy of the other side of the Demoulas family. Michael Kettenbach, the son-in law of Mike Demoulas, sued Arthur S. Demoulas, claiming that Demoulas had "invaded his privacy rights by having listening devices planted at DSM headquarters." In 1994, a jury found in favor of Arthur S. Demoulas. However, a new trial was granted after a woman came forward with new evidence – a recording of her boyfriend admitting to bugging the office for Arthur S. Demoulas. The case was damaged though when the woman admitted to being a crack cocaine addict who received about $500,000 in housing and other expenses from the family of Telemachus Demoulas and the man on the tape testified that he had been lying during the recorded conversation. On August 4, 1997, Arthur S. Demoulas was again cleared of wiretapping charges by a federal jury. In 1991, George Demoulas' family sued Mike Demoulas, Arthur T. Demoulas, and DeMoulas Super Markets, Inc. chief financial officer D. Harold Sullivan, alleging that the three violated the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 by using their positions as the trustees of the company's employee profit-sharing plan to make fiscally irresponsible real estate loans to friends and business associates. The United States Department of Labor filed a similar complaint six months later. On May 31, 1994, the Department of Labor announced that they had reached a settlement in which the trustees agreed to sell $22 million of the loans by July 11 or purchase them themselves as well as pay the plan $750,000 to make up for the dropped interest rates on the loans (unless the loan recipients paid the money instead). The trustees also agreed not to make any similar investments. The trustees admitted no wrongdoing in the case. Despite the heavy investment in risky real estate loans, the plan never posted a loss. In the civil case, Judge Rya W. Zobel ruled that the trustees' actions were "wrong but not corrupt" and that the settlement with the Department of Labor was "an adequate remedy". Therefore, she denied the request to have them removed. In 1997, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court upheld a lower court's ruling that Arthur T. Demoulas had presented the DeMoulas Super Markets Board of Directors with “misleading, inaccurate, and materially incomplete” information in order to receive a rejection and keep his cousins from receiving any of the profits from Lee Drug, a pharmacy chain he started after the board rejected his proposal to start a pharmacy division of Market Basket. In a 2010 memo to the Board of Directors, Arthur S. Demoulas accused Arthur T. Demoulas of "plundering" millions by paying millions in excessive real estate prices for new Market Basket store locations. One example cited in the memo alleged that Arthur T. had recommended that the company pay $20.9 million to purchase a property in Bourne, Massachusetts, owned by an entity in which he was a major investor. After the sale, Arthur S. had the property appraised by a Boston real estate executive, who valued the property at $9 million. He also accused Arthur T. of paying "grossly excessive fees" to Retail Development and Management Inc., a real estate firmed owned by his brothers-in-law Michael Kettenbach and Joseph Pasquale that oversaw Market Basket's real estate and helped it develop new stores. He and his attorneys argued that the 7.5% of the total development costs "was far in excess" of the prevailing market rate of 2% to 3%. Arthur T. denied his cousin's claim. He argued that Arthur S. trumped up the charges in order to take control of the company and pay himself and the other shareholders more money. Attorneys for Arthur T. noted that Cushman & Wakefield later appraised the Bourne property at $25.5 million. Arthur T. also defended his arrangement with Kettenbach and Pasquale, which he said allowed Market Basket to purchase properties without alerting its competitors, thus avoiding a bidding war and saving the company money. The Board of Directors hired Mel L. Greenberg, a retired judge, to investigate Arthur S.' claims. Greenberg found that there was no wrongdoing by Arthur T. in the purchase of real estate (including the Bourne property) that the fees paid to Retail Development and Management were not excessive. However, he did find that Arthur T. and the Board of Directors had neglected their fiduciary duties by not looking into whether or not the company would have been better off if it had exercised its option to purchase its store in Somersworth, New Hampshire, instead of renting it from a company in which Arthur T. and his family owned a 55% stake. Firing of Arthur T. Demoulas, protests, and sale of shares In mid-2013, Rafaele Evans switched loyalties, which tipped the majority vote from Arthur T. to Arthur S. On June 23, 2014, Arthur T. Demoulas was fired by the board of directors. In response to his firing, six high-level managers resigned, and 300 employees held a rally outside Market Basket's Chelsea, Massachusetts, flagship store on June 24. Beginning on July 18, 300 warehouse workers and 68 drivers refused to make deliveries, which left store shelves severely depleted. On August 27, 2014, after months of protest by Market Basket employees and customers, the shareholders of DeMoulas Super Markets, Inc. reached an agreement to sell the remaining 50.5% shares of the company to Arthur T. Demoulas for $1.5 billion. Wealth In July 2014, Forbes estimated the Demoulas family's net worth to be $2.2 billion. They also ranked the family as the 104th richest family in the United States. The following year, Forbes put their value at $3.3 Billion, which made them the 83rd richest family in the U.S. The Demoulas family dropped off the Forbes list in 2016. References American families of Greek ancestry Business families of the United States Market Basket (New England) Families from Massachusetts 20th-century American businesspeople
4801487	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House%20of%20the%20Vettii	House of the Vettii	The House of the Vettii is a domus located in the Roman town Pompeii, which was preserved by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. The house is named for its owners, two successful freedmen: Aulus Vettius Conviva, an Augustalis, and Aulus Vettius Restitutus. Its careful excavation has preserved almost all of the wall frescos, which were completed following the earthquake of 62 AD, in the manner art historians term the Pompeiian Fourth Style. The House of Vetti is located in region VI, near the Vesuvian Gate, bordered by the Vicolo di Mercurio and the Vicolo dei Vettii. The house is one of the largest domus in Pompeii, spanning the entire southern section of block 15. The plan is fashioned in a typical Roman domus with the exception of a tablinum, which is not included. There are twelve mythological scenes across four cubiculum and one triclinium. The house was reopened to tourists in January 2023 after two decades of restoration. Plan The plan of the House of the Vettii is commonly divided into five major sections: the large atrium, the small atrium, the large peristyle, the small peristyle, and the shop. The house features a large garden as well as main living quarters and servant quarters. The service areas are centered around the smaller atrium while the main occupants remained around the larger atrium. There are two entrances to the main sections of the house, the main entrance is located on the east facade, entered from the Vicolo dei Vettii, and the second is entered from the Vicolo di Mercurio on the southern facade. In addition, there are five small windows on the east facade, two narrow vertical windows on the south facade, and a single small window on the west facade. The small atrium and small peristyle are located on the north section of the house. The large atrium is surrounded by four cubicula (bedrooms), which belonged most likely to the main occupants of the house. There are also two alae and a winter triclinium surrounding the atrium. To enter the atrium from the main entrance, one has to pass through the fauces and vestibulum. The small atrium is surrounded by four rooms which are believed to have been used by servants and as storage rooms. A kitchen is also located near the small atrium along with a cubiculum meant to house the cook and an impluvium, which was designed to catch rainwater from an opening in the roof. A staircase was found in the southeast corner of the small atrium but the second floor no longer remains. There are two service areas in the house, the first being centered around the small atrium. The second was accessible from the main atrium of the house as well as the second entrance from the Vicolo di Mercurio on the south facade. Here a large gate opened into the shop or otherwise known as the taberna. Draft animals were moved through this gate and stabled in the shop. Besides the shop is an additional chamber and latrine. When looking through the main entrance and large atrium, it is possible to view the rear garden, surrounded by the large peristyle. Onlooking the peristyle are two triclinia, an oecus, and two storage rooms. Most of the rooms in the house open to either the front hall or rear garden. The small peristyle is located to the north of the house. Beside the small peristyle are a triclinium and a cubiculum. Unique to the House of the Vettii, a tablinum is not included in the plan. Paintings The House of the Vettii features a large assortment of fresco paintings in the Pompeian Fourth style. There are twelve surviving panels, which depict mythological scenes. We know that it is the Fourth style by its combination of the previous three styles. At the bottom of the wall we see a ring of faux colored marble, which is indicative of the First Pompeian style. Secondly, there is an interest in creating illusionistic scenes, evident in the top ring and besides the mythological scenes, that is borrowed from the Second style. Lastly, the unrealistically thin columns supporting the upper ring of the wall frescoes is taken from the Third style. New to the style is the mythological scenes, of which there are twelve remaining in the House of the Vettii. It is believed that the scenes are copied from Greek models, but no Greek paintings have survived to compare the frescoes to. The twelve panels are located in the two triclinia positioned off of the peristyle garden and the triclinium next to the small peristyle. The remaining are in the triclinium and the cubiculum to the left of the main entrance. The paintings combine to create a theme of divine reward and punishment, one particularly showing off the power of Jupiter (Zeus) and his sons as the enforcers of world order. Beyond the twelve mythological paintings, many more artworks are displayed in the House of the Vettii. Most famously are the two depictions of Priapus, the god of fertility. The first image of Priapus is a fresco in the doorway. The painting depicts Priapus weighing his phallic member on a set of scales. The second image mirrors the first but in marble. Punishment of Ixion This mythological scene is located on the east wall of the north triclinium, which is located next to the large peristyle. It shows the moment of Ixion, the Lapith King, being punished for betraying Zeus. After being welcomed into Olympus by the god, Ixion grew to lust after Zeus's wife, Hera. After Ixion attempts to seduce her, Zeus creates the cloud goddess Nephele in the image of Hera. Ixion lies with Nephele and their union creates the centaurs. As punishment, Zeus banishes Ixion from Olympus and orders Hermes to tie Ixion to a winged fiery wheel, which is to spin for eternity. In this scene, Ixion is bound to the wheel and Hermes stands in the forefront, identifiable by his winged sandals and caduceus. Hephaestus stands behind the wheel, one hand resting on the wheel to set it into motion. Hermes, however, also has one hand on the wheel keeping it still as he looks to Hera. Hera is enthroned to the right, holding a long golden scepter and wearing a golden crown. Beside her is her messenger, Iris, extending her arm to present to Hera Ixion's punishment. Hera pulls aside her thin veil to watch the scene. A young woman sits next to Hermes with one hand up. She is identified by scholars as either Ixion's mother or Nephele. Daedalus and Pasiphae The mythological scene, Daedalus and Pasiphae is located on the north wall of the same triclinium where the Punishment of Ixion is depicted. This scene depicts King Minos's wife, Pasiphae, and the craftsman Daedalus, whom Pasiphae ordered to construct a cow so she could sleep with her husbands treasured bull. Her lust towards the bull was a consequence of King Minos refusing to sacrifice the bull to Poseidon, angering the god who punished King Minos by making Pasiphae lust after the bull. Pasiphae later becomes pregnant with the Minotaur. Daedalus and his son Icarus were punished through imprisonment by King Minos for his assistance, leading into the famous myth of a winged escape from Crete. Depicted in this scene is Daedalus presenting to Pasiphae the wooden cow. Daedalus is positioned in the middle of the painting with his back turned. He places one hand on the wooden cow and gestures with his other hand, explaining the cow to Pasiphae and her entourage. Pasiphae is seated to the left with two attendants behind her. all three figures look past Daedalus, focusing on an area above the cow. One attendant points to the opening in the cow's back. A young boy sits to the left of Daedalus, either an apprentice or Icarus. The boy raises a hammer in his right hand and holds a chisel in his left, placed against the wooden beam. Dionysus discovering Ariadne The final mythological scene in the north triclinium is Dionysus discovering Ariadne on the south wall. The scene of Dionysis discovering Ariadne was a popular theme in Greek vase painting. It depicts the moment Dionysus discovers Ariadne, the daughter of King Minos and Pasiphae. After being abandoned by Theseus, the slayer of the Minotaur, Dionysus finds her sleeping on the island of Naxos and weds her. In this scene Ariadne lies on a large leopard skin, with her back to the viewer. She wears gold armlets and anklets, tiny blue flowers in her hair, and a yellow mantle with a light-blue border. The mantle is wrapped around her legs and pulled up towards her front. Her back and bottom are nude. She leans against a white pillow with her right elbow and her left arm rests on top of her head, her fingers touching her upper right arm. The god of sleep, Hypnos, stands to the right of the image, besides Ariadne's pillow. He holds a branch over Ariadne to sprinkle water from a small gold dish in his left hand, inducing sleep. Hypnos is winged and garbed in a green undergarment with long sleeves, a light-blue band around his head, and brown boots with a gold lion on the upper edge. To the left of the image, Dionysus stands in poor condition. From what is able to be deduced, Dionysis stands at a slight three-quarter view, wearing ivy leaves in his hair and a long red mantle that leaves his front exposed. He gazes down at Ariadne, a tall thyrsos in his left hand. The thyrsos has a circular cluster of leaves and a gold eagle with outstretched wings. Next to Dionysus are three satyrs, two to his right and one to his left. Two maenads are possibly depicted in the painting. One is depicted to the right of Dionysus, wearing a long green garment and leaves in the hair. The maenad looks towards Ariadne. The other is to the right of Ariadne, looking over her shoulder. In the center a satyr lifts an edge of Ariadne's mantle and gestures to her exposed body. Cupid is depicted in the lower right corner with his hands clasped around his right leg as he gazes at Ariadne. In the left hand corner are a red and blue tambourine and two small gold cymbals. A seascape is depicted in the background. Death of Pentheus The Death of Pentheus scene is located in the southern triclinium, surrounding the large peristyle, and painted on the east wall. The scene depicts Pentheus, the legendary King of Thebes, being killed by the female followers of Dionysus. When Dionysus returned to Thebes, Pentheus refused to believe Dionysus divinity as a god and imprisoned him, banning his worship. Dionysus escaped and enchanted Pentheus to go to Mt. Cithairon, disguised as a maenad. There he observed the celebration of the cult of Dionysus by the women of Thebes. In attendance was Pentheus' mother Agave and her sisters Ino and Autonoe. The women discovered Pentheus, hidden behind a pine tree, but mistook him as a lion. The women then attacked Pentheus, tearing him to pieces. In the scene depicted, Pentheus' mother and her sisters have discovered Pentheus and have begun to tear him apart. In the front is Pentheus who has fallen to one knee. His left hand is raised to his head and his right is stretched outwards with his palm facing up. To his right he stares at a maenead who has her foot on his left knee and grasps his hair with her left hand. She raises a thyrsos in her right hand to strike him with. To his left is another maenad who grabs his left arm with both hands and leans back to pull him back. Below Pentheus is a spear. Behind him are three other females. The center maenad holds a stone above her head, about to hurl it at Pentheus. Two erinys are in each upper hand corner. The erinys in the left corner raises a whip to strike Pentheus. Punishment of Dirce The second mythological scene in the southern triclinium is the Punishment of Dirce, which is located on the south wall. This scene depicts Dirce, wife of Lykos, being punished by Amphion and Zethus. Amphion and Zethus were twins bore by Antiope, niece of Lykos, after being seduced by Zeus. After the twins were born, Lykos exposed them on Mt. Cithairon, but they were found by a shepherd who took them in. As punishment, Lykos imprisoned Antiope and allowed his wife, Dirce, to treat her cruelly. Eventually Antiope escaped and reunited with her now adult sons but was recaptured by Dirce, who ordered that Antiope be put to death by being dragged by a bull. Amphion and Zethus saved their mother and killed Dirce in the same manner she was going to have their mother put to death. In the center of the scene is the bull, which ultimately kills Dirce. The bull rears up and lunges forward. Dirce lies below the bull with her arms raised on either side of the bull. A rope circles the bull's body and is tied to Dirce's right wrist. A thyrsos lies to the left of Dirce. On either side of the bull are Amphion and Zethus preparing to release the bull. The brother on the right holds the rope looped around the bull's neck. The brother on the left stands in profile, grasping the rope that circles the bull's body with his right hand and grasping Dirce's right arm with his left. Infant Herakles strangling the snakes The final mythological scene in the southern triclinium is the Infant Herakles strangling the snakes, located on the north wall. This scene depicts Herakles as a child strangling the snakes sent by Hera to kill him. Herakles is the son of Alkmena and Zeus, Hera's husband. Hera become jealous of this relationship and sets out to kill the product of her husband's affair. She sends two snakes into Herakles crib, but the child easily averts her efforts by killing the snakes. This scenes depicts the story inside. A portico roof and white ionic columns can be seen in the distance. A large altar is depicted in the background on the left. On top of the altar a fire burns by a gold hood. A green garland is placed in front of the fire. On the right of the altar is the eagle of Zeus. Herakles is in the center of the foreground composition. His right knee is bent and resting on the floor while his left is extended. The snakes twist around Herakles arms and legs. The snakes heads are grasped in Herakles hands. A small wooden club is leaned against a small stone in front of Herakles. On the right is Amphitryon, Alkmena's husband, seated in a throne. Amphitryon's right foot is drawn back and rests on a gold footstool. His left foot rests on the floor. In his left hand he holds a long gold scepter while his right touches his chin as he looks puzzled at Herakles. Behind Amphitryon, Alkmena runs to the right of the scene, terrified. Her arms are extended and her head is turned back to look at Herakles. On the left, a young man, possibly a servant, turns his back to the viewer. He holds a long stick, which leans on his left shoulder. He raises his right hand in astonishment. Wrestling match between Pan and Eros The mythological scene, Wrestling match between Pan and Eros is located in the south-east triclinium, surrounding the large atrium, on the south wall. Pan and Eros are not yet fighting in this scene. They stare at each other, in profile. Eros stretches out his arms towards Pan. He is bent over and his legs are spread. Pan poses similarly but only with his right arm raised towards Eros. His left hand is placed behind is back in a handicap. Between Pan and Eros is a large stone. Dionysus watches the two figures at the left of the scene. He is seated in the front, on a rock, leaning with his left arm. In his left hand he holds a thyrsos. His right hand rests on his thigh and holds a gold wreath for the winner. Dionysus wears only a dark-red mantle covering his legs, high brown boots, and ivy leaves in his hair. A kantharos is next to Dionysus' right foot. Behind Dionysus, slightly elevated, is Ariadne. She also watches the contest. She is seated in a three-quarter view. Her right leg is extended and her left is bent and her knee is raised. Ariadne wears a long white garment beneath a light-blue mantle with her breasts and right shoulder and arm exposed. A thyrsos rests between her legs, supported by her left hand. Her right hand rests on Dionysus' shoulder. A satyr stands behind Dionysus, obscured by a stone. The satyr wears a pine wreath and a garment fastened at its right shoulder. On the right side of the scene Silenus holds a pine branch in his left hand and extends his right arm with his palm facing the viewer and Pan and Eros. Silenus is nude except for a red cloth wrapped around his waist and ivy leaves in his hair. Cyparissus The final mythological scene in the south-east triclinium is Cyparissus on the north wall. It depicts Cyparissus, Apollo's lover, who was turned into a cypress tree after killing Apollo's beloved stag. Cyparissus sits in the middle of the scene, seated on a large stone and gazing to the right. His left hand supports his body on the stone while his right rests on his leg and holds a gold scepter. His right leg is bent and his foot drawn back. The only clothing he wears is a purple mantle which covers his right knee and drapes across his left thigh. From his head a Cypress cone raises up. To the right of Cyparissus Apollo's gilded tripod is supported on a stone. At the base of the tripod, the omphalos is covered with a net. In front of the stone lies the stag of Apollo with a broken spear protruding from its side. In the background, in the upper left corner, is the upper body of a nymph, watching Cyparissus. She leans her body on a boulder, her right elbow resting on the boulder and her hand supporting her head. In her left hand she holds two branches. Achilles on Skyros The final mythological scene in the south-east triclinium is Achilles on Skyros, painted on the east wall. This scene depicts Achilles stay on the island of Skyros. After learning that Achilles would die during the Trojan War, his mother, Thetis, sent him to live on the island of Skyros. Achilles was disguised as a maiden among Lykomedes daughters. While living on Skyros, Deidameia bore Achilles a son. Odysseus discovers Achilles' concealment and comes to Skyros to reveal Achilles. Odysseus displays gifts in front of the King's daughter, including arms and armor. When a trumpet sounds, Achilles grabs the weapons, revealing his true nature. The scene depicted is the moment upon which Achilles hears the trumpet and reaches for the weapons, notifying the others who he truly is. Achilles stands in the center of the composition. His upper body is completely lost. Achilles legs are spread wide and the left is bent slightly, seemingly lunging to the right. To the right of the scene Odysseus runs to the left. In his left hand he holds a spear and a sword is strapped to his left side. He wears a white pileus on his head. On the right a female figure, possibly Deidameia, runs to the left with her back to the viewer. She is in the nude except for yellow shoes, gold anklets, and a dark grey mantle that covers her legs. A second female figure stands behind Achilles. Most of her upper body is lost. From what we can see, she runs to the left of the scene. Her right arm is raised with an open palm. A third female figure stands behind Odysseus, she also runs to the left, glancing back at the scene as she runs. In the female's right hand she carries a cylindrical basket and her left hand is raised in alarm. In the background, on the left, a figure wearing a cuirass decorated with a Gorgoneion and blowing a trumpet is able to be seen. The King is depicted behind Achilles. Herakles and Auge The only surviving mythological scene in the triclinium next to the small peristyle is Herakles and Auge, painted on south wall. This scene depicts the myth of the rape of Auge, who was the daughter of the King of Taega and the priestess of Athena, by a drunken Herakles. The union resulted in the conception of Telephus. Auge crouches on one knee on the bank of a stream in the center of the scene. She lifts the sacred peplos of Athena from the water with a lowered right hand. Her left arm is extended to repeal the obviously drunk Herakles. Herakles leans to the left and his right leg is bent back to indicate him stumbling. He attempts to support himself with his club in his left hand. Herakles wears only a lion skin wrapped around his right arm and draped across his back. With his right hand he grabs an edge of Auge's mantle, which only covers her legs and back. Herakles bow and quiver hang from a strap on his left wrist. A female companion stands to the left of Auge. She holds an edge of the peplos with her right hand and uses her left hand to ward off Herakles. Behind the three figures are two females. One wears green leaves in her hair and long green garment ornamented with a Gorgoneion. She looks to Auge's companion and raises a kantharos above Auge's head, tilted slightly to be poured. In her left palm she holds a shallow dish or crown. The second figure has large, green, outspread wings and a blue nimbus behind her head. The figure grasps the female companion's outstretched left arm. Ariadne abandoned by Theseus In the cubiculum next to the large atrium, Ariadne abandoned by Theseus is painted on the north wall. This scene shows Ariadne abandoned by Theseus on the island of Naxos after their flight from Crete due to Theseus killing the Minotaur. The scene Dionysus discovering Ariadne results after this scene. Ariadne lies on a large red cloth spread on the ground. Her legs are extended to the left and her torso twists towards the viewer. Her left hand touches the red cloth while her right hand is raised to her mouth as she gazes at the retreating ship to the left. Cupid stands behind Ariadne and places his left hand on her left shoulder, pointing with his right hand towards the shop in the left hand section of the scene. The ship is manned by three figures. The first the helmsman and he is seated at the stern, leaning forward slightly, with the rudder in his right hand. This figure is possibly Theseus. Two smaller figures sit on either side of the mast. One holds the oar and the other adjust the sail. A fisherman stands in the lower left corner. Hero and Leander On the south wall in the cubiculum is the painting Hero and Leander. This painting depicts the lovers Hero and Leander who lived on opposite shores of the Hellespont. Leander wished to be with his lover so he swam the strait each night, guided by torches Hero placed in a tower on the beach. One night a storm extinguishes the light, causing Leander to drown. Distraught, Hero throws herself into the sea after him. Leander is depicted in the water, wearing only a wreath of yellow leaves. He swims to the right with his left arm extended towards the circular tower occupying the right section of the painting. Hero leans out of a window of the tower wearing a yellow garment and holding in her right hand, a torch for Leander. On the left hand side of the Hellespont, Leander's servant is seated on a rock. He extends his left arm toward Leander and holds a lantern, which is resting on the rock beside him. A dark garment is draped over a rock to the left of the servant, most likely Leander's clothes. At the base of the scene a ladder is leaned against a rock near the servant. To the right are horizontal planks creating a bridge, leading to the second step of the tower platform. Three dolphins swim above Leander in the composition. The owners It has been determined by scholars that the House of the Vettii was owned by Aulus Vettius Conviva and Aulus Vettius Restitutus, former slaves or freedmen. Scholars have come to this conclusion after finding the names on two bronze seals located in the front hall. One of the seals was engraved with 'A. Vetti Restituti' or 'of Aulus Vettius Restitutus'. On the other 'A. Vetti Convivaes' [sic] or 'of Aulus Vettius Conviva' was carved into the seal. Additionally, a ring was found with the initials A. V. C. Further evidence supports the identification of the owners through wax tablets and notices pasted on the outside of the house. Preserved business tablets of Lucius Caecillius list A. Vettius Conviva as a witness. The tablet identifies Conviva as a free man. Other proofs of Conviva's position in Roman society, and incidentally his ownership of the House of the Vettii, are found in the form of graffiti. On the southern facade of the house, he is identified as an Augustalis, a type of priest, which is mirrored in fragments of a seal ring that was abbreviated with 'Aug' following his name. Scholars, however, have noted that it cannot be stated with certainty that the Vettii are the owners, despite most believing that they were, due to the limited epigraphical (engraved) evidence. The Vetti family is believed to have been freedman of the aristocratic family. This belief is rooted in the cognomina, or third given name, Conviva and Restitutus being associated with servitude as well as the richness of the decorations in the House of the Vettii. Furthermore, the position of Augustalis was often held by former slaves. The name 'Restitutus' was also commonly a slave name. Scholars have debated the relationship of the two men, many believing they were brothers or fellow slaves. Other theories suggest that Conviva owned the home and Restitutus was a son, brother or freedman, or another important member of the household that inherited the house upon Conviva's passing. Notes References Butterworth, Alex and Ray Laurence. Pompeii: The Living City. New York, St. Martin's Press, 2005. (Stoa.org) On-line companion to Penelope Mary Allison, Pompeian Households: House of the Vettii John R. Clarke, Andrew Otwell, David Richard, Denise Ketcham, * Heather Matthews "The House of the Vettii at Pompeii: An Interactive Exploration of Roman Art in the Domestic Sphere" (currently inactive) Rowland, Ingrid D. (2014). From Pompeii : The Afterlife of a Roman Town. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Further reading R. Etienne, Pompeii. The Day a City Died (London 1986; 3rd ed. 1994) R. Laurence, Roman Pompeii: Space and Society (London, 1994) A. Wallace-Hadrill, Houses and Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum (Princeton, 1994) Beth Severy-Hoven, 'Master Narratives and the Wall Painting of the House of the Vettii, Pompeii', Gender and History 2012, vol. 24 (3) 540-80 Rowland, Ingrid D. (2014). From Pompeii : The Afterlife of a Roman Town. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Houses completed in the 1st century Ancient Roman art Ancient Roman erotic art Gardens in Italy V
4801957	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Last%20Judgment%20%28Michelangelo%29	The Last Judgment (Michelangelo)	The Last Judgment () is a fresco by the Italian Renaissance painter Michelangelo covering the whole altar wall of the Sistine Chapel in Vatican City. It is a depiction of the Second Coming of Christ and the final and eternal judgment by God of all humanity. The dead rise and descend to their fates, as judged by Christ who is surrounded by prominent saints. Altogether there are over 300 figures, with nearly all the males and angels originally shown as nudes; many were later partly covered up by painted draperies, of which some remain after recent cleaning and restoration. The work took over four years to complete between 1536 and 1541 (preparation of the altar wall began in 1535). Michelangelo began working on it 25 years after having finished the Sistine Chapel ceiling, and was nearly 67 at its completion. He had originally accepted the commission from Pope Clement VII, but it was completed under Pope Paul III whose stronger reforming views probably affected the final treatment. In the lower part of the fresco, Michelangelo followed tradition in showing the saved ascending at the left and the damned descending at the right. In the upper part, the inhabitants of Heaven are joined by the newly saved. The fresco is more monochromatic than the ceiling frescoes and is dominated by the tones of flesh and sky. The cleaning and restoration of the fresco, however, revealed a greater chromatic range than previously apparent. Orange, green, yellow, and blue are scattered throughout, animating and unifying the complex scene. The reception of the painting was mixed from the start, with much praise but also criticism on both religious and artistic grounds. Both the amount of nudity and the muscular style of the bodies has been one area of contention, and the overall composition another. Description Where traditional compositions generally contrast an ordered, harmonious heavenly world above with the tumultuous events taking place in the earthly zone below, in Michelangelo's conception the arrangement and posing of the figures across the entire painting give an impression of agitation and excitement, and even in the upper parts there is "a profound disturbance, tension and commotion" in the figures. Sydney J. Freedberg interprets their "complex responses" as "those of giant powers here made powerless, bound by racking spiritual anxiety", as their role of intercessors with the deity had come to an end, and perhaps they regret some of the verdicts. There is an impression that all the groups of figures are circling the central figure of Christ in a huge rotary movement. At the centre of the work is Christ, shown as the individual verdicts of the Last Judgment are pronounced; he looks down towards the damned. He is beardless, and "compounded from antique conceptions of Hercules, Apollo, and Jupiter Fulminator", probably, in particular, the Belvedere Apollo, brought to the Vatican by Pope Julius II. However, there are parallels for his pose in earlier Last Judgments, especially one in the Camposanto of Pisa, which Michelangelo would have known; here the raised hand is part of a gesture of ostentatio vulnerum ("display of the wounds"), where the resurrected Christ reveals the wounds of his Crucifixion, which can be seen on Michelangelo's figure. To the left of Christ is his mother, Virgin Mary, who turns her head to look down towards the Saved, though her pose also suggests resignation. It appears that the moment has passed for her to exercise her traditional role of pleading on behalf of the dead; with John the Baptist this Deesis is a regular motif in earlier compositions. Preparatory drawings show her standing and facing Christ with arms outstretched, in a more traditional intercessory posture. Surrounding Christ are large numbers of figures, the saints and the rest of the elect. On a similar scale to Christ are John the Baptist on the left, and on the right Saint Peter, holding the keys of Heaven and perhaps offering them back to Christ, as they will no longer be needed. Several of the main saints appear to be showing Christ their attributes, the evidence of their martyrdom. This used to be interpreted as the saints calling for the damnation of those who had not served the cause of Christ, but other interpretations have become more common, including that the saints are themselves not certain of their own verdicts, and try at the last moment to remind Christ of their sufferings. Other prominent saints include Saint Bartholomew below Peter, holding the attribute of his martyrdom, his own flayed skin. The face on the skin is usually recognized as being a self-portrait of Michelangelo. St. Lawrence is also present, along with the gridiron on which he was roasted. Also depicted is St. Catherine with a portion of the wheel on which she was broken. Many others, even of the larger saints, are difficult to identify. Ascanio Condivi, Michelangelo's tame authorized biographer, says that all Twelve Apostles are shown around Christ, "but he does not attempt to name them and would probably have had a difficult time doing so". In the upper right corner, in the group ascending to heaven, there are three male couples embracing and kissing. The movements of the resurrected reflect the traditional pattern. They arise from their graves at bottom left, and some continue upwards, helped in several cases by angels in the air (mostly without wings) or others on clouds, pulling them up. Others, the damned, apparently pass over to the right, though none are quite shown doing so; there is a zone in the lower middle that is empty of persons. A boat rowed by an aggressive Charon, who ferried souls to the Underworld in classical mythology (and Dante), brings them to land beside the entrance to Hell; his threatening them with his oar is a direct borrowing from Dante. Satan, the traditional Christian devil, is not shown but another classical figure, Minos, supervises the admission of the Damned into Hell; this was his role in Dante's Inferno. He is generally agreed to have been given the features of Biagio da Cesena, a critic of Michelangelo in the Papal court. In the centre above Charon is a group of angels on clouds, seven blowing trumpets (as in the Book of Revelation), others holding books that record the names of the Saved and Damned. To their right is a larger figure who has just realized that he is damned, and appears paralyzed with horror. Two devils are pulling him downwards. To the right of this devils pull down others; some are being pushed down by angels above them. Choice of subject The Last Judgment was a traditional subject for large church frescos, but it was unusual to place it at the east end, over the altar. The traditional position was on the west wall, over the main doors at the back of a church, so that the congregation took this reminder of their options away with them on leaving. It might be either painted on the interior, as for example by Giotto at the Arena Chapel, or in a sculpted tympanum on the exterior. However, a number of late medieval panel paintings, mostly altarpieces, were based on the subject with similar compositions, although adapted to a horizontal picture space. These include the Beaune Altarpiece by Rogier van der Weyden and ones by artists such as Fra Angelico, Hans Memling and Hieronymus Bosch. Many aspects of Michelangelo's composition reflect the well-established traditional Western depiction, but with a fresh and original approach. Most traditional versions have a figure of Christ in Majesty in about the same position as Michelangelo's, and even larger than his, with a greater disproportion in scale to the other figures. As here, compositions contain large numbers of figures, divided between angels and saints around Christ at the top, and the dead being judged below. Typically there is a strong contrast between the ordered ranks of figures in the top part, and chaotic and frenzied activity below, especially on the right side that leads to Hell. The procession of the judged usually begins at the bottom (viewer's) left, as here, as the resurrected rise from their graves and move towards judgment. Some pass judgment and continue upwards to join the company in heaven, while others pass over to Christ's left hand and then downwards towards Hell in the bottom right corner (compositions had difficulty incorporating Purgatory visually). The damned may be shown naked, as a mark of their humiliation as devils carry them off, and sometimes the newly-resurrected too, but angels and those in Heaven are fully dressed, their clothing a main clue to the identity of groups and individuals. Before starting The project was a long time in gestation. It was probably first proposed in 1533, but was not then attractive to Michelangelo. A number of letters and other sources describe the original subject as a "Resurrection", but it seems most likely that this was always meant in the sense of the General Resurrection of the Dead, followed in Christian eschatology by the Last Judgment, rather than the Resurrection of Jesus. Other scholars believe there was indeed a substitution of the more sombre final subject, reflecting the emerging mood of the Counter-Reformation, and an increase in the area of the wall to be covered. A number of Michelangelo's drawings from the early 1530s develop a Resurrection of Jesus. Vasari, alone among contemporary sources, says that originally Michelangelo intended to paint the other end wall with a Fall of the Rebel Angels to match. By April 1535 the preparation of the wall was begun, but it was over a year before painting began. Michelangelo stipulated the filling-in of two narrow windows, the removal of three cornices, and building the surface increasingly forward as it rises, to give a single uninterrupted wall surface slightly leaning out, by about 11 inches over the height of the fresco. The preparation of the wall led to the end of more than twenty years of friendship between Michelangelo and Sebastiano del Piombo, who tried to persuade the Pope and Michelangelo to do the painting in his preferred technique of oil on plaster, and managed to get the smooth plaster finish needed for this applied. It is possible that around this stage the idea was floated that Sebastiano would do the actual painting, to Michelangelo's designs, as they had collaborated nearly 20 years earlier. After, according to Vasari, some months of passivity, Michelangelo furiously insisted that it should be in fresco, and had the wall re-plastered in the rough arriccio needed as a base for fresco. It was on this occasion that he famously said that oil painting was "an art for women and for leisurely and idle people like Fra Sebastiano". The new fresco required, unlike his Sistine Chapel ceiling, considerable destruction of existing art. There was an altarpiece of the Assumption of Mary by Pietro Perugino above the altar, for which a drawing survives in the Albertina, flanked by tapestries to designs by Raphael; these, of course, could just be used elsewhere. Above this zone, there were two paintings from the 15th-century cycles of Moses and Christ which still occupy the middle zone of the side walls. These were probably Perugino's Finding of Moses and the Adoration of the Kings, beginning both cycles. Above them were the first of the series of standing popes in niches, including Saint Peter himself, probably as well as a Saint Paul and a central figure of Christ. Finally, the project required the destruction of two lunettes with the first two Ancestors of Christ from Michelangelo's own ceiling scheme. However, some of these works may have already been damaged by an accident in April 1525, when the altar curtains went on fire; the damage done to the wall is unclear. The structure of the chapel, built in a great hurry in the 1470s, had given trouble from the start, with frequent cracks appearing. At Christmas in 1525 a Swiss Guard was killed while entering the chapel with the pope when the stone lintel to the doorway split and fell on him. The site is on sandy soil, draining a large area, and the preceding "Great Chapel" had had similar problems. The new scheme for the altar wall and other changes necessitated by structural problems led to a loss of symmetry and "continuity of window-rhythms and cornices", as well as some of the most important parts of the previous iconographical schemes. As shown by drawings, the initial conception for the Last Judgment was to leave the existing altarpiece and work round it, stopping the composition below the frescos of Moses and Christ. The Sistine Chapel was dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin, which had been the subject of Perugino's altarpiece. Once it was decided to remove this, it appears that a tapestry of the Coronation of the Virgin, a subject often linked to the Assumption, was commissioned, which was hung above the altar for important liturgical occasions in the 18th century, and perhaps from the 1540s until then. The tapestry has a vertical format (it is ), and is still in the Vatican Museums. A print of 1582 shows the chapel in use, with a large cloth of roughly this shape hanging behind the altar, and a canopy over it. The cloth is shown as plain, but the artist also omits the paintings below the ceiling, and may well not have been present himself, but working from prints and descriptions. Reception and later changes Religious objections The Last Judgment became controversial as soon as it was seen, with disputes between critics in the Catholic Counter-Reformation and supporters of the genius of the artist and the style of the painting. Michelangelo was accused of being insensitive to proper decorum, in respect of nudity and other aspects of the work, and of pursuing artistic effect over following the scriptural description of the event. On a preview visit with Paul III, before the work was complete, the pope's Master of Ceremonies Biagio da Cesena is reported by Vasari as saying that: "it was most disgraceful that in so sacred a place there should have been depicted all those nude figures, exposing themselves so shamefully, and that it was no work for a papal chapel but rather for the public baths and taverns". Michelangelo immediately worked Cesena's face from memory into the scene as Minos, judge of the underworld (far bottom-right corner of the painting) with donkey ears (i.e. indicating foolishness), while his nudity is covered by a coiled snake. It is said that when Cesena complained to the Pope, the pontiff joked that his jurisdiction did not extend to Hell, so the portrait would have to remain. Pope Paul III himself was attacked by some for commissioning and protecting the work, and came under pressure to alter if not entirely remove the Last Judgment, which continued under his successors. There were objections to the mixing of figures from pagan mythology into depictions of Christian subject matter. Besides the figures of Charon and Minos and wingless angels, the very classicized Christ was suspect: beardless Christs had in fact only finally disappeared from Christian art some four centuries earlier, but Michelangelo's figure is unmistakably Apollonian. Further objections related to failures to follow the scriptural references. The angels blowing trumpets are all in one group, whereas in the Book of Revelation they are sent to "the four corners of the earth". Christ is not seated on a throne, contrary to Scripture. Such draperies as Michelangelo painted are often shown as blown by wind, but it was claimed that all weather would cease on the Day of Judgment. The resurrected are in mixed condition, some skeletons but most appearing with their flesh intact. All these objections were eventually collected in a book, the Due Dialogi published just after Michelangelo's death in 1564, by the Dominican theologian Giovanni Andrea Gilio (da Fabriano), who had become one of several theologians policing art during and after the Council of Trent. As well as theological objections, Gilio objected to artistic devices like foreshortening that puzzled or distracted untrained viewers. The copy by Marcello Venusti added the dove of the Holy Spirit above Christ, perhaps in response to Gilio's complaint that Michelangelo should have shown all the Trinity. Two decades after the fresco was completed, the final session of the Council of Trent in 1563 finally enacted a form of words that reflected the Counter-Reformation attitudes to art that had been growing in strength in the Church for some decades. The Council's decree (drafted at the last minute and generally very short and inexplicit) reads in part: There was an explicit decree that: "The pictures in the Apostolic Chapel should be covered over, and those in other churches should be destroyed, if they display anything that is obscene or clearly false". The defences by Vasari and others of the painting evidently made some impact on clerical thinking. In 1573, when Paolo Veronese was summoned before the Venetian Inquisition to justify his inclusion of "buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs, and other such absurdities" in what was then called a painting of the Last Supper (later renamed as The Feast in the House of Levi), he tried to implicate Michelangelo in a comparable breach of decorum, but was promptly rebuffed by the inquisitors, as the transcript records: Q. Does it seem suitable to you, in the Last Supper of our Lord, to represent buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs, and other such absurdities? A. Certainly not. Q. Then why have you done it? A. I did it on the supposition that those people were outside the room in which the Supper was taking place. Q. Do you not know that in Germany and other countries infested by heresy, it is habitual, by means of pictures full of absurdities, to vilify and turn to ridicule the things of the Holy Catholic Church, in order to teach false doctrine to ignorant people who have no common sense? A. I agree that it is wrong, but I repeat what I have said, that it is my duty to follow the examples given me by my masters. Q. Well, what did your masters paint? Things of this kind, perhaps? A. In Rome, in the Pope's Chapel, Michelangelo has represented Our Lord, His Mother, Saint John, Saint Peter, and the celestial court; and he has represented all these personages nude, including the Virgin Mary [this last not true], and in various attitudes not inspired by the most profound religious feeling. Q. Do you not understand that in representing the Last Judgment, in which it is a mistake to suppose that clothes are worn, there was no reason for painting any? But in these figures what is there that is not inspired by the Holy Spirit? There are neither buffoons, dogs, weapons, nor other absurdities. ... Revisions Some action to meet the criticism and enact the decision of the council had become inevitable, and the genitalia in the fresco were painted over with drapery by the Mannerist painter Daniele da Volterra, probably mostly after Michelangelo died in 1564. Daniele was "a sincere and fervent admirer of Michelangelo" who kept his changes to a minimum, and had to be ordered to go back and add more, and for his trouble got the nickname "Il Braghettone", meaning "the breeches maker". He also chiseled away and entirely repainted the larger part of Saint Catherine and the entire figure of Saint Blaise behind her. This was done because in the original version Blaise had appeared to look at Catherine's naked behind, and because to some observers the position of their bodies suggested sexual intercourse. The repainted version shows Blaise looking away from Saint Catherine, upward towards Christ. His work, beginning in the upper parts of the wall, was interrupted when Pope Pius IV died in December 1565 and the chapel needed to be free of scaffolding for the funeral and conclave to elect the next pope. El Greco had made a helpful offer to repaint the entire wall with a fresco that was "modest and decent, and no less well painted than the other". Further campaigns of overpainting, often "less discreet or respectful", followed in later reigns, and "the threat of total destruction ... re-surfaced in the pontificates of Pius V, Gregory XIII, and probably again of Clement VIII". According to Anthony Blunt, "rumours were current in 1936 that Pius XI intended to continue the work". In total, nearly 40 figures had drapery added, apart from the two repainted. These additions were in "dry" fresco, which made them easier to remove in the most recent restoration (1990–1994), when about 15 were removed, from those added after 1600. It was decided to leave 16th-century changes. At a relatively early date, probably in the 16th century, a strip of about 18 inches was lost across the whole width of the bottom of the fresco, as the altar and its backing was modified. Artistic criticism Contemporary As well as the criticism on moral and religious grounds, there was from the start considerable criticism based on purely aesthetic considerations, which had hardly been seen at all in initial reactions to Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling. Two key figures in the first wave of criticism were Pietro Aretino and his friend Lodovico Dolce, a prolific Venetian humanist. Aretino had made considerable efforts to become as close to Michelangelo as he was to Titian, but had always been rebuffed; "in 1545 his patience gave way, and he wrote to Michelangelo that letter on the Last Judgment which is now famous as an example of insincere prudishness", a letter written with a view to publication. Aretino had not in fact seen the finished painting, and based his criticisms on one of the prints that had been quickly brought to market. He "purports to represent the simple folk" in this new wider audience. However, it appears that at least the print-buying public preferred the uncensored version of the paintings, as most prints showed this well into the 17th century. Vasari responded to this and other criticisms in the 1st edition of his Life of Michelangelo in 1550. Dolce followed up in 1557, the year after Aretino died, with a published dialogue, L'Aretino, almost certainly a collaborative effort with his friend. Many of the arguments of the theologian critics are repeated, but now in the name of decorum rather than religion, emphasizing that the particular and very prominent location of the fresco made the amount of nudity unacceptable; a convenient argument for Aretino, some of whose projects were frankly pornographic, but intended for private audiences. Dolce also complains that Michelangelo's female figures are hard to distinguish from males, and his figures show "anatomical exhibitionism", criticisms many have echoed. On these points, a long-lasting rhetorical comparison of Michelangelo and Raphael developed, in which even supporters of Michelangelo such as Vasari participated. Raphael is held up as the exemplar of all the grace and decorum found lacking in Michelangelo, whose outstanding quality was called by Vasari his terribiltà, the awesome, sublime or (the literal meaning) terror-inducing quality of his art. Vasari came to partly share this view by the time of the expanded 2nd edition of his Lives, published in 1568, though he explicitly defended the fresco on several points raised by the attackers (without mentioning them), such as the decorum of the fresco and "amazing diversity of the figures", and asserted it was "directly inspired by God", and a credit to the Pope and his "future renown". Modern In many respects, modern art historians discuss the same aspects of the work as 16th-century writers: the general grouping of the figures and rendering of space and movement, the distinctive depiction of anatomy, the nudity and use of colour, and sometimes the theological implications of the fresco. However, Bernadine Barnes points out that no 16th-century critic echoes in the slightest the view of Anthony Blunt that: "This fresco is the work of a man shaken out of his secure position, no longer at ease with the world, and unable to face it directly. Michelangelo does not now deal directly with the visible beauty of the physical world." At the time, continues Barnes, "it was censured as the work of an arrogant man, and it was justified as a work that made celestial figures more beautiful than natural". Many other modern critics take approaches similar to Blunt's, emphasizing Michelangelo's "tendency away from the material and towards the things of the spirit" in his last decades. In theology, the Second Coming of Christ ended space and time. Despite this, "Michelangelo’s curious representation of space", where "the characters inhabit individual spaces that cannot be combined consistently", is often commented on. Quite apart from the question of decorum, the rendering of anatomy has been often discussed. Writing of "energy" in the nude figure, Kenneth Clark has: The twist into depth, the struggle to escape from the here and now of the picture plane, which had always distinguished Michelangelo from the Greeks, became the dominating rhythm of his later works. That colossal nightmare, the Last Judgment, is made up of such struggles. It is the most overpowering accumulation in all art of bodies in violent movement" Of the figure of Christ, Clark says: "Michelangelo has not tried to resist that strange compulsion which made him thicken a torso until it is almost square." S.J. Freedberg commented that "The vast repertory of anatomies that Michelangelo conceived for the Last Judgment seems often to have been determined more by the requirements of art than by compelling needs of meaning, ... meant not just to entertain but to overpower us with their effects. Often, too, the figures assume attitudes of which a major sense is one of ornament." He notes that the two frescos in the Cappella Paolina, Michelangelo's last paintings begun in November 1542 almost immediately after the Last Judgment, show from the start a major change in style, away from grace and aesthetic effect to an exclusive concern with illustrating the narrative, with no regard for beauty. Restoration (1980–1994) Early appreciations of the fresco had focused on the colours, especially in small details, but over the centuries the build-up of dirt on the surface had largely hidden these. The built-out wall led to extra deposition of soot from candles on the altar. In 1953 (admittedly in November) Bernard Berenson put in his diary: "The ceiling looks dark, gloomy. The Last Judgment even more so; ... how difficult to make up our minds that these Sistine frescoes are nowadays scarcely enjoyable in the original and much more so in photographs". The fresco was restored along with the Sistine vault between 1980 and 1994 under the supervision of Fabrizio Mancinelli, the curator of post-classical collections of the Vatican Museums and Gianluigi Colalucci, head restorer at the Vatican laboratory. During the course of the restoration, about half of the censorship of the "Fig-Leaf Campaign" was removed. Numerous pieces of buried details, caught under the smoke and grime of scores of years, were revealed after the restoration. It was discovered that the fresco of Biagio de Cesena as Minos with donkey ears was being bitten in the genitalia by a coiled snake. Inserted self-portrait Most writers agree that Michelangelo depicted his own face in the flayed skin of Saint Bartholomew (see the illustration above). Edgar Wind saw this as "a prayer for redemption, that through the ugliness the outward man might be thrown off, and the inward man resurrected pure", in a Neoplatonist mood, one that Aretino detected and objected to. One of Michelangelo's poems had used the metaphor of a snake shedding its old skin for his hope for a new life after his death. Bernadine Barnes writes that "recent viewers ... have found in [the flayed skin] evidence of Michelangelo's self-doubt, since the lifeless skin is held precariously over Hell. However, no sixteenth-century critic noticed it [as Michelangelo's face]." The bearded figure of Saint Bartholomew holding the skin was sometimes thought to have the features of Aretino, but open conflict between Michelangelo and Aretino did not occur until 1545, several years after the fresco's completion. "Even Aretino's good friend Vasari did not recognize him." Details See also List of works by Michelangelo Footnotes Notes References Barnes, Bernardine, Michelangelo’s Last Judgment: The Renaissance Response, 1998, University of California Press, , google books Berenson, Bernard, The Passionate Sightseer, 1960, Thames & Hudson Blunt, Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450–1600, 1940 (refs to 1985 edn.), OUP, Clark, Kenneth, The Nude: A Study in Ideal Form, orig. 1949, various edns., page refs from Pelican edn. of 1960 Freedberg, Sydney J. Painting in Italy, 1500–1600, 3rd edn. 1993, Yale, Friedländer, Walter. Mannerism and Anti-Mannerism in Italian Painting (originally in German, first edition in English, 1957, Columbia) 1965, Schocken, New York, LOC 578295 Hall, James, Hall's Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art, 1996 (2nd edn.), John Murray, Hartt, Frederick, History of Italian Renaissance Art, 2nd edn., 1987, Thames & Hudson (US Harry N. Abrams), Hughes, Anthony, "The Last Judgement", 2.iii, a), in "Michelangelo." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online. Oxford University Press. Web. 22 Mar. 2017. Subscription required "Khan": "Last Judgment", Esperanca Camara, Khan Academy "Kren": Kren, Thomas; Burke, Jill; Campbell, Stephen J. (eds), The Renaissance Nude, 2018, Getty Publications, , 9781606065846, google books Murray, Linda, The Late Renaissance and Mannerism, 1967, Thames and Hudson; The High Renaissance and Mannerism: Italy, The North, and Spain, 1500-1600, 1967 and 1977, Thames and Hudson "Sistine": Pietrangeli, Carlo, et al., The Sistine Chapel: The Art, the History, and the Restoration, 1986, Harmony Books/Nippon Television, Vasari, selected & ed. George Bull, Artists of the Renaissance, Penguin 1965 (page nos. from BCA edn., 1979) Wind, Edgar, Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance, 1967 edn., Peregrine Books Further reading James A. Connor, The Last Judgment: Michelangelo and the Death of the Renaissance (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), Marcia Hall, ed., Michelangelo’s Last Judgment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), Loren Partridge, Michelangelo, The Last Judgment: A Glorious Restoration (New York: Abrams, 1997), Leader, A., "Michelangelo’s Last Judgment: The Culmination of Papal Propaganda in the Sistine Chapel", Studies in Iconography, xxvii (2006), pp. 103–56 Barnes, Bernadine, "Aretino, the Public, and the Censorship of Michelangelo's Last Judgment," in Suspended License: Censorship and the Visual Arts, ed. Elizabeth C. Childs (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997), pp. 59–84 Barnes, Bernadine, "Metaphorical Painting: Michelangelo, Dante, and the Last Judgment", Art Bulletin, 77 (1995), 64–81 Roskill, Mark W., Dolce's Aretino and Venetian Art Theory of the Cinquecento (New York: Published for the College Art Association of America by New York University Press, 1968; reprinted with emendations by University of Toronto Press, 2000) External links Fresco paintings in Rome Religious paintings by Michelangelo Catholic paintings Sistine Chapel frescoes 1530s paintings 1540s paintings Paintings depicting Jesus Paintings of the Virgin Mary Angels in art Ships in art Paintings depicting John the Baptist Paintings depicting Saint Peter Books in art Musical instruments in art Snakes in art Altarpieces Nude art The Last Judgement in art
4802168	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dee%20Bliss	Dee Bliss	Dione "Dee" Bliss is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours, played by Madeleine West. The actress received the role three days after securing an agent. West deferred her law degree studies to take the part. She made her first screen appearance during the episode broadcast on 3 February 2000. The character proved popular with viewers and producers soon promoted her to the main cast. West decided to leave Neighbours at the end of her contract in 2003. She filmed her final scenes in April and Dee made her last appearance on 29 July 2003. West returned to the show in September 2016. Although initially introduced as Dee, it transpired that West was playing a new character Andrea Somers, a woman who impersonates Dee in an attempt to receive money from the Bliss family estate. Dee made a brief return on 9 January 2017, in a series of dream sequences experienced by her former husband Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney). On 14 August 2017, a woman on a bench was credited as "Special appearance by Madeleine West" to maintain the mystery of whether this was Andrea or Dee, but has subsequently confirmed to be Dee. On 5 July 2019, West reprised the role of Dee for a one-month period, as she comes face to face with Andrea for the first time, bonds with Toadie and learns the truth about her parentage. Dee returned once again from 23 April 2020 until 25 June 2020. Casting West was enrolled in university studying law, when she decided to try acting and found an agent. She secured the role of Dee three days later. West said "It happened pretty quickly. I got the agent, then I went to the audition for Neighbours and luckily I got the part. I know it doesn't always happen that quickly for people, so I consider myself fortunate." West then deferred her law degree studies after she was offered the role. Dee became an audience favourite, so the Neighbours producers decided to make her a regular cast member and offered West a new contract. In July 2002, West was struck by a bus. She needed re-constructive plastic surgery and was written out of Neighbours. West returned to the show a month later and said she was pleased to be back, but found it to be tiring. She said, "It was actually really good because it felt so nice to be back at work and to be not just lying in bed and doing nothing. It was so good to see everyone, so that really kept me occupied. But, I found that weekend that I just crashed and burned." Development Relationships Joel Samuels Shortly after her arrival, Dee begins dating Joel Samuels (Daniel MacPherson) and their relationship progresses slowly. MacPherson said their relationship was "a little more lust than love" and when Dee introduces him to her best friend, Carrie Clark (Vanessa Rossini), Joel is instantly attracted to her. Joel tries to keep his feelings for Carrie a secret, as he does not want to hurt Dee, but MacPherson commented that it was not an easy thing to do and the truth would come out in the end. West empathised with Dee, saying that her character was "besotted" with Joel, so to find out he is attracted to Carrie would be an awful moment for her. Joel dates Carrie in secret and tries to choose between the two women, but Dee later catches him and Carrie in the pool at Number 30 and breaks up with him. Joel and Dee eventually reconcile, but their relationship is tested again by the arrival of Joel's father Bernie Samuels (Sean Scully). Bernie flirts with Dee, leaving her "just the slightest bit uncomfortable". Darcy Tyler In 2001, Dee was paired with local doctor Darcy Tyler (Mark Rafferty). Dee and Darcy's relationship becomes strained and Rafferty explained that Darcy was looking for some sympathy, as he had problems at the surgery, but Dee was "taking a harder line" instead of being supportive. Rafferty also said, "Darcy feels that his enthusiasm and hers don't quite match." Darcy seeks advice from Dee's friend Teresa Bell (Krista Vendy), who suggests that he does something romantic for Dee, so he buys them ballet tickets. However, Dee "brushes him off" and suggests that he takes Tess to the ballet instead. Darcy soon began an affair with Tess. While attending a fishing competition, Dee finds Darcy and Tess kissing inside his truck. Of the scene, West commented, "They are so caught up in each other that they don't even notice that she's there." Unsure how to react, Dee decided to leave the competition early. Dee confides in Joel and Toadie, who are surprised that she did not confront Darcy and Tess. West explained that Dee wanted revenge and that would serve as her therapy. When Darcy came to see her, Dee pretended everything was okay, as she knew that it would be worth it when she exposed him and Tess as adulterers. West enjoyed the challenge that the plot brought her, saying "I was shocked when I first read the storyline, but I thought it was so dramatic that two best friends would be divided by a man." The actress also hoped that the storyline would have a positive impact on her character, as it was the second time she had been betrayed by her partner, following Joel's affair with her Carrie. West called Dee "too trusting" and thought she would be a changed person at the conclusion of the storyline. Following the end of her relationship with Darcy, Dee learned she was pregnant with his child. An Inside Soap writer observed that her reaction was "one of shock and horror". With support from her friends, Dee accepts the pregnancy, but does not tell Darcy. Shortly after, Dee slips on some water and falls, landing hard on her stomach. She is rushed to the hospital, where Karl Kennedy (Alan Fletcher) informs her that she has suffered a miscarriage. West stated that Dee is "understandably devastated" by the news. She continued, "As a paediatric nurse, she loves children, and obviously it's deeply upsetting for any woman to lose her own child." While she is recovering, Darcy arrives at the hospital to begin his shift and West added that the last thing Dee needed was "a run-in" with Darcy. To remember the child, Dee plants a roe bush in Ramsay Street. Departure In March 2003, West announced that she was to leave Neighbours after her contract expired. She filmed her final scenes in early April. In her final storyline, Dee married her housemate and friend Toadfish Rebecchi (Ryan Moloney) in a "romantic ceremony", which ended in tragedy when Toadie accidentally drove their car off a cliff and into the sea. Dee's body was not found and Toadie was forced to accept that she had died. He initially blamed himself for causing her death. In 2014, series producer Jason Herbison admitted that he was asked every year if the show was going to bring back Dee. He told Bridget McManus and Scott Ellis of The Age that he was unsure if West would return to the role, and added that the writing team would have to come up with a different plot to the one that brought Harold Bishop (Ian Smith) back in 1996, following his disappearance in 1991. Return On 15 September 2016, Tiffany Dunk of News.com.au reported that West had reprised her role thirteen years after Dee's supposed death. West returned to filming that same week, with the role continuing through to January 2017. Of her decision to return, West stated, "It is a very rare and wonderful thing when an actor has the opportunity to step back into the shoes of a character they created, even more so when that character had not been seen for some 13 years, and was one as beloved as Dee Bliss. For me, this return to Neighbours is something of a homecoming, to the place where I took my first tentative steps into the entertainment industry, and where I truly learnt my craft." In an interview with Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy, West said she had been asked to return to the show several times, but she had always been busy with her family and other acting work. When Dee and Toadie's wedding was voted viewers' second favourite Neighbours storyline for the 30th anniversary, West felt "honoured" and thought her return would be a chance to give something back to the fans, as well as allow her the chance to finish Dee's story. It was important to West that Dee's return storyline was plausible and while she was not initially aware of all the details, she thought that it was "really topical" and "juicy". She also speculated that Toadie would go through a range of emotions upon seeing Dee, including remorse and happiness. She continued, "There's going to be some really interesting and hard-hitting scenes for us both to play, along with everyone else in Ramsay Street who will feel the repercussions of Dee's return." West added that she would be filming for "a reasonable chunk of time" and that "the door is always left open." West later told Holly Byrnes of The Daily Telegraph that she would be back for fourteen weeks. She also confirmed that Dee would definitely be back, and is not "a ghost, nor is she a figment of Toadie's imagination and she wasn't abducted by aliens." West added that she had plans to write and direct for Neighbours later in 2017. In the 2016 season finale episode, Toadie was shown a photograph of a woman that looked like Dee, leaving him with the possibility that Dee is alive. A trailer showcasing upcoming storylines showed Toadie appearing to meet Dee face to face. During the first episode of 2017, Toadie was shown to be "haunted" by dreams featuring Dee. It was later revealed that the returned Dee was in fact Andrea Somers, an imposter hoping to scam Toadie. After Andrea's exposure and departure, West made an unannounced return appearance on 14 August 2017. The closing credits concealed the character's name by crediting West as a "Special appearance", leading viewers to speculate that West was playing the real Dee. West wore "a flowing white dress", similar to Dee's wedding dress, and viewers also noted her long wavy hair, a style Dee sported shortly before her disappearance. The resolution of the storyline in 2019 confirmed that this appearance was of the real Dee. West continued to play Andrea intermittently from December 2017, again credited as special appearances; in 2018, a hospitalised and mentally unstable Andrea briefly claimed to be Dee once more. On 5 July 2019, the show resolved the mystery of Dee's fate when she meets her lookalike Andrea Somers in "a dramatic showdown" on a cliff top in Byron Bay. Dee, who has spent the last 16–17 years using the name Karen, wants to know who Andrea is, but Andrea does not give much away. The women fight and Dee goes over the cliff, and Andrea returns to Erinsborough pretending to be her. Dee soon makes her way to Erinsborough and Toadie is faced with both women. Moloney said that Toadie is "totally stumped by it". Dee's time away from Erinsborough and what happened to her after the car crash was also explored. West stated, "the intervening 17 years have been very difficult and have changed the fibre of who she is, but at the end of the day, she's still that cheery, funny, well-meaning humanitarian minded Dee that we all came to love." West revealed that Dee and Andrea are twins, who were separated at birth. It was later confirmed that Dee was adopted and Heather is her biological mother. The character made her exit on 8 August 2019, as West's guest stint came to an end. On 15 December 2019, Fiona Byrne of the Herald Sun confirmed that West would begin filming another guest stint in January 2020. West's return scenes aired on 21 April 2020, and she played both Dee and Andrea. Their return coincides with Elly Conway's (Jodi Anasta) trial for murder. Dee comes back to Erinsborough following a phone call from Toadie. Storylines 2000–2003 Dee and her friend Vanessa Bradshaw (Julieanne Tait) meet Joel Samuels and Toadfish Rebecchi in a bar. Joel pretends to be an Argentine football player, while Toadie pretends to be his lawyer. The girls play along with the charade, telling them that Dee is a model and Vanessa is a fashion designer. Dee and Vanessa go out to dinner with Joel and Toadie, but leave them in the restaurant without money to pay the bill. Dee is reunited with Joel when she comes to collect her younger sister, Cecile (Molly McCaffrey), from Ramsay Street. Dee and Joel meet at the local pub and decide that they want to get to know one another. They begin dating, but break up when he also dates her friend, Carrie Clark. Dee agrees to give their relationship another go, but it is tested when Joel's father, Bernie flirts with Dee, and her former boyfriend, Max Crawford (Simon Gleeson), tries to get back with her. The couple play a series of practical jokes on one another. This comes to a climax when Joel fakes a letter from a noted art gallery, asking to put on an exhibition of Dee's work. He enlists his friend Malcolm Kennedy (Benjamin McNair) to pose as a distant relative, who is interested in Dee's paintings. Upon finding out that it was a joke, Dee breaks up with Joel. She moves into Number 32 Ramsay Street with Teresa Bell and begins a relationship with local doctor, Darcy Tyler. When Number 32 is put up for sale, Tess and Dee try to buy it, but are outbid. Dee then moves into Number 30, with Toadie and Joel. She breaks up with Darcy after learning he is having an affair with Tess. Dee finds out she is pregnant, but miscarries after a fall. Dee and Tess later repair their friendship and Dee reconciles with Joel. The relationship does not last, as Joel leaves on a diving expedition. She briefly dates new housemate Stuart Parker (Blair McDonough) and then his army friend Ray Milsome (Tom Meadmore), the latter of which tries to force himself on her but stops when Nina Tucker (Delta Goodrem) arrives. Toadie then publicly calls Ray out on his treatment of Dee and then he leaves. Dee realises she has feelings for Toadie and they begin dating. Darcy conspires to break Toadie and Dee up with multiple schemes. Claiming to have turned over a new leaf, he plays the pair off against each other whilst pretending to be a sensitive confidant to both. He also learns Dee was married and invites her former husband, Darren Turner (Daniel Fletcher) to a charity ball. Darcy's plan is successful, and whilst paying Sindi Watts (Marisa Warrington) to flirt with Toadie and keep him away from Dee, Darcy persuades Dee to get back together with him. The relationship is short-lived however when she learns that he robbed his aunt and uncle, Susan Kennedy (Jackie Woodburne) and Karl Kennedy to pay illegal gambling debts. Dee and Toadie eventually reconcile and they get engaged. In the lead up to the wedding, Dee clashes with Toadie's mother Angie Rebecchi (Lesley Baker) and becomes a bridezilla. Dee and Toadie marry in front of their family members, friends and neighbours. As they are driving off together, Toadie and Dee take their eyes off the road to kiss, causing Toadie to lose control of the car. It veers off a cliff and crashes into the sea. Toadie manages to escape the car, but Dee's body is never recovered, despite efforts from rescue teams, and she is presumed dead. 2017–2020 Thirteen years later, Toadie and his new wife Sonya Rebecchi (Eve Morey) are scammed by a woman named Andrea Somers (West), who looks identical to Dee. A year after Andrea's con, Toadie tracks her down to a psychiatric facility in Tasmania. She eventually approaches the Rebecchis with a theory that Dee could be alive and living a new life as a woman named Karen. Andrea agrees to help Toadie find Dee, hoping that he will fall in love with her. Andrea reveals to her mother Heather Schilling (Kerry Armstrong) that Karen lives in Byron Bay. Wanting to ensure that Dee does not complicate Andrea's chances with Toadie, Heather arranges to meet Dee, but Andrea turns up instead to confront her lookalike. Andrea claims she is in love with Toadie, and when Dee decides to call Heather, Andrea pushes her off a cliff top. Dee is rescued by Heather, who tends to her injuries and keeps her in a motel room. Dee takes advantage of Heather's drunken state to convince her to go to Erinsborough, where she finds Andrea impersonating her. She convinces Toadie that she is the real Dee Bliss with the last words he said to her. Andrea and Heather are arrested, leaving Dee to explain why she faked her death. Dee explains to Toadie their wedding car was tampered by a criminal gang, the Zantucks, who had placed her name on a hitlist shortly before the wedding. After the accident, Cecile's boyfriend, Riley Cooper (Lliam Murphy), rescued Dee and helped her start a new life as Karen, safe from the Zantucks. Constable Mark Brennan (Scott McGregor) discovers that the attempt on Dee's life was actually meant for Andrea, who dated one of the Zantucks. With the gang behind bars, Dee is free to resume her life. After briefly returning to Byron Bay, Dee returns at Toadie's invitation and stays with the Kennedys. Intrigued by Andrea's resemblance to her, Dee requests a DNA test, which reveals that Dee and Andrea are sisters. Heather is later confirmed to be their biological mother, but she was unaware she had given birth to twins and that Dee was given to the Blisses. Although she initially wants to remain in touch with Heather and Andrea, a prison visit indicates that while Heather was genuinely remorseful, Andrea had sole interest in having a connection to use as leverage for a shorter sentence. Thus, Dee decides to cut off contact with Andrea and Heather. As Toadie supports Dee with the revelations and her attempts to readjust to a normal life, their feelings for each other return. Still grieving for his wife Sonya, who had passed away due to ovarian cancer, Toadie panics when they kiss and Dee returns to Byron Bay. Toadie follows her and they agree that neither of them are ready for anything to happen, and they say their goodbyes. Nearly a year later, Dee returns to Erinsborough to visit Andrea. Despite Toadie's reservations, Dee enjoys getting to know Andrea and decides to stay local while they reconnect. Dee and Toadie share a passionate kiss after they go fishing together and agree to try dating. When Karl sees how much Susan enjoys having Dee around, he invites her to move in with them. Unknown to both of them, however, was that Andrea wanted to use their connection as an advantage to regain custody of her son, Hugo Somers (John Turner). After overhearing Andrea tell other inmates about this, Andrea's cellmate, Elly Conway (Jodi Anasta), warns Dee and Toadie about her underhanded tactics and devious intentions. This also pushes her and Toadie closer together, and they eventually decide to start a relationship. She supports Toadie as he lodges an appeal regarding Elly's sentence, and later discovers that Andrea was involved in the scheme for Elly to lose custody of her daughter, Aster Conway (Isla Goulas, Scout Bowman) after Aster's grandmother, Claudia Watkins (Kate Raison), paid her to start a riot in the prison. Dee visits Andrea again to confront her, and she eventually confesses to her actions and why she has done them. Dee reveals what Claudia did with Aster, but Andrea shows no remorse for her actions. Furious, Dee berates Andrea for feigning emotions to secure a closer relationship with her for a personal advantage and requests that the latter stop acting so heartless towards others. Dee later discovers that Heather is in the same prison and decides she wants to know her mother. Upon visiting her several times, Dee voices her belief that Heather has genuinely changed, much to Toadie's chagrin. He attempts to force Heather into cutting ties with Dee, much to her annoyance. Although they appear to work this out, Toadie once again tries to prevent Heather and Dee from having a relationship, but Dee tells him that he is the one being controlling and manipulative rather than Heather and questions their relationship. Toadie and Dee later break up, after which Dee asks Heather about her biological father. Dee learns her father's name, but ultimately decides not to investigate further. Owen Campbell (Johnny Ruffo) later manipulates Dee into coming to visit Heather in the prison garden, where he drugs her in order for Andrea to impersonate her again. Andrea is later remanded while trying to flee after kidnapping Hugo, and Heather asks to transfer to another prison. In the meantime, Toadie learns that Dee's father lives in Alaska and has terminal lung cancer. Upon learning this, Dee decides to meet her father as soon as possible. Toadie offers to come with her or wait for her to return, but she declines. After offering Andrea the opportunity to write to their father, Dee says an emotional goodbye to Toadie and leaves for Alaska. Reception For her portrayal of Dee, West earned a nomination for Most Popular New Female Talent at the 2001 Logie Awards. In June 2002, Dee came fifth in a poll run by Newsround to find viewer's favourite Neighbours character. She received 9.37% of the vote. Dee and Toadie earned a nomination for Best Couple at the 2003 Inside Soap Awards. Jim Schembri of The Age said Dee was "Ramsay Street's reigning blonde beauty." While the Newcastle Herald called her "effervescent." The BBC said Dee's most notable moments were "When Darcy discovered she was secretly pregnant to him and had lost the child" and "Being killed on her wedding day." The episode featuring Dee's death earned writer Shane Porteous the Australian Writers' Guild award for Best Episode in a Television Serial in 2003. In 2007, Australian newspaper the Herald Sun placed Dee's death from the car accident at number three on their list of Neighbours Top Ten moments. They said, "One of the more dramatic deaths was of Dee, played by Madeleine West. One of the soap's most loved characters, Toadie, was having the time of his life after marrying Dee, but tragedy struck as they drove off to their honeymoon, probably in Mildura. As Toadie leaned over to kiss Dee, he lost control of the car and drove off a cliff into the ocean. Toadie managed to get out of the car, but despite his anguished search, Dee's body was never found". The Daily Telegraph placed Dee and Toadie's wedding at number nine on their list of "Top 10 TV weddings". They said, "Happiness turns to tragedy when Toadie (Ryan Maloney) and Dee (Madeleine West) drive off a cliff on their wedding day and she is killed. He watches as her veil drifts away in the wind." Sarah Megginson of SheKnows placed Dee and Toadie's wedding and her death on her list of "Most Memorable Neighbours Moments". She said viewers "beamed when the wedding celebrant announced that Dee and Toadie were married", but knew something was about to happen. She added "Toadie lost control of the car. They fly off a cliff and plunge into the ocean below ... and Toadie loses his bride mere hours into their marriage." Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy expressed his surprise at Dee's apparent return in 2016, saying "it's the Neighbours news we never thought we'd hear and we couldn't be more excited about it". In 2019, Laura-Jayne Tyler of Inside Soap praised Dee's actual return, writing "We've seen a fair few soap characters come back from the dead in our time, but Neighbours''' Dee turning up alive and well after 16 years has been our absolute favourite plot of the summer. Yes, we know some of the details don't quite add up, but the final twist – that Dee and Andrea are actually twins – is one of the most bonkers and brilliant things we've ever seen in soap. Neighbours, we salute you!" Dee was placed at number fifteen on the Huffpost's "35 greatest Neighbours characters of all time" feature. Journalist Adam Beresford described her as a "sweet natured nurse" who was "due a happy ending" and viewers always hoped she would return from the dead. Beresford was also impressed with the Dee and Andrea storyline, stating "this insanely OTT saga had it all and more. One of the most genuinely brilliant storylines of any soap, period." In 2022, Sam Strutt of The Guardian published a feature counting down the top ten most memorable moments in the history of Neighbours. Strutt listed "angelic" Dee's wedding and her subsequent disappearance at sea as the fifth most memorable. Strutt also likened Dee and Toadie's romance to the tale of The beauty and the beast. References External links Dee Bliss at the Official Neighbours'' website Dee Bliss at BBC Online Neighbours characters Adoptee characters in television Fictional identical twins Fictional nurses Television characters introduced in 2000 Female characters in television Fictional characters incorrectly presumed dead
4802175	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS%20Politician	SS Politician	SS Politician was a cargo ship that ran aground off the coast of the Hebridean island of Eriskay in 1941. Her cargo included 22,000 cases of scotch whisky and £3 million worth of Jamaican banknotes. Much of the whisky was recovered by islanders from across the Hebrides, contrary to marine salvage laws. Because no duty had been paid on the whisky, members of HM Customs and Excise pursued and prosecuted those who had removed the cargo. Politician was completed in 1923 under the name London Merchant. She was a general cargo ship that traded between Britain, the United States and Canada, and up and down the west coast of the US. In 1924—during the years of American prohibition—Oregon's state prohibition commissioner seized her cargo of whisky despite its having been approved and sealed by US federal authorities. After the British Embassy in Washington complained to the US government, the whisky was released back to the ship. During the Second World War Politician participated in the Atlantic convoys between the UK and US. In February 1941 she was on her way to the north of Scotland, where she ran aground while attempting to rendezvous with a convoy. No-one was badly injured or killed in the accident. The local islanders continually visited the wreck of Politician to unload whisky, even though it was in a hold filled with marine engine oil and seawater. Customs men undertook raids, arresting many and seizing the boats of those suspected of taking part. The excise authorities pushed for charges under the punitive customs legislation, but the authorities charged those arrested with theft. Many were found not guilty or not proven, and several were fined; 19 were incarcerated at Inverness Prison for terms ranging between 20 days and two months. Salvors were used to rescue as much of the ship as they could, and the whisky they raised was shipped back to its bonded warehouses; this was also looted during its journey. Two salvage crews removed much of the cargo, and the second crew raised the wreck off the seabed. Part of the ship's hold, and her stern, were cut away and sank to the bottom of Eriskay Sound; the remainder of the hold was destroyed with gelignite to prevent further looting. A few of the Jamaican banknotes from Politician were presented at banks in Britain, Jamaica and other countries. As a result, in 1952 the blue ten-shilling notes were withdrawn and replaced with notes of the same design, printed in purple. Bottles of whisky have been raised from the seabed by divers, and some have been found in hiding places on Eriskay; these have been auctioned. The story of the wreck and looting was the basis for the book Whisky Galore; an adaptation was released as a film in 1949 and a remake in 2016. 1920–1939 The cargo ship SS Politician was built by the Furness Shipbuilding Company between 19 September 1920—when she was laid down—and 1923 at the Haverton Hill shipyard, County Durham, England. She was launched in November 1921 as SS London Merchant, and was completed in May 1923. London Merchant was one of six sister ships built at the yard; the others were London Commerce, London Importer, London Mariner, London Shipper and Manchester Regiment. London Merchant gross registered tonnage was 7,899, she was long and at the beam; her depth of hold was and she could achieve . While being fitted out, she was hit by another ship and damaged. After London Merchant was repaired she began trading across the Atlantic; her owners, the Furness Withy company, advertised her cargo services in The Manchester Guardian, shipping from Manchester to Los Angeles, Seattle and Vancouver. In December 1924—during Prohibition in the United States—she docked in Portland, Oregon, with whisky as part of her cargo; this had been approved and sealed by the US federal authorities. George Cleaver, Oregon's state prohibition commissioner, ignored the approval, broke the seal on the cargo and seized the whisky. The ship's master refused to leave without the whisky and the British Embassy in Washington complained to the Federal authorities, who intervened and ordered the whisky released back to the ship. Cleaver was ordered to write an apology to the captain and the Furness Withy company. On Christmas Eve 1927 she was involved in another collision and was repaired. She traded on the US eastern seaboard until 1930 when, with the onset of Great Depression, world trade dropped, and she was tied up in the River Blackwater, Essex, along with 60 other vessels. In May 1935 London Merchant was purchased by the Charente Steamship Company, part of the T & J Harrison shipping line. Charente renamed her Politician, and used her on cargo routes between Britain and South Africa; her crew soon nicknamed her Polly. At the outbreak of the Second World War Politician came under Admiralty orders and was involved in the Atlantic convoys between the UK and US. Early February – 12 March 1941 In early February 1941 SS Politician left the Liverpool docks to travel to the north of Scotland, where she was to assemble with other ships to be convoyed across the Atlantic to the US and Caribbean. Captain Beaconsfield Worthington was the ship's master, overseeing a crew of 51. She carried a mixed cargo that included cotton, machetes, sweets, cutlery, bicycles, cigarettes, pineapple chunks and biscuits. In the fifth hold there were eight crates of Jamaican banknotes, comprising ten-shilling and one- and five-pound notes, to the value of £3 million; alongside the notes were 22,000 cases (264,000 bottles) of Scotch whisky of various brands. The whisky had been taken from bonded warehouses in Leith and Glasgow that had been damaged by German bombing, and was being shipped to the US to raise hard currency for the war effort; as an export product, none of the bottles bore an excise stamp. After leaving the River Mersey, Politician travelled through the Irish Sea, made her way past the Isle of Man, through the North Channel that separates Britain and Ireland, past Islay then to the west of the Skerryvore lighthouse and into the Sea of the Hebrides. In the vicinity of Eriskay, Politician ran aground on rocks at about 7:40 am on 4 February in bad weather and poor visibility. Sources differ on where Politician was grounded. The Canmore database run by the Historic Environment Scotland puts the event half way along the eastern cost of Eriskay; Roger Hutchinson's book on the story of the ship states it was on the rocks of Ru Melvick, a rock outcrop at the southernmost point of South Uist; the Merseyside Maritime Museum considers it was on "submerged rocks on the northern side of the island of Eriskay"; and Arthur Swinson's 1963 history places it just north of Calvay, a small uninhabited island at the north end of Eriskay. Eriskay is ; the population recorded on the island in the 1931 census was 420. Worthington attempted to free Politician from the rocks, but she would not move. The rocks had breached the hull and water began to flood the engine room and stokehold and break the vessel's propeller shaft. Worthington was concerned the heavy waves would soon break up the ship, so he ordered the crew to abandon ship. The radio operator sent two SOS messages; the first was "Abandoning ship. Making Water. Engine-room flooded"; the second, sent at 8:22 am stated the vessel was positioned "ashore south of Barra island, pounding heavily". One lifeboat was launched with 26 men on board. It was washed onto rocks close inshore to Rudha Dubh, an outcrop on South Uist. All survived, although one man was injured on the rocks. Lloyd's, the lifeboat from Barra, spent several hours searching the area south of the island in heavy mist before a report came in of Politician siren, which had been heard north of Eriskay. Lloyd's travelled to the area, by which time fishermen from Eriskay had boarded Politician. At Worthington's request they sailed to Rudha Dubh, collected those who had left earlier, and returned to the ship. The lifeboat reached Politician at about 4:00 pm, when Politician crew boarded the lifeboat and were taken to Eriskay. They spent the night there, billeted in small groups in the homes of the islanders; while staying on the island, the sailors told the islanders that Politician cargo contained whisky. The following morning, 6 February, Worthington and his first mate, R. A. Swaine, were taken back to Politician to view the damage and see if there was any chance of salvaging her. He found that someone had been on board overnight, as personal possessions of the crew had been taken. The vessel was in the same situation as the previous day, so they signalled the situation to T&J Harrison. Harrison's asked the Liverpool & Glasgow Salvage Association to assess Politician status. The chief salvage officer, Commander Kay, arrived at the stricken vessel on 8 February, and reported back that a salvage attempt was possible. The signal stated that there was of water in the main hold, in the engine room and in number five hold. Within days the salvage ship Ranger had arrived and of cargo were removed. As hold five was below the surface, and full of a mixture of seawater and oil, Kay did not attempt to salvage its contents. Local customs officers considered that some whisky had already made its way onto the islands, and asked Kay to put a guard on the ship at night-time. He refused, pointing out that with the rough seas it was dangerous for the man left behind, and it would be a waste of his time. There was evidence that islanders had been aboard during the nights: the crew's bonded stores—the food, drink and tobacco for consumption during the voyage—were all looted on 19 February. Some of Kay's salvors had managed to obtain whisky from the hold. When they returned to Glasgow on one trip, a search by customs men found several bottles, which they seized. On their second trip, the salvors dropped the whisky before entering port and had it picked up later. On 10 March representatives of HM Customs and Excise secured the hold with an excise seal to show no duty had been paid on the contents. On 12 March 1941 Kay and the salvage crew left the wreck of Politician. 12 March – early April 1941 In 1941 all wrecks came under the protection of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. Part IX, paragraph 536 of the Act covered "Interfering with wrecked vessel or wreck", and stated that: 1.) A person shall not without the leave of the master board any vessel which is wrecked, stranded, or in distress ... 2.) A person shall not: ... (c) wrongfully carry away or remove any part of a vessel stranded or in danger of being stranded, or otherwise in distress, on or near any coast or tidal water, or any part of the cargo or apparel thereof, or any wreck. The islanders took a different view of salvage and considered that they did not "steal" any cargo from local wrecks, but instead talked of "saving" or "rescuing" it from the sea. They knew Politician had been abandoned by the owners and the salvage crews; one islander later told Swinson "when the salvors quit a ship—she's ours". Once the salvage crew had left the Politician, islanders from across the Hebrides, as well as boats from Scotland's west coast, engaged in what Hutchinson calls the "wholesale rescuing" of the whisky. They were aided in navigating round the wreck by Angus John Campbell, a local man who had served as boatswain on Politician between the wars. Wartime rationing had led to shortages of the spirit, and what supplies were made available were increasingly expensive because of rising duty. For several nights, the islanders worked on hooking the crates out of the oil-and-seawater-filled hold; every night between 20 and 50 men were on the wreck working to remove the whisky. As the contents being raised were covered in oil, the men's clothes were soon covered, and many began to use their wives' dresses to cover their own clothes. Some of the men made only a few trips to Politician to get what they wanted—Campbell obtained 300 cases; others picked up between 20 and 80 cases a night, and one man with a larger boat is thought to have recovered more than 1,000 cases. When the men returned to their respective islands each night, they hid their spoils in a variety of places, in case the Excise men raided. Rabbit holes, piles of peat and creels placed under the sea and behind panels in homes were all used. Burying caches of whisky was also popular, but brought about a second problem; islanders who had not visited the wreck would watch where it was buried and dig it up as soon as the men left the burial site. One man put 46 cases in a small cave on an island off Barra as a reserve for when he ran out; when he returned only four were left. News of the islanders' removal of whisky from Politician was known early on. The local Customs and Excise officer, Charles McColl, commandeered a local boat on 15 March and, with the aid of Donald MacKenzie, a local constable, went out into Eriskay Sound—the stretch of water between Eriskay and South Uist—and intercepted two boats laden with cases of whisky. On landing, McColl walked along the coast and intercepted a third boat unloading whisky. The details of 18 men were taken down from the day's efforts. Two days later McColl and MacKenzie conducted searches of the crofts of those they had intercepted and seized thousands of items from Politician, but no whisky. Surmising that the whisky had been well hidden, he expanded his search and, on his own, searched other local crofts, but still found no whisky. His initial searches lasted until 22 March, when he thought the sea was too rough for the looters to visit the wreck, although they still did. McColl never visited the wreck at night time. When the weather cleared on 5 April, he tried to commandeer the boat again but it was unavailable. Instead he patrolled the coast of South Uist and apprehended one boat when it landed. He began searching the crofts of South Uist, but the residents had learned of his raids on Eriskay, and hidden their bounty carefully; there were stories of the police who assisted in the searches turning a blind eye where they could. No seizures were made on Barra, but local police heard of large-scale selling of the whisky on the island and arrested four men, whom they charged with theft. Early April – August 1941 On 9 April a second salvage boat arrived at Eriskay. While Kay and the Liverpool & Glasgow Salvage Association had been retained to salvage what they could, the scrap metal was of no concern to them. The second salvage company was British Iron & Steel Corporation (Salvage) Ltd (BISC). Their remit was to check Kay's conclusion about the inability to refloat Politician. If it could not be refloated, then it was planned to tow part of the superstructure to be reused. If that was still not possible, stripping the vessel of as much metal as possible was sometimes financially viable. The wreck of Thalia was nearby and known to contain iron ore, which made the salvage more lucrative for them. After two visits to Politician in early April, BISC considered that it was possible that the wreck could be refloated. McColl had visited the ship with the salvors, and was angered by that state of the vessel, which showed signs of having been extensively looted. He wrote to Ivan Gledhill—the local Customs surveyor and his direct superior—and told him "I should imagine that 300 cases have gone out of her. That, I believe, is a conservative estimate." He also told Gledhill that he intended to step up his search efforts, and ensure that as many of the malefactors from Eriskay and South Uist were sent to prison for as long as possible. Gledhill agreed with the strategy. He accompanied McColl as often as he could, although his territory was too large and his workload proportionally higher, so the visits were not as frequent as he would have liked. With the arrival of Captain Edward Lauretson and the salvage ship Assistance, BISC returned to Politician on 21 April. The salvage operation they conducted took several months, and involved divers descending into hold five to clear out the cargo. They removed 13,500 cases and three casks of whisky from the wreck, as well as stout and sherry. Several eyewitnesses later said the salvors helped themselves to whisky whenever they wanted, and would often return to their billets on Eriskay and South Uist with bottles to share with the islanders. A report from the salvors to the Salvage Association passed information that some of the Jamaican banknotes had been seen on Benbecula— from Politician. The organisation that provided the administration of British Crown colonies for the government, which included providing banknotes, was the Crown Agents; it was they who had arranged for the printing of the money by De La Rue, and who organised its shipping to the Caribbean. On hearing the news of the loss of the money, the Crown Agents thought that: The local police service is no doubt on a very small scale but the nature of the place and its surroundings should tend to reduce the chances of serious loss through the notes being presented and paid. Children on the islands were found playing with the notes, and within two months water-stained Jamaican notes were being exchanged in banks in Liverpool. The first court cases took place on 26 April; they involved four men arrested on Barra three days earlier when the police saw them unloading whisky and barrels of oil. Three of the men were fined £3 each; the other two had to pay £5. McColl and Gledhill applied pressure on the legal authorities, directly and through their superiors. McColl argued that the looters should be tried under the terms of the specialist Customs Consolidation Act 1876 or the Merchant Shipping Act 1894, both of which carried more punitive punishments than ordinary legislation for theft. McColl and Gledhill wrote reports to their superiors that accused the looters of vandalism on Politician and widescale black-marketeering of the stolen whisky, and claimed the local police were being bribed to ignore the situation. The journalists Adrian Turpin and Peter Day write that the outrage of the customs men should be taken "with a pinch of salt"; the organisation was in the midst of providing evidence for later prosecutions and was not neutral. McColl continued with his attempts to find the whisky. On 5 June he and Gledhill persuaded Edward Bootham White, the Customs officer based on Harris, to assist them; they were also provided with two police sergeants from the mainland to assist them. On 6 and 7 June they conducted intensive searches of crofts and farms on Eriskay and Uist. Hutchinson relates that the searches destroyed peat stacks, forced entry into people's homes and disrupted the innocent and guilty alike, "an unnecessary, disproportionately harsh harassment". Sources differ over the success of the raids: Swinson quotes Gledhill, who states that "wherever we went, we got tons of the stuff ... [At Lochboisdale, South Uist], it filled the cells, the police garage and the policeman's house. A lot of it had to be stacked outside". Hutchinson writes that the raids were "spectacularly unsuccessful", only two cases of whisky being found. Hutchinson also quotes Gledhill, who says "The ineffective result was due to the fact that on the first day the local inspector of police refused to continue the search after lunchtime". The police did not work on the Sunday (the 8th), and those on Eriskay spent the day hiding or moving goods to better locations, waiting for a resumption of the raids the following week. A storm blew up on Monday 9, so the mail boat could not carry McColl and his colleagues across, and by Tuesday the policemen had returned to the mainland to resume their normal duties. Between 10 and 13 June the trials took place of 32 men arrested for the theft from Politician. McColl gave evidence and stated that the men had stolen whisky from a vessel that was still seaworthy; the sheriff-substitute hearing the case accepted McColl's statement. One man was found not guilty, nine others were not proven—the Scottish legal verdict to acquit an individual but not declare them innocent—three were fined and 19 were incarcerated at Inverness Prison for terms ranging between 20 days and two months. McColl still thought the sentences were too lenient, and wrote to the interim procurator fiscal to complain; he also wrote to the Customs commissioners and said: In my opinion these few small sentences are quite inadequate to act as a general detriment to the population of these islands, who in my opinion will probably seize their next opportunity to further looting and damage. The night the prison sentences were handed down, a hole was made in the roof of the shared garage where McColl's car was parked; paraffin was poured in and set alight. McColl's car was only damaged in the event, but another was destroyed. According to the Customs men, they were subjected to threats of violence throughout their investigation; Bootham White reported to the commissioners in London that McColl should not be active in any further searches because of "threats and warning of bodily injury". On some of the raids by Gledhill and McColl, they seized boats that had been identified as being involved in visiting Politician; these were either through reports from informants, or because there was the ship's fuel oil on the boat. Those that were not seized at the time were painted with an arrow for seizure later. By the time the court cases had been heard, the customs men had amassed a considerable number of the vessels. Several islanders wrote to him asking for the boats to be returned, as the lobster fishing season was in progress, and they were unable to work; one man pointed out that his sons had used the boat against his wishes, and as one of the sons was in prison and the other fighting in North Africa, he wanted his boat back; one farmer whose boat had been used by local boys to visit the wreck needed his craft to tend 200 sheep and lambs grazing on a smaller island nearby, and was unable to access it without his vessel. All the requests were turned down by Gledhill, who instructed McColl to continue seizing any craft he thought were involved. September 1941 – August 1942 In September 1941 the whisky that had been salvaged by BISC was shipped to the mainland and put into locked railway carriages which had the excise seal placed on them. By the time the trains reached Kilmarnock on their way to the same bonded warehouses the cargo had left in January 1941, the customs seals had been broken, the doors unlocked and the cargo part looted. Relations between the police and Customs men became increasingly strained by late 1941, and Gledhill began to criticise the force in his reports back to London. He also wrote to William Fraser, the chief constable of Inverness-shire, to complain that customs were not being fully informed of all developments, nor of the total amount of whisky seized. Fraser began to become annoyed with correspondence between himself and Gledhill, and between himself and the customs commissioners in London. One of his ongoing requests was for the removal of the whisky from Lochboisdale police station, where it still occupied considerable space. He made progress only when he threatened to raise the matter with his Secretary of State, and it was agreed to remove it with the whisky that the salvors had raised from the wreck. Gledhill continued to push for stringent measures to be taken against those still awaiting trial. A permanent procurator fiscal, Donald Macmillan, had replaced his temporary predecessor, and Gledhill wrote to him to try and have the remaining cases heard under customs legislation. Macmillan told him to establish what the customs commissioners wanted, and at the end of October, Gledhill had been told by his superiors not to press for the punitive charges, but to allow charges of theft; he also asked to be kept informed of any further prosecutions involving four crofters who were found with stashes of whisky on their land. Macmillan wrote back that two of the cases had been dismissed by his predecessor and the remaining two defendants had gone to sea. Neither were prosecuted when they returned. The seized boats were eventually returned to their owners, but only after they had purchased them from the customs men. The BISC salvors spent over four months preparing Politician for refloating. They removed extraneous weight, patched the underwater holes, pumped compressed air into the hold, and waited until the weather conditions and tides were right. On 22 September 1941 they finished preparations and the ship was lifted off the rocks. BISC's site agent, Percy Holden, wanted to tow the ship the to Lochboisdale, where she could be beached to await the heavy tugs needed to tow her to the docks on the River Clyde, where she could be scrapped. The BISC's superintendent engineer on site refused to allow the towing to take place; he said that if there was bad weather on the route, or the sea was rough, then Politician could sink in deep water and never be recovered. The vessel was then towed to a point north of Calvay and beached on a sandbank; none of the men knew that the bank covered a rock. Politician settled, and broke her back, although no-one realised it until 25 October, when the heavy tugs came to move her to the mainland. All work on the vessel was halted over the winter months, to allow the poor weather to pass. The salvage divers had reported that number five hold still contained "one stack of probably about 2,000 cases of spirits and, on the bottom of the hold, a very large accumulation of loose paper, carton cases and loose bottles, both broken and unbroken". McColl was concerned about the possibility of more thefts from the ship and requested permission from his superiors to have the hold demolished by explosives; in his request he lied about the remaining cargo, and stated there were 3,000 to 4,000 cases, and thousands of loose bottles. He was given permission to proceed, and on 6 August, 16 sticks of gelignite were used to destroy number five hold and its contents. Swinson described the act as "the ultimate in stupidity, waste and vandalism, symbolising a mental attitude beyond ... [the islanders'] comprehension". Angus John Campbell commented "Dynamiting whisky. You wouldn't think there'd be men in the world so crazy as that!" There is no accurate figure for the number of bottles taken. McColl estimated that the islanders had taken about 2,000 cases (24,000 bottles). Swinson estimates 7,000 cases. Swinson bases his estimate on the interviews he made with islanders in the early 1960s; he spoke with men who had taken over 500 cases between them, and they were, Swinson records, only a few of the several hundred who visited the wreck. Holden returned with his salvage team in March 1942 to cut the stern—including number five hold—from the rest of Politician. Once the waterlogged hold had been removed, the remainder of the ship rose from the sandbank, at which point she was towed to Lochboisdale and then on to Rothesay. Within two weeks the main part of the ship had been turned to scrap; number five hold remained on the floor of Eriskay Sound. The salvors extracted £360,000 in Jamaican currency from number five hold and passed it to Gledhill. He sealed the money in boxes and sent it to the salvage agents via the local post office on South Uist. The notes were handed over to the Bank of England. Many had already been presented at banks for exchange. A Royal Air Force corporal changing Jamaican notes in Rothesay was arrested, but was acquitted after he proved he had recently returned from a posting in Jamaica; in November 1942 the foreman of the salvage operation was questioned by police: he had been giving away the notes as souvenirs. By 1958, 211,267 notes had been located; 2,329 more had been presented at banks in Ireland, Switzerland, Malta, the US and Jamaica, some of which had been paid into the banks by people unaware of the source of the money. About 76,400 banknotes remained lost. Legacy The islanders involved in removing the whisky were resentful of those who had provided information to the customs officials. There was also a bad feeling towards those who had sold the whisky they found; when interviewed by Swinson in the 1960s, islanders told him that most of those involved in looting the whisky either drank it, hid it for later, or gave it to friends and families. Opinions varied about those who had taken the hidden whisky caches of others. Some islanders thought it was not theirs to take in the first place, so it didn't matter who took it the second time; one man told Swinson "it was all part of the fun". Another man said that he didn't mind customs searching for it—that was their job, after all—but "what I did mind were the people who hadn't the courage to board the steamer ... they would watch where we buried the stuff and unearth it later on". Those islanders who were prosecuted were angered by what Hutchinson describes as "the perversion of natural justice, by the stain put on their characters and not least by the fact that each of them, members of possibly the most peaceable and law-abiding community on Britain, now had a criminal record". At the official inquiry into the sinking of Politician, Captain Worthington and First Mate Swain were cleared of all blame for her fate. Both returned to sea. Worthington captained SS Arica, which was sunk in November 1942 by U160; he survived the war and died in 1961. Swain commanded SS Custodian, another ship in the Harrison line, and survived the war. E. H. Mossman, Politician chief engineer, sailed on SS Barrister, which ran aground on rocks off the coast of Ireland in December 1942. According to Hutchinson, Mossman "is reputed to have commented 'we've done it again'." The writer Compton Mackenzie was a resident of Barra from 1933, and was aware of the events surrounding Politician. In 1947 he published a fictionalised humorous account under the title Whisky Galore; he set the story on two islands, Great Todday and Little Todday and developed the theme of "the right of small communities to self-determination in the face of larger, frequently ignorant, interfering forces", according to the historian Gavin Wallace. The book sold several million copies and was reprinted several times. Two factual books deal with the events surrounding Politician; in 1963 Arthur Swinson published Scotch on the Rocks: The True Story Behind Whisky Galore, which contained a foreword by Mackenzie, and in 1990 Roger Hutchinson wrote Polly: The True Story Behind Whisky Galore. In 1949 Mackenzie's novel became the source for a film of the same name produced by Ealing Studios; Mackenzie made a brief appearance as the captain of SS Cabinet Minister, the renamed ship that grounded itself on the rocks. The customs men were replaced with Captain Paul Waggett, an English officer of the Home Guard, who vainly seeks out the purloined whisky. The plot device of pitting a small group of British against a series of changes to the status quo from an external agent leads the British Film Institute to consider Whisky Galore!, along with other Ealing comedies, as "conservative, but 'mildly anarchic' daydreams, fantasies". A remake of the film was released in June 2016. In January 1991 the broadcaster Derek Cooper presented Distilling Whisky Galore!, an hour-long documentary on the Politician, the Ealing comedy film and attempts to salvage any remaining cargo. Because of the loss of the Jamaican notes, and the number that were being cashed in banks, from 1 July 1952 the blue ten-shilling notes were no longer accepted as legal tender. They were replaced with notes of the same design, but printed in purple on a light orange background. As at 2019, one of the notes from the wreck hangs over the bar of the , Eriskay's only pub, which was named after the SS Politician. It was the practice of some Eriskay residents to hide their empty bottles from Politician on Eriskay's interior for fear of incriminating themselves. Many of these were filled with sand from the local beach and turned into lamp bases before being sold in Edinburgh; the provenance was particularly interesting to American tourists who had seen the Ealing film. Several full bottles of whisky were found on the island when locations had been forgotten by those who buried them; sand dunes that changed shape with the wind or a new thatch roof being installed often uncovered a hidden cache. In 1991 one man who moved to Eriskay found four bottles under the floor of the croft he had purchased; he then found two bottles buried in the ground outside. Several bottles have been raised from the wreck by divers. In 1987 a diving expedition brought up eight bottles, described as being "in perfect condition", and in 1989 the Glasgow-based company SS Politician Plc was formed to raise £500,000 for a salvage operation to locate any further bottles on the wreck. The salvage operation took place during the calm weather of the summer months of 1990, but in the first storm at the end of the summer the rig secured over the wreck site was blown off its moorings and the salvage operation was cancelled. The operation uncovered 24 bottles. A blended whisky, SS Politician, containing a small amount of the whisky they had raised was produced, but did not sell well and the company went into liquidation. A separate brand of whisky has been released under the name SS Politician, although this has no connection with the first brand or the whisky from the ship. The various finds of whisky—whether found on land or raised from the wreck—have been placed at auction. Notes and references Notes References Sources Books Newspapers Internet Journals Other External links Online display at the Merseyside Maritime Museum Cargo ships of the United Kingdom World War II shipwrecks in the Atlantic Ocean Maritime incidents in February 1941 1941 in Scotland Looting History of the Outer Hebrides
4802957	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General%20Federation%20of%20Women%27s%20Clubs	General Federation of Women's Clubs	The General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC), founded in 1890 during the Progressive Movement, is a federation of over 3,000 women's clubs in the United States which promote civic improvements through volunteer service. Many of its activities and service projects are done independently by local clubs through their communities or GFWC's national partnerships. GFWC maintains nearly 70,000 members throughout the United States and internationally. GFWC remains one of the world's largest and oldest nonpartisan, nondenominational, women's volunteer service organizations. The GFWC headquarters is located in Washington, D.C. History The GFWC was founded by Jane Cunningham Croly, a leading New York journalist. In 1868 she helped found the Sorosis club for professional women. It was the model for the nationwide GFWC in 1890. In 1889, Croly organized a conference in New York that brought together delegates from 61 women's clubs. The women formed a permanent organization in 1890 with Charlotte Emerson Brown as its first president. In 1901 it was granted a charter by Congress. Dietz proclaimed, "We look for unity, but unity in diversity" and that became the GFWC motto. Southern white women played a central role in the early years. Local women's clubs initially joined the General Federation directly but later came into membership through state federations that began forming in 1892. The GFWC also counts international clubs among its members. In 1900, the GFWC met in Milwaukee, and Josephine Ruffin, a black journalist, tried to attend as a representative of three Boston organizations – the New Era Club, the New England Woman's Club and the New England Woman's Press Club. Southern women led by president Rebecca Douglas Lowe, a Georgia native, told Ruffin that she could be seated as an honorary representative of the two white clubs but would not seat a black club. She refused on principle and was excluded from the proceedings. These events became known as "The Ruffin Incident" and were widely covered in newspapers around the country, most of whom supported Ruffin. In a time when women's rights were limited, the state federation chapters held grassroots efforts to make sure the woman's voice was heard. Through monthly group meetings to annual charter meetings, women of influential status within their communities could have their feelings heard. They were able to meet with state officials in order to have a say in community events. Until the right to vote was granted, these women's clubs were the best outlet for women to be heard and taken seriously. Women's clubs spread very rapidly after 1890, taking up some of the slack left by the decline of the WCTU and the temperance movement. Local clubs at first were mostly reading groups focused on literature, but increasingly became civic improvement organizations of middle-class women meeting in each other's homes weekly. The clubs avoided controversial issues that would divide the membership, especially religion and the prohibition issue. In the south and east, suffrage was also highly divisive, while there was little resistance to it among clubwomen in the west. In the midwest, clubwomen first avoided the suffrage issue out of caution, but after 1900 increasingly came to support it. Representative activities Historian Paige Meltzer puts the GFWC in the context of the Progressive Movement, arguing that its policies: Kansas was a representative state, as the women's clubs joined with local chapters of the WCTU and other organizations to deal with social issues. The clubs continued to feature discussions of current literature, culture, and civic events, but they also broadened to include public schools, local parks, sanitation, prostitution, and protection of children. Paula Watson has shown that across the country the clubs supported the local Carnegie public library, as well as traveling libraries for rural areas. They promoted state legislation to fund and support libraries, especially to form library extension programs. GFWC affiliates worked with the American Library Association, state library associations, and state library commissions and gave critical support to library education programs at the universities. Many clubs were especially concerned with uplifting the neglected status of American Indians. They brought John Collier into the forefront of the debate when they appointed him the research agent for the Indian Welfare Committee in 1922. The GFWC took a leadership role in opposing assimilation policies, supporting the return of Indian lands, and promoting more religious and economic independence. For example, southwestern clubs help support the Museum of Northern Arizona (MNA) and became advocates and consumers for authentic Native American arts and crafts. Even more important, in western states, GFWC affiliates cooperated with Collier when he served (1933–45) as the New Deal's Commissioner for Indian affairs in his campaign to reverse federal policies designed to assimilate Indians into the national culture. In May 1925 Edith Brake West conducted a survey of county organizations which was recognized by the National Federation of Women's Clubs. For the first time in the history of federated clubs, the accomplishments and the organization of these bodies were set forth. The membership peaked at 850,000 in 16,000 clubs in 1955, and has declined to about 70,000 in the 21st century as middle-class women moved into the public mainstream. During the Cold War era, the GFWC promoted the theme that American women had a unique ability to preserve world peace while strengthening the nation internally through local, national, and international community activism. The remaining 70,000 members are older now, and have less influence in national affairs. The affiliated clubs in every state and more than a dozen countries work locally "to support the arts, preserve natural resources, advance education, promote healthy lifestyles, encourage civic involvement, and work toward world peace and understanding". In 2009, GFWC members raised over $39 million on behalf of more than 110,000 projects, and volunteered more than 4.1 million hours in the communities where they live and work. Notable clubwomen Annette Abbott Adams, chairman of Legislation, California Fed. of Women's Clubs Jane Addams (1860–1935) Effie Adelaide Payne Austin, State Trustee of the California Federation of Women's Clubs Edith Vosburgh Alvord (1875–1962) Helen Bagg, for several years served as chairman of Literature for Illinois Fed. of Women's Clubs Mrs. L. Dow Balliett (1847-1929), helped select the organization's "little blue pin" Alice Barnett, Southern District chairman, California Fed. of Women's Clubs, for Motion Pictures; local chairman of Motion Pictures; president of San Bernardino Women's Club Annie Little Barry, Served for many years as State Parliamentarian of the California Fed. of Women's Clubs Mary Lathrop Benton, Fed. of Women's Clubs Mariana Bertola, General Federation Director and President of the California Federation of Women's Clubs Edythe Mitchell Bissell, President, San Luis Obispo County Fed. of Women's Clubs Fannie Jean Black, chairman of the Press Department of the California Federation of Women's clubs C. Louise Boehringer, Arizona Federation Harriet Bossnot, first vicepresident of the Montana Federation of Women's Clubs Leah Belle Kepner Boyce, Press Chairman of California Federation of Women's Clubs, Member Western Federation of Women's Clubs Esto Bates Broughton, State chairman of California Fed. of Women's Clubs Clementine Cordelia Berry Buchwalter (1843–1912) Dorothea Dutcher Buck (1887–1986), president of the GFWC 1947-1950 Clara Bradley Burdette, First president of California Federation of Women's Clubs Nellie T. Bush, member of State Legislative Commission, Federation of Women's Clubs Mary Ryerson Butin, district chairman of Public Welfare, for California Federation of Women's Clubs Grace Richardson Butterfield, President, City and County Fed. of Women's Clubs of San Francisco, State and District chairman of Junior membership, California Fed. of Women's Clubs Vera McKenna Clayton, Santa Cruz Woman's Club R. Belle Colver, Woman's Club of Spokane Ione Virginia Hill Cowles (1858-1940), eighth president, GFWC; president, California Fed. Women's Clubs Inez Mabel Crawford, First president of Ottawa Federation of Women's Clubs Jane Cunningham Croly (1829–1901) Katherine Davis Cumberson, member of State Executive Board, California Fed. Women's Clubs, for 6 years chairman of its Committee of International Relations, founder and honorary president Lake County Fed. Women's Clubs Ellen Curtis Demorest (1824–1898) Nina F. Diefenbach, Ventura County Fed. of Women's Clubs Sophia Julia Coleman Douglas, founder and first president of the Federation of Women's Clubs for Oklahoma and Indian Territories (1898) Saidie Orr Dunbar, Oregon State and National Organization of Women's Clubs, elected President of the (National) General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC) in 1938 Mary Elizabeth Downey (1872–1949) Freda Ehmann, Active in Women's Clubs affairs Augusta Louise Eraser, president, San Diego County Federation of Women's Clubs Oda Faulconer, State Chairman of American Citizenship of the California Federation of Women's Clubs Harrye R. P. Smith Forbes, For twelve years was State or District Chairman of California History and Landmarks Dept. for California Fed. of Women's Clubs Abigail Keasey Frankel, President of the State Federation of Women's Clubs. She was member of the Board of the Missouri Federation of Women's Clubs and President of the 8th District of the Missouri Federation. She was the President of the Portland Woman's Club and the chairman of the finance of the Woman's Building association Lizzie Crozier French (1851–1926) Laura E. Frenger, organized the State (New Mexico) Federation of Women's Clubs Thora B. Gardiner, President of the Oregon City Women's Club Anna Boley Garner, served 6 years on State Board of Fed. of Women's Clubs Mary E. Gartin, President of Stanislaus County Fed. of Women's Clubs; for 3 years president of Modesto Woman's Club Mabel Barnett Gates, in 1915 Gates represented Ebell Club at the 14th annual California Federation of Women's Club in San Francisco Dale Pickett Gay, President of Wyoming Federation of Women's Clubs and she was active in all club work Esther Rainbolt Goodrich, served in many offices in California Fed. of Women's Clubs Annie Sawyer Green, President, California Fed. of Women's Clubs, Has held several high offices in Federation of Women's Clubs Harriet A. Haas, On Speakers' Bureau of County Fed. of Women's Clubs and Community Chest Sharlot Mabridth Hall, Women's Clubs of Arizona Ceil Doyle Hamilton, president of City and County Fed. of Women's Clubs of San Francisco Susie Prentice Hartzell, secretary of San Joaquin Valley District Federation of Women's Clubs Fanny G. Hazlett, in 1932 was presented with a certificate by the General Federation of Women's Club for being the oldest American born mother in the state of Nevada Maude B. Helmond, For six years was Child Welfare Chairman for Federated Women's Clubs of Alameda District during which time she was instrumental in establishing Well Baby Clinics in the schools Una B. Herrick, Member Ada Waite Hildreth, San Diego County and Southern District Chairman, Indian welfare, California Fed. of Women's Clubs, Second Vice-President, San Diego County Fed. of Women's Clubs Etha Izora Dawley Holden, From 1925–27, auditor of California Federation of Women's Clubs Dorothy D. Houghton (1890–1972) Julia Ward Howe (1819–1910) Grace Youmans Hudson, Chairman of Community Service, Los Angeles District, California Fed. of Women's Clubs, Member Women's Club of South Pasadena Jane Denio Hutchison, president of Tri County Fed. of Women's Clubs, Auditor, Northern District Fed. of Women's Clubs Vernettie O. Ivy, president, Central Arizona District Fed. of Women's Clubs Christine A. Jacobsen, Council of International Relations, California Fed. of Women's Clubs Lotta Hetler James, chairman Child Welfare, San Joaquin Valley and State Fed. Women's Clubs, chairman, Resolution Committee, State Fed. Women's Clubs Kate Wetzel Jameson, member May Mann Jennings (1872–1963) Hope Pyburn Johnson, for two terms District chairman, Public Health, California Fed. Women's Clubs Antoinette Kinney, founder and first president of the Utah Federation of Women's Clubs Edith O. Kitt, Tucson Woman's Club (president), Southern Arizona District Federation Women's Clubs (president), Arizona State Federation Women's Clubs (president) Nannie S. Brown Kramer, organizer, vice-president and chairman of the Oakland Women's City Club; this club had three thousand members and erected a new building which cost $600,000.00 Bertha Ethel Knight Landes (1868–1943) Julia Lathrop (1858–1932) Jeanette Lawrence, State Chairman of Literature of the California Federation of Women's Clubs Nancy A. Leatherwood, president of Utah Federation of Women's Clubs and Director for Utah of the General Federation of Women's Clubs Mab Copland Lineman, State Chairman of Law for the Business and Insurance California Federation of Women's Clubs Georgina G. Marriott, Utah Federation Edith Bolte MacCracken, president of the District Federation of Women's Clubs Laura Adrienne MacDonald, president of Tonopah Woman's Club Olive Dickerson McHugh, President of the Federated Woman's Club of Mullen Ruth Karr McKee, Washington State Federarion of Women's Clubs and Director of the General Federation Jane Brunson Marks, served as Philanthropic Chairman of Woman's Club of Burbank and was the President of Woman's Club of Burbank from 1927 to 1928 and reelected from 1928 to 1929 Maybelle Stephens Mitchell (1872–1919), served in the Atlanta Woman's Club Eva Perry Moore (1852–1931) Evelyn Williams Moulton, president of the Wilshire Woman's Club and the Dean Club of Southern California Jacqueline Noel, served as chairperson to the Division of Literature at the Washington State Federation of Women's Clubs Virginia Keating Orton, vice-president of Washington State Federation of Women's Clubs Fanny Purdy Palmer (1839–1923), one of the originators of the General Federation of Women's Clubs Fannie Brown Patrick, president of the State Federation of Women's Clubs of Nevada Mary Gray Peck, chair, Drama Sub-Committee of the Committee on Literature and Library Extension in the General Federation. Phebe Nebeker Peterson, vice-president of the State Federation of Women's Clubs Grace Gimmini Potts, chairman of Literature and Drama for the California Federation of Women's Clubs Lois Randolph, State Chairman of Americanization under the New Mexico Federation of Women's Clubs Edith Dolan Riley, chair of the Motion Picture Committee of the Washington State Federation of Women's Clubs Lallah Rookh White Rockwell, member of the State Federation of Women's Clubs Eleanor Roosevelt (1884–1962) Margaret Wheeler Ross, president Arizona Fed. Women's Clubs Nellie Tayloe Ross (1876–1977) Fannie Forbis Russel, one of the pioneer women of the state of Montana, was active in organizing and building the local Woman's Club Julia Green Scott (1839–1923), president of the Daughters of the American Revolution Mary Belle King Sherman (1862–1935) Margaret Chase Smith (1897–1995) Mary Jane Spurlin, president of the Portland Federation of Women's Clubs Helen Norton Stevens, editor of the official bulletin of the Washington State Federation of Women's Clubs and chairman of Civic Department of the Seattle Woman's Club Emily Jean Crimson Thatcher, president of the U. A. C. Woman's Club Frances F. Threadgill, first president of the Oklahoma State Federation of Women's Clubs (1909), Treasurer GFWC (1910–1912) Catherine E. Van Valkenburg, State Chairman of Music of the Idaho Federation of Women's Clubs Edith Brake West, From 1911 to 1914, president of the Nevada Federation of Women's Clubs, and from 1918 to 1920 she was director from Nevada of the General Federation of Women's Clubs. She was vice-chairman of the Junior Memberships of the General Federation of Women's Clubs. She was the life secretary of the Presidents of 1912 of the General Federation of Women's Clubs. She compiled a collection of Nevada Poems for the Nevada Federation of Women's Clubs Laura Lyon White (1839–1916) Gertrude B. Wilder, president of the San Bernardino County Federation of Women's Clubs Frances Willard (1839–1898) Jane Frances Winn, one of the founders of the Century Club in Chillicothe, Ohio Alice Ames Winter, national president of the GFWC Belle Wood-Comstock, chairman of Public Health at the Los Angeles District of California Federation of Women's Clubs Orpha Woods Foster, president of the Ventura County Federation of Women's Clubs Ellen S. Woodward (1887–1971) Valeria Brinton Young, member of the Executive Board of the State Federation of Women's Clubs Zitkála-Šá (1876–1938), also known as Gertrude Simmons Bonnin. A Yankton Dakota writer, editor, translator, musician, educator, and political activist, she joined the GFWC in 1921, was active in its women's rights efforts, and created the Indian Welfare Committee in 1924. She co-founded the National Council of American Indians in 1926. See also Anchorage Woman's Club Casa Grande Woman's Club Federation of Women's Clubs for Oklahoma and Indian Territories General Federation of Women's Clubs of South Carolina Glendale Woman's Club Mississippi Federation of Women's Clubs National Association of Colored Women's Clubs Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution Ossoli Circle Women's club movement Woman's Club of Olympia Women's Institute Women-only space References Further reading Blair, Karen J. "General Federation of Women's Clubs," in Wilma Mankiller et al. eds., The Readers Companion to U.S. Women's History (1998) p 242 Houde, Mary Jean. Reaching Out: A Story of the General Federation of Women's Clubs (Washington, DC: General Federation of Women's Clubs, 1989). Meltzer, Paige. "The Pulse and Conscience of America" The General Federation and Women's Citizenship, 1945–1960," Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies (2009), Vol. 30 Issue 3, p52-76. online White, Kristin Kate, "Training a Nation: The General Federation of Women's Clubs' Rhetorical Education and American Citizenship, 1890–1930" (PhD dissertation, Ohio State University, 2010). DA3429649. External links General Federation of Women's Clubs Members GFWC Atlanta Woman's Club GFWC California GFWC Connecticut GFWC Florida GFWC Georgia GFWC Iowa GFWC Kentucky GFWC Maryland GFWC Massachusetts GFWC Mississippi GFWC New Hampshire GFWC New Jersey GFWC New York GFWC North Carolina GFWC Ohio GFWC Pennsylvania GFWC Rhode Island GFWC South Carolina GFWC Texas GFWC Virginia Organizations established in 1890 Service organizations based in the United States History of women's rights in the United States Feminist organizations in the United States Women's organizations based in the United States Women's clubs in the United States Patriotic and national organizations chartered by the United States Congress
4802982	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballets%20Russes	Ballets Russes	The Ballets Russes () was an itinerant ballet company begun in Paris that performed between 1909 and 1929 throughout Europe and on tours to North and South America. The company never performed in Russia, where the Revolution disrupted society. After its initial Paris season, the company had no formal ties there. Originally conceived by impresario Sergei Diaghilev, the Ballets Russes is widely regarded as the most influential ballet company of the 20th century, in part because it promoted ground-breaking artistic collaborations among young choreographers, composers, designers, and dancers, all at the forefront of their several fields. Diaghilev commissioned works from composers such as Igor Stravinsky, Claude Debussy, Sergei Prokofiev, Erik Satie, and Maurice Ravel, artists such as Vasily Kandinsky, Alexandre Benois, Pablo Picasso, and Henri Matisse, and costume designers Léon Bakst and Coco Chanel. The company's productions created a huge sensation, completely reinvigorating the art of performing dance, bringing many visual artists to public attention, and significantly affecting the course of musical composition. It also introduced European and American audiences to tales, music, and design motifs drawn from Russian folklore. The company's employment of European avant-garde art went on to influence broader artistic and popular culture of the early twentieth century, not least the development of Art Deco. Nomenclature The French plural form of the name, Ballets Russes, specifically refers to the company founded by Sergei Diaghilev and active during his lifetime. (In some publicity the company was advertised as Les Ballets Russes de Serge Diaghileff.) In English, the company is now commonly referred to as "the Ballets Russes", although in the early part of the 20th century, it was sometimes referred to as “The Russian Ballet" or "Diaghilev's Russian Ballet." To add to the confusion, some publicity material spelled the name in the singular. The names Ballet Russe de Monte-Carlo and the Original Ballet Russe (using the singular) refer to companies that formed after Diaghilev's death in 1929. History and productions Background Sergei Diaghilev, the company's impresario (or "artistic director" in modern terms), was chiefly responsible for its success. He was uniquely prepared for the role; born into a wealthy Russian family of vodka distillers (though they went bankrupt when he was 18), he was accustomed to moving in the upper-class circles that provided the company's patrons and benefactors. In 1890, he enrolled at the Faculty of Law, St. Petersburg, to prepare for a career in the civil service like many Russian young men of his class. There he was introduced (through his cousin Dmitry Filosofov) to a student clique of artists and intellectuals calling themselves The Nevsky Pickwickians whose most influential member was Alexandre Benois; others included Léon Bakst, Walter Nouvel, and Konstantin Somov. From childhood, Diaghilev had been passionately interested in music. However, his ambition to become a composer was dashed in 1894 when Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov told him he had no talent. In 1898, several members of The Pickwickians founded the journal Mir iskusstva (World of Art) under the editorship of Diaghilev. As early as 1902, Mir iskusstva included reviews of concerts, operas, and ballets in Russia. The latter were chiefly written by Benois, who exerted considerable influence on Diaghilev's thinking. Mir iskusstva also sponsored exhibitions of Russian art in St. Petersburg, culminating in Diaghilev's important 1905 show of Russian portraiture at the Tauride Palace. Frustrated by the extreme conservatism of the Russian art world, Diaghilev organized the groundbreaking Exhibition of Russian Art at the Petit Palais in Paris in 1906, the first major showing of Russian art in the West. Its enormous success created a Parisian fascination with all things Russian. Diaghilev organized a 1907 season of Russian music at the Paris Opéra. In 1908, Diaghilev returned to the Paris Opéra with six performances of Modest Mussorgsky's opera Boris Godunov, starring basso Fyodor Chaliapin. This was Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's 1908 version (with additional cuts and re-arrangement of the scenes). The performances were a sensation, though the costs of producing grand opera were crippling. Debut In 1909, Diaghilev presented his first Paris "Saison Russe" devoted exclusively to ballet (although the company did not use the name "Ballets Russes" until the following year). Most of this original company were resident performers at the Imperial Ballet of Saint Petersburg, hired by Diaghilev to perform in Paris during the Imperial Ballet's summer holidays. The first season's repertory featured a variety of works chiefly choreographed by Michel Fokine, including Le Pavillon d'Armide, the Polovtsian Dances (from Prince Igor), Les Sylphides, and Cléopâtre. The season also included Le Festin, a pastiche set by several choreographers (including Fokine) to music by several Russian composers. Principal productions The principal productions are shown in the table below. Successors When Sergei Diaghilev died of diabetes in Venice on 19 August 1929, the Ballets Russes was left with substantial debts. As the Great Depression began, its property was claimed by its creditors and the company of dancers dispersed. In 1931, Colonel Wassily de Basil (a Russian émigré entrepreneur from Paris) and René Blum (ballet director at the Monte Carlo Opera) founded the Ballets Russes de Monte-Carlo, giving its first performances there in 1932. Diaghilev alumni Léonide Massine and George Balanchine worked as choreographers with the company and Tamara Toumanova was a principal dancer. Artistic differences led to a split between Blum and de Basil, after which de Basil renamed his company initially "Ballets Russes de Colonel W. de Basil". Blum retained the name "Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo", while de Basil created a new company. In 1938, he called it "The Covent Garden Russian Ballet" and then renamed it the "Original Ballet Russe" in 1939. After World War II began, the Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo left Europe and toured extensively in the United States and South America. As dancers retired and left the company, they often founded dance studios in the United States or South America or taught at other former company dancers' studios. With Balanchine's founding of the School of American Ballet, and later the New York City Ballet, many outstanding former Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo dancers went to New York to teach in his school. When they toured the United States, Cyd Charisse, the film actress and dancer, was taken into the cast. The Original Ballet Russe toured mostly in Europe. Its alumni were influential in teaching classical Russian ballet technique in European schools. The successor companies were the subject of the 2005 documentary film Ballets Russes. The dancers The Ballets Russes was noted for the high standard of its dancers, most of whom had been classically trained at the great Imperial schools in Moscow and St. Petersburg. Their high technical standards contributed a great deal to the company's success in Paris, where dance technique had declined markedly since the 1830s. Principal female dancers included: Anna Pavlova, Tamara Karsavina, Olga Spessivtseva, Mathilde Kschessinska, Ida Rubinstein, Bronislava Nijinska, Lydia Lopokova, Sophie Pflanz, and Alicia Markova, among others; many earned international renown with the company, including Ekaterina Galanta and Valentina Kachouba. Prima ballerina Xenia Makletzova was dismissed from the company in 1916 and sued by Diaghilev; she countersued for breach of contract, and won $4500 in a Massachusetts court. The Ballets Russes was even more remarkable for raising the status of the male dancer, largely ignored by choreographers and ballet audiences since the early 19th century. Among the male dancers were Michel Fokine, Serge Lifar, Léonide Massine, Anton Dolin, George Balanchine, Valentin Zeglovsky, Theodore Kosloff, Adolph Bolm, and the legendary Vaslav Nijinsky, considered the most popular and talented dancer in the company's history. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, in later years, younger dancers were taken from those trained in Paris by former Imperial dancers, within the large community of Russian exiles. Recruits were even accepted from America and included a young Ruth Page who joined the troupe in Monte Carlo during 1925. Choreographers The company featured and premiered now-famous (and sometimes notorious) works by the great choreographers Marius Petipa and Michel Fokine, as well as new works by Vaslav Nijinsky, Bronislava Nijinska, Léonide Massine, and the young George Balanchine at the start of his career. Michel Fokine The choreography of Michel Fokine was of paramount importance in the initial success of the Ballets Russes. Fokine had graduated from the Imperial Ballet School in Saint Petersburg in 1898, and eventually become First Soloist at the Mariinsky Theater. In 1907, Fokine choreographed his first work for the Imperial Russian Ballet, Le Pavillon d'Armide. In the same year, he created Chopiniana to piano music by the composer Frédéric Chopin as orchestrated by Alexander Glazunov. This was an early example of creating choreography to an existing score rather than to music specifically written for the ballet, a departure from the normal practice at the time. Fokine established an international reputation with his works choreographed during the first four seasons (1909–1912) of the Ballets Russes. These included the Polovtsian Dances (from Prince Igor), Le Pavillon d'Armide (a revival of his 1907 production for the Imperial Russian Ballet), Les Sylphides (a reworking of his earlier Chopiniana), The Firebird, Le Spectre de la Rose, Petrushka, and Daphnis and Chloé . After a longstanding tumultuous relationship with Diaghilev, Fokine left the Ballets Russes at the end of the 1912 season. Vaslav Nijinsky Vaslav Nijinsky had attended the Imperial Ballet School, St. Petersburg since the age of eight. He graduated in 1907 and joined the Imperial Ballet where he immediately began to take starring roles. Diaghilev invited him to join the Ballets Russes for its first Paris season. In 1912, Diaghilev gave Nijinsky his first opportunity as a choreographer, for his production of L'Après-midi d'un faune to Claude Debussy's symphonic poem Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune. Featuring Nijinsky himself as the Faun, the ballet's frankly erotic nature caused a sensation. The following year, Nijinsky choreographed a new work by Debussy composed expressly for the Ballets Russes, Jeux. Indifferently received by the public, Jeux was eclipsed two weeks later by the premiere of Igor Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring (Le Sacre du printemps), also choreographed by Nijinsky. Nijinsky eventually retired from dance and choreography, after he was diagnosed with schizophrenia in 1919. Léonide Massine Léonide Massine was born in Moscow, where he studied both acting and dancing at the Imperial School. On the verge of becoming an actor, Massine was invited by Sergei Diaghilev to join the Ballets Russes, as he was seeking a replacement for Vaslav Nijinsky. Diaghilev encouraged Massine's creativity and his entry into choreography. Massine's most famous creations for the Ballets Russes were Parade, El sombrero de tres picos, and Pulcinella. In all three of these works, he collaborated with Pablo Picasso, who designed the sets and costumes. Massine extended Fokine's choreographic innovations, especially those relating to narrative and character. His ballets incorporated both folk dance and demi-charactère dance, a style using classical technique to perform character dance. Massine created contrasts in his choreography, such as synchronized yet individual movement, or small-group dance patterns within the corps de ballet. Bronislava Nijinska Bronislava Nijinska was the younger sister of Vaslav Nijinsky. She trained at the Imperial Ballet School in St. Petersburg, joining the Imperial Ballet company in 1908. From 1909, she (like her brother) was a member of Diaghilev's Ballets Russes. In 1915, Nijinska and her husband fled to Kiev to escape World War I. There, she founded the École de movement, where she trained Ukrainian artists in modern dance. Her most prominent pupil was Serge Lifar (who later joined the Ballets Russes in 1923). Following the Russian Revolution, Nijinska fled again to Poland, and then, in 1921, re-joined the Ballets Russes in Paris. In 1923, Diaghilev assigned her the choreography of Stravinsky's Les Noces. The result combines elements of her brother's choreography for The Rite of Spring with more traditional aspects of ballet, such as dancing en pointe. The following year, she choreographed three new works for the company: Les biches, Les Fâcheux, and Le train bleu. George Balanchine Born Giorgi Melitonovitch Balanchivadze in Saint Petersburg, George Balanchine was trained at the Imperial School of Ballet. His education there was interrupted by the Russian Revolution of 1917. Balanchine graduated in 1921, after the school reopened. He subsequently studied music theory, composition, and advanced piano at the Petrograd Conservatory, graduating in 1923. During this time, he worked with the corps de ballet of the Mariinsky Theater. In 1924, Balanchine (and his first wife, ballerina Tamara Geva) fled to Paris while on tour of Germany with the Soviet State Dancers. He was invited by Sergei Diaghilev to join the Ballets Russes as a choreographer. The designers Diaghilev invited the collaboration of contemporary fine artists in the design of sets and costumes. These included Alexandre Benois, Léon Bakst, Nicholas Roerich, Georges Braque, Natalia Goncharova, Mikhail Larionov, Pablo Picasso, Coco Chanel, Henri Matisse, André Derain, Joan Miró, Giorgio de Chirico, Salvador Dalí, Ivan Bilibin, Pavel Tchelitchev, Maurice Utrillo, and Georges Rouault. Their designs contributed to the groundbreaking excitement of the company's productions. The scandal caused by the premiere performance in Paris of Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring has been partly attributed to the provocative aesthetic of the costumes of the Ballets Russes. While they created amazing works most of the designers were not trained in theater but started out as studio painters. Alexandre Benois Alexandre Benois had been the most influential member of The Nevsky Pickwickians and was one of the original founders (with Bakst and Diaghilev) of Mir iskusstva. His particular interest in ballet as an art form strongly influenced Diaghilev and was seminal in the formation of the Ballets Russes. Benois was also focused on historical accuracy and had an extensive knowledge of fashion history. In addition, Benois contributed scenic and costume designs to several of the company's earlier productions: Le Pavillon d'Armide, portions of Le Festin, and Giselle. Benois also participated with Igor Stravinsky and Michel Fokine in the creation of Petrushka, to which he contributed much of the scenario as well as the stage sets and costumes. Léon Bakst Léon Bakst was also an original member of both The Nevsky Pickwickians and Mir iskusstva. “He regarded the nude body as an aesthetic totality whose artistry had been forgotten under the weight of nineteenth century social and theatrical dress".” He participated as designer in productions of the Ballets Russes from its beginning in 1909 until 1921, creating sets and costumes for Scheherazade, The Firebird, Les Orientales, Le Spectre de la rose, L'Après-midi d'une faune, and Daphnis et Chloé, among other productions. Pablo Picasso In 1917, Pablo Picasso designed sets and costumes in the Cubist style for three Diaghilev ballets, all with choreography by Léonide Massine: Parade, El sombrero de tres picos, and Pulcinella. Natalia Goncharova Natalia Goncharova was born in 1881 near Tula, Russia. Her art was inspired by Russian folk art, Fauvism, and cubism. She began designing for the Ballets Russes in 1921. Although the Ballets Russes firmly established the 20th-century tradition of fine art theatre design, the company was not unique in its employment of fine artists. For instance, Savva Mamontov's Private Opera Company had made a policy of employing fine artists, such as Konstantin Korovin and Golovin, who went on to work for the Ballets Russes. Composers and conductors For his new productions, Diaghilev commissioned the foremost composers of the 20th century, including: Debussy, Milhaud, Poulenc, Prokofiev, Ravel, Satie, Respighi, Stravinsky, de Falla, and Strauss. He was also responsible for commissioning the first two significant British-composed ballets: Romeo and Juliet (composed in 1925 by nineteen-year-old Constant Lambert) and The Triumph of Neptune (composed in 1926 by Lord Berners). The impresario also engaged conductors who were or became eminent in their field during the 20th century, including Pierre Monteux (1911–16 and 1924), Ernest Ansermet (1915–23), Edward Clark (1919–20) and Roger Désormière (1925–29). Igor Stravinsky Diaghilev hired the young Stravinsky at a time when he was virtually unknown to compose the music for The Firebird, after the composer Anatoly Lyadov proved unreliable, and this was instrumental in launching Stravinsky's career in Europe and the United States of America. Stravinsky's early ballet scores were the subject of much discussion. The Firebird (1910) was seen as an astonishingly accomplished work for such a young artist (Debussy is said to have remarked drily: "Well, you've got to start somewhere!"). Many contemporary audiences found Petrushka (1911) to be almost unbearably dissonant and confused. The Rite of Spring (1913) nearly caused an audience riot. It stunned people because of its willful rhythms and aggressive dynamics. The audience's negative reaction to it is now regarded as a theatrical scandal as notorious as the failed runs of Richard Wagner's Tannhäuser at Paris in 1861 and Jean-Georges Noverre's Les Fêtes Chinoises in London on the eve of the Seven Years' War. However, Stravinsky's early ballet scores are now widely considered masterpieces of the genre. Film of a performance Diaghilev always maintained that no camera could ever do justice to the artistry of his dancers, and it was long believed there was no film legacy of the Ballets Russes. However, in 2011 a 30-second newsreel film of a performance in Montreux, Switzerland, in June 1928 came to light. The ballet was Les Sylphides and the lead dancer was identified as Serge Lifar. Centennial exhibitions and celebrations Paris, 2008: In September 2008, on the eve of the 100th anniversary of the creation of the Ballets Russes, Sotheby's announced the staging of an exceptional exhibition of works lent mainly by French, British and Russian private collectors, museums and foundations. Some 150 paintings, designs, costumes, theatre decors, drawings, sculptures, photographs, manuscripts, and programs were exhibited in Paris, retracing the key moments in the history of the Ballets Russes. On display were costumes designed by André Derain (La Boutique fantasque, 1919) and Henri Matisse (Le chant du rossignol, 1920), and Léon Bakst. Posters recalling the surge of creativity that surrounded the Ballets Russes included Pablo Picasso's iconic image of the Chinese Conjuror for the audacious production of Parade and Jean Cocteau's poster for Le Spectre de la rose. Costumes and stage designs presented included works by Alexander Benois, for Le Pavillon d'Armide and Petrushka; Léon Bakst, for La Péri and Le Dieu bleu; Mikhail Larionov, for Le Soleil à Minuit; and Natalia Goncharova, for The Firebird (1925 version). The exhibition also included important contemporary artists, whose works reflected the visual heritage of the Ballets Russes – notably an installation made of colorfully painted paper by the renowned Belgian artist Isabelle de Borchgrave, and items from the Imperial Porcelain Factory in St. Petersburg. Monte-Carlo, 2009: In May, in Monaco, two postage stamps "Centenary of Ballets Russians of Diaghilev" went out, created by Georgy Shishkin. London, 2010–11: London's Victoria and Albert Museum presented a special exhibition entitled Diaghilev and the Golden Age of the Ballets Russes, 1909–1929 at the V&A South Kensington between 5 September 2010 and 9 January 2011. Canberra, 2010–11: An exhibition of the company's costumes held by the National Gallery of Australia was held from 10 December 2010 – 1 May 2011 at the Gallery in Canberra. Entitled Ballets Russes: The Art of Costume, it included 150 costumes and accessories from 34 productions from 1909 to 1939; one third of the costumes had not been seen since they were last worn on stage. Along with costumes by Natalia Goncharova, Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse, André Derain, Georges Braque, André Masson and Giorgio de Chirico, the exhibition also featured photographs, film, music and artists’ drawings. Washington, DC, 2013: Diaghilev and the Ballets Russes, 1909–1929: When Art Danced with Music. National Gallery of Art, East Building Mezzanine. 12 May— 2 September 2013. Organized by the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, in collaboration with the National Gallery of Art, Washington. Stockholm, 2014–2015: Sleeping Beauties – Dreams and Costumes. The Dance Museum in Stockholm owns about 250 original costumes from the Ballets Russes, in this exhibition about fifty of them are shown. (www.dansmuseet.se) See also List of productions of Swan Lake derived from its 1895 revival References Notes Sources Further reading Anderson, Margot, et al. Creative Australia and the Ballets Russes. Published in conjunction with the Exhibition, Arts Centre, Melbourne 2009. Berggruen, Olivier. The Writing of Art (London: Pushkin Press, 2011) Bell, Robert. Ballets Russes: The Art of Costume. National Gallery of Australia, 2011 Clarke, Mary, and Clement Crisp. Design for Ballet. Studio Vista, 1978. Shead, Richard. Ballets Russes. Wellfleet Press, 1989. External links Ballets Russes The History of Diaghilev's Ballets Russes 1909–1929 Ballet Russe Cultural Partnership website Pathé newsreel extract of Les Sylphides by Ballets Russes, featuring the dancer Serge Lifar. Festival 'Fetes de Narcisses' in Montreux, Switzerland; June 1928. Ballets Russes de Serge Diaghilev at the Library of Congress: digital exhibition Ballets Russes, 1928, concert program, Library of Congress Eugene Olshansky Production Photographs at Newberry Library Ballets Russes Centennial and other exhibitions From Russia with love: costumes from the Ballets Russes, 1909–1933, an online exhibition featuring material from the collection of the National Gallery of Australia Diaghilev's Ballets Russes, 1909–1929: 20 Years That Changed The World of Art Online Exhibition, Houghton Library, Harvard University « Centenary of Ballets Russians of Diaghilev » Serge Diaghilev and His World: A Centennial Celebration of Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes, 1909–1929 Library of Congress Successor companies The Ballets Russes in Australia , Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo materials held in the Performing Arts Collection , at Arts Centre Melbourne Arts organizations established in 1909 Ballets Russes History of ballet Creative works in popular culture
4803480	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Cat%20in%20the%20Hat%20%28film%29	The Cat in the Hat (film)	The Cat in the Hat (also known as Dr. Seuss' The Cat in the Hat) is a 2003 American fantasy comedy film directed by Bo Welch in his directorial debut and written by Alec Berg, David Mandel and Jeff Schaffer. Loosely based on Dr. Seuss's 1957 book of the same name, it was the second and final live-action feature-length Dr. Seuss adaptation after How the Grinch Stole Christmas (2000). The film stars Mike Myers in the title role along with Alec Baldwin, Kelly Preston, Dakota Fanning, Spencer Breslin, Amy Hill and Sean Hayes in supporting roles. Production on the film began in 1997 with Tim Allen originally cast in the title role. After Allen dropped out due to scheduling conflicts with The Santa Clause 2 (2002), the role went to Myers. Filming took place in California and lasted three months from October 2002 to January 2003. As with the previous Dr. Seuss adaptation, many new characters and subplots were added to the story to bring it up to feature-length. The Cat in the Hat was released in theaters on November 21, 2003 in the United States by Universal Pictures and internationally by DreamWorks Pictures. It received extremely negative reviews from critics and grossed $133.9 million against a budget of $109 million. The Cat in the Hat appears on several lists of the worst films ever made. Seuss's widow, Audrey Geisel, was dissatisfied with the film and prohibited any further live-action adaptations of her husband's works, resulting in the cancellation of a sequel based on The Cat in the Hat Comes Back. All Dr. Seuss film adaptations have since been produced using computer animation. In March 2012, an animated remake was announced by Universal and Illumination, but never came to fruition. As of January 2018, that remake is once again in development, now at Warner Bros. Pictures Animation. Plot Conrad and Sally Walden live in the city of Anville with their single mother Joan, who works for neat-freak Hank Humberfloob as a real estate agent and is dating their next-door neighbor Larry Quinn. Sally is well-behaved and rule-obeying, while Conrad is a troublemaker. One day, Joan leaves her children at home with babysitter Mrs. Kwan while she goes to the office, forbidding them to enter the living room which is being kept pristine for an office party she is hosting that night. After Mrs. Kwan falls asleep and it starts to rain, a bump comes from the closet. Sally and Conrad go upstairs to investigate, and they meet The Cat in the Hat, a large anthropomorphic talking cat with a red-and-white striped top hat and a large red bow tie. They scream, run and try to hide, but The Cat quickly comes to them as he introduces himself and wants to teach them how to have fun. In the process, the Cat leaves a trail of destruction throughout the house and releases two troublemakers, named Thing 1 and Thing 2, from a crate which he locks and forbids the children to tamper with, explaining that it is a portal to his world. Despite the Cat's warning, Conrad picks the lock on the crate, which grabs on to the collar of the family dog Nevins, who runs off. The trio drive the Cat's super-powered car to search for Nevins and get the lock back. Larry is revealed to be an unemployed slob in debt, pretending to be a successful businessman in order to marry Joan for her money. He wants to get Conrad out of the way by sending him to military school. Larry sees Nevins and takes him, but the Cat tricks Larry into returning the dog. Larry goes and tells Joan about the Cat, but they are stalled by the Things' posing as police officers. Larry tells Joan to meet him at the house. When the children and the Cat return to the house with the lock, Larry cuts them off and orders them inside the house, where he sneezes uncontrollably due to his allergy to the Cat, who takes advantage of this and scares him away, only for them to find out that the house has been transformed into "The Mother of All Messes", with Larry falling into a gooey abyss. The Cat, Sally and Conrad ride on Mrs. Kwan like a roller coaster and navigate through the surreal house on a river of goo to find the crate and lock it, whereupon the house returns to its normal proportions but immediately collapses. In a heated argument, the children discover that the Cat planned the whole day and order him to leave. Conrad and Sally prepare to face the consequences when Joan comes home. However, when all appears to be lost, the Cat returns with a cleaning invention and fixes the house. Conrad and Sally reconcile with the Cat and thank him for everything, and he departs just as Joan arrives. Larry, covered in goo, comes in, thinking he has busted the children, but when Joan sees the clean house, she does not believe his story and dumps him. After the successful party, Joan spends quality time with her children by jumping on the couch with them, while the Cat and Things 1 and 2 walk off into the sunset. Cast Mike Myers as the Cat in the Hat, a 6 ft. tall, anthropomorphic and large humanoid wise-cracking cat who wears an oversized red bow-tie and a magical red-and-white striped top-hat that reveals many humorous gadgets. Myers also makes uncredited cameos as the Cat's disguises throughout the film: Mr. Catwrench, a mechanic who helps Sally and Conrad fix their couch. The Guy in the Sweater Who Asks All the Obvious Questions, the blonde-haired and bespectacled host of the fictional TV cooking show "Astounding Products". Cheshire Cat, a chef from Cheshire, England who is a guest on "Astounding Products". Zumzizeroo Man, a hippie who offers a petition to stop the senseless, wholesale slaughter of the fictional flatulating, acid-spitting Zumzizeroo creature to Larry as part of the Cat's plan to rescue Nevins. Spencer Breslin as Conrad Walden, Joan's destructive and misbehaved 12-year-old son, and the older brother of Sally. Dakota Fanning as Sally Walden, Joan's dull, somewhat bossy, well-behaved and rule-obeying 10-year-old daughter, and the younger sister of Conrad. Kelly Preston as Joan Walden, Conrad and Sally's mother, a workaholic real estate agent. Alec Baldwin as Larry Quinn, the Waldens' pompous, lazy and unemployed next-door neighbor who is allergic to cats, steals food from the Waldens unnoticed, and is determined to marry Joan to mooch off of her wealth and wants to send Conrad to military school to get rid of him. Amy Hill as Mrs. Kwan, an overweight and elderly Taiwanese woman who was hired to watch the children, but sleeps through her job, which (as well as her weight) serves as a running gag. Sean Hayes as Hank Humberfloob, Joan's zero-tolerance boss, a germophobe who is seemingly friendly, but is quick to fire employees for even the smallest infractions (such as for shaking his hand which he does not allow since he hates germs), often in an extremely loud tone of voice. Hayes is also the voice of the somewhat cynical, pessimistic and sensible family fish. Danielle Chuchran and Taylor Rice as Thing 1, and Brittany Oaks and Talia-Lynn Prairie as Thing 2; two gibbering trouble-making creatures that the Cat brings in with him. Dan Castellaneta provided the voices for the Things. Steven Anthony Lawrence as Dumb Schweitzer, an intellectually and socially inferior pre-teen boy with a Bronx accent. When Cat disguised himself as the piñata at a birthday party Sally was left out of, he whacks Cat in the groin with a wooden bat. Paris Hilton as a female club-goer. Bugsy as Nevins, the Waldens' pet dog. Frank Welker provided his voice. Welker had previously provided the voice of Max the dog from How the Grinch Stole Christmas. Candace Dean Brown as a secretary who works for Humberfloob Real Estate. Victor Brandt as the Narrator, who tells the story; he is revealed to be the Cat using a voice-changer at the end. Production Development DreamWorks Pictures acquired the film rights to the original Dr. Seuss book in 1997. However, production did not officially start until after the 2000 Christmas/comedy film How the Grinch Stole Christmas, by Universal Pictures and Imagine Entertainment, both of whom also joined to finance, distribute and produce the film with DreamWorks, and based on another Dr. Seuss book of the same name, became a commercial success. Brian Grazer, the producer of The Grinch, stated: "Because we grew up with these books, and because they have such universal themes and the illustrations ignite such fantasy in your mind as a child—the aggregation of all those feelings—it leaves an indelible, positive memory. And so when I realized I had a chance to convert first The Grinch and then, The Cat in the Hat, into movies, I was willing to do anything to bring them to the screen." Grazer then contacted Bo Welch over the phone with the offer to direct the film, and he accepted. When production began, songs written by Randy Newman were dropped because they were deemed inferior; Newman's cousin, David, instead composed the score for the film. Although Welch and a publicist for Myers denied it, several people said Myers had considerable input into the film's direction by telling some of the cast (namely co-stars Baldwin and Preston) how to perform their scenes. Casting Tim Allen was initially considered for the role of the Cat. The script was initially based on a version of the original book's story conceived by Allen, who admitted that as a child he was afraid of Seuss' "mischievous feline babysitter" and it was his dream to give the edge that scared him for the role. However, the studio did not commission a screenplay until late February 2001, when Alec Berg, David Mandel and Jeff Schaffer (best known for being writers on the television series Seinfeld) were hired by the studio to rewrite the film (replacing the original draft of the film that was written by Eric Roth a few years prior), so the film would not be ready to shoot before the deadline. By this point, Allen was also committed to shooting Disney's The Santa Clause 2, which was also delayed because Allen wanted a script rewrite. Due to scheduling conflicts with that film, he dropped out of the role. Afterwards, both Will Ferrell and Billy Bob Thornton were considered for the role. Eventually, in March 2002 the role of the Cat was given to Mike Myers, whom Grazer had an argument with regarding a proposed film adaptation of Myers' Saturday Night Live sketch Sprockets, which Myers cancelled in June 2000 after being dissatisfied with his own script for it. Myers stated in an interview that he was a long-time fan of the original Dr. Seuss book, and that it was the first book he ever read. Myers was obligated to appear in the film as a result of a settlement related to the Sprockets film's cancellation. Soon after, Myers, Dave Foley, Jay Kogen and Stephen Hibbert did uncredited rewrites of the script. Makeup and visual effects Originally, Rick Baker was set to be the prosthetic makeup designer for the film after his previous experience with How the Grinch Stole Christmas, but due to conflicts with the studio and production team, particularly with Myers' behavior (showing up late to meetings and refusing to come to makeup tests punctually) and the complex challenge of designing the character’s makeup, he left the project and was replaced by Steve Johnson, one of his earliest apprentices. The Cat costume was made of angora and human hair and was fitted with a cooling system. To keep Myers cool during the outdoor shoots, a portable air conditioner was available that connected a hose to the suit between shots, while the tail and ears were battery-operated. Danielle Chuchran and Brittany Oaks, who portrayed Thing 1 and Thing 2, respectively, wore a prosthetic face mask and wig designed by Johnson as well. The Fish was considered somewhat of a unique character for Rhythm and Hues Studios (responsible for the visual effects and animation in films such as Mouse Hunt, Cats & Dogs, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King and Scooby-Doo), in that the character had no shoulders, hips or legs, so all of the physical performance had to emit from the eyes, head and fin motion. Sean Hayes, who provided the voice for the Fish, found the role significantly different from his usual on-camera jobs; he did not know how the final animation would look, resulting in all of his voice work taking place alone in a sound booth. Filming Prior to filming, giant props for the film were stolen from the set; the local police found the props vandalized with graffiti in a shopping mall car park in Pomona, California. Despite this, no arrests had been made and filming was to start the next week. Principal photography took place mostly in California from October 2002 to January 2003. The neighborhood and the town center was filmed in a rural valley near Simi Valley, where 24 houses (each 26 feet square and 52 feet tall) were constructed. The downtown area outdoor shots were filmed along a Pomona street where a number of antique and gift shops are located. The community decided not to redecorate after filming ended, so the surreal paint scheme and some of the signage could still be seen today as it appears in the film. Because of so much smog in the area, the sky had to be digitally replaced with the cartoon-like sky and colors of the background had to be digitally fixed. Mike Myers was unaware that a piece of the house would fall behind him near the end of the film during his scenes with Spencer Breslin and Dakota Fanning. His reaction was real and left unscripted in the final film. According to co-star Amy Hill, Myers was difficult to work with on set, refusing to talk to anyone on the production (other than his assistants and director Welch) and isolating himself from the cast and crew during breaks in filming. She also noted that there would be retakes of scenes because Welch, who was a first-time director, would often let Myers decide whether they were good enough or not. In addition, Hill stated that Myers had an assistant who held chocolates in a Tupperware, and whenever Myers needed a piece of chocolate, his assistant would come over and give him one. Music Grazer's frequent collaborator, David Newman scored the film, The soundtrack was released on November 18, 2003. Originally, Marc Shaiman was going to compose the score for the film, but due to Newman already being chosen for the film score, Shaiman instead wrote the film's songs with Scott Wittman. The soundtrack also features a song by Smash Mouth ("Getting Better"), which makes it the third Mike Myers-starring film in a row to feature a song by Smash Mouth after Shrek and Austin Powers in Goldmember. The trailer for the film uses a version of "Hey! Pachuco!" by the Royal Crown Revue. The soundtrack also includes two songs performed by Myers, who plays the Cat. Newman's score won a BMI Film Music Award. Release Home media The Cat in the Hat was released on VHS and DVD on March 16, 2004. The DVD release features 13 deleted scenes, 36 outtakes, 13 featurettes, a "Dance with the Cat" tutorial to teach children how to do a Cat in the Hat dance, and an audio commentary with director Bo Welch and actor Alec Baldwin. On February 7, 2012, the film was released on Blu-ray. Reception Box office The Cat in the Hat opened theatrically on November 21, 2003 and grossed $38.3 million in its opening weekend, ranking first in the North American box office ahead of Brother Bear, Elf and Looney Tunes: Back in Action. The film ended its theatrical run nearly four months later on March 18, 2004, having grossed $101.1 million domestically and $32.8 million overseas for a worldwide total of $133.9 million. Critical response On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 10% based on 164 reviews and an average rating of 3.4/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Filled with double entendres and potty humor, this Cat falls flat." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 19 out of 100 based on reviews from 37 critics, indicating "overwhelming dislike". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of on an A+ to F scale. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film one star, stating: "Cat, another overblown Hollywood raid on Dr. Seuss, has a draw on Mike Myers, who inexplicably plays the Cat by mimicking Bert Lahr in The Wizard of Oz." Roger Ebert of The Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two out of four stars. Although he praised the production design, he considered the film to be "all effects and stunts and CGI and prosthetics, with no room for lightness and joy". Ebert and co-host Richard Roeper gave the film "Two Thumbs Down" on their weekly movie review program. Roeper said of Myers' performance that "maybe a part of him was realizing as the movie was being made that a live-action version of The Cat in the Hat just wasn't a great idea." Ebert compared the film unfavorably to How the Grinch Stole Christmas: "If there is one thing I've learned from these two movies, it's that we don't want to see Jim Carrey as a Grinch, and we don't want to see Mike Myers as a cat. These are talented comedians, let's see them do their stuff, don't bury them under a ton of technology." Leonard Maltin gave the film one-and-a-half stars out of four in his Movie Guide: "Brightly colored adaptation of the beloved rhyming book for young children is a betrayal of everything Dr. Seuss ever stood for, injecting potty humor and adult (wink-wink) jokes into a mixture of heavy-handed slapstick and silliness." Maltin also said that the film's official title which included Dr. Seuss' The Cat in the Hat was "an official insult". Todd McCarthy of Variety praised the film as "attractively designed, energetically performed and, above all, blessedly concise." Alec Baldwin was disappointed with the film and addressed complaints the film received because of its dissimilarity to the source material. He expressed a belief that a film is "an idea about something" and that because Dr. Seuss' work is so unique, making a feature-length film out of one of his stories would entail taking liberties and making broad interpretations. Accolades The film also received three nominations at the Hollywood Makeup & Hairstylists Guild Awards. Future Cancelled sequel On the day of the film's release, Mike Myers stated in an interview that he expected a sequel where the children meet the Cat again. A sequel based on the original book's sequel The Cat in the Hat Comes Back was in development just over a month before the film's release, with Myers and Welch to return to their duties as actor and director, respectively. Following the film's poor reception however, Seuss's widow, Audrey Geisel, decided not to allow any subsequent live-action adaptations of her late husband's works, resulting in the scrapping of the sequel. Animated remake In March 2012, a computer-animated Cat in the Hat film remake was announced by Universal Pictures and Illumination Entertainment following the success of The Lorax, with Rob Lieber set to write the script, Chris Meledandri to produce the film and Geisel to executive-produce it, but it never came to fruition. In January 2018, Warner Animation Group picked up the rights for the animated Cat in the Hat film as part of a creative partnership with Seuss Enterprises. In October 2020, Erica Rivinoja and Art Hernandez were announced as directors. Video game A platform game based on the film was published by Vivendi Universal Games for PlayStation 2, Xbox, and Game Boy Advance on November 5, 2003, and Microsoft Windows on November 9, shortly before the film's theatrical release. See also List of films based on Dr. Seuss books List of films considered the worst References External links 2003 films 2003 fantasy films 2003 comedy films 2003 directorial debut films 2000s American films 2000s children's fantasy films 2000s children's comedy films 2000s English-language films 2000s fantasy comedy films American films with live action and animation American children's comedy films American children's fantasy films American fantasy comedy films The Cat in the Hat Films about cats Films about children Films about obsessive–compulsive disorder Films based on children's books Films based on works by Dr. Seuss Films shot in California Films shot in Florida Films shot in Los Angeles Golden Raspberry Award winning films Films with screenplays by Alec Berg Films with screenplays by David Mandel Films with screenplays by Jeff Schaffer Films scored by David Newman Films produced by Brian Grazer Imagine Entertainment films DreamWorks Pictures films Universal Pictures films
4804345	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHSV-TV	WHSV-TV	WHSV-TV (channel 3) is a television station in Harrisonburg, Virginia, United States, affiliated with ABC. It is owned by Gray Television alongside two low-power stations: Class A dual Fox/CBS affiliate WSVF-CD (channel 43) and dual NBC/CW+ affiliate WSVW-LD (channel 30). The three stations share studios on North Main Street (US 11) in downtown Harrisonburg, and operate a newsroom in Fishersville, serving Staunton, Waynesboro, and Augusta County. WHSV-TV's transmitter is located at Elliott Knob west of Staunton. WHSV-TV operates two fill-in digital translators: one on UHF channel 34, licensed to Massanutten and covering Harrisonburg, and one on UHF channel 24 licensed to Winchester, which is located on Signal Knob near Strasburg and serves the Winchester−Front Royal area (in the Washington, D.C. television market). Its signal is also relayed in Moorefield, West Virginia on low-power translator W33EJ-D, which is owned by Valley TV Cooperative, Inc. As of December 1, 2019, WHSV is used to provide full-market over-the-air coverage of WSVW-LD (simulcast over WHSV-DT2) and WSVF-CD2 (simulcast over WHSV-DT5); however, only the WSVW-LD simulcast is aired in high definition. History Early years Channel 3 signed on October 19, 1953 as WSVA-TV (for "We Serve Virginia Agriculture"). It was owned by Harrisonburg businessman Frederick L. Allman and his Shenandoah Valley Broadcasting Corporation along with WSVA radio (AM 550 and FM 100.7, now WQPO). The station was a primary NBC affiliate, with secondary CBS and ABC affiliations. The station also carried DuMont programs. It was the only commercial station between Richmond and Roanoke until WVIR-TV signed on from Charlottesville in 1973. Although it was owned by one of Virginia's leading broadcasters, WSVA-TV operated on a shoestring budget. Station engineers switched to and from the signals of the three network affiliates in Washington, D.C. because it was unable to afford direct network feeds. The station did not air any locally produced programs (except for local newscasts) until 1956, when it built a studio along U.S. Route 33 in unincorporated Rockingham County. That year, Allman sold the WSVA stations to Transcontinent Television of Buffalo, New York, with NBC executive Hamilton Shea as a minority partner. Allman earned a handsome return on his original investment in WSVA radio in 1935. In 1959, the Washington Evening Star, owner of WMAL AM-FM-TV in Washington, acquired Transcontinent's controlling interest, as well as 1% of Shea's stake. The CBS affiliation was dropped in 1963. In 1965, the Star sold the WSVA stations to James Gilmore, Jr., a Michigan businessman; the sale was necessary because WMAL-TV's new tall tower would have caused a large grade B overlap with WSVA-TV. Under Gilmore's ownership, the station became a primary ABC affiliate in 1968. This was a very unusual move since, then as now, it was the only station in its market; ABC was not nearly on par with CBS and NBC in the ratings at the time (and would not be until the 1970s). It picked up NBC's morning program Today from 1968 until ABC debuted Good Morning America in 1975, but only aired the second hour of Today since the station did not sign on until 8 a.m. (a practice that continued well into the 1970s). Despite wealthier ownership, it was still unable to get a network feed. Occasionally, channel 3 accidentally aired WMAL-TV's commercials when engineers forgot to switch from WMAL-TV's signal during local breaks. In 1975, channel 3 dropped the remaining NBC programs from its schedule. Gilmore sold WSVA-TV to Charlottesville-based Worrell Newspapers, publisher of The Daily Progress of Charlottesville, in 1976. Later that year, the station assumed its current WHSV-TV callsign. Under Worrell, the station was finally able to acquire a direct network feed. WHSV launched a translator on UHF channel 64 in Charlottesville in 1979. WHSV marked Worrell's entry into broadcasting; the company would subsequently add WIFR-TV in Rockford, Illinois and WBNB-TV in Charlotte Amalie, U.S. Virgin Islands to its group before selling the three stations to Benedek Broadcasting in 1986. Since 1990s In 1994, Fox approached WHSV regarding a secondary affiliation to provide over-the-air access to the network's new NFL coverage, including most games of the regional Washington Redskins (now the Washington Commanders). WHSV signed a two-year contract and did not renew it after the 1995–96 season due to unsatisfactory ratings. This didn't pose as much of a problem as it seemed on paper, as WTTG in Washington was (and still is) available on cable in the area. Construction of a new broadcast facility in downtown Harrisonburg began in 1998, with WHSV relocating there in the spring of 1999. Benedek went bankrupt in 2002, and most of its stations, including WHSV, were bought by Gray Television. A 5 p.m. weekday newscast was also added that same year. At that time, a new set was constructed in the station's Augusta County newsroom in Staunton. The streetside set featured a window overlooking downtown Staunton along West Frederick Street. The 5 p.m. weekday newscast became WHSV's first newscast to originate from the Augusta County Newsroom. In October 2003, WHSV began originating its 5 p.m. newscast from both Harrisonburg and Staunton. WHSV's 6 p.m. weekday newscast also originated from both Staunton and Harrisonburg for a brief period in the spring of 2004. During that time, WHSV's 6 p.m. weekday newscast featured three anchors. The three-anchor, dual-city format was abandoned after a few months. In August 2004, WHSV management began providing managerial, sales and human resources support to Gray Television's upstart CBS affiliate WCAV in Charlottesville. Several members of WHSV's news and production staff transferred to WCAV following its launch. That same year, WHSV's Charlottesville translator was broken off as a separate station serving as the market's ABC affiliate, WVAW-LP on channel 16. To this day, WHSV remains the only full-power commercial station in the Shenandoah Valley. This is due to the area's small population, as well as the fact that virtually all of the market is located in the United States National Radio Quiet Zone. Low-powered sister stations WSVF-CD and WSVW-LD now provide complete major-network service to the market. However, cable television providers still supplement the area with stations from Washington, Richmond or Charlottesville, depending on the location. Subchannel history WHSV-DT3 WHSV-DT3 is the Ion Television-affiliated third digital subchannel of WHSV-TV, broadcasting in 16:9 widescreen standard definition on channel 3.3. On March 5, 2007, WHSV launched "TV3 Winchester", an ABC affiliate for Winchester, Virginia. The station was a joint project between WHSV and Shenandoah University. Along with Winchester, the station served Frederick, Clarke, Warren and Shenandoah counties in Virginia. Although TV3 Winchester transmitted an over-the-air signal on WHSV-DT3, it could only be seen on cable in its primary coverage area. TV3 Winchester ceased operations on December 5, 2013; WHSV-DT3 remained vacant until October 2018 when a standard definition feed of Ion Television was eventually added to that subchannel. WHSV-DT4 WHSV-DT4 is the dual MyNetworkTV/MeTV-affiliated fourth digital subchannel of WHSV-TV, broadcasting in 16:9 widescreen standard definition on channel 3.4. Outside MyNetworkTV programming, there is no syndicated fare since MeTV takes up all of the remaining broadcasting time. A new transmitter tower was built behind WHSV's Harrisonburg studios to accommodate the additional satellite receivers needed for both channels. The station began broadcasting on the date of MyNetworkTV's launch, September 5, 2006. The CW affiliation for the market went to Charlottesville-based NBC affiliate WVIR-TV which broadcasts the network on a third digital subchannel through The CW Plus programming service. On September 24, 2012, WHSV-DT4 added a secondary affiliation with the Weigel-owned classic television network MeTV, with the network's programming replacing syndicated programs previously seen outside of MyNetworkTV's primetime schedule. Newscasts WHSV-DT4 does not carry any live newscasts produced by WHSV that are exclusive to the subchannel. Rather, it airs repeats of newscasts seen on the main channel including the two-hour weekday morning show (at 7) and the nightly 6 o'clock broadcast (at 7). The subchannel also simulcasts the weeknight half-hour prime time newscast at 10 from Fox affiliate WSVF-CD. Even if this program is delayed or preempted on the Fox station, it still airs in the regular time slot on WHSV-DT4. In addition, this subchannel may occasionally air WHSV's 11 p.m. newscast normally seen on the main channel on Saturday evenings in the event there are delays or a preemption due to ABC sports programming. The 10 o'clock program maintains a dedicated news anchor and reporter separate from newscasts on WHSV. Local programming In addition to its local newscasts and ABC network programs, WHSV produces other locally produced programs: The Endzone is a 40-minute sports highlight program covering high school football games across the Shenandoah Valley that airs Fridays at 11:25 p.m. during the high school football season. Sports X-tra is an online sports discussion show produced by WHSV's sports department, covering sports news from the previous week. The station also produces the Sunday morning religious program Light for Today, which broadcasts from People's Baptist Church in Harrisonburg, and broadcasts the music and variety show Virginia Dreams Centerstage. WHSV also sponsored an annual singing competition called "Voice of the Valley", an idea that was originated by former WHSV personality Jenelle Smith. Finalists are unveiled during the station's noon newscasts the week of the Rockingham County Fair with an hour-long live finale that is broadcast from the fair. News operation The station's weekday morning newscast, WHSV News Daybreak, has received recognition as one of the highest-rated local morning news programs in the United States. WHSV utilizes Facebook and Twitter accounts to relay local news stories through social media. In the early 1990s, the station began producing a midday newscast at noon on weekdays. WHSV-TV purchased its first microwave live truck in 2004. Prior to that, the station relied on rented equipment for remote broadcasts. Since 2004, WHSV-TV has purchased additional microwave equipment for use by its news department. 2006 was a year of significant change at WHSV-TV. First on February 27, 2006, WHSV’s weekday morning newscast expanded from a 90-minute program to a two-hour program with the addition of a half-hour at 5 a.m.; this coincided with the debut of new weather technology purchased from Weather Services International. The station’s Harrisonburg and Augusta County news bureaus underwent a dramatic overhaul in April 2006, with the addition of new sets and studio camera equipment. WHSV newscasts were broadcast from a temporary studio in the Harrisonburg newsroom during the two-week construction period with the new sets debuting on April 24, 2006 (portions of WHSV’s previous set, built in 1999, were donated to nearby Turner Ashby High School). News director Van Hackett, who joined the station in December 2003, retired in August 2006 and was succeeded by former WHSV reporter Ed Reams, who left a job at WDSU in New Orleans to return to the Shenandoah Valley. On July 21, 2006, popular weather anchor Jay Webb left after six years with the station, accepting a job with WDBJ in Roanoke, Virginia. Webb enjoyed a week-long send-off from his on-air colleagues before his final WHSV broadcast on July 21. On October 30, 2006, WHSV-TV dropped The Andy Griffith Show from its longtime 5:30 p.m. timeslot in favor of a half-hour newscast anchored by longtime reporter Melanie Lofton. This coincided with the debut of a new logo for the station, the retitling of the station's newscasts as WHSV News 3 and updated graphics for its newscasts. While the logo itself was new, elements of the previous graphics package were retained. On November 27, 2006, WHSV dropped Gari Communications' "Making a Difference" in favor of 615 Music's "News One" as the theme music for its newscasts, which remained until 2015, when it was replaced by Stephen Arnold Music's "This is the Place." On April 7, 2008, the station's 5 and 5:30 p.m. newscasts began featuring a three-anchor lineup consisting of Melanie Lofton, Bob Corso and meteorologist Tracy Turner. This new format came along with a new arrangement of the newscast. On December 5, 2013, TV3 Winchester ceased its news operation. Notable former on-air staff Julie Banderas – Current news anchor for Fox News Channel Keith Jones – Regional Emmy award winning news anchor and reporter for WCAU in Philadelphia Technical information Subchannels The station's digital signal is multiplexed: Translators 25 (CP) Broadway 28 Luray 34 Massanutten 24 Winchester 33 Moorefield, WV During the late summer and early fall of 2006, WHSV underwent major technical upgrades to make way for the station's new digital subchannels. A new transmitter tower was built behind the station's Harrisonburg studios to accommodate the additional satellite receivers needed for WHSV's Fox and MyNetworkTV-affiliated subchannels. WHSV's main analog transmitter was replaced during the week of August 31, 2006. Broadcasts were only available to viewers with cable while the transmitter was being replaced. On January 16, 2008, WHSV reached a carriage agreement with DirecTV to add WHSV, and its Fox and MyNetworkTV-affiliated digital subchannels to the satellite providers' local channel lineup. WHSV originally planned on turning off its analog transmitter of February 17, 2009, the original deadline of the federally mandated digital conversion. The station restored the signal the following Friday however, because several translator stations in communities such as Bergton that are owned by local cooperatives and county governments were unable to convert their transmitters to reconvert the digital signal into analog form, along with viewers who could receive Channel 3 signal well on analog, but not at all digitally. WHSV's broadcasts became digital-only, effective June 12, 2009. Spectrum reallocation, move to Staunton As part of the 2016–17 spectrum reallocation auction, channels 38 through 51 were removed from television broadcasting. WHSV's channel 49 primary digital signal moved to channel 20 and relocated from its longtime site at Big Mountain near New Market to Elliott Knob overlooking Staunton, where it operated a fill-in translator. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) objected to WHSV's continued operation from Big Mountain unless the effective radiated power in its direction was reduced to 0.2 watts, which Gray claimed would have resulted in an unusable signal in Harrisonburg. Gray proposed a series of engineering changes and new translators to make up for lost coverage in the northern part of the Shenandoah Valley. The existing translator on channel 42 from Signal Knob near Front Royal, which was entirely directed toward Winchester, moved to channel 24 and became less directional in order to also cover the valley. Gray will convert the existing main transmitter site on Big Mountain to a translator on channel 28, allowing it to comply with the NRAO's objection by reorienting its signal to transmit to the east, toward Page County. It has also applied for two other new translators: one directly across the valley from Big Mountain, on channel 15 from North Mountain in Broadway, and another on channel 34 from Massanutten Peak overlooking Harrisonburg, which has been built and signed on. Gray applied for a waiver to begin operations from Elliott Knob by August 31, 2018, nearly two years before its original March 2020 deadline. Although the waiver was not yet approved, WHSV-TV announced the switch-over date as September 10 at midnight. When this date passed without approval, Gray reapplied to move WHSV's transition date to December 2018. The switch-over was completed on December 7. References External links HSV-TV ABC network affiliates Ion Television affiliates MeTV affiliates Gray Television Television channels and stations established in 1953 1953 establishments in Virginia
4804597	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retreat%20of%20glaciers%20since%201850	Retreat of glaciers since 1850	The retreat of glaciers since 1850 is well documented and is one of the effects of climate change. The retreat of mountain glaciers, notably in western North America, Asia, the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America, Africa and Indonesia, provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century. The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level, which would affect coastal regions. Excluding peripheral glaciers of ice sheets, the total cumulated global glacial losses over the 26-year period from 1993 to 2018 were likely 5500 gigatons, or 210 gigatons per yr. Deglaciation occurs naturally at the end of ice ages, but glaciologists find the current glacier retreat is accelerated by the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases and is thus effect of climate change. Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier. If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance; if the accumulation is less than the ablation, the glacier will retreat. Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances, and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation, will eventually disappear. Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas, Rockies, Alps, Cascades, Southern Alps, and the southern Andes, as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa, are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses. The retreat of glaciers has impacts on the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use, mountain recreation, animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt, and, in the longer term, the sea level. For example, in the Andes and Himalayas, the demise of glaciers has the potential to affect water supplies. Scale at the global level Excluding peripheral glaciers of ice sheets, the total cumulated global glacial losses over the 26-year period from 1993 to 2018 were likely 5500 gigatons, or 210 gigatons per yr. Timeline The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when certain regions experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the time before and after. Subsequently, until about 1940, glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially. Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily, in many cases, between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly. Since 1980, climate change has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous, so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether, and the existence of many of the remaining glaciers is threatened. Causes The mass balance, or difference between accumulation and ablation (melting and sublimation), of a glacier is crucial to its survival. Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall, resulting in changes in mass balance. A glacier with a sustained negative balance loses equilibrium and retreats. A sustained positive balance is also out of equilibrium and will advance to reestablish equilibrium. Currently, nearly all glaciers have a negative mass balance and are retreating. Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low-elevation region of the glacier. Since higher elevations are cooler, the disappearance of the lowest portion decreases overall ablation, thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium. If the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative, it is in disequilibrium with the climate and will melt away without a colder climate and/or an increase in frozen precipitation. For example, Easton Glacier in Washington state, U.S. will likely shrink to half its size but at a slowing rate of reduction and stabilize at that size despite the warmer temperature over a few decades. However, the Grinnell Glacier in Montana, U.S. will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears. The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered, while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare, is melting and has thinned. Small glaciers with minimal altitude range are most likely to fall into disequilibrium with the climate. Measurement techniques Methods for measuring retreat include staking terminus location, global positioning mapping, aerial mapping and laser altimetry. The key symptom of disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier. This indicates a diminishment of the accumulation zone. The result is marginal recession of the accumulation zone margin, not just of the terminus. In effect, the glacier no longer has a consistent accumulation zone and without an accumulation zone cannot survive. Impacts Water supply The continued retreat of glaciers will have a number of different quantitative effects. In areas that are heavily dependent on water runoff from glaciers that melt during the warmer summer months, a continuation of the current retreat will eventually deplete the glacial ice and substantially reduce or eliminate runoff. A reduction in runoff will affect the ability to irrigate crops and will reduce summer stream flows necessary to keep dams and reservoirs replenished. This situation is particularly acute for irrigation in South America, where numerous artificial lakes are filled almost exclusively by glacial melt. Central Asian countries have also been historically dependent on the seasonal glacier melt water for irrigation and drinking supplies. In Norway, the Alps, and the Pacific Northwest of North America, glacier runoff is important for hydropower. Ecosystems Many species of freshwater and saltwater plants and animals are dependent on glacier-fed waters to ensure the cold water habitat to which they have adapted. Some species of freshwater fish need cold water to survive and to reproduce, and this is especially true with salmon and cutthroat trout. Reduced glacial runoff can lead to insufficient stream flow to allow these species to thrive. Alterations to the ocean currents, due to increased freshwater inputs from glacier melt, and the potential alterations to thermohaline circulation of the oceans, may affect existing fisheries upon which humans depend as well. Glacial lake outburst floods One major concern is the increased risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF), which have in the past had great effect on lives and property. Glacier meltwater left behind by the retreating glacier is often held back by moraines that can be unstable and have been known to collapse if breached or displaced by earthquakes, landslides or avalanches. If the terminal moraine is not strong enough to hold the rising water behind it, it can burst, leading to a massive localized flood. The likelihood of such events is rising due to the creation and expansion of glacial lakes resulting from glacier retreat. Past floods have been deadly and have resulted in enormous property damage. Towns and villages in steep, narrow valleys that are downstream from glacial lakes are at the greatest risk. In 1892 a GLOF released some of water from the lake of the Tête Rousse Glacier, resulting in the deaths of 200 people in the French town of Saint-Gervais-les-Bains. GLOFs have been known to occur in every region of the world where glaciers are located. Continued glacier retreat is expected to create and expand glacial lakes, increasing the danger of future GLOFs. Sea level rise The potential for major sea level rise depends mostly on a significant melting of the polar ice caps of Greenland and Antarctica, as this is where the vast majority of glacial ice is located. If all the ice on the polar ice caps were to melt away, the oceans of the world would rise an estimated . Although previously it was thought that the polar ice caps were not contributing heavily to sea level rise (IPCC 2007), recent studies have confirmed that both Antarctica and Greenland are contributing a year each to global sea level rise. The Thwaites Glacier alone, in Western Antarctica is "currently responsible for approximately 4 percent of global sea level rise. It holds enough ice to raise the world ocean a little over 2 feet (65 centimeters) and backstops neighboring glaciers that would raise sea levels an additional 8 feet (2.4 meters) if all the ice were lost." The fact that the IPCC estimates did not include rapid ice sheet decay into their sea level predictions makes it difficult to ascertain a plausible estimate for sea level rise but a 2008 study found that the minimum sea level rise will be around by 2100. Middle latitude Middle latitude glaciers are located either between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle, or between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle. Both areas support glacier ice from mountain glaciers, valley glaciers and even smaller icecaps, which are usually located in higher mountainous regions. All are located in mountain ranges, notably the Himalayas; the Alps; the Pyrenees; Rocky Mountains; the Caucasus and Pacific Coast Ranges of North America; the Patagonian Andes in South America; and mountain ranges in New Zealand. Glaciers in these latitudes are more widespread and tend to be greater in mass the closer they are to the polar regions. They are the most widely studied over the past 150 years. As with examples located in the tropical zone, virtually all the glaciers in the mid-latitudes are in a state of negative mass balance and are retreating. Northern hemisphere – Eurasia Europe In the French alps, all the glaciers there are retreating. On Mont Blanc, the highest peak in the Alps, the Argentière Glacier has receded since 1870. Other Mont Blanc glaciers have also been in retreat, including the Mer de Glace, which is the largest glacier in France at in length but retreated between 1994 and 2008. The glacier has retreated since the end of the Little Ice Age. The Argentière and Mer de Glace glaciers are expected to disappear completely by end of the 21st century if current climate trends persist. The Bossons Glacier once extended from the summit of Mont Blanc at to an elevation of in 1900. By 2008 Bossons Glacier had retreated to a point that was above sea level. Other researchers have found that glaciers across the Alps appear to be retreating at a faster rate than a few decades ago. In a paper published in 2009 by the University of Zurich, the Swiss glacier survey of 89 glaciers found 76 retreating, 5 stationary and 8 advancing from where they had been in 1973. The Trift Glacier had the greatest recorded retreat, losing of its length between the years 2003 and 2005. The Grosser Aletsch Glacier is the largest glacier in Switzerland and has been studied since the late 19th century. Aletsch Glacier retreated from 1880 to 2009. This rate of retreat has also increased since 1980, with 30%, or , of the total retreat occurring in the last 20% of the time period. The Morteratsch Glacier in Switzerland has had one of the longest periods of scientific study with yearly measurements of the glacier's length commencing in 1878. The overall retreat from 1878 to 1998 has been with a mean annual retreat rate of approximately per year. This long-term average was markedly surpassed in recent years with the glacier receding per year during the period between 1999 and 2005. Similarly, of the glaciers in the Italian Alps, only about a third were in retreat in 1980, while by 1999, 89% of these glaciers were retreating. In 2005, the Italian Glacier Commission found that 123 glaciers in Lombardy were retreating. A random study of the Sforzellina Glacier in the Italian Alps indicated that the rate of retreat from 2002 to 2006 was much higher than in the preceding 35 years. To study glaciers located in the alpine regions of Lombardy, researchers compared a series of aerial and ground images taken from the 1950s through the early 21st century and deduced that between the years 1954–2003 the mostly smaller glaciers found there lost more than half of their area. Repeat photography of glaciers in the Alps indicates that there has been significant retreat since studies commenced. Research, published in 2019 by ETH Zurich, says that two-thirds of the ice in the glaciers of the Alps is doomed to melt by the end of the century due to climate change. In the most pessimistic scenario, the Alps will be almost completely ice-free by 2100, with only isolated ice patches remaining at high elevation. Though the glaciers of the Alps have received more attention from glaciologists than in other areas of Europe, research indicates that glaciers in northern Europe are also retreating. Since the end of World War II, Storglaciären in Sweden has undergone the longest continuous mass balance study in the world conducted from the Tarfala research station. In the Kebnekaise Mountains of northern Sweden, a study of 16 glaciers between 1990 and 2001 found that 14 glaciers were retreating, one was advancing and one was stable. In Norway, glacier studies have been performed since the early 19th century, with systematic surveys undertaken regularly since the 1990s. Inland glaciers have had a generally negative mass balance, whereas during the 1990s, maritime glaciers showed a positive mass balance and advanced. The maritime advances have been attributed to heavy snowfall in the period 1989–1995. However, reduced snowfall since has caused most Norwegian glaciers to retreat significantly. A survey of 31 Norwegian glaciers in 2010 indicated that 27 were in retreat, one had no change and three advanced. Similarly, in 2013, of 33 Norwegian glaciers surveyed, 26 were retreating, four showed no change and three advanced. Engabreen Glacier in Norway, an outlet glacier of the Svartisen ice cap, had several advances in the 20th century, though it retreated between 1999 and 2014. Brenndalsbreen glacier retreated between the years 2000 and 2014, while the Rembesdalsskåka glacier, which has retreated since the end of the Little Ice Age, retreated between 1997 and 2007. The Briksdalsbreen glacier retreated between 1996 and 2004 with of that in the last year of that study; the greatest annual retreat recorded on that glacier since studies began there in 1900. This figure was exceeded in 2006 with five glaciers retreating over from the fall of 2005 to the fall of 2006. Four outlets from the Jostedalsbreen ice cap, the largest body of ice in continental Europe, Kjenndalsbreen, Brenndalsbreen, Briksdalsbreen and Bergsetbreen had a frontal retreat of more than . Overall, from 1999 to 2005, Briksdalsbreen retreated . Gråfjellsbrea, an outlet glacier of the Folgefonna ice cap, had a retreat of almost . In the Spanish Pyrenees, recent studies have shown important losses in extent and volume of the glaciers of the Maladeta massif during the period 1981–2005. These include a reduction in area of 35.7%, from to , a loss in total ice volume of and an increase in the mean altitude of the glacial termini of . For the Pyrenees as a whole 50–60% of the glaciated area has been lost since 1991. The Balaitus, Perdigurero and La Munia glaciers have disappeared in this period. Monte Perdido Glacier has shrunk from 90 hectares to 40 hectares. As initial cause for glacier retreat in the alps since 1850, a decrease of the glaciers' albedo, caused by industrial black carbon can be identified. According to a report, this may have accelerated the retreat of glaciers in Europe which otherwise might have continued to expand until approximately the year 1910. West Asia All the glaciers in Turkey are in retreat and glaciers have been developing proglacial lakes at their terminal ends as the glaciers thin and retreat. Between the 1970s and 2013, the glaciers in Turkey lost half their area, going from in the 1970s to in 2013. Of the 14 glaciers studied, five had disappeared altogether. Mount Ararat has the largest glacier in Turkey, and that is forecast to be completely gone by 2065. Siberia and the Russian Far East Siberia is typically classified as a polar region, owing to the dryness of the winter climate and has glaciers only in the high Altai Mountains, Verkhoyansk Range, Cherskiy Range and Suntar-Khayata Range, plus possibly a few very small glaciers in the ranges near Lake Baikal, which have never been monitored and may have completely disappeared since 1989. Between the years 1952 and 2006, the glaciers found in the Aktru Basin region shrank by 7.2 percent. This shrinkage has been primarily in the ablation zone of the glaciers, with recession of several hundred meters being observed for some glaciers. The Altai region has also experienced an overall temperature increase of 1.2 degrees Celsius in the last 120 years according to a report from 2006, with most of that increase occurring since the late 20th century. In the more maritime and generally wetter Russian Far East, Kamchatka, exposed during winter to moisture from the Aleutian Low, has much more extensive glaciation totaling around with 448 known glaciers as of 2010. Despite generally heavy winter snowfall and cool summer temperatures, the high summer rainfall of the more southerly Kuril Islands and Sakhalin in historic times melt rates have been too high for a positive mass balance even on the highest peaks. In the Chukotskiy Peninsula small alpine glaciers are numerous, but the extent of glaciation, though larger than further west, is much smaller than in Kamchatka, totaling around . Details on the retreat of Siberian and Russian Far East glaciers have been less adequate than in most other glaciated areas of the world. There are several reasons for this, the principal one being that since the collapse of Communism there has been a large reduction in the number of monitoring stations. Another factor is that in the Verkhoyansk and Cherskiy Ranges it was thought glaciers were absent before they were discovered during the 1940s, whilst in ultra-remote Kamchatka and Chukotka, although the existence of glaciers was known earlier, monitoring of their size dates back no earlier than the end of World War II. Nonetheless, available records do indicate a general retreat of all glaciers in the Altai Mountains with the exception of volcanic glaciers in Kamchatka. Sakha's glaciers, totaling seventy square kilometers, have shrunk by around 28 percent since 1945 reaching several percent annually in some places, whilst in the Altai and Chukotkan mountains and non-volcanic areas of Kamchatka, the shrinkage is considerably larger. Himalayas and Central Asia The Himalayas and other mountain chains of central Asia support large glaciated regions. An estimated 15,000 glaciers can be found in the greater Himalayas, with double that number in the Hindu Kush and Karakoram and Tien Shan ranges, and comprise the largest glaciated region outside the poles. These glaciers provide critical water supplies to arid countries such as Mongolia, western China, Pakistan, Afghanistan and India. As with glaciers worldwide, those of the greater Himalayan region are experiencing a decline in mass, and researchers claim that between the early 1970s and early 2000s, there had been a 9 percent reduction in ice mass, while there has been a significant increase in mass loss since the Little Ice Age with a 10-fold increase when compared to rates seen currently. Change in temperature has led to melting and the formation and expansion of glacial lakes which could cause an increase in the number of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs). If the present trends persist the ice mass will gradually be reduced, and will affect the availability of water resources, though water loss is not expected to cause problems for many decades. In the Wakhan Corridor of Afghanistan 28 of 30 glaciers examined retreated significantly between 1976 and 2003, with an average retreat of per year. One of these glaciers, the Zemestan Glacier, retreated during this period, not quite 10% of its length. In examining 612 glaciers in China between 1950 and 1970, 53% of the glaciers studied were retreating. After 1990, 95% of these glaciers were measured to be retreating, indicating that retreat of these glaciers was becoming more widespread. Glaciers in the Mount Everest region of the Himalayas are all in a state of retreat. The Rongbuk Glacier, draining the north side of Mount Everest into Tibet, has been retreating per year. In the Khumbu region of Nepal along the front of the main Himalaya of 15 glaciers examined from 1976 to 2007 all retreated significantly and the average retreat was per year. The most famous of these, the Khumbu Glacier, retreated at a rate of per year from 1976 to 2007. In India, the Gangotri Glacier retreated between the years 1936 and 1996 with of that retreat occurring in the last 25 years of the 20th century. However, the glacier is still over long. In Sikkim, 26 glaciers examined between the years 1976 and 2005 were retreating at an average rate of per year. Overall, glaciers in the Greater Himalayan region that have been studied are retreating an average of between annually. The only region in the Greater Himalaya that has seen glacial advances is in the Karakoram Range and only in the highest elevation glaciers, but this has been attributed possibly increased precipitation as well as to the correlating glacial surges, where the glacier tongue advances due to pressure build up from snow and ice accumulation further up the glacier. Between the years 1997 and 2001, long Biafo Glacier thickened mid-glacier, however it did not advance. With the retreat of glaciers in the Himalayas, a number of glacial lakes have been created. A growing concern is the potential for GLOFs researchers estimate 21 glacial lakes in Nepal and 24 in Bhutan pose hazards to human populations should their terminal moraines fail. One glacial lake identified as potentially hazardous is Bhutan's Raphstreng Tsho, which measured long, wide and deep in 1986. By 1995 the lake had swollen to a length of , in width and a depth of . In 1994 a GLOF from Luggye Tsho, a glacial lake adjacent to Raphstreng Tsho, killed 23 people downstream. Glaciers in the Ak-shirak Range in Kyrgyzstan experienced a slight loss between 1943 and 1977 and an accelerated loss of 20% of their remaining mass between 1977 and 2001. In the Tien Shan mountains, which Kyrgyzstan shares with China and Kazakhstan, studies in the northern areas of that mountain range show that the glaciers that help supply water to this arid region, lost nearly of ice per year between 1955 and 2000. The University of Oxford study also reported that an average of 1.28% of the volume of these glaciers had been lost per year between 1974 and 1990. The Pamirs mountain range located primarily in Tajikistan, has approximately eight thousand glaciers, many of which are in a general state of retreat. During the 20th century, the glaciers of Tajikistan lost of ice. The long Fedchenko Glacier, which is the largest in Tajikistan and the largest non-polar glacier on Earth, retreated between the years 1933 and 2006, and lost of its surface area due to shrinkage between the years 1966 and 2000. Tajikistan and neighboring countries of the Pamir Range are highly dependent upon glacial runoff to ensure river flow during droughts and the dry seasons experienced every year. The continued demise of glacier ice will result in a short-term increase, followed by a long-term decrease in glacial melt water flowing into rivers and streams. Northern hemisphere – North America North American glaciers are primarily located along the spine of the Rocky Mountains in the United States and Canada, and the Pacific Coast Ranges extending from northern California to Alaska. While Greenland is geologically associated with North America, it is also a part of the Arctic region. Apart from the few tidewater glaciers such as Taku Glacier, in the advance stage of their tidewater glacier cycle prevalent along the coast of Alaska, virtually all of those in North America are in a state of retreat. This rate has increased rapidly since around 1980, and overall each decade since has seen greater rates of retreat than the preceding one. There are also small remnant glaciers scattered throughout the Sierra Nevada mountains of California and Nevada. Cascade Range The Cascade Range of western North America extends from southern British Columbia in Canada to northern California. Excepting Alaska, about half of the glacial area in the U.S. is contained within the over 700 glaciers of the North Cascades, a portion of those located between the Canada–US border and I-90 in central Washington. These contain as much water as is found in all the lakes and reservoirs in the rest of the state, and provide much of the stream and river flow in the dry summer months, approximating some . As recently as 1975 many North Cascade glaciers were advancing due to cooler weather and increased precipitation that occurred from 1944 to 1976. By 1987 the North Cascade glaciers were retreating and the pace had increased each decade since the mid-1970s. Between 1984 and 2005 the North Cascade glaciers lost an average of more than in thickness and 20–40 percent of their volume. Glaciologists researching the North Cascades found that all 47 monitored glaciers are receding while four glaciers—Spider Glacier, Lewis Glacier, Milk Lake Glacier and Mt. David Glacier—are almost completely gone. The White Chuck Glacier (near Glacier Peak) is a particularly dramatic example. The glacier area shrank from in 1958 to by 2002. Between 1850 and 1950, the Boulder Glacier on the southeast flank of Mount Baker retreated . William Long of the United States Forest Service observed the glacier beginning to advance due to cooler/wetter weather in 1953. This was followed by a advance by 1979. The glacier again retreated from 1987 to 2005, leaving barren terrain behind. This retreat has occurred during a period of reduced winter snowfall and higher summer temperatures. In this region of the Cascades, winter snowpack has declined 25% since 1946, and summer temperatures have risen 0.7 °C (1.2 °F) during the same period. The reduced snowpack has occurred despite a small increase in winter precipitation—thus, it reflects warmer winter temperatures leading to rainfall and melting on glaciers even during the winter. As of 2005, 67% of the North Cascade glaciers observed are in disequilibrium and will not survive the continuation of the present climate. These glaciers will eventually disappear unless temperatures fall and frozen precipitation increases. The remaining glaciers are expected to stabilize, unless the climate continues to warm, but will be much reduced in size. U.S. Rocky Mountains On the sheltered slopes of the highest peaks of Glacier National Park in Montana, the eponymous glaciers are diminishing rapidly. The area of each glacier has been mapped for decades by the National Park Service and the U.S. Geological Survey. Comparing photographs from the mid-19th century with contemporary images provides ample evidence that they have retreated notably since 1850. Repeat photography since clearly show that glaciers such as Grinnell Glacier are all retreating. The larger glaciers are now approximately a third of their former size when first studied in 1850, and numerous smaller glaciers have disappeared completely. Only 27% of the area of Glacier National Park covered by glaciers in 1850 remained covered by 1993. Researchers believe that between the year 2030 and 2080, that some glacial ice in Glacier National Park will be gone unless current climate patterns reverse their course. Grinnell Glacier is just one of many glaciers in Glacier National Park that have been well documented by photographs for many decades. The photographs below clearly demonstrate the retreat of this glacier since 1938. The semiarid climate of Wyoming still manages to support about a dozen small glaciers within Grand Teton National Park, which all show evidence of retreat over the past 50 years. Schoolroom Glacier is located slightly southwest of Grand Teton is one of the more easily reached glaciers in the park and it is expected to disappear by 2025. Research between 1950 and 1999 demonstrated that the glaciers in Bridger-Teton National Forest and Shoshone National Forest in the Wind River Range shrank by over a third of their size during that period. Photographs indicate that the glaciers today are only half the size as when first photographed in the late 1890s. Research also indicates that the glacial retreat was proportionately greater in the 1990s than in any other decade over the last 100 years. Gannett Glacier on the northeast slope of Gannett Peak is the largest single glacier in the Rocky Mountains south of Canada. It has reportedly lost over 50% of its volume since 1920, with almost half of that loss occurring since 1980. Glaciologists believe the remaining glaciers in Wyoming will disappear by the middle of the 21st century if the current climate patterns continue. Canadian Rockies and Coast and Columbia Mountains In the Canadian Rockies, glaciers are generally larger and more widespread than to the south in the Rocky Mountains. One of the more accessible in the Canadian Rockies is the Athabasca Glacier, which is an outlet glacier of the Columbia Icefield. The Athabasca Glacier has retreated since the late 19th century. Its rate of retreat has increased since 1980, following a period of slow retreat from 1950 to 1980. The Peyto Glacier in Alberta covers an area of about , and retreated rapidly during the first half of the 20th century, stabilized by 1966, and resumed shrinking in 1976. The Illecillewaet Glacier in British Columbia's Glacier National Park (Canada), part of the Selkirk Mountains (west of the Rockies) has retreated since first photographed in 1887. In Garibaldi Provincial Park in Southwestern British Columbia over , or 26%, of the park, was covered by glacier ice at the beginning of the 18th century. Ice cover decreased to by 1987–1988 and to by 2005, 50% of the 1850 area. The loss in the last 20 years coincides with negative mass balance in the region. During this period all nine glaciers examined have retreated significantly. Alaska There are thousands of glaciers in Alaska but only few have been named. The Columbia Glacier near Valdez in Prince William Sound retreated in the 25 years from 1980 to 2005. Its calved icebergs partially caused the Exxon Valdez oil spill, when the tanker changed course to avoid the ice tips. The Valdez Glacier is in the same area, and though it does not calve, has also retreated significantly. "A 2005 aerial survey of Alaskan coastal glaciers identified more than a dozen glaciers, many former tidewater and calving glaciers, including Grand Plateau, Alsek, Bear, and Excelsior Glaciers that are rapidly retreating. Of 2,000 glaciers observed, 99% are retreating." Icy Bay in Alaska is fed by three large glaciers—Guyot, Yahtse, and Tyndall Glaciers—all of which have experienced a loss in length and thickness and, consequently, a loss in area. Tyndall Glacier became separated from the retreating Guyot Glacier in the 1960s and has retreated since, averaging more than per year. The Juneau Icefield Research Program has monitored outlet glaciers of the Juneau Icefield since 1946. On the west side of the ice field, the terminus of the Mendenhall Glacier, which flows into suburban Juneau, Alaska, has retreated . Of the nineteen glaciers of the Juneau Icefield, eighteen are retreating, and one, the Taku Glacier, is advancing. Eleven of the glaciers have retreated more than since 1948 – Antler Glacier, ; Gilkey Glacier, ; Norris Glacier, and Lemon Creek Glacier, . Taku Glacier has been advancing since at least 1890, when naturalist John Muir observed a large iceberg calving front. By 1948 the adjacent fjord had filled in, and the glacier no longer calved and was able to continue its advance. By 2005 the glacier was only from reaching Taku Point and blocking Taku Inlet. The advance of Taku Glacier averaged per year between 1988 and 2005. The mass balance was very positive for the 1946–88 period fueling the advance; however, since 1988 the mass balance has been slightly negative, which should in the future slow the advance of this mighty glacier. Long-term mass balance records from Lemon Creek Glacier in Alaska show slightly declining mass balance with time. The mean annual balance for this glacier was − each year during the period of 1957 to 1976. Mean annual balance has been increasingly negatively averaging − per year from 1990 to 2005. Repeat glacier altimetry, or altitude measuring, for 67 Alaska glaciers find rates of thinning have increased by more than a factor of two when comparing the periods from 1950 to 1995 ( per year) and 1995 to 2001 ( per year). This is a systemic trend with loss in mass equating to loss in thickness, which leads to increasing retreat—the glaciers are not only retreating, but they are also becoming much thinner. In Denali National Park, all glaciers monitored are retreating, with an average retreat of per year. The terminus of the Toklat Glacier has been retreating per year and the Muldrow Glacier has thinned since 1979. Well documented in Alaska are surging glaciers that have been known to rapidly advance, even as much as per day. Variegated, Black Rapids, Muldrow, Susitna and Yanert are examples of surging glaciers in Alaska that have made rapid advances in the past. These glaciers are all retreating overall, punctuated by short periods of advance. Southern hemisphere Andes and Tierra del Fuego A large region of population surrounding the central and southern Andes of Argentina and Chile reside in arid areas that are dependent on water supplies from melting glaciers. The water from the glaciers also supplies rivers that have in some cases been dammed for hydroelectric power. Some researchers believe that by 2030, many of the large ice caps on the highest Andes will be gone if current climate trends continue. In Patagonia on the southern tip of the continent, the large ice caps have retreated a since the early 1990s and since the late 19th century. It has also been observed that Patagonian glaciers are receding at a faster rate than in any other world region. The Northern Patagonian Ice Field lost of glacier area during the years between 1945 and 1975, and from 1975 to 1996, which indicates that the rate of retreat is increasing. This represents a loss of 8% of the ice field, with all glaciers experiencing significant retreat. The Southern Patagonian Ice Field has exhibited a general trend of retreat on 42 glaciers, while four glaciers were in equilibrium and two advanced during the years between 1944 and 1986. The largest retreat was on O'Higgins Glacier, which during the period 1896–1995 retreated . The Perito Moreno Glacier is long and is a major outflow glacier of the Patagonian ice sheet, as well as the most visited glacier in Patagonia. Perito Moreno Glacier is in equilibrium, but has undergone frequent oscillations in the period 1947–96, with a net gain of . This glacier has advanced since 1947, and has been essentially stable since 1992. Perito Moreno Glacier is one of three glaciers in Patagonia known to have advanced, compared to several hundred others in retreat. The two major glaciers of the Southern Patagonia Icefield to the north of Moreno, Upsala and Viedma Glacier have retreated in 21 years and in 13 years respectively. In the Aconcagua River Basin, glacier retreat has resulted in a 20% loss in glacier area, declining from to . The Marinelli Glacier in Tierra del Fuego has been in retreat since at least 1960 through 2008. Oceania In New Zealand, mountain glaciers have been in general retreat since 1890, with an acceleration since 1920. Most have measurably thinned and reduced in size, and the snow accumulation zones have risen in elevation as the 20th century progressed. Between 1971 and 1975 Ivory Glacier receded from the glacial terminus, and about 26% of its surface area was lost. Since 1980 numerous small glacial lakes formed behind the new terminal moraines of several of these glaciers. Glaciers such as Classen, Godley and Douglas now all have new glacial lakes below their terminal locations due to the glacial retreat over the past 20 years. Satellite imagery indicates that these lakes are continuing to expand. There has been significant and ongoing ice volume losses on the largest New Zealand glaciers, including the Tasman, Ivory, Classen, Mueller, Maud, Hooker, Grey, Godley, Ramsay, Murchison, Therma, Volta and Douglas Glaciers. The retreat of these glaciers has been marked by expanding proglacial lakes and terminus region thinning. The loss in Southern Alps total ice volume from 1976 to 2014 is 34 percent of the total. Several glaciers, notably the much-visited Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers on New Zealand's West Coast, have periodically advanced, especially during the 1990s, but the scale of these advances is small when compared to 20th-century retreat. Both are more than shorter than a century ago. These large, rapidly flowing glaciers situated on steep slopes have been very reactive to small mass-balance changes. A few years of conditions favorable to glacier advance, such as more westerly winds and a resulting increase in snowfall, are rapidly echoed in a corresponding advance, followed by equally rapid retreat when those favorable conditions end. Polar regions Despite their proximity and importance to human populations, the mountain and valley glaciers of tropical and mid-latitude glaciers amount to only a small fraction of glacial ice on the Earth. About 99 percent of all freshwater ice is in the great ice sheets of polar and subpolar Antarctica and Greenland. These continuous continental-scale ice sheets, or more in thickness, cap much of the polar and subpolar land masses. Like rivers flowing from an enormous lake, numerous outlet glaciers transport ice from the margins of the ice sheet to the ocean. Iceland The northern Atlantic island nation of Iceland is home to Vatnajökull, which is the largest ice cap in Europe. The Breiðamerkurjökull glacier is one of Vatnajökull's outlet glaciers, and receded by as much as between 1973 and 2004. In the early 20th century, Breiðamerkurjökull extended to within of the ocean, but by 2004 its terminus had retreated further inland. This glacier retreat exposed a rapidly expanding lagoon, Jökulsárlón, which is filled with icebergs calved from its front. Jökulsárlón is deep and nearly doubled its size between 1994 and 2004. Mass-balance measurements of Iceland's glaciers show alternating positive and negative mass balance of glaciers during the period 1987–1995, but the mass balance has been predominantly negative since. On Hofsjökull ice cap, mass balance has been negative each year from 1995 to 2005. Most of the Icelandic glaciers retreated rapidly during the warm decades from 1930 to 1960, slowing down as the climate cooled during the following decade, and started to advance after 1970. The rate of advance peaked in the 1980s, after which it slowed down until about 1990. As a consequence of rapid warming of the climate that has taken place since the mid-1980s, most glaciers in Iceland began to retreat after 1990, and by 2000 all monitored non-surge type glaciers in Iceland were retreating. An average of 45 non-surging termini were monitored each year by the Icelandic Glaciological Society from 2000 to 2005. Canada The Canadian Arctic islands contain the largest area and volume of land ice on Earth outside of the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets and is home to a number of substantial ice caps, including Penny and Barnes ice caps on Baffin Island, Bylot Ice Cap on Bylot Island, and Devon Ice Cap on Devon Island. Glaciers in the Canadian Arctic were near equilibrium between 1960 and 2000, losing 23 Gt of ice per year between 1995 and 2000. Since this time, Canadian Arctic glaciers have experienced a sharp increase in mass loss in response to warmer summer temperature, losing 92 Gt per year between 2007 and 2009 . Other studies show that between 1960 and 1999, the Devon Ice Cap lost of ice, mainly through thinning. All major outlet glaciers along the eastern Devon Ice Cap margin have retreated from to since 1960. On the Hazen Plateau of Ellesmere Island, the Simmon Ice Cap has lost 47% of its area since 1959. If the current climatic conditions continue, the remaining glacial ice on the Hazen Plateau will be gone around 2050. On August 13, 2005, the Ayles Ice Shelf broke free from the north coast of Ellesmere Island. The ice shelf drifted into the Arctic Ocean. This followed the splitting of the Ward Hunt Ice Shelf in 2002. The Ward Hunt has lost 90% of its area in the last century. Northern Europe Arctic islands north of Norway, Finland and Russia have all shown evidence of glacier retreat. In the Svalbard archipelago, the island of Spitsbergen has numerous glaciers. Research indicates that Hansbreen (Hans Glacier) on Spitsbergen retreated from 1936 to 1982 and another during the 16-year period from 1982 to 1998. Blomstrandbreen, a glacier in the King's Bay area of Spitsbergen, has retreated approximately in the past 80 years. Since 1960 the average retreat of Blomstrandbreen has been about a year, and this average was enhanced due to an accelerated rate of retreat since 1995. Similarly, Midre Lovenbreen retreated between 1977 and 1995. In the Novaya Zemlya archipelago north of Russia, research indicates that in 1952 there was of glacier ice along the coast. By 1993 this had been reduced by 8% to of glacier coastline. Greenland In Greenland, glacier retreat has been observed in outlet glaciers, resulting in an increase of the ice flow rate and destabilization of the mass balance of the ice sheet that is their source. The net loss in volume and hence sea level contribution of the Greenland Ice Sheet (GIS) has doubled in recent years from per year in 1996 to per year in 2005. Researchers also noted that the acceleration was widespread affecting almost all glaciers south of 70 N by 2005. The period since 2000 has brought retreat to several very large glaciers that had long been stable. Three glaciers that have been researched—Helheim Glacier, Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier, and Jakobshavn Isbræ—jointly drain more than 16% of the Greenland Ice Sheet. In the case of Helheim Glacier, researchers used satellite images to determine the movement and retreat of the glacier. Satellite images and aerial photographs from the 1950s and 1970s show that the front of the glacier had remained in the same place for decades. In 2001 the glacier began retreating rapidly, and by 2005 the glacier had retreated a total of , accelerating from per day to per day during that period. Jakobshavn Isbræ in west Greenland, a major outlet glacier of the Greenland Ice Sheet, was the fastest moving glacier in the world over the past half century. It had been moving continuously at speeds of over per day with a stable terminus since at least 1950. In 2002 the long floating terminus of the glacier entered a phase of rapid retreat, with the ice front breaking up and the floating terminus disintegrating and accelerating to a retreat rate of over per day. No longer. The glacier has "slammed the brakes" and is now getting thicker (growing in height) 20 meters each year. On a shorter timescale, portions of the main trunk of Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier that were flowing at per day from 1988 to 2001 were measured to be flowing at per day in the summer of 2005. Not only has Kangerdlugssuaq retreated, it has also thinned by more than . The rapid thinning, acceleration and retreat of Helheim, Jakobshavns and Kangerdlugssuaq glaciers in Greenland, all in close association with one another, suggests a common triggering mechanism, such as enhanced surface melting due to regional climate warming or a change in forces at the glacier front. The enhanced melting leading to lubrication of the glacier base has been observed to cause a small seasonal velocity increase and the release of meltwater lakes has also led to only small short term accelerations. The significant accelerations noted on the three largest glaciers began at the calving front and propagated inland and are not seasonal in nature. Thus, the primary source of outlet glacier acceleration widely observed on small and large calving glaciers in Greenland is driven by changes in dynamic forces at the glacier front, not enhanced meltwater lubrication. This was termed the Jakobshavns Effect by Terence Hughes at the University of Maine in 1986. Indeed, a study published in 2015 on glacial underwater topography at 3 sites found cavities, due to warm subglacial water intrusion, which has been identified as a possible dominant force for ablation (surface erosion). Thus, suggests ocean temperature controls ice sheet surface runoff at specific sites. These findings also show that models underestimate the sensitivity of Greenland glaciers to ocean warming and resulting ice sheet runoff. Hence, without better modelling, new observations suggest that past projections of sea level rise attribution from the Greenland Ice Sheet require upward revision. According to one study, in the years 2002–2019 Greenland lost 4,550 gigaton of ice, 268 gigaton per year, on average. In 2019 Greenland lost 600 gigaton of ice in two months contributing 2.2 mm to global sea level rise Antarctica Antarctica is intensely cold and arid. Most of the world's freshwater ice is contained within its sheets. Its most dramatic example of glacier retreat is the loss of large sections of the Larsen Ice Shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula. The recent collapse of Wordie Ice Shelf, Prince Gustav Ice Shelf, Mueller Ice Shelf, Jones Ice Shelf, Larsen-A and Larsen-B Ice Shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula has raised awareness of how dynamic ice shelf systems are. The Antarctic sheet is the largest known single mass of ice. It covers almost 14 million km2 and some 30 million km3 of ice. Around 90% of the fresh water on the planet's surface is held in this area and if melted would raise sea levels by 58 metres. The continent-wide average surface temperature trend of Antarctica is positive and significant at >0.05 °C/decade since 1957. The Antarctic sheet is divided by the Transantarctic Mountains into two unequal sections known as the East Antarctic ice sheet (EAIS) and the smaller West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS). The EAIS rests on a major land mass but the bed of the WAIS is, in places, more than 2,500 metres below sea level. It would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there. The WAIS is classified as a marine-based ice sheet, meaning that its bed lies below sea level and its edges flow into floating ice shelves. The WAIS is bounded by the Ross Ice Shelf, the Ronne Ice Shelf, and outlet glaciers that drain into the Amundsen Sea. Ice shelves are not stable when surface melting occurs. The situation with some notable ice shelves is explained below: The collapse of Larsen Ice Shelf has been caused by warmer melt season temperatures that have led to surface melting and the formation of shallow ponds of water on the ice shelf. The Larsen Ice Shelf lost of its area from 1995 to 2001. In a 35-day period beginning on January 31, 2002, about of shelf area disintegrated. The ice shelf is now 40% the size of its previous minimum stable extent. In 2015 a study concluded that the remaining Larsen B ice-shelf will disintegrate by the end of the decade, based on observations of faster flow and rapid thinning of glaciers in the area. Jones Ice Shelf had an area of in the 1970s but by 2008 it had disappeared. Wordie Ice Shelf has gone from an area of in 1950 to in 2000. Prince Gustav Ice Shelf has gone from an area of to in 2008. After their loss the reduced buttressing of feeder glaciers has allowed the expected speed-up of inland ice masses after shelf ice break-up. The Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica (an area of roughly and about across: about the size of France). Wilkins Ice Shelf is another ice shelf that has suffered substantial retreat. The ice shelf had an area of in 1998 when was lost that year. In 2007 and 2008 significant rifting developed and led to the loss of another of area and some of the calving occurred in the Austral winter. The calving seemed to have resulted from preconditioning such as thinning, possibly due to basal melt, as surface melt was not as evident, leading to a reduction in the strength of the pinning point connections. The thinner ice then experienced spreading rifts and breakup. This period culminated in the collapse of an ice bridge connecting the main ice shelf to Charcot Island leading to the loss of an additional between February and June 2009. Dakshin Gangotri Glacier, a small outlet glacier of the Antarctic ice sheet, receded at an average rate of per year from 1983 to 2002. On the Antarctic Peninsula, which is the only section of Antarctica that extends well north of the Antarctic Circle, there are hundreds of retreating glaciers. In one study of 244 glaciers on the peninsula, 212 have retreated an average of from where they were when first measured in 1953. Pine Island Glacier is an Antarctic outflow glacier that flows into the Amundsen Sea. A study from 1998 concluded that the glacier thinned ± per year and retreated a total of in 3.8 years. The terminus of the Pine Island Glacier is a floating ice shelf, and the point at which it starts to float retreated per year from 1992 to 1996. This glacier drains a substantial portion of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. A study published in 2014 found, rapid grounding line retreat in the years 1992–2011. Based on a study from 2005, the greatest retreat was seen in Sjogren Glacier, which is now further inland than where it was in 1953. There are 32 glaciers that were measured to have advanced; however, these glaciers showed only a modest advance averaging per glacier, which is significantly smaller than the massive retreat observed. Thwaites Glacier, which has also shown evidence of thinning, has been referred to as the weak underbelly of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. A study published in 2014 found rapid grounding line retreat in the years 1992–2011. More recently, new satellite imaging data led to calculations of Thwaites Glacier "ice shelf melt rate of 207 m/year in 2014–2017, which is the highest ice shelf melt rate on record in Antarctica." Totten Glacier is a large glacier draining a major portion of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. A study in 2008 concluded that Totten Glacier is currently losing mass. A study published in 2015 concluded that Totten Glacier, has the largest contribution of ice thinning rate on the East Antarctic continent, and that the thinning is driven by enhanced basal melting, because of ocean processes, and affected by polynya activity. Additionally, warm Circumpolar Deep Water, has been observed during summer and winter months at the nearby continental shelf below 400 to 500 meters of cool Antarctic Surface Water. A 2019 study showed that Antarctica is losing ice six times faster than it was 40 years ago. Another study showed that two glaciers, Pine Island and Thwaites, are melting five times faster than "in the early 1990s". In February 2020, it was reported from Esperanza Base, the Antarctic Peninsula reached a temperature of , the hottest on record to date for continental Antarctica. In the past 50 years, temperatures in the Antarctic Peninsula have surged 5 degrees and about 87% of the glaciers along the peninsula's west coast have retreated. Tropics Tropical glaciers are located between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, in the region that lies 23° 26′ 22″ north or south of the equator. Strictly, a tropical glacier is located within the astronomical tropics; the area where the annual temperature variation is less than the daily variation, and is within the oscillation area of the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Tropical glaciers are the most uncommon of all glaciers for a variety of reasons. Firstly, the regions are the warmest part of the planet. Secondly, the seasonal change is minimal with temperatures warm year round, resulting in a lack of a colder winter season in which snow and ice can accumulate. Thirdly, few taller mountains exist in these regions upon which enough cold air exists for the establishment of glaciers. Overall, tropical glaciers are smaller than those found elsewhere and are the most likely glaciers to show rapid response to changing climate patterns. A small temperature increase of only a few degrees can have almost immediate and adverse effect on tropical glaciers. Near the Equator, ice is still found in East Africa, the Andes of South America and New Guinea. The retreat of equatorial glaciers has been documented via maps and photographs covering the period from the late 1800s to nearly the present. 99.64% of tropical glaciers are in Andean mountains of South America, 0.25% on the African glaciers of Rwenzori, Mount Kenya and Kilimanjaro, and 0.11% in the Irian Jaya region in New Guinea. Africa Almost all Africa is in tropical and subtropical climate zones. Its glaciers are found only in two isolated ranges and the Ruwenzori Range. Kilimanjaro, at , is the highest peak on the continent. From 1912 to 2006 the glacier cover on the summit of Kilimanjaro apparently retreated 75%, and the volume of glacial ice decreased 80% from its 1912 value due to both retreat and thinning. In the 14-year period from 1984 to 1998, one section of the glacier atop the mountain receded . A 2002 study determined that were conditions to continue, the glaciers atop Kilimanjaro would disappear sometime between 2015 and 2020. Al Gore predicted in 2006 that within the decade there would be no more snows of Kilimanjaro. A March 2005 report indicated that almost no glacial ice remained on the mountain, and the paper noted this as the first time in 11,000 years that barren ground had been exposed on portions of the summit. Researchers reported Kilimanjaro's glacier retreat was due to a combination of increased sublimation and decreased snow fall. The Furtwängler Glacier is located near the summit of Kilimanjaro. Between 1976 and 2000, the area of Furtwängler Glacier was cut almost in half, from to . During fieldwork conducted early in 2006, scientists discovered a large hole near the center of the glacier. This hole, extending through the remaining thickness of the glacier to the underlying rock, was expected to grow and split the glacier in two by 2007. To the north of Kilimanjaro lies Mount Kenya, which at is the second tallest mountain on the continent. Mount Kenya has a number of small glaciers that have lost at least 45% of their mass since the middle of the 20th century. According to research compiled by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), there were eighteen glaciers atop Mount Kenya in 1900, and by 1986 only eleven remained. The total area covered by glaciers was in 1900, however by the year 2000 only about 25%, or remained. To the west of Mounts Kilimanjaro and Kenya, the Ruwenzori Range rises to . Photographic evidence indicates a marked reduction in glacially covered areas over the past century. In the 35-year period between 1955 and 1990, glaciers on the Rwenzori Mountains receded about 40%. It is expected that due to their proximity to the heavy moisture of the Congo region, the glaciers in the Ruwenzori Range may recede at a slower rate than those on Kilimanjaro or in Kenya. South America A study by glaciologists of two small glaciers in South America reveals another retreat. More than 80% of all glacial ice in the northern Andes is concentrated on the highest peaks in small plains of approximately in size. A 1992 to 1998 observation of the Chacaltaya Glacier in Bolivia and Antizana Glacier in Ecuador indicate that between and of ice was lost per year on each glacier. Figures for Chacaltaya show a loss of 67% of its volume and 40% of its thickness over the same period. Chacaltaya Glacier has lost 90% of its mass since 1940 and was expected to disappear altogether sometime between 2010 and 2015. Antizana is also reported to have lost 40% of its surface area between 1979 and 2007. Research also indicates that since the mid-1980s, the rate of retreat for both of these glaciers has been increasing. In Colombia, the glaciers atop Nevado del Ruiz have lost more than half their area in the last 40 years. Further south in Peru, the Andes are at a higher altitude overall, and host around 70% of all tropical glaciers. A 1988 glacier inventory based upon data from 1970 estimated, that at that time glaciers covered an area of . Between 2000 and 2016, 29% of the glacierized area was lost, the remaining area estimated at around . The Quelccaya Ice Cap is the second largest tropical icecap in the world after the Coropuna ice cap, and all of the outlet glaciers from the icecap are retreating. In the case of Qori Kalis Glacier, which is one of Quelccayas' outlet glaciers, the rate of retreat had reached per year during the three-year period of 1995 to 1998. The melting ice has formed a large lake at the front of the glacier since 1983, and bare ground has been exposed for the first time in thousands of years. Oceania Jan Carstensz's 1623 report of glaciers covering the equatorial mountains of New Guinea was originally met with ridicule, but in the early 20th century at least five subranges of the Maoke Mountains (meaning "Snowy Mountains") were indeed still found to be covered with large ice caps. Due to the location of the island within the tropical zone, there is little to no seasonal variation in temperature. The tropical location has a predictably steady level of rain and snowfall, as well as cloud cover year round, and there has been no noticeable change in the amount of moisture which has fallen during the 20th century. In 1913, high Prins Hendrik peaks (now Puncak Yamin) was named and reported to have "eternal" snow, but this observation was never repeated. The ice cap of Wilhelmina Peaks, which reached below in 1909, vanished between 1939 and 1963. The Mandala / Juliana ice cap disappeared in the 1990s. and the Idenburg glacier on Ngga Pilimsit dried up in 2003. This leaves only the remnants of the once continuous icecap on New Guinea's highest mountain, Mount Carstensz with the high Puncak Jaya summit, which is estimated to have had an area of in 1850. For this mountain there is photographic evidence of massive glacial retreat since the region was first extensively explored by airplane in 1936 in preparation for the peak's first ascent. Between then and 2010, the mountain lost 80 percent of its ice—two-thirds of which since another scientific expedition in the 1970s. That research between 1973 and 1976 showed glacier retreat for the Meren Glacier of while the Carstensz Glacier lost . The Northwall Firn, the largest remnant of the icecap that once was atop Puncak Jaya, has itself split into two separate glaciers after 1942. IKONOS satellite imagery of the New Guinean glaciers indicated that by 2002 only glacial area remained, that in the two years from 2000 to 2002, the East Northwall Firn had lost 4.5%, the West Northwall Firn 19.4% and the Carstensz 6.8% of their glacial mass, and that sometime between 1994 and 2000, the Meren Glacier had disappeared altogether. An expedition to the remaining glaciers on Puncak Jaya in 2010 discovered that the ice on the glaciers there is about thick and thinning at a rate of annually. At that rate, the remaining glaciers were expected to last only to the year 2015. A 2019 study predicted their disappearance within a decade. Management approaches Reducing greenhouse gas emissions (i.e. climate change mitigation measures) is the only solution that addresses the root cause of glacier retreat since industrialization. To retard melting of the glaciers used by certain Austrian ski resorts, portions of the Stubai and Pitztal Glaciers were partially covered with plastic. In Switzerland plastic sheeting is also used to reduce the melt of glacial ice used as ski slopes. While covering glaciers with plastic sheeting may prove advantageous to ski resorts on a small scale, this practice is not expected to be economically practical on a much larger scale. See also List of glaciers Effects of climate change Extreme Ice Survey Post-glacial rebound References Glaciology Climate by mountain range History of climate variability and change Montane ecology Effects of climate change Articles containing video clips 19th century 20th century 21st century
4804617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walkerburn	Walkerburn	Walkerburn () is a small village in the Scottish Borders area of Scotland, on the A72 about from Peebles and from Galashiels. It was founded in 1854 to house the workers for the tweed mills owned by the Ballantyne family. It is the home of the Ballantyne Memorial Institute. The village also unusually houses a small number of science-based industries and many successful small enterprises. It boasts Scotland's first hydro electric scheme. Walkerburn has a population of around 740 (2020). History Early history There is evidence of settlers around the Walker Burn as far back as the Bronze Age because burnt mounds have been identified at Glenmead and on the Plora Burn to the south of the village. The mounds are evidence that people once heated stones in these areas that were then used to heat water. The remains of an Iron Age Hill Fort can be seen on Bold Rig and it is easy to see why this spot was picked for a defensive position with its excellent views over the valley to the north. This fort measured approx 220 ft by around 140 ft. Although the Romans conquered Tweeddale, they do not appear to have settled it and there are no great Roman roads or buildings in the area. Vestiges of Roman camps exist near Lyne Church, west of Peebles, and at Innerleithen. On Tower Knowe there are the remains of what is thought to be the Roman road that led from Newstead to Peebles. This would tie in with the Roman Camp outside Innerleithen and there might be some connection with the terraces on Purvis Hill. Maybe there was a settlement of Romanised Britons around the Walker Burn or at least local people who settled and farmed perhaps to feed the legionaries in the camp at Innerleithen. The terraces themselves are something of a mystery. It is not certain whether they were cultivation terraces or built as a form of theatre seating up the hillside. There has never been an excavation in this area so little is known about the people who built the terraces, whether from Roman times or Anglo Saxons. Towards Galashiels, at Kill Brae, there are more terraces and signs of an old settlement. During the 9th century, the Britons of Tweeddale, in common with those of Strathclyde, felt severe pressures from the Irish Scots on the west, and the Saxons on the east. After the kingdom of Cambria was overthrown by the Scottish king in 974, many Irish Scots settled in this area followed by settlers from Northumbria as the Saxons gained ascendancy. To the north of the village, past the steading of the ‘new’ Caberston Farm lies the ruined cottage at Priesthope. Old records suggest that there was a substantial farm in this area but where the name came from is still a mystery. Hollewell, which became Holylee, the estate and house to the east of the village, is another name which suggests a religious connection, perhaps to a holy well. This name appears in records back to 1455 and refers to land reserved for the King's sport. James IV leased the land for £26 per year from the Crichton family and may have had the first house built, probably further up hill than the current house. The remains of a peel house can still be seen on the hill above the Tweed at Elibank. This tower would have signalled to one at Holylee, which in turn would signal to Scrogbank, to Caberston, to Bold and to Purvis Hill before the signal went on to a similar chain at Innerleithen. Elibank was the manor of the Murray family, of whom Sir Walter Scott was a descendant. The manor is mentioned in a poem by the Border poet James Hogg called the ‘Fray of Elibank’. Elibank is known for the Elibank forest field archery course which attracts archers from all over the world. Before the woollen industry expanded in this area during the 1800s the pattern of settlement was that of small farms belonging to large estates, often with absentee landlords. Market gardens supplying the rapidly growing city of Edinburgh abounded and both sheep and cattle farming were profitable. Middle Ages to Great War All through the Middle Ages the production of cloth was a cottage industry in the Tweed valley. The crofter-weaver ran his own sheep, usually on common land, the whole community helped with shearing, the women carded and span the wool and the weaver himself warped and mounted his web and wove it in his handloom. The cloth was afterwards washed and ‘waulked’ or milled and beaten in a burn. Such dyes as were used came from local plants but for the most part the wool was undyed. Along the banks of the Tweed, especially where burns ran down the hillsides, small groups of these crofter-weavers would be established and it may be that the name ‘Walker Burn’ simply referred to the burn where weavers ‘waulked’ the wool. The Ballantyne family first appears as landowners and yeoman farmers of Bellenden Farm on the upper Ale Water with the name spelt Bellendaine, then Ballantin and eventually Ballantyne. Later, in 1666, a small colony of weavers in the village of Galashiels had as a member one William Ballantin and in 1672 the birth of his son Walter is the first entry in the baptism record of Galashiels Parish Church. Eventually, a descendant of William and Walter, Henry Ballantyne (1802-1865) rose to prominence as one of the most skillful developers of Tweed cloth. In 1846/7, looking around for a site for a new mill, Henry saw the possibilities of the site where the Walker Burn ran into the Tweed. He entered into negotiations with Thomas Horsburgh to buy a site around the Walker Burn on which to establish a mill to take advantage of a bend on the nearby River Tweed which would make it easy to build a mill lade taking water into the mill controlled by two sluice gates. The only buildings in the area on that side of the Tweed were Caberston farm and steading and 4 farm cottages. On the south side of the Tweed, West Bold Farm was much older and in other ownership – there was no bridge at this point. Work began on the mill and Frederick Thomas Pilkington was retained to design and build villas for the Ballantyne family and 115 houses for mill workers who initially came mainly from Galashiels, walking to and from work – and the working day was typically 14 hours. The blocks of flats at Plora Terrace were the first workers’ home to be built. In 1854 the village was christened Walkerburn after the Waulker Burn which runs from the hills above Priesthope into the Tweed. The first child was born in the new village in 1856 and the first shops opened in 1858. Gradually, more and more workers’ houses were built and by 1861 there were enough children to support an elementary school. The arrival of the railway and the opening of a Post Office in 1866 put Walkerburn firmly on the Peeblesshire map as an expanding, energetic mill village. The railway closed in 1962 but the Post Office is still in the original building. The Parish Church, built in 1875, was followed by a Methodist Chapel and then a Congregational Church in 1890, both now private houses. The Church of Scotland was built in 1883 and the Rugby Club founded in 1884, as the 25th member of the Scottish Rugby Union. And in 1877 the Good Templar Movement built the Public Hall which subsequently passed into community ownership in 1908. The Hall is now maintained as a charitable trust. A French style ‘pissoir’ was installed as a public toilet on the A72 beside the bridge over the Walker Burn. It is no longer in use. By 1878, when the first gas street lamps were installed, the population of the village was 1028, growing to 1500 by the turn of the century, and in 1882 the village got its own police station at the foot of Hall Street, which remained in use until a new police house was built opposite the mill gates. Both it and the original police station remain in use, though not by the police. In December 1883 there was the first meeting of the Walkerburn Co-operative Society, which played an active role in village retailing until it merged with the Innerleithen Society in 1966 and then with the Borders Society in 1969. There is still a co-operative store in Innerleithen but the Walkerburn store closed in 1987. Until the 1960s, in addition to the Post Office, Walkerburn had a grocery store, a butcher, baker and greengrocer, a chemist, a jeweler, a tailor, a haberdasher, a general clothes shop and a knitwear and dressmaking shop, two fish and chip shops, two hairdressers, a library, a boot repair shop, several sweetie shops, and numerous small shops run in people's front rooms. The first foot bridge was built across the Tweed, where the bridge is today, in 1867. Until that time, passengers for the new station had to be ferried across for a year. This was replaced by a girder bridge in 1914. This new bridge was something of a revolution in Walkerburn as it carried not only foot passengers but also vehicles. So a journey with a horse and cart or motor vehicle did not have to go via Innerleithen (where there was a bridge) or over the Bold Ford, which was sometimes impassable due to flooding of the Tweed. In 1904 David Ballantyne built the Henry Ballantyne Memorial Institute in memory of his father. The Institute was built in red Dumfriesshire sandstone, next to the Tweed Bridge, to provide education and entertainment for mill workers and their families. The Institute was endowed with £32,000 and its management handed over to a committee of local men. It remained in the trust of the Ballantyne family until 2000 when it was donated to the village. Known to villagers as the ‘HB Club’,it is still in existence providing a bar and entertainment for the community. By the outbreak of The Great War, the population of the village had risen to 1279 and two Ballantyne mills were in operation. Scotch Tweed had established itself worldwide. 1914-1918, The Great War, Tartan, Khaki and Flannel The young men joined the Army, the old men and women ran the mill producing 10,000 yards of tartan per week plus khaki flannel for the Army. Walkerburn had the highest casualty rate as a percentage of its population of any settlement in Scotland but the mill owners and the community looked after the many widows and children. Post war, the textile trade boomed and in 1920 a hostel was built on Park Avenue to house female workers recruited from outside the village. This is now single persons’ flats. In 1920 the War Memorial was built by public subscription. A full sized figure was planned but lack of funds led to a cut down figure being sculpted. In August 1998 the statue was stolen, perhaps to order, and another fund raising effort was made to replace it. Enough money was raised for a full size figure, produced by Beltane Studios in Peebles, which was installed in at a service on 20 September 1999, held in heavy rain in the presence of the Princess Royal. In 2000 two policemen spotted the old statue beside a cut in the perimeter fence at Edinburgh Airport. After much discussion, the old statue was placed alongside the Mill bell in a small garden opposite the site of the main mill buildings on the A72. 1920-1921, The Hydro Electric Scheme Initially the mill lade produced enough power for the mills but as production expanded more cheap energy was needed. In 1920 Messrs Boving & Co of London were asked to examine the possibility of setting up a better system of using water power from the Tweed to supply the mills. The first step was to make the lade more effective, and this was done by creating a greater and deeper fall, but this wasn't enough. Also, at night, the lade system produced power which was wasted. The revolutionary solution was to build a huge reservoir in the hills and to use the surplus power to pump water from the Tweed up to the reservoir. The next stage was to bring the water back down to drive a Pelton turbine to produce more power. A ferro-concrete reservoir was built on Kirnie Law connected to the power house by a 9" pipe. A funicular railway was built from the A72 up to the reservoir site to haul up all the materials used in construction – a total weight of 3,650 tons was carried on the railway. As production in the mills declined, less power was required. The system was dismantled and all that is left is the old reservoir. 1920s and 1930s, The Boom and Bust Years, Charleston and Jitterbug The school leaving age was raised to 14 – no more children going to work in the Mill at 11, or even younger. The Depression hit the wool trade and there were bleak years when only one loom ran but then there were also boom years when all 98 looms worked flat out. Wages rose and fell accordingly. There was a cinema in the Public Hall where silent films were shown to the tinkling of a piano and the serial was very popular. Sometimes, the projectionist went to the George Hotel in the interval and the films were then shown upside down. Dances and the Club Balls were well attended and always started with the Grand March. Walkerburn wages were never high but the work was dependable from age 14 to retirement and the Mill owners paternalistic, looking after workers who were sick and providing more and more recreation activities as working hours were slowly cut and leisure time increased. In a new park beside the river there were two tennis courts, a swing park and a putting green. Only the swing park survives! And in 1929 the local authority began to provide public housing in Walkerburn as more and more families sought a higher level of accommodation. In 1932 the first village Summer Festival for the children was held with a football match against Innerleithen school for the ‘Paul Cup’. The festival still takes place over the last week of the school year in June and the Paul Cup is as hotly contested as ever. 1939-1945, Another War, More Tartan Twelve Walkerburn men lost their lives in the service of their country in World War 2. Soldiers were billeted in the old wool store in Park Avenue (the new houses), in the Hostel in Park Avenue (the block of flats) and with families. The young men came from Glasgow in 157 Field Ambulance and from Yorkshire in 68 Field Regiment. And several new brides eventually left the village! The officers lived in Stoneyhill throughout the war, the soldiers’ canteen was run by the ladies of the village in the old darning shed. Sandy Russell, the chemist, won the Irish Sweepstake and threw a magnificent ball in Innerleithen for all the troops in the area and in 1941 the local Home Guard and Fire Service turned out as the Mill Wool Store burned down. The British Restaurant run in the Mill canteen provided food for the poor of the village as well as mill workers. Those with cars, and petrol, ran a ‘get you home’ service for village men in the Forces coming home on leave and met them off trains and buses in Edinburgh and Symington. The Women's Voluntary Service established a unit in the village and ran not only the canteen but also many events to keep everyone entertained and help the war effort. 1950s, You’ve never had it so good… Walkerburn Mill employed some of the large numbers of Poles, Ukrainians and other Eastern European displaced persons who came to work here in the 1940s. And another type of ‘refugee’ arrived – people displaced from Glasgow as the slums were cleared. The culture shock of moving to a mill village from the big city was too much for some but many stayed. New houses were built along Tweedholm Avenue. New clubs sprang up. Car ownership began slowly to spread and 1954 saw great celebrations for the 100th anniversary of the village. Money was being made fast in the textile trade but there were the first of many amalgamations though confidence was high and few foresaw the massive changes coming. During the twice yearly selling season, the owner would get on the train in Walkerburn and be in London in time for breakfast at Lyons Corner House in Piccadilly before walking round to the Ballantyne office at 1 Golden Square. And around the area the new Forestry Commission was buying up land and block planting Sitka spruce. The ‘Swedish’ houses at Glenbenna were built to house forestry workers and forest work became an alternative to employment in the mill. Over the next 30 years the landscape was transformed by the dark coniferous forest but eventually changes in forest practice led to a reappraisal of the planting policy which should mean that as the dark forest is harvested new planting will be mixed close to roads and habitations. 1960s and 1970s, The Slow Decline By 1961, when the railway closed, the population had dropped to 863, shops were beginning to struggle and close and although local people could still depend on the mill for jobs, wages were not keeping pace with inflation. Ballantyne's amalgamated into Scottish Worsteds & Woollens in 1968 and then in 1980, the remaining mill was bought by Dawson International. At first Walkerburn reaped the benefit of mill closures elsewhere in the Borders but in 1988 Dawson pulled out and the last mill closed. That was the end of Walkerburn as a mill village. New industries such as Rathburn Chemicals (1975) started up and expanded. It took time, as the village struggled with high unemployment and depressed house prices, but Walkerburn slowly regenerated. Into the 21st Century With help from the European Union, Scottish Enterprise and Scottish Borders Council, villagers formed the WAVE Group bringing together all the village clubs, societies and individuals to look at future regeneration. Burning Issues was founded as a monthly village newsletter and the Walkerburn and Innerleithen Partnership was formed to make the most of European regeneration funding. The Community Council was reinvigorated and a new Community Development Trust took shape. The Pathway Group re-built Alexandra Park with new equipment in the swing park, a wildlife hedge, tree planting and walkways. The Public Hall was renovated and extended just in time to provide a home for a village Healthy Living initiative which provides exercise and dance classes and healthy cooking classes for all ages. The Development Trust started to look at the feasibility of further extending the walking, riding and biking trails around the village, developing Walkerburn as a new focal point for tourism in the Tweed Valley. Over 80 households in the village signed up to a home composting scheme, village clean-ups and community events were again well supported, house prices started to rise and new homes were built on gap sites. Other The Myth of Muckle Mou'd Meg The Scotts and Murrays were ancient enemies; and as their lands were adjoining at many points, they had many opportunities of exercising their enmity "according to the custom of the Marches." In the seventeenth century much of the property lying upon the river Ettrick belonged to Scott of Harden, who made his principal residence at Oakwood Tower, a Border house of strength still remaining upon that river. William Scott (afterwards Sir William), son of the head of this family, undertook an expedition against the Murrays of Elibank, whose property was a few miles distant. He found his enemy upon their guard, was defeated, and made prisoner in the act of driving off the cattle he had collected for that purpose. Sir Gideon Murray conducted his prisoner to the castle, upon enquiry from his wife as to the fate of his prisoner, he is reputed to have said: "The gallows, to the gallows with the marauder." "Hout, na, Sir Gideon," answered the considerate matron, in her vernacular idiom; "would you hang the winsome young laird of Harden when you have three ill-favoured daughters to marry?" "Right," answered the baron, "he shall marry our daughter, Muckle-mouthed Meg, or strap for it." Upon this alternative being proposed to the prisoner, he upon the first view of the case stoutly preferred the gibbet to "Muckle-mouthed Meg," whose real name was Agnes. But at length, when he was literally led forth to execution, and saw no other chance of escape, he retracted his ungallant resolution, and preferred the typical noose of matrimony to the literal cord of hemp. Such is the tradition established in both families, and often jocularly referred to upon the Borders. It may be necessary to add that Muckle-mouthed Meg and her husband were a happy and loving pair, and had a large family.’ In truth, the marriage contract, which is still in existence, shows that ‘the marriage of young Harden and Agnes Murray, instead of being a hurried business, was arranged very leisurely, and with great care, calmness, and deliberation by all the parties interested, including the two principals, the bridegroom and bride, and the parents on either side. Instead of one contract, as is usual in such cases, there were two separate and successive contracts, made at an interval of several months, before the marriage was finally arranged.’ The first contract bears date at Edinburgh, 18 February 1611. In it young Harden and Agnes Murray agree to solemnise their marriage in the face of Christ's Kirk, within two months and a half after the date of the contract. Stipulations are made in the document for the infeftment, by Walter Scott, of his son and his promised spouse, and their heirs male, in the lands of Harden and other lands belonging to Walter and William Scott; and Sir Gideon Murray on his part becomes bound to pay to William Scott the sum of seven thousand merks as tocher with his daughter. The contract is subscribed by Sir Gideon Murray, William Scott, and ‘Agnes Murray,’ all good signatures. But as Auld Wat of Harden could not write, his subscription is thus given: ‘Walter Scott of Harden, with my hand at the pen, led be the notaries underwritten at my command, becus I can not wryt.’ The marriage however did not take place at the time specified in the contract, a failure which is not accounted for, and a second contract was made at the Provost's Place of Creichtoun, on 14 July 1611, in terms similar to those of the original contract. The existence and the terms of these two contracts no doubt show that the marriage of young Harden and Agnes Murray was not a hastily-settled affair, regulated by a contract ‘executed instantly on the parchment of a drum;’ but it is difficult to believe that a story so minute and circumstantial in its details could have been entirely fictitious. Myths are of slow growth, and have always some fact as a foundation. Sir William Scott died in 1655. The eldest son of ‘Little Sir William’ survived till 1707, and his second son lived three years longer. Sir Walter Scott was born in 1771, and the story must have been in circulation and universally credited long before his day. Is it not possible and probable that Sir William Scott was ‘handfasted’ to Agnes Murray in some such circumstances as are narrated by his descendant, the poet? And may not the delay in solemnizing the marriage, necessitating the formation of a second contract, have been caused by the reluctance of ‘the handsomest man of his time’ to marry an ill-favoured bride? Sir William Scott had by Agnes Murray five sons and three daughters. The eldest son, called ‘Little Sir William,’ was knighted by Charles II. immediately after the Restoration. The second was Sir Gideon of Highchester, whose posterity carried on the line of the family. Walter, the third son, called ‘Watty Wudspurs’ (or Mad-spurs), figures characteristically in the ballad of ‘Jamie Telfer.’ He was the ancestor of the Scotts of Raeburn. The fourth son was James of Thirlestaine; and from John of Woll, the fifth son, the family of Woll are descended. Ancient Stones The Coot Stone The Coot Stone is a large wedge-shaped rock, with large natural "cup" marks on the upper surface, located a few metres from the south bank of the River Tweed opposite Holylee to the east of Walkerburn. The stone is actually in the river bed and may have marked a crossing point to the Holy Well. The origins of the name are unclear. The Basin Stone This large stone slab measures less than 1.00m square, is about 0.30m thick and can be found at the top of Thornylee Forest, an area of woodland managed by Forest Enterprise. The stone has a distinct hollow or basin in the centre and appears to have been deliberately propped underneath by smaller stones. There is an old Scottish remedy for warts where the afflicted wash the warts in water that has collected in natural stone basins. After washing the warts would disappear. It may be that this was the purpose of the stone. The Cheese Well Above Walkerburn, on the Southern Upland Way, lies the Cheese Well. Two dressed but well weathered stones mark a small freshwater spring on the old drove road across the Minchmoor between Traquair and Selkirk. One stone, older than the other bears the inscription "Cheese Well". The second stone also bears the same name and is dated 1966. It is said that if you pass the well you should leave an offering, usually cheese, to the Fairies or "Wee Folk" who are supposed to haunt the area. This would ensure a safe and successful journey. The Cheese Well may have been a pagan shrine in the past, whose veneration has fallen to superstition. Flood History Since it was founded, Walkerburn has suffered major flooding of the Tweed river at least ten times, most notably in 2015 on the 5th and 30 December when properties like the Rugby Club, Bowling Club and fishing hut were inundated. The Bowling Club's clubhouse and the newly completed pétanque pitch were under almost 3 feet of water, causing a great deal of damage to the clubhouse, its grass cutting equipment and other contents. Flash-flooding around the Walker Burn is common. Historical flood records of the Tweed river suggest that flood levels of 17 feet or less generally mean that residential properties in the town are not substantially impacted. Gallery See also List of places in the Scottish Borders List of places in Scotland The Kirna References External links Walkerburn website Villages in the Scottish Borders
4804772	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad%20I%20of%20Granada	Muhammad I of Granada	Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr (; 1195 – 22 January 1273), also known as Ibn al-Ahmar (, "Son of the Red") and by his honorific al-Ghalib billah (, "The Victor by the Grace of God"), was the first ruler of the Emirate of Granada, the last independent Muslim state on the Iberian Peninsula, and the founder of its ruling Nasrid dynasty. He lived during a time when Iberia's Christian kingdoms—especially Portugal, Castile and Aragon—were expanding at the expense of the Islamic territory in Iberia, called Al-Andalus. Muhammad ibn Yusuf took power in his native Arjona in 1232 when he rebelled against the de facto leader of Al-Andalus, Ibn Hud. During this rebellion, he was able to take control of Córdoba and Seville briefly, before he lost both cities to Ibn Hud. Forced to acknowledge Ibn Hud's suzerainty, Muhammad was able to retain Arjona and Jaén. In 1236, he betrayed Ibn Hud by helping Ferdinand III of Castile take Córdoba. In the years that followed, Muhammad was able to gain control over southern cities, including Granada (1237), Almería (1238), and Málaga (1239). In 1244, he lost Arjona to Castile. Two years later, in 1246, he agreed to surrender Jaén and accept Ferdinand's overlordship in exchange for a 20-year truce. In the 18 years that followed, Muhammad consolidated his domain by maintaining relatively peaceful relations with the Crown of Castile; in 1248; he even helped the Christian kingdom take Seville from the Muslims. But in 1264, he turned against Castile and assisted in the unsuccessful rebellion of Castile's newly conquered Muslim subjects. In 1266 his allies in Málaga, the Banu Ashqilula, rebelled against the emirate. When these former allies sought assistance from Alfonso X of Castile, Muhammad was able to convince the leader of the Castilian troops, Nuño González de Lara, to turn against Alfonso. By 1272 Nuño González was actively fighting Castile. The emirate's conflict with Castile and the Banu Ashqilula was still unresolved in 1273 when Muhammad died after falling off his horse. He was succeeded by his son, Muhammad II. The Emirate of Granada, which Muhammad founded, and the Nasrid royal house, lasted for two more centuries until it was annexed by Castile in 1492. His other legacy was the construction of the Alhambra, his residence in Granada. His successors would continue to build the palace and fortress complex and reside there, and it has lasted to the present day as the architectural legacy of the emirate. Origin and early life Muhammad ibn Yusuf was born in 1195 in the town of Arjona, then a small frontier Muslim town south of the Guadalquivir, now in Spain's province of Jaén. He came from a humble background, and, in the words of the Castilian First General Chronicle, initially he had "no other occupation than following the oxen and the plough". His clan was known as the Banu Nasr or the Banu al-Ahmar. According to later Granadan historian and vizier Ibn al-Khatib, the clan was descended from a prominent companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad known as Sa'd ibn Ubadah of the Banu Khazraj tribe; Sa'd's descendants migrated to Spain and settled in Arjona as farmers. During his early life he became known for his leadership activity on the frontiers and for his ascetic image, which he maintained even after becoming a ruler. Muhammad was also known as Ibn al-Ahmar, or by his kunya Abu Abdullah. Family Muhammad I was married to a paternal first cousin (a bint 'amm marriage), Aisha bint Muhammad, likely in 1230 or before, when he was still in Arjona. Their first son was Faraj (1230 or 1231–1256), whose early death was recorded to cause Muhammad considerable sadness. Their other children include Yusuf (birth unknown), who also died during Muhammad I's lifetime; Muhammad (the future Muhammad II, 1235 or 1236–1302) and two daughters Mu'mina and Shams. He also has a brother, Ismail (d. 1257), whom he appointed as governor of Malaga, and who was the male-line ancestor of a line of future sultans of Granada starting from Ismail I. Background The early thirteenth century was a period of great loss for the Muslims of the Iberian Peninsula. The Almohad caliphate, which had dominated Al-Andalus or the Muslim Iberia, was split by a dynastic struggle after Caliph Yusuf II died in 1224 without an heir. Al-Andalus broke up into multiple small kingdoms or taifas. One of the taifa leaders was Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Hud (d. 1238), who revolted against the Almohads and nominally proclaimed the authority of the Abbasid caliphate but in practice ruled independently from Murcia. His growing strength made him the de facto leader of Al-Andalus, and briefly Muhammad's overlord. Despite his popularity and his success in Al-Andalus, Ibn Hud had suffered defeats against the Christians, including at Alanje in 1230 and at Jerez in 1231, followed by the loss of Badajoz and Extremadura. In the north of the peninsula there were several Christian kingdoms: Castile, León (in a union with Castile since 1231), Portugal, Navarre, and a union of kingdoms known as the Crown of Aragon. They had been expanding south—taking formerly Muslim-ruled territories—in a process called the Reconquista or "the reconquest". All of the kingdoms had sizable Muslim minorities. By the mid-thirteenth century, Castile was the largest kingdom of the peninsula. Its king, Ferdinand III () took advantage of the addition of León to his realm and of the Muslims' disunity to launch a southward expansion into Muslim territories, eventually conquering Córdoba (1236) and Seville (1248). Rise to power The defeats suffered by Ibn Hud eroded his credibility; rebellions broke out in parts of his domain, including Muhammad's small town of Arjona. On 16 July 1232, a mosque assembly in Arjona declared the town's independence. This proclamation took place on 26 Ramadan 629 in the Islamic calendar, after the final Friday prayer of the holy month. The assembly elected Muhammad, who was known for his piety and his martial reputation in previous conflicts against the Christians, as the town's leader. Muhammad also had the support of his clan, the Banu Nasr, and an allied Arjonan clan known as the Banu Ashqilula. In the same year, Muhammad took Jaén—an important city close to Arjona. With help from Ibn Hud's rivals, the Banu al-Mawl, Muhammad briefly seized control of the former disputed seat of Córdoba. He also took Seville in 1234 with help from the Banu al-Bajji family, but he was only able to hold it for one month. Both Córdoba and Seville, dissatisfied with Muhammad's ruling style, returned to Ibn Hud's rule shortly after Muhammad's takeover. After these failures, Muhammad once again declared his allegiance to Ibn Hud and kept his rule over a small region containing Arjona, Jaén, Porcuna, Guadix, and Baeza. Muhammad turned against Ibn Hud again in 1236. He allied himself with Ferdinand and helped the Castilians take Córdoba and end centuries of Muslim rule in the city. In the following years, Muhammad took control of important cities in the south. In May 1237 (Ramadan 634 AH), by invitation of the city's notables, he took Granada, which he then made his capital. He also took Almería in 1238 and Málaga in 1239. He did not take these southern cities by force, but through political maneuvering and the consent of the inhabitants. Ruler of Granada Settling in Granada Muhammad entered Granada in May 1238 (Ramadan 635). According to Ibn al-Khatib, he entered the city dressed like a sufi, in a plain wool cap, coarse clothes and sandals. He took up residence in the alcazaba (castle) built by the Zirids of Granada in the 11th century. He then inspected an area known as al-Hamra, where there was a small fortress, and laid the foundations there for his future residence and fortress. Soon work began on defensive structures, an irrigation dam, and a dike. The construction would last into the reigns of his successors, and the complex would be known as the Alhambra and would become the residence of all Nasrid rulers up to the surrender of Granada in 1492. He pressured his tax collectors to collect the necessary funds for the construction, going as far as executing Almería's tax-gatherer Abu Muhammad ibn Arus to enforce his demands. He also used money sent by the Hafsid ruler of Tunis—intended for defense against the Christians—to extend the city's mosque. Initial conflict with Castile By the end of the 1230s, Muhammad had become the most powerful Muslim ruler in Iberia. He controlled the major cities of the south, including Granada, Almería, Málaga and Jaén. In the early 1240s, Muhammad came into conflict with his former allies, the Castilians, who were invading Muslim territories. Contemporary sources disagree about the cause of this hostility: the Christian First General Chronicle blamed it on Muslim raiding, while Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun blamed it on Christian invasions of Muslim territories. In 1242, Muslim forces successfully raided Andújar and Martos near Jaén. In 1244, Castile besieged and captured Muhammad's hometown of Arjona. In 1245, Ferdinand III of Castile besieged the heavily fortified Jaén. Ferdinand did not want to risk assaulting the city, so his tactic was to cut it off from the rest of the Muslim territory and starve it into submission. Muhammad tried to send supplies to this important city, but these efforts were thwarted by the besiegers. Due to Muhammad's difficulty in defending and relieving Jaén, he agreed to terms with Ferdinand. In exchange for peace, Muhammad surrendered the city and agreed to pay Ferdinand an annual tribute of 150,000 maravedíes—an amount that became Ferdinand's most important source of income. This agreement was made in March 1246, seven months into the siege of Jaén. As part of the agreement he was required to kiss Ferdinand's hand to signify his vassalage, and promised him "counsel and aid". Castilian sources tended to emphasize this event as an act of feudal submission and considered Muhammad and his successors as vassals of Castile in the feudal sense. On the other hand, Muslim sources avoided mentions of any vassal-lord relation and tended to frame the relationship as between equals with certain obligations. After the agreement, the Castilians entered the city and expelled its Muslim inhabitants. Peace The peace agreement with Castile largely held for almost twenty years. In 1248, Muhammad demonstrated his commitment to Ferdinand by sending a contingent to help the Castilian conquest of the Muslim-held Seville. In 1252, Ferdinand died and was succeeded by Alfonso X. In 1254, Muhammad attended a Cortes, or an assembly of Alfonso's vassals, at the royal palace in Toledo, where he renewed his promise of loyalty and tributes, as well as paying homage to Alfonso's newborn daughter Berengaria. During his reign, Alfonso was more interested in other enterprises—including a series of unsuccessful campaigns in Muslim North Africa—rather than renewing the conflict with Granada. Muhammad met with Alfonso at the latter's court in Seville every year, and paid his annual tributes. Muhammad used the ensuing peace to consolidate his new emirate. Though small in size, the Emirate of Granada was relatively wealthy and densely populated. Its economy was focused on agriculture, especially silk and dried fruit; it traded with Italy and northern Europe. Islamic literature, art and architecture continued to flourish. The mountains and desert that separate the kingdom from Castile provided natural defenses, but its western ports and the northwestern route to Granada were less defensible. During his rule, Muhammad placed loyal men in castles and cities. His brother Isma'il was governor of Málaga until 1257. Following Isma'il's death in 1257, Muhammad appointed his nephew, Abu Muhammad ibn Ashqilula, as governor of Málaga. Rift with Castile Peace between Granada and Castile lasted until the early 1260s, when various actions by Castile alarmed Muhammad. As part of his crusade against Muslim North Africa, Alfonso built up his military presence in Cadiz and El Puerto de Santa María close to Granadan territory. Castile conquered the Muslim-held Jerez de la Frontera in 1261 near the Granadan border and installed a garrison there. In 1262, Castile conquered the Kingdom of Niebla, another Muslim enclave in Spain. In May 1262, during a meeting in Jaén, Alfonso requested that Muhammad hand the port cities of Tarifa and Algeciras to him. The demand for these strategically important ports was very worrying to Muhammad, and although he verbally agreed he kept delaying the transfer. Further, in 1263 Castile expelled the Muslim inhabitants of Écija and resettled the town with Christians. In light of these actions, Muhammad was worried that he would become Alfonso's next target. He began talks with Abu Yusuf Yaqub, the Marinid Sultan in Morocco, who then sent troops to Granada, numbering between 300 and 3,000 according to different sources. In 1264, Muhammad and 500 knights traveled to the Castilian court at Seville to discuss an extension of the 1246 truce. Alfonso invited them to lodge at the former Abbadid palace next to the city's mosque. During the night, the Castilians locked and barricaded the area. Muhammad perceived this as a trap, ordered his men to break out and returned to Granada. Alfonso argued that the barricade was to protect the entourage from Christian thieves, but Muhammad was angered, and ordered troops in his border towns to prepare for war. He declared himself vassal of Muhammad I al-Mustansir, the Hafsid sultan of Tunis. Revolt of the Mudéjars The peace was broken in either late April or early May 1264. Muhammad attacked Castile, and at the same time Muslims in the territories recently conquered by Castile ("Mudéjars") rebelled; partially over Alfonso's forced relocation policy and partially at Muhammad's instigation. Initially, Murcia, Jerez, Utrera, Lebrija, Arcos and Medina Sidonia were taken into Muslim control, but counterattacks by James I of Aragon and Alfonso retook these territories, and Alfonso invaded Granada's territory in 1265. Muhammad soon sued for peace, and the resulting settlement was devastating for the rebels: the Muslims of Andalusia suffered mass expulsions, replaced by Christians. For Granada, the defeat had mixed consequences. On the one hand, it was soundly defeated, and according to the peace treaty signed at Alcalá de Benzaide had to pay an annual tribute of 250,000 maravedíes to Castile—much larger than what had been paid before the rebellion. On the other hand, the treaty ensured its survival, and it emerged as the sole independent Muslim state in the peninsula. Muslims who were expelled by Castile immigrated to Granada, bolstering the emirate's population. Conflict with the Banu Ashqilula The Banu Ashqilula were a clan and—like the Nasrids—were also from Arjona. They had been the Nasrids' most important allies during their rise to power. They supported Muhammad's appointment as leader of Arjona in 1232 and helped with the acquisition of cities like Seville and Granada. Both families intermarried, and Muhammad appointed members of the Banu Ashqilula as governors in his territories. The Banu Ashqilula's center of power was in Málaga, where Muhammad's nephew Abu Muhammad ibn Ashqilula was governor. Their military strength was the backbone of Granada's power. By 1266, while Granada was still fighting Castile in the Mudéjar revolt, the Banu Ashqilula started a rebellion against Muhammad I. Sources are scarce regarding the beginning of the rebellion and historians disagree about the cause of the rift between the two families. Professor of Hispano-Islamic history Rachel Arié suggested that contributing factors may have been the 1257 declaration of Muhammad's sons—Muhammad and Yusuf—as heirs and his 1266 decision to marry one of his granddaughter Fatima to a Nasrid cousin instead of one of the Banu Ashqilula. According to Arié, these decisions alarmed the Banu Ashqilula because Muhammad had previously promised to share power with them and these decisions excluded them from the Nasrid dynasty's inner circle. In contrast, another historian of Islamic Spain, María Jesús Rubiera Mata rejected these explanations; she argued that the Banu Ashqilula were worried about Muhammad's decision to invite North African forces during the 1264 Revolt of the Mudéjars because the new military power threatened the Banu Ashqilula's position as the strongest military power in the Emirate. Muhammad besieged Málaga but failed to overpower the Banu Ashqilula military strength. The Banu Ashqilula sought assistance from Alfonso X of Castile, who was happy to support the rebellion to undermine Muhammad's authority. Alfonso sent 1,000 soldiers under Nuño González de Lara and Muhammad was forced to break off the siege of Málaga. The danger of fighting at multiple fronts contributed to Muhammad's decision to finally seek peace with Alfonso. In the resulting agreement of Alcalá de Benzaide, Muhammad renounced his claims over Jerez and Murcia—territories not under his control—and promised to pay an annual tribute of 250,000 maravedies. In exchange, Alfonso abandoned his alliance with the Banu Ashqilula and acknowledged Muhammad's authority over them. Alfonso was reluctant to enforce the last point and did not move against the Banu Ashqilula. Muhammad countered by convincing Nuño González, the commander of the Castilian forces sent to support the Banu Ashqilula, to rebel against Alfonso. Nuño González, who had grievances against his king, agreed; in 1272 he and his Castilian noble allies began operations against Castile from Granada. Muhammad had successfully deprived Castile of Nuño González's forces and gained allies in his conflict against the Banu Ashqilula. The Banu Ashqilula agreed to negotiate under the mediation of Al-Tahurti from Morocco. Before these efforts bore fruit, Muhammad suffered fatal injuries after falling from a horse on 22 January 1273 (29 Jumada al-Thani 671 AH), near the city of Granada during a minor military expedition. He was buried in a cemetery on the Sabika Hill, east of the Alhambra. An epitaph was inscribed on his headstone and was recorded by Ibn al-Khatib and other historical sources. He was succeeded by his son Muhammad II as he had planned. Later that year, Muhammad II and Alfonso negotiated a truce—albeit short-lived—between Granada and Castile as well as the Banu Ashqilula. Succession By the time of his death in 1273, Muhammad had already secured the succession for his son, also named Muhammad, known by the epithet al-Faqih (the canon-lawyer). On his deathbed, Muhammad I advised his heir to seek protection from the Marinid dynasty against the Christian kingdoms. The son, now Muhammad II, was already 38 years old and experienced in the matters of state and war. He was able to continue Muhammad I's policies and would rule until his death in 1302. Legacy Muhammad's main legacy was the founding of the Emirate of Granada under the rule of the Nasrid dynasty, which on his death was the only independent Muslim state remaining in the Iberian peninsula, and would last for little over two centuries before its fall in 1492. The emirate spanned between Tarifa in the west and eastern frontiers beyond Almería, and was around wide from the sea to its northern frontiers. During his lifetime, the Muslims of al-Andalus suffered severe setbacks, including the loss of the Guadalquivir valley, which included the major cities of Córdoba and Seville as well as Muhammad's hometown of Arjona. According to professor of Spanish history L. P. Harvey, he "managed to snatch from disaster ... a relatively secure refuge for Islam in the peninsula". His rule was characterized both by his "unheroic" part in the fall of Muslim cities like Seville and Jaén, as well his vigilance and political astuteness which ensured the survival of Granada. He was willing to enter into compromises, including accepting vassalage to Castile, as well as to switch alliances between Christians and Muslims, to preserve the emirate's independence. The Encyclopaedia of Islam comments that while his rule did not have any "spectacular victories", he did create a stable regime in Granada and start the construction of the Alhambra, a "lasting memorial to the Nasrids". The Alhambra is today a UNESCO World Heritage Site. His religious views appeared to transform during his career. In the beginning, he displayed an outward image of an ascetic religious frontiersman, like a typical Islamic mystic. He maintained this outlook during his early rule in Granada, but as his rule stabilized, he began to embrace the mainstream Sunni orthodoxy and enforced the doctrines of the Maliki fuqaha. This transformation and his commitment to mainstream Islam brought Granada into line with the rest of the Islamic world, and were continued by his successors. Notes References Citations Sources \|- 1195 births 1273 deaths 13th-century Arab people 13th-century monarchs in Europe Deaths by horse-riding accident in Spain Sultans of Granada
4804980	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strawberry%20Panic%21	Strawberry Panic!	Strawberry Panic! is a series of Japanese illustrated short stories written by Sakurako Kimino, which focus on a group of teenage girls attending three affiliated all-girl schools on Astraea Hill. A common theme throughout the stories is the intimate lesbian relationships between the characters. The original artist was Chitose Maki, who was succeeded by Namuchi Takumi when production of the manga and light novels began. Following Strawberry Panic!'''s first run in Dengeki G's Magazine it was six months before results began to indicate that the series was a success, and that its fans were growing in number; the manga and light novels which followed were a reflection of its popularity. The series became sufficiently popular for Seven Seas Entertainment to license the manga series and light novels for English language distribution. Strawberry Panic! was one of the debut titles on the company's light novel and yuri manga production lines. An anime television series was produced in 2006 by Madhouse and is licensed by Media Blasters. A visual novel was produced in 2006 by MediaWorks for the PlayStation 2. There is a slight difference in the title of the series between media and national affiliation. The original short stories, manga, light novels, and video game used the exclamation mark in the title; the anime excluded it. When the manga and light novel series were licensed for English language distribution, Seven Seas Entertainment did not use the exclamation mark in the title. The appearance of the logo for Strawberry Panic! has changed four times. The subtitle "Girls' School in Fullbloom" was added during the short stories stage, and later appeared on the Japanese covers of the light novels, manga, and video game version, but was excluded from the anime adaptation and the English covers of the light novels and manga. Plot Setting The setting for Strawberry Panic! is , a very large hilltop where the three affiliated schools of Miator, Spica and Lulim, are located. Each school has its own student council, which governs the matters of each respective school. Periodically the three student councils, along with the Etoiles, meet in the Astraea Joint Student Council. The Astraea Hill school system employs the Scottish system of grade numbering. Students are ranged from grades one through six, the equivalent of the three years of junior-high and high school in Japan, and seventh through twelfth grade in North America. The hill is known as a sacred area which no men are allowed to enter. A prominent feature is a very large Catholic church in the center of the hill near a small lake; the church can be seen from a long distance away. There is a horse ranch at Spica. The students may go and study for their classes at a library on the lake's shore. Although only implied in the anime, the manga explains that the library building has another name, "The Secret Garden". It is well known on campus as a rendezvous for secret lovers. Students living on campus occupy a dormitory referred to as the , although its correct name is Astraea Dormitory, named after Astraea Hill. The building is a triangular shape, allowing for the segregation of students from the three schools; each section is about the same size. It was built about 100 years before the story begins, around the same time that Miator was established, for students whose homes are far away. Each student is assigned a roommate in their year until graduation. If there is an odd number of students enrolled in a given year, one of the new students must live alone until a student in their year transfers into their school. The building's name is based on its similarity to the cross-section of a strawberry viewed from above. When Strawberry Panic! was initially created, the three schools were arranged in a triangle, with the Strawberry Dorms in the center, and the dormitory was not a single building but three separate dormitories also arranged in a triangle around a central courtyard. Story The plot of Strawberry Panic! revolves around the lives of the adolescents who attend one of three affiliated all-girl schools which share a campus and dormitories. The schools are: St. Miator's Girls' Academy, St. Spica's Girls' Institute, and St. Lulim's Girls' School. There are twelve characters the story revolves around, four at each school. The story's main character is Nagisa Aoi, a young girl entering her fourth year at St. Miator after being transferred from another school. On first entering the campus grounds, she is overcome with joy by the overall appearance of the surrounding area, but her joy is soon turned to sorrow as she accidentally stumbles down a hill, causing her to be lost and disoriented. While walking around the grounds trying to work out where she is, Nagisa comes across an older student named Shizuma Hanazono, who happens to be Astraea Hill's Etoile, a very important person who acts as a representative between the different schools and has specific duties that she must fulfill. Nagisa is instantly overcome by Shizuma's beauty, and after Shizuma kisses her on the forehead, Nagisa loses consciousness and awakens in the school's infirmary. In an adjacent chair is another girl of the same age, Tamao Suzumi, who informs her that they are to be roommates in the dormitory. In the ensuing story, Nagisa is introduced to other students from each of the three schools; some she admires, some she is intimidated by, and some are merely friends encountered while attending St. Miator. The series encompasses the relationships the characters build with each other, climaxing whenever two of the characters start dating. The central focuses of Strawberry Panic! are the lesbian relationships and friendships between the girls from the three schools and the Etoile position and competition; the anime is more relationship-heavy while the manga is more competition-heavy. The story of what happens to the other half of St. Miator's Etoile pairing is explored in the latter portion of the anime. Depending on the media type, the depiction of the relationships between the girls is variously presented, with more explicit fan service – appealing visuals of the girls in provocative situations – in the anime adaptation than in the manga or light novels. A hint of astronomical star imagery is seen throughout the series, as well as minor Catholic religious undertones including a St. Mary statue on campus and a large Catholic church in the center of Astraea Hill. Main characters and schools At each of the three schools, there are four main characters, who comprise the original twelve characters created for the short stories when the series began. Only those twelve appear in the subsequently adapted visual novel version. Other characters were introduced in the manga and light novel versions to create plotlines and conflict, and these additional characters are also featured in the anime adaptation. St. Miator's Girls' Academy , the oldest of the three schools which has a history of over 100 years, is known for upholding old traditions. It was founded on a monastery and is seen as the school for "brides", reinforced by the existence of extracurricular classes including tea ceremony, flower arrangement, and Japanese dancing. It is not unusual for students to be engaged before graduation. The school uniform is a long black dress, designed in the Gothic Lolita fashion. At Miator, the class names are associated with objects from nature, such as , and . In the Strawberry Dorms, there is a concept called the room temp system for students from Miator. Every underclassman entering the dormitories, if they are chosen to serve the upperclassman as room temps, perform maid duties, which include cleaning the room of the students they are assigned to serve. Nagisa Aoi is the main character of the story. She is a cheerful girl who finds pleasure in making new friends, which she finds easy to do because of her open personality and sociable attitude. The first person she meets at Miator is Shizuma Hanazono, a mysterious upperclassman and the Etoile as the story begins, which gives Miator significant influence. Nagisa at first finds that she is strangely affected when in the presence of Shizuma, who in turn is extremely interested in Nagisa in both the manga and the anime. The next girl she meets is Tamao Suzumi, who becomes her close friend and roommate. Tamao is well regarded among her fellow Miator students; among the first-years, she is seen as a viable Etoile candidate. She expresses some light and playful interest in Nagisa, but it is much less overt than Shizuma's interest and is very downplayed in the manga. The last main character from Miator is Chiyo Tsukidate, a timid first year student who is employed as the room temp for Nagisa and Tamao; in the anime, she deeply admires Nagisa. St. Spica's Girls' Institute has the white colored buildings and uniforms, and was built after Miator. The school prides itself in advancing the independence of women who play a role in improving society. It is well known for its culture and the accomplishments of its sports program compared to the other two schools. Spica has what is known as the St. Spica Choir, or the "Saintly Chorus," which consists of students from Spica who perform at special events and even concerts for students at Astraea Hill. At Spica, the class names are numbers in French, such as un (one), deux (two), and trois (three). Spica and Miator compete with each other quite aggressively, which often ends in dispute when students from these two schools get together. Hikari Konohana, a shy and quiet girl, is the main focus among the main characters who attend Spica. The next Spica character is Yaya Nanto, a rebellious girl who is Hikari's best friend and roommate in the dormitory. In the anime, she is very much enamored with Hikari, but Hikari sees her as a friend; in the manga, Yaya is not a prominent character. Both she and Hikari are members of the St. Spica Choir. Hikari meets an older girl named Amane Ohtori early on in the story who is seen much like a prince from a fairy tale by other Spica students due to often riding a white horse named Star Bright. Amane is admired by many of the students from Spica as well as students from the other two schools, although she does not enjoy the attention. In the anime, Hikari admires her deeply, and she and Amane have mutual interest in each other. The final girl from Spica is Tsubomi Okuwaka, a young first year student who acts maturely for her age and gets on Yaya's nerves. She too is in the St. Spica Choir, although Hikari was her main motivation for joining. In the anime, her interest in Hikari seems to purely be one of friendship; in the manga, she, like Yaya, is not a prominent character. Tsubomi once remarked that Yaya was more skilled than Hikari at singing in the choir. St. Lulim's Girls' School (originally Le Lim) is the newest of the three schools, and has pink colored buildings and uniforms. Its uniform is modeled after a traditional Japanese school uniform style. At Lulim, the class names are the letters from the Latin alphabet: A, B, C, etc. Students at St. Lulim's are traditionally free and relaxed, and are rarely seen fighting. The students enjoy a lot of freedom in terms of activities, or the clubs they are allowed to form. In effect, there are a wide range of clubs at St. Lulim's ranging from dancing, to cooking, to anything else a group of at least three people can think up. Of the three schools, St. Lulim has the least emphasis on romance between characters, although the Lulim characters are typically found together. The leader of their friendly group is Chikaru Minamoto, the student council president of Lulim, and a born leader. She has a friendly and supportive personality which she often uses to offer advice or simply a shoulder to cry on. The other three girls include Kizuna Hyūga, a very outgoing and excitable girl who enjoys following Chikaru's decisions, finding fun in doing so. She is very expressive in her actions and words, not wasting a chance to introduce herself to anyone new. Her close friend is Remon Natsume, who is much like Kizuna in personality, but is not as accident-prone as her. Of the pair, Kizuna is the more talkative; Remon often agrees with her companion and will offer up an opinion when need be. Lastly, there is Kagome Byakudan, the youngest of the group, who is typically accompanied by her stuffed bear which she often talks to as if it were alive. Although she does not talk or express her emotions much, she has a heightened perception of others' emotions and can tell when those around her are distraught or in emotional pain. Etoile system is a French word meaning star. The Etoile system of Astraea Hill is employed as the internal politics between the schools and governs school operations. Little is shown as to the influence the teachers and sisters have on the inter-school politics. The system is designed for two Etoiles to be instated at the same time in order to work as a team. In the anime, Shizuma Hanazono is the sole Etoile, the other Etoile having died, which is explained in the latter part of the story. The two Etoiles are seen as figureheads for Astraea Hill. Although Astraea has three schools, both Etoiles must come from the same school. They have certain specific duties, such as greeting new students arriving at Astraea Hill, participating in important school events, and serving as mediator between disputes in student council meetings of the three schools, among others. They are given a private greenhouse in which to grow flowers for use during school events. The Etoiles are elected after going through what is known as , which consists of three competitions in the light novels and the manga versions. The higher scoring pairs from the first two competitions carry on to the third competition, and the pair that wins the third competition becomes the Etoile Couple. In the anime, the competition aspect of the story is toned down. Still, it facilitates the culmination of the story in the finale, and thus serves an important purpose. Once the winners have been named, a special ceremony marks the end of the election, at which the president of the student council from the school that won the election presents two necklaces for the winners to wear during their tenure as Etoiles. They are both identical except for the colors of the pendants: one is red, the other is blue. The older student receives the blue pendant and the younger of the two is given the red pendant. Production Since the first issue of ASCII Media Works' Dengeki G's Magazine was published, the editors of the magazine have hosted reader participation games whose outcome is directly influenced by the people who read the magazine. Strawberry Panic!s origin was in the October 2003 issue of Dengeki G's Magazine where it was announced after the ending of Sakurako Kimino's previous work Sister Princess that a new reader participation project would start the following month. In the November 2003 issue, the first batch of characters from St. Miator were introduced (Nagisa, Shizuma, Tamao, and Chiyo) and it was revealed how readers could participate in the project. The initial system had the three main girls of Nagisa, Hikari, and Kizuna (given without surnames) who were sisters and at the same time younger sisters of the readers of the magazine, effectively putting the reader in the position of the elder brother. Each girl entered her respective school and became the main character of that school. It was explained that the coupling of the main characters could be to an upperclassman, a classmate, or an underclassman, but had to stay within the school they attended. For example, Nagisa, who attended Miator could not be coupled with another character from either Spica or Lulim at first. Playing the role of the elder brother, the reader gave advice to the younger sisters who were bewildered by their new lives at each of the schools. Thus, the readers had the ability to influence the coupling formations which would later be written by Kimino as short stories serialized in Dengeki G's Magazine. In December 2003, the characters from Spica (Hikari, Amane, Yaya, and Tsubomi) and Lulim (Kizuna, Chikaru, Remon, and Kagome) were introduced and in the January 2004 issue the first illustrations of the three schools and the Strawberry Dorms were published, drawn by Chitose Maki; the reader participation game began in this issue. Polls were posted in the January 2004 issue where the readers could vote on how the story would start and progress in the following months. Before the votes were counted, the first three short stories were written and published in the February 2004 issue of Dengeki G's Magazine. Each story featured an illustration of the two girls who were the couple paired in each respective story. When the results of the polls were printed in the March 2004 issue, the rules of the game had been changed from the original concept, showing that readers wanted to focus on the relationships between the girls, and in this respect, the readers could vote on who they wanted to be coupled together. The number of votes for this first round were less than 2000. Noting this, the editorial staff lifted the restriction on only coupling within the same school, along with the restriction of only allowing the three main girls of Nagisa, Hikari, and Kizuna to couple. This resulted in a total of 66 different possibilities between the twelve characters in the series. In this issue, it was explained that four events were planned for the stories that followed: Easter, Athletic Carnival, Cultural Festival, and Christmas Bazaar. The "Etoile" title was born in this issue, which was initially used to crown the best couple voted first by the readers in each of the four events to follow. These events were going to be carried out by the three schools in cooperation. It became such that the planning of the schools resulted in them in a triangle position, having the dormitories at the center. The reader's position as the elder brother was canceled in this issue, and the game became a simple popularity vote for coupling. Due to this new system, Nagisa, Hikari, and Kizuna ceased to be sisters; surnames were later added to clarify this. After the first story arc of the short stories concluded, it was shown that the number of votes had increased sharply due to the new voting mechanisms. The Etoile voting was announced in the July 2004 issue to take place every month as opposed to every two months which had been the case beforehand. The deadline for voting was shifted to the middle of every month, and online voting was introduced. In September 2004, the voting for the next Etoile was shifted to be online-only; the voting for the Dormitory Panic arc became mail voting only. The reader participation game ended after ten rounds of voting in the February 2005 issue of Dengeki G's Magazine where it was announced that the series would be continued in other forms, such as the light novels and manga that followed. The original short stories and the poll results of the reader participation game were used as a basis for subsequent releases of Strawberry Panic!. Media Short stories The first results of the polls from the reader participation project appeared in the form of the first three short stories which resulted from direct fan involvement in the March 2004 issue of Dengeki G's Magazine. The stories were written by Sakurako Kimino and illustrated by Chitose Maki. Over the following months, the stories continued, producing the first story arc named the containing eighteen stories which ran between March and July 2004. Due to the concerns that there was not enough time between the Athletic Festival (an early summer event) and the Cultural Festival (an autumn event), the second, and last, story arc named the containing seven stories began the next month, running between August 2004 and January 2005. The second arc's stories, which were longer than the earlier pieces, involved taking one of the three main characters, performing coupling for them with one of the other eleven girls and presenting them in various situations. None of the original stories were ever published again in bound volumes. The stories themselves were more or less vignettes, in which each gave a brief glimpse into what was referred to as a "yuri coupling". Between May and September 2005, a revised series of the short stories was produced; once per month, five more supplementary short stories were published during this time period, each of which was longer than any of the previous pieces. Although each individual story had its own title, the stories were under the collective title of "The Girls, who art in heaven". After the ending of this short compilation in September 2005, it was decided that the original illustrator, Chitose Maki, would be replaced by Namuchi Takumi for future Strawberry Panic! projects. Internet radio show Between November 2005 and December 2006, Lantis Web Radio hosted a radio show entitled . The show was hosted by Mai Nakahara, who voiced Nagisa Aoi in the anime edition, and Ai Shimizu, who voiced both Tamao Suzumi and Kizuna Hyūga in the anime. The show contained sixty-one episodes, which were divided between three CDs; the first went on sale on March 8, 2006. The other two releases came out on July 5, 2006, and January 11, 2007, in Japan. The radio show included nine guests who had played other voice acting roles in the anime version, and Rino, singer of the opening theme "Sweetest" in the PlayStation 2 game version. Manga The Strawberry Panic! manga, written by Sakurako Kimino and illustrated by Namuchi Takumi, was serialized in Dengeki G's Magazine between September 30, 2005, and February 28, 2007, with a new chapter released once a month. Two bound volumes have been published in Japan under MediaWorks' Dengeki Comics label. The first went on sale on March 27, 2006, featuring Nagisa and Shizuma on the cover, and the second volume came out on October 27, 2006, featuring Nagisa and Tamao on the cover. While the manga's story is unfinished, Strawberry Panic! has not made an appearance in Dengeki G's Magazine since the publication of the April 2007 issue on February 28, 2007. Major differences between the anime and manga center around the plot and character interaction. Characters have vastly different character designs, such as Shion Tōmori and Kaname Kenjō. The manga introduces the Etoile election early on while the anime waits until the latter part of the series for dramatic effect. The first volume was released in English on December 23, 2007, the second in March 2008, and the omnibus with two additional chapters in October 2010, published by Seven Seas Entertainment. Light novels The announcement that a Strawberry Panic! light novel series was to be written based on the original short stories appeared in the April 2005 issue of Dengeki G's Magazine. Work on writing and illustrating the novels began in May 2005, by the same two people who worked on the manga. The announcement that the writing was finished appeared in the September 2005 issue of the same magazine, although the first novel was published by MediaWorks on their Dengeki Bunko publishing label, on March 10, 2006. The first volume had Shizuma and Nagisa on the cover and the second volume, released on August 9, 2006, had Amane and Hikari on the cover. The third and last volume, released on December 10, 2006, had Chikaru and Kizuna on the cover. Seven Seas Entertainment announced on September 13, 2006, that they had licensed the right to release the English translations of the Strawberry Panic! light novels and the manga series. After several delays, the English version of the first light novel was released in March 2008, and the second volume light novel was released on July 8, 2008. An omnibus volume containing the three light novels was released in June 2011. Anime The anime series, entitled Strawberry Panic (without the exclamation mark), was produced by the Japanese animation studio Madhouse and directed by Masayuki Sakoi. The series was composed by Tatsuhiko Urahata, and featured two other screenwriters Hideo Takayashiki and Kazuyuki Fudeyasu. The character design was done by Kyūta Sakai, working from the original designs by Chitose Maki and later Namuchi Takumi. The twenty-six episode anime aired in Japan between April 3 and September 25, 2006, and has a central yuri theme. The anime series is mainly based on the short stories and manga which preceded it. The anime focuses on Nagisa Aoi and, to a slightly lesser extent, Hikari Konohana, and the three girls that they each are or become close to at their respective schools; some admire them or wish to be their friend, and others are vying for their affections. Of particular focus are the romantic relationships between Nagisa and Shizuma Hanazono and between Hikari and Amane Ōtori. The series culminates in the election of the new Etoile pairing, although this aspect of the story is downplayed compared to the manga. Fan service, or giving appealing visuals of the girls nude or in provocative situations, is seen in the anime, but only briefly. In Japan, eight DVD compilations, in regular and special editions, were released containing three episodes each, between June 23, 2006, and January 25, 2007. The regular and special editions are similar in content, but the special editions are packaged in jacket sleeve, and contain an original booklet which includes additional merchandise such as portable plates and straps. The special edition includes different versions of the opening and closing themes, and deleted scenes. Media Blasters released five English-subtitled DVDs of Strawberry Panic between March 4, 2007, and November 11, 2008. The English-subtitled DVDs contain five episodes, except for its first release, which contains six. The series premiered on Toku in the United States in January 2016. Audio CDs The original soundtrack for the anime adaptation was first released on September 6, 2006, by Lantis. On September 21, 2006, the soundtrack for the video game was released by the same company. The two opening themes for the anime, "Shōjo Meiro de Tsukamaete" and "Kuchibiru Daydream" were sung by Aki Misato. The "Shōjo Meiro de Tsukamaete" single was released on April 26, 2006, and reached an Oricon chart position of thirty-eight; "Kuchibiru Daydream" was released on August 9, 2006, and achieved forty-seven in the charts. The two main closing themes for the anime, "Himitsu Dolls" (released on May 24, 2006) and "Ichigo Tsumi Monogatari" (released on August 23, 2006), were sung by Mai Nakahara and Ai Shimizu as a duet. The final closing theme in the last episode was a slower remix version of "Shōjo Meiro de Tsukamaete", sung by Aki Misato. There have been three drama CDs released based on the anime adaptation. The first, entitled Strawberry Panic Lyric 1 "Miator volume" was released in Japan on July 26, 2006. It featured the same voice actresses from the anime, and featured thirteen characters. It came with a CD containing twelve tracks of small scenes involving the characters in various situations. The second drama CD, Strawberry Panic Lyric 2 "Spica volume" was released on October 25, 2006, and a third was released on December 6, 2006, titled Strawberry Panic Lyric 3 "Lulim volume". Visual novel A visual novel named Strawberry Panic! Girls' School in Fullbloom was released on the PlayStation 2 on August 24, 2006, in Japan by MediaWorks. Two versions of the game were released, a regular edition and a limited edition which included a drama CD; there is a different cover for each of the versions. The drama CD contained three tracks, one for students of each school. There are three playable characters, one from each of the schools: Nagisa, Hikari, and Kizuna. They have no family names in the game, as when the series of short stories were first published. While Ai Shimizu maintained her role for Kizuna in the game, Miyuki Sawashiro performed the voice for Tamao Suzumi. The game features a "boy mode" and a "girl mode". Choosing the male version means that the story is told via emails from the player's younger sister; choosing the female version means that the story is told in the player's own diary. The player is given the chance to pair their chosen character with one of the other nine available girls, not including the other possible playable characters. There are twenty-seven different combinations depending on which girl the player chooses at the start of the game. The game is played over the course of a school semester. In "boy mode", each day concludes with a super deformed image of the heroine the player chose at the onset of the game slumped over her computer in her room; an email message from a girl that she interacted with during the day in on the monitor. As the heroine sleeps, the object of her affection appears in a thought bubble above her head. In "girl mode", she is seen writing in her diary instead. The game uses an angel and devil system where miniature angel and devil versions of each girl float beside her when critical decisions have to be made; this is not restricted to the three playable characters. It also features a "Strawberry chance" system, where the outcome of some scenes changes if the player presses one of the analog sticks fast enough after the message is displayed in the upper right screen corner. Reception During the reader participation game running in Dengeki G's Magazine, voting polls were first posted in the January 2004 issue of Dengeki G's Magazine, which were to determine who would be the subjects in the couplings between the characters of each respective school. The results were printed in the March 2004 issue, after about 1,979 votes had been cast. The three couples with the highest number of votes were Nagisa/Tamao at 481 votes, Hikari/Amane at 343 votes, and Kizuna/Chikaru at 260 votes. The results from the second round of voting were published in the May 2004 issue of the magazine which included the figures for the sixty-four different combinations between the twelve girls. The three couples with the highest number of votes this time were Nagisa/Tamao again at 150 votes, Nagisa/Amane at 114 votes, and Hikari/Amane for a second time at 102 votes. In the third round of voting in the July 2004 issue, the number of votes increased dramatically; the number one voted couple for the third time in a row was Nagisa/Tamao at 1,215 votes. The Strawberry Panic! short stories were initially panned by Erica Friedman as being "distinctly derivative of Maria-sama ga Miteru". Friedman is the president of Yuricon, an anime convention geared towards fans of yuri anime and manga, and ALC Publishing, a publishing house dedicated to yuri. Friedman described the stories as, "candy apples without the apples - all sugary, and gooey and sweet, with not much of anything else to support it". After initially having this stance for the entire series, including an early opinion on the anime version, Friedman later changed her opinion slightly, writing that "[the anime] turned out pretty good". She went on to say, "There's no denying that Strawberry Panic! wasn't brilliant, but considering that it was meant to be trashy, it pulled out a few moments of dignity and elegance out of the trash heap." Jason Thompson regarded the Strawberry Panic! manga as "a nearly plotless cascade [where] everything seems rushed, and it is difficult to keep track of the characters and plot." The five subtitled DVDs released by Media Blasters were reviewed by Anime News Network (ANN). The first DVD was declared rental-worthy by ANN, citing the characters as being "a lot of fun" and the series as being a "very laid-back show" that would work well as a relaxing watch over a weekend. The content, however, was described as getting the series off to a "slow start", with limitations of the first six episodes being the lack in fan service, humor, and that it "struggles to find any other reason to be compelling". The second DVD, containing episodes seven through eleven, was reviewed as failing to "materialize much real plot" and content of the episodes was described as existing "only to appeal to otaku who can get excited about moe content". The third DVD, compiling episodes twelve through sixteen, shows "signs of an actual plot" and contains a "sudden explosion of fan service", which are noted as "noteworthy developments" in the review. In the fourth DVD, containing episodes seventeen through twenty-one, "the series' romantic side does finally pay off with a romantic arc that actually engages". In the fifth and final DVD containing the last five episodes, the Hikari and Amane relationship is described as lacking chemistry, although the Nagisa and Shizuma pairing is regarded as satisfying.Strawberry Panic! was one of the premier titles in the Light Novel and Strawberry (for yuri manga) production lines when it was licensed for English language distribution by Seven Seas Entertainment. In an interview with Seven Seas Entertainment founder Jason DeAngelis, he was posed the question, "How do you attract a fan base for a novel before its release in English?" His response was, "We try to choose titles that are already well-known, like Pita-Ten, Shinigami no Ballad or Strawberry Panic!....In terms of attracting a fan base, though, in the end it's all about word-of-mouth. If the material is great, it will stand out on its own and find its audience. The small format that we're publishing these books in is frankly stunning, and it will definitely attract fans who may not have heard of the property otherwise."Strawberry Panic! Girls' School in Fullbloom received a total review score of 26/40 (out of the four individual review scores of 6, 7, 7, and 6) from the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu''. The game is listed by MediaWorks as one of their most-popular game titles. References External links Visual novel official website Strawberry Panic! at Seven Seas Entertainment 2003 Japanese novels 2005 manga 2006 anime television series debuts 2006 Japanese novels 2006 video games Anime and manga based on light novels Anime Works ASCII Media Works manga Bishōjo games Dengeki Bunko Dengeki Comics Dengeki G's Magazine Japanese LGBT-related animated television series Japanese television series with live action and animation Japan-exclusive video games Lantis (company) LGBT-related video games Light novels Madhouse (company) Mass media franchises MediaWorks games Kadokawa Dwango franchises PlayStation 2 games PlayStation 2-only games Romance anime and manga Romance video games School life in anime and manga Seinen manga Seven Seas Entertainment titles Sharp Point Press titles Television shows based on light novels Video games developed in Japan Video games featuring female protagonists Visual novels Yuri (genre) anime and manga Yuri (genre) light novels Yuri (genre) video games 2000s LGBT literature 2000s Japanese LGBT-related television series
4805193	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th%20Cavalry%20Regiment%20%28United%20States%29	4th Cavalry Regiment (United States)	The 4th Cavalry Regiment is a United States Army cavalry regiment, whose lineage is traced back to the mid-19th century. It was one of the most effective units of the Army against American Indians on the Texas frontier. Today, the regiment exists as separate squadrons within the U.S. Army. The 1st Squadron of the 4th Cavalry's official nickname is "Quarterhorse", which alludes to its 1/4 Cav designation. The 3rd Squadron of the 4th Cavalry's official nickname is "Raiders". Today, the "1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry" and "5th Squadron, 4th Cavalry" are parts of the 1st Infantry Division, while the "3rd Squadron, 4th Cavalry" serves as part of the 25th Infantry Division. On 23 September 2009, the "4th Squadron, 4th Cavalry" officially stood up at Fort Riley, Kansas as part of the 1st "Devil" Brigade, 1st Infantry Division. On 28 March 2008, the "5th Squadron, 4th Cavalry" officially stood up at Fort Riley, Kansas as part of the 2nd "Dagger" Brigade, 1st Infantry Division. The 6th Squadron, 4th Cavalry served as part of the recently inactivated 1st Infantry Division, 3rd "Duke" Brigade, at Fort Knox, Kentucky. The 1st and 5th Squadrons are assigned to their respective Brigade Combat Teams in the 1st Infantry Division. The 4th Squadron was inactivated in October 2015. The 3rd Squadron is assigned to the 3rd Brigade Combat Team in the 25th Infantry Division. Origin and early service In 1855, the United States Congress recognized the need for mounted regiments in the U.S. Army in addition to the First and Second Regiments of Dragoons and the Regiment of Mounted Riflemen. The 1st Cavalry Regiment—later re-designated as the 4th Cavalry Regiment—was organized under the act of 3 March 1855. On 26 March 1855, the regiment was organized at Jefferson Barracks, Missouri. The regiment's first commander was Colonel Edwin V. Sumner, who served from 3 March 1855 to 16 March 1861. In August 1855, the regiment was transferred to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. Colonel Sumner had two missions. The first was to keep the peace between the pro-slavery and free state factions in Kansas; the second was to protect settlers from attacks by Cheyenne warriors. The 1st Cavalry Regiment: along with the 2nd Cavalry Regiment was authorized in 1855 and formed at Jefferson Barracks, MO. All field grade officers (majors or above) and one half of the company grade officers (captains and lieutenants) were to come from existing army units. The other half of the company grade officers and most of the enlisted men came from civilian life. Each company sent out one lieutenant and one sergeant to city after city to recruit men to fill the ranks. Posters, displayed in each city promised good clothing, rations and medical attention. The pay rate was $12.00 a month for privates, $14.00 for corporals, $17.00 for Duty Sergeants, and $22.00 for First Sergeants. The regiment had four field-grade officers, one full colonel in command, one lieutenant colonel as second in command and two majors. Each of the ten companies had a captain, one first lieutenant, one second lieutenant, four sergeants, four corporals and eighty-four privates. Also attached to each company was a one farrier and blacksmith and two buglers. Each company had horses of a distinctive color. This served two purposes. In addition to the dramatic effect on parade, the distinctive color made it easy for members of the regiment to locate their company in the heat of battle. The assigned colors were in the following order: Company A had sorrels, Company B, grays; Company C, sorrels; Company D, bays; Company E, roans; Company F, sorrels; Company G, blacks; Company H, bays; Company I, sorrels; and Company, K, bays. The buglers had white horses. The officers each had two horses. They could select the color of their choice. Officers were required to provide their uniforms, equipment and horses. The new recruits after a physical exam, were trained in horsemanship and as cavalrymen at Fort Leavenworth and Jefferson Barracks. In the fall of 1855 the regiment was ordered to participate in an expedition against the Sioux. As it turned out, the regiment were not directly involved in the major engagement with the Sioux. In 1856 the regiment was engaged in maintaining the peace in the Kansas Territory between the pro-slavery group who fought to make the territory a slave state, and the free-state faction, who bitterly opposed them. This conflict had given rise to the term "Bleeding Kansas". Its first colonel, Sumner, and lieutenant colonel, Joseph E. Johnston, were both future Civil War generals. During the summer of 1856, Cheyenne war parties attacked four wagon trains, killing twelve people and kidnapping two. The commander of the Department of the West recommended that the Cheyenne be punished for their attacks on emigrant trains. He recommended that any action be put off until spring of 1857. Campaign against the Cheyenne of 1857 In May 1857 preparation began for the expedition with the organizing of the 1st Cavalry under Colonel Edwin Vose Sumner at Fort Leavenworth. Sumner divided the regiment into two columns in order to circle the Cheyenne hunting grounds in central Kansas Territory. One column, under Major John Sedgwick, departed on 18 May with four companies, five Delaware scouts and forty wagons, heading west along the Arkansas River past Bent's Fort north up to the South Fork of the Platte River. There they were to meet Sumner's column, which had left Fort Leavenworth on 20 May, with four cavalry companies, 300 cattle and 51 wagons. Sumner's column went north and then west up to Fort Kearny, where three companies of the 6th Infantry Regiment and two companies of the 2nd Dragoons, five Pawnee scouts and ten more wagons were added. After considerable difficulty in crossing the South Platte River, Sumner's column and Sedgwick's columns met at the South Platte as planned on 4 July. The whole regiment then traveled east through central Kansas to their rendezvous with the Cheyenne on the Solomon river. The map in the inset shows the routes taken by both columns. Meanwhile, the Cheyenne, about three hundred strong, were midway between the two columns, probably around the Republican River, where they had spent the previous winter. The Cheyenne consisted of both Northern Cheyenne and Southern Cheyenne. They knew the U.S. Cavalry were searching for them, so they remained banded together longer than they normally did. On 29 July 1857, the Regiment caught up with the Cheyenne on the bank of the Solomon River. As the two groups paused within about a mile of each other, the cavalry commander, Col. E.V. Sumner, gave the command "Gallop march." Both groups approached each other at full speed. Col. Sumner then commanded "Sling carbines! Draw Sabers! Charge." It was the first time sabres had been used in the West. The astonished Indians, whose medicine, administered by holy men before the battle, protected them from carbines but not from sabers, became terrified when they saw the sabers. They pivoted and ran as fast as their horses would carry them away from the troopers. The chase lasted for about seven miles before the Indians, having faster horses, pulled ahead too far for the cavalry to follow. During the brief fighting that took place during the chase, two troopers were killed and nine, including Lieutenant J.E.B. Stuart (the future Confederates' most famous cavalry general during the Civil War), were wounded. An estimated nine Indians were killed on the field and an unknown number were wounded. The cavalry wounded and a detachment of infantry were left behind in a makeshift fort while the rest of the 1st Cavalry followed the Indians as best they could. This engagement was the climax of The Cheyenne Expedition, which began two and a half months earlier at Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas. After the battle the regiment left the wounded, including J.E.B. Stuart and one company of infantry, and followed the trail of the Cheyenne south towards the Arkansas river. They found and destroyed a large abandoned village that had recently been occupied but were not able to catch the rapidly dispersing Indians. The regiment received orders to split up and send four companies under Major Sedgewick to join Col. Albert Sidney Johnston at Fort Kearney to become part of the Utah Expedition, while the other two companies were to proceed to Fort Leavenworth under Col. Sumner. However, before reaching Fort Kearney Major Sedgewick received further orders to return to Fort Leavenworth to rejoin the rest of the regiment. The regiment was Col. Robert E. Lee's last command in the U.S. Army before the American Civil War. With the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, the 1st Cavalry Regiment was dissolved and reorganized. Many of its commissioned officers rose to prominence during the war, including Lee as well as George B. McClellan and J.E.B. Stuart. Civil War As early as 1854, the War Department had been wanting to redesignate all mounted regiments as cavalry and to renumber them in order of seniority. As the 1st Cavalry Regiment was the fourth oldest mounted regiment in terms of active service, it was redesignated as the 4th United States Cavalry Regiment on 3 August 1861. Most of the regiment was assigned to the Western Theater and fought against Confederates in Tennessee, Missouri, Arkansas, and the Indian Territory. In 1861–62, two companies served with distinction in Virginia in the Army of the Potomac before being reunited with the rest of the regiment in Tennessee. Those companies fought in the major battles of First Bull Run, the Peninsula Campaign, Fredericksburg and Antietam. The bulk of the regiment fought gallantly and continuously in the western theater from Shiloh to Macon, participating in the fights at Chickamauga, Stones River, and Battle of Nashville. Civil War service With so many regiments being sent east for the war effort, the 1st U.S. Cavalry was initially kept on the frontier until militia-type units were raised to protect against Indian raids. On 22 June 1861, former 1st Cavalry officer George McClellan, now a major general, requested Company A and Company E to serve as his personal escort. These two companies saw action in the Bull Run, Peninsula, Antietam and Fredericksburg campaigns, not rejoining the regiment until 1864. The rest of the 1st Cavalry was committed to action in Mississippi and Missouri. Since 1854 it had been advocated to redesignate all mounted regiments as cavalry and to renumber them in order of seniority. This was done on 3 August 1861. As the 1st Cavalry was the fourth oldest mounted regiment, it was redesignated as the 4th Cavalry Regiment. During the early years of the Civil War, Union commanders scattered their cavalry regiments, conducting company, squadron (two company) and battalion (four company) operations. The 4th Cavalry was no exception, with its companies scattered from the Mississippi River to the Atlantic Coast carrying out the traditional cavalry missions of reconnaissance, screening and raiding. In the first phases of the war in the West, companies of 4th Cavalry saw action in various Missouri, Mississippi and Kentucky campaigns, as well as the seizure of Forts Henry and Donelson and the Battle of Shiloh. On 31 December 1862, a two-company squadron of the 4th Cavalry attacked and routed a Confederate cavalry brigade near Murfreesboro, Tennessee. In 1863–64, companies of the 4th saw further action in Tennessee, Georgia and Mississippi. On 30 June 1863, another squadron charged a six-gun battery of Confederate artillery near Shelbyville, Tennessee, capturing the entire battery and three hundred prisoners. By the spring of 1864, the success of the large Confederate cavalry corps of J.E.B. Stuart had convinced the Union leadership to form their own Cavalry Corps in the East under General Philip Sheridan. The 4th Cavalry was ordered to reunite as a regiment and, on 14 December 1864, it joined in the attack on Nashville, Tennessee, as part of the Western Cavalry Corps commanded by General James Wilson. In the hard-fought battle, the 4th help turn the Confederate flank, sending them in retreat. As the Confederate forces attempted a delaying action at West Harpeth, Tennessee, an element of the 4th Cavalry led by Lt. Joseph Hedges charged and captured a Confederate artillery battery. For his bravery, Hedges received the Medal of Honor, the first one to be bestowed on a member of the 4th Cavalry. In March 1865, General Wilson was ordered to take his cavalry on a drive through Alabama to capture the Confederate supply depot at Selma. Wilson had devoted considerable effort in preparing his cavalry for the mission, and it was a superbly trained and disciplined force that left Tennessee, led by the 4th Cavalry. As the column moved south into Alabama, it encountered Confederate cavalry leader Nathan Bedford Forrest. With superior numbers and firepower, Wilson's force defeated the Confederates, allowing the Union troopers to arrive in Selma the next day. On 2 April 1865, the attack on Selma commenced, led by the 4th Cavalry in a mounted charge. A railroad cut and fence line soon halted the mounted attack. Dismounting, the regiment pressed the attack and stormed the town. Selma's rich store of munitions and supplies were destroyed, along with the foundries and arsenals. Wilson next turned east to link up with General Sherman. His force took Montgomery, Alabama, and Columbus, Georgia, before arriving in Macon, Georgia, where word came of the surrender of Lee's and Johnston's armies. The regiment remained in Macon as occupation troops. After participating in the Battle of Columbus—the last battle of the war—the regiment assisted in capturing fugitive Confederate President Jefferson Davis. Indian Wars In August 1865, the 4th Cavalry was sent to Texas. At various times during the next thirteen years, units from its twelve companies occupied military posts between the Rio Grande and Jacksboro, and between San Antonio and San Angelo. {See Fifth Military District for reports of the 4th Cavalry in Texas between 1867-1869}. Before 1871, the operations of the regiment were limited to guarding the mail and settlements against Indians and to desultory attempts to overtake bands of Indian raiders. The regiment's commander during this period, Col. Lawrence Pike Graham, never had to lead a major campaign, and none of the regiment's fourteen skirmishes with Indians was of major significance. However, in December 1870, Colonel Ranald S. Mackenzie was assigned command of the 4th Cavalry, with orders to put a stop to Comanche and Kiowa raids along the Texas frontier. On 25 February 1871, Mackenzie took command of the 4th Cavalry at Fort Concho. A month later, he moved the headquarters of the regiment to Fort Richardson, near Jacksboro; some companies of the 4th remained at Fort Griffin and Fort Concho. In May, while General William T. Sherman, then the commanding general of the army, was at Fort Richardson, the Kiowas brutally mutilated some teamsters from a wagon train on nearby Salt Creek Prairie (see Warren Wagon Train Raid). A few days later at Fort Sill, Sherman had three leaders of the raid, Satanta (White Bear), Satank (Sitting Bear), and Addo-etta (Big Tree), arrested and had Mackenzie return them to Jacksboro to stand trial for murder. On the way, an enlisted trooper killed Satank when he tried to escape; White Bear and Big Tree were later sentenced to life imprisonment. In August 1871, Mackenzie led an expedition into Indian Territory against the Comanches and Kiowas who had left the agency, but he was later ordered to return to Texas. He then led eight companies of the 4th Cavalry and two companies of the 11th U.S Infantry, about 600 men, in search of Quahadi Comanches, who had refused to go onto the reservation and were plundering the Texas frontier. On 10 October, he skirmished with a group of them in Blanco Canyon, near the site of present Crosbyton, but the entire band escaped across the plains. The following summer, Mackenzie, with six companies of the 4th Cavalry, renewed his search for the Quahadis. After establishing his supply camp on the Freshwater Fork of the Brazos River (now the White River) southeast of present Crosbyton, Mackenzie with five companies of cavalry followed a cattle trail across the unexplored High Plains into the New Mexico Territory and returned by another well-watered Comanchero road from Fort Bascom, near the site of present Tucumcari, New Mexico, to the site of present Canyon. At the head of 222 cavalrymen on 29 September, he surprised and destroyed Chief Mow-way's village of Quahadi and Kotsoteka Comanches on the North Fork of the Red River about six miles (10 km) east of the site of present-day Lefors, Texas. An estimated 52 Indians were killed and 124 captured, with a loss of 3 cavalrymen killed and 3 wounded. For almost a year, both the Kiowas and Comanches remained at peace. In March 1873, Mackenzie and five companies (A, B, C, E, and K) of the 4th Cavalry were transferred to Fort Clark with orders to put an end to the Mexican-based Kickapoo and Apache depredations in Texas, which had cost an alleged $48 million (~$ in ). On 18 May 1873, Mackenzie, with five companies of the 4th Cavalry, crossed the Rio Grande into Mexico; they then surprised and burned three villages of the raiders near Remolino, Coahuila; the cavalrymen killed nineteen Indians and captured forty-one, with a loss of one trooper killed and two wounded. The soldiers recrossed the Rio Grande into Texas at daybreak the next morning, with some of the men having ridden an estimated in 49 hours. The raid and an effective system of border patrols brought temporary peace to the area. The John Wayne movie Rio Grande (part of John Ford's Cavalry Trilogy) is loosely based on this incident. When the Southern Plains Indians opened the Red River War in June 1874, the Grant administration discarded its Quaker peace policy and authorized the military to take control of the reservations and subdue all hostile Indians. General Philip H. Sheridan, commander of the Division of the Missouri, ordered five military expeditions to converge on their hideouts along the upper Red River country. In the ensuing campaign, the 4th Cavalry was the most successful. On 26–27 September, it staved off a Comanche attack at the head of Tule Canyon, and, on the morning of 28 September, descended by a narrow trail to the bottom of Palo Duro Canyon. There it completely destroyed five Comanche, Kiowa, and Cheyenne villages, including large quantities of provisions, and captured 1,424 horses and mules, of which 1,048 were slaughtered at the head of Tule Canyon. Afterward, Mackenzie, with detachments of the regiment, made two other expeditions onto the High Plains. On 3 November, near the site of Tahoka, in their last fight with the Comanches, the cavalrymen killed two and captured nineteen Indians. In the spring of 1875, Mackenzie and elements of the 4th Cavalry from various posts in Texas were sent to Fort Sill to take control of the Southern Plains Indians. Meanwhile, the Indians in Mexico had renewed their marauding in Texas. In 1878 General Sherman, at the insistence of the Texans, transferred Mackenzie and six companies of the 4th Cavalry to Fort Clark. This time Mackenzie led a larger and more extensive expedition into Mexico, restored a system of patrols, and reestablished peace in the devastated region of South Texas. Outside Texas, Mackenzie and the 4th Cavalry administered and controlled the Kiowa-Comanche and the Cheyenne-Arapaho reservations for several years, and, after the defeat of George Armstrong Custer's command at the Battle of Little Bighorn in June 1876, forced Crazy Horse and his band of Sioux and the Northern Cheyennes to surrender. In the autumn of 1879, Mackenzie with six companies of the 4th Cavalry subdued the hostile Utes in Southern Colorado without firing a shot and in August 1880 forced them to move to a reservation in Utah Territory. Immediately thereafter, the 4th Cavalry was transferred to Arizona Territory, where Mackenzie was to assume full command of all military forces in the department and subdue the hostile Apaches. Within less than a month, the Apaches had surrendered or fled to Mexico, and on 30 October, Mackenzie and the 4th Cavalry were transferred to the new District of New Mexico. By 1 November 1882, when W. B. Royall replaced Mackenzie as colonel, the 4th Cavalry had forced the White Mountain Apaches, Jicarilla Apaches, Navajos, and Mescaleros to remain peacefully on their respective reservations. From 1884 to 1886 the 4th Cavalry again operated against the Apaches in Arizona and helped capture Geronimo. Particularly noteworthy was B troop's pursuit of Geronimo into Northern Mexico led by Capt. Lawton and Surgeon Leonard Wood. Sergeant James T. Daniels of the 4th Cavalry was a recipient of the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Cherry Creek Campaign in March 1890 against the Apaches in Arizona. In 1890 the regimental headquarters was moved to Fort Walla Walla, Washington. The regiment split, with half going to the Department of the Columbia, and half to the Department of California at the Presidio of San Francisco. The California contingent provided the first superintendent and park guardians for the General Grant, Sequoia and Yosemite National Parks in 1891. Philippine Insurrection Once the Spanish–American War had ended in 1898, Admiral Dewey called for reinforcements to defend the Philippines from insurgents and dissident elements of the Philippine Revolutionary Army. Six troops of the 4th Cavalry were sent out in August 1898 and began to garrison Manila. After Filipino forces fired on American soldiers on the San Juan Bridge, the Battle of Manila began. American troops drove out the Filipino forces and the 4th Cavalry began marching on Malolos, the enemy capital. Because of a mix-up regarding supply and shipping, the regiment's mounts were unloaded in Hawaii and the Troops E, I, and K were forced to ride Philippine ponies, and Troops C, G, and L acted dismounted during the Battle of Santa Cruz under General Henry Ware Lawton, who had served with B Troop of the 4th Cavalry in 1888 during the Geronimo campaign. By August 1899, the remainder of the regiment arrived, and in the fall, the troopers engaged in the Battle of Paye in an attempt to capture the Philippine General, Emilio Aguinaldo, and Gen. Lawton was killed in action leading the troops. In January 1901, the 4th Cavalry was assigned pacification duties in the southern region of Luzon and finally shipped home on 31 September 1901. During the Philippine Insurrection, the 4th Cavalry Regiment had fought in 119 skirmishes and battles. Upon returning home from the Philippines, the three squadrons were sent to Fort Leavenworth, Fort Riley, and Jefferson Barracks respectively. In 1905, the troopers returned to the Philippines, when the Moro Rebellion began. This time, the troopers would operate in the southern Philippines on the islands of Mindanao and Jolo. Between 5–8 March 1906, the 4th Cavalry fought in the First Battle of Bud Dajo, where rebellious forces of the Islamic Sultanate of Sulu had fortified the Bud Dajo volcano. 211 dismounted troopers advanced up the sides of the steep volcano alongside other elements of the US Army and Philippine Constabulary. The going was tough and they had to slash through the jungle with machetes up a 60% slope. After reaching the enemy defensive positions, the troopers engaged in a gun battle, then charged, and the American bayonet clashed with the Filipino Kris. Nearly 1,000 Filipinos were killed, including civilians not engaged in the battle, and 21 Americans were killed and 70 were wounded. This was the bloodiest battle of the Moro Rebellion and it is depicted today at the top of the 4th Cavalry's Coat of Arms. Early 20th century In 1907, the balance of the regiment was reassigned to Fort Meade, South Dakota, while the 3rd Squadron was assigned to Fort Snelling, Minnesota. The 4th Cavalry served on the Mexican border in Texas from 1911 to 1913. For the next six years, the regiment served at Schofield Barracks in the Territory of Hawaii and did not participate in World War I. In 1919, the 4th returned to the Mexican border and patrolled the area near Brownsville, Texas. In 1921, they were transferred to Fort Sam Houston, Texas, and in 1922, the regimental Coat of Arms and Distinctive Unit Insignia were approved by the War Department. In 1925, the regiment returned to Fort Meade, SD, and conducted normal peacetime training and field operations in Wyoming. In 1926, John Philip Sousa, impressed with the 4th Cavalry's reputation, wrote a march for the unit; "Riders for the Flag." World War II In 1939, World War II erupted in Europe, and by 1940, the US Army realized that its armored warfare capabilities were inadequate should war come to America. The 4th Cavalry Regiment was redesignated as a Horse-Mechanized Corps Reconnaissance Regiment. 2nd Squadron was mechanized but 1st Squadron retained its horses until the spring of 1942 when it was mechanized as well. In January 1943, the 4th Cavalry left for the Mojave Desert to begin training for desert warfare in preparation for the fighting in the North African Campaign. Orders were changed, however, and the unit was sent to England to serve as the reconnaissance element for the VII Corps. Arriving on 15 December 1943, they camped at Singleton, West Sussex. The 4th Cavalry's designation was then changed to the 4th Cavalry Group, Mechanized (later called the 4th Mechanized Cavalry Group, or MCG. During WWII, the term MCG is synonymous with regiment in regards to cavalry formations). 1st Squadron was renamed the 4th Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron, Mechanized, and 2nd Squadron was renamed the 24th Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron, Mechanized. In preparation for the Invasion of Normandy, the 4th MCG was assigned the task of capturing the Îles Saint-Marcouf, 6,000 yards out from Utah Beach in order to neutralize the formidable fortifications the Wehrmacht had erected there. Along with this mission, the 4th was also to land two troops ashore in order to link up with elements of the 82nd Airborne Division and the 101st Airborne Division behind German lines to give the paratroopers armored support. At 0430 on 6 June 1944, elements of A Troop 4th Squadron, and B Troop 24th Squadron landed on the Saint-Marcouf islands. CPL Harvey S. Olson and PVT Thomas C. Killeran of Troop A (4th), and SGT John S. Zanders and CPL Melvin F. Kinzie of Troop B (24th) swam ashore armed only with knives to mark the beaches for the landing craft. They became the first seaborne American soldiers to land in France on D-Day. When the invasion began, the troops rapidly captured the islands with no resistance; the Germans had evacuated, but 19 men were killed or wounded due to enemy mines. On 7 June, just south of Utah Beach, a platoon of Troop B, 4th Squadron, linked up with elements of the 82nd Airborne and managed to ambush a German convoy in a mechanized cavalry charge, causing the enemy to retreat and leave behind 200 casualties. Rough seas prevented C Troop from landing, but they linked up with elements of the 101st on 8 June. As US forces attacked toward the Cotentin Peninsula, the 4th MCG's two squadrons provided flank security for the 4th Infantry Division and the 9th Infantry Division. Near Cape de la Hague, 4th Squadron fought dismounted in a bloody five-day engagement and captured over 600 prisoners. Both Squadrons were awarded the French Croix de Guerre with Silver Star for their gallantry in the Battle of Cherbourg. After the Battle of Saint-Lô in July 1944, VII Corps began its drive towards Paris, and the 4th MCG assumed responsibility of covering the Corps' flanks. Paris was liberated on 24 August 1944, and the 4th crossed the Seine River the next day, and the Marne River by 31 August. As the men prepared to enter German-occupied Belgium, the 759th Light Tank Battalion, the 635th Tank-Destroyer Battalion (Self-Propelled), and the 87th Armored Field Artillery Battalion were attached to the 4th MCG, giving it the firepower of a light armored brigade. The Group penetrated the Siegfried Line and crossed into Germany on 14 September, but met stiff German resistance in the Battle of Hürtgen Forest. On 16 December 1944, the Wehrmacht launched a major surprise attack on the Allied lines in the Ardennes in what would become known as the Battle of the Bulge. The attack landed on elements of VII Corps as well, and some of the fiercest fighting of the war for the 4th MCG occurred on 19–21 December on the edges of the Hürtgen Forest along the Roer River. Here, the troopers of the 4th MCG were ordered to seize the heavily defended town of Bogheim and the high-ground from the southeast. On the 19th, under a blanket of heavy fog, two troops from the 4th Squadron infiltrated Bogheim undetected and engaged the Germans, but the two other troops coming to support were spotted and engaged in the open as the fog lifted, and took heavy casualties. Despite this, the Germans were driven out of town by the afternoon. All four troop commanders were casualties, as well as a quarter of all the enlisted men. Nevertheless, the 4th Squadron charged, dismounted, across 200 yards of open field the next morning to capture the nearby high ground. In the Battle of Bogheim, 4th Squadron had defeated two battle groups of the 947th German Infantry and company of the 6th Parachute Regiment. For its bravery in action despite heavy casualties, the 4th Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron was awarded a Presidential Unit Citation. As the German offensive resumed, VII Corps was sent south into Belgium to block the enemy's advance. By 23 December, the 4th MCG was once again in contact, and screened the movement of VII Corps units. On 24 December, the 4th was attached to the 2nd Armored Division and was tasked with defending the key road junction at Humain to prevent the Germans separating the 2nd Armored Division and the 84th Infantry Division defensive lines. 4th Squadron left to screen the flanks of CCA and CCB of the 2nd Armored Division, leaving 24th Squadron to defend Humain. By midnight of 24–25 December 1944, Troop A, 24th Squadron, had taken Humain, but was repulsed by a German panzer attack on Christmas morning. The 24th attempted to retake the town, but its light armor was no match for the heavy German panzers, and the troopers made little progress. On 26 December, reinforced by tanks from the 2nd Armored Division, the 24th drove out the Germans from Humain and halted their advance in that sector. After retaking the ground lost in the Battle of the bulge, Allied forces resumed their drive into Germany. The 4th MCG conducted more screening operations for the VII Corps advance during the closing of the Ruhr Pocket. As the war in Europe began winding down, the 4th MCG participated in the operation to eliminate a force of 85,000 Germans holding out in the Harz Mountains, and this mission was accomplished on 21 April 1945 with most of the enemy surrendering. The 4th continued advancing and mopped up along the Elbe River, and was in Leipzig on VE Day, 8 May 1945. Occupation of Germany and Austria After the Allied victory in World War II, the US Army organized the United States Constabulary to perform occupation duties in Allied-occupied Germany, West Berlin, and Austria. The 4th Mechanized Cavalry Group was redesignated the 4th Constabulary Regiment with the 4th and 24th Constabulary Squadrons. The regimental HQ was located at Camp McCauley in Hörsching, Austria. The 4th Constabulary Squadron was stationed in Wels and the 24th was stationed in Ebelsberg. Several troops were separated and posted to other areas within the American zone of occupation in Austria maintaining law and order and security. The 4th Constabulary Regiment was inactivated on 1 May 1949, but its subordinate units remained active. The same day, the 24th Constabulary Squadron was sent to Bad Hersfeld, West Germany, and conducted surveillance along the iron curtain until 15 December 1952, when it was deactivated. However, on 21 April 1953, the squadron was redesignated in an inactive status and renamed the 524th Reconnaissance Squadron. The 4th Constabulary Squadron was redesignated as the 4th Reconnaissance Squadron on 1 April 1949, and then on 1 December 1951 as the 4th Armored Reconnaissance Battalion. After several reorganizations and renamings, it was registered in an inactive status as the Headquarters and Headquarters Troop, 14th Squadron, 4th Cavalry on 1 April 1963. Vietnam War Initially, senior US commanders believed that armored cavalry formations would not have success in the dense jungles of South Vietnam, but the successful actions of 1-4 Cavalry, attached to the 1st Infantry Division, and 3-4 Cavalry, attached to the 25th Infantry Division, proved that armored formations could be decisive in the Vietnam War when used in conjunction with mechanized infantry and air cavalry to defeat the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) and Viet Cong (VC). 1st Squadron 1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry (1-4 Cavalry, popularly called "Quarterhorse") was assigned to be the divisional reconnaissance squadron of the 1st Infantry Division based at Di An. It arrived at Vung Tau on 7 October 1965, making it the first element of the 4th Cavalry to deploy to Vietnam. Commanded by LTC Paul M. Fisher, the Squadron was ready for action. On 12 November 1965, 1-4 Cavalry received its baptism by fire in the Vietnam War when Troop A, attached to 2-2 Infantry, engaged a VC regiment in the village of Bau Bang. Three enemy probing attacks were thrown back, and on the fourth charge, .50 caliber machine-gun fire broke up their assault and the enemy retreated, leaving 146 dead. On 24 February 1966, Troop B fought a stiff skirmish with the VC and repulsed the enemy. In April 1966, LTC Fisher became the executive officer of the 1st Brigade, 1st Infantry Division, and his replacement was LTC Leonard L. Lewane. LTC Lewane led the squadron in several operations in conjunction with other elements of the 1st Infantry Division, including Operations Birmingham, El Paso, and Shenandoah. On 8 June 1966, during Operation El Paso II, Troop A, en route to An Loc, was ambushed by the VC 272nd Regiment along Route 13. The battle lasted 5 hours and resulted in 14 US and 19 South Vietnamese killed. VC losses were 105 dead (body count) and it was estimated that the bodies of a further 200+ were removed. For their courage, Troop A was awarded the Vietnamese Cross of Gallantry. On 30 June 1966, HQ, Troops B, C, D and C Company 2-18 Infantry engaged the VC 271st Regiment while conducting reconnaissance and managed to kill 300 VC during the seven-hour battle. On 9 July, 1-4 Cav troopers engaged the enemy again in the Battle of Minh Thanh Road and killed 250 VC. For these three engagements, the squadron was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation. Throughout the Vietnam War, the troopers of 1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry Regiment participated in numerous battle and operations including; Operation Niagara, Operation Cedar Falls, Operation Williston, Operation Tucson-Delta, Operation Junction City, Operation Manhattan, Operation Shenandoah II (where Troop C handed the VC one of their heaviest defeats of the war), the Tet Offensive, and many more in numerous small villages along the Cambodia-South Vietnam border, and throughout South Vietnam. Meanwhile, Troop D provided helicopter support for the 1st Infantry Division, and acted as air cavalry, a new concept in the Army. The 1st Squadron participated in eleven campaigns of the Vietnam War from 20 October 1965 to 5 February 1970. The 1st Squadron was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation for its heroism in Binh Long Province as well as a Valorous Unit Award for Binh Doung Province. Troop A, 1st Squadron received a Valorous Unit Award for its actions at the battle of Ap Bau Bang. 3rd Squadron The 3rd Squadron, 4th Cavalry (3-4 Cavalry, or popularly known as "Three-Quarter Horse" or "Mackenzie's Riders" after Ranald S. Mackenzie) acted as the reconnaissance squadron for the 25th Infantry Division. Deploying to Vietnam on 24 March 1966, the men were based at Cu Chi Base Camp northwest of Saigon, while Troop C served with the division's 3rd Brigade in the Central Highlands. Here, Troop C pioneered the use of armored vehicles in dense jungle terrain and fought fiercely against PAVN and VC units. The Troop received a Valorous Unit Award for engaging VC forces in Quảng Trị Province and later joined the rest of 3-4 Cavalry on 1 August 1967. The 3rd Squadron participated in 12 campaigns from 24 March 1966 to 8 December 1970. The squadron's primary mission was to conduct route and convoy security along South Vietnam's Route 1 ensuring that the main supply and communications route from Saigon to Tay Ninh remained secure. By 1967, Mackenzie's Riders was escorting some 8,000 vehicles each month in both day and night escorts. It also participated in large scale combined arms operations such as Cedar Falls, Junction City and the invasion of Cambodia. During the Tet Offensive during the Vietnamese New Year in January 1968, 3-4 Cavalry was rushed to Tan Son Nhut Air Base near Saigon where it successfully repelled a massive VC attempt to seize the air base. For its gallantry at Tan Son Nhut, the 3rd Squadron was awarded a Presidential Unit Citation. In addition, the squadron received two Valorous Unit Awards for battles along the Cambodian border and in Bình Dương Province. Also, Troop D (Air), 3rd Squadron received a Presidential Unit Citation for gallantry in Tay Ninh Province. Troop A, 3rd Squadron received a Valorous Unit Award for contributing to the defeat of VC forces in the Cu Chi District. The 1st Platoon, Troop A, 3rd Squadron also received a Presidential Unit Citation while attached to 1-5 Infantry during the Battle of Bến Củi. Troop F, 4th Cavalry was activated on 10 February 1971 in Vietnam and assigned to the 25th Division as a separate air cavalry troop in support of the 25th Division's 2nd Brigade. After the 2nd Brigade left Vietnam on 30 April 1971, Troop F remained assigned to the 25th while serving with the 11th and 12th Aviation Groups. It was one of the last Army units to leave Vietnam on 26 February 1973. Gulf War Three elements of the 4th Cavalry Regiment participated in the Gulf War. 1-4 Cavalry continued to serve with the 1st Infantry Division (part of VII Corps) as a reconnaissance squadron, 2-4 Cavalry served with the 24th Infantry Division (part of XVIII Airborne Corps), and Troop D, 4th Cavalry served with 197th Infantry Brigade, which was in turn attached to the 24th Infantry Division, and Troop D was attached to>2-4 Cav control. In 1990, the First Squadron deployed to Saudi Arabia, as part of Operation Desert Shield. The ground warfare phase, Operation Desert Storm, began on 24 February 1991 in the XVIII Airborne Corps sector of operations, on the left flank of the coalition force. The 24th Infantry Division had the mission of blocking the Euphrates River valley in order to block the escape of Iraqi forces in Kuwait and then to attack east with VII Corps to destroy the Republican Guard divisions. 2-4 Cav and D Troop operating independently and under control of the 197th crossed the Iraqi border 6 hours ahead of the main assault and scouted north along the two axes of advance. 2-4 Cavalry and D Troop in their sectors found little evidence of the enemy which enabled the 24th Division to make rapid progress. With elements of the 4th Cavalry screening 5 to 10 miles in front of the attacking brigades, the 24th continued north until around 0141 hours when D Troop set a screen at the 197th Infantry first objective 75 miles inside Iraq. By 27 February, the 4th day of fighting, the 24th Infantry Division had destroyed all Iraqi units it had encountered securing the Euphrates River Valley, and had successfully trapped most of the Republican Guards divisions for the two Corps to destroy. In the VII Corps sector the 1st Infantry Division was given the mission of breaching the enemy's defensive line, and the 1-4 Cavalry was selected to lead the way. First Squadron was assigned to 1-41 Infantry to breach Iraq's initial defensive network on the Saudi Arabian-Iraqi border. This joint effort would be known as Task Force Iron. The 1st Squadron had arrived in Saudi Arabia without its tanks which had been in storage while the squadron served as the Opposing Force (OPFOR) in 1st Division maneuvers in Germany and was short tank-qualified personnel. 1-4 Cavalry began quickly integrating new replacements fresh from training and readied newly issued tanks for A and B Troops. On schedule, 1-4 Cavalry with its two armored cavalry troops and two air cavalry troops launched the VII Corps attack destroying around 27 Iraqi tanks and armored vehicles in the initial attack. The Big Red One soon had destroyed some ten miles of enemy defenses and had created a breach in the Iraqi lines for the VII Corps to pour through. Now moving east, the Corps with the 1st Division on the south passed through the cavalry screen and attacked the Iraqi forces. By 27 February the 1st Division had destroyed 2 Iraqi armored divisions. The 1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry then set up blocking positions on the Al Basrah – Kuwait City highway preventing Iraqi forces from escaping from Kuwait. 1-4 Cavalry received a Valorous Unit Award for its actions during Operation Desert Storm. Excerpt from orders: "The 1st squadron, 4th cavalry led the 1st infantry divisions attack across Iraq and Kuwait cutting the Iraqi army's escape route, the Kuwait city/Basra highway. The squadron continued its rapid advance, culminating with the capture of the Safwan airfield. During this drive the squadron destroyed 65 tanks, 66 armored personnel carriers, 66 trucks, 91 bunkers, and captured 3,000 enemy soldiers." A cease-fire was declared at 0800, 28 February 1991. Thus ended the quickest and most overpowering victory in U.S. Army history. The 4th Cavalry Regiment elements that participated in Desert Storm, 1-4 Cav, 2-4 Cav, and Troop D, all performed their missions with courage, and outstanding professionalism adding to the reputation of the 4th Cavalry as being one of the Army's finest regiments. Balkans conflict In 1995, 3-4 Cavalry deployed to Bosnia and Herzegovina, (along with 1-1 Cavalry from Buedingen, Germany, under 1st Armored Division) supporting the peacekeeping mission set forth by the Dayton Peace Accord, for a period of eleven months at Camp Molly, Camp Alicia called the "Dog Pound" near Kalesija and Eagle Camp at Tuzla Main. While deployed, 3-4 Cavalry was re-flagged to 1-4 Cavalry and from 3rd Infantry to 1st Infantry at the Division level. 1999 saw 1/4 Cavalry returning to the Balkans, this time Kosovo. A "Avenger" and B " Bulldog" troops, ground element, along with E Troop, air element, of 1-4 Cavalry deployed to Skopje, Macedonia, Leaving C troop "Charlie Rock",ground, behind in Schweinfurt Germany as a reserve element. In April 1999 the Scout platoons of C Troop were deployed to Camp Able Sentry, as dismounted Cavalry, to provide additional security support after 3 troopers of Bravo Troop were captured. This event turned the mission from a United Nation mission to a NATO mission. In May, the Squadron redeployed back to Germany to prepare to redeploy back to Macedonia as a mounted element for forward movement into Kosovo. The end of June the squadron was notified of change of mission and the drive into Kosovo was handed off to elements of the 1st Armored Division. During the summer of 1999 in support of Operation Joint Guardian, Kosovo Force (KFOR) with OH-58D Kiowa Warrior helicopters to support reconnaissance and security operations in the MNBG-E region of Kosovo. Later that same year, in November 1999, D Troop 1-4 Cavalry followed by deploying additional OH-58D Kiowa Warrior helicopters to Skopje, Macedonia while awaiting final completion of Camp Bondsteel, Kosovo. "K4B" The Schweinfurt-based "Quarterhorse" was tasked to be part of the 1st Infantry Division's 3rd Brigade task force due to rotate into Kosovo, in late 2002. The squadron was to lead the U.S. contingent's aviation task force of OH-58D Kiowa and UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters, as well as provide force protection personnel for the U.S. headquarters at Camp Bondsteel. In late-October 2002, soldiers with 1st Infantry Division's, 1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry Regiment were abruptly told they would not deploy to Kosovo for peacekeeping duties, after working for several months to ready equipment they had received for their peacekeeping mission. 1st Infantry Division officials in Kosovo said they could not comment on the change, while a spokesman for V Corps, the division's Corps headquarters, referred all questions to EUCOM, the overall combatant command for V Corps. An EUCOM spokesman said he could not comment on the change, referring all questions back to V Corps. The first trainloads of the squadron's equipment bound for the Balkans from Germany was called back after departing Schweinfurt, en route to the Balkans. War on Terrorism On 6 November 2002, the 1st Infantry Division published a warning order establishing ARFOR-T (Army Forces Turkey). This mission was enormous, encompassing the subordinate units of 2 heavy mechanized divisions, 4th ID and 1st ID. Normally these missions are assigned to corps headquarters. The following months involved extensive planning, command post exercises, and a joint warfighter with 1st ID key personnel traveling to Ft. Hood, TX, to conduct planning with the 4th ID staff. During this time the 1st Squadron's commander, Lt. Col. James H. Chevallier, designated about 40 personnel to comprise an Advanced Echelon (ADVON), and they deployed to Turkey in early February. Their mission was to conduct a detailed route reconnaissance from the seaport of debarkation (SPOD) at İskenderun, on the Mediterranean Sea coast, in south-central Turkey, to the border crossing near the tactical assembly areas located near the towns of Silopi, Dicle, and Cizre, near the Turkish-Iraqi border. The route reconnaissance conducted by less than 30 officers and non-commissioned officers is believed to the longest route recon conducted in modern times; the men assigned the task cataloged every bridge, route constriction and obstruction, hill grade, and curve radius for nearly . The goal of ARFOR-T was to open a second front, to crush Iraqi armed resistance from the North. The Quarterhorse, mounted on the hastily drawn, and refurbished, HMMWVs they had prepared initially for their Kosovo rotation, would conduct a screen along one of the 4th IDs flanks as it charged south out of Turkey. While the Quarterhorse was conducting the route reconnaissance, the Turkish government debated at length whether they should to allow Coalition forces to invade from their territory, finally signaling in early March 2003 that the invasion would not be permitted from their soil. By early April, all of the Quarterhorse troopers returned to Schweinfurt, unsure what the future held, as the Iraqi regime was toppled by forces assaulting north from Kuwait. The main body of the squadron never deployed out of Germany, despite being on standby and prepared to move for nearly two weeks in early March. While the invasion from the north never materialized, the Quarterhorse participated in an accidental, yet convincing and important, deception that caused Saddam Hussein to order several armored divisions to the north to meet the invasion force. Because of this, the enemy force strength, or Order of Battle, was significantly reduced in the South, enabling the rapid assault from Kuwait in the opening days of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) II 1-4 Cavalry acted as the divisional reconnaissance squadron for the 1st Infantry Division, and Troops D, E, and F acted as the three brigade reconnaissance troops during Operation Iraqi Freedom II (2004–2005). 1ID operated as a part of Task Force Danger in the city of Tikrit, and 1st Squadron with attached elements was organized as Task Force Saber. Their mission was to conduct security and stability operations from FOB MacKenzie near the town of Ad Duluyuah. Attached to the 2nd Brigade, 1st Infantry Division during operations in the city of Samarra from 1 October 2004 through 1 November 2004, 1-4 Cavalry's gallantry resulted in the receipt of a Valorous Unit Award. Troop D served with the 1st Brigade in Al Anbar Province from January to September 2004, also receiving a Valorous Unit Award. Troop E served with 2nd Brigade alongside 1st Squadron from February 2004 to February 2005 and received a Meritorious Unit Commendation. Troop E received a Valorous Unit Award for its actions in the city of Samarra from 1 October 2004 to 1 November 2004. Troop F served with the 3rd Brigade from February 2004-March 2005. Troop F was awarded a Presidential Unit Citation for extraordinary heroism in action during the Second Battle of Fallujah from 8 to 20 November 2004. In January 2005, Quarterhorse oversaw the conduct of the first Iraqi parliamentary elections after the 2003 invasion within their sector and passed over control of their sector to elements of the 3rd Infantry Division before redeploying to Schweinfurt, Germany in February and March 2005. Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) 2004–2005 3rd Squadron, 4th Cavalry served in the War in Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom) for one year; from April 2004 – 2005. Initially based at Kandahar Airfield, the 3rd Squadron was under the operational control of the 25th Infantry Division's 3rd Brigade Combat Team organized as Task Force Bronco. Initially, 3-4 Cavalry was responsible for security and stability operations throughout Kandahar Province. Organized as Task Force Saber (not to be confused with Task Force Saber in Iraq), the squadron's two air cavalry Troops (Troops B and C) initiated the first OH-58D helicopter operations in Afghanistan logging over 6,000 hours in support of Task Force Bronco's security and stability missions, while Troop A was mounted on Humvees and conducted screening and route security missions. In addition, the squadron initiated and supervised a significant number of reconstruction and educational initiatives in Kandahar Province. In August 2004, hostilities broke out between Afghan warlords in the western city of Herat. Coalition forces including Task Force Saber halted the hostilities. Task Force Saber remained in the area to disarm the militias, to successfully secure polling sites for the October national presidential elections and to conduct operations to block Taliban infiltration of Regional Command West. In February, the squadron returned to Kandahar Province where it resumed security and stability operations. For its accomplishments in Afghanistan, the 3rd Squadron was awarded a Meritorious Unit Commendation. In April 2005 the squadron returned to its home at Wheeler Army Air Field, Hawaii. Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) 2006-2007 In July, 2006 the 3rd Squadron began a tour of duty in Iraq with the 3rd Brigade Combat Team. For the majority of its Iraq tour of duty the 3rd Squadron served under the operational control of the 4th Brigade Combat Team, 1st Cavalry Division and was based in Tal Afar in western Nineveh Province near the Syrian border. The 3rd Squadron 4th Cavalry returned to Schofield Barracks in October 2007. Army Cpl. Casey P. Zylman was killed in action on 25 May 2007 of wounds sustained when an improvised explosive device (IED) detonated near his vehicle in Mosul, Iraq. Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) 2008-2009 In October 2008 the 3rd Squadron returned to northern Iraq for a twelve-month tour of duty. The squadron operated in the Saladin Governorate north of Baghdad in the vicinity of Balad City where it was primarily involved in economic revitalization efforts as well as joint security operations with Iraqi forces. A-Troop (Apache) was assigned to FOB Paliwoda. For the 3rd Squadron's exceptional accomplishments it was awarded a Meritorious Unit Commendation and it also received participation credit for the Iraqi Surge and Iraqi Sovereignty campaign phases. The 3rd Squadron returned to Schofield Barracks in October 2009. Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) 2011–2012 The 3rd Squadron, 4th Cavalry returned to Afghanistan with the 3rd BCT after an absence of six years in April 2011 and on 3 May 2011 as part of Regional Command- East, assumed responsibility for security and stability operations for eastern Nangarhar Province, located along the border with Pakistan. The squadron's mission was to provide security, support governance and assist in the economic development of the province. A-Troop (Apache) was assigned to FOB Shinwar. Other elements of 3rd Squadron were assigned to Jalalabad Air Base (Dakota Troop) FOB Connolly (Comanche Troop), FOB Fenty (Huron Troop) and FOB Hughie (Blackfoot Troop), 4-4 CAV was also stationed with 10th MTN at FOB Pasab formerly FOB Wilson. Current status 1st Squadron is the cavalry squadron of the 1st BCT, 1st Infantry Division stationed at Fort Riley, Kansas. 3rd Squadron is the cavalry squadron of the 3rd Brigade Combat Team, 25th Infantry Division, stationed at Schofield Barracks, Hawaii. 4th Squadron was inactivated in October 2015. 5th Squadron is the armored reconnaissance squadron of the 2nd BCT, 1st Infantry Division, stationed at Fort Riley, Kansas. Honors Campaign participation credit Indian Wars: Comanches; Solomon River, Kansas; July 1857 Little Big Horn; Red River; Remolino; Palo Duro Canyon; Geronimo's Apaches Expedition; 1886 Civil War: First Bull Run; Peninsula Campaign; Antietam; Fredericksburg; Chickamauga; Murfreesboro; Nashville; Columbus, Georgia; Capture of Jefferson Davis; World War II: D-Day – hedgerows of Normandy; 1944 Huertgen Forest, Battle of the Bulge; 1944 Korean War: Vietnam: Defense; Counteroffensive; Counteroffensive, Phase II; Counteroffensive, Phase III; Tet Counteroffensive; Counteroffensive, Phase IV; Counteroffensive, Phase V; Counteroffensive, Phase VI; Tet 69/Counteroffensive; Summer–Fall 1969; Winter–Spring 1970; Sanctuary Counteroffensive; Counteroffensive, Phase VII; Consolidation I; Consolidation II; Cease-Fire Southwest Asia: Defense of Saudi Arabia; Liberation and Defense of Kuwait; Cease-Fire Bosnia Kosovo Iraqi Campaign Transition of Iraq National Resolution Iraqi Surge Afghanistan Campaign Consolidation II Decorations The Below Decorations have been awarded to the regiment as a whole: Presidential Unit Citation (Army), Streamer embroidered BOGHEIM GERMANY Presidential Unit Citation (US) (Army) for BINH THUAN PROVINCE French Croix de Guerre with Silver-Gilt Star, World War II, Streamer embroidered NORMANDY, 4th Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron [less "B" Troop] Valorous Unit Award for QUANG TIN PROVINCE Valorous Unit Award for FISH HOOK Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for SOUTHWEST ASIA Valorous Unit Award for Desert Storm – 1st Squadron Valorous Unit Award for Operation Iraqi Freedom, 1 Oct – 1 Nov 2004 – 1st Squadron Valorous Unit Award For Operation Iraqi Freedom, 12 Mar – 30 Sep 2004 – 1st Squadron Valorous Unit Award For Operation Iraqi Freedom, 14 Mar 2007 – 3 Apr 200 – 1st Squadron Meritorious Unit Commendation (Army) for 30 Aug 2009 to 21 Jul 2010 – 1st Squadron Superior Unit Award for Operation Joint Endeavour – 1st Squadron See also List of United States Regular Army Civil War units References Bibliography 4th U.S. Cavalry Regiment Association Shelby L. Stanton; ORDER OF BATTLE: U.S. ARMY, World War II; 1984; Presidio Press; . Ranald S. Mackenzie on the Texas Frontier, Wallace, Ernest, (Lubbock: West Texas Museum Association, 1964) External links Battle of Red River 4th US Cavalry and the Lee-Peacock Feud (Texas) 1869 The History of the 4th U.S. Cavalry Regiment (Archived 2009-10-22) 004 004 004 004 004th Cavalry Regiment Bleeding Kansas 004th Cavalry Comanche campaign 1855 establishments in Missouri
4805786	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20the%20Assumption	University of the Assumption	The University of the Assumption (U.A.) is a private archdiocesan Catholic university in the City of San Fernando, Pampanga, Philippines. The University of the Assumption is the first Catholic archdiocesan university in the Philippines and in Asia. It is among the top schools in the region, based on its accredited programs, and licensure and professional examination results. History U.A. was founded on January 12, 1963, when the bishop of San Fernando, Most Reverend Emilio A. Cinense, D.D., assisted by Msgr. Pedro D. Puno, the Vicar General, concretized his dream of providing Christian education to the poor young men and women of Pampanga. Beginnings The university was originally called Assumption Junior College and was on the third floor of the Assumpta Building in downtown San Fernando. The school was under the watchful eyes of Sr. Gunfrida Schneyer, O.S.B., who was at the time the Superior of the Community of Missionary Benedictine Sisters of Tutzing (Germany). The college began with an enrollment of 275 students. The degrees offered were Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science in Commerce, Bachelor of Science in Education, and Bachelor of Science in Elementary Education. In 1965 the campus was transferred to its present site at the Unisite Subdivision, in Barangay Del Pilar. The Puno Building was then the only edifice on the campus. In the same year, the institution was granted government recognition as "Assumption College of Pampanga". In 1966, Rev. Fr. Aniceto M. Franco became the dean and rector Sr. Mary Philip Ryan, O.P. and the Dominican Sisters of Our Lady of Remedies assisted in the supervision of the grade school and high school. Sr. Mary Philip Ryan was also the superior of the Dominican community whose members performed active roles in the institution's affairs as faculty members and administrators. In 1969, the Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering was added to the roster of degrees offered. To accommodate the increase in number of enrollees, the Ryan Building and Benedictine Building were constructed. During the term of Fr. Franco the Archbishop Emilio Cinense Gymnasium was built. In 1974, Rev. Fr. Octavio M. Ramos was appointed as the first president of the institution. Fr. Ramos worked for the government recognition of new degrees: Bachelor of Science in Nursing, Bachelor of Science in Nutrition and Dietetics, Bachelor of Science in Industrial Engineering, and Bachelor of Science in Architecture. The Graduate School was organized with Master in Business Administration as its first program. From college to university The college was granted University status on March 29, 1980, by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports and was named University of the Assumption. Consequently, enrollment soared and the following buildings were built to accommodate the growing number of students: The Nutrition building The Grade School building, named after Rev. Msgr. Octavio M. Ramos The Msgr. Guerrero building which houses the University Chapel and the Archbishop Oscar V. Cruz Museum and Archives The Multi-Purpose Hall The Ryan Hall extension The Puno Hall extension The Alumni building The Post Office The Waiting Shed Under Fr. Ramos, the university was chosen as a site for the Regional Staff Development Center, the Nutrition Center, the Decentralized Learning Resource Center, and the Educational Development Implementation Task Force for Region III. Under his term the Outreach Ministry was launched. Further expansion In 1986, Rev. Fr. Cenovio M. Lumanog, Ph.D. was appointed president of the university. On June 13, 1988 the Department of Education, Culture and Sports granted U.A. the recognition to offer a Doctorate degree in Education. In 1990, the Most Rev. Jesus C. Galang, D.D., then the Auxiliary Bishop of San Fernando, was installed as the president. During his incumbency, the Archbishop V. Cruz building and the Library building (now Most Rev. Jesus C. Galang Building) were constructed. During his term the Bachelor of Science in Accountancy was added to the courses offerings. Modernization Rev. Msgr. Ricardo Jesus T. Serrano, S.L.D. assumed the role as university president in 1992. The following programs were added to the curriculum under his leadership: Master's degree in Public Administration; Bachelor of Science in Hotel and Restaurant Management; Bachelor of Science in Commerce with a major in computer science; and a Master of Education with majors in Early Childhood, Mathematics, Filipino and English. In 1998, Mass Communication and Interior Design were added as among the majors in Liberal Arts. In the same year, the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) granted the university the permission to convert AB major in Social Work to Bachelor of Science in Social Work. Msgr. Serrano was responsible in implementing anti-lahar and anti-flood interventions. The Grade School building and the Archbishop Cinense Gymnasium underwent major renovations. It was expanded to include three wings: the Msgr. Lumanog Building, the Msgr. Ramos Building, and the Franco Building. To meet the needs of the growing student populace, rooms at the Archdiocese of San Fernando building (ASF) and the Diocese of San Fernando building (DSF) were occupied to house the computer laboratories, and modern typing, and lecture rooms. Modernization of the campus included two additional audio-visual rooms, an Internet Center, computer rooms, and multimedia classrooms. A tennis court with a mini club house were added to enhance the sports and athletic facilities on campus. The newest buildings on campus are the Hotel and Restaurant Management building, presently known as the Domus Mariae International Center (the UA Hotel); and the new High School Building (Phases 1 and 2). Other enhancements include the UA Facade; the UA Radio Studio; the UA TV Studio, the Speech Laboratory and the Archbishop Aniceto Student Center Building. In 2007, His Excellency Most Reverend Roberto C. Mallari, D.D., Auxiliary Bishop of San Fernando, Pampanga, was installed as the fifth president. He is ably assisted by Rev. Fr. Winifredo Santos who was later replaced by Dr. Mediatriz D. MArtin for Academic Affairs, Rev. Fr. Manuel Sta. Maria for Administration, and Rev. Fr. Deogracias Kerr S. Galang for Finance. After serving the university for almost five years, Bishop Roberto Mallari, D.D. was appointed by Pope Benedict XVI to head the Diocese of San Jose in Nueva Ecija. Thus, on August 22, 2012, Rev. Fr. Joselito C. Henson, S.Th.D. was installed as the sixth president of the university. On May 28, 2013. Rev. Fr. Victor S. Nicdao and Mrs. Belina Katigbak were installed as VP for Administration and VP for Finance, respectively. They took over from Rev. Fr. Manuel C. Sta. Maria and Rev. Fr. Deogracias Kerr S. Galang. Recently At present, the university is offering new programs, namely, Bachelor of Science in Tourism Management, Bachelor of Science in Information Technology and Bachelor of Science in Electronics and Communications Engineering. Aside from the new course offerings, the new administration has concluded its first Collective Bargaining Agreement with the union without hassles. Salaries of employees were adjusted to a level most acceptable to all parties. With the convenience of the students as the main driving force, the Execom under the leadership of Bishop Bobet initiated the construction of the St. Thomas Aquinas Students Courtyard (STACY) which serves as the student center and the remodeling of the main entrance which is now called as the "Gates of Excellence". Golden Jubilee The university celebrated its 50th founding anniversary on January 13, 2013. In unity with the victims of the recent calamity, the administration decided to have a simple celebration starting with the launching of the year-long celebration on September 7, 2012. The highlight of the celebration was in January 2013 during the foundation week. Accreditation In the new millennia, the University of the Assumption became a member of the Philippine Association of Accredited Schools, Colleges and Universities (PAASCU). In 2002, the Liberal Arts, Education, Commerce, Accountancy and Nursing programs, as well as the Grade School and High School curricula, were granted Level 2 Accreditation. The Graduate School was ranked among the top graduate education centers in the region based on the results of the Evaluation of Graduate Education in the Philippines (EGEP) jointly conducted by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and the Fund for Assistance to Private Education (FAPE) from July 2003 to September 2004. In August 2005, the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) approved the university's application to offer Bachelor of Science in Biology (Pre-Med), and Bachelor of Science in Mathematics effective school year 2006-2007. In May 2008, the School of Arts and Sciences, College of Education, College of Business Administration, and Nursing programs achieved PAASCU level 2 re-accreditation. On May 10, 2013, PAAASCU granted re-accreditation for five years to Arts and Sciences, Elementary Education and Business Administration Programs. Immediately upon Roberto C. Mallari assumption of office, the University was granted a Level II re-accreditation status by PAASCU. Best school in Central Luzon. Academics The University of the Assumption has five academic colleges: School of Technological Studies The School of Technological Studies has the second largest undergraduate enrollment at the university. It offers bachelor's degrees in Architecture, Interior Design, Civil Engineering, Industrial Engineering, Computer Engineering, Mathematics, and Computer Science, Information Technology, Electronics Communication Engineering. Architecture & Interior Design - The College of Architecture at the University of the Assumption is the first college in the province of Pampanga to offer a bachelor's degree in Architecture. In 1979, Assumption College of Pampanga conceived the idea of creating its own College of Architecture as a prerequisite for attaining its university status. In June of the same year, the first College of Architecture in the region was born. Three young architects were commissioned to become the first faculty: Efren Mendoza, Rodolfo Alviz and Danilo Galura. Danilo Galura became the first dean of the college. Two sections of seventy-two freshmen became the pioneering batch. Steadily, the population of the college grew, not only in students, but also in faculty. School of Business The School of Business was formerly known as the College of Commerce. It provided one of the original degrees offered: the Bachelor of Science in Commerce. It has the largest undergraduate enrollment in the university. The School of business offers both undergraduate and graduate programs. School of Arts and Sciences The School of Arts and Sciences offers two undergraduate programs: Bachelor of Science in Psychology and Bachelor of Arts in Communication. College of Professional Teacher Education The College of Professional Teacher Education is one of the oldest colleges at the university offering a Bachelor of Science in elementary education or secondary education. It offers a Master of Arts in Education and is the only college to offer a doctoral degree. College of Nursing The University of the Assumption is one of three universities in the province that offers a bachelor's degree in Nursing (BSN). The program was opened in 1974 during the administration of Rev. Fr. Octavio M. Ramos. Clinical affiliations and internships are conducted at the Jose B. Lingad Regional Hospital and at hospitals throughout Metro Manila, including the University of Santo Tomas Hospital, the oldest university in the Philippines. Community outreach programs in the local barrios of are a regular part of the clinical experience and a major emphasis of the program. Degrees and programs offered Undergrad programs College of Accountancy Bachelor of Science in Accountancy Bachelor of Science in Accounting Information System School of Business and Public Administration Bachelor of Science in Business Administration Major in: Marketing Management Operations Management Masters in Business Administration With Thesis Non Thesis Masters in Public Administration With Thesis Non Thesis College of Hospitality and Tourism Management Bachelor of Science in Hospitality Management Bachelor of Science in Tourism Management School of Education Bachelor of Elementary Education with areas of specialization in: Pre-School Education General Education Bachelor of Secondary Education with areas of specialization in: Religious Education and Values Education English Filipino Social Studies Mathematics Physical Sciences Music, Arts, Physical Education, Health (MAPEH) Certificate in Teaching (for Degree Holders) Master of Arts in Education (M.A.Ed.) with areas of specializations in: Education Management English Physical Education Teaching Filipino Mathematics College of Engineering and Architecture Bachelor of Science in Architecture Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering Bachelor of Science in Industrial Engineering Bachelor of Science in Electronics and Communications Engineering Bachelor of Science in Computer Engineering College of Computing Sciences and Information Technology Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Bachelor of Library and Information Science School of Arts and Sciences Bachelor of Arts in Communication Bachelor of Science in Psychology Bachelor of Human Services Masters in Guidance & Counselling College of Nursing and Pharmacy Bachelor of Science in Nursing Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy Institute of Theology and Religious Studies Master of Arts in Theological Studies Post-grad programs Doctor of Philosophy with major in Educational Management Basic education Senior High School Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) Accountancy, Business, and Management (ABM) Humanities and Social Sciences (HUMSS) General Academic Strand (GAS) Junior High School Grade School Pre-elementary Senior Kindergarten Junior Kindergarten Nursery Student organizations REGINA: The Official Student Publication of the University of the Assumption University of the Assumption Central Student Council (UACSC) Recognized student organizations: Architecture Association of the Assumption (AAA) Business Administration College Council (BACC) Citizen's Drug Watch (CDW) Computer Science Council (CSC) College Red Cross Youth Council (CRCYC) Council of Hotel and Restaurant Management Students (CHARMS) English Society (ENGSOC) Institute of Computer Engineers of the Philippines (ICPEP) Institute of Financial and Management Accountants (IFMA) Junior Philippine Institute of Accountants (JPIA) League of Educators Advocating for Development (LEAD) League of the Tourism Students of the Philippines (LTSP) Mass Communications Students Association (MCSA) Mathematics Society (MATHSOC) Nursing Student Council (NSC) National Service Training Program (NSTP) Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers (PICE) Philippine Institute of Industrial Engineers (PIIE) Psychology Society (PSYCHSOC) School of Technological Studies Mother Council (STSMC) Society of Arts and Sciences Students (SOARS) UA Student Assistance Organization (UASAO) UA Student Grantees Association (UASGA) which includes: Religious organizations under the supervision of the director of Campus and Outreach Ministry Apostolate for the Aged (Bahay Pag-ibig) Catechetical Ministry CFC Youth for Christ (YFC) Commentators-Lectors Guild (COMLEC) Christ's Youth in Action (CYA) Hospital Ministry Knights of the Blessed Sacrament Prison Apostolate Street Children Youth Community Service Club Affiliations The University of the Assumption is affiliated with the following accredited national professional organizations: Institutional membership ACUP - Association of Catholic Universities of the Philippines ASEEACCU - Association of Southeast and East Asian Catholic Colleges and Universities APCAS - Association of Philippine Colleges of Arts and Sciences ASPAP - Association of School of Public Administration in the Philippines, Inc. CEAP - Catholic Educational Association of the Philippines CEM - Center for Educational Measurement COCOPEA - Coordinating Council of Private Educational Associations CODHASP - Council of Deans and Heads of Architectural Schools of the Philippines GCP - Guidance Circle of the Philippines HRAP - Hotel & Restaurant Association of the Philippines PAARL - Philippine Association of Academic and Research Librarians PAASCU - Philippine Accrediting Association of Schools, Colleges, and Universities PACSB - Philippine Association of Colleges and Schools of Business PACU - Philippine Association of Colleges and Universities PAFTE - Philippine Association of Teacher Education PAGE - Philippine Association of Graduate Education PLMP - Philippine Library Materials Project Foundation PMAP - Personnel Management Association of the Philippines PSERE - Philippine Society of Educational Research and Evaluation PSITE - Philippine Society of Information Technology REDTI - Research and Educational Development Technological Institute Departmental membership Architecture UAP - United Architects of the Philippines CIDE - Council of Interior Design Educators Nursing PRC - Philippine Red Cross (Pampanga Chapter) High School APSA-CSF - Association of Private Schools Administrators-City of San Fernando (Pampanga) PRISAAP - Private Secondary School Administrators Association of the Philippines Individual membership Architecture CODHASP - Council of Deans and Heads of Architectural Schools of the Philippines Nursing ADPCN - Association of Deans of Philippine Colleges of Nursing ANSAP - Association of Nursing Service Administration of the Philippines MCNAP - Maternal and Child Nurses Association of the Philippines ORNAP - Operating Room Nurses Association of the Philippines PNA - Philippine Nurses Association Library ALA - American Library Association CLLA - Central Luzon Library Association PLA - Philippine Librarian Association PAARL - Philippine Association of Academic and Research Librarians PLS - Pampanga Librarians' Society Guidance Philippine Guidance and Counseling Association Inc. (PGCA) The Guidance Circle of the Philippines Education CDCE - Council of Deans of the College of Education Mathematics MSP - Mathematical Society of the Philippines MATHTED - Philippine Council of Mathematics Teacher Educators LSC - Luzon Science Consortium Engineering PICE - Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers PIIE - Philippine Institute of Industrial Engineers Hotel and Restaurant Management COHREP - Council of Hotel and Restaurant Educators of the Philippines Graduate School / Academic Research PAGE - Philippine Association of Graduate Education PSERE - Philippine Society of Educational Research and Evaluation REDTI - Research and Educational Development Technological Institute Affiliates in the Computer Science Industry and Academe CSP - Computing Society of the Philippines PCSC - Philippine Computing Science Congress PSIA - Philippine Software Industry Association PSITE - Philippine Society of Information Technology Educators PeLs - Philippine eLearning Society SAITE - Student Assembly on Information Technology Education SSITE - Student Society in Information Technology Education Affiliate hospitals Balitucan District Hospital Camp Olivas Clinic Diosdado P. Macapagal Memorial Hospital Dr. Emigdio C. Cruz Sr. Memorial Hospital Escolastica Rodriguez District Hospital Jose B. Lingad Memorial Regional Hospital Lung Center of the Philippines Mabalacat District Hospital Mariveles Mental Ward National Center for Mental Health Ospital ng Angeles Philippine Orthopedic Center Ricardo P. Rodrigues Memorial Hospital Romana Pangan District Hospital Rural Health Unit St. Claire Psychiatric Home Care San Lazaro Hospital San Luis District Hospital University of Sto. Tomas Hospital References University of the Assumption http://www.ua.edu.ph External links University of the Assumption Official Website University of the Assumption High School Alumni 1980 Regina - The Official Student Publication of the University of the Assumption Universities and colleges in Pampanga Education in San Fernando, Pampanga Educational institutions established in 1963 Catholic universities and colleges in the Philippines Catholic elementary schools in the Philippines Catholic secondary schools in the Philippines 1963 establishments in the Philippines
4806331	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Syro-Aramaic%20Reading%20of%20the%20Koran	The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran	The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: A Contribution to the Decoding of the Language of the Koran is an English-language edition (2007) of Die syro-aramäische Lesart des Koran: Ein Beitrag zur Entschlüsselung der Koransprache (2000) by Christoph Luxenberg. The book received considerable attention from the popular press in North America and Europe at its release, perhaps in large part to its argument that the Quranic term Houri refers not to beautiful virgins in paradise (Jannah), but to grapes there. The thesis of the book is that the text of the Quran was substantially derived from Syriac Christian liturgy, arguing that many "obscure" portions become clear when they are back-translated and interpreted as Syriacisms. While there is a scholarly consensus Classical Arabic was influenced by Syro-Aramaic, since the latter used to be the lingua franca of the Ancient Near East, Luxenberg's thesis goes beyond mainstream scholarly consensus and was widely received with skepticism in reviews. The book asserted that the language of the early compositions of the Quran was not exclusively Arabic, as assumed by the classical commentators, but rather is rooted in the Syriac language of the 7th century Meccan tribe of the Quraysh, which is associated in the early histories with the founding of the religion of Islam. Luxenberg's premise is that the Syriac language, which was prevalent throughout the Middle East during the early period of Islam, and was the language of culture and Christian liturgy, had a profound influence on the scriptural composition and meaning of the contents of the Quran. Thesis The work advances the thesis that critical sections of the Quran have been misread by generations of readers and Muslim and Western scholars, who consider Classical Arabic the language of the Quran. Luxenberg's analysis suggests that the prevalent Syro-Aramaic language up to the seventh century formed a stronger etymological basis for its meaning. A notable trait of early written Arabic was that it lacked vowel signs and diacritics which would later distinguish e.g. ب, ت, ن, ي, and thus was prone to mispronunciation. Arabic diacritics were added around the turn of the eighth century on orders of al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, governor of Iraq (694–714).. Luxenberg claimed that the Quran "contains much ambiguous and even inexplicable language." He asserts that even Muslim scholars find some passages difficult to parse and have written reams of Quranic commentary attempting to explain these passages. However, the assumption behind their endeavours has always been, according to him, that any difficult passage is true, meaningful, and pure Arabic, and that it can be deciphered with the tools of traditional Muslim scholarship. Luxenberg accuses Western academic scholars of the Qur'an of taking a timid and imitative approach, relying too heavily on the work of Muslim scholars. Luxenberg argues that the Quran was not originally written exclusively in Arabic but in a mixture with Syriac, the dominant spoken and written language in the Arabian peninsula through the eighth century. Luxenberg remarked that scholars must start afresh, ignore the old Islamic commentaries, and use only the latest in linguistic and historical methods. Hence, if a particular Quranic word or phrase seems "meaningless" in Arabic, or can be given meaning only by tortuous conjectures, it makes sense – he argues – to look to Syriac as well as Arabic. Luxenberg also argues that the Quran is based on earlier texts, namely Syriac lectionaries used in Christian churches of Syria, and that it was the work of several generations who adapted these texts into the Quran as known today. With his approach of research, Luxenberg is a representative of the "Saarbrücken School" which is part of the Revisionist school of Islamic studies. His proposed methodology Check whether a plausible, overlooked explanation can be found in Tafsir al-Tabari (completed ). Check if there is a plausible explanation in the Ibn Manzur's Lisān al-ʿArab (completed ), the most extensive Arabic dictionary (this dictionary postdates the Tabari commentary by about 400 years, so might plausibly contain advances in lexical insight). Check if the Arabic expression has a homonymous root in Syriac or Aramaic with a different meaning that fits the context. Judge whether or not the meaning of the Syriac/Aramaic root word might make better sense of the passage. Check to see if there is a Syriac word which would make sense of the passage. Experiment with different placements of the diacritics (which indicate vowels, etc.) later added to the earliest text, the rasm. Perhaps there is a version of the rasm that will give an Arabic word that makes sense of the passage. If there is no Arabic word that works, repeat the experiment and look for Syriac words. Translate the Arabic phrase into Syriac and check the Syrian literature for a phrase that might have been translated literally into Arabic; the original meaning in Syriac may make more sense than the resulting Arabic phrase (such translated phrases are called morphological calques). Check to see if there is a corresponding phrase in the old Syrian literature, which may be an analog of an Arabic phrase now lost. Check to see if it is a correct Arabic expression written in Arabic script, but in Syriac orthography. "Plausibility", "judging" and "making sense" of single word involves looking at occurrences of the same word in more obvious Quranic passages, and looking at Aramaic apocryphal and liturgical texts, which were carried over almost verbatim into the Quran. Word analysis Quran According to Luxenberg, the word qur'an ("reading, lectionary") is a rendition of the Aramaic word qeryan-a, a book of liturgical readings, i.e. the term for a Syriac lectionary, with hymns and Biblical extracts, created for use in Christian services. Luxenberg cites the suggestion by Theodor Nöldeke "that the term Qorān is not an inner-Arabic development out of the synonymous infinitive, but a borrowing from that Syriac word with a simultaneous assimilation of the type fuʿlān." Huri The word houri, universally interpreted by scholars as white-eyed virgins (who will serve the faithful in Paradise; Qur'an 44:54, 52:20, 55:72, 56:22) means, according to Luxenberg, white grapes or raisins. He says that many Christian descriptions of Paradise describe it as abounding in pure white grapes. This sparked much ridicule and insult from the Western press who allege that "suicide bombers would be expecting beautiful women and getting grapes." Khātam The passage in surat al-Ahzab that has usually been translated as "seal of the prophets" means, according to Luxenberg, "witness". By this reading, Muhammad is not the last of the prophets, but a witness to those prophets who came before him. Ibrahim's sacrifice The verse 37:103, considered to be about Ibrahim's sacrifice of his son, reads when translated into English from Arabic, "And when they had both submitted and he put him down upon his forehead". But using Syriac instead of Arabic for almost the same Arabic rasm, "he put him down upon his forehead", changes the meaning to "he tied him to the firewood". Aya analysis The Quranic passage in surat an-Nur, 31 is traditionally translated as saying that women "should draw their veils over their bosoms" (Abdullah Yusuf Ali's translation, The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary). It has been interpreted as a command for women to cover themselves, and is used in support of hijab. In Luxenberg's Syro-Aramaic reading, the verse instead commands women to "snap their belts around their waists." Luxenberg argues that this is a much more plausible reading than the Arabic one. The belt was a sign of chastity in the Christian world. Also, Jesus puts on an apron (Greek λέντιον, lention) before he washes the disciples' feet at the last supper. Christoph Luxenberg Christoph Luxenberg is the pseudonym of the author of the book, and several articles in anthologies about early Islam. The pseudonym "Christoph Luxenberg" may be a play upon the name of Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, the "destroyer of myths," since Lux (Latin) translates as Licht (German). Luxenberg himself claims to have chosen a pseudonym "upon the counsel of Arab friends, after these became familiar with my work theses," to protect himself against possible violent repercussions. The real identity of the person behind the pseudonym remains unknown. The most widely circulated version claims that he is a German scholar of Semitic languages. Hans Jansen, professor at Leyden University, has conjectured that Luxenberg is a Lebanese Christian, whereas François de Blois, writing in the Journal of Quranic Studies, has questioned Luxenberg's knowledge of Arabic. Reception Luxenberg's book has been reviewed by Blois (2003), Neuwirth (2003) and following the English translation by King (2009) and Saleh (2011). The most detailed scholarly review is by Daniel King, a Syriacist at the University of Cardiff, who endorses some of Luxenberg's emendations and readings and cites other scholars who have done the same, but concludes: The conclusion of King's article summarizes the most prominent reviews of Luxenberg's work that have been published by other scholars. Gabriel Said Reynolds complains that Luxenberg "consults very few sources" -- only one exegete (Abu Jafar al-Tabari) -- and seldom integrates the work of earlier critical studies into his work; "turns from orthography to phonology and back again"; and that his use of Syriac is "largely based on modern dictionaries". Robert Hoyland argues against Luxenberg's thesis that Syro-Aramaic language was prevalent in the Hijaz during the time of the Quran's inception, finding Arabic script on funerary text, building text inscriptions, graffiti, stone inscriptions of that era in the area. He further argues that Arabic evolved from Nabataean Aramaic script not Syriac. He concludes that Arabic was widely written, was used for sacred expression and literary expression, and was widely spoken in the Middle East by the seventh century CE. He proposes that "the rise of an Arabic script in the sixth century" was likely the work of "Arab tribes allied to Rome" and Christian missionaries working to convert Arab tribes. The Quran is "the translation of a Syriac text," is how Angelika Neuwirth describes Luxenberg's thesis – "The general thesis underlying his entire book thus is that the Quran is a corpus of translations and paraphrases of original Syriac texts recited in church services as elements of a lectionary." She considers it as "an extremely pretentious hypothesis which is unfortunately relying on rather modest foundations." Neuwirth points out that Luxenberg doesn't consider the previous work in Quran studies, but "limits himself to a very mechanistic, positivist linguistic method without caring for theoretical considerations developed in modern linguistics." Dutch archaeologist Richard Kroes describes Luxenberg's book in a review article as "almost unreadable, certainly for the layman. One needs knowledge of eight languages (German, English, French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic and Syriac) and of five different alphabets (Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and the Syriac Estrangelo) to comprehend the book fully. A good working knowledge of German, Arabic and Syriac is indispensable to be able to assess the book. [...] Luxenberg's main problem, however, is that his line of reasoning doesn't follow the simple and strict method that he set out at the beginning of his book." Conclusive remarks about the book are expressed as "certainly not everything Luxenberg writes is nonsense or too far-fetched, but quite a few of his theories are doubtful and motivated too much by a Christian apologetic agenda. Even his greatest critics admit he touches on a field of research that was touched on by others before and that deserves more attention. However, this needs to be done with a strictly scientific approach. In fact, his investigations should be done again, taking into account all the scholarly work that Luxenberg doesn't seem to know." A March 2002 New York Times article describes Luxenberg's research: In 2002, The Guardian newspaper published an article which stated: In 2003, the Pakistani government banned a 2003 issue of Newsweeks international edition discussing Luxenberg's thesis on grounds that it was offensive to Islam. Francois de Blois has postulated that Luxenberg is not German, rather a Lebanese Christian. He believes that the individual is a dilettante whose Syro-Aramaic reading "does not actually make better sense" than the standard classical Arabic reading. He notes that the theory is not novel, rather Luxenberg seems to adapt earlier works by James A. Bellamy and Günter Lüling without citing them in his bibliography, which "poses questions about [his] scholarly integrity." He posits that Luxenberg has an articulate knowledge of dialectal Arabic, passable (though flawed) command of classical Arabic, and a basic (though "very shaky") command of Syriac. He ultimately concludes that German academics have no reason to hide their identity,It is necessary, in conclusion, to say a little about the authorship, or rather the non authorship, the pseudonymity of this book. An article published in the New York Times on 2nd March 2002 (and subsequently broadly disseminated in the internet) referred to this book as the work of 'Christoph Luxenberg, a scholar of ancient Semitic languages in Germany'. It is, I think, sufficiently clear from this review that the person in question is not 'a scholar of ancient Semitic languages'. He is someone who evidently speaks some Arabic dialect, has a passable, but not flawless command of classical Arabic, knows enough Syriac so as to be able to consult a dictionary, but is innocent of any real understanding of the methodology of comparative Semitic linguistics. His book is not a work of scholarship but of dilettantism [amateur].The NYT article goes on to state that 'Christoph Luxenberg ... is a pseudonym', to compare him with Salman Rushdie, Naguib Mahfouz and Suliman Bashear and to talk about 'threatened violence as well as the widespread reluctance on United States college campuses to criticize other cultures'. I am not sure what precisely the author means with 'in Germany'. According to my information, 'Christoph Luxenberg' is not a German, but a Lebanese Christian. It is thus not a question of some intrepid philologist, pouring over dusty books in obscure languages somewhere in the provinces of Germany and then having to publish his results under a pseudonym so as to avoid the death threats of rabid Muslim extremists, in short an ivory-tower Rushdie. Let us not exaggerate the state of academic freedom in what we still like to call our Western democracies. No European or North American scholar of linguistics, even of Arabic linguistics, needs to conceal his (or her) identity, nor does he (or she) really have any right to do so. These matters must be discussed in public. In the Near East things are, of course, very different. Blois (2003) is particularly scathing, describing the book as "not a work of scholarship but of dilettantism" and concluding that Luxenberg's "grasp of Syriac is limited to knowledge of dictionaries and in his Arabic he makes mistakes that are typical for the Arabs of the Middle East." Walid Saleh (2011) describes Luxenberg's method as "so idiosyncratic, so inconsistent, that it is simply impossible to keep his line of argument straight." He adds that according to Luxenberg, for the last two hundred years, Western scholars "have totally misread the Qur'ān" and that, ad hominem, no one can understand the Qur'an as "Only he can fret out for us the Syrian skeleton of this text." Summing up his assessment of Luxenberg's method, he states: Saleh further attests that Luxenberg does not follow his own proposed rules. Richard Kroes (2004) says that "Even his (Luxenberg's) greatest critics admit he touches on a field of research that was touched on by others before and that deserves more attention. However, this needs to be done with a strictly scientific approach. In fact, his investigations should be done again, taking into account all the scholarly work that Luxenberg doesn't seem to know." and mentions that he is "unaware of much of the other literature on the subject" and that "quite a few of his theories are doubtful and motivated too much by a Christian apologetic agenda." Patricia Crone, professor of Islamic history at the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, in a 2008 article at opendemocracy.net admitted that the Quran language is obscure & "Sometimes it uses expressions that were unknown even to the earliest exegetes, or words that do not seem to fit entirely, though they can be made to fit more or less; sometimes it seems to give us fragments detached from a long-lost context; and the style is highly allusive." Still she refers to Luxenberg's work as "open to so many scholarly objections" and "notably amateurism". Work of Christoph Luxenberg Luxenberg, Christoph (2000) – Die Syro-Aramäische Lesart des Koran: Ein Beitrag zur Entschlüsselung der Koransprache. Berlin: Verlag Hans Schiler. . English version: Luxenberg, Christoph (2004) – Weihnachten im Koran. in Streit um den Koran, Die Luxenberg Debatte: Standpunkte und Hintergründe Berlin: Verlag Hans Schiler. 2004. . Luxenberg, Christoph (2004) – “Der Koran zum Islamischen Kopftuch”, imprimatur 2(2004). Luxenberg, Christoph (2005) – “Neudeutung der arabischen Inschrift im Felsendom zu Jerusalem”, Die dunklen Anfänge, neue Forschungen zur Entstehung und frühen Geschichte des Islam. Berlin: Verlag Hans Schiler, 2005. . Luxenberg, Christoph (2007) – “Relikte syro-aramäischer Buchstaben in frühen Korankodizes im hejazi- und kufi- Duktus”, Der frühe Islam. Berlin: Verlag Hans Schiler, 2007. . Luxenberg, Christoph (2008) – “Die syrische Liturgie und die geheimnisvollen Buchstaben im Koran”, Schlaglichter: Die beiden ersten islamischen Jahrhunderte, eds. Markus Groß & Karl-Heinz Ohlig. Berlin: Verlag Hans Schiler, 2008. , pp. 411–456 See also Criticism of the Quran The Bible Came from Arabia Hagarism Günter Lüling Michael Cook Patricia Crone Fred Donner Karl-Heinz Ohlig Gerd R. Puin John Wansbrough Markus Groß (de) References External links The Koran As Philological Quarry A Conversation with Christoph Luxenberg (Goethe Institute) An interview with "Christoph Luxenberg" by Alfred Hackensberger (originally in Süddeutsche Zeitung, here in English translation) Islamic-Awareness, From Alphonse Mingana To Christoph Luxenberg: Arabic Script & The Alleged Syriac Origins Of The Qur'an Review by Simon Hopkins (Faculty of Humanities, Hebrew University of Jerusalem) Academic press Review by François de Blois (Department of Iranian Studies, University of Hamburg) Review by Richard Kroes (Archeologist, writer of "Islam en Integratie", Rotterdam) Review by Angelika Neuwirth (Arabist Department, Free University of Berlin) Review by Simon Hopkins (Faculty of Humanities, Hebrew University of Jerusalem) Review by Robert R. Phenix Jr. and Cornelia B. Horn (Department of Theology, University of St. Thomas) Hoyland, Robert: New Documentary Texts and the Early Islamic State, in: BSOAS: vol 9, part 3, 2006 Corriente, F.: On a proposal for a ‘Syro-Aramaic’ reading of the Qur'an, in: Collectanea Christiana Orientalia No.1. Popular press Goethe Institute: The Koran As Philological Quarry A Conversation with Christoph Luxenberg Islamic-Awareness, From Alphonse Mingana To Christoph Luxenberg: Arabic Script & The Alleged Syriac Origins Of The Qur'an Lebanon Wire: Giving the Koran a history: Holy Book under scrutiny Newsweek: Challenging the Koran New York Times: Scholars Scrutinize the Koran's Origin Reuters: Low profile for German Koran challenger Islamic studies books Syriac literature 2007 non-fiction books 2000 non-fiction books Works about the Quran
4806375	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20rules%20football%20in%20Tasmania	Australian rules football in Tasmania	Australian rules football in Tasmania (known locally as "football"), has been played since the late 1870s and draws the largest audience for a football code in the state. A 2018 study of Internet traffic showed that 79% of Tasmanians are interested in Australian rules football, the highest rate in the country. While it is the only state without an Australian Football League (AFL) club, after 30 years of campaigning by the state on 1 May 2023 the league's 18 clubs unanimously approved a 19th license to the state, which is expected to debut in 2028 along with the construction of the new Macquarie Point Stadium to be completed by 2019. While the audience for the sport remains significant and population growth has exceeded the national average, participation has been in freefall since 2006. The number of participants halved during the 2000s and has not recovered. Once having the strongest participation per capita, it has dropped below the national average and is now similar to the sport in the Australian Capital Territory and only marginally higher than that in New South Wales and in Queensland. In the 21st century it dropped off the top 10 team sports and the most popular team sports are now basketball and soccer. While the code remains popular in the state's north and Launceston, its popularity has fared much worse in the south and in the state's capital Hobart. With the collapse of numerous clubs and competitions, the sport has undergone numerous restructures over the years. Tasmania has traditionally supplied the AFL with a disproportionately high number of players. Despite efforts to maintain a pathway, in the 2010s and 2020s it began to produce poorly in the AFL Draft and for the first time in history (including 2020 and 2022) Tasmanians missed selection altogether. The general consensus is that the state suffered from being ignored by national governing bodies for decades. This prompted the Government of Australia to launch a Senate inquiry in 2008. The Tasmanian state team competed in senior interstate and State of Origin football; it won matches against all other Australian states (including Victoria, firstly in their 1960 match and most recently in their second last encounter in 1990) as well as several second division titles (including 1908 and 1947). Peter Hudson represented Tasmania more times than any other player, with 19 caps. The side played its last senior representative match in 1993. Tasmania continues to field underage sides in the national underage championships as part of a talent pathway to the AFL and remains a successful side with 8 Division two titles, the most recent in 2018. Tasmania has also fielded teams in the VFL (2001–2008), the TAC Cup (1996–2002; 2019-) and defeated a NEAFL representative side in 2013 as the Tasmania Mariners/Devils. AFL premiership matches have been played every year except 2020 since 2001 with the first held at the North Hobart Oval in 1991. Attendance at these matches, per capita, up to the 2000s and 2010s were the highest in Australia with an average of more than 16,000 per game. Tasmanian Devils VFL home crowds averaged 4,000 a season until the Devils unpopular alignment with AFL club North Melbourne began in 2006. Many viewed it as an AFL attempt at club relocation and as a result average AFL attendances halved after the club began playing home games in Hobart. Tasmanian television audiences for the AFL were also among the highest per capita, consistently drawing bigger ratings than both Queensland and New South Wales; however, they too fell in the 2010s. These factors increased the urgency of the state's bid for an AFL club of its own. Over 300 Tasmanians have played the game at the highest level, the VFL/AFL. Tasmania has four Australian Football Hall of Fame legends: Darrell Baldock, Peter Hudson, Ian Stewart and Royce Hart. Matthew Richardson has the most AFL goals for a Tasmanian with 800. The highest profile current men's player is Jack Riewoldt, who also holds the Tasmanian record for most AFL games. Current women's player Jess Wuetschner holds the AFLW games and goals records for a Tasmanian. History English public school games: 1851-1879 Organised "Foot-ball" matches have been recorded in Van Diemens Land since 1851 and matches in southern Tasmanian towns of Hobart and Richmond between 1853 and 1855 significantly pre-date those recorded across Bass Strait in suburban Melbourne. Rugby historian Sean Fagan claims that early matches played in Tasmania may have been an early form of rugby football, pointing to early mentions of goal posts with cross-bars and offside rules of later Tasmanian clubs. Accounts from Tasmanians of these early matches indicate that, as in early Victoria, they played mostly English public school football games particularly Rugby football, Harrow football and Eton football (the latter being similar to soccer) among others. However, apart from the fact that they were organised and played, few details of these matches actually survive, and the popularity of football in the fast-growing colony of Victoria quickly eclipsed the following that the pastime had in newly named colony of Tasmania. First football clubs appear: 1864-1878 The "football" club formed in New Town in 1864 is believed to be the earliest in Tasmania – but disbanded soon after. A series of high-profile matches were played between New Town and Hobart Football Club (now defunct) in 1866, though it is not known under which rules, though it is likely to have been under Victorian Rules. Significantly not long later, cricket clubs passed a motion prohibiting football from being played on their grounds. By the mid- to late 1860s, more stable clubs, including Derwent and Stowell Football, emerged. In 1871 the Break O'Day club was formed followed in 1875 by the Launceston Football Club and Launceston Church Grammar School in 1876. Even by 1876, Tasmanian clubs had not decided on which rules to play. "Victorian Football Rules" began to gain favour only as the strong growth of the code in Victoria and Queensland became evident, even still most clubs preferred to play by their own rules Other clubs to form were Longford (1878) and Cornwall (1879), which became City in 1880. The City and Richmond clubs were formed in 1877 and the Oatlands and Railway clubs in 1879. New Town formally started in 1878 and along with City and Richmond formed the basis of the game in Hobart, while in Launceston the abovementioned clubs formed the basis for the NTFA. New Norfolk District Football Club (1878) was one of the stronger regional clubs and North Hobart Football Club (1881) is another survivor of these early years. Intercolonial football and adoption of the Victorian Rules: 1879 On 1 May 1879 members of the Tasmanian Cricket Association met and decided to form a club for their members, to be called Cricketers. They initially adopted English Association Rules (soccer) before succumbing to the pressure to play Victorian Rules. In 1879 the Hotham Football Club (now North Melbourne) wrote to Tasmanian clubs for an intercolonial challenge. The Tasmanians initially deferred the challenge due to no uniform rules among its clubs. On July 5, 1881, it played a combined Hobart team defeated them 3 goals 2 in front of 1500 spectators. Following the intercolonial, Tasmanian clubs adopted a slightly modified version of the Victorian game. More intercolonials against Victorian clubs followed shortly after the official adoption of the code. The Essendon Football Club visited in 1882 playing against a combined Tasmanian side in front of more than 3,000 spectators. An Intrastate rivalry develops: 1900- The history of local Tasmanian football differs considerably from any of the mainland states. Whereas mainland states had a major population centre around which a single dominant league was based, Tasmania's population was more evenly distributed. The consequences of this on Tasmanian football history are three-fold: firstly, a strong intrastate rivalry not noted in any mainland state; secondly, three different top-level football leagues in different regions of the state; and thirdly, the ability for teams representing very small towns to be competitive in the top leagues. The Tasmanian Football League, based around Hobart, began in 1879. The Northern Tasmanian Football Association, based around Launceston, began in 1886. Victorian clubs Fitzroy Football Club and Collingwood Football Club visited in 1901 and 1902 respectively winning convincingly against the NTFA. A third top-level league, although not recognised as such until later, was the North West Football Union, contested by teams on the north-western coast of the state west of Latrobe, which began in 1910. Victorian club Collingwood FC again visited Launceston in 1923 and played against the NTFA. The leagues were small in the pre-WWI era, with only three clubs competing in the TFL and NTFA, and four in the NWFU. Intrastate games between representative teams in the leagues were a regular fixture during these years. In the 1920s, the TANFL (as the TFL was now known) and NFTA expanded to four teams apiece, and the NWFU to six. In 1929, Victorian club Collingwood FC again visited both Launceston and Hobart, playing against the NTFA and SFA respectively. After World War II, all leagues underwent further expansion. The TANFL switched to a district-based selection, and expanded to six clubs. The NFTA also expanded to six teams. The NWFU expanded from six teams to as many as fourteen, with a short-lived incorporation of four Circular Head-based clubs, but eventually contracted back to eight. The local leagues were extremely popular and attracted large crowds. The TANFL Grand Final between Glenorchy and Clarence at the North Hobart Oval in 1979 attracted a record crowd of 24,968 which, although ostensibly small in comparison to mainland crowds, represented 15% of Hobart's population at the time. Statewide Competition There were always attempts made to somehow consolidate the major Tasmanian leagues into one statewide competition. The earliest and longest-lasting was the Tasmanian State Premiership, which began (officially) in 1909 as a single Grand Final game between the TANFL and NTFA premiers, for the right to be the State Premiers. The Hobart-based teams initially dominated, winning the first fourteen such contests. In 1950, the NWFU Premier was also invited to contest for the State Premiership. The final State Premiership was played in 1978. The next attempt at statewide competition was the Winfield Statewide Cup, a seven-week tournament played prior to the 1980 season amongst all twenty teams in the TANFL, NTFA and NWFU, plus one team from the Circular Head Football Association (Smithton, who would join the NWFU that season). The competition was not popular with the northern clubs, who believed the organisation of the league biased towards the Hobart-based league. In response, they refused to play another Winfield Statewide Cup. Instead, the NTFA and NWFU joined to form the Greater Northern Football League, which resembled the old Statewide Premiership format, with the winners of the individual leagues playing off for the GNFL premiership. The GNFL experiment lasted only the 1981 and 1982 seasons. In 1986 and 1987, a true Statewide League was finally realised, when five of the northern clubs left their respective leagues to join the TANFL, renamed the TFL Statewide League: North Launceston, East Launceston and City-South left the NTFA in 1986 (the latter two merging to form South Launceston), and Devonport and Cooee (which was renamed Burnie for the move) left the NWFU in 1987. The two northern leagues merged to form the Northern Tasmanian Football League. From that point, Tasmanian local football slowly dwindled as teams began to lose money. Clubs began to leave both the NTFL and the Statewide league throughout the 1990s, returning to local or amateur competitions with lower travel costs, or in some cases (such as the TANFL's Sandy Bay Football Club) fold completely. Only six teams remained in the Statewide League by 2000, and after one of the most poorly attended Grand Finals in seventy years, the league folded. The clubs that survived returned to the NTFL and the newly formed Southern Football League. The Tasmanian Devils and the VFL Upon the disbanding of the TFL in 2000, the Tasmanian Devils was formed in 2001 and admitted into the Victorian Football League in its inaugural year. The team played home games in Launceston, Hobart, Ulverstone, Burnie and Devonport during its time in the league. The Devils attracted a strong following in comparison with many other VFL clubs at the time. AFL aligns North Melbourne with Tasmania (2006) At the start of the 2006 season the Devils and the Australian Football League's North Melbourne Football Club began a partial alignment, allowing six North Melbourne listed players to play for Tasmania when not selected in the seniors, and arrangement which lasted from 2006 until 2007. This was unpopular among local fans, significantly harming the popularity of the club; and the season proved to be a disappointment on-field, with the Devils finishing ninth and missing the finals. The Devils were wound up at the conclusion of the 2008 season in order to make room for the return of the TFL in 2009. Tasmania and the National AFL Competition (1990-) Tasmania's strong State of Origin team was one of the main reasons that the state held off expressing serious interest in joining the AFL competition. The state's historically strong supporter base for Australian rules football, one of the highest participation rates in the country and strong local leagues were also factors. However the team's strong performances against Victoria in the early 1990s prompted Tasmanian officials to open talks with the AFL. Tasmania was seen as a relocation target for the AFL's struggling clubs and in 1991 the Fitzroy Football Club were contracted for two home games a season at North Hobart Oval however the experiment ended in 1992 when the venture resulted in a large financial loss for the Lions. After the state side's last representative appearance in 1993, Tasmania stepped up its bids for inclusion in the national competition. Between 1996 and 1998 a bid was prepared that involved the construction of a 30,000-capacity stadium in the Hobart showgrounds in Glenorchy, at the cost of $34 million. The stadium would have been the team's only home ground, but the appeal was unsuccessful and the stadium was not built. In 2001, AFL clubs St Kilda and Hawthorn began playing home matches in Launceston at York Park (later known as Aurora Stadium), supported by the Tasmanian government in an attempt to build a local following. St Kilda ended its arrangement after 2006. Hawthorn however increased its presence in the state as part of an agreement with the tourism component of the Tasmanian government, whereby they were contracted to play four games in the state and the Tasmanian Government will be the major sponsor for the club. A government-backed Tasmanian bid was prepared in response to the AFL admitting new licences for the Gold Coast and Western Sydney for the 2010 and 2011 seasons. While the AFL admitted that the state had put together a stronger business case, it was once again rejected by the league. AFL CEO Andrew Demetriou was quoted to have said to the Tasmanian premier Paul Lennon "Not now, not ever". Hobart's major daily newspaper The Mercury started a petition in response to this news on 16 April 2008. The premier vowed to bypass the AFL CEO and take the appeal directly to the AFL Commission. On 30 July, the Tasmanian government announced that it had secured a major sponsor, Mars for the bid in a deal worth $4 million over 3 years. It was long doubted by the AFL that the Tasmanian club would secure corporate interest before a proposal is accepted by the AFL and this announcement came as a major shock as it was before a sponsor could be found for either the Gold Coast or Western Sydney Clubs and as AFL clubs Richmond and Western Bulldogs was left without a major sponsor for 2009. In addition to the Gemba financial audit of the bid to meet the AFL criteria, the Tasmania team had secured more than 20,000 potential members, ahead of the Gold Coast and Western Sydney bid in raw numbers. Hawthorn Football Club (2001-) Since 2001 Hawthorn has successfully cultivated a following in Tasmania playing numerous home games at York Park with its Tasmanian membership base has increased from 1,000 to more than 9,000. Recent studies have valued Hawthorn's economic impact in Tasmania and national brand exposure to total $29.5 million in 2014. Since 2006, Hawthorn has increased its presence in the state as part of an agreement with the tourism component of the Tasmanian government, whereby they are contracted to play four games in the state and the Tasmanian Government will be the major sponsor for the club. This relationship was renewed for a further period for five years (2012–16) in November 2011. On 31 July 2015, Hawthorn extended their partnership with Tasmania for a further five years. North Melbourne Football Club (2012-) The North Melbourne Football Club has confirmed that it will play two games per year in Hobart at Bellerive Oval starting from 2012. The Return of the Statewide League (2009-) After an eight-year absence, the Tasmanian Football League made a return in 2009. Ten teams were initially represented: from the south, North Hobart, Glenorchy, Hobart, Clarence, Lauderdale; from the north, Launceston, North Launceston, South Launceston; and from the north-western coast, Burnie and Devonport. All clubs except for Lauderdale had at some stage been part of the original Statewide League. The league's membership underwent changes in 2014. South Launceston left the league and was replaced by the newly established Western Storm, based in western Launceston; North Hobart was disbanded and reincorporated into a new club called Hobart City; and Hobart, which was to have been a joint partner in the Hobart City club before withdrawing from the deal, was replaced by the Tigers FC, based in Kingston. Participation In 2019, there were 14,465 participants, player numbers have halved in just over a decade and the participation had plunged to 3.3, ranking 5th in the country ahead of only NSW/ACT and Queensland. In 2007, there were 4,500 senior players and a total of 32,138 participants in Aussie Rules in Tasmania. A total participation per capita of 5% is the second-highest participation in the country, behind the Northern Territory. Audience Attendance record 24,968 (1979). TFL Grand Final Glenorchy v Clarence (North Hobart Oval, Hobart) Major Australian Rules Events in Tasmania Australian Football League Premiership Season (Hawthorn (Launceston) and North Melbourne (Hobart) 'home' games) Tasmanian State League Grand Final Southern Football League Grand Final Northern Tasmanian Football League Grand Final Tasmanian Football Team of the Century In 2004 the Board of Management of AFL Tasmania named a Team of the Century for the state. It had 18 on field and seven interchange players as well as an umpire, coach and assistant coach. Assistant coach – Robert Shaw Umpire – Scott Jeffery Representative Side The Tasmanian representative team have played State of Origin test matches against all other Australian states. The team's last appearance was at the 1993 State of Origin Championships. The team wears and all green guernsey with maroon trims and a gold insignia map of Tasmania more recently an embossed T symbol for Tasmania. Tasmania fields Underage teams at both Under 16 and Under 18 levels in both the AFL Under 19 Championships and 2021 AFL Women's Under 19 Championships. See Also Interstate matches in Australian rules football A combined state team usually plays other state competitions around Australia, such as AFL Queensland in 2007, 2009, and 2010. Governing body The governing body for Aussie Rules in Tasmania is AFL Tasmania. In 2009 the three main community football leagues The Northern Tasmanian Football League, Northern Tasmanian Football Association, and the Southern Football League established the Tasmanian Football Council which is a united body that represents community Footballs interests in the state. The council has membership with the Australian Amateur Football Council. The Tasmanian government set up the Football Tasmania Board in 2019 to provide advice to the government on the state of the game in Tasmania. Leagues & Clubs State Leagues/clubs (past and present) Current clubs Clarence Glenorchy Hobart City (rebrand of North Hobart from 2014 to 2017) Lauderdale Launceston North Hobart (rebranded as Hobart City in 2013 and returned 2018) North Launceston Kingborough Tigers (from 2014) Former clubs Tasmanian Football League Cooee / Burnie Hawks / Burnie Tigers / Burnie Dockers Football Club (exited league in 2018) Cananore (pre-WW2) Devonport (exited league in 2017) Hobart (exited league in 2013) Lefroy (pre-WW2) New Norfolk North Hobart (exited league in 2013) Sandy Bay East Launceston / South Launceston (exited league in 2013) Southern Districts Western Storm Northern Tasmanian Football Association City / City-South / South Launceston Deloraine FC (also spent two seasons in the NWFU) Cornwall / East Launceston / South Launceston George Town FC (also in NTFL) Longford Scottsdale North West Football Union Burnie Dockers Cooee East Devonport Latrobe Penguin Smithton Ulverstone Wynyard Tasmanian Amateur Football League (League had southern and northern divisions with a state amateur premiership) Tasmanian State Premiership Winfield Statewide Cup Tasmanian Devils (Victorian Football League) (2001–2008) Local Leagues Circular Head Football Association Darwin Football Association King Island Football Association Northern Tasmanian Football Association Northern Tasmanian Football League North Western Football Association Oatlands District Football Association Old Scholars Football Association Southern Football League Defunct Local Leagues Deloraine Football Association East Tamar Football Association – To the 'Tamar Football Association' Esk Football Association Esk Deloraine Football Association Esperance Football Association Fingal District Football Association Huon Football Association Kingborough Football Association Leven Football Association Midlands Football Association North East Football Union North West Christian Amateur Football League North West Football Union Northern Tasmanian Football Association (original) Peninsula Football Association South East Districts Football Association Southern Districts Football Association Tasman Football Association Tamar Football Association – To the ‘Northern Tasmanian Football Association’ (new) West Tamar Football Association – To the 'Tamar Football Association' Western Tasmanian Football Association Junior Northern Tasmanian Junior Football Association (NTJFA) Northern Tasmanian Junior Football League (NTJFL) Southern Tasmania Junior Football League Masters Masters Australian Football Tasmania Umpires TFUA – Tasmanian Football Umpires Association NTFUA – Northern Tasmanian Football Umpires Association NWUA – North West Umpires Association Women's Tasmanian Women's Football League The Tasmanian Women's Football League (TWFL) was established in 2007 and there are now 8 women's teams in the league statewide. These are: Burnie Dockers, Clarence Football Club, Evandale, Glenorchy Football Club, Launceston Football Club, Mersey Leven, South East Suns, Tiger City. Grand Final results 2008 – Clarence Roos... 2009 – Clarence Roos... 2010 – Launceston FC... 2011 – Clarence Roos... 2012 – Clarence Roos... 2013 – Clarence Roos... 2014 – Burnie 2015 – Clarence Roos 2016 – Burnie Tasmanian State League Woman's On Wednesday 19 April 2017, AFL Tasmania announced the formation of the TSLW. A five-team woman's league which will comprise: Clarence Burnie Dockers Glenorchy Launceston Tigers FC. They will compete over a 15-round season, commencing on Saturday 29 April 2017. Regional Women's Leagues SFLW Blues Claremont Women Demons Women Port Women South East Suns Women NTFAW (2019) Bridgenorth Evandale George Town Meander Valley Old Launcestonians (OLFC) Old Scotch Scottsdale South Launceston TWL North West Circular Head Giants Devonport Magpies Latrobe Penguin Ulverstone Principal Venues The following venues meet AFL Standard criteria and have been used to host AFL (National Standard) or AFLW level matches (Regional Standard) are listed by capacity. Players Tasmania has supplied over 300 players to the elite level. Greats Tasmania has three Australian Football Hall of Fame legends: St Kilda and Latrobe premiership captain and three-time Wander Medallist Darrel Baldock, dual Leitch Medallist and twelve-time league goalkicking champion Peter Hudson and three-time Brownlow Medallist Ian Stewart. Other players from Tasmania include Hall of Fame inductees Royce Hart, Vic Belcher, Horrie Gorringe, Matthew Richardson, Laurie Nash. AFL Tasmania also maintains its own Tasmanian Football Hall of Fame with hundreds of footballers, many of whom also played in the AFL. AFL Recruitment Zones In the absence of a Tasmanian AFL club, the Australian Football League granted its North Melbourne Football Club full access to Tasmania via its academy Recruitment Zone since 2016. This also meant that when North Melbourne entered the AFLW in 2019, it was given access to the Tasmanian talent from across the league so as to act as Tasmania's team in the competition. Other clubs may access Tasmanians that are overlooked or via the rookie draft. Men's Current Players AFL Players from Tasmania Women's Current Players AFLW players from Tasmania References AFL Tasmania Australian Football League Sources External links AFL Tasmania official website Southern Football (Archive, 9 Mar 2013) Tasmanian Branch of Masters (Archive, 15 Feb 2009) Tasmanian Umpires (Archive, 28 May 2012) Tas History of Australian rules football
4806848	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictions%20of%20the%20collapse%20of%20the%20Soviet%20Union	Predictions of the collapse of the Soviet Union	There were people and organizations who predicted that the USSR would dissolve before the eventual dissolution of the USSR in 1991. Authors often credited with having predicted the dissolution of the Soviet Union include Andrei Amalrik in Will the Soviet Union Survive Until 1984? (1970), French academic Emmanuel Todd in La chute finale: Essais sur la décomposition de la sphère soviétique (The Final Fall: An essay on the decomposition of the Soviet sphere) (1976), economist Ravi Batra in his 1978 book The Downfall of Capitalism and Communism and French historian Hélène Carrère d'Encausse. Additionally, Walter Laqueur notes that "Various articles that appeared in professional journals such as Problems of Communism and Survey dealt with the decay and the possible downfall of the Soviet regime." Some Americans, particularly conservatives, view Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative as not only predicting but causing the dissolution of the Soviet state. Whether any particular prediction was correct is still a matter of debate, since they give different reasons and different time frames for the Soviet collapse. Conventional wisdom discounting a collapse U.S. analysts Predictions of the Soviet Union's impending demise were discounted by many Western academic specialists, and had little impact on mainstream Sovietology. For example, Amalrik's book "was welcomed as a piece of brilliant literature in the West" but "virtually no one tended to take it at face value as a piece of political prediction." Up to about 1980, the strength of the Soviet Union was widely overrated by critics and revisionists alike. In 1983, Princeton University professor Stephen Cohen described the Soviet system as remarkably stable. The Central Intelligence Agency also badly over-estimated the internal stability of the Soviet Union, and did not anticipate the speed of its collapse. Former Director of Central Intelligence Stansfield Turner in 1991 wrote in the US Journal Foreign Affairs, "We should not gloss over the enormity of this failure to forecast the magnitude of the Soviet crisis . . . Yet I never heard a suggestion from the CIA, or the intelligence arms of the departments of Defense or State, that numerous Soviets recognized a growing, systemic economic problem." In a symposium launched to review Michel Garder's French book: L'Agonie du Regime en Russie Sovietique (The Death Struggle of the Regime in Soviet Russia), which also predicted the collapse of the USSR, Yale Professor Frederick C. Barghoorn dismissed Garder's book as "the latest in a long line of apocalyptic predictions of the collapse of communism." He warns that "great revolutions are most infrequent and that successful political systems are tenacious and adaptive." In addition, the reviewer of the book, Michael Tatu, disapproved of the "apocalyptic character" of such a forecast and is almost apologetic for treating it seriously. Predictions of dissolution or collapse Analysts, organizations and politicians who predicted that the Soviet Union would one day cease to exist included: Ludwig von Mises The Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises argued in his 1922 book Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis that the Soviet system would eventually cease to exist. This book was published months before Lenin implemented the New Economic Policy reintroducing partial private property in agriculture. Mises' analysis was based on the economic calculation problem, a critique of central planning first outlined in 1920 journal articles. His argument was that the Soviet Union would find itself increasingly unable to set correct prices for the goods and services it produced: We may admit that in its initial period a socialist regime could to some extent rely on the preceding age of capitalism [for the purpose of determining prices]. But what is to be done later, as conditions change more and more? Of what use could the prices of 1900 be for the director in 1949? And what use can the director in 1989 derive from knowledge of the prices of 1949? Leon Trotsky One of the founders of the USSR, later expelled by Joseph Stalin, Leon Trotsky devoted much of his time in exile to the question of the Soviet Union's future. In time, he came to believe that a new revolution was necessary to depose the nomenklatura and reinstate working class rule as the first step to socialism. In 1936 he made the following prediction: World War II In 1941 Adolf Hitler of Nazi Germany decided to attack the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa). In June 1941 the German Wehrmacht and other Axis military forces invaded the Soviet Union, and the Red Army retreated. Military observers around the world watched closely. It appears that most of them shared Hitler's opinion, expecting that Germany would win, destroy the Soviet system, and establish a Nazi New Order in Europe. Very few American experts thought the Soviet Union would survive. The German invasion began on 22 June 1941. Subsequently, the United States Department of War advised Franklin D. Roosevelt that the German army would conquer the Soviet Union within one to three months. In July 1941 the American general staff issued memoranda to the American press that a Soviet collapse was to be expected within several weeks.<ref>Bahm, Karl (2001). Berlin 1945: The Final Reckoning, p. 8. Amber Books Ltd.</ref> British analysts held similar views, believing that Germany would win within three to six weeks without heavy losses. Predictions of an expected Soviet defeat had an important impact on President Roosevelt; while the United States was not at the time at war, Roosevelt favored the Allies (represented primarily at that time by the British Empire and the Soviet Union), and decided to try to avert the collapse of the USSR by extending to the Soviets (October 1941) the supply of munitions through Lend-Lease (which had started in March 1941), and also to pressure Japan not to attack while the USSR was so vulnerable. The Red Army held the line at the outskirts of Moscow (December 1941) and predictions of Soviet collapse changed to "uncertain" Early Cold War George Orwell George Orwell, author of Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four, wrote in 1946 that "the Russian regime will either democratize itself or it will perish". He was regarded by US historian Robert Conquest as one of the first people who made such a prediction. According to a Conquest article published in 1969, "In time, the Communist world is faced with a fundamental crisis. We can not say for certain that it will democratize itself. But every indication is that it will, as Orwell said, either democratize itself or perish...We must also, though, be prepared to cope with cataclysmic changes, for the death throes of the more backward apparatus may be destructive and dangerous". George Kennan American diplomat George F. Kennan proposed his famous containment theory in 1946–47, arguing that, if the Soviet Union were not allowed to expand, it would soon collapse. In the X Article he wrote: The United States would have to undertake this containment alone and unilaterally, but if it could do so without undermining its own economic health and political stability, the Soviet party structure would undergo a period of immense strain eventually resulting in "either the break-up or the gradual mellowing of Soviet power." Kennan later regretted the manner in which his theory was received and implemented, but it nevertheless became a core element of American strategy, which consisted of building a series of military alliances around the USSR. Winston Churchill Winston Churchill made repeated claims about the imminent fall of the Soviet Union throughout his political career. In January 1920, he denounced Bolshevism as a "rule of men who in their insane vanity and conceit believe they are entitled to give a government to a people which the people loathe and detest... The attempt to carry into practice those wild theories can only be attended with universal confusion, corruption, disorder and civil war." Later, he made a similar prediction in a journal article in 1931. After World War II, speaking about the recently established Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe, he stated in 1954: "The forces of the human spirit and of national character alive in those countries cannot be speedily extinguished even by large-scale movements of populations and mass education of children." And in the epilogue to the one volume edition of his World War II memoirs, published in 1957, Churchill wrote: "The natural forces are working with greater freedom and greater opportunity to fertilize and vary the thoughts and the power of individual men and women. They are far bigger and more pliant in the vast structure of a mighty empire than could ever have been conceived by Marx in his hovel... Human society will grow in many forms not comprehended by a party machine." Zbigniew Brzezinski Zbigniew Brzezinski, National Security Advisor to US President Jimmy Carter, predicted the dissolution of the Soviet Union on several occasions. In a 2006 interview, Brzezinski stated that in his 1950 master's thesis (which has not been published) he argued that "the Soviet Union was pretending to be a single state but in fact it was a multinational empire in the age of nationalism. So the Soviet Union would break up." As an academic at Columbia University, Brzezinski wrote numerous books and articles that "took seriously the option of collapse", including Dilemmas of Change in Soviet Politics (1969) and Between Two Ages: America's Role in the Technetronic Era (1970).Dilemmas of Change in Soviet Politics contained fourteen articles dealing with the future of the Soviet Union. Six of them, by Brzezinski himself, Robert Conquest, Merle Fainsod, Eugene Lyons, Giorgio Galli, and Isaac Don Levine, considered "collapse as a serious possibility although not immediately." On the other hand, in 1976 Brzezinski predicted that the politics of the Soviet Union would be practically unchanged for several more generations to come: A central question, however, is whether such social change [modernization] is capable of altering, or has in fact already altered in a significant fashion, the underlying character of Soviet politics. That character, as I have argued, has been shaped largely by political traditions derived from the specifics of Russian / Soviet history, and it is deeply embedded in the operational style and institutions of the existing Soviet system. The ability of that system to resist de-Stalinization seems to indicate a considerable degree of resilience on the part of the dominant mode of politics in the Soviet context. It suggests, at the very least, that political changes are produced very slowly through social change, and that one must wait for at least several generations before social change begins to be significantly reflected in the political sphere. In 1989, shortly before the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of Soviet power throughout Eastern Europe, Brzezinski published The Grand Failure: The Birth and Decay of Communism in the Twentieth Century. In that work he wrote: Marxist-Leninism is an alien doctrine imposed on the region by an imperial power whose rule is culturally repugnant to the dominated peoples. As a result, a process of organic rejection of communism by Eastern European societies—a phenomenon similar to the human body's rejection of a transplanted organ—is underway." Brzezinski went on to claim that communism "failed to take into account the basic human craving for individual freedom." He argued there were five possibilities for USSR: Successful pluralization, Protracted crisis, Renewed stagnation, Coup (KGB, Military), and The explicit collapse of the Communist regime. Option #5 in fact took place three years later, but at the time he wrote that collapse was "at this stage a much more remote possibility" than alternative #3: renewed stagnation. He also predicted chances of some form of communism existing in the Soviet Union in 2017 was a little more than 50 per cent. Finally when the end did come in a few more decades, Brzezinski wrote, it would be "most likely turbulent." Ferenc Farkas de Kisbarnak Ferenc Farkas de Kisbarnak, an exiled Hungarian general and leader of the Anti-Bolshevik Bloc of Nations (ABN), predicted the dissolution of the Soviet Union due to nationalist pressures. From June 12–14 of 1950, the Convention of the ABN was held in Edinburgh, Scotland under the auspices of the Scottish League for European Freedom. At the conference, Farkas gave a speech entitled "The War Against Bolshevism and the Military Factors Represented by the Subjugated Nations" where he predicted the disintegration of the USSR along ethnic lines which would eventually leave European Russia isolated. He predicted the eventual independence of Ukraine, the Baltic states, Turkestan, the Idel-Ural republics, and Siberia. The third resolution of the ABN convention further called for "The destruction of Russian imperialism and the guarantee of world peace by splitting the USSR up and re-establishing on ethnic principles, the independent national states of all nations living under bolshevist oppression bearing among other things, in mind that whole national groups have been forcible [sic] deported and are awaiting the moment when they could return to their native land." Charles de Gaulle Only a handful of thinkers, ranging from French President Charles de Gaulle to the Soviet dissident Andrei Amalrik, foretold the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union itself, and even they saw it as likely to happen as a result of disastrous wars with China or pressures from the Islamic Soviet states of Central Asia. On 23 November 1959, in a speech in Strasbourg, de Gaulle announced his vision for Europe: Oui, c'est l'Europe, depuis l'Atlantique jusqu'à l'Oural, c'est toute l'Europe, qui décidera du destin du monde. ("Yes, it is Europe, from the Atlantic to the Urals, it is Europe, it is the whole of Europe, that will decide the destiny of the world.") This phrase has been interpreted in various ways—on the one hand, as offering détente to the USSR, on the other, as predicting the collapse of communism throughout Eastern Europe. Konrad Adenauer Konrad Adenauer has been cited predicting the reunification of Germany as early as the 1950s, but according to Hans-Peter Schwarz, in the last few years of Adenauer's life he repeatedly said that Soviet power would last a long time. In 1966, at the Christian Democrats' party conference, Adenauer stated his hopes that some day the Soviets might allow the reunification of Germany. Some analysts say it might be considered a prediction: I have not given up hope. One day Soviet Russia will recognize that the division of Germany, and with it the division of Europe, is not to its advantage. We must be watchful for when the moment comes... we must not let it go unexploited. Whittaker Chambers In a posthumously published 1964 book entitled Cold Friday, Communist defector Whittaker Chambers predicted an eventual Soviet collapse beginning with a "satellite revolution" in Eastern Europe. This revolution would then result in the transformation of the Soviet dictatorship. Robert A. Mundell In the late 1960s, economist Robert A. Mundell predicted the collapse of the USSR. Michel Garder Michel Garder was a French author who predicted the dissolution of the Soviet Union in the book L'Agonie du Regime en Russie Sovietique (The Death Struggle of the Regime in Soviet Russia) (1965). He set the date of the collapse for 1970. Détente RAND corporation In 1968 Egon Neuberger, of the RAND Corporation, predicted that "[t]he centrally planned economy eventually would meet its demise, because of its demonstrably growing ineffectiveness as a system for managing a modernizing economy in a rapidly changing world." Robert Conquest In the book Dilemmas of Change in Soviet Politics, which was a collection of authors edited by Zbigniew Brzezinski, Robert Conquest in his section, "Immobilism and decay", saw "the USSR as a country where the political system is radically and dangerously inappropriate to its social and economic dynamics. This is a formula for change - change which may be sudden and catastrophic." Conquest also predicted the fall in his book, The Nation Killers: The Soviet Deportation of Nationalities (1970). Sun Myung Moon Sun Myung Moon, founder of the Unification Church repeatedly predicted that Communism was inherently flawed and would inevitably collapse sometime in the late 1980s. In a speech to followers in Paris in April 1972, he stated: "Communism, begun in 1917, could maintain itself approximately 60 years and reach its peak. So 1978 is the borderline and afterward communism will decline; in the 70th year it will be altogether ruined. This is true. Therefore now is the time for people who are studying communism to abandon it." Andrei Amalrik In 1969, prominent dissident Andrei Amalrik wrote in his book Will the Soviet Union Survive Until 1984?: There is another powerful factor which works against the chance of any kind of peaceful reconstruction and which is equally negative for all levels of society: this is the extreme isolation in which the regime has placed both society and itself. This isolation has not only separated the regime from society, and all sectors of society from each other, but also put the country in extreme isolation from the rest of the world. This isolation has created for all—from the bureaucratic elite to the lowest social levels—an almost surrealistic picture of the world and of their place in it. Yet the longer this state of affairs helps to perpetuate the status quo, the more rapid and decisive will be its collapse when confrontation with reality becomes inevitable. Amalrik predicted the collapse of the regime would occur between 1980 and 1985. The year in the title was after the novel of the same name. Soviet authorities were skeptical. Natan Sharansky explained that "in 1984 KGB officials, on coming to me in prison" when Amalrik's prediction was mentioned, "laughed at this prediction. Amalrik is long dead, they said, but we are still very much present." Marian Kamil Dziewanowski Historian Marian Kamil Dziewanowski "gave a lecture titled 'Death of the Soviet Regime' at the Russian Research Center at Harvard University. The same lecture was delivered at Cambridge University in England in 1971 and 1979. The text of the lecture (titled 'Death of the Soviet Regime: a Study in American Sovietology, by a Historian') was published in Studies in Soviet Thought. In 1980, he "updated this study and delivered it as a paper at the International Slavic Congress at Garmisch; titled 'The Future of Soviet Russia,' it was published in Coexistence: An International Journal (Glasgow 1982)." Emmanuel Todd Emmanuel Todd attracted attention in 1976 when he predicted the fall of the Soviet Union, based on indicators such as increasing infant mortality rates and foreign trade data in his work La chute finale: Essais sur la décomposition de la sphère Soviétique (The Final Fall: an Essay on the Disintegration of the Soviet Sphere). Todd deduced that the Soviet Union had stagnated in the 1970s and was falling behind not only the West but its own Eastern European satellite states economically. In addition to this, low birth rates, a rising suicide rate, and worker discontent all were factors in an increasingly low level of productivity in the economy. Todd also predicted that poorly carried-out political and economic reforms would lead to a break-up of the Soviet Union with non-Russian republics seceding. Bernard Levin Bernard Levin drew attention in 1992 to his prophetic article originally published in The Times in September 1977, in which an uncannily accurate prediction of the appearance of new faces in the Politburo was made, resulting in radical but peaceful political change. Daniel Patrick Moynihan U.S. Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan in a series of articles and interviews from 1975 onward discussed the possibility, indeed likelihood, of the breakup of the Soviet Empire. But Moynihan also expressed the view that liberal democracy, too, faced an uncertain future. He argued in January 1975 that the Soviet Union was so weak economically, and so divided ethnically, that it could not long survive. However he said it "might have considerable time left before ethnicity breaks it up." By 1984 he argued "the Soviet idea is spent. History is moving away from it at astounding speed." Some of his essays were published as Secrecy: The American Experience in 1999. Hélène Carrère d'Encausse In her 1978 book L'Empire éclaté, historian (and later member of the Académie française and the European Parliament) Hélène Carrère d'Encausse predicted that the Soviet Union's political legitimacy would be fatally strained by diverging fertility between its culturally Russian/Eastern European parts (dominant in government and industry but with plummeting birth rates) and its culturally Asian and/or Muslim parts (with growing birth rates but little representation in the established "gerontocracy"). L'Empire éclaté generated substantial media interest at the time, winning the 1978 Prix Aujourd′hui. Samizdat Various essays published in samizdat in the early 1970s were on similar lines, some quite specifically predicting the end of the Soviet Union.S. Zorin and N. Alekseev, Vremya ne zhdet (Frankfurt, 1970); Alexander Petrov-Agatov (manuscript), excerpts in Cornelia Gerstenmaier, Die Stimme der Stummen (Stuttgart, 1971), 156–67. Hillel Ticktin/Critique In 1973 the Marxist, Hillel H. Ticktin, wrote that the Soviet "system is sinking deeper into crisis". In 1976 he entitled an article: "The USSR: the Beginning of the End?". In 1978 he predicted that the Soviet Union would "break asunder and develop either to capitalism or to socialism". And in 1983 he wrote that "the system is drawing to a close". (For a summary of Ticktin's approach, see Wikipedia's Stalinism entry.) Late Cold War Raymond Aron David Fromkin wrote of Raymond Aron's prediction, I know of only one person who came close to getting it right: Raymond Aron, the French philosopher and liberal anti-Communist. In a talk on the Soviet threat that I heard him give in the 1980s at the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London, he reminded the audience of Machiavelli's observation in The Prince that 'all armed prophets have conquered and all unarmed ones failed.' But what happens, Aron asked, if the prophet, having conquered and then ruled by force of arms, loses faith in his own prophecy? In the answer to that question, Aron suggested, lay the key to understanding the future of the Soviet Union. Ravi Batra The economist Ravi Batra predicted the collapse of the USSR in his 1978 book The Downfall of Capitalism and Communism. Randall Collins In 1980 the sociologist Randall Collins presented his paper "The future decline of the Russian empire" at the University of South Florida and at Columbia University and published his predictions in the book "Weberian sociological theory" (1986). Robert M. Cutler In 1980, the political scientist Robert M. Cutler published an article "Soviet Dissent under Khrushchev" that concluded that the following events were likely: (1) that in the generational turnover of elites after Brezhnev died (which began when he died in 1982), the Soviet regime would seek to increase public participation (which began in 1985 via glasnost, after two more top gerontocrats had died); (2) that the Communist Party's rule would be challenged in Central Asia (which occurred in the 1986 rioting in Kazakhstan before the Baltic republics erupted); and (3) that Party leaders at the local level would go their own way if the Party did not give them a reason to remain loyal to the Moscow center (which occurred in all republics in the late 1980s, but most dramatically when the new RCP and the RSFSR sapped some of the power of the CPSU and the USSR in 1990–1991). James Dale Davidson and William Rees-Mogg James Dale Davidson and William Rees-Mogg predicted the collapse of the Soviet Union in their book The Great Reckoning in the early 1980s. Milton Friedman and Rose Friedman Milton Friedman and his wife Rose mentioned briefly in their book Free to Choose (1980) that "the collapse of communism and its replacement by a market system, seems unlikely, though as incurable optimists we do not rule it out completely." Robert Gates Stewart Brand said when introducing the work of Philip Tetlock that Brand's partner had given a talk in the 1980s to top Central Intelligence Agency people about the future of the Soviet Union. One scenario he raised was that the Soviet bloc might break up; a sign of this happening would be the rise of unknown Mikhail Gorbachev through the party ranks. A CIA analyst said that the presentation was fine, but there was no way the Soviet Union was going to break up in his lifetime or his children's lifetime. The analyst's name was Robert Gates. On the other hand, in hearings before the U.S. Senate on March 19, 1986, when Gates (then head of the CIA's Directorate of Intelligence) was asked "what kind of work the Intelligence Community was doing to prepare policymakers for the consequences of change in the Soviet Union," he responded: "Quite frankly, without any hint that such fundamental change is going on, my resources do not permit me the luxury of sort of just idly speculating on what a different kind of Soviet Union might look like." Anatoliy Golitsyn In 1984, Anatoliy Golitsyn, an important KGB defector published the book New Lies For Old, wherein he predicted the collapse of the communist bloc orchestrated from above; but he didn't mention any possible collapse of the USSR itself. He claimed this collapse was part of a long-term deception strategy designed to lull the West into a false sense of security, abolish all containment policies, and in time finally economically cripple and diplomatically isolate the United States. Among other things, Golitsyn stated: "The 'liberalization' [in the Soviet Union] would be spectacular and impressive. Formal pronouncements might be made about a reduction in the communist party's role; its monopoly would be apparently curtailed." "If [liberalization] should be extended to East Germany, demolition of the Berlin Wall might even be contemplated." "The European Parliament might become an all-European socialist parliament with representation from the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. 'Europe from the Atlantic to the Urals' would turn out to be a neutral, socialist Europe." Collaborating opinions can be found in an archive of classified documents collected by Vladimir Bukovsky, a defector also. John le Carré John le Carré is a writer of fiction, but his "spy novels" are known for their keen insights on East-West relations in general and conflicts between Western and Soviet intelligence services in particular. In The Russia House, published on May 22, 1989, there is the telling quote: "The Soviet Knight is dying inside his armour." Werner Obst In 1985 German economist Werner Obst published a book entitled Der Rote Stern verglüht. Moskaus Abstieg - Deutschlands Chance (The Red Star is Dying Away. Moscow's Decline - Germany's Chance), Munich: Wirtschaftsverlag Langen-Müller/Herbig, third edition in 1987, in which he predicted the collapse of the Soviet bloc and the reunification of Germany within the immediate future for about 1990, based on the analysis of economical statistics and trends. Ronald Reagan United States President Ronald Reagan, throughout his 1980 election campaign and first term in office presented a public view that the Soviet Union had been growing in power relative to the United States. In 1981 he stated that "the Soviet Union has been engaged in the greatest military buildup in the history of man." and the next year stated that "on balance the Soviet Union does have a definite margin of superiority" compared to the US military. The Reagan administration used a perceived strength of the Soviet Union to justify a significant expansion of military spending according to David Arbel and Ran Edelist. In their study Western Intelligence and the dissolution of the Soviet Union they argue it was this position by the Reagan administration that prevented the American intelligence agencies from predicting the demise of the USSR. Arbel and Edelist further argued that CIA analysts were encouraged to present any information exaggerating the Soviet threat and justifying the military buildup, while contrary evidence of Soviet weakness was ignored and those presenting it sidelined. At the same time Reagan expressed a long range view that the Soviet Union could eventually be defeated. On March 3, 1983, President Reagan told the National Association of Evangelicals in Orlando, Florida: "I believe that communism is another sad, bizarre chapter in human history whose last—last pages even now are being written." In his June 1982 address to the British Parliament he stated: It is the Soviet Union that runs against the tide of history by denying human freedom and human dignity to its citizens. It also is in deep economic difficulty. The rate of growth in the national product has been steadily declining since the fifties and is less than half of what it was then. The dimensions of this failure are astounding: A country which employs one-fifth of its population in agriculture is unable to feed its own people. Were it not for the private sector, the tiny private sector tolerated in Soviet agriculture, the country might be on the brink of famine.... Overcentralized, with little or no incentives, year after year the Soviet system pours its best resource into the making of instruments of destruction. The constant shrinkage of economic growth combined with the growth of military production is putting a heavy strain on the Soviet people. What we see here is a political structure that no longer corresponds to its economic base, a society where productive forces are hampered by political ones. ...In the Communist world as well, man's instinctive desire for freedom and self-determination surfaces again and again. To be sure, there are grim reminders of how brutally the police state attempts to snuff out this quest for self-rule – 1953 in East Germany, 1956 in Hungary, 1968 in Czechoslovakia, 1981 in Poland. But the struggle continues in Poland. And we know that there are even those who strive and suffer for freedom within the confines of the Soviet Union itself. ...What I am describing now is a plan and a hope for the long term – the march of freedom and democracy which will leave Marxism–Leninism on the ash heap of history as it has left other tyrannies which stifle the freedom and muzzle the self-expression of the people. And that's why we must continue our efforts to strengthen NATO even as we move forward with our Zero-Option initiative in the negotiations on intermediate-range forces and our proposal for a one-third reduction in strategic ballistic missile warheads. Analyst Jeffrey W. Knopf has argued that Reagan went beyond everyone else: Reagan stands out in part because he believed the Soviet Union could be defeated. For most of the Cold War, Republican and Democratic administrations alike had assumed the Soviet Union would prove durable for the foreseeable future. The bipartisan policy of containment aimed to keep the Soviet Union in check while trying to avoid nuclear war; it did not seek to force the dissolution of the Soviet empire. Ronald Reagan, in contrast, believed that the Soviet economy was so weak that increased pressure could bring the Soviet Union to the brink of failure. He therefore periodically expressed confidence that the forces of democracy 'will leave Marxism–Leninism on the ash heap of history'. P.R. Sarkar The leader of the Ananda Marga cult in West Bengal, P.R. Sarkar, predicted in the 1980s that Soviet Communism would fall with "a few blows from the hammer". He cited "inner and external stasis" as major weaknesses of communism. Ruhollah Khomeini On 7 January 1989, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, supreme leader of Iran, sent a letter to Mikhail Gorbachev, the General Secretary of the Soviet Union. This letter was Khomeini's only written message to a foreign leader. Khomeini's letter was delivered by the Iranian politicians Abdollah Javadi-Amoli, Mohammad-Javad Larijani, and Marzieh Hadidchi. In the letter, Khomeini declared that Communism was dissolving within the Soviet bloc, and invited Gorbachev to consider Islam as an alternative to communist ideology. Anders Åslund Anders Åslund predicted the fall of the Soviet Union in the 1989 book Gorbachev’s Struggle for Economic Reform. Why were Sovietologists wrong? According to Kevin Brennan: Seymour Martin Lipset and György Bence write: Richard Pipes took a slightly different view, situating the failure of the Sovietological profession in the larger context of the failures of social science: It seems likely that ultimately the reason for the failure of professionals to understand the Soviet predicament lay in their indifference to the human factor. In the desire to emulate the successes of the natural scientists, whose judgments are "value free," politology (sic) and sociology have been progressively dehumanized, constructing model and relying on statistics (many of them falsified) and, in the process, losing contact with the subject of their inquiries—the messy, contradictory, unpredictable homo sapiens. See also Americathon Economy of the Soviet Union History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982) History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991) Prometheism (Józef Piłsudski's project to restore the independence and sovereignty of the non-Russian peoples of the Russian Empire and, subsequently, the Soviet Union) Notes Further reading Publisher: Springer Netherlands Dmitry Orlov, Reinventing Collapse'', New Society Books, 2008, Cold War Prediction Dissolution of the Soviet Union
4806973	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20L.%20DeWitt	John L. DeWitt	John Lesesne DeWitt (January 9, 1880 – June 20, 1962) was a three-star general in the United States Army, best known for overseeing the internment of Japanese-Americans during World War II. After the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese Empire on December 7, 1941, DeWitt believed that Japanese nationals and Japanese Americans in the West Coast of the United States were conspiring to sabotage the American war effort, and he recommended they be removed from coastal areas. President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, giving authority to restrict military sensitive locations. DeWitt used the authority granted to him to issue military proclamations to place most of the west coast off limits to Japanese Americans, incarcerating 110,000 Japanese men, women, and children, most of whom were American citizens. Although the removal of the Japanese Americans was technically called an evacuation, it turned out to be internment in concentration camps. Early life DeWitt was born at Fort Sidney, Nebraska, on January 9, 1880. His father, Brigadier General Calvin DeWitt (1840–1908), served with the United States Army and was an 1863 graduate of Princeton University. His mother, Josephine (Lesesne) DeWitt, was a native of Charleston, South Carolina, and he was named for his maternal grandfather, John F. Lesesne. He had an older brother, Wallace, a younger sister, Mary Wallace, and a younger brother, Calvin Jr. DeWitt was of Dutch descent. He enrolled at Princeton University in 1896, but left at the start of the Spanish–American War. Military career On October 10, 1898, he was appointed as a second lieutenant with the U.S. Army Infantry. He would ultimately serve nearly fifty years, from 1898 to 1947, in the Army. His early assignments included service during the Philippine Insurrection and in Mexican Punitive Expedition. World War I In 1918, DeWitt shipped out with the 42nd Division to the battlefields of France as a quartermaster in the division headquarters. Other noteworthy members of the division included Douglas MacArthur and William J. Donovan. In July 1918, DeWitt was promoted to full colonel, and continued quartermaster duties for the First Army. He received the Distinguished Service Medal at the end of World War I. Interwar years After the war, DeWitt graduated from the Army War College in 1920. Between 1919 and 1930, he served in various quartermaster positions, including assistant commandant of the General Staff College, Chief of the Storage and Issue Branch, and the Supply Division. In 1930, DeWitt was promoted to major general and assigned as Quartermaster General of the U.S. Army. He also assumed control of the Gold Star Mothers' Pilgrimage to visit the graves of their sons who died in France during the First World War. General DeWitt was responsible for all logistics involving this Congressionally approved event. He was awarded an honorary A.M. degree by Princeton University in 1932. After returning to the infantry, DeWitt assumed control of the Philippine Division. In July 1937, he became commandant of the Army War College. Two years later, in December 1939, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant general, and then assumed command of the Fourth Army as well as the Western Defense Command of the United States Army, with responsibilities for the protection of the West Coast area of the United States from invasion by the Japanese. World War II At age 62, DeWitt would produce the "Final Report: Japanese Evacuation from the West Coast, 1942", which argued for the removal and internment of American-born citizens of ancestry tie to a past or present immigrant of Japan. At the end of the internment of more than 100,000 Japanese-American citizens, not a single case of espionage was uncovered. From December 5, 1939, to June 15, 1943, DeWitt was assigned command of the IX Corps Area and its 1942 successor, the Western Defense Command, both headquartered at the Presidio of San Francisco. DeWitt was in San Francisco on the evening of December 8, 1941, one day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, when air raid sirens were sounded. An estimated 35 Japanese warplanes were supposedly sighted above San Francisco Bay on a reconnaissance mission. DeWitt was furious at the lack of blackout precautions during the air raids. He blasted city leaders at a Civil Defense Council meeting the next day, saying, "Death and destruction are likely to come to this city at any moment. … The people of San Francisco do not seem to appreciate that we are at war in every sense. I have come here because we want action and we want action now. Unless definite and stern action is taken to correct last night's deficiencies, a great deal of destruction will come. Those planes were over our community. They were over our community for a definite period. They were enemy planes. I mean Japanese planes. They were tracked out to sea." At the Civil Defense Council meeting, DeWitt suggested that it might have been a good thing if the planes had dropped bombs to "awaken this city." He said, "If I can't knock these facts into your heads with words, I will have to turn you over to the police and let them knock them into you with clubs." DeWitt acknowledged that some people had asked why he failed to give orders to fire on the planes. "I say it's none of their damn business," he responded. "San Francisco woke up this morning without a single death from bombs. Isn't that enough?" DeWitt recommended for the 1942 Rose Bowl football game, normally played in Pasadena, California, to be moved. DeWitt feared that the large crowd of spectators would be too tempting a target for Japanese warplanes. For the first and only time in its history, the 1942 Rose Bowl game was moved to North Carolina. On December 19, 1941, General DeWitt had recommended to the Army's GHQ "that action be initiated at the earliest practicable date to collect all alien subjects fourteen years of age and over, of enemy nations and remove them to the Zone of the Interior." He initially felt very differently about the necessity and practicality of locking up citizens as well, in a telephone conversation with Major General Allen W. Gullion on December 26. Regardless of this, following the Roberts Commission report of January 25, 1942 accusing persons of Japanese ancestry of widespread espionage in Hawaii prior to Pearl Harbor, along with his perception of public opinion as anti-Japanese, he became a proponent of internment of Japanese and initially German- and Italian-descended persons. He felt that the lack of sabotage efforts only meant that it was being readied for a large-scale effort. "The fact that nothing has happened so far is more or less . . . ominous, in that I feel that in view of the fact that we have had no sporadic attempts at sabotage that there is a control being exercised and when we have it it will be on a mass basis." Internment of Japanese Americans In February 1942, DeWitt reported to President Franklin D. Roosevelt that no sabotage by Japanese Americans had yet been confirmed, but he commented that it only proved "a disturbing and confirming indication that such action will be taken." He recommended the evacuation of all Japanese from the coastal areas of California, Oregon, Washington, and Alaska (then incorporated U.S. territory at the time). Using Executive Order 9066, DeWitt then began implementing a plan for classifying, rounding up, and removal of "undesirables." On March 2, 1942, DeWitt issued "Military Proclamation No. 1," which designated the western parts of California, Oregon and Washington as "military area no. 1," further divided into "prohibited zone A-1" and "restricted zone B." In the first phase of the order, a provision was included directing that "any person of Japanese ancestry, now resident in Military Area No. 1, who changes his place of habitual residence must file a 'change of residence notice' at his local post office not more than five days nor less than one day prior to moving." Days later, DeWitt announced that the army had acquired of land near Manzanar, California, for construction of a "reception center" which he said was "to be used principally as a clearing house for the more permanent resettlement elsewhere for persons excluded from military areas." On March 6, Executive Order 9066 was later extended to all Japanese persons and Americans of Japanese ancestry living in Alaska. Removal began on March 23, 1942, with the resettlement of citizens living in Los Angeles. On that date, General DeWitt issued new orders applying to Japanese-Americans, setting an 8 p.m. to 6 a.m. curfew and banning ownership of firearms, radios, cameras, and other contraband. DeWitt stated, "Let me warn the affected aliens and Japanese-Americans that anything but strict compliance with this proclamation's provisions will bring immediate punishment." Northern California followed in April, as DeWitt declared, "We plan to increase the tempo of the evacuation as fast as possible." Citizens in specific areas were required to report to their designated "Civil Control Station," where they would then be taken to an Assembly Center for relocation. All told, DeWitt ordered the removal and internment of 110,000 ethnic Japanese persons from their homes in the West Coast to internment camps inland. According to DeWitt, "a Jap is a Jap," whether a U.S. citizen or not. A federal judge, James Alger Fee of Portland, Oregon, ruled in November, 1943 that American citizens could not be detained without a proclamation of martial law. DeWitt's response was "All military orders and proclamations of this headquarters remain in full force and effect." After the relocation of Japanese Americans was complete, DeWitt lifted curfew restrictions on Italian-Americans on October 19 and on German-Americans on December 24. Technically, the curfew was "inapplicable to the Japanese since all members of this group were removed from the affected zones." DeWitt had a personal vendetta against one Italian in particular, Remo Bosia, which is detailed in Bosia's autobiography, The General and I. DeWitt was opposed to War Relocation Authority efforts to distinguish loyal from disloyal Japanese Americans/and to the creation of an all-Japanese combat unit. He testified before Congress, in 1943, that he would "use every proper means" at his disposal to stop the resettlement of Japanese Americans outside camp and their eventual return to the West Coast after the war. His and Colonel Karl Bendetsen's "Final Report" (circulated and then hastily redacted in 1943 and 1944) also laid out his position that their race made it impossible to determine their loyalty, thus necessitating internment. The original version was so offensive, even in the atmosphere of the wartime 1940s that Bendetsen ordered all copies to be destroyed. In 1980, Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga, interned at Manzanar concentration camp as a teenager, found a copy of the original Final Report in the National Archives, along with notes showing the numerous differences between the original and redacted versions. The earlier, racist and inflammatory version as well as the FBI and Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) reports led to the coram nobis retrials, which overturned the convictions of Fred Korematsu, Gordon Hirabayashi and Minoru Yasui, on all charges related to their refusal to submit to exclusion and internment. The courts found that the government had intentionally withheld the reports and other critical evidence, at trials all the way up to the Supreme Court, which would have proved that there was no military necessity for the exclusion and internment of Japanese Americans. In the words of Department of Justice officials writing during the war, the justifications were based on "willful historical inaccuracies and intentional falsehoods." Other actions DeWitt's orders also regulated other areas of life on the West Coast. A proclamation prohibited deer hunting and the playing of outdoor sports at night. An Alaska Travel Office was established to issue permits to anyone seeking to travel into or out of the territory of Alaska. Less known is DeWitt's role in supervising the combat operations in the Aleutian Islands, some of which had been invaded by Japanese forces. When houses of prostitution were closed across America, General DeWitt allowed Sally Stanford to continue to operate a high-class brothel in San Francisco. At the end of his tenure as head of Western Defense Command, he was appointed as the commandant of the Army and Navy Staff College in Washington. He retired from the army in June 1947. Late career In 1943 DeWitt was reassigned as the commander of the Army-Navy Staff College (predecessor of the National War College) at Fort Lesley J. McNair in Washington, D.C. He held this position until he retired from the Army in 1946. Post-retirement On July 19, 1954, DeWitt became a full general by special act of Congress for his services in World War II. DeWitt died in Washington, D.C., on June 20, 1962, after suffering a heart attack at his home in the Glover Park neighborhood. He is buried in Section 2 of Arlington National Cemetery along with his wife Martha. Buried in an adjacent gravesite are his son, John Lesesne DeWitt, Jr. (1904–1982), who retired as a lieutenant colonel in the United States Army; and John's wife, Annie Sue DeWitt (1907–1996). Personal life and family On June 3, 1903, in Birmingham, Alabama, DeWitt married Martha Estes (1883–1968), daughter of George Henson and Anna Georgia (Thornton) Estes. She was the sister of United States Army officer George Henson Estes Jr. Together, they had one son: John Lesesne DeWitt Jr. (1904–1982); John was twice married: first to Margaret Loretta Dorsett on June 8, 1933 (div. 1946, three children) and second to Annie Sue Waldrop on June 4, 1947 (one child) Margaret Loretta DeWitt (b. 1936); married first William Clark Young (1927–1988) on July 15, 1958; married second Norbert Arnold Jones on October 10, 1992 Lauren D. Young (b. 1960); married Robert Scott Jamieson (b. 1953) Andrew Scott Jamieson (b. 1985) Joyce E. Young (b. 1961) John Lesesne DeWitt III (b. 1937); married Dianne Marie Jennings; served as a major in the United States Army during the Vietnam War Thornton Brooke DeWitt (1939–1991) Martha Lou DeWitt (b. 1948) His paternal grandparents were Rev. William Radcliffe DeWitt (1792–1867) and Mary Elizabeth (Wallace) DeWitt (1807–1881). William was a Presbyterian pastor in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania and had served with the United States in the War of 1812 prior to that. Mary was the granddaughter of Congressman William Maclay, great-granddaughter of John Harris Jr., and great-great-granddaughter of John Harris Sr., both of whom Harrisburg is named for. His paternal great-grandfather, John Radcliffe DeWitt (1752–1808), was a captain in the American Revolutionary War and served as a New York State Assemblyman from 1785 to 1788. His paternal great-great-grandfather, Peter DeWitt (1722–1790), was a private in the American Revolutionary War. Through these men John L. DeWitt is a second cousin, three times removed, of former New York Governor DeWitt Clinton. Another second cousin, three times removed was Simeon DeWitt. His first cousin, twice removed, William Radcliffe DeWitt V, served in the United States Marine Corps as a private during the Korean War. His first cousin, three times removed, Robert George Schoenkopf III, served as a sergeant in the Marine Corps during the Vietnam War. Awards Army Distinguished Service Medal with two oak leaf clusters Navy Distinguished Service Medal Philippine Campaign Medal Mexican Service Medal Victory Medal with seven campaign clasps American Defense Service Medal with star American Campaign Medal Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with one campaign star World War II Victory Medal Order of the Aztec Eagle (Mexico) Dates of rank See also References External links Arlington National Cemetery John Lesesne DeWitt (1880-1962) from the Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco John L. DeWitt by the Army Quartermaster Foundation John L. DeWitt by the New Netherland Institute Generals of World War II 1880 births Military personnel from Nebraska 1962 deaths People from Sidney, Nebraska American people of Dutch descent Princeton University alumni United States Army Infantry Branch personnel American military personnel of the Spanish–American War American military personnel of the Philippine–American War United States Army personnel of World War I United States Army War College alumni United States Army generals Quartermasters General of the United States Army People from Adams Morgan United States Army War College faculty United States Army generals of World War II Internment of Japanese Americans Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army) Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
4806974	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emesene%20dynasty	Emesene dynasty	The Emesene (or Emesan) dynasty, also called the Sampsigeramids or the Sampsigerami or the House of Sampsigeramus (), were a Roman client dynasty of Arab priest-kings known to have ruled by 46 BC from Arethusa and later from Emesa, Syria, until between 72 and 78/79, or at the latest the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius (138–161). Iamblichus, the famous Neoplatonist philosopher of the third century, was one of their descendants, as was empress Julia Domna, matriarch of the Severan dynasty. Onomastics Most modern sources declare the family to be of Arab origin. Roman sources such as Herodian describe the family as Phoenician by genos or stock. Some members of the family such as Julius Bassianus, father of Julia Domma, are described in Roman sources as "a priest of the Sun, whom the Phoenicians, from whom he sprang, call Elagabalus". Writer Heliodorus of Emesa, a descendant of the family, identified himself as "a Phoenician, from the race of the Sun". Since Emesa was never part of historical Phoenicia, modern historians consider the use of "Phoenician" in these sources a pseudo-ethnic label; one that arose from the political creation of Syria Phoenice by Septimius Severus in 194. Some authors believe that Kings Sampsigeramus and Iamblichus had Aramaic names, while other historians state their names are Arabic. The name Samsigeramus is derived from Shams, meaning sun; while geram is related to the Arabic root k-r-m, meaning "to venerate". Other kings, such as Azizus and Sohaemus, had clearly Arabic names. Iamblichus was referred to as "Phylarch of the Arabs" by Cicero and "King of an Arabian tribe" by Cassius Dio. It is said that Emesa and its surrounding had a strong presence of Arabic-speaking people at the time, although the ancient name of the city appears to be Aramaic. In Emesa, Aramaic and Greek were commonly spoken languages and, during the Roman Empire, Latin was probably commonly spoken in the city. Religion Emesa was recorded by Herodian to have been by the 3rd-century the centre of a worship of the ancient pagan god Elagabalus, the original name of which is posited to have been El-Gabal or Ilah Jabal ("إله جبل"). The deity's Latin name, Elagabalus, is a Latinized version of the Arabic Ilāh al-Jabal, from ilāh ("god") and jabal ("mountain"), meaning "God of the Mountain". In Emesa, the religious "lord", or Ba'al, was the cult of Elagabalus. This cult is assumed to have existed already at the time when the dynasty was still ruling (it is believed, as priest-kings), although there might have been originally two separate cults. The deity Elagabalus successfully preserved Arab characteristics both in his names, and in his representations. History Sampsiceramus I to Sampsiceramus II Sampsiceramus I () was the founding Priest-King of the Emesene dynasty who lived in the 1st century BC and was a tribal chieftain or Phylarch. The ancestors of Sampsiceramus I were Arabs who had travelled the Syrian terrain, before deciding to settle in the Orontes Valley and South of the Apamea region. Sampsiceramus I, his family and his ancestors in Syria had lived under the Greek rule of the Seleucid Empire. Sampsiceramus I was a son of Aziz (Azizus, c. 94 BC); paternal grandson of Iamblichus (c. 151 BC) and there was a possibility he may have had a brother called Ptolemaeus (c. 41 BC) who may have had descendants through his son. Through the rule and influence of the Seleucid dynasty and Greek settlement in the Seleucid Empire, the area was assimilated into the Greek language and culture of the Hellenistic period. Hence, Sampsiceramus I and his ancestors became Hellenized through the Greek rule of Syria and the surrounding territories. Sampsiceramus I was an ally to the last Seleucid Greek Monarchs of Syria. By this time, the Seleucid Empire had become very weak and always appealed to the Roman Republic to help solve political or succession problems. Around 64 BC, the Roman General and Triumvir, Pompey had reorganised Syria and the surrounding countries into Roman provinces. Pompey had installed client kings in the region, who would become allies of Rome. Among these was Sampsiceramus I (whose name is also spelt Sampsigeramus). The Roman politician Marcus Tullius Cicero, nicknamed Pompey ‘Sampsiceramus’ to make fun of Pompey's pretensions as an eastern potentate. At the request of Pompey, Sampsiceramus I captured and killed in 64 BC, the second last Seleucid King Antiochus XIII Asiaticus. After the death of Antiochus XIII, Sampsiceramus I was confirmed in power and his family was left to rule the surrounding region under Roman suzerainty. Client rulers such as Sampsiceramus I could police routes and preserve the integrity of Rome without cost to Roman manpower or to the Roman treasury; they were probably paid for the privilege. Emesa was added to the domains of Sampsiceramus I, but the first Emesene capital was Arethusa, a city north of Emesa, along the Orontes River. The kingdom of Sampsiceramus I was the first of Rome's client kingdoms on the desert's fringes. The kingdom's boundaries extended from the Beqaa Valley in the West to the border of Palmyra in the East, from Yabrud in the South to Arethusa in the North and Heliopolis. During his reign, Sampsiceramus I built a castle at Shmemis on top of an extinct volcano and rebuilt the city of Salamiyah which the Romans incorporated in the ruled territory. In time, Sampsiceramus I established and formed a powerful ruling dynasty and a leading kingdom in the Roman East. His Priest-King dynasty ruled from 64 BC until at least 254. When Sampsiceramus I died in 48 BC, he was succeeded by son, Iamblichus I. In his reign, the prominence of Emesa grew after Iamblichus I established it as the new capital of the Emesene dynasty. The economy of the Emesene Kingdom was based on agriculture. With fertile volcanic soil in the Orontes Valley and a great lake, as well as a dam across the Orontes south of Emesa, which provided ample water, Emesa's soil was ideal for cultivation. Farms in Emesa provided wheat, vines and olives. Emesa in antiquity was a very wealthy city. The city was a part of a trade route from the East, a route that went via Palmyra and passed through Emesa on its way to the coast. An example on how wealthy Emesa was, ancient pieces of jewellery have been found at the necropolis of Tell Abu Sabun, suggests that the engineering work demanded to be constructed along the lake. Apart from Antioch, a very important city for the Romans, this port city, prospered under its Roman vassal rulers. Prior to succeeding his father, Iamblichus I was considered by Cicero in 51 BC (then Roman Governor of Cilicia), as a possible ally against Parthia. Shortly after Iamblichus I became priest-king, he had become prudent and supported the Roman politician Julius Caesar in his Alexandrian war against Pompey. Iamblichus I sent troops to aid Caesar. Pompey was the patron for the family of Iamblichus I, who was later defeated and killed. The Emesene dynasty had proven from the late Republic into the Imperial era that the dynasty were loyal to the Roman state. After the death of Julius Caesar, for a brief period Iamblichus I supported the Roman Governor of Syria who was one of Julius Caesar's assassins. In the period of the Roman civil wars, Iamblichus I supported the Roman Triumvir Octavian. Iamblichus I became suspect to Roman Triumvir Mark Antony. Antony encouraged Iamblichus I's brother Alexander, to usurp his brother's throne and had Iamblichus I executed. Octavian, after defeating Antony and reorganising the Eastern Roman provinces, had Alexander executed for treason in 31 BC. From 30 BC until 20 BC, the Emesene Kingdom was dissolved and became an autonomous community free of dynastic rule though under the supervision of the Roman governor of Syria. Later in 20 BC, Octavian, now as the Roman emperor Augustus, restored the Emesene Kingdom to Iamblichus II, the son of Iamblichus I. Iamblichus II was the first in his family to receive the Roman citizenship from Augustus, as the Emesene dynasty took the Roman gentilicium Julius to be added to their Aramaic, Arabic, Greek and later Latin names in tomb inscriptions in the 1st century AD. Iamblichus II ruled as a Priest-King from 20 BC to 14. Iamblichus II's reign was stable and from it emerged a new era of peace, known as the Golden Age of Emesa. Iamblichus II died in 14 and his grandson Sampsiceramus II succeeded him as priest-king. Sampsiceramus II ruled from 14 until his death in 42. According to a surviving inscription at the Temple of Bel in Palmyra, dating from the years 18/19 he may have acted as an intermediary between Palmyra and Rome. In the inscription he is mentioned alongside the Roman general Germanicus, the adoptive son and nephew of the Roman emperor Tiberius. Emesa was closely linked for its prosperity with its neighbour Palmyra. Before he died, Sampsiceramus II was convened by the Herodian King Agrippa I at Tiberias. Sampsiceramus II is also known from other surviving inscriptional evidence. In one inscription dating from his reign, Sampsiceramus II with his wife Iotapa are known as a happy couple. Posthumously Sampsiceramus II is honoured by his son, Sohaemus in an honorific Latin inscription dedicated to his son while he was a Patron of Heliopolis during his reign as King. In this inscription, Sampsiceramus II is honored as a Great King [Regis Magni]. Sampsiceramus II ruled as a Great King at least in local parlance. Azizus, Sohaemus and afterwards After the death of Sampsiceramus II, his first son Azizus succeeded him. He reigned from 42 until 54. Little is known of the reign of Azizus, except for his childless marriage to the Herodian Princess Drusilla. Azizus married Drusilla in 53, on the condition that he was to be circumcised. She was briefly married to Azizus and Drusilla ended their marriage. She divorced him because she fell in love with Marcus Antonius Felix, a Greek Freedman who was the Roman Governor of Judea, whom she later married. When Azizus died in 54, he was succeeded by his brother Sohaemus who reigned from 54 until his death in 73. Under the rule of Sohaemus, Emesa's relations with the government of Rome grew closer. In 70, in the Roman Siege of Jerusalem, Sohaemus sent Emesene archers to assist the Roman army. He also assisted the Roman emperor Vespasian, in 72, in annexing the Client State of the Kingdom of Commagene. Sohaemus died in 73 and was succeeded by his son, Gaius Julius Alexion. Despite the fact that the Emesene dynasty were loyal allies to Rome, for unknown reasons the Roman State reduced the autonomous rule of the Emesene dynasty. Sohaemus was apparently the last king of the Emesene Kingdom and after his death in 78, the Kingdom most probably was absorbed by the Roman Province of Syria, but there is no explicit evidence of this occurring. Gaius Julius Sampsigeramus ( 78 or 79 AD)), "from the Fabia tribe, also known as Seilas, son of Gaius Julius Alexion," was the builder of the so-named Tomb of Sampsigeramus that formerly stood in the necropolis of Tell Abu Sabun, as recorded on an inscription said to have belonged to the monument. According to Maurice Sartre, the owner's Roman citizenship, attested by his tria nomina, strongly supports relatedness to the royal family. The lack of allusion to royal kinship is best explained if the dynasty had been deprived of its kingdom shortly before the mausoleum was built and the said kingdom had been annexed to the Roman province of Syria, which occurred very likely between 72 and the construction of the mausoleum. As worded by Andreas Kropp, "what the builder was really keen on stressing is that he was a Roman citizen bearing the tria nomina." Between 211 & 217, the Roman emperor Caracalla, made Emesa into a Roman Colony, as this was partly due to the Severan dynasty's relations with and connections to Emesa. Partly due to the influence and rule of the Emesene dynasty, Emesa had grown and became one of the most important cities in the Roman East. Despite the Emesenes being a warlike people; they exported wheat, grapes and olives throughout the Roman world, and the city was part of the Eastern trade route which stretched from the mainland to the coast, which benefited the local and the Roman economy. The Emesenes sent men into the Roman legions and contributed their archers to the auxiliaries of the imperial army. In modern Syria, Emesa has retained its local significance as it is the market centre for surrounding villages. Archaeology The royal family of Emesa is imperfectly known. What is known about the Emesene dynasty and their kingdom is from surviving archaeological evidence, as the ancient Roman historical sources do not provide a lot of information about them. It is from surviving inscriptions that we know the names of the Emesene Priest-Kings; the Emesene Priests, their known relatives and the limited information about them. As a capital of a Roman Client Kingdom, Emesa shows attributes of a Greek city-state and traces of Roman town planning remain. Archaeological evidence remains from the Emesene dynasty in the city of Salamiyah which was rebuilt by Sampsiceramus I. Surviving monuments built by the Emesene dynasty includes the castle at Shmemis which is on top of an extinct volcano built by Sampsiceramus I and the Emesene dynastic tomb. Among those who are buried there is Alexander, Sohaemus and Julius Alexander. The remains of the Tomb of Sampsigeramus were blown up with dynamite by the Ottoman authorities 1911, in order to make room for an oil depot. Coins have survived from the Emesene dynasty; the earliest known ones being issued for celebrating the cult of El-Gebal under the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius, 138-161. They depict an eagle perched on a black stone and an elaborate monumental altar being shown. Two superimposed row of niches, between two pilasters stand on a massive base; with statues in each of the six niches. Above is a smaller altar, surmounted by the great stone itself, ornamented with mysterious markings. List of members Priest-Kings The known Emesene Priest-Kings were: Sampsiceramus I (Šamšigeram), reigned 64 BC–48 BC, son of Aziz (Aziz, c. 94 BC) and paternal grandson of Iamblichus (Yamliḵu, c. 151 BC) Iamblichus I (son of Sampsiceramus I and brother of Alexander), reigned 48 BC–31 BC Alexander (brother of Iamblichus I and another son of Sampsiceramus I). Usurper to the Emesene throne in 31 BC and executed in the same year by Octavian The Emesene kingdom dissolved from 30 BC to 20 BC and becomes an autonomous community under the supervision of the Roman governor of Syria Iamblichus II (son of Iamblichus I), reigned 20 BC–14 Gaius Julius Sampsiceramus II, also known as Sampsiceramus II (grandson of Iamblichus II), reigned 14–42 Gaius Julius Azizus or Asisus (son of Sampsiceramus II), reigned 42–54 Gaius Julius Sohaemus Philocaesar Philorhomaeus (brother to Azizus and second son to Sampsiceramus II), reigned 54–73 Gaius Julius Alexion (son of Sohaemus), reigned 73–78 Reign uncertain Gaius Julius Sampsigeramus ( 78/79) Usurpers (kinship uncertain) Uranius Antoninus, usurper 210–235: "it seems that Uranius Antoninus styled himself as a new Sampsigeramid king of Emesa" Uranius Antoninus, usurper 235–254: claimed that he was related to the Sampsigeramids" Other C. (Iulius?) Longinus Sohaemus ("son of Sampsigeramus"), fl. 110 Commagenean Princess Iotapa, married Sampsiceramus II. Iotapa bore Sampsiceramus II four children: two sons, Gaius Julius Azizus and Gaius Julius Sohaemus Philocaesar Philorhomaeus and two daughters, Iotapa who married the Herodian Prince Aristobulus Minor and Mamaea Mamaea married the Roman Client King Polemon II of Pontus, who through this marriage became Roman Client Queen of Pontus, Cilicia and Colchis. Julia Urania Queen of Mauretania, who may have been a minor Emesene Princess and married Roman Client King Ptolemy of Mauretania Drusilla, Mauretanian princess from North Africa, who was the daughter of Ptolemy of Mauretania and Julia Urania, married Gaius Julius Sohaemus Philocaesar Philorhomaeus, son of Sampsiceramus II and Iotapa. Drusilla and Sohaemus had a son called Gaius Julius Alexion Sohaemus of Armenia also known as Gaius Julius Sohaemus King of Armenia from 144 until 161, then again in 163 to perhaps up to 186 Julius Alexander, an Emesene nobleman who could be the possible son of Sohaemus of Armenia who died in c. 190 and is a contemporary of the Roman emperor Commodus Julius Agrippa, an Emesene nobleman who served as a Primipilaris or a former leading centurion son of a Julius and paternal uncle of the Emesene High Priest Gaius Julius Bassianus The Emesene High Priest Gaius Julius Bassianus, son of a Julius and nephew of Julius Agrippa and a possible descendant of Drusilla of Mauretania and Gaius Julius Sohaemus Philocaesar Philorhomaeus. He married an unnamed woman by whom was the father of Julia Maesa and her younger sister, the Roman Empress Julia Domna Julia Domna, second wife of Roman emperor Lucius Septimius Severus; mother of the Severan Roman emperors Caracalla (born as Lucius Septimius Bassianus) and Publius Septimius Geta Julia Maesa, wife of the Syrian Roman politician Gaius Julius Avitus Alexianus by whom had two daughters: Julia Soaemias Bassiana and Julia Avita Mamaea Julia Soaemias Bassiana, wife of the Syrian Roman politician Sextus Varius Marcellus by whom she had one unnamed son and a second son, the Severan Roman emperor Elagabalus (born as Sextus Varius Avitus Bassianus) Julia Avita Mamaea, wife of the Syrian Roman politician Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus and was possibly the mother of Marcus Julius Gessius Bassianus, but was definitely the mother of Theoclia and Severan Roman emperor Alexander Severus (born as Marcus Julius Gessius Bassianus Alexianus) Aemilius Papinianus (142–212) also known as Papinian, a celebrated Roman Jurist and Praetorian prefect who was a kinsman of Julia Domna Descendants Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra in the 3rd century, is a possible descendant of Drusilla of Mauretania and Gaius Julius Sohaemus. Zenobia's possible descent from Drusilla might support Zenobia's claims of being a descendant of the last Queen of Egypt Cleopatra VII Iamblichus, 2nd century novelist, claims his ancestry from the Emesene Priest Kings and was a contemporary of Sohaemus of Armenia Iamblichus, 3rd century Neoplatonist, claimed to have been a descendant of the Emesene Priest Kings Uranius Antoninus, usurper in the 3rd century, may have been called Sampsiceramus, and have been an Emesene priest. Theodora of Emesa is a possible descendant of the Emesan dynasty. Patriarch of Constantinople, Scholar, and Christian Saint of the 9th century, Photios I, notes that around A.D. 500, the Syrian Pagan Philosopher Damascius dedicated a book to a Theodora, daughter of Diogenes, son of Eusebius, son of Flavianus and a descendant of King Sampsiceramus of Emesa Heliodorus of Emesa claims to have been a descendant of the Royal family of Emesa Family tree See also Black Stone Elagabalus (deity) Homs Notes References Sources External links Royal Egyptian Genealogy: Ptolemaic Descendants Ptolemaic Genealogy – Cleopatra Selene Ptolemaic Points of Interest: Cleopatra VII & Ptolemy XIII Sampsiceramus article at Ancient Library Biblical Genealogy: From Alexander son of Herod to Bustanai New Advent Encyclopaedia – Emesa Articles, Books and Studies: The Moon Is A Harsh Mistress – The Rise and Fall of Cleopatra II Selene, Seleukid Queen of Syria by Michael Burgess Articles, Books and Studies: Numismatic Evidence For A New Seleucid King: Seleucus (VII) Philometor by Brian Kritt History of Homs Roman Syria Syrian monarchs Arab history Arabs in the Roman Empire Arab dynasties
4807194	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consequences%20of%20the%20Black%20Death	Consequences of the Black Death	The Black Death peaked in Europe between 1348 and 1350, with an estimated third of the continent's population ultimately succumbing to the disease. Often simply referred to as "The Plague", the Black Death had both immediate and long-term effects on human population across the world as one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, including a series of biological, social, economic, political and religious upheavals that had profound effects on the course of world history, especially European history. Symptoms of the Bubonic Plague included painful and enlarged or swollen lymph nodes, headaches, chills, fatigue, vomiting, and fevers, and within 3 to 5 days, 80% of the victims would be dead. Historians estimate that it reduced the total world population from 475 million to between 350 and 375 million. In most parts of Europe, it took nearly 80 years for population sizes to recover, and in some areas, it took more than 150 years. From the perspective of many of the survivors, the effect of the plague may have been ultimately favourable, as the massive reduction of the workforce meant their labor was suddenly in higher demand. R. H. Hilton has argued that the English peasants who survived found their situation to be much improved. For many Europeans, the 15th century was a golden age of prosperity and new opportunities. The land was plentiful, wages were high and serfdom had all but disappeared. A century later, as population growth resumed, the lower classes once again faced deprivation and famine. Death toll Figures for the death toll vary widely by area and from source to source, and estimates are frequently revised as historical research brings new discoveries to light. Most scholars estimate that the Black Death killed up to 75 million people in the 14th century, at a time when the entire world population was still less than 500 million. Even where the historical record is considered reliable, only rough estimates of the total number of deaths from the plague are possible. Europe Europe suffered an especially- significant death toll from the plague. Modern estimates range between roughly one third and one half of the total European population in the five-year period of 1347 to 1351 died during which the most severely-affected areas may have lost up to 80% of the population. Contemporary chronicler Jean Froissart estimated the toll to be one-third, which modern scholars consider less an accurate assessment than an allusion to the Book of Revelation meant to suggest the scope of the plague. Deaths were not evenly distributed across Europe, and some areas were affected very little, but others were all but entirely depopulated. The Black Death hit the culture of towns and cities disproportionately hard although rural areas, where most of the population lived at the time, were also significantly affected. Larger cities were the worst off, as population densities and close living quarters made disease transmission easier. Cities were also strikingly filthy, infested with lice, fleas, and rats, and subject to diseases caused by malnutrition and poor hygiene. The population of the city of Florence was reduced from between 110,000 to 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 to 50,000 in 1351. In the cities of Hamburg and Bremen, 60–70% of the inhabitants died. In Provence, Dauphiné, and Normandy, historians observe a decrease of 60% of fiscal hearths. In some regions, two thirds of the population was annihilated. In the town of Givry, in the Bourgogne region of France, the local friar, who used to note 28–29 funerals a year, recorded 649 deaths in 1348, half of them in September. About half the population of Perpignan died over the course of several months (only two of the eight physicians survived the plague). Over 60% of Norway's population died between 1348 and 1350. London may have lost two thirds of its population during the 1348–49 outbreak; England as a whole may have lost 70% of its population, which declined from 7 million before the plague to 2 million in 1400. Some places, including the Kingdom of Poland, parts of Hungary, the Brabant region, Hainaut, and Limbourg (in modern Belgium), as well as Santiago de Compostela, were unaffected for unknown reasons. Some historians have assumed that the presence of resistant blood groups in the local population helped them resist infection, but the regions were touched by the second plague outbreak in 1360–1363 (the "little mortality") and later during the numerous resurgences of the plague (in 1366–1369, 1374–75, 1400, 1407 etc.). Other areas escaping the plague were isolated in mountainous regions such as the Pyrenees. All social classes were affected, but the lower classes, living together in unhealthy places, were most vulnerable. Alfonso XI of Castile and Joan of Navarre (daughter of Louis X le Hutin and Margaret of Burgundy) were the only European monarchs to die of the plague, but Peter IV of Aragon lost his wife, his daughter and a niece in six months. Joan of England, daughter of Edward III, died in Bordeaux on her way to Castile to marry Alfonso's son Pedro. The Byzantine Emperor lost his son, while in the Kingdom of France, Bonne of Luxembourg, the wife of the future John II of France, died of the plague. Asia Estimates of the demographic effect of the plague in Asia are based on population figures during the time and estimates of the disease's toll on population centers. The most severe outbreak of plague, in the Chinese province of Hubei in 1334, claimed up to 80% of the population. China had several epidemics and famines from 1200 to the 1350s and its population decreased from an estimated 125 million to 65 million in the late 14th century. The precise demographic effect of the disease in the Middle East is very difficult to calculate. Mortality was particularly high in rural areas, including significant areas of Gaza and Syria. Many rural people fled, leaving their fields and crops, and entire rural provinces are recorded as being totally depopulated. Surviving records in some cities reveal a devastating number of deaths. The 1348 outbreak in Gaza left an estimated 10,000 people dead, and Aleppo recorded a death rate of 500 per day during the same year. In Damascus, at the disease's peak in September and October 1348, a thousand deaths were recorded every day, with overall mortality estimated at between 25 and 38 percent. Syria had lost a total of 400,000 people when the epidemic subsided, in March 1349. In contrast to some higher mortality estimates in Asia and Europe, scholars such as John Fields of Trinity College, Dublin, believe the mortality rate in the Middle East to have been less than one third of the total population, with higher rates in selected areas. Social, environmental, and economic effects Because 14th-century healers were at a loss to explain the cause of the Black Death, many Europeans gave supernatural forces, earthquakes, malicious conspiracies and other things as possible reasons for the plague's emergence. No one in the 14th century considered rat control a way to ward off the plague, and people began to believe that only God's anger could produce such horrific displays of suffering and death. Giovanni Boccaccio, an Italian writer and poet of the era, questioned whether it was sent by God for their correction, or if it came through the influence of the heavenly bodies. Christians accused Jews of poisoning public water supplies and alleged that Jews were making an effort to ruin European civilization. The spreading of those rumours led to the complete destruction of entire Jewish towns. In February 1349, 2,000 Jews were murdered in Strasbourg. In August that year, the Jewish communities of Mainz and Cologne were murdered. Where government authorities were concerned, most monarchs instituted measures that prohibited exports of foodstuffs, condemned black market speculators, set price controls on grain and outlawed large-scale fishing. At best, those proved mostly unenforceable; at worst, they contributed to a continental downward spiral. The hardest-hit lands, like England, were unable to buy grain abroad from France because of the prohibition and from most of the rest of the grain producers because of crop failures from shortage of labour. Any grain that could be shipped was eventually taken by pirates or looters to be sold on the black market. Meanwhile, many of the largest countries, most notably England and Scotland, had been at war, used up much of their treasury which exacerbated inflation. In 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to war in what would become known as the Hundred Years' War. Malnutrition, poverty, disease and hunger, coupled with war, growing inflation and other economic concerns, made Europe in the mid-14th century ripe for tragedy. The historian Walter Scheidel contends that waves of plague following the initial outbreak of the Black Death had a levelling effect, which changed the ratio of land to labour by reducing the value of the former and boosting that of the latter, which lowered economic inequality by making landowners and employers less well-off and improved the lot of the workers: "the observed improvement in living standards of the laboring population was rooted in the suffering and premature death of tens of millions over the course of several generations". The levelling effect was reversed by a "demographic recovery that resulted in renewed population pressure". On the other hand, in the quarter-century after the Black Death, many labourers, artisans, and craftsmen, those living from money-wages alone, suffer a reduction in real incomes in England from rampant inflation. In 1357, a third of property in London was unused because of a severe outbreak in 1348–49. However, for reasons still debated, population levels declined after the Black Death's first outbreak until around 1420 and did not begin to rise again until 1470 and so the initial Black Death event on its own does not entirely provide a satisfactory explanation to that extended period of decline in prosperity. See medieval demography for a more complete treatment of this issue and current theories on why improvements in living standards took longer to evolve. Peasantry The great population loss brought favorable results to the surviving peasants in England and the rest of Western Europe. There was increased social mobility, as depopulation further eroded the peasants' already-weakened obligations to remain on their traditional holdings. Seigneurialism never recovered. Land was plentiful, wages high, and serfdom had all but disappeared. It was possible to move about and rise higher in life. Younger sons and women especially benefited. As population growth resumed, however, peasants again faced deprivation and famine. In Eastern Europe, by contrast, renewed stringency of laws tied the remaining peasantry more tightly to the land than ever before through serfdom. Furthermore, the plague's great population reduction brought cheaper land prices; more food for the average peasant; and a relatively large increase in per capita income among the peasantry, if not immediately, in the coming century. Since the plague left vast areas of farmland untended, they were made available for pasture and put more meat on the market. The consumption of meat and dairy products went up, as did the export of beef and butter from the Low Countries, Scandinavia and northern Germany. However, the upper class often attempted to stop the changes, initially in Western Europe and more forcefully and successfully in Eastern Europe, by instituting sumptuary laws. They regulated what people (particularly of the peasant class) could wear so that nobles could ensure that peasants did not begin to dress and act as a higher-class member with their increased wealth. Another tactic was to fix prices and wages so that peasants could not demand more with increasing value. In England, the Statute of Labourers 1351 was enforced, which stated that no peasant could ask for more wages than in 1346. That was met with varying success depending on the amount of rebellion it inspired. Such a law was one of the causes of the 1381 Peasants' Revolt in England. The rapid development of the use was probably one of the consequences of the Black Death during which many landowning nobles died and left their realty to their widows and minor orphans. Urban workers In the wake of the drastic population decline brought on by the plague, wages shot up, and labourers could move to new localities in response to wage offers. Local and royal authorities in Western Europe instituted wage controls. The government controls sought to freeze wages at the old levels before the Black Death. Within England, for example, the Ordinance of Labourers, enacted in 1349, and the Statute of Labourers, enacted in 1351, restricted both wage increases and the relocation of workers. If workers attempted to leave their current post, employers were given the right to have them imprisoned. The statute was poorly enforced in most areas, and farm wages in England on average doubled between 1350 and 1450, but they were then static until the late 19th century. Cohn, comparing numerous countries, argues that the laws were not designed primarily to freeze wages. Instead, he says that the energetic local and royal measures to control labour and artisans' prices were responses to elite fears of the greed and the possible new powers of the lesser classes that had gained new freedom. Cohn continues that the laws reflected the anxiety that followed the Black Death's new horrors of mass mortality and destruction and from elite anxiety about manifestations, such as the flagellant movement and the persecution of Jews, Catalans (in Sicily) and beggars. Labour-saving adaptations The Black Death encouraged innovation of labour-saving technologies, leading to higher productivity. There was also a shift from grain farming to animal husbandry. Grain farming was very labor-intensive, but animal husbandry needed only a shepherd and a few dogs and pastureland. By 1200, virtually all of the Mediterranean basin and most of northern Germany had been deforested and cultivated. Indigenous flora and fauna were replaced by domestic grasses and animals, and domestic woodlands were lost. With depopulation, the process was reversed. Much of the primeval vegetation returned, and abandoned fields and pastures were reforested. Changing land-contracts and end of serfdom Plague brought an eventual end of serfdom in Western Europe. The manorial system was already in trouble, but the Black Death assured its demise throughout much of Western and Central Europe by 1500. Severe depopulation and migration of the village to cities caused an acute shortage of agricultural labourers. Many villages were abandoned. In England, more than 1300 villages were deserted between 1350 and 1500. Wages of labourers were high, but the rise in nominal wages after the Black Death was swamped by inflation and so real wages fell. Labour was in such a short supply that landlords were forced to give better terms of tenure. That resulted in much lower rents in Western Europe. By 1500, a new form of tenure called copyhold became prevalent in Europe. In copyhold, both a landlord and peasant made their best business deal, whereby the peasant got use of the land and the landlord got a fixed annual payment, and both possessed a copy of the tenure agreement. Serfdom did not end everywhere and lingered in parts of Western Europe and was introduced to Eastern Europe only after the Black Death. There was also a change in inheritance law. Before the plague, only sons, especially the eldest son, inherited the ancestral property. After the Plague, all sons and daughters started to inherit property. Persecutions Renewed religious fervor and fanaticism came in the wake of the Black Death. Some Europeans targeted "groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims" lepers and Romani, who were thought to have caused the crisis. Differences in cultural and lifestyle practices also led to persecution. As the plague swept across Europe in the mid-14th century and annihilating more than half the population, Jews were taken as scapegoats, in part because better hygiene among Jewish communities and isolation in the ghettos meant that Jews were less affected. Accusations spread that Jews had caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Mobs attacked Jewish settlements across Europe; by 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been destroyed, and more than 350 separate massacres had occurred. According to Joseph P. Byrne, women also faced persecution during the Black Death. Muslim women in Cairo became scapegoats when the plague struck. Byrne writes that in 1438, the sultan of Cairo was informed by his religious lawyers, that the arrival of the plague was "Allah's punishment for the sin of fornication" and that in accordance with that theory, a law was set in place stating that women were not allowed to make public appearances, as "they may tempt men into sin". Byrne describes that law as being lifted only when "the wealthy complained that their female servants could not shop for food". Religion The Black Death hit the monasteries very hard because of their proximity with the sick who sought refuge there. That left a severe shortage of clergy after the epidemic cycle. Eventually, the losses were replaced by hastily-trained and inexperienced clergy members, many of whom knew little of the rigours of their predecessors. New colleges were opened at established universities, and the training process was sped up. The shortage of priests opened new opportunities for laywomen to assume more extensive and more important service roles in the local parish. Flagellants practiced self-flogging (whipping of oneself) to atone for sins. The movement became popular after the Black Death. It may be that the flagellants' later involvement in hedonism was an effort to accelerate, to absorb God's wrath and to shorten the time with which others suffered. More likely, the focus of attention and popularity of their cause contributed to a sense that the world itself was ending and that their individual actions were of no consequence. Reformers rarely pointed to failures on the part of the Church in dealing with the catastrophe. Cultural effects The Black Death had profound effects on art and literature. After 1350, European culture in general turned very morbid. The general mood was one of pessimism, and contemporary art turned dark with representations of death. The widespread image of the "dance of death" showed death (a skeleton) choosing victims at random. Many of the most graphic depictions come from writers such as Boccaccio and Petrarch. Peire Lunel de Montech, writing about 1348 in the lyric style long out of fashion, composed the following sorrowful sirventes "Meravilhar no·s devo pas las gens" during the height of the plague in Toulouse: Boccaccio wrote: Medicine Although the Black Death highlighted the shortcomings of medical science in the Middle Ages, it also led to positive changes in the field of medicine. As described by David Herlihy in The Black Death and the Transformation of the West, more emphasis was placed on "anatomical investigations" after the Black Death. The way that individuals studied the human body notably changed and became a process that dealt more directly with the human body in varied states of sickness and health. Furthermore, the importance of surgeons became more evident. A theory put forth by Stephen O'Brien is that the Black Death is likely responsible by natural selection for the high frequency of the CCR5-Δ32 genetic defect in people of European descent. The gene affects T cell function and provides protection against HIV, smallpox and possibly plague, but for the last, no explanation exists on how it would do that. However, that is now challenged since the CCR5-Δ32 gene has been found to be just as common in Bronze Age tissue samples. Architecture The Black Death also inspired European architecture to move in two different directions: (1) a revival of Greco-Roman styles, and (2) a further elaboration of the Gothic style. Late medieval churches had impressive structures centred on verticality in which one's eye is drawn up towards the high ceiling. The basic Gothic style was revamped with elaborate decoration in the late medieval period. Sculptors in Italian city-states emulated the work of their Roman forefathers, and sculptors in Northern Europe, no doubt inspired by the devastation they had witnessed, gave way to a heightened expression of emotion and an emphasis on individual differences. A tough realism came forth in architecture as in literature. Images of intense sorrow, decaying corpses and individuals with faults as well as virtues emerged. North of the Alps, painting reached a pinnacle of precise realism with Early Dutch painting by artists such as Jan van Eyck ( – 1441). The natural world was reproduced in those works with meticulous detail whose realism was not unlike photography. See also Economic consequences of population decline Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic References Further reading Aberth, John, ed. The Black Death: The Great Mortality of 1348–1350: A Brief History with Documents (2005) excerpt and text search, with primary sources Benedictow, Ole J. The Black Death 1346–1353: The Complete History (2012) excerpt and text search Borsch, Stuart J. The Black Death in Egypt and England: A Comparative Study (U of Texas Press, 2005) online Britnell, R. H. "Feudal Reaction after the Black Death in the Palatinate of Durham," Past & Present No. 128 (Aug., 1990), pp. 28–47 in JSTOR, in England Byrne, Joseph P. Encyclopedia of the Black Death (2012) excerpt and text search Cantor, Norman. In the Wake of the Plague: The Black Death and the World it Made (2001). Carmichael, Ann. The Plague and the Poor in Renaissance Florence (1986). Cohn, Samuel. "After the Black Death: Labour Legislation and Attitudes Towards Labour in Late-Medieval Western Europe," Economic History Review (2007) 60#3 pp. 457–485 in JSTOR Deaux, George. The Black Death, 1347 (1969) Gottfried, Robert S. The Black Death: Natural and Human Disaster in Medieval Europe (Simon & Schuster, 2010) Hatcher, John. Plague, Population, and the English Economy, 1348–1530 (1977). Herlihy, David. The Black Death and the Transformation of the West (1997). Hilton, R. H. The English Peasantry in the Late Middle Ages (Oxford: Clarendon, 1974) Horrox, Rosemay, ed. The black death (Manchester University Press, 1994.) MacGregor, Kirk R. A Comparative Study of Adjustments to Social Catastrophes in Christianity and Buddhism. The Black Death in Europe and the Kamakura Takeover in Japan As Causes of Religious Reform (2011) Meiss, Millard. Painting in Florence and Siena after the Black Death: the arts, religion, and society in the Mid-fourteenth century (Princeton University Press, 1978) Platt, Colin. King Death: The Black Death and Its Aftermath in Late Medieval England (1996). Poos, Larry R. A Rural Society after the Black Death: Essex, 1350–1525 (1991). Putnam, Bertha Haven. The enforcement of the statutes of labourers during the first decade after the black death, 1349–1359 (1908). Williman, Daniel, ed. The Black Death: The Impact of the Fourteenth-Century Plague (1982) Ziegler, Philip. The black death (1969), comprehensive older survey excerpt and text search External links John H. A. Munro, 2005. "Before and After the Black Death: Money, Prices, and Wages in Fourteenth-Century England," Working Papers munro-04-04, University of Toronto, Department of Economics 14th-century economic history Black Death Black Death Black Death
4808463	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred%20Duesenberg	Fred Duesenberg	Frederick Samuel Duesenberg (December 6, 1876 – July 26, 1932) was a German-born American automobile and engine designer, manufacturer and sportsman who was internationally known as a designer of racecars and racing engines. Duesenberg's engineering expertise influenced the development of the automobile, especially during the 1910s and 1920s. He is credited with introducing an eight-cylinder engine, also known as the Duesenberg Straight-8 engine, and four-wheel hydraulic brakes, a first for American cars, in addition to other mechanical innovations. Duesenberg was also patentholder of his designs for a four-wheel hydraulic brake, an early automatic transmission, and a cooling system, among others. Fred and his younger brother, August "Augie" Duesenberg, shared the patents, filed in 1913 and renewed in 1918, for their "walking beam" four-cylinder engine and the Duesenberg Straight 8 (an eight-cylinder engine with a single, overhead camshaft). In 1913 the Duesenberg brothers founded the Duesenberg Motor Company, Incorporated, which was subsequently sold, and in 1920 were among the founders of the Duesenberg Automobile and Motor Company, which manufactured passenger cars in Indianapolis, Indiana, from 1921 until 1937, including the Duesenberg Model A, the brothers' first mass-produced vehicle. Fred Duesenberg served as the chief engineer at both companies. From 1926 until his death in 1932, Fred Duesenberg focused on designs for luxury passenger cars, which included the Duesenberg models X, S, and J, while serving as vice president of engineering and later in the 1920s as president of the company. Duesenberg died from complications following a car accident in 1932; Duesenberg passenger-car production ended five years later. In addition to designing passenger cars, Fred and Augie Duesenberg were involved in auto racing for more than a decade. Although Fred was no longer driving racecars by 1912, he remained active for another twelve years as a racecar designer and team owner. In April 1920 a Duesenberg racecar driven by Tommy Milton set a land-speed record of for a measured mile on the sands at Daytona Beach, Florida. In 1921 Jimmy Murphy drove a Duesenberg racer to become the first American car to win the prestigious Grand Prix at Le Mans, France. Duesenberg-made entries also participated in Indianapolis 500-mile auto races between 1912 and 1932, including winning the annual event at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in 1924, 1925, and 1927 before Fred Duesenberg retired from racing in 1931. Early life and education Friedrich "Fred" S. Düsenberg (or Frederick "Fred" Duesenberg as his name was spelled after his arrival in the United States) was born on December 6, 1876, in Lippe, Lippe-Detmold, Germany, to Konrad (Conrad) and Luise Düsenberg. Fred and his younger brother, August "Augie" Samuel Düsenberg, were the youngest of the family's seven children (four boys and three girls). Fred's father died in 1881, and his older brother, Henry, immigrated to America in 1884. Fred's mother sold the family farm in Germany and immigrated to the United States in 1885 and joined Henry in Iowa with her other children, including Fred, who was nearly nine years old. The eldest son, Conrad, purchased a farm in Floyd County, Iowa, near Rockford, where the family finally settled. Duesenberg developed mechanical abilities from an early age. He attended public schools through the eighth grade and completed at least one correspondence course in mechanical drafting. He received no additional classroom training. Most of his engineering and automotive skills were acquired though apprenticeships and other hands-on work experience, including early work repairing farm machinery and windmills near the family home in Rockford, Iowa. During his early years, Duesenberg also took up bicycle racing. Sources disagree on whether Fred Duesenberg's middle name was Simon or Samuel; however, Samuel is consistently given as the middle name of his younger brother, Augie. Marriage and family Fred married Isle "Mickey" Denney of Runnells, Iowa, on April 27, 1913. Their son, Denny, became involved in auto racing after Fred retired from the sport in 1931. Career Entrance into engineering industry Fred and his brother, August "Augie" Duesenberg, began building and racing bicycles in Iowa in the 1890s. They also began experimenting with gasoline-powered, internal combustion engines. The brothers designed one of their own engines around 1900, as well as building motorcycles. After working at a garage in Des Moines, Iowa, Fred and Augie had a bicycle repair shop in Rockford, but the business went bankrupt in 1903. A short time later the brothers established another shop in Garner, Iowa, but Fred left the business in 1903 to work for the Thomas B. Jeffery Company, a manufacturer of the Rambler bicycles and early automobiles in Kenosha, Wisconsin. Fred returned to Iowa a year later to work as a machinist in a Des Moines auto supply company before opening a garage with Cheney Prouty and working as a sales agent for Rambler. Through his repair business in Des Moines, Fred met Edward Mason, a local lawyer who became a financial backer of Fred's design for a two-cylinder car. The Mason Motor Car Company, incorporated in April 1906, began manufacturing cars four months later. Fred worked as a superintendent and designer at the company; Augie was a patternmaker. After U.S. Senator Fred Maytag, the future Maytag washing machine and appliance magnate, acquired a majority interest in the company, it reorganized in 1909 as the Maytag-Mason Motor Company and manufactured cars in Waterloo, Iowa. In addition to producing a two-cylinder model, the company introduced Fred's patented four-cylinder engine design. The simple, high-performance engine was also reliable. Duesenberg often demonstrated the power of his cars in public settings. For example, he drove a car up the steps of the Iowa State Capitol. He also learned from his early days as a bicycle racer that racing also helped increase product sales, so the Duesenberg brothers began entering their cars in races. Maytag and Mason proved to be inexperienced in the car-making business and the company gradually folded. Fred left the company in 1910 to focus on racing and engine designs in his shop in Des Moines. The Maytag-Mason partnership was dissolved in 1912 and its auto production ended the following year. Around 1910 Fred and Augie Duesenberg began work on their "walking beam" four-cylinder automobile and racing engine, which was later replaced by the Duesenberg straight-eight engine. The brothers shared the patents for both engines, which were filed in 1913 and renewed in 1918. In 1913, the Duesenbergs relocated to Saint Paul, Minnesota, where they continued to develop racing cars and automobile and marine engines. The two brothers contracted with Commodore James A. Pugh of Chicago, Illinois, to build a racing-boat engine and used the proceeds from the contract to further develop their racing business. In June 1913 the brothers also founded the Duesenberg Motor Company, Incorporated. Early auto races The Duesenberg brothers' prior experience in racing bicycles and motorcycles, led to their participation in auto races. Fred won his first car race at the Iowa State Fair in Mason City. In 1907 he drove his test car through a fence, suffering a broken shoulder, and by 1912 he was no longer driving race cars, although he remained active for another twelve years a racecar designer and team owner. As other automobile builders in the early twentieth century did, the Duesenbergs used the Indianapolis Motor Speedway to test and race their cars. Fred Duesenberg's entries participated in Indianapolis 500-mile auto races between 1912 and his death in 1932. The first Duesenberg appearance at the Indianapolis 500 occurred in 1912, when their Mason Motor Company-owned racecar practiced for the race, but it had a mechanical failure and did not compete. Between 1913 and 1916 the Duesenberg racing team improved its standings in the annual Indianapolis 500. The team took ninth place in the race in 1913. In 1914, Eddie Rickenbacker, a future World War I aviation ace, drove a Duesenberg-powered racecar to a tenth-place finish and US$1,400 in prize money. The team also had a twelfth-place finisher that year. In 1915 the team had another good showing, taking fifth and seventh places. In 1916 it had its best finish to date when rookie driver Wilbur D'Alene finished in second place. With the outbreak of World War I, efforts focused on wartime production and racing at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway went on a two-year hiatus. World War I-era engine designer In 1917, the Duesenberg Motor Company of Saint Paul, Minnesota, and the Loew-Victor Manufacturing Company of Chicago, Illinois, merged into the Duesenberg Motor Corporation. Fred Duesenberg served as the company's chief engineer, with his brother, Augie, as assistant engineer. The Loew-Victor Company also made an agreement to have the Duesenbergs produce automobile and airplane engines for military use for the American, British, Italian, and Russian governments during World War I. The Duesenberg brothers moved to New York City in 1917 to supervise operations at a new manufacturing site in Elizabeth, New Jersey, that was constructed especially for building aviation and marine engines. The Duesenberg brothers' experience working with Ettore Bugatti's airplane engines led to changes in their own engineering ideas. The Bugatti engine served as a catalyst for refinements to the design of the Duesenberg Straight-8 engine, an eight-cylinder engine with a single, overhead camshaft. The Duesenberg brothers left Elizabeth, New Jersey, at the end of the war to concentrate on the development of racecars from a rented space in Newark, New Jersey. In 1919, after the Duesenberg Motor Corporation was sold to John Willys, the Duesenberg brothers finished their work at the company's Minnesota and New Jersey factories and then concentrated on their racing business. In 1920 the Duesenberg brothers moved to Indianapolis, Indiana, where the newly formed Duesenberg Automobile and Motors Company planned to manufacture passenger cars. 1920s luxury-car designer While continuing to develop racing engines, the Duesenberg brothers and their financial backers, Newton E. Van Zandt and Luther M. Rankin, established the Duesenberg Automobile & Motors Company in March 1920 with its headquarters in Indianapolis. Fred was the chief engineer and later in the 1920s served as president of the company; his brother, Augie, was an assistant engineer. Beginning in May 1921 the Duesenberg company manufactured passenger cars with advanced racing-car features at its new factory in Indianapolis at the corner of Washington and Harding Streets. The facility was also close to the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, which was used as a test track. The first passenger car to bear the Duesenberg family surname was introduced in New York in late 1920. The new car featured an "inline eight-cylinder overhead cam engine and four-wheel hydraulic brakes," a first for American cars. The Duesenberg Model A, their company's first mass-produced vehicle, was manufactured between 1921 and 1927. The Model A proved to be unpopular with car buyers because of its high cost (US$8,500 for the chassis alone) and unstylish exterior. As a result, the company struggled financially. A minor shareholder unsuccessfully attempted to put the company into receivership in 1923 and slow sales led the company into receivership in 1924, but it emerged in 1925. A year later the company's leadership was discussing a merger with Du Pont Motors, once again indicating possible financial concerns. E. L. Cord, president of the Auburn Automobile Company, admired the Duesenberg Model A and proposed a financial rescue to acquire the Duesenberg company. Cord wanted to manufacture a faster and more prestigious "supercar" to round out the offerings of his other automotive brands, the Auburn and Cord. E. L. Cord's acquisition of the Duesenberg company in 1926 also included Fred, who was tasked with designing faster and more powerful luxury cars than the Duesenberg competitors. From 1926 until his death in 1932, Fred focused on designs for passenger cars, which included the X, S, and J models, and served as vice president of engineering at Duesenberg, a subsidiary of the Cord Corporation. While Fred concentrated on passenger-car designs for E. L. Cord, his brother, Augie, ran the Duesenberg Brothers racing business. In October 1926, E. L. Cord told the Indianapolis Star, "The purchase of the Duesenberg factory is the culmination of my plans to be able to offer the world an automobile of undisputed rank. In fact, the finest thing on four wheels. Duesenberg cars will be strictly custom-built, the owners selecting their own body styles, their own body makers and selecting their own colors. The price probably will be $18,000, no matter what model, from racer to limousine. We will give the buyer 120 mile-an-hour [190 km/h] speed if desired. Naturally, the production of this type of automobile, which carries a warranty of fifteen years, will be limited and we are now taking orders...." Early in 1927 the test board of the American Automobile Association presented to Fred Duesenberg with a bronze tablet in recognition of the leading part he had played in the development of several fundamental improvements in automotive engineering. The Duesenberg Model J, announced in late 1928, was the new luxury car that E. L. Cord wanted. Production began in the spring of 1929. Cord insisted that the Model J be bigger (and heavier) than Fred would have liked, but Duesenberg engineered the car's design. With prices for a completed car beginning at US$13,500, and later increased to US$18,000 or more, buyers received a luxury car with a 32-valve, dual overhead camshaft engine that was capable of generating 265 horsepower and could reach a maximum speed of . In June 1931, during a Society of Automotive Engineers meeting in West Virginia, Duesenberg "predicted that speeds of on the highways would soon be common." As of May 2019, speed limits for passenger cars on U.S. interstate highways remain under , ranging from to , depending on the individual state and road segment. Later auto racing Although the Duesenberg team had mechanical and fuel issues in the Indianapolis 500-mile race in 1919 and its entries did not finish that year, the team continued to race with better success in the 1920s. Several Duesenberg-designed racers also set speed records before Fred officially retired from auto racing after the Indianapolis 500-mile race in 1931. In April 1920 a Duesenberg racecar driven by Tommy Milton set a land-speed record of for a measured mile on the sands at Daytona Beach, Florida. In August 1920 Fred and Augie Duesenberg formed Duesenberg Brothers, a separate company for their auto-racing business. In 1921, Jimmy Murphy drove a Duesenberg racecar to become the first American car to win the prestigious Grand Prix at Le Mans, France. Fred Duesenberg also designed the Duesenberg engines for race cars that won the three Indianapolis 500-mile races: the 1924 race with driver Lora L. Corum and relief driver Joe Boyer; the 1925 race with driver Pete DePaolo and relief driver Norman Batten; and the 1927 race with George Sanders in a Duesenberg-built car owned by Bill White. In 1925 a Duesenberg racecar with Pete DePaolo as driver became the first Indianapolis 500-mile winner to average more than . In 1926 the DePaulo finished in fifth place in the rain-shortened race, while the other Duesenberg team car driven by rookie driver Ben Jones experienced mechanical problems and crashed before the end of the race. The Duesenberg team continued to place in the top ten in the 1928 and 1929 Indianapolis 500-mile races. In the 1928 race Fred Frame drove a Duesenberg racer to an eighth-place finish, while Jimmy Gleason drove a Duesenberg team car to a fifteenth-place finish. In the 1929 race the team's results improved with Gleason taking third and Freddy Winnai finishing fifth. In 1930 Fred Duesenberg cosponsored a racecar with DePaolo, one of two DePaolo-owned cars in the race. The Duesenberg racecar driven by DePaolo was involved in an accident and completed only twenty laps, finishing thirty-third in a field of thirty-eight drivers. The other racecar, driven by Bill Cummings, finished fifth. In 1931, the year that Fred Duesenberg retired from auto racing, thirteen cars in the Indianapolis 500-mile race were based on the Duesenberg Model A. Death and legacy On July 2, 1932, while returning to Indianapolis from New York, Fred was driving a Duesenberg passenger car with a prototype, high-powered engine and lost control of it on a wet Lincoln Highway on Ligonier Mountain, about two miles west of Jennerstown, Pennsylvania. Duesenberg's automobile overturned, throwing him from the car. He was expected to fully recover from his injuries (a spinal injury and dislocation of the shoulder). While his wife and son traveled to Pennsylvania to be with him, Duesenberg developed pleural pneumonia. Duesenberg improved after oxygen was administered; however, he suffered a relapse and died on July 26, 1932, at the age of fifty-five. Duesenberg is buried at Crown Hill Cemetery in Indianapolis, Indiana. Sales of Duesenberg automobiles declined during the Great Depression due to dwindling numbers of buyers for luxury cars. The last Model J car was produced in 1937, five years after Fred Duesenberg's death. Only 481 of the cars had been built by the time the Duesenberg company ceased production. Fred's brother and business partner, August Duesenberg, continued in the automobile business as a consultant to the Auburn Automobile Company and developing racecars with Ab Jenkins. Augie Duesenberg died on January 18, 1955, at the age of seventy-six. Although Fred Duesenberg was a self-made man who lacked formal technical training, his engineering expertise influenced the development of the automobile. He is credited with introducing the eight-cylinder car in the United States and four-wheel brakes, in addition to other mechanical innovations that included overhead camshafts and four valves per cylinder. He was also patentholder of his designs for a four-wheel hydraulic brake, an early automatic transmission, and a cooling system, among others. The Auburn Cord Duesenberg Automobile Museum, which opened in 1974 in the former headquarters building of the Auburn Automobile Company in Auburn, Indiana, includes examples of Duesenberg-designed cars. In addition designing passenger cars, Duesenberg was internationally known as a designer of racecars and racing engines. Many of his mechanical advancements in racing were later incorporated in mass-produced passenger cars. Although his innovations were found in Indianapolis-manufactured cars, including Stutz and Duesenberg models, they did not appear on autos made in Detroit until nearly seventy years later. Memberships Member, National Automobile Chamber of Commerce Member, Society of Automotive Engineers, and served on several of its committees. Indianapolis Athletic Club Indianapolis Optimist Club Awards Recipient of a bronze plaque from American Automobile Association's test board in 1927 for his contributions to automotive engineering. Inducted into the Auto Racing Hall of Fame (later renamed Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame Museum) in 1962. Inducted into the National Sprint Car Hall of Fame in its inaugural class in 1990. Inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 1997. See also Auburn Automobile Auburn Cord Duesenberg Automobile Museum Cord Automobile Duesenberg Duesenberg Model A Duesenberg Model J Duesenberg Straight-8 engine Notes References Marsh, Elisabeth, "Frederick S. Duesenberg" in External links Duesenberg History and Photos Frederick S. Duesenberg at Find A Grave 1876 births 1932 deaths American founders of automobile manufacturers American automotive pioneers Burials at Crown Hill Cemetery Deaths from pneumonia in Pennsylvania Duesenberg Emigrants from the German Empire to the United States National Sprint Car Hall of Fame inductees People from Floyd County, Iowa People from Lippe People from Indianapolis People from Saint Paul, Minnesota Road incident deaths in Pennsylvania Inventors killed by their own invention Automotive businesspeople American automotive engineers American automobile designers
4808526	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwood%20F.C.	Northwood F.C.	Northwood Football Club is an English football club based in Northwood in the London Borough of Hillingdon. The club is affiliated to the Middlesex County Football Association. They play their home games at The Skyline Stadium in Northwood Recreation Ground, Chestnut Avenue. The club are currently members of the . History Formation in 1926 and move into senior football A club in the Northwood area was established in 1899, however Northwood as they are today were not believed to have been formed until 1926. Their early history is largely unknown and it is unclear what leagues they played in until 1931, when they joined the Harrow & Wembley League. They were champions of this league for six years in a row just prior to World War II and three more times after the war. This success did not last, however, and the 1950s and 1960s were mainly spent playing local junior-level football. In 1969 the Woods joined the Middlesex County Senior League. Northwood began life as Northwood Rovers and later United, but after The Second World War they dropped the suffix, to become what they are today – simply Northwood FC. In 1978, Northwood won the Middlesex League Championship and were able to step up to the Hellenic League Division One, which they won in their debut season. This led to promotion to the Premier Division, where they spent five, mostly mid-table, seasons. Isthmian League status and further success, 1990s–2000s The club moved across the pyramid in 1984 to the London Spartan League, which was renamed back to the Spartan League in 1992. In an eight-season spell, Northwood finished in the top three on four occasions, culminating with the Premier Division title in the 1991–92 season, leading to admission to the Isthmian League in 1992. In 1994, the club progressed to the final of the Middlesex Senior Charity Cup but were beaten by Staines Town. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, the club enjoyed their best spell in their history with strikers Lawrence Yaku, Steve Hale and Scott Fitzgerald – who joined Watford in 2003 – forming a potent strike force. In fact, Yaku's tally of 54 goals in his first season (1999/2000) remains the most by any Woods player in a single season, and he sits second on the list of Northwood's all-time top goalscorers with 137 goals. Club legends Chris Gell – who made a club record 489 appearances for the club, and Dave Nolan and Dave Sargent who both also played more than 400 games for the club, were also mainstays throughout the period and played a key part in the success. Reaching Step 3 for the first time, 2003–2007 Northwood gradually climbed through the divisions of the Isthmian League under Tony Choules winning the Isthmian Charity Shield in 2002, and then reaching the Premier Division in 2003 after winning the 2002/03 Isthmian Division One North. The side was then switched to the Southern League in 2005, where they remained until 2007. However, after relegation from the Southern League Premier Division they were moved "sideways" to the Isthmian League Division One North. Despite relegation, Northwood did lift the 2006/07 Middlesex Senior Cup as they beat Conference South outfit Hayes 4–2 on penalties, although it was the only real bright point in a disappointing season. Since then Northwood have seen several managers come and go. Dave Anderson was the most successful in that period as he helped the club finish 6th and 10th, in 2008–09 and 2009–10 respectively, before departing in March 2010. Return to the Southern Football League in 2010; Meakin and Burgess eras Northwood were then shuffled across from the Isthmian League Division One North in 2010 to the Southern League Division One Central where they remained until 2018. When Anderson departed in March 2010, his assistant Mark Barnham took the reins at the club, but he resigned in November of the same year due to the poor league position and after a run of eleven games without a win stretching back to September. Then (in November 2010) it was the turn of former Woods favourite Steve Hale to have his crack as manager at Chestnut Avenue, and despite instigating a brief turnaround in fortunes in late 2010 and early 2011, the form faded quickly and after a series of heavy defeats, and a run of just one win in twelve matches, he was dismissed in March 2011 following a 6–2 mauling at the hands of Biggleswade Town. Northwood chairman Ian Barry acted quickly replacing Hale with 27-year-old Gary Meakin who arrived from Hillingdon Borough. Meakin enjoyed three spells as a Northwood player, making 47 appearances, and helped guide the team to safety with three games remaining. His first Northwood win came on 2 April 2011 – in what was his first home game in charge – as Northwood came from behind to beat Soham Town Rangers 2–1. Following their 1–1 draw with Aylesbury at Chestnut Avenue a fortnight later, the club's safety was confirmed, as results elsewhere went their way. Northwood competed in the same division in the 2011–12 campaign having just avoided relegation in 2010–11, finishing 20th – just one spot above the drop zone with 39 points from 42 games. After Northwood managed to survive the drop the previous season, Meakin assembled a strong squad as he set about trying to improve the side's fortunes in the 2011–12 season. In the early part of the campaign, consistency was a problem as they slipped into mid-table in the league and crashed out of the FA Cup, FA Trophy and Middlesex Senior Cup at the first hurdle. However success was to follow in both the Southern League Cup and Middlesex Charity Cup as the Woods made decent progress. The arrivals of Cockfosters duo Mitch Swain and John Christian – who both made over 100 appearances in previous spells with the side – and St Albans City defender Reece Yorke added much needed depth to the squad and all three would play crucial roles later on in the season. Top scorer and eventual Supporters Player of the Year Oliver Hawkins would prove the major catalyst in their assault up the table scoring several goals in a ten-game period. Victory over Bedworth United on New Year's Eve saw Northwood move into the play-off places for the first and only time in the season. The club were then knocked out of the League Cup by Chesham United but did progress to the semi-finals of the Middlesex Charity Cup setting up a meeting with near neighbours Uxbridge. A dip in form around the February/March time saw Northwood seemingly slip out of play-off contention, yet hard fought wins over several top half teams saw the side close the gap. Spencer Bellotti who had joined the Woods in February from Oxhey Jets scored a brace to send Gary Meakin's side into their fourth Middlesex Charity Cup final appearance, this time against Ashford Town (Middlesex), aiming to lift the trophy for the first time following defeats in the 1994, 2003 and 2005 finals. Bellotti followed up that superb showing to net a last gasp winner at home to Burnham in the penultimate game of the league season to take the race for the last play-off position down to the final game, although the Woods would let that slip away against Leighton Town as they conceded four times in the opening half-hour to narrowly fall short of a top five finish, ending up in a respectable 7th position. Undeterred by their heavy final day defeat, Northwood raced into a 2–0 half time lead in the Middlesex Charity Cup final thanks to goals from Lee Grant and Oliver Hawkins. And when – two minutes after the interval – Hawkins scored his second it appeared the trophy was heading to Chestnut Avenue for the very first time. Yet, young Ashford striker Kofi Lockhart-Adams scored four times in twenty minutes to give his side an unlikely 4–3 lead with minutes to go. Romaine Walker scored a late leveller to take the game to penalties, but Jack Hutchinson and Walker saw their spot kicks saved, and Ashford subsequently claimed the trophy. Meakin kept much of his squad intact from the previous season which saw a dramatic turnaround in fortunes for the club, and even signed two players to contracts. Northwood also faced Chelsea's Under 21s in a bumper pre-season friendly that ended in a creditable 0–0 draw. But in November 2012, after a solid start to the season, Meakin left to step up and take the reins at Isthmian League Premier Division side Wingate & Finchley. Former Northwood player Mark Burgess, who had a spell as player-caretaker manager after Mark Barnham's departure in 2010, was appointed as Meakin's successor on 14 November 2012. After several players joined Meakin at Wingate, Burgess strengthened his own squad with the short-term loan signings of Brentford duo Terrell Miller and Sam Beale. Burgess then signed both Jerome Federico and George Nicholas on dual registration in early 2013, but was dealt a sizable blow as Northwood lost top scorer Spencer Bellotti to Wingate & Finchley in February 2013, teaming up with former manager Meakin in the process. Northwood finished the 2012–13 campaign in a solid position of 13th, six places and nine points worse than their finish in 2012. Prior to the 2013–14 season, player-manager Mark Burgess brought in a host of new faces including former Norwich City youngster Ramil Sheriff. In his first full season in charge, Northwood were looking to build on last season's 13th-placed finish and found themselves in 7th place around the Christmas period. Having been in contention for the play-offs for most of 2014, Northwood's form took a turn for the worse, ending their hopes of finishing in the top five as they finished the 2013–14 season in 9th. In the 2014–15 season, Northwood recovered from an inconsistent first half of the season, to once again finish in the top half of the table, finishing in 10th place. At the beginning of the 2015–16 season, Northwood made their best start to a league season since 1991–92 after winning their opening four league matches before that run was ended by Aylesbury United. They responded, however, by beating the same opponents 2–1 in the FA Cup preliminary round in August 2015, overseen by former Watford midfielder Jamie Hand due to the absence of manager Mark Burgess and assistant Simon Huggett. Northwood would later progress to the final of the Middlesex Senior Cup in 2016 for the first time since 2007, when the club won the competition, knocking out Hendon, Spelthorne Sports and Staines Town en route to the final where they faced Enfield Town. Northwood then secured their second ever Middlesex Senior Cup title with a 2–0 win in the final against Enfield Town on 7 May 2016, handing them their first silverware since they last lifted the competition in 2007. The cup success was therefore both player/manager Mark Burgess's first as a manager and first in charge of Northwood. Having flirted with the play-off positions, Northwood finished eight points adrift in 7th place in the league, during a successful 2015–16 season. In June 2016, the club appointed former Watford and Stoke City striker Gifton Noel-Williams to be their Reserves and Under-18's manager. It was expected that there would be closer ties between the first team and the other age groups at the club, a vision spearheaded by chairman Ian Barry. However, in early October, Noel-Williams left his role and Dave Fox was re-appointed shortly after. Manager Mark Burgess suffered the blow of losing eight of the 2015–16 squad, including George Nicholas, Max Holland, player of the year Andy Lomas and captain Steve Brown to Harrow Borough in the summer of 2016. The 2016–17 season would prove to be a difficult one on the pitch as Northwood struggled to build on their excellent 2015–16 campaign. The team were in mid table around the Christmas period, but a dreadful run of just one win in 2017 (against bottom club Petersfield Town) and seven points from their final 21 league fixtures saw the club sucked into a relegation battle. A late rally by Histon left Northwood just four points above relegation heading into the final weeks with survival only secured on the penultimate weekend of the season. The club finished in 20th with 39 points – their lowest finish and points tally since the 2010–11 season when the club finished with the same number of points and in the same position. The poor end to the season resulted in the club parting company with Burgess after four-and-a-half years in the role. In total, Burgess played well over 200 games over two spells with the club, also helping Northwood to the Middlesex Senior Cup in 2016. Departure of Burgess and arrival of Simon Lane: 2017 – January 2018 The departure of Burgess after four and a half years following a disappointing season led to an extensive search for his replacement, undertaken by chairman Ian Barry. His replacement was confirmed on 17 May 2017, with Simon Lane taking the hot-seat. Lane's career in non-league football was curtailed by injury, but he arrived with a wealth of experience at a higher level. Lane had previously served as manager at Berkhamsted Town and Windsor & Eton, coached at Maidenhead United, while most recently serving as Director of Football and manager with Wingate & Finchley. Lane surprisingly left his post in January 2018 to move to league counterparts Egham Town. Assistant Jake Heracleous took temporary charge before also departing due to being offered a role with Manchester United. Heracleous brought in ex-Bishop Stortford manager Gordon Boateng, and when Heracleous took the job opportunity he was offered with Manchester United, Boateng was then appointed manager until the end of the season. Back to the Isthmian League and more managerial changes, 2018–2021 After finishing 17th in the 2017–18 season, Northwood returned to the Isthmian League after an eight-year absence – being placed in the newly created South Central division following the biggest shake-up of the Non-League pyramid since 2004. With the club still searching for a permanent replacement for Simon Lane, chairman Ian Barry confirmed the arrival of Dean Barker as first team manager on 16 May 2018. Barker arrived from Wingate & Finchley where he had presided over their hugely successful Under 23s side. Northwood again faced a Chelsea youth age group side (Under 23s) in pre-season – their first meeting since 2012 – and won 1-0 thanks to a goal from James Ewington, clinching the Pete Barry Memorial Trophy. However, Barker's short stint in charge was over at the end of October 2018. Barker's assistant Scott Dash then took charge between 2018 and 2019, before being replaced by Jamie Leacock. Former Northwood midfielder Rob Ursell then had a spell in charge between 2020 and 2021, a stint largely interrupted by Coronavirus pandemic related disruptions. Ursell left his post in April 2021. In May 2021, former Ashford Town (Middlesex) manager Ben Murray was appointed as Northwood boss replacing Ursell. However, Murray would depart in November after a run of seven straight league defeats that left the side bottom of the league. Bukowski and Ringrose take charge In the same month, November 2021, Northwood announced the appointment of former Hendon and Hampton & Richmond coach Ben Bukowski as their new head coach. Also arriving as director of football was the vastly experienced Steve Ringrose, a former boss of local clubs Hillingdon Borough and North Greenford United. Also joining were ex-Woods player of the year Andy Lomas, and ex-Hendon and Potters Bar Town player Keagan Cole as player/coaches. The new management team successfully led Northwood away from relegation danger in the 2021–22 season and into an 11th-placed finish. The team also reached the semi-finals of both the Middlesex Senior Cup (losing to National League side Barnet) and the Middlesex Charity Cup. In the 2022–23 season, Northwood won their opening six league games and were top of the South Central division table heading into Christmas. The form dipped in the second half of the season, following the departure of forward and top scorer Sydney Ibie to Dagenham & Redbridge. However, Northwood rallied to finish inside of the play-off positions for the very first time, finishing 5th with 20 wins from 38 games and a tally of 63 points. The Woods were narrowly beaten 2–1 in the play-off semi-final at Walton & Hersham, who went on to win promotion alongside league champions Basingstoke Town. In 2023, Northwood also reached the final of the Middlesex Charity Cup for the first time since 2012, a competition the Woods have never previously won. Unfortunately, the team slipped to a 1–0 defeat to Broadfields United in the final played at Uxbridge's Honeycroft, meaning the wait to lift the trophy for the first time goes on. Stadium The club plays their home games at The Skyline Stadium, Northwood Park, Northwood Recreation Ground, off Chestnut Avenue, Northwood, Middlesex, HA6 1HR. The current stadium sponsors, as of 2022, are Skyline Roofing. The stadium (also known as Northwood Park or Chestnut Avenue) is also home to the Northwood Under-18 midweek side and is ground-shared (as of 2022) by Step 6 side Spartans Youth. It has a capacity of 3,075, of which there are around 900 terraced places and approximately 250 seats. The stadium was officially opened in 1978, as prior to this Northwood had played on local playing fields in the surrounding park area. Significant work and investment has been made at the stadium in recent years, with the refurbishment of the clubhouse facilities, the refurbishment and renaming of the main stand as the 'Byrne Stand' and, in 2022, the official opening of a new stand (the Pat Byrne Memorial Stand, named in memory of the late club life president of Northwood FC, Pat Byrne) to the side of the dugouts. The highest attendance at the ground is recorded as 1,642 for a friendly match versus a Chelsea XI in 1997. Club records Best league performance: 17th in Isthmian League Premier Division, 2004–05 Best FA Cup performance: 4th qualifying round, 2000–01 Best FA Trophy performance: 1st round, 2009–10 Best FA Vase performance: Quarter-finals, 1996–97 Biggest attendance: 1,642 versus a Chelsea XI in 1997 All-time top goalscorer: Martin Ellis – 156 goals, 1976–85 Club record appearance holder: Chris Gell – 489 appearances, 1994–04, 2005–06 Most goals in a single season: Lawrence Yaku – 54, 1999–00 (including cup games) Honours Harrow, Wembley & District League Premier Division Champions (7): 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1935–36, 1936–37, 1947–48, 1948–49 Senior Challenge Cup winners (6): 1932–33, 1935–36, 1936–37, 1947–48, 1948–49, 1969–70 Senior Charity Cup winners (3): 1947–48, 1953–54, 1988–89 Memorial Shield winners (1): 1969–70 Northwood Hospital Charity Cup Winners (4): 1932–33, 1937–38, 1939–40, 1954–55 Hellenic League Division One Champions (1): 1978–79 Hellenic League Division One Cup winners (1): 1978–79 Spartan League Premier Division Champions (1): 1991–92 London Spartan League Cup winners (2): 1989–90, 1991–92 Vandanel Associate Members Trophy Winners (2): 1992–93, 1999–00 Isthmian League League Cup winners (1): 2001–02 Charity Shield winners (1): 2001–02 Division One North Champions (1): 2002–03 Middlesex League Premier Division Champions (1): 1977–78 League Cup Winners (3): 1974–75, 1976–77, 1977–78 Middlesex Junior Cup Winners (1): 1937–38 Runners Up (2): 1934–35, 1935–36 Middlesex Intermediate Cup Winners (1): 1978–79 Middlesex Senior Cup Winners (2): 2006–07, 2015–16 Runners Up (2): 1999–00, 2001–02 Middlesex Charity Cup Runners Up (5): 1993–94, 2002–03, 2004–05, 2011–12, 2022–23 Selected managers Pat Coburn 1976–86 (Northwood's longest serving manager) Alan Merison 1988–94, 1995–1996 and 1997 (Caretaker) Tony Choules 1997–04 (Arguably Northwood's most successful manager, most recently at Egham Town) Colin Payne 2005–08 (Won Middlesex Senior Cup in 2007) Dave Anderson 2008–10 Gary Meakin 2011–12 (Runners-up in the Middlesex Charity Cup in 2012) Mark Burgess 2012–17 (Three top ten finishes; also won the Middlesex Senior Cup in 2016) Management team First-team squad Sources http://www.northwoodfc.com/woods-100club.html http://www.northwoodfc.com/club-honours.html http://www.northwoodfc.com/woods-50club.html http://www.northwoodfc.com/squad.html http://www.northwoodfc.com/clubinfo.html http://www.northwoodfc.com/whos-who.html References External links Official website Football clubs in England Isthmian League clubs Association football clubs established in 1926 Football clubs in London Southern Football League clubs Sport in the London Borough of Hillingdon 1926 establishments in England
4808844	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Audi	Robert Audi	Robert N. Audi (born November 1941) is an American philosopher whose major work has focused on epistemology, ethics (especially on ethical intuitionism), rationality and the theory of action. He is O'Brien Professor of Philosophy at the University of Notre Dame, and previously held a chair in the business school there. His 2005 book, The Good in the Right, updates and strengthens Rossian intuitionism and develops the epistemology of ethics. He has also written important works of political philosophy, particularly on the relationship between church and state. He is a past president of the American Philosophical Association and the Society of Christian Philosophers. Audi's contributions to epistemology include his defense of fallibilistic foundationalism. Audi has expanded his theory of justification to non-doxastic states, e.g. desires and intentions, by developing a comprehensive account of rationality. A mental state is rational if it is "well-grounded" in a source of justification. Justification can come directly from experience (e.g. perception) or indirectly from other mental states that are themselves justified. Rationality is relative to a person's experiences, so what is rational to believe for one person may be irrational to believe for another. Audi has also developed an account of autonomy, which he characterizes as the self-governing power to bring reasons to bear in directing one's conduct and influencing one's propositional attitudes. Self-legislation is necessary but not sufficient for autonomy since it lacks the power to govern by itself. Autonomy involves responding to reasons in a principled way by endorsing commitments to projects and practical principles. Life Audi earned his BA from Colgate University and his MA and PhD from the University of Michigan. He taught initially at the University of Texas at Austin, and then for many years as the Charles J. Mach University Professor of Philosophy at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln before moving to University of Notre Dame as Professor of Philosophy, Professor of Management, and the David E. Gallo Chair in Ethics. In 2009 he vacated the Gallo Chair and took a chair as John A. O'Brien Professor of Philosophy. He has served as General Editor of the First Edition (1995) and Second Edition (1999) of The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. He has also served as the general editor for "Modern Readings in Epistemology", as well as for "Modern readings in Metaphysics". In an interview for the Brooklyn Friends School of which he's an alumnus (year 1959), he revealed that his interest in philosophy came from his father, a businessman and Lebanese immigrant with an interest in philosophy and history. His mother, a medical doctor and faculty at NYU Medical School, was also an influence. "'Both liked to explain and comment on things,' Robert mused, 'and they often entertained people from the diplomatic world and medicine who argued about politics, religion and ideas in general.'" Audi was named a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2018. Philosophical work Epistemology Audi has defended a position he calls "fallibilistic foundationalism." He thinks that the foundationalist response is the only tenable option of the epistemic regress argument. This states that if every belief has to be justified by some other, then the only options are four: infinite regress, circularity, stopping at a belief that is not knowledge, and stopping at a basic belief that is itself justified. If the only alternative is the fourth, then if one has knowledge, one has foundational knowledge. Audi considers that foundationalism is usually taken to be infallible. That is, it is normally associated with the view that knowledge is founded on basic beliefs that are axiomatic and necessarily true, and that the rest of knowledge is deduced from this set of beliefs. Audi thinks that foundationalism may be fallible, in the sense that the suprastructure of beliefs may be derived inductively from the basic beliefs, and hence may be fallible. He also thinks that basic beliefs need not be necessary truths, but merely have some structure which makes epistemic transition possible. For example, the belief that one is in the presence of an object arises causally from visual perception. Rationality The main account of Audi's theory of rationality is laid out in his book "The Architecture of Reason: The Structure and Substance of Rationality". He develops a comprehensive account of rationality that covers both the theoretical and the practical side of rationality. Theoretical rationality concerns beliefs and counts towards truth while practical rationality covers desires, intentions, and actions and counts towards goodness. Ground The notion of a ground plays a central role for rationality: a mental state is rational if it is "well-grounded" in a source of justification. For example, the perceptual experience of a tree when looking outside the window can ground the belief that there is a tree outside. A ground can psychologically support a mental state. Mental states may be supported by several grounds at the same time. Audi compares such a mental state to a porch that is supported by various pillars. For a mental state to be rational, it has to be well-grounded, i.e. be supported by an adequate ground. Irrational mental states, on the other hand, lack a sufficient ground. Foundation and superstructure Audi is committed to a form of foundationalism: the idea that justified beliefs, or in his case, rational states in general, can be divided into two groups: the foundation and the superstructure. The mental states in the superstructure receive their justification from other rational mental states while the foundational mental states receive their justification from a more basic source. These relations result in a hierarchy: justification is conveyed from the basic sources to the foundational mental states and transmitted from the foundational mental states to the mental states in the superstructure. For example, the above-mentioned belief that there is a tree outside is foundational since it is based on a basic source: perception. Knowing that trees grow in soil, we may deduce that there is soil outside. This belief is equally rational, being supported by an adequate ground, but it belongs to the superstructure since its rationality is grounded in the rationality of another belief. Desires, like beliefs, form a hierarchy: intrinsic desires are at the foundation while instrumental desires belong to the superstructure. In order to link the instrumental desire to the intrinsic desire and extra element is needed: a belief that the fulfillment of the instrumental desire is a means to the fulfillment of the intrinsic desire. Audi's foundationalism is different from what he terms "Cartesian foundationalism" in the sense that all justification, including justification from basic sources, is defeasible. The Cartesian view, on the other hand, ascribes certainty and infallibility to the foundational mental states. Beliefs and desires Audi asserts that all the basic sources providing justification for the foundational mental states come from experience. As for beliefs, there are four types of experience that act as sources: perception, memory, introspection, and rational intuition. The main basic source of the rationality of desires, on the other hand, comes in the form of hedonic experience: the experience of pleasure and pain. So, for example, a desire to eat ice-cream is rational if it is based on experiences in which the agent enjoyed the taste of ice-cream, and irrational if it lacks such a support. Because of its dependence on experience, rationality can be defined as a kind of responsiveness to experience. Actions Actions, in contrast to beliefs and desires, don't have a source of justification of their own. Their rationality is grounded in the rationality of other states instead: in the rationality of beliefs and desires. Desires motivate actions. Beliefs are needed here, as in the case of instrumental desires, to bridge a gap and link two elements. The link needed is that the execution of the action will contribute to the fulfillment of the desire. So, for example, the intrinsic desire for ice-cream can motivate a person to perform the action of going to the freezer to get some. But in addition a belief is needed: that the freezer contains ice-cream. The rationality of the action depends on the rationality of both the desire and the belief. If there is no good reason to believe that the freezer contains ice-cream then the belief is irrational. Irrational beliefs can't transmit justification, so the action is also irrational. Persons Audi distinguishes the focal rationality of individual mental states from the global rationality of persons. Global rationality has a derivative status: it depends on the focal rationality. Or more precisely: "Global rationality is reached when a person has a sufficiently integrated system of sufficiently well-grounded propositional attitudes, emotions, and actions". This allows for a certain number of irrational attitudes: global rationality doesn't require perfect rationality. Truth and relativity That a belief is rational doesn't entail that it is true. This is the case, for example, when the experiences that act as the source of a belief are illusory without the subject being aware of this. In such cases, it is rational to have a false belief and it would be irrational to have a true belief. Rationality is relative in the sense that it depends on the experience of the person in question. Since different people undergo different experiences, what is rational to believe for one person may be irrational to believe for another person. Criticism Gilbert Harman has criticized Audi's account of rationality because of its reliance on experience as the ultimate source of justification. As he points out, our experience at any moment is very narrow compared to all the unconscious beliefs we carry with us all the time: beliefs about word meanings, acquaintances, historical dates, etc. So our experience at any time can only justify a very small number of the beliefs we have. This would mean that the great majority of our beliefs are irrational most of the time. This apparent consequence of Audi's account is opposed to the common-sense view that most people are rational at least some if not most of the time. Autonomy Robert Audi characterizes autonomy as the self-governing power to bring reasons to bear in directing one's conduct and influencing one's propositional attitudes. Traditionally, autonomy is only concerned with practical matters. But, as Audi's definition suggests, autonomy may be applied to responding to reasons at large, not just to practical reasons. Autonomy is closely related to freedom but the two can come apart. An example would be a political prisoner who is forced to make a statement in favor of his opponents in order to ensure that his loved ones are not harmed. As Audi points out, the prisoner lacks freedom but still has autonomy since his statement, though not reflecting his political ideals, is still an expression of his commitment to his loved ones. Self-legislation Autonomy is often equated with self-legislation in the Kantian tradition. Self-legislation may be interpreted as laying down laws or principles that are to be followed. Audi agrees with this school in the sense that we should bring reasons to bear in a principled way. Responding to reasons by mere whim may still be considered free but not autonomous. A commitment to principles and projects, on the other hand, provides autonomous agents with an identity over time and gives them a sense of the kind of persons they want to be. But autonomy is neutral as to which principles or projects the agent endorses. So different autonomous agents may follow very different principles. Self-government But, as Audi points out, self-legislation is not sufficient for autonomy since laws that don't have any practical impact don't constitute autonomy. Some form of motivational force or executive power is necessary in order to get from mere self-legislation to self-government. This motivation may be inherent in the corresponding practical judgment itself, a position known as motivational internalism, or may come to the practical judgment externally in the form of some desire independent of the judgment, as motivational externalism holds. Reasons In the Humean tradition, intrinsic desires are the reasons the autonomous agent should respond to. This theory is called instrumentalism. Given this outlook, autonomy would be the "capacity to subordinate one's conduct to one's strongest desire(s)" with the goal of satisfying as many desires as possible. One of the problems of instrumentalism is that it lacks the resources to distinguish between good and bad intrinsic desires. For example, if someone finds himself with an intrinsic desire to hurt others, instrumentalism recommends that he should try to do so as efficiently as possible. Audi suggests that we should adopt a position known as axiological objectivism in order to avoid this counterintuitive conclusion. The central idea of this outlook is that objective values, and not subjective desires, are the sources of normativity and therefore determine what we should do. Reason can, through rational reflection, arrive at ideals of conduct in the light of these objective values, for example, to promote pleasure and to impede pain in oneself and others. The autonomous person would endorse the ideals arrived at and realize them in her behavior. Selected bibliography Monographs Belief, Justification, and Knowledge: An Introduction to Epistemology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1988, . Action, Intention, and Reason. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993, . The Structure of Justification. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993, . Moral Knowledge and Ethical Character. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997, . Epistemology: A Contemporary Introduction to the Theory of Knowledge. London: Routledge, 1998, . Second edition: 2002, . Third edition: 2010, . Religious Commitment and Secular Reason. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000, . The Architecture of Reason: The Structure and Substance of Rationality. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001, . The Good in the Right: A Theory of Intuition and Intrinsic Value. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004, . Practical Reasoning and Ethical Decision. London: Routledge, 2006, . Moral Value and Human Diversity. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2008, . Business Ethics and Ethical Business. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2009, . Reasons, Rights, and Values. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015, . Co-authored books and edited volumes Rationality, religious belief, and moral commitment: new essays in the philosophy of religion (with William J. Wainwright). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986, . Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995, . Second edition: 1999, . Religion in the Public Square: The Place of Religious Convictions in Public Debate (with Nicholas Wolterstorff). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1997, . Rationality, rules, and ideals: critical essays on Bernard Gert's Moral Theory (with Walter Sinnott-Armstrong). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002, . See also American philosophy Christian philosophy List of American philosophers Notes Further reading Timmons, Mark, John Greco, and Alfred R. Mele. Rationality and the Good: Critical Essays on the Ethics and Epistemology of Robert Audi. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2007, . Hernandez, Jill Graper, with an introduction by Robert Audi, The New Intuitionism. London, UK: Continuum, 2011, . 1941 births 20th-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century American philosophers 20th-century American essayists 21st-century American non-fiction writers 21st-century American philosophers 21st-century American essayists Action theorists American ethicists American logicians American male non-fiction writers American people of Lebanese descent American philosophy academics Analytic philosophers Brooklyn Friends School alumni Christian philosophers Colgate University alumni Epistemologists Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Living people Metaphilosophers Metaphysics writers Moral realists Ontologists Philosophers from Indiana Philosophers of culture Philosophers of education Philosophers of logic Philosophers of mind Philosophers of religion Philosophers of social science Political philosophers Presidents of the Society of Christian Philosophers Social philosophers University of Michigan alumni University of Notre Dame faculty 20th-century American male writers 21st-century American male writers
4809003	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrippa%20%28A%20Book%20of%20the%20Dead%29	Agrippa (A Book of the Dead)	Agrippa (A Book of the Dead) is a work of art created by science fiction novelist William Gibson, artist Dennis Ashbaugh and publisher Kevin Begos Jr. in 1992. The work consists of a 300-line semi-autobiographical electronic poem by Gibson, embedded in an artist's book by Ashbaugh. Gibson's text focused on the ethereal, human-owed nature of memories retained over the passage of time (the title referred to a Kodak photo album from which the text's memories are taken). Its principal notoriety arose from the fact that the poem, stored on a 3.5" floppy disk, was programmed to encrypt itself after a single use; similarly, the pages of the artist's book were treated with photosensitive chemicals, effecting the gradual fading of the words and images from the book's first exposure to light. The work is recognised as an early example of electronic literature. Origin and concept The impetus for the initiation of the project was Kevin Begos Jr., a publisher of museum-quality manuscripts motivated by disregard for the commercialism of the art world, who suggested to abstract painter Dennis Ashbaugh that they "put out an art book on computer that vanishes". Ashbaugh—who despite his "heavy art-world resume" was bored with the abstract impressionist paintings he was doing—took the suggestion seriously, and developed it further. A few years beforehand, Ashbaugh had written a fan letter to cyberpunk novelist William Gibson, whose oeuvre he had admired, and the pair had struck up a telephone friendship. Shortly after the project had germinated in the minds of Begos and Ashbaugh, they contacted and recruited Gibson. The project exemplified Gibson's deep ambivalence towards technologically advanced futurity, and as The New York Times expressed it, was "designed to challenge conventional notions about books and art while extracting money from collectors of both". The project manifested as a poem written by Gibson incorporated into an artist's book created by Ashbaugh; as such it was as much a work of collaborative conceptual art as poetry. Gibson stated that Ashbaugh's design "eventually included a supposedly self-devouring floppy-disk intended to display the text only once, then eat itself." Ashbaugh was gleeful at the dilemma this would pose to librarians: in order to register the copyright of the book, he had to send two copies to the United States Library of Congress, who, in order to classify it had to read it, and in the process, necessarily had to destroy it. The creators had initially intended to infect the disks with a computer virus, but declined to after considering the potential damage to the computer systems of innocents. Release and replication The work was premiered on December 9, 1992, at The Kitchen, an art space in Chelsea in New York City. The performance—known as "The Transmission"—consisted of the public reading of the poem by composer and musician Robert Ashley, recorded and simultaneously transmitted to several other cities. The poem was inscribed on a sculptural magnetic disk which had been vacuum-sealed until the event's commencement, and was reportedly (although not actually) programmed to erase itself upon exposure to air. Contrary to numerous colourful reports, neither this disk nor the diskettes embedded in the artist's book were ever actually hacked in any strict sense. Academic researcher Matthew Kirschenbaum has reported that a pirated text of the poem was released the next day on MindVox, "an edgy New York City-based electronic bulletin board". Kirschenbaum considers Mindvox, an interface between the dark web and the global Internet, to have been "an ideal initial host". The text spread rapidly from that point on, first on FTP servers and anonymous mailers and later via USENET and listserv email. Since Gibson did not use email at the time, fans sent copies of the pirated text to his fax machine. The precise manner in which the text was obtained for MindVox is unclear, although the initial custodian of the text, known only as "Templar" attached to it an introductory note in which he claimed credit. Begos claimed that a troupe of New York University students representing themselves as documentarians attended The Transmission and made a videotape recording of the screen as it displayed the text as an accompaniment of Jillette's reading. Kirschenbaum speculates that this group included the offline persona of Templar or one of his associates. According to this account, ostensibly endorsed by Templar in a post to Slashdot in February 2000, the students then transcribed the poem from the tape and within hours had uploaded it to MindVox. However, according to a dissenting account by hacktivist and MindVox co-founder Patrick K. Kroupa, subterfuge prior to The Transmission elicited a betrayal of trust which yielded the uploaders the text. Kirschenbaum declined to elaborate on the specifics of the Kroupa conjecture, which he declared himself "not at liberty to disclose". On December 9, 2008 (the sixteenth anniversary of the original Transmission), "The Agrippa Files", working with a scholarly team at the University of Maryland, released an emulated run of the entire poem (derived from an original diskette loaned by a collector) and an hour's worth of "bootleg" footage shot covertly at the Americas Society (the source of the text that was posted on MindVox). Cryptography Since its debut in 1992, the mystery of Agrippa remained hidden for 20 years. Although many had tried to hack the code and decrypt the program, the uncompiled source code was lost long ago. Alan Liu and his team at "The Agrippa Files" created an extensive website with tools and resources to crack the Agrippa Code. They collaborated with Matthew Kirschenbaum at the Maryland Institute for Technology in the Humanities and the Digital Forensics Lab, and Quinn DuPont, a PhD student of cryptography from the University of Toronto, in calling for the aid of cryptographers to figure out how the program works by creating "Cracking the Agrippa Code: The Challenge", which enlisted participants to solve the intentional scrambling of the poem in exchange for prizes. The code was successfully cracked by Robert Xiao in late July 2012. There is no encryption algorithm present in the Agrippa binary; consequently, the visual encryption effect that displays when the poem has finished is a ruse. The visual effect is the result of running the decrypted ciphertext (in memory) through the re-purposed bit-scrambling decryption algorithm, and then abandoning the text in memory. Only the fake genetic code is written back to disk. The encryption resembles the RSA algorithm. This algorithm encodes data in 3-byte blocks. First, each byte is permuted through an 8-position permutation, then the bits are split into two 12-bit integers (by taking the low 4 bits of the second byte and the 8 bits of the first byte as the first 12-bit integer, and the 8 bits of the third byte and the 4 high bits of the second integer as the second 12-bit integer). Each is individually encrypted by taking them to the 3491st power, mod 4097; the bits are then reassembled into 3 bytes. The encrypted text is then stored in a string variable as part of the program. To shroud the would-be visible and noticeable text it is compressed with the simple Lzw before final storage. As the Macintosh Common Lisp compiler compresses the main program code into the executable, this was not that necessary. In order to prevent a second running of the program it corrupts itself when run. The program simply overwrites itself with a 6000 byte long DNA-like code at a certain position. Archival documents suggest that the original plan was to use a series of ASCII 1's to corrupt the binary, but at some point in development a change was made to use fake genetic code, in keeping with the visual motifs in the book. The genetic code has a codon entropy of 5.97 bits/codon, much higher than any natural DNA sequence known. However, the ciphertext was not overwritten. Weakness A memory dump of Mini vMac can be obtained with Linux ckpt or a similar tool after the Agrippa program has been loaded. The executable code could be reverse engineered. The encryption itself due to the block cipher exhibited a regular pattern due to repeated text in the original plaintext. The LZW compression itself does not hide the letter frequencies. The scramble display has exactly the same letter frequencies as the underlying plaintext. Content and editions The book was published in 1992 in two limited editions—Deluxe and Small—by Kevin Begos Jr. Publishing, New York City. The deluxe edition came in a 16 by 21½-inch (41 cm × 55 cm) metal mesh case sheathed in Kevlar (a polymer used to make bulletproof vests) and designed to look like a buried relic. Inside is a book of 93 ragged and charred pages sewn by hand and bound in stained and singed linen by Karl Foulkes; the book gives the impression of having survived a fire; it was described by Peter Schwenger as "a black box recovered from some unspecified disaster." The edition includes pages of DNA sequences set in double columns of 42 lines each like the Gutenberg Bible, and copperplate aquatint etchings by Ashbaugh editioned by Peter Pettingill on Fabriano Tiepolo paper. The monochromatic etchings depict stylised chromosomes, a hallmark of Ashbaugh's work, accompanied by imagery of a pistol, camera or in some instances simple line drawings—all allusions to Gibson's contribution. The deluxe edition was set in Monotype Gill Sans at Golgonooza Letter Foundry, and printed on Rives heavyweight text by Begos and the Sun Hill Press. The final 60 pages of the book were then fused together, with a hollowed-out section cut into the centre, containing the self-erasing diskette on which the text of Gibson's poem was encrypted. The encryption was the work of a pseudonymous computer programmer, "BRASH", assisted by Electronic Frontier Foundation founders John Perry Barlow and John Gilmore. The deluxe edition was originally priced at US$1500 (later $2000), and each copy is unique to some degree because of handmade or hand-finished elements. The small edition was sold for $450; like the deluxe edition, it was set in Monotype Gill Sans, but in single columns. It was printed on Mohawk Superfine text by the Sun Hill Press, with the reproduction of the etchings printed on a Canon laser printer. The edition was then Smythe sewn at Spectrum Bindery and enclosed in a solander box. A bronze-boxed collectors' copy was also released, and retailed at $7,500. Fewer than 95 deluxe editions of Agrippa are extant, although the exact number is unknown and is the source of considerable mystery. The Victoria and Albert Museum possesses a deluxe edition, numbered 4 of 10. A publicly accessible copy of the deluxe edition is available at the Rare Books Division of the New York Public Library and a small copy resides at Western Michigan University in Kalamazoo, Michigan, while the Frances Mulhall Achilles Library at the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City hosts a promotional prospectus. The Victoria and Albert Museum's copy was first exhibited in a display entitled The Book and Beyond, held in the Museum's 20th Century Gallery from April to October 1995. The same copy was subsequently also included in a V&A exhibition entitled Digital Pioneers, from 2009 to 2010. Both V&A shows were curated by Douglas Dodds. Another copy of the book was exhibited in the 2003–2004 exhibition Ninety from the Nineties at the New York Public Library. Gibson at one point claimed never to have seen a copy of the printed book, spurring speculation that no copies had actually been made. Many copies have since been documented, and Gibson's signature was noted on copies held by the New York Public Library and the V&A. In 2011, the Bodleian Library's Special Collections Department at the University of Oxford acquired Kevin Begos' copy of Agrippa, as well as the archive of Begos' papers related to the work. Poem The construction of the book and the subject matter of the poem within it share a metaphorical connection in the decay of memory. In this light, critic Peter Schwenger asserts that Agrippa can be understood as organized by two ideas: the death of Gibson's father, and the disappearance or absence of the book itself. In this sense, it instantiates the ephemeral nature of all text. Theme and form The poem is a detailed description of several objects, including a photo album and the camera that took the pictures in it, and is essentially about the nostalgia that the speaker, presumably Gibson himself, feels towards the details of his family's history: the painstaking descriptions of the houses they lived in, the cars they drove, and even their pets. In its original form, the text of the poem was supposed to fade from the page and, in Gibson's own words, "eat itself" off of the diskette enclosed with the book. The reader would, then, be left with only the memory of the text, much like the speaker is left with only the memory of his home town and his family after moving to Canada from South Carolina, in the course of the poem (as Gibson himself did during the Vietnam War). "The mechanism" The poem contains a motif of "the mechanism", described as "Forever / Dividing that from this", and which can take the form of the camera or of the ancient gun that misfires in the speaker's hands. Technology, "the mechanism", is the agent of memory, which transforms subjective experience into allegedly objective records (photography). It is also the agent of life and death, one moment dispensing lethal bullets, but also likened to the life-giving qualities of sex. Shooting the gun is "[l]ike the first time you put your mouth / on a woman". The poem is, then, not merely about memory, but how memories are formed from subjective experience, and how those memories compare to mechanically reproduced recordings. In the poem, "the mechanism" is strongly associated with recording, which can replace subjective experience. Insomuch as memories constitute our identities, "the mechanism" thus represents the destruction of the self via recordings. Hence both cameras, as devices of recording, and guns, as instruments of destruction, are part of the same mechanism—dividing that (memory, identity, life) from this (recordings, anonymity, death). Critical reception and influence Agrippa was extremely influential—as a sigil for the artistic community to appreciate the potential of electronic media—for the extent to which it entered public consciousness. It caused a fierce controversy in the art world, among museums and among libraries. It challenged established notions of permanence of art and literature, and, as Ashbaugh intended, raised significant problems for archivists seeking to preserve it for the benefit of future generations. Agrippa was also used as the key of a book cipher in the Cicada 3301 mystery. Agrippa was particularly well received by critics, with digital media theorist Peter Lunenfeld describing it in 2001 as "one of the most evocative hypertexts published in the 1990s". Professor of English literature John Johnson has claimed that the importance of Agrippa stems not only from its "foregrounding of mediality in an assemblage of texts", but also from the fact that "media in this work are explicitly as passageways to the realm of the dead". English Professor Raymond Malewitz argues that "the poem's stanzas form a metaphorical DNA fingerprint that reveals Gibson's life to be, paradoxically, a novel repetition of his father's and grandfather's lives." The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century English Literature, which described the poem as "a mournful text", praised Agrippa'''s inventive use of digital format. However, academic Joseph Tabbi remarked in a 2008 paper that Agrippa was among those works that are "canonized before they have been read, resisted, and reconsidered among fellow authors within an institutional environment that persists in time and finds outlets in many media". In a lecture at the exhibition of Agrippa at the Center for Book Arts in New York City, semiotician Marshall Blonsky of New York University drew an allusion between the project and the work of two French literary figures—philosopher Maurice Blanchot (author of "The Absence of the Book"), and poet Stéphane Mallarmé, a 19th-century forerunner of semiotics and deconstruction. In response to Blonsky's analysis that "[t]he collaborators in Agrippa'' are responding to a historical condition of language, a modern skepticism about it", Gibson disparagingly commented "Honest to God, these academics who think it's all some sort of big-time French philosophy—that's a scam. Those guys worship Jerry Lewis, they get our pop culture all wrong." Footnotes References External links Agrippa (a book of the dead) at WilliamGibsonBooks.com The Agrippa Files – an online homage to, and archive of, the book's many forms by the University of California, Santa Barbara English department Agrippa (A Book of the Dead) at The Digital Antiquarian Gallery of Agrippa images from the William Gibson Aleph See also Cicada 3301, an online puzzle which utilised the poem Inherent vice, the inevitable deterioration of physical objects 1992 books Artists' books Conceptual art Digital art Interactive art New media art 1992 poems Works about time Works about memory Postmodern art Works by William Gibson Common Lisp (programming language) software 1990s electronic literature works
4809236	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%20Duesenberg	August Duesenberg	August Samuel Duesenberg (December 12, 1879 – January 18, 1955) was a German- born American automobile and engine manufacturer who built American racing and racing engines that set speed records at Daytona Beach, Florida, in 1920; won the French Grand Prix in 1921; and won Indianapolis 500-mile races (1922, 1924, 1925, and 1927), as well as setting one-hour and 24-hour speed records on the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah in 1935. He also shared with his older brother, Frederick S. "Fred" Duesenberg, patents filed in 1913 and renewed in 1918 for a four-cylinder engine design and the Duesenberg Straight 8 (an eight-cylinder engine with a single, overhead camshaft). In 1913 the brothers founded the Duesenberg Motor Company, Incorporated, which was subsequently sold, and in 1920 joined with other financial investors to establish the Duesenberg Automobiles and Motor Company, which manufactured passenger cars in Indianapolis, Indiana, from 1921 until 1937. Augie Duesenberg initially worked as the plant manager, while Fred Duesenberg was the chief design engineer and later in the 1920s served as the company's president. The Duesenberg Model A, the brothers' first, mass-produced vehicle was manufactured between 1921 and 1927. Although the Model A was technologically advanced, it proved to be unpopular with car buyers because of its high cost and unstylish exterior. Following Errett L. Cord's acquisition of the Duesenberg company in 1926, Augie Duesenberg focused on the Duesenberg Brothers, a separate racing business established in August 1920, and was not involved in the Indianapolis-based automaker's production of luxury passenger cars. Early life and education August "Augie" Samuel Düsenberg was born on December 12, 1879, in Kirchheide, Lippe-Detmold Germany, to Konrad (or Conrad) and Luise Düsenberg. August was the youngest of the family's seven children (four boys and three girls). August's father died in 1881, and his older brother, Henry, emigrated to America in 1884. Luise Düsenberg sold the family farm in Germany in 1885 and emigrated to the United States with her other children, including August, who was about five years old, and his brother, Friederich "Fred" Düsenberg. The family joined Henry and settled in Iowa, where the eldest son, Conrad, purchased a farm in Floyd County, Iowa, near Rockford. The spelling of the family's surname became Duesenberg following their emigration to the United States, where August was nicknamed Augie. He attended public schools during his youth in Iowa and had no further classroom training. His mechanical and manufacturing skills were largely self-taught. During his youth, he also developed an interest in bicycling, along with his older brother Fred. Marriage and family August Duesenberg married Gertrude Pike of Garner, Iowa, in 1906. They had two children, a son, Frederick P. "Fritz" Duesenberg, and a daughter, Dorothy Duesenberg. Fritz Duesenberg died in 1974 and is buried at Crown Hill Cemetery in Indianapolis, Indiana. Career Early years In the 1890s, Augie Duesenberg began building and racing bicycles in Iowa with his older brother Fred. Around 1900, they began experimenting with designing and building internal-combustion, gasoline-powered engines and installing them on bicycles to create motorcycles. Augie and Fred operated a bicycle repair shop in Rockford, but the business went bankrupt in 1903. A short time later the two brothers established another bicycle and motorcycle shop in Garner, Iowa, but Fred left the business in 1903 to pursue other mechanical and auto manufacturing training in Wisconsin and in Iowa. In 1906, Augie's brother, Fred, met Edward Mason, an Iowa lawyer who provided the brothers with financing to manufacture cars. The business was incorporated the Mason Motor Car Company in April 1906 and began manufacturing cars four months later. Augie worked as a patternmaker at the company; Fred was a superintendent and designer. After U.S. Senator F. L. Maytag, the future Maytag washing machine and appliance magnate, acquired majority interest in the company, it reorganized in 1909 as the Maytag-Mason Motor Company and manufactured cars at Waterloo, Iowa. Maytag and Mason lacked experience in the car manufacturing business and the Maytag-Mason partnership was dissolved in 1912. The Mason Motor Car Company ceased production the following year. Around 1910 Augie and Fred Duesenberg began working on their "walking beam" four-cylinder engine, which the Duesenberg Straight-8 engine later replaced. The brothers shared the patents for both engines, which were filed in 1913 and renewed in 1918. In 1913, the Duesenberg brothers moved to Saint Paul, Minnesota, where they continued to design and build automobile and marine engines and racecars. The two brothers contracted with Commodore James A. Pugh of Chicago, Illinois, to build a racing-boat engine and used the proceeds from the contract to further develop their racing business. The two brothers founded the Duesenberg Motor Company, Incorporated, in June 1913. Early auto racing The Duesenberg brothers began racing bicycles and motorcycles in the 1890s and turned to auto racing after the turn of the twentieth century. Along with other automobile makers, they used the Indianapolis Motor Speedway as a test track for their cars. Duesenberg entries participated in Indianapolis 500-mile auto races for nearly twenty years, and were especially active between 1912 and 1932, when Augie served as the team's supervisor and chief mechanic. The first Duesenberg entry in the Indianapolis 500-mile race occurred in 1912. Although their Mason Motor Company-owned racer practiced for the race, it had a mechanical failure and did not compete. Between 1913 and 1916, the Duesenberg racing team gradually improved its standings in the annual Indianapolis 500-mile race. In the 1913 race, the team took ninth place in the race. In the 1914 race, Eddie Rickenbacker, the future World War I aviation ace, drove a Duesenberg-powered racecar to a tenth-place finish and US$1,400 in prize money. The Duesenberg team also had a twelfth-place finisher that year. In the 1915 race the team took fifth and seventh places, and in the 1916 race rookie driver Wilbur D'Alene finished in second place. Racing at the Indianapolis 500-mile race went on hiatus in 1917 and 1918, when efforts focused on wartime production during World War I. When Indianapolis 500-mile auto races resumed in 1919, the Duesenberg team had mechanical and fuel issues and its entries did not finish the race that year, but the team had better success in the 1920s. World War I-era engine manufacturer In 1917 the Duesenberg Motor Company of Saint Paul, Minnesota, and the Loew-Victor Manufacturing Company of Chicago, Illinois, merged into the Duesenberg Motor Corporation. Fred Duesenberg was its chief engineer and Augie Duesenberg was assistant engineer. The Loew-Victor Company arranged to produce aviation and marine engines for military use for the American, British, Italian, and Russian governments during World War I. A new factory in Elizabeth, New Jersey, was constructed especially for this purpose and the two brothers moved to New York City in 1917 to supervise operations at the new factory. During the war, the Duesenberg brothers' experience with the Bugatti aircraft engine changed many of their own engineering ideas and led to refinements in their design of the Duesenberg straight eight, an eight-cylinder engine with a single, overhead camshaft. At the end of the war the brothers stopped building aviation and marine engines in Elizabeth, New Jersey, to focus their efforts on development of race cars from a rented space in Newark, New Jersey. In 1919, after the Duesenberg Motor Corporation was sold to John Willys, the brothers completed their work at the company's Minnesota and New Jersey factories and relocated in 1920 to Indianapolis, Indiana, where they established the Duesenberg Automobile and Motors Company with other financial investors. 1920s-era carmaker While continuing to develop the racing engines in Indianapolis, Augie and Fred Duesenberg along with other financial backers established the Duesenberg Automobile & Motors Company in March 1920. Augie Duesenberg was the plant manager; his brother, Fred, was the chief design engineer who later in the 1920s served as the company's president. Beginning with the Duesenberg Model A in 1921, Duesenberg passenger cars were built with advanced racing-car features at a new manufacturing plant in Indianapolis. The factory at the corner of Washington and Harding Streets was near the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, which was used as a test track. Although the Model A was technologically advanced, the Duesenberg brothers had difficulty selling their first mass-produced vehicle because of its high cost (US$8,500 for the chassis alone) and unstylish exterior design. Production ended on the Model A in 1927. A minor shareholder unsuccessfully attempted to put the company into receivership in 1923, and slow sales led the company into receivership in 1924. A year after it emerged from receivership in 1925, the company's leadership was discussing a merger with Du Pont Motors, once again indicating possible financial difficulties. Errett L. Cord, president of the Auburn Automobile Company, wanted a "supercar" to round out his two other automotive brands, Auburn and Cord, and proposed a financial rescue to acquire the Duesenberg company in 1926. The Duesenberg company became a subsidiary of the Cord Corporation. Fred Duesenberg served as vice president of engineering for the company, but Augie Duesenberg was responsible for running the separate Duesenberg Brothers racing business, established in August 1920. Augie Duesenberg was not involved in the development of Duesenberg luxury cars, which included models X, S, and J. Racing team supervisor Augie Duesenberg supervised and directed the Duesenberg Brothers racing team from a shop across the street from the company's factory, while Fred focused on designing high-end passenger cars for Duesenberg, now a subsidiary of the Cord Corporation. However, the two brothers continued to work together in the development of their American-built racing car business. In April 1920 a Duesenberg racecar driven by Tommy Milton set a land speed record of for a measured mile on the sands at Daytona Beach, Florida, although the attempt was not recognized as an official world record because Milton "had not made the required return run within the hour." In 1921 Jimmy Murphy drove a Duesenberg racer to become the first American car to win the prestigious Grand Prix at Le Mans, France. Augie traveled to France to present the team's credentials prior to the race and also witnessed the historic event. Duesenberg racers continued to improve their performance and dominated the annual Indianapolis 500-mile races in the 1920s. In 1920 Tommy Milton and Jimmy Murphy won third and fourth places in Duesenberg racers in that year's Indianapolis 500. The field for the race in 1921 included eight Duesenberg-built racecars. The Duesenberg team car, driven by Roscoe Sarles, finished in second place. Duesenberg-built race cars took eight of the first ten places in Indianapolis 500-mile race in 1922, including the winning car, driven by Murphy, and the second-place finisher, driven by rookie Harry Hartz. The Indianapolis 500 in 1923 was a low point for the Duesenberg team. Wade Morton, the Duesenberg team driver, started twenty-fourth in the field, but finished in tenth place. Duesenberg-built racers won three out of the four Indianapolis 500-mile races between 1924 and 1927. Driver Lora L. Corum and relief driver Joe Boyer won the race in 1924; driver Pete DePaolo and relief driver Norman Batten won the race in 1925; and George Sanders won the race in 1927 in a Duesenberg-built car owned by Bill White. Driving a Duesenberg racer in 1925, DePaolo became the first Indianapolis 500-mile winner to average more than . In the 1926 race DePaulo finished in fifth place in a rain-shortened race, while the other Duesenberg team car, driven by rookie driver Ben Jones, experienced mechanical problems and crashed before the end of the race. The Duesenberg team continued to place in the top-ten in the 1928 and 1929 Indianapolis 500-mile races. In the 1928 race Fred Frame drove a Duesenberg racer to an eighth-place finish, while Jimmy Gleason drove a Duesenberg team car to a fifteenth-place finish. In the 1929 race the team's results improved with Gleason taking third and Freddy Winnai finishing in fifth place. In 1930 the Duesenberg brothers split their racing operations with Augie naming his business A. S. Duesenberg Racing. The result was a total of eight Duesenberg-built racers entered in the Indianapolis 500 in 1930. The only Duesenberg racer to finish the race that year was driven by Bill Cummings, who took fifth place. Thirteen cars in the 1931 race were based on the Duesenberg Model A. Fred Frame drove Augie Duesenberg's ex-team car to a second-place finish, while Fred Duesenberg's two entries, driven by Jimmy Gleason and Ernie Triplett, finished sixth and seventh, respectively. Augie was also the designer and builder of a Duesenberg chassis for an entry in the 1931 race that was powered by a diesel engine from the Cummins Engine Company. Dave Evans, who became the first person to complete the race without making any pit stops, drove the car to a thirteenth-place finish. Duesenbergs faded from the top of the leaderboard beginning with the 1932 Indianapolis 500, when Duesenberg racers captured seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-place finishess with drivers Ira Hall, Freddy Winnai, and Billy Winn, respectively. Although the Duesenberg Brothers racing business dissolved after Fred Duesenberg's death in an automobile accident in July 1932, Augie Duesenberg continued to build racecars on his own. Joe Russo drove the Duesenberg-built "Wonder Bread Special" to a seventeenth-place finish in the 1933 Indianapolis 500. Russo's Duesenberg-built racer for the 1934 Indianapolis 500, the last year that the Duesenbergs were major contenders, finished in fifth place. In addition to his racing car business, which continued into the 1930s, Augie Duesenberg built two marine racing engines for Horace D. Dodge in 1926. He also built mechanical lap-counting equipment for auto races. Beginning in 1934 Augie Duesenberg built the first of three speed-setting racers with Ab Jenkins. Between August 6 and August 30, 1935, Jenkins set a 24-hour speed record of in the "Mormon Meteor", a Duesenberg-based racer, on the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah. Jenkins and the racer also set a one-hour speed record of . Later years During the tough economic times of the Great Depression, Duesenberg began working in 1934 for E. L. Cord as a consultant to the Auburn Automobile Company at its factories in Auburn and Connersville, Indiana. With dwindling numbers of buyers for its luxury cars, Duesenberg auto production ended in 1937, and the Cord Company, near bankruptcy in 1937, was sold to Aviation Corporation. In 1940, Augie Duesenberg and his nephew, Wesley Duesenberg, formed Duesenberg Model Company to manufacture miniature racecars. During World War II, Augie Duesenberg worked as a subcontractor for Indianapolis-area industries. After the war, he retired to a farm southwest of Indianapolis, near Camby in Decatur Township, Marion County, Indiana. Fritz Duesenberg, Augie's son, became involved in the Duesenberg auto business in the 1960s, when he attempted a revival of the Duesenberg marque (brand name), but he did not succeed. Marshall Merkes, who owned the rights to the Duesenberg marque, also tried to revive the Duesenberg automobile, but his efforts were unsuccessful as well. Death and legacy Duesenberg died of a heart attack at his rural home near Indianapolis on January 18, 1955, at the age of seventy-five. His remains are interred at Crown Hill Cemetery in Indianapolis. Augie Duesenberg and his brother, Fred, were cofounders of the Duesenberg Motor Company in 1913, and the Duesenberg Automobiles and Motor Company in 1920; however, Augie was not involved in the Indianapolis-based automaker's production of luxury passenger cars. Instead, he focused on the Duesenberg Brothers racing business and hand-built American race cars. Duesenberg-built racers set speed records at Daytona Beach, Florida, in 1920, won the French Grand Prix in 1921, and won three Indianapolis 500-mile races (1924, 1925, and 1927), as well as setting one-hour and 24-hour speed records on the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah in 1935. Honors and awards Inducted into the Auto Racing Hall of Fame (later renamed Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame) in 1963. Inducted into the National Sprint Car Hall of Fame in 1990. Inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2019. See also Duesenberg Duesenberg Model A Duesenberg Straight-8 engine Stutz Motor Company Notes References (Archived May 5, 2009.) Marsh, Elisabeth, "Frederick S. Duesenberg" in External links Duesenberg History and Photos August S. "Augie" Duesenberg at Find A Grave 1879 births 1955 deaths American founders of automobile manufacturers American automotive pioneers Burials at Crown Hill Cemetery Duesenberg Emigrants from the German Empire to the United States People from Floyd County, Iowa People from Saint Paul, Minnesota People from Indianapolis People from the Principality of Lippe Automotive businesspeople American automobile designers American automotive engineers

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